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Failure To Yield Can Result In A Deadly Crash
When rushing to get to work, school, or to finish errands, it is not uncommon for drivers to cut corners in an effort to reach their destination quickly. Failing to yield the right of way is a prime example. Unfortunately, while they may save a minute or two by being aggressive in these situations, not stopping or slowing down to allow another driver to take their rightful turn could have potentially dangerous repercussions. Failure to yield the right of way is one of the leading contributing causes of car accidents throughout the state, which can result in serious personal injuries. It recently cost one local man his life.
Aiken County Car Accident Proves Fatal
A recent car accident in Aiken County left one driver dead and another injured. The Aiken Standard reports that the collision occurred just off Silver Bluff Road during the early morning hours of Tuesday, November 20, 2018. A 58-year-old man was driving a Dodge RAM truck as he headed to his job at the Savannah River Site. According to investigators, he was headed east and making a turn onto Storm Branch Road, when he failed to yield the right of way to another motorist.
The driver of that vehicle was wearing a seatbelt and suffered only minor injuries. The driver of the struck vehicle, who was not wearing a seat belt, was thrown from his vehicle and suffered blunt force trauma. Police say he died at the scene.
Failure To Yield Is A Leading Cause Of Car Accident Injuries
Failing to yield the right of way may seem like a somewhat minor offense. However, the fact is that this type of dangerous driving behavior is the second leading cause of car accident injuries throughout the state.
According to the South Carolina Department of Public Safety (SCDPS), failure to yield killed roughly 115 people over the course of 2016 and was responsible for more than 15,000 injuries among drivers and their passengers. This is second only to speeding, which is the cause of over 17,000 car accident injuries each year. Failure to yield accidents are common in the following locations:
At intersections
On highway exit and entrance ramps
In parking lots
At areas of roadway under construction
As a form of aggressive driving, failure to yield is often the result of drivers getting agitated in traffic, being in a hurry, and generally disregarding traffic signs or indicators from other motorists. To prevent these accidents, it is important to play it safe. Obey all traffic signs and signals, slow down at entrances and exits, and never just assume another driver will stop or allow you to go.
Contact Us Today For Help
In right of way accidents, drivers may attempt to speed past other vehicles. The higher rate at which they are traveling means that potential impacts when crashes do occur tend to be severe. If you or a loved one is involved in this type of crash, contact the Surasky Law Firm, LLC. We can arrange a consultation with our Aiken personal injury attorney, to discuss the types of compensation you may be entitled to. | https://www.suraskylaw.com/single-post/2018/11/23/failure-to-yield-can-result-in-a-deadly-crash |
Aggressive driving is often confused with reckless driving, but these are two distinctly different offenses under Virginia law.
What the Law Says
Virginia code § 46.2-868.1 section A reads, "A person is guilty of aggressive driving if (i) the person violates one or more of the following: § 46.2-802 (Drive on right side of highways), § 46.2-804 (Failure to observe lanes marked for traffic), § 46.2-816 (Following too closely), § 46.2-821 (Vehicles before entering certain highways shall stop or yield right-of-way), § 46.2-833.1(Evasion of traffic control devices), § 46.2-838 (Passing when overtaking a vehicle), § 46.2-841 (When overtaking vehicle may pass on right), § 46.2-842 (Driver to give way to overtaking vehicle), § 46.2-842.1 (Driver to give way to certain overtaking vehicles on divided highway), § 46.2-843 (Limitations on overtaking and passing), any provision of Article 8 (§ 46.2-870 et seq.) of Chapter 8 of Title 46.2 (Speed), or § 46.2-888 (Stopping on highways); and (ii) that person is a hazard to another person or commits an offense in clause (i) with the intent to harass, intimidate, injure or obstruct another person."
Section B adds, "Aggressive driving shall be punished as a Class 2 misdemeanor. However, aggressive driving with the intent to injure another person shall be punished as a Class 1 misdemeanor. In addition to the penalties described in this subsection, the court may require successful completion of an aggressive driving program."
How Aggressive Driving Differs From Reckless Driving
Several of the behaviors mentioned under the aggressive driving statute, including speeding and improper passing, could also fall under the category of reckless driving. However, there is one important difference between these two offenses.
Aggressive driving charges are different from reckless driving charges in that you must either be a hazard to others on the road or be committing the behavior with the goal of harassing or intimidating someone. If you're merely distracted, tired, or inattentive and not intentionally causing harm, the behavior should either be charged as reckless driving or as a simple traffic violation.
Protecting Your Rights
Since both aggressive driving and reckless driving are criminal offenses punishable by hefty fines and the possibility of jail time, it would be a mistake to plead guilty and accept the consequences. Protect your rights by hiring an experienced attorney who can help you build a solid defense. To learn more, contact Virginia reckless driving attorney Charles V. Hardenbergh to schedule a free, no-obligation case review.
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Related links: | https://www.vanhardenbergh.com/library/aggressive-driving-penalties-46-2-868.cfm |
Car accidents are one of the leading causes of injuries and deaths, both in Boston and throughout the United States. At least 2.5 million people in the United States sought treatment in emergency departments for car accident injuries during the course of one year, according to statistics from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Close to 200,000 of those injured needed to be hospitalized after a car, truck or motorcycle accident.
As a result of crash-related injuries, U.S. car accident victims spend a combined one million days in the hospital each year. In one recent year, approximately 18 billion dollars was spent on medical costs for car accident victims, 75 percent of which was incurred in the 18 months immediately following the injury.. Car accident injuries that same year resulted in 33 billion dollars worth of lost work over the course of the victims’ lifetimes.
In Suffolk County, which includes the Boston area, 22 people or 2.91 people per 100,000 population lost their lives in vehicle-related accidents in 2013, the latest year for which comprehensive numbers are available from the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA). In a five-year period, 3.316 was the average number of car accident deaths per 100,000 population..
|Year||Fatalities||Fatalities per 100,000 population|
|2009||21||2.93|
|2010||26||3.59|
|2011||24||3.26|
|2012||29||3.89|
|2013||22||2.91|
|Total Average||24.4||3.316|
The following is the list of the seven leading causes of death in those car accidents:
1. Single Vehicle Collisions
Single vehicle collisions was the leading cause of car accident fatalities in Boston and Suffolk County during 2013. Traffic Safety Facts for Suffolk County, MA, published by the NHTSA, reveal that 19 people were killed in single vehicle crashes. Collisions such as these can occur as a result of a distracted driver, when a driver is inadvertently run off the road, due to road rage or aggressive driving behavior, or for numerous other reasons.
In certain cases, the circumstances leading up to the accident may never be uncovered, particularly when the driver is fatally injured.
2. Alcohol-Impaired Driving
Alcohol-impaired driving is extremely dangerous, not only for the impaired driver and his or her passengers, but for many other motorists sharing the road. Drunk driving, also known as DWI or DUI, is also the second leading cause of car accident fatalities in the Boston area.. Accidents involving at least one driver with a blood alcohol concentration (BAC) of 0.08 percent or higher were responsible for the deaths of nine people in 2013.
Younger drivers are more at risk of being involved in a fatal accident while alcohol-impaired than older drivers. Fortunately, drunk driving collisions and fatalities are preventable. Individuals who do not drink and drive, designate a sober driver, call a taxi or use public transportation protect themselves and others from harm.
3. Crash Involving a Roadway Departure
Fatal crashes in which at least one of the involved vehicles departed the roadway were responsible for claiming the lives of nine people in 2013 in the Boston area. Of these accidents, distracted driving and speed are often the most significant factors. Traveling at night, or along a curved two-lane highway or road can also increase the risk of a fatal collision involving a roadway departure.
When a vehicle departs the road during or immediately following a crash, the probability of a driver and passengers sustaining additional injuries, potentially fatal, increases substantially. Colliding with a stationary object such as a tree, pole, retaining wall or guardrail along the edge of the highway are often the cause of fatal injuries.
4. Collisions Occuring In or Relating To Intersections
The fourth leading cause of car accident fatalities in Boston and the surrounding areas during 2013 was intersection and intersection-related collisions. Eight people were killed in collisions occurring in or relating to intersections that year.
Failure to yield, neglecting to brake in time to avoid collision with a vehicle stopped at a light or stop sign, merging into another lane without signaling, drifting out of lanes, and loss of control due to poor road or weather conditions are some of the situations which could result in a car accident at an intersection.. Other fatal collisions may occur when a vehicle runs a red light at or speeds through an intersection, makes a left turn in front of traffic in an intersection, or turns right at an intersection without yielding the right of way to other drivers.
5. Speed-Involved Collisions
Five people sustained fatal injuries in collisions in the Boston area in 2013, with speed as the primary contributing factor. Drivers who fail to adhere to posted speed limit signs, attempt to take turns too tightly or fail to drive at a safe speed for weather and road conditions are at far greater risk of being involved in a fatal collision than those who follow the rules of the road.
When a vehicle is traveling at a high rate of speed, a minor mistake can easily become a deadly accident. A slight turn of the wheel is all that is needed to cause a speeding vehicle to spin out of control or roll over.
6. Large Truck-Involved Crashes
Crashes involving at least one large truck claimed the lives of two people in Suffolk County in 2013. The size of a large truck or tractor-trailer, the weight of its load and the speed at which it is traveling can all impact the potential for fatal injuries in an accident. The risk of catastrophic injury or death in a truck accident can also be expected to increase when a truck driver is driving while tired, distracted or impaired by drugs or alcohol.
Failure to adhere to Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration (FMCSA) Hours of Service regulations, while it may explain a crash involving a large truck, does not excuse the truck driver’s negligence. In addition to the trucking company, there may be other liable parties. Tire manufacturers, truck owners, maintenance personnel, the company that loaded or secured the cargo or other parties may have some responsibility for what happened if it is established that any act of negligence contributed to the truck going out of control.
7. Collisions Involving a Rollover
Two people were killed in rollover collisions in 2013 in Boston or the surrounding Suffolk County areas. When a vehicle rolls over following a crash with another vehicle or object, it increases the risk of serious injury or death to the vehicle’s occupants.
Vehicles with a higher center of gravity, such as SUVs and pickups are far more susceptible to rolling over in a single- or multi-vehicle collision. Speed and alcohol intoxication have also been known to be contributing factors in rollover accidents. Rural roads and highways are more likely to be the scene of a fatal rollover accident than downtown city streets, which tend to be more heavily travelled with traffic flowing at a slower rate of speed.
Overcompensation by distracted drivers attempting to avoid a collision can lead to a rollover collision. Whether the driver and passengers are wearing seatbelts at the time of impact and rollover will determine the severity of injuries.
If you have lost a family member or loved one in a fatal car accident in the Boston area, it is important you speak with a skilled car accident attorney right away.. While nothing can be done to bring your loved one back, you may be entitled to pursue survivor benefits to help cover medical expenses, funeral and burial costs, loss of future income, loss of companionship, as well as other economic and non-economic damages.
Sources:
- CDC: CDC: Vital Signs: Motor Vehicle Crash Injuries
- NHTSA: Traffic Safety Facts Suffolk County, Massachusetts 2009‐2013
- Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration: Hours of Service: Who Must Comply? | https://www.1800lawguys.com/blog/leading-causes-of-car-accident-fatalities-in-boston/ |
Car accidents continue to be one of the leading causes of injury and death in the US. Every day, we hear of accidents that result in fatalities, disabilities, serious injuries and property damage. A large number of Chester auto accident victims suffer injuries that have a long-term impact on their life. In addition, they also have to deal with the emotional consequences of such an event.
What Causes a Chester Auto Accident?
While some accidents are the result of unavoidable circumstances, there are many that occur mainly due to the reckless behavior of drivers. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) reports that 35,092 people were killed in 2015 and approximately 2,443,000 people were injured in motor vehicle crashes. Ninety-six people died each day on average and one person was killed every 15 minutes. Many of these accidents could have been prevented if the drivers had demonstrated responsible behavior.
Here are some behaviors that are responsible for a large majority of fatal and serious car accidents in South Carolina:
Driving under the Influence of Drugs and Alcohol: Alcohol-impaired driving is one of the primary reasons for car accidents in South Carolina despite a straightforward and specific Code of Laws in South Carolina that clearly states that it is illegal to get behind the wheel of a car while the driver is under the influence of alcohol or drugs. DUI penalties in South Carolina are very strict and heavy penalties can be imposed on those convicted. Despite this, many drivers continue to drive while under the influence of drugs and alcohol.
Speeding and Aggressive Driving: Another major contributor to car accidents is speeding and other aggressive driving behaviors such as racing, tailgating, reckless and careless lane changing, etc. This type of reckless behavior often has been observed in young drivers. Speed-related accidents continue to cause injury and damage to victims.
Distracted Driving: This form of driving behavior is rapidly becoming a major problem for road safety. More and more people today have smartphones, and despite repeated warnings about the consequences of distracted driving, drivers continue to text, talk, and email through their mobile devices while driving. South Carolina safety officials have made a significant effort to educate people about the dangers of distracted driving, but it continues to be a problem.
Driver Fatigue: This is another driving behavior that has been known to cause Chester car accidents. Drowsy or fatigued drivers should not get behind the wheel but this behavior is commonly demonstrated by drivers working night shifts, drivers working overtime, those who have been on a long journey and are tired but choose to drive, and young people studying all night or partying with friends.
The Risks of Reckless Driving in Chester, South Carolina
The fact is that drivers who demonstrate reckless and aggressive driving behavior not only put their own lives at risk but also endanger other people on the road including other drivers, pedestrians, etc. There is no justification for such behavior, and that is why most of these activities are heavily regulated and penalized. However, drivers continue to behave irresponsibly and continue to put other people’s lives at risk.
Car accident injuries are not always minor and can result in health consequences that affect people for a long period of time. People can lose their loved ones; suffer long-term disabilities; lose the ability to work and earn for their families; suffer from mental and emotional issues; or incur significant property damage. All in all, road accidents are a menace for everyone.
If you have been in a Chester auto accident and suffered bodily injury and/or property damage, you should talk to an attorney who handles auto accidents in Chester, South Carolina immediately. A lawyer who handles car accidents in South Carolina is the best person to tell you how to file for compensation for the losses that you’ve incurred so that you can pay your medical bills and rehabilitation costs and can also recover any damage that you may have incurred due to property loss. Chester auto accident victims have to deal with the physical pain of injuries and may have to deal with the emotional trauma of being in a road accident. For many, recovery is slow and there is the additional problem of lost wages and income. By talking to an attorney in Chester SC who handles car accidents, you will be in a better position to determine how much you can claim and how much financial loss you can recover.
Consult with a Chester Auto Accident Lawyer About Your Case
Car accidents can be very traumatic for all parties involved. Emotions run high, and the burden of medical bills and lost wages can be quite challenging. If you have been involved in a Chester auto accident in South Carolina, contact the Elrod Pope Law Firm to talk to a lawyer. Our legal team has dealt with numerous car accident cases and we understand the importance of providing financial relief to our clients.
Keep in mind that recovering damages is not as easy as one might think. You have to deal with insurance agents who can often be very difficult and can make the claim-approval process frustrating for the victims. There are also situations where the other party may try to blame you for the accident so that they can reduce their liability. An attorney in Chester, South Carolina who deals with car accidents is aware of the way insurance companies operate.
Call us today at 803-599-3080 and speak to our lawyers in South Carolina who deal with car accidents to find out how you can proceed with your claim and what measures you can take to ensure you get the compensation you deserve. | https://elrodpope.com/driving-behaviors-increase-risk-chester-auto-accident/ |
A car crash reported to Las Vegas law enforcement resulted in injuries for the victims involved, according to news reports. The Nevada Highway Patrol (“NHP”) responded to the scene of the accident on the 215 Beltway at around 7am on February 24th. According to police reports, a 2008 Lexus ES 350 was traveling near the intersection of the 215 Beltway and Decatur Boulevard when a car collided with several others near the intersection. Authorities report that five people were harmed in the crash, two of them suffering critical injuries. All five crash victims were immediately transported to local area hospitals for further medical treatment. The crash remains under investigation at this time.
Nevada Car Accidents
According to the Nevada Review Journal (“NRJ”), the crash was caused by a reckless driver in the Lexus ES whom the NHP tried to stop for speeding just before the crash site. The driver ran through a red light and sped away from the trooper, who was on Warm Springs Road and Decatur Boulevard. Authorities later determined that the driver of the Lexus tried to pass another vehicle while going eastbound on Warm Springs Road near Arville Street shortly after speeding away from the trooper. The driver then crashed into the vehicle in front of her, as well as two other vehicles that were going westbound. The driver and four others were injured. Aside from speed, the driver’s choice to split lanes between a vehicle traveling in the same direction and an oncoming vehicle were the causes of the accident. Notably, the NHP trooper was not pursuing the Lexus at the time of the multi-vehicle collision.
Nevada Car Accidents
Each year more than 20,000 individuals across the state of Nevada suffer debilitating injuries as a result of car accidents. While there are many things a driver can proactively do before going out on the road to ensure the safety of themselves and their passengers, they cannot predict the actions of other drivers sharing Nevada’s streets and highways. The most common causes of car accidents in America include:
- Impaired drivers: Driving under the influence of alcohol or drugs — whether over the counter, prescription, or illegal — is extremely dangerous as it delays reaction times for impaired drivers;
- Distracted driving: Whether texting, talking on the phone, adjusting the radio, eating or drinking, or inputting information into a GPS, distracted driving is a leading cause of accidents;
- Failure to obey traffic signals or signs: Running red lights or stop signs, failing to yield the right of way, unsafe lane changes, or violating other traffic signals or signs can easily cause crashes;
- Driving beyond the speed limit: It is no surprise that speeding is a leading cause of car accidents that result in serious injuries or even death because the higher the speed, the more powerful the impact upon colliding;
- Poor weather conditions: This includes rain, flooding, snow, sleet, ice, fog, and other natural conditions that make it more difficult to maneuver a vehicle on the road;
- Poor road maintenance: Potholes, badly deteriorating roads, broken or weak barriers, and even poor lighting are all factors that can increase the risk of a dangerous or deadly car accident.
Nevada Car Accident Lawyers
H&P Law’s skilled personal injury attorneys have years of experience protecting the legal rights of the injury as well as families who have lost loved ones. Contact our Las Vegas or Henderson offices today to speak with one of our Nevada personal injury attorneys and learn how our legal team can help fight for the compensation you deserve. | https://courtroomproven.com/five-hurt-in-multi-vehicle-accident-on-215-beltway-in-las-vegas/ |
Dangerous Intersections and Maryland Car Accident Cases
Maryland State Police continue to investigate an accident that occurred in Solomons, approximately 95 miles due south of Baltimore. The BayNet online news source reported that, on August 27, 2017, a trooper responded to reports of a car accident at the intersection of Route 4 and Patuxent Point Parkway around 1 p.m. The crash involved multiple vehicles, including a Ford Expedition that had rolled over in the collision; the driver was transported via Medevac to Prince George’s Hospital Shock Trauma Center. Police accident reconstruction experts were on the scene and closed down the intersection to assess what may have caused the crash. There are various factors that play a role in Maryland car accidents, but there are certain issues that make hazardous intersections an extreme risk for drivers.
Factors That Affect Crash Rates at Intersections
One intersection may be more dangerous when compared to another due to:
- High Traffic Volume: With greater numbers of drivers, buses, trucks, cyclists, and pedestrians present, there is an increased risk of accidents, especially during rush hour.
- Limited Visibility: Motorists may unable to see a threat in time to avoid it, such as oncoming traffic or a hidden structure.
- Inadequate Signage: Drivers may become confused if signage is poor or they may dedicate too much attention to trying to figure out the signs, instead of driving.
- Lack of Turn Lanes: In the absence of dedicated turn lanes, motorists must make proper decisions when making a left to ensure they pass safely across all lanes. An error puts the vehicle directly in the path of oncoming traffic.
National Highway Transportation Safety Administration Study
The NHTSA published a Study of Crash Factors in Intersection Related Crashes in September 2010. Some trends in driver behavior at intersections were notable:
- Driver inattention and illegal maneuvers are often a factor in intersection crashes.
- Drivers turning into traffic often exercise poor judgment in estimating the speed of approaching cars that are traveling in the same lane.
- Accidents at intersections are commonly due to internal or external factors when looking at younger drivers. Distracted driving includes texting, phone use, radio operations, and other activities that take focus away from driving.
- Drivers aged 25 to 54 are more likely to be involved in a collision due to fatigue or aggressive driving.
Hazardous intersections present a risk for Maryland drivers, but there are usually numerous human-related factors that factor in to the causes of a car accident. When another motorist is negligent in operating a vehicle through an intersection, the chances of traffic collision increase considerably. If you are injured in such an incident, you do have rights to recover compensation for your losses. You will need a dedicated lawyer to advocate on your behalf, especially when discussing settlement with the responsible driver’s insurance company. Attorney Michael A. Freedman is knowledgeable in Maryland laws regarding auto accident cases, and has extensive experience representing injured victims. For more information or to schedule an initial consultation, please contact our Owings Mills, MD office.
See Related Blog Posts: | https://www.maflaw.com/blog/dangerous-intersections-and-maryland-car-accident-cases-maflaw-com/ |
Why Do Most Car Accidents Occur?
There are approximately 6 million auto accidents in the United States each year, resulting in roughly 40,000 deaths and hundreds of thousands of serious injuries. In Florida alone, there are nearly 400,000 vehicle crashes each year. The most common times of the day for car accidents to occur are between 8 AM and 9 AM, and between 3 PM and 6 PM. However, nearly half of all fatal accidents take place at night. Rear end collisions are the leading type of car crash, accounting for nearly a quarter of all vehicle accidents.
For decades, experts have been analyzing the question of why car accidents occur, and although there are certainly external factors such as bad weather that contribute to some crashes, most result from some type of human error. A few years back, Stanford Law School identified several reports and studies that looked at the cause of vehicle crashes, and although the exact percentages vary, every single report found that human error is a main contributor in more than 90% of all car accidents.
Human error can mean a lot of different things, but in a large number of cases, it refers to some type of driver negligence. Some of the most common ways that drivers contribute to car accidents include:
Speeding
Because Florida has great weather most of the year, speeding is an ongoing temptation here in the Sunshine State. People seem to be in more of a hurry these days, and it is easy to push the limits by driving faster than is legally allowed. There are reasons why we have speed limits, however. The faster you drive, the less time you have to react when adverse conditions arise on the roadways. In addition, crashes that occur at higher speeds tend to cause greater vehicle damage and more serious and catastrophic injuries.
Aggressive/Reckless Driving
Excessive speeding, which generally means driving 15 or 20 mph or more over the speed limit, is one common form of aggressive or reckless driving. Others may include tailgating, running stop signs and red lights, unsafe lane changes, unsafe or illegal passing maneuvers, sharp or illegal turns, and street racing. These types of driving behaviors greatly increase the risk of a collision.
Drunk Driving
Alcohol is a factor in approximately one third of all vehicle collisions. In addition, almost 40% of all speeding drivers who are involved in fatal car crashes are intoxicated. It is well-known that intoxication impairs a motorist’s ability to operate a vehicle safely, but unfortunately, far too many people still make the horrible and often fateful decision to get behind the wheel after having too much to drink.
Distracted Driving
Distractions are one of the leading causes of motor vehicle accidents today. This has largely been driven by the widespread use of smartphones and the need to “stay connected”. Texting while driving and sending and receiving other types of electronic messages are especially dangerous, because they distract drivers visually, manually, and cognitively. The end result is that a driver is entirely focused on his/her phone and away from the road where it should be.
Drowsy Driving
Drowsiness is one of the leading causes of auto accidents after dark. According to the CDC, drowsy or fatigued driving is responsible for approximately 83,000 crashes, 37,000 injuries, and just under 900 fatalities in an average year. But the CDC goes on to say that these are most likely very conservative estimates, because most people who are involved in car crashes do not admit that they were tired or sleepy at the time. It is believed that the real number of fatal crashes (caused by drowsy driving) is closer to 6,000 each year.
Not all car accidents that stem from human error are caused by one of the drivers involved. There are other parties whose actions could be responsible for an auto accident, including:
- Vehicle Passengers: A passenger of a vehicle could contribute to an accident by distracting the driver, encouraging the driver to drive recklessly, or even through direct actions like grabbing the steering wheel.
- Mechanics: A mechanic or repair shop could be at fault if their negligence caused or contributed to the accident. Examples of negligence may include installing incorrect or defective vehicle parts, failing to identify a needed vehicle repair, or causing vehicle damage while making repairs.
- Vehicle Part Manufacturers: If a car accident happened because of a faulty vehicle or vehicle part, it may be possible to bring a claim against the product manufacturer or distributor. Common examples when this might occur include faulty brakes that failed to bring the vehicle to a stop to avoid a crash, and defective tires that blow out after being newly installed on a vehicle.
Following an auto accident, an extensive investigation is necessary to look at all of the contributing factors to determine why the accident occurred and which parties may be at fault.
Contact an Experienced Pensacola, FL Car Accident Lawyer
If you or a loved one suffered injury in a vehicle accident in the Pensacola area, Whibbs, Stone, & Barnett is here to help. Call our office today at 1-888-219-4561 or message us online for a free consultation and case evaluation. We will meet with you to thoroughly assess your case and advise you of your legal rights and options. | https://www.pensacolaattorney.com/why-do-most-car-accidents-occur/ |
When commercial drivers make mistakes, fail to obey traffic laws, or drive while under the influence, we suffer the consequences. Truck accidents are responsible for 4,000 deaths each year, making commercial vehicles one of the biggest dangers on America’s roadways. If you are injured in a truck accident, we’re here to help.
This chart from the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration shows the breakdown of fatalities in large-truck crashes.
A head-on collision occurs when the front end of a truck collides with the front end of another vehicle. If a driver falls asleep and ends up on the wrong side of the road, he’s likely to cause a head-on collision. This type of accident often results in devastating injuries and fatalities, especially if the commercial truck hits a small sedan or coupe.
It’s more common for jackknifing to occur when the roads are slick.
If you look at the shape of the tractor and its trailer, you’ll see that it resembles a jackknife blade and handle in a resting position.
If a truck’s brakes fail while the truck is in motion, the driver may not be able to stop in time to prevent an accident. Brake failure can occur if the trucking company does not properly maintain its vehicles, or if the truck’s driver does not complete daily vehicle inspections as required by the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Act (FMCSA). Another potential cause of brake failure is an imbalance in the truck’s braking system. A common cause of brake imbalance is failure to adjust brake components properly.
A rear-end collision occurs when the front end of a truck crashes into the rear of another vehicle. Most truck accidents are rear-end collisions.
T-bone accidents, also called side-impact collisions, occur when a truck driver strikes the side of a vehicle rather than the front or back of a vehicle. If a truck crashes into the front or back of your vehicle, you at least have the bumper or engine compartment to protect you. That’s not the case with T-bone collisions. If a truck hits the side of your car, all you really have for protection is your door. In the best-case scenario, the truck is going slow enough that you only sustain minor injuries. If the truck is going fast enough, it can roll your car over, causing severe injuries. This type of accident often occurs due to failure to yield, reckless driving, driving while intoxicated, or running red lights. T-bone collisions also occur when truck drivers turn across several lanes of traffic.
A side-impact collision, also known as a “T-Bone collision,” is when a truck driver strikes the side of a vehicle. This type of accident can have devastating consequences because of the minimal protection that the side of a vehicle provides its occupants.
If a truck driver loses control and his truck starts sliding sideways, the truck is likely to roll over. Many rollover accidents are preventable if drivers and trucking companies follow federal and state regulations. For example, obeying speeding laws makes it less likely that a truck will roll over while the driver is negotiating a curve. Distracted driving, speeding, driving under the influence, and reckless behavior also cause rollover accidents.
A rollover accident is particularly violent. A commercial vehicle is more likely to roll over because of its high center of gravity. Rollover accidents often occur when a truck driver drives too fast for conditions.
Underride accidents occur when a truck driver slams on the brakes suddenly, causing a smaller vehicle to go right under the truck’s rear trailer. This type of accident is extremely dangerous because the top of your car is not meant to withstand so much force. Even if your vehicle did well in front crash testing, there’s a strong chance the top of the vehicle will be crushed in an underride accident.
An underrride is when a vehicle collides with a truck or the trailer of a tractor-trailer and runs under the truck. This often leads to the slicing off of the roof of the vehicle. Rear guards are the main preventative measure to reduce underride deaths.
The Federal Motor Carrier Safety Act (FMCSR § 392.9) and Georgia law (O.C.G.A. § 40-6-248.1) require drivers to inspect their loads and ensure all cargo is secure. If cargo is not secured properly, there is a risk of it falling off the truck and obstructing the roadway. There is also a risk that the cargo will shift and throw the vehicle off balance, making it difficult for the driver to make turns or negotiate curves.
Unsecured cargo can therefore put other vehicles at risk in two ways: first, loose cargo could strike another vehicle, and second, shifting cargo could cause the truck driver to lose control and cause the truck to strike another vehicle.
Items that fall from tractor trailers can quickly become deadly projectiles, which can cause significant harm and damage to highway users. Debris that is left in the roadway significantly increases the risk of collisions.
If you’ve ever had a tire blowout, you know how difficult it is to maintain control over your vehicle. Just imagine trying to control a truck weighing 40,000 or 60,000 pounds. This type of accident often causes significant damage because the driver does not have control over the truck which leads to a massive crushing impact. High speed + loss of control + heavy machine = devastating consequences.
Tire blowouts can cause tractor trailers to quickly lose control of their rig. If a tire blows out it is common for a load to shift which can result in a lost load.
The rules under which large commercial trucks operate, including the Commercial Driver’s License Manual and Federal Motor Carrier Safety Regulations, set forth specific rules about how large trucks should complete turns without putting other drivers at risk. For instance, when making a right-hand turn, a large truck should not veer left before beginning the turn, because that could allow other drivers to become trapped on the truck’s right, between the truck and curb. Instead, the truck should swing into the far lane of the road that it is turning onto.
Responsible truck drivers also know how to make a safe left turn. The first rule is clearance. Commercial truck operators must look 12 to 15 seconds down the road, because their trucks move slower and are harder to stop than other vehicles. So before a commercial truck turns left, its driver must make sure that it has 12 to 15 seconds of clearance.
It’s much easier to turn a sedan than it is to turn a truck, especially on a narrow roadway. To make a right turn, a truck driver often has to swing left to complete the turn. As a result, the truck may trap cars between the curb and the driver’s blind spot.
A box truck, also known as a cube truck, cube van, box van, panel truck or straight truck, is a truck with a cuboid-shaped cargo area.
The purpose of the tow truck is to move a damaged or nonworking vehicle. The two most common types of tow trucks are the flat bed and the wheel lift, seen below. For the most part they all have the same equipment. A flatbed truck is a truck that does not have sides or walls where the cargo—like a towed car—is stored.
When investigating a flatbed truck accident, all factors need to be considered.
Was the driver properly trained?
Was the driver insured by the parent company?
Was the driver’s driving history considered before hiring?
Was the truck cared for and maintained?
Were the correct precautions taken when loading and transporting the cargo?
Was the driver of the tow truck under the influence of alcohol or drugs?
Was the driver speeding or driving recklessly?
Box trucks are often used in deliveries around town. These drivers are experienced but are put under immense pressure to deliver on time and on route. Even though truck companies want their trucks to keep moving and earning money for the company owners, tired or fatigued drivers put other people at risk. For that reason, there are “Hours of Service” rules that limit how long a truck driver can work without taking a break. These rules help keep other drivers on the road safe from exhausted, over-worked truck drivers.
Many other factors can contribute to a collision with a box truck. The driver could be drunk or impaired, the driver could be distracted by a navigation device or a CB radio, or the truck company could be pressing the driver too hard to make too many deliveries in too little time.
Two common box truck accidents are blind spot accidents and rollover accidents.
A blind spot accident occurs when the box truck cannot see the vehicle that is traveling beside it. When the driver doesn’t see the vehicle in their rear quarter section or blind spot, the truck may change lanes improperly, causing a collision.
A rollover accident occurs when a box truck turns over. This type of accident happens most often when taking a turn too fast or when the driver doesn’t have enough experience to be driving the truck in the first place.
Cement trucks vary in weight greatly depending on whether it is carrying cement or not. Normal concrete weighs about 4,000 lb. per cubic yard. Lightweight concrete weighs about 3,000 lb. per cubic yard. If a truck is carrying 10 cubic yards, then the weight of the concrete is approximately 40,000 lbs. The truck will weigh approximately 26,000 lbs. for a total of 66,000 lb. This immense weight can cause a catastrophic collision with serious injuries.
If driven at a high rate of speed and by an unqualified driver, a loaded cement truck can quickly become a dangerous weapon on the road.
If you were hurt in a collision with a cement truck, both the driver and the cement truck company can usually be held responsible.
Bus accidents account for more than 200 deaths per year.
Garbage trucks are seen every day on the roads and in neighborhoods. Pedestrians and cars are sometimes victims of a garbage truck accident. There are several different kinds of garbage trucks.
Built with heavy frames and lugging heavy hydraulic equipment built to crush trash, garbage trucks are designed with large blind spots. Blind spots can affect the garbage truck driver’s vision which can adversely affect the driver’s ability to see innocent pedestrians.
A dump truck accident can happen at construction site or on the highway while driving to or from an active construction site. A 5-axle dump truck can weigh over 65,000 pounds. That means that even in a low speed accident, a dump truck can cause serious damage. Bumpers on dump trucks may be mounted unusually high off the ground or may be absent altogether. That gives the dump truck additional ground clearance, but if the dump truck collides with another vehicle, that other vehicle is at risk of sliding underneath—or “underriding”—the dump truck.
Dump trucks are specifically designed to carry 65,000 pounds; therefore, accidents involving dump trucks are often fatal.
Truck accidents happen in many different ways and involve many different trucks. An experienced trucking lawyer is a must.
Should I Hire a Lawyer for My Accident? | https://butlerfirm.com/truck-accident-injury-lawyers/types-of-truck-accidents/ |
Asked by Trina Fry
What is true of the allele pair of someone with the genotype 77?
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Asked in Genetics, Geometry
Is it true or false that plants with the same phenotype always have the same genotype?
False. Any living thing depends on the alleles from both parents. Crossing a hybrid tall plant (Tt) with a recessive short plant (tt) could end up with 50% tall and 50% short. The dominant allele (the capital genotype) will usually decide the majority of the off springs alleles. The dominant could be decided by either the same genotype, for example, TT, or a hybrid, Tt. A recessive could only occur with the same recessive alleles, tt. | https://www.answers.com/Q/What_is_true_of_the_allele_pair_of_someone_with_the_genotype_77 |
Regardless, the "re-discovery" made Mendelism an important but controversial theory. Its most vigorous promoter in Europe was William Bateson, who coined the terms "genetics" and "allele" to describe many of its tenets. The model of heredity was contested by other biologists because it implied that heredity was discontinuous, in opposition to the apparently continuous variation observable for many traits. Many biologists also dismissed the theory because they were not sure it would apply to all species. However, later work by biologists and statisticians such as Ronald Fisher showed that if multiple Mendelian factors were involved in the expression of an individual trait, they could produce the diverse results observed, and thus showed that Mendelian genetics is compatible with natural selection. Thomas Hunt Morgan and his assistants later integrated Mendel's theoretical model with the chromosome theory of inheritance, in which the chromosomes of cells were thought to hold the actual hereditary material, and created what is now known as classical genetics, a highly successful foundation which eventually cemented Mendel's place in history.
Mendel's findings allowed scientists such as Fisher and J.B.S. Haldane to predict the expression of traits on the basis of mathematical probabilities. An important aspect of Mendel's success can be traced to his decision to start his crosses only with plants he demonstrated were true-breeding. He only measured discrete (binary) characteristics, such as color, shape, and position of the seeds, rather than quantitatively variable characteristics. He expressed his results numerically and subjected them to statistical analysis. His method of data analysis and his large sample size gave credibility to his data. He had the foresight to follow several successive generations (P, F1, F2, F3) of pea plants and record their variations. Finally, he performed "test crosses" (backcrossing descendants of the initial hybridization to the initial true-breeding lines) to reveal the presence and proportions of recessive characters.
Five parts of Mendel's discoveries were an important divergence from the common theories at the time and were the prerequisite for the establishment of his rules.
According to customary terminology we refer here to the principles of inheritance discovered by Gregor Mendel as Mendelian laws, although today's geneticists also speak of Mendelian rules or Mendelian principles, as there are many exceptions summarized under the collective term Non-Mendelian inheritance.
Mendel selected for the experiment the following characters of pea plants:
When he crossed purebred white flower and purple flower pea plants (the parental or P generation) by artificial pollination, the resulting flower colour was not a blend. Rather than being a mix of the two, the offspring in the first generation (F1-generation) were all purple-flowered. Therefore, he called this biological trait dominant. When he allowed self-fertilization in the uniform looking F1-generation, he obtained both colours in the F2 generation with a purple flower to white flower ratio of 3 : 1. In some of the other characters also one of the traits was dominant.
He then conceived the idea of heredity units, which he called hereditary "factors". Mendel found that there are alternative forms of factors—now called genes—that account for variations in inherited characteristics. For example, the gene for flower color in pea plants exists in two forms, one for purple and the other for white. The alternative "forms" are now called alleles. For each trait, an organism inherits two alleles, one from each parent. These alleles may be the same or different. An organism that has two identical alleles for a gene is said to be homozygous for that gene (and is called a homozygote). An organism that has two different alleles for a gene is said be heterozygous for that gene (and is called a heterozygote).
Mendel hypothesized that allele pairs separate randomly, or segregate, from each other during the production of the gametes in the seed plant (egg cell) and the pollen plant (sperm). Because allele pairs separate during gamete production, a sperm or egg carries only one allele for each inherited trait. When sperm and egg unite at fertilization, each contributes its allele, restoring the paired condition in the offspring. Mendel also found that each pair of alleles segregates independently of the other pairs of alleles during gamete formation.
The genotype of an individual is made up of the many alleles it possesses. The phenotype is the result of the expression of all characteristics that are genetically determined by its alleles as well as by its environment. The presence of an allele does not mean that the trait will be expressed in the individual that possesses it. If the two alleles of an inherited pair differ (the heterozygous condition), then one determines the organism's appearance and is called the dominant allele; the other has no noticeable effect on the organism's appearance and is called the recessive allele.
|Law||Definition|
|Law of dominance and uniformity||Some alleles are dominant while others are recessive; an organism with at least one dominant allele will display the effect of the dominant allele.|
|Law of segregation||During gamete formation, the alleles for each gene segregate from each other so that each gamete carries only one allele for each gene.|
|Law of independent assortment||Genes of different traits can segregate independently during the formation of gametes.|
If two parents are mated with each other who differ in one genetic characteristic for which they are both homozygous (each pure-bred), all offspring in the first generation (F1) are equal to the examined characteristic in genotype and phenotype showing the dominant trait. This uniformity rule or reciprocity rule applies to all individuals of the F1-generation.
The principle of dominant inheritance discovered by Mendel states that in a heterozygote the dominant allele will cause the recessive allele to be "masked": that is, not expressed in the phenotype. Only if an individual is homozygous with respect to the recessive allele will the recessive trait be expressed. Therefore, a cross between a homozygous dominant and a homozygous recessive organism yields a heterozygous organism whose phenotype displays only the dominant trait.
The F1 offspring of Mendel's pea crosses always looked like one of the two parental varieties. In this situation of "complete dominance," the dominant allele had the same phenotypic effect whether present in one or two copies.
But for some characteristics, the F1 hybrids have an appearance in between the phenotypes of the two parental varieties. A cross between two four o'clock (Mirabilis jalapa) plants shows an exception to Mendel's principle, called incomplete dominance. Flowers of heterozygous plants have a phenotype somewhere between the two homozygous genotypes. In cases of intermediate inheritance (incomplete dominance) in the F1-generation Mendel's principle of uniformity in genotype and phenotype applies as well. Research about intermediate inheritance was done by other scientists. The first was Carl Correns with his studies about Mirabilis jalapa.
The Law of Segregation of genes applies when two individuals, both heterozygous for a certain trait are crossed, for example hybrids of the F1-generation. The offspring in the F2-generation differ in genotype and phenotype, so that the characteristics of the grandparents (P-generation) regularly occur again. In a dominant-recessive inheritance an average of 25% are homozygous with the dominant trait, 50% are heterozygous showing the dominant trait in the phenotype (genetic carriers), 25% are homozygous with the recessive trait and therefore express the recessive trait in the phenotype. The genotypic ratio is 1 : 2 : 1, the phenotypic ratio is 3 : 1.
In the pea plant example, the capital "B" represents the dominant allele for purple blossom and lowercase "b" represents the recessive allele for white blossom. The pistil plant and the pollen plant are both F1-hybrids with genotype "B b". Each has one allele for purple and one allele for white. In the offspring, in the F2-plants in the Punnett-square, three combinations are possible. The genotypic ratio is 1 BB : 2 Bb : 1 bb. But the phenotypic ratio of plants with purple blossoms to those with white blossoms is 3 : 1 due to the dominance of the allele for purple. Plants with homozygous "b b" are white flowered like one of the grandparents in the P-generation.
In cases of incomplete dominance the same segregation of alleles takes place in the F2-generation, but here also the phenotypes show a ratio of 1 : 2 : 1, as the heterozygous are different in phenotype from the homozygous because the genetic expression of one allele compensates the missing expression of the other allele only partially. This results in an intermediate inheritance which was later described by other scientists.
In some literature sources the principle of segregation is cited as "first law". Nevertheless, Mendel did his crossing experiments with heterozygous plants after obtaining these hybrids by crossing two purebred plants, discovering the principle of dominance and uniformity first.
Molecular proof of segregation of genes was subsequently found through observation of meiosis by two scientists independently, the German botanist Oscar Hertwig in 1876, and the Belgian zoologist Edouard Van Beneden in 1883. Most alleles are located in chromosomes in the cell nucleus. Paternal and maternal chromosomes get separated in meiosis, because during spermatogenesis the chromosomes are segregated on the four sperm cells that arise from one mother sperm cell, and during oogenesis the chromosomes are distributed between the polar bodies and the egg cell. Every individual organism contains two alleles for each trait. They segregate (separate) during meiosis such that each gamete contains only one of the alleles. When the gametes unite in the zygote the alleles—one from the mother one from the father—get passed on to the offspring. An offspring thus receives a pair of alleles for a trait by inheriting homologous chromosomes from the parent organisms: one allele for each trait from each parent. Heterozygous individuals with the dominant trait in the phenotype are genetic carriers of the recessive trait.
The Law of Independent Assortment states that alleles for separate traits are passed independently of one another. That is, the biological selection of an allele for one trait has nothing to do with the selection of an allele for any other trait. Mendel found support for this law in his dihybrid cross experiments. In his monohybrid crosses, an idealized 3:1 ratio between dominant and recessive phenotypes resulted. In dihybrid crosses, however, he found a 9:3:3:1 ratios. This shows that each of the two alleles is inherited independently from the other, with a 3:1 phenotypic ratio for each.
Independent assortment occurs in eukaryotic organisms during meiotic metaphase I, and produces a gamete with a mixture of the organism's chromosomes. The physical basis of the independent assortment of chromosomes is the random orientation of each bivalent chromosome along the metaphase plate with respect to the other bivalent chromosomes. Along with crossing over, independent assortment increases genetic diversity by producing novel genetic combinations.
There are many deviations from the principle of independent assortment due to genetic linkage.
Of the 46 chromosomes in a normal diploid human cell, half are maternally derived (from the mother's egg) and half are paternally derived (from the father's sperm). This occurs as sexual reproduction involves the fusion of two haploid gametes (the egg and sperm) to produce a zygote and a new organism, in which every cell has two sets of chromosomes (diploid). During gametogenesis the normal complement of 46 chromosomes needs to be halved to 23 to ensure that the resulting haploid gamete can join with another haploid gamete to produce a diploid organism.
In independent assortment, the chromosomes that result are randomly sorted from all possible maternal and paternal chromosomes. Because zygotes end up with a mix instead of a pre-defined "set" from either parent, chromosomes are therefore considered assorted independently. As such, the zygote can end up with any combination of paternal or maternal chromosomes. For human gametes, with 23 chromosomes, the number of possibilities is 223 or 8,388,608 possible combinations. This contributes to the genetic variability of progeny. Generally, the recombination of genes has important implications for many evolutionary processes.
A Mendelian trait is one that is controlled by a single locus in an inheritance pattern. In such cases, a mutation in a single gene can cause a disease that is inherited according to Mendel's principles. Dominant diseases manifest in heterozygous individuals. Recessive ones are sometimes inherited unnoticeably by genetic carriers. Examples include sickle-cell anemia, Tay–Sachs disease, cystic fibrosis and xeroderma pigmentosa. A disease controlled by a single gene contrasts with a multi-factorial disease, like heart disease, which is affected by several loci (and the environment) as well as those diseases inherited in a non-Mendelian fashion.
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Main article: Non-Mendelian inheritance
After Mendel's studies and discoveries more and more new discoveries about genetics were made. Mendel himself has said that the regularities he discovered apply only to the organisms and characteristics he consciously chose for his experiments. Mendel explained inheritance in terms of discrete factors—genes—that are passed along from generation to generation according to the rules of probability. Mendel's laws are valid for all sexually reproducing organisms, including garden peas and human beings. However, Mendel's laws stop short of explaining some patterns of genetic inheritance. For most sexually reproducing organisms, cases where Mendel's laws can strictly account for all patterns of inheritance are relatively rare. Often the inheritance patterns are more complex.
In cases of codominance the phenotypes produced by both alleles are clearly expressed. Mendel chose genetic traits in plants that are determined by only two alleles, such as "A" and "a". In nature, genes often exist in several different forms with multiple alleles. Furthermore, many traits are produced by the interaction of several genes. Traits controlled by two or more genes are said to be polygenic traits.
The article, written by an Austrian monk named Gregor Johann Mendel... | https://db0nus869y26v.cloudfront.net/en/Mendelian_inheritance |
Genotype and phenotype are two fundamental terms in the science of genetics. The two terms are often used at the same time to describe the same organism, but there is a difference between genotype and phenotype:
- An organism’s genotype is the set of genes in its DNA responsible for a particular trait.
- An organism’s phenotype is the physical expression of those genes.
For example, two mice that look virtually identical could have different genotypes. But if they have visibly different traits - say, one has white fur and the other has black fur - then they have different phenotypes.
Genotype Explained
How does genotype affect phenotype? Simple. Genotype is the collection of genes responsible for the various genetic traits of a given organism. Genotype refers specifically to the genes, not the traits; that is, the raw information in an organism’s DNA.
Genotype is determined by the makeup of alleles, pairs of genes responsible for particular traits. An allele can be made up of two dominant genes, a dominant and a recessive gene, or two recessive genes. The combination of the two, and which one is dominant, determines what trait the allele will express.
Genotype simply means what alleles are carried in a particular organism’s DNA. It can’t be determined by simple observation; it requires biological testing. Genotype is inherited from an organism’s parents and expresses all of the genetic information about it.
Genotype Examples
It’s hard to provide concrete examples of genotype. The term just means “the genes a particular organism has.” Any example of a genotype would just be a chart of a particular living thing’s chromosomes, or DNA molecules responsible for various genetic traits. However, having certain genes does have observable results.
For example, if you met someone with albinism you would know they most likely have a mutated TYR gene, because that’s the most common cause of albinism. That mutated TYR gene is part of their genotype. Albinism is part of their phenotype.
Or suppose you have brown eyes. The visible eye color is your phenotype, but it tells us nothing about your genotype. Multiple different genes affect eye color in humans, and any of them could manifest dominant or recessive traits in your phenotype - that is, the unique shade of brown in your eyes.
Phenotype Explained
Phenotype is what you see - the visible or observable expression of the results of genes, combined with the environmental influence on an organism's appearance or behavior. Everything from the shape of a bird’s wing to the song of a humpback whale can be considered part of the phenotype: observable aspects of that animal that are determined, at least in part, by its genes.
Phenotype Examples
Phenotype means “concrete results of an organism’s genotype.” Phenotype, therefore, is observable by nature. Every trait determined by a gene, even partially, is part of its phenotype. Just a few of the countless examples of the phenotypes of living things follow.
- Eye color
- Hair color
- Height
- Sound of your voice
- Certain types of disease
- Size of a bird's beak
- Length of a fox's tail
- Color of the stripes on a cat
- Size and shape of the spots on a dog's back
- An individual's shoe size
A World of Genes
Genes are the basic structure of life. The foundation of biology is genetics, and at the simplest level, genetics is a matter of genotype - the genes you have - and phenotype - the traits those genes give you. Between the two, genotype and phenotype define a large part of what an organism is.
For more on genetic science, check out our article on incomplete dominance. If you’re in the mood for some chemistry after all that biology, visit our pages on heterogeneous mixtures. | https://examples.yourdictionary.com/examples-of-genotype-phenotype.html |
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What did Mendel do plants in order to perform cross-pollination
-he cut the male parts off one flower so it would reproduce with another female flower
How many alleles does an organism inherit from a single parent in a genre containing two alleles?
- 1
When and only when will a recessive trait show in a two allele gene?
-only when the diminant trait is not present
What does the genotype tt say about the parent?
- the child will not have the tall gene (recessive)
Why can certain traits disappear from one generation, but reappear in the best generation?
-because she trait might not be dominant but it’s still there
What is the probability of a coin flip?
-1/2
What can the principles of probability be used for in genetics?
-to see the probability and the results of his genetic crosses
What is the difference between homozygous and heterozygous
- TT= homozygous (same alleles)
Tt =heterozygous(different)
To which organism do Mendel’s pronciples of genetics apply?
-pea plants
What are the principles of dominance and segregation?
-dommance= some alleles are dominant\necessice
Segregation= formation of new genome, separation of genes
Give an example of codominance
-bird having both black and white feather inherited
Define incomplete dominar
-are allele is not completely dominant other another
Give an example of when genetics and the environment both influence changes in an organism? | http://www.wikiteka.co.uk/document/marchantia-male-1/ |
Alleles produce phenotypes (or physical versions of a trait) that are either dominant or recessive. The dominance or recessivity associated with a particular allele is the result of masking, by which a dominant phenotype hides a recessive phenotype.
Recessive is a quality found in the relationship between two versions of a gene. Individuals receive one version of a gene, called an allele, from each parent. If the alleles are different, the dominant allele will be expressed, while the effect of the other allele, called recessive, is masked.
What kind of alleles will show in your phenotype?
A dominant phenotype will be expressed when at least one allele of its associated type is present, whereas a recessive phenotype will only be expressed when both alleles are of its associated type. However, there are exceptions to the way heterozygotes express themselves in the phenotype.
Which allele is always masked in the phenotype?
If the alleles are different, the dominant allele usually will be expressed, while the effect of the other allele, called recessive, is masked.
The recessive trait is hidden in the heterozygous individual (Dd) if the other allele is inherited in a dominant fashion, and so this person is a called a “carrier” of the recessive allele, but does not manifest the disease or trait.
What is a homozygous allele?
(HOH-moh-ZY-gus JEE-noh-tipe) The presence of two identical alleles at a particular gene locus. A homozygous genotype may include two normal alleles or two alleles that have the same variant.
Is PP genotype or phenotype?
There are three available genotypes, PP (homozygous dominant ), Pp (heterozygous), and pp (homozygous recessive). All three have different genotypes but the first two have the same phenotype (purple) as distinct from the third (white).
Which gene is responsible for phenotype?
When a molecular geneticist has a phenotype-oriented mindset, the candidate genes are those genes deemed to have a high likelihood of being the cause for a particular phenotype in question.
What are phenotypes in humans?
A phenotype is an individual’s observable traits, such as height, eye color, and blood type. The genetic contribution to the phenotype is called the genotype. Some traits are largely determined by the genotype, while other traits are largely determined by environmental factors.
What are 3 possible phenotypes?
If the only alleles for hair texture were straight and curly, there would be three phenotypes: straight, curly, and wavy. However, you asked for something a little different. You wanted three phenotypes that are all equally represented in the population.
Is a phenotype an allele?
The alleles an individual has at a locus is called a genotype. The genotype of an organism is often expressed using letters. The visible expression of the genotype is called an organism’s phenotype. … Alleles that are masked by others are called recessive alleles.
How do alleles determine phenotype?
Diploid organisms typically have two alleles for a trait. … When the alleles of a pair are heterozygous, the phenotype of one trait may be dominant and the other recessive. The dominant allele is expressed and the recessive allele is masked. This is known as complete genetic dominance.
When two heterozygous alleles are expressed together in the phenotype of an organism?
Incomplete dominance is the expression of two contrasting alleles such that the individual displays an intermediate phenotype. Codominance is a variation on incomplete dominance in which both alleles for the same characteristic are simultaneously expressed in the heterozygote.
A recessive allele can remain hidden because it is not manifest in the heterozygous individual, meaning that it may be present in the genotype but is not expressed in the phenotype.
What type of allele will be expressed if both dominant and recessive alleles are present?
If both alleles are dominant, it is called codominance?. The resulting characteristic is due to both alleles being expressed equally. An example of this is the blood group AB which is the result of codominance of the A and B dominant alleles.
How does recessive alleles affect phenotype?
If you have one dominant allele and one recessive allele, your phenotype will appear from the dominant allele. For example, if you have a brown eye colour allele, and the blue eye colour allele, then you would result in having brown eyes from your phenotype, as the brown eye allele is dominant. | https://undiagnosedbutokay.com/genes/which-type-of-alleles-can-be-hidden-in-an-individuals-phenotype.html |
Characteristics of autosomal dominant traits: -Every affected person has at least one affected parent. -When the trait (or disease) is rare in the population, shows vertical pattern of inheritance in the pedigree (affected males and females in each generation).
Also Know, what are the rules for autosomal dominant inheritance? In autosomal dominant inheritance, only one copy of a disease allele is necessary for an individual to be susceptible to expressing the phenotype. With each pregnancy, there is a one in two (50%) chance the offspring will inherit the disease allele.
In respect to this, what is a pedigree in genetics?
A pedigree chart is a diagram that shows the occurrence and appearance of phenotypes of a particular gene or organism and its ancestors from one generation to the next, most commonly humans, show dogs, and race horses.
Do autosomal dominant disorders skip generations?
Patterns for Autosomal Dominant Inheritance Traits do not skip generations (generally). If both parents possess the trait, but it is absent in any of their offspring, then the parents are both heterozygous (“carriers”) of the recessive allele.
What is difference between autosomal dominant and recessive?
One mutated copy of the gene in each cell is sufficient for a person to be affected by an autosomal dominant disorder. In some cases, an affected person inherits the condition from an affected parent. In autosomal recessive inheritance, both copies of the gene in each cell have mutations.
How do you analyze a pedigree?
Reading a pedigree Determine whether the trait is dominant or recessive. If the trait is dominant, one of the parents must have the trait. Determine if the chart shows an autosomal or sex-linked (usually X-linked) trait. For example, in X-linked recessive traits, males are much more commonly affected than females.
What does autosomal mean?
Medical Definition of Autosomal Autosomal: Pertaining to a chromosome that is not a sex chromosome. People normally have 22 pairs of autosomes (44 autosomes) in each cell, together with 2 sex chromosomes, X and Y in a male and X and X in a female.
What makes a gene dominant?
Dominance, in genetics, is the phenomenon of one variant (allele) of a gene on a chromosome masking or overriding the effect of a different variant of the same gene on the other copy of the chromosome. The first variant is termed dominant and the second recessive.
What is autosomal inheritance?
Medical Definition of Autosomal dominant Autosomal dominant: A pattern of inheritance in which an affected individual has one copy of a mutant gene and one normal gene on a pair of autosomal chromosomes. (In contrast, autosomal recessive diseases require that the individual have two copies of the mutant gene.)
What is a pedigree for kids?
Introduction: A pedigree is a visual chart that depicts a family history or the transmission of a specific trait. Pedigrees are used primarily by genetic counselors when helping couples decide to have children when there is evidence of a genetically inherited disorder in one or both families.
Is Turner syndrome autosomal or Sexlinked?
Answer and Explanation: Turner’s syndrome is neither autosomal dominant nor autosomal recessive. Turner’s syndrome involves the sex chromosomes and not the autosomes, the
What is a pedigree used for?
A pedigree chart was used to track the presence or absence of a given trait (phenotype) through two or more generations of a family.
Is Hemophilia autosomal or Sexlinked?
The gene with the instructions for making factor is found only on the sex chromosome labeled X. If the gene is faulty, the result is hemophilia unless there is a dominant, normal gene on a matching X chromosome. Hemophilia is a sex-linked recessive disorder. These kinds of defects occur more often in men than in women.
What is an example of a pedigree?
Pedigrees are normally used to represent simple dominant and recessive traits. For example, having a widow’s peak hairline is dominant. If an individual has that trait, their symbol on the pedigree will be shaded in. Certain traits like colorblindness are located on the X or Y chromosome and are called sex-linked. | https://shortridgedailyecho.org/what-is-an-autosomal-dominant-pedigree/ |
The presence of two identical alleles at a particular gene locus. A homozygous genotype may include two normal alleles or two alleles that have the same variant.
What makes a genotype heterozygous or homozygous?
Heterozygous refers to having inherited different forms of a particular gene from each parent. A heterozygous genotype stands in contrast to a homozygous genotype, where an individual inherits identical forms of a particular gene from each parent.
What makes a gene homozygous?
We all have two alleles, or versions, of each gene. Being homozygous for a particular gene means you inherited two identical versions. It’s the opposite of a heterozygous genotype, where the alleles are different. People who have recessive traits, like blue eyes or red hair, are always homozygous for that gene.
How do you get a homozygous genotype?
An organism with two dominant alleles for a trait is said to have a homozygous dominant genotype. Using the eye color example, this genotype is written BB. An organism with one dominant allele and one recessive allele is said to have a heterozygous genotype.
What is an example of a genotype heterozygous?
Together, these alleles are called a genotype. If the two versions are different, you have a heterozygous genotype for that gene. For example, being heterozygous for hair color could mean you have one allele for red hair and one allele for brown hair.
What is the difference between H * * * * * * * * * and heterozygous?
Humans have two sets of chromosomes. Homozygous and heterozygous are terms that are used to describe allele pairs.
…
Homozygous vs Heterozygous.
|Homozygous||Heterozygous|
|Contains only one type of allele, either dominant or recessive||Contains different alleles for a trait. Both dominant and recessive|
How do you determine if a plant is homozygous or heterozygous?
Homozygous plants have two identical copies of a single gene. Heterozygous plants have two copies of a single gene, but those copies are alleles, or different versions of that gene.
What does it mean if a genotype is heterozygous?
(HEH-teh-roh-ZY-gus JEE-noh-tipe) The presence of two different alleles at a particular gene locus. A heterozygous genotype may include one normal allele and one mutated allele or two different mutated alleles (compound heterozygote).
What is heterozygous trait?
Getty Images. Heterozygous is a term used in genetics to describe when two variations of a gene (known as alleles) are paired at the same location (locus) on a chromosome. By contrast, homozygous is when there are two copies of the same allele at the same locus.
How is a homozygous recessive trait written?
When a particular gene has identical alleles (versions) of chromosomes inherited from both parents, the gene is homozygous. A homozygous trait is referred to by two capital letters (XX) for a dominant trait, and two lowercase letters (xx) for a recessive trait.
Is homozygous dominant or recessive?
Homozygous means that the organism has two copies of the same allele for a gene. An organism can be homozygous dominant, if it carries two copies of the same dominant allele, or homozygous recessive, if it carries two copies of the same recessive allele.
What is a homozygous genotype example?
A homozygous genotype is one in which both alleles are the same, and an organism with a homozygous genotype is said to be true-breeding or purebred. … For example, in pea plants, height is governed by a single gene with two alleles, in which the tall allele (T) is dominant and the short allele (t) is recessive.
What is the difference between heterozygous and heterozygote?
Heterozygous. A diploid organism is heterozygous at a gene locus when its cells contain two different alleles (one wild-type allele and one mutant allele) of a gene. The cell or organism is called a heterozygote specifically for the allele in question, and therefore, heterozygosity refers to a specific genotype. | https://undiagnosedbutokay.com/genetic-diseases/what-makes-a-genotype-homozygous.html |
Flashcards in Genetics and Heredity Deck (18):
1
What is heredity?
The passing of traits from an organism to its offspring.
2
What is a hybrid trait?
A trait that has a dominant and recessive trait. Ex. - Tt
3
What is a dominant trait?
The stronger of the two genes.
4
What is a recessive trait?
The weaker of the two genes.
5
What is an allele?
Each version of a gene.
6
Who is know as the "Father of Genetics?"
Gregor Mendel
7
What is the Law of Segregation?
When the parent forms sex cells (sperm of eggs), the parent's gene pair segregate, or separate. This process is known as the Law of Segregation. According to the Law of Segregation, one gene from each pair goes to each sex.
8
What is the genetic make-up and appearance of an offspring made through asexual reproduction?
The offspring is genetically identical. (only one parent needed)
9
What is a genotype?
The organisms genes. (inside body can not see)
10
What is a phenotype?
The appearance of an organism. (traits you can see)
11
What are genes carried on?
Chromosomes.
12
What do genes control the production of?
Proteins.
13
What directly determines your traits?
Proteins.
14
What percentage of your parents' chromosomes do you inherit?
Half of their genes.
15
What is a mutation?
A change in a gene or chromosome.
16
What are some examples of helpful mutations?
Navel Oranges: Seedless and Juicer
17
What circumstance would cause a mutation to be passed down to the next generation?
Most of the mutations are in body cells and can't be passed down to offspring. The only way a mutation would be passed down is if the mutations is in a sex cell. | https://www.brainscape.com/flashcards/genetics-and-heredity-3820861/packs/4768706 |
In a diploid organism, one that has two copies of each chromosome, two alleles make up the individual’s genotype. An example is the gene for blossom color in many species of flower — a single gene controls the color of the petals, but there may be several different versions (or alleles) of the gene.
What are alleles responsible for?
It is known as an Allele. One allele is carried out from each parent. These alleles are responsible for the variations and uniqueness of each individual. The dissimilar variations of a particular gene are known as an allele.
Do alleles control traits?
Definition of Allele
Genes do control different traits of an organism, such as hair color or eye color, but the actual expression of a trait depends on which allele is dominant.
What do alleles produce?
Alleles produce phenotypes (or physical versions of a trait) that are either dominant or recessive. The dominance or recessivity associated with a particular allele is the result of masking, by which a dominant phenotype hides a recessive phenotype.
What are the three alleles responsible for?
The ABO system in humans is controlled by three alleles, usually referred to as IA, IB, and IO (the “I” stands for isohaemagglutinin). IA and IB are codominant and produce type A and type B antigens, respectively, which migrate to the surface of red blood cells, while IO is the recessive allele and produces no antigen.
What is an allele in simple terms?
An allele is one of two or more versions of a gene. An individual inherits two alleles for each gene, one from each parent. If the two alleles are the same, the individual is homozygous for that gene.
What is an allele and what would be an example of it?
The definition of alleles are pairs or series of genes on a chromosome that determine the hereditary characteristics. An example of an allele is the gene that determines hair color. noun.
What do alleles have to do with characteristics?
The combination of alleles that an organism carries constitutes its genotype. If the paired alleles are the same, the organism’s genotype is said to be homozygous for that trait; if they are different, the organism’s genotype is heterozygous.
How do alleles determine the expression of traits?
Alleles determine the expression of traits depending on what genes parents have. Humans have two copies of each chromosome do they have two copies of…
How does alleles affect inheritance?
These two copies of the gene contained in your chromosomes influence the way your cells work. The two alleles in a gene pair are inherited, one from each parent. Alleles interact with each other in different ways. These are called inheritance patterns.
What is an allele describe its function?
Alleles are different forms of the same gene which are located on the same part of the chromosome. Genes are made up of information needed to produce different proteins, so alleles carry information to produce different versions of the same protein.
How do alleles relate to genes?
The short answer is that an allele is a variant form of a gene. Explained in greater detail, each gene resides at a specific locus (location on a chromosome) in two copies, one copy of the gene inherited from each parent. The copies, however, are not necessarily the same.
What is allele example?
Alleles are different forms of the same gene. … An example of alleles for flower color in pea plants are the dominant purple allele, and the recessive white allele; for height they are the dominant tall allele and recessive short allele; for pea color, they are the dominant yellow allele and recessive green allele.
Is controlled by three alleles?
The four main blood groups A, B, AB, and O are controlled by three alleles: A, B, and O. As humans are diploid, only two of these can be present in any one genotype. In other words, only two of these alleles are present at the same time in a person’s cell.
What are the 3 alleles responsible for ABO blood system?
The ABO locus has three main allelic forms: A, B, and O. The A and B alleles each encode a glycosyltransferase that catalyzes the final step in the synthesis of the A and B antigen, respectively.
What are Sexlinked genes?
When genes are close together on the same chromosome, they are said to be linked. That means the alleles, or gene versions, already together on one chromosome will be inherited as a unit more frequently than not. | https://wylderjames.com/genetics/what-do-alleles-control.html |
Because learning is a process, be aware that you might slide backwards as well as move forwards; that is, having seemed to grasp a concept at a certain point in the semester, your later work might reveal to you and to me that your grasp was not yet firm. Throughout this rubric, mastery of a skill refers, by definition, to sustained competence, so do not relax your efforts to learn and improve as soon as you decide (or hear from me) that you are showing signs of mastery. While I intend these descriptions primarily as a help to you, I will also use them when assessing your progress towards mastery of the five skills. In that sense, the rubric will also determine your course grade.
Narrativity
Craft complex historical narratives that answer a question or solve a problem using sophisticated understandings of causation, continuity, and change over time.
Emerging practice: Narratives written by new historians are often simple, sequential accounts that tell readers “what happened” without indicating why the narrative matters. To beginners, one way of telling the story is as good as any other. It is difficult to tell why certain things are included and others are not; obviously relevant issues are ignored, while tangential issues are included. Attempts to tie events together as cause and effect, or as evidence of change or continuity, are weak, simplistic, logically fallacious, or non-existent.
As you begin to develop competence, you will start crafting narratives that are oriented towards solving a problem or answering a question, though the stakes of the problem or question may be unclear and the answer attempted by the narrative may not yet be fully convincing. You’ll begin to incorporate a wide range of relevant people, places, events, etc., but your criteria about what to include or exclude may still be poor or unevenly applied. Clear chronological markers and claims about causation, change, and continuity will begin to appear, but they may be oversimplified (i.e., monocausal, linear, disproportionately focused on change or continuity, Whiggish, all about progress or all about declension). Narratives may be teleological; they have an air of inevitability about them, instead of being qualified by the possibility that things could have happened differently under different circumstances. After specific feedback or coaching, you may demonstrate signs of mastery, but you may have difficulty assessing the quality of other authors’ historical narratives by these same standards.
Achieving mastery means demonstrating the ability to write and to recognize narratives that persuasively address a problem or question whose significance is made clear. The stakes of the question and the difficulty of answering it are made as clear as the answer itself. The range of topics covered will simultaneously indicate discernment (only those things that are most relevant are included), thoroughness (while clearly defined, your standard of relevance is capacious enough to bring a remarkably wide range of issues to bear on the problem), and awareness of chronology. Claims about causation, change, and continuity are fully warranted and sophisticated. You present causality as a dense web in which multiple overlapping factors played a role, instead of only one or two; elements of change and continuity are treated as contingent, coexistent, and related, with neither wholly displacing the other. You consistently probe or avoid simplistic narratives of unbroken progress or total decline.
Evidence
Thoroughly support and revise your claims about the past using critical approaches to the best and most relevant available evidence.
Emerging practice: As a novice historian, you may assume that the number of claims about the past still needing specific, empirical substantiation is relatively small. You will often make claims without giving specific evidence to support them, or you may give evidence that is over-general, under-examined, or not sourced. At this stage, you may use only a small portion of the evidence available to you from course readings and classes. Evidence is often accepted uncritically by beginners, who show little awareness of source problems or the differences between primary and secondary accounts. Sources are treated as straightforward bearers of information that give unfettered access to their creators’ thinking.
As you begin to develop competence in dealing with evidence, you will make sure that claims needing substantiation with evidence always receive it, though you may still struggle to see when and why already substantiated claims need to be revised or extended by new evidence. Claims are carefully calibrated and limited by available evidence, though some generalizations may still reach beyond what the evidence allows. It’s easy for others to tell where you are getting specific evidence from, and that you have engaged with a variety of primary and secondary sources, though you may still rely disproportionately on a few sources. You are also beginning to think critically about evidence. You know to look for information about where evidence came from (sourcing) and to weigh evidence against other evidence (corroboration). While beginners tend to approach sources like “jurors, patiently listening to testimony and questioning themselves,” you are beginning to approach sources like “prosecuting attorneys.”2 You notice discrepancies between accounts and pose questions about the intentions, audiences, perspectives, and potential blindspots of their creators, though skepticism about a source may sometimes be misplaced or over-zealous. You may begin to demonstrate signs of mastery, but only after specific feedback or coaching.
You’ll approach mastery in your use of evidence when, as a matter of course, you provide well-sourced, specific evidence to support, revise, and qualify your claims, whether large or small. You think creatively about what evidence is available to you when considering a problem, and you can make effective use of earlier material from the course that may, at first glance, seem unrelated to the topic at hand. You use historical sources not just to substantiate a single claim about that source or its creator, but to reconstruct broader historical and social contexts in which all the available evidence makes more sense (contextualization). You also, as a matter of course, ask questions about where the evidence came from and “nurse doubt” about its reliability or limits.3 Yet you are also able to use a source’s problems not just to discount its reliability, but to reason from those problems to new claims or insights. You are alternately the “prosecutor” and the “defense attorney” for sources, and ultimately reach wise judgements; balancing skepticism with belief, you come to persuasive conclusions about the most probable explanation for a given body of evidence.
Empathy
Look for the potential strengths and insights offered by alternative points of view on or in the past, even or especially when they conflict with your own or conventional understandings.
Empathy is an intellectual and imaginative skill that is required both when reading sources created in the past and when reading secondary sources created by other historians. Though often confused with “sympathy” or “positive feeling,” empathy means being sensitive to context and entertaining even those points of view with which you disagree; it does not require or necessarily imply agreement.
A novice historian who lacks this skill tends to judge the decisions and ideas of historical actors according to his or her own present-day opinions, which are sometimes conflated in the novice’s mind with “common sense” or “just the way it is.” Beginners are typically not very interested in seeking out multiple perspectives on an issue; they identify the actor or historian whose perspective they most agree with, and then discount or ignore other perspectives. At times, they may not even show awareness that an alternative perspective exists, even when presented with evidence to the contrary. Judgments are typically unjustifiably premature and absolute; even without much consideration, beginners decide a historical person or idea is all good or all bad.
As you develop the skill of historical empathy, you will begin to show an awareness that multiple perspectives exist in the past, though you may still be quick to judge different perspectives as unaccountably strange or unacceptable. On the other hand, when you do begin to entertain a historical actor’s perspective as plausible, it may still be based on present-day assumptions about what you or someone you know would do in a similar situation today. When discussing other historians’ or students’ perspectives, you are able to identify differences of opinion and see the strengths and weakness of other views, though you may require coaching or specific feedback in order to be persuaded that a view you dislike has some merit, or that one you like has some problems.
Mastery of historical empathy is defined by an ability to “see and judge the past on its own terms by trying to understand the mentality, frames of reference, beliefs, values, intentions, and actions of historical agents using a variety of historical evidence.”4 Put more simply, empathy means understanding historical actors and ideas in the context of their times, which is accessed by the consideration of multiple perspectives and sources from the past. By acknowledging the distance between the present and the past, you are able to make even strange or outdated views comprehensible to contemporary minds. You are not only sensitive to multiple perspectives on an issue that exist in the historical record, but also can imagine relevant perspectives that may not have been included in the record at all. When articulating your own positions about the past, you are able to encompass and account for plausible alternative views while articulating why yours is preferable. Because you can see both the good and the bad in perspectives other than your own, your own conclusions are well-grounded but tentative and your criticisms of others are charitable and constructive.
Style
Communicate your ideas clearly and concisely in writing, with an appropriate level of detail and awareness of audience.
Beginning writers may struggle to communicate clearly due to lack of organization, too much or too little detail, failure to consider what the intended audience already knows, or a weak grasp of basic writing conventions pertaining to word choice, grammar, and sentence fluency. Beginners also struggle to find their own voice, relying heavily instead on excessively long quotations from others or poorly sourced paraphrases of someone else’s material. Several of these problems often appear together in a piece of writing.
As your command of style develops, however, your writing will be compellingly structured so as to highlight and develop a central idea or theme, with key points stated early or late in the text and/or its constituent parts. Paragraph breaks, signposts, and navigational words (such as “such as,” “however,” “nonetheless,” “moreover,” “next,” and “in sum”) help to move the reader through the text. You will craft your writing with awareness of the audience and the purpose for writing, conveying your points with precise words and fluent sentences that engage the reader’s interest. Your writing will show a good grasp of standard writing conventions and grammatical rules, though you may still struggle with one or two recurring grammatical problems. Through revision of your own work, you will minimize repetition, locate typos and run-on sentences, and carefully source quotations from or allusions to other authors.
Masterful style means being able to “pull together” all of these skills with minimal coaching or feedback. A masterful writer has internalized these writing conventions so that errors and unclear passages tend to be very few in submitted assignments. Only a few minor touch-ups would make the text suitable for publication in the appropriate venue.
Self-reflection
Show you can think reflexively and critically about your own ongoing development as a student of history.
History students without the habit of critical self-reflection tend to judge their own work by two criteria: whether the work was done, and whether significant effort was expended to do it. They show very little interest in their own progress towards the skills outlined above, and they seem unaware of how their own unexamined assumptions, settled convictions, habits of thinking, or gaps in knowledge might present obstacles to that development. Often, students of this sort respond to feedback with defensiveness or redirection; a non-reflexive thinker holds that someone else is always to blame for their own failure to understand or persuade.
Self-reflective students of history, on the other hand, are constantly questioning their own convictions and thinking in order to sort out warranted beliefs from prejudices. They are aware of and accurately assess the limits of their own knowledge, and they recognize unique styles or beliefs that might unjustifiably color their understanding. They hold their views on the past provisionally, in the sense that they are willing to change their minds when evidence or logic demands it. They are aware that there may be multiple ways to accomplish a task and think hard about which way would be best. Most of all, they can engage in effective “meta-thinking” about their own learning, qualitatively evaluating their own work by the criteria used by historians more generally, such as the criteria described in this rubric.
Evidence for the mastery of this skill is easiest to see when students are asked to evaluate their own learning progress, as you will be in the course. If your responses to such questions show awareness of changes in your own thinking, and you can effectively link those changes to the specific skills we are aiming to develop in the course, you are demonstrating the kind of self-reflection that good historians need. Moreover, even in everyday exchanges with me and your peers, you show that you regularly reflect on the meaning of what you have learned. Constructive criticism is not only gratefully received, but assimilated and applied, when warranted, in new contexts. In all of these ways, self-reflective students are wise, circumspect, and characterized by intellectual integrity; they take responsibility for their own learning and demonstrate a willingness to develop and use new historical thinking skills. | http://wcaleb.org/blog/historical-thinking-rubric |
The mass murder of specific populations is a recurring theme in world history. In this seminar, you will examine the phenomenon of genocide through readings, discussions, the writing of a book review, a presentation, and the creation of a historiography or research paper. We will first consider definitions before addressing how to write an essay about genocide. During the following weeks, we will examine genocides in the United States, California, the Ottoman Empire, Europe, the Soviet Union, and East Timor. Our discussions of these cases will reference genocidal intent, motives, ideologies, rationality/irrationality, legal frameworks, killing processes, resistance, survival, post-genocidal justice, and memory as well as genocide detection, prevention, and intervention. We will also address six questions at the heart of genocide studies. First, what is genocide? Second, why does it happen? Third, why do people participate and do they have a choice? Fourth, why does it take distinctive forms? Fifth, how and why do genocides end? And, finally, how does one write genocide history?
This seminar also aims to nurture and develop your skills as a historian. You will read and distill arguments in monographs, critically analyze arguments and sources, discuss and write historiography, compose a scholarly book review, make a presentation, and construct historical arguments using primary and secondary sources.
Together we will examine how scholars craft theses, build narratives, use sources, and engage in scholarly debate. Genocide Studies is inherently interdisciplinary. Thus, we will read the works of historians as well as scholars from other disciplines. Readings, discussions, book reviews, and meetings with genocide scholars will prepare you to write your own historiography or research paper that you will submit in drafts as you write. You will also edit your classmates’ papers. Meanwhile, I will edit and return each assignment in order to help you with your writing. | https://history.ucla.edu/content/fall-2019-graduate-courses |
Editor’s Note: Today’s post comes from contributing editor Bob Beach. Beach is a Ph.D. candidate in history at the University of Albany, SUNY, and adds to our “Teaching Points” series, which shows how scholars are bringing alcohol and drug history into the classroom.
For the second time in as many semesters I accepted an offer to teach a course at Utica College this term. It is a five-week, one-credit course that is part of the college’s effort to round out students’ schedules, often for financial aid purposes. The course runs during the last five weeks of the 15-week semester. When it was offered to me in the spring, I had never taught a one-credit course before, and hadn’t considered how I might approach it. My major challenge, as instructors of these kinds of courses can probably attest, is getting students invested in brand new material just as their “regular” semester is winding up for final exams. This requires walking a fine line between maintaining the appropriate academic vigor and being overburdensome.
Luckily I didn’t have to work from scratch. I’ve been fortunate have had the opportunity to create and teach three sections of a survey-level course on the history of drugs and alcohol in American history in my time at Utica, and as a TA at University at Albany, SUNY. I’ve also discussed the challenges of teaching that class on this forum. As I saw it, the first major decision was generating interest (to get it filled in a week or so) and the second was whether to create a summarized version of the full course, or to offer a five-week snippet of the first course. I chose the approach and format hastily, but not without some longer-term considerations. I have always been keen to critically assess my course evaluations (weaknesses and problems with that approach notwithstanding) to find out what students want with their classes.
The most common critiques that I receive is the lack of “hands-on” involvement, and the lack of relevant (to them) material to cover. I decided to focus on a hot topic, one that my own research made me uniquely familiar with, and took the middle road on organization, deciding to focus the course on exploring historical perspectives on the current debate over legalization of marijuana. The course’s goal was originally to produce a digital project, drawing some ideas from the AHA website.
Very quickly, I planned a course that gave students the opportunity to confront some of the prevailing myths about marijuana’s history, and to use the most recent scholarship to challenge those prevailing myths. I would also include some primary sources from my own research to buoy the scholarship. We would start the class by listing out these prevailing myths, define and articulate them, and then create some sort of digital history artifact (a social media campaign is what we initially agreed upon) to communicate their research and findings to an ostensibly public audience.
To be sure, the class was a relative success, given the challenges of designing and implementing such an ambitious set of goals in so little time. However, I quickly realized that students were less aware of the issues around marijuana’s history than I had assumed. Students were genuinely interested in the material, which was a definite plus, and they were able to intelligently discuss David Courtwright’s discussion of marijuana’s global trajectory in Forces of Habit, the early history of medical marijuana from a 2015 aritcle in American Historian by Adam Rathge, and the story of “Brownie Mary” in Emily Dufton’s Grassroots. Students were equally fascinated by some of the primary sources including HH Kane’s Hashish House in New York, as well as a short informal jazz revue featuring Cab Calloway and Louis Armstrong.
But I quickly noticed that students were unable to place these stories into any sort of historical context. Their experience with marijuana was one of relative tolerance, and it was difficult for them to imagine how people reacted to various claims about violent, suggestive, lazy, or future addicted users roaming the landscape portrayed by many of the anti-drug advocates in history. As with many previous iterations of the course, I found that my students seem to be more concerned with justifying legalization today (or indeed, continued prohibition), than really understanding the complexities of how marijuana’s status came to be so. Today’s students were born post Prop-215, and came of age in a society that overwhelmingly rejects the old order in the Drug War. This was in stark contrast to my upbringing, during the Reagan 80s, that was decidedly intolerant of any sort of drug use (as a recent Points article reminds us), marijuana perhaps most prominently.
So while on one hand, it was difficult to create historical empathy for the principles that underlay drug prohibition among the students in the class, on the other, it was also difficult to generate critical analysis on the current debate, given the historical contradictions the students were forced to confront for the first time. The five week course proved inadequate to the task of adequately covering all of the appropriate legal, political, social, and cultural background, while still keeping the class focused on the topic of the course. So while I did feel like I accomplished something in the course last semester, I did realize that I had to rethink my whole approach if I ever taught the class again.
So in the new version, I’ve decided to pare down the course even more, worrying less about the established historiography of pot history and thinking more about how my students typically access information, especially information about pot. Simply asking them the question on the first day revealed that (unsurprisingly) today’s students get their information from each other, largely mediated through social media and other social platforms like YouTube. Students are much more likely to go to a webisode of Adam Ruins Everything than they are to pick up a copy of Forces of Habit. And as much as I wanted to work with social media, the limitations of the forum, and its unfamiliarity as a legitimate educational tool in the institution, led to some difficulties the first time around.
Instead, I thought more about how I could help students to critically assess the evidence that they are likely to encounter, help them to accurately assess and evaluate these sources, and perhaps even pique some curiosity for exploring more academic sources (Like Points!). The new approach also addresses a new but important issue that historians and other academics need to address: that of media literacy. In my experience, historians tend to dismiss media literacy as secondary to more academic, curated sources (in databases and the like). But we live in a time when information has become weaponized, and we can no longer merely hope that students will “ignore” digital sources and opt for more erudite and peer reviewed sources of information. To maintain this hands-on approach, I’m directing my students to find sources, evaluate them, and look at them in corroboration with other sources. We will meet each week, evaluate the sources, and determine how to use each sources as evidence to write a collaborative Wikipedia-type entry on the historical perspectives and its role in shaping the contemporary debate on its status in American life.
Instead of focusing on the historical myths about marijuana’s prohibition, I want to tackle their myth that marijuana policy change is simply a question about marijuana’s benefits and hazards. By looking at the more contemporary debate, I want students to discover for themselves that marijuana legalization has spawned an entirely new debate in the United States about criminal justice reform, mass incarceration, police power, and the opioid crisis. I look forward to a follow-up report at the conclusion of the course. | https://pointshistory.com/2018/11/13/teaching-points-teaching-marijuana-legalization-in-one-credit-an-educators-incomplete-guide/ |
A tale of two cities: Community perspectives and narratives on inequality, struggle, hope and change: Executive summary
Today we are facing unprecedented inequality challenges. Who holds responsibility for the widening gaps in society and how do we solve them? While one mode of change, policy, has clearly had an impact on gains for inequality, people no longer appear to believe the state can act alone and that a combination of civil society actors also have a significant role to play in tackling inequality.
However, while there have been recent calls for a community of common interest there still appears to be an emphasis on change – making solutions and leverage points as residing in the hands either of recognised NGO’s, policymakers or formal movements and institutions. The potential voice and role of ordinary people in making change seems to be overlooked entirely. This gives rise to a significant gap in knowledge and voice. If we worked in new ways, hearing from more of these ordinary voices, and from this created different evidence and insight, would we be able to develop new ideas on understanding and tackling inequality? There is evidence to suggest that if we did this our measures would be more precise and relevant, and therefore that findings and policy might differ. With different insight, we might be able to question prevailing ideas in a more fundamental way and create more leverage points. For example, is an inclusive growth model the best way to create change? Should communities be ‘let into’ growth, or should we work with another paradigm entirely?
In what follows, we present community perspectives on what inequality is, and how it is experienced, struggled with and resisted. These perspectives – rooted
in lived realities – help us to understand inequality in a much more nuanced way than the account typically portrayed in political and media narratives. The lived experience of inequality helps us to begin to see the boundaries of different types of power and decision making; how power feels to those who do not control budgets, spending and decide on services. Understanding the complexity of communities’ experience helps those who do control levers of power, finance and influence to develop better strategies to tackle inequality. Applying this understanding begins to identify opportunities for mutual and collaborative approaches which actively challenge inequalities instead of reproducing them.
This summary shares the findings of research which took place over a year in three different communities in a city in the North of England. Furthermore, while the
evidence and examples are drawn from one city we have found that its themes chime with cities and places in other parts of the UK and internationally.1 Further research is necessary to test the practical application of these findings for strengthening community responses to tackling inequality, but we believe they offer some clear pathways to new solutions. | https://www.basw.co.uk/resources/tale-two-cities-community-perspectives-and-narratives-inequality-struggle-hope-and-change |
By Anne Janhunen
Last week I attended the world premiere of Colonization Road at the imagineNATIVE Film & Media Arts Festival. Directed by Michelle St. John, the film follows Anishinaabe comedian and activist Ryan McMahon as he delves into the history of Indigenous dispossession and settler colonialism in Canada. Examining physical markers of this history such as Colonization Road in Fort Frances, Ontario, McMahon asks, “what do we mean when we talk about colonization?” Drawing on the experiences and expertise of a wide range of Indigenous and non-Indigenous scholars, activists, and community leaders, the film details the many facets of historical and ongoing colonization and the nature of settler colonialism as a structure. In this piece, I want to reflect on the ways in which I hope this film sparks further discussion among historians, educators, heritage organizations, and the wider public.
The majority of early twentieth century material – tourist pamphlets, school curricula, and local histories – I analyse in my dissertation reflect the colonial narrative in microcosm. This story usually starts with French explorers and fur traders and eventually centres on hardy settlers making seemingly unoccupied land productive. Indigenous people are usually peripheral to this story or entirely absent from it. How they ended up on reserves remains a mystery. How much of this narrative has changed in the past hundred years?
Part of my motivation in researching settler colonialism in southern Ontario stems from the frustration of reading histories of settlement that all too often completely overlook the other side of that equation – the necessary displacement and relocation of Indigenous peoples and communities. As Paige Raibmon asserts, “under settler colonialism the displacement of original inhabitants and the arrival of new ones are mutually reinforcing projects. Yet historians have long treated colonization and immigration – the twin histories of indigenous lands and settler lands – as separate topics.” Historians can contribute to changing this narrative by identifying and being explicit about settler colonialism as it intersects with our topics of study, whether those are focused on Indigenous histories or other subfields.
One of the most effective ways we can challenge settler colonialism is to examine it within our local contexts, by asking questions such as ‘what are the Indigenous histories of this area, and how have they been overlooked or erased within local historical narratives?’ Initiatives such as First Story in Toronto, the Ogimaa Mikana Project in various locations across Ontario, Indigenous Walks in Ottawa, and the Amiskwaciy History Series in Edmonton are excellent examples of the ways in which non-Indigenous people can learn local histories from Indigenous perspectives. We can also critically examine the ways in which local Indigenous histories are presented on or absent from commemorative plaques and markers. Do our municipal and regional websites include history pages that include Indigenous perspectives? Often these are entirely missing or inaccurate.
These stories that overlook Indigenous perspectives are not confined to textual material – they are often at the centre of interpretive displays in local museums and historic sites. I am not suggesting that we do away with narratives of settlement, but that we revisit them, recognizing that they are entwined with histories of dispossession, and centre Indigenous perspectives in critical retelling of these narratives. There are many ways museums can work together with Indigenous communities. One of the most powerful exhibits I visited earlier this year is Niitsitapiisini: Our Way of Life, a permanent exhibit formed in collaboration between the Glenbow Museum and Blackfoot communities. Local archives and libraries, as well, can play a central role in the retelling of these stories, by making concerted efforts to determine what Indigenous records and resources they hold, and in doing so, connecting with Indigenous communities. The latest issue of the Archives Association of Ontario’s Off the Record publication focuses on archives and Indigenous issues.
These conversations are important as we approach the 150th anniversary of Confederation. As Thomas King reminds us in The Truth About Stories, “Once a story is told, it cannot be called back. Once told, it is loose in the world. So you have to be careful with the stories you tell. And you have to watch out for the stories that you are told.” Colonization Road urges Canadians to critically engage with the stories we tell about the history of this country, and it is time for us to heed this message.
Anne Janhunen is a Ph.D. candidate in the Department of History at the University of Saskatchewan. Her dissertation focuses on early twentieth century Anishinaabeg land use, labour, and collective political organizing within the context of settler colonialism in south-central Ontario.
Further Reading
Batell Lowman, Emma and Adam J. Barker. Settler: Identity and Colonialism in 21st Century Canada. Winnipeg: Fernwood Publishing, 2015.
Baldwin, Andrew, Laura Cameron, and Audrey Kobayashi. Rethinking the Great White North: Race, Nature, and the Historical Geographies of Whiteness in Canada. Vancouver: UBC Press, 2011.
King, Thomas. The Inconvenient Indian: A Curious Account of Native People in North America. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2013.
Manuel, Arthur, and Grand Chief Ronald M. Derrickson. Unsettling Canada: A National Wake-up Call. Toronto: Between the Lines, 2015.
Moreton-Robinson, Aileen. The White Possessive: Property, Power, and Indigenous Sovereignty. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2015.
Morgan, Cecilia. Creating Colonial Pasts: History, Memory, and Commemoration in Southern Ontario, 1860-1980. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2015.
NYC Stands with Standing Rock Collective. “#StandingRockSyllabus.” https://nycstandswithstandingrock.wordpress.com/standingrocksyllabus/, 2016.
Simpson, Audra. Mohawk Interruptus: Political Life Across the Borders of Settler States. Durham: Duke University Press, 2014.
Vowel, Chelsea. Indigenous Writes: A Guide to First Nations, Métis, and Inuit Issues in Canada. Winnipeg: Highwater Press, 2016.
Paige Raibmon, “Unmaking Native Space: A Genealogy of Indian Policy, Settler Practice, and the Microtechniques of Dispossession” in Harmon, Alexandra, ed. The Power of Promises: Rethinking Indian Treaties in the Pacific Northwest (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2008), p. 57.
Thomas King, The Truth about Stories: A Native Narrative. Toronto: House of Anansi Press, 2003, p. 10. | http://activehistory.ca/2016/11/colonization-road-and-challenging-settler-colonialism-in-canada/ |
How are futures imagined, performed and made durable over time? Where and how are futures being made? Who is included and who is excluded from these futures? What is the role, agency and responsibility of design in making futures by creating the conditions for emergent behaviors, interactions, subjectivities and societies? Where are the opportunities for design to create alternative possible futures in a world of emergent, complex socio-technical systems?
Our Designing Futures course covers a wide range of methodologies and approaches used to engage in narratives about these futures, including backcasting and histories of the future. Students use emerging social theories to critically analyze technocentric, human-centric and, even, post-human approaches to futures by considering social and cultural, ethical and legal, health and environmental, political and economic issues related to emerging technologies.
Students from the course represented ID at the Biodesign Summit by presenting the social innovation exploration “Future Perfect” to a diverse audience including members of the academic, industrial, and design communities. The Biodesign Challenge encouraged students to envision future applications of biotechnology by connecting them with biologists and other experts who guided students as they developed their ideas.
Both projects highlighted here were presented as a part of a “Designing Futures” showcase, in which participants were able to discuss different non-human-centered futures, unintended design outcomes, and the question of humans’ responsibility to the environment around them.
Andrea Everman, Yuhao (Mike) Liu, Urba Mandrekar, and Jenna Petersen explored DNA as destiny. Human performance can be distilled into numbers and statistics.
Newer technologies enable us to read information about our bodies and their performance through devices as quotidian as pedometers and as novel as mail-order genetics tests. To critically examine these interactions and raise questions of how we know ourselves, this project presents artifacts from a not-so-distant world where institutions have put these genetic determinism principles in place. In this design fiction, our futures are written from birth. Does the reassurance of knowing “the future” override the personal disclosures required to understand it? What is required to maintain a crystalized future? What risks are minimized through this approach to social innovation and what new risks emerge?
Students Siyuan Ma, Renee Albrecht-Mallinger, Sameer Tendolkar, and Wanying Zhu imagined a marine ecosystem that has been altered through anthropogenic (originating in human activity) influence.
The project advances a perspective of nature as a dynamic and reactive system rather than a static and passive one. Species employ different responses to anthropogenic impact, including behavioral, physiological, and morphological adaptations. Organisms that adapt in ways that allow them to thrive in an altered ecosystem will go on to populate the new environment. This challenges an oversimplified view of humans’ destructive impact on the natural world and their ability to apply technological fixes to repair that impact.
To communicate that perspective, “Notes” employs two tools: a future marine biologist’s field journal introduces the audience to the idea that some species will adapt and even thrive in an altered environment, and a card game invites the audience to participate as a “future biologist” by imagining adapted species and adding them to the field journal. The speculative and participatory design methods employed by “Notes” seek to raise questions, challenge mainstream narratives, and draw out the audience’s own values related to human activity and the environment. | https://id.iit.edu/projects/designing-futures-biodesign-challenge/ |
What will I learn on this module?
This module aims to provide students with a comprehensive understanding of key literature, research and economic policy debates in the area of environmental sustainability and responsible business. The objective of the module is to provide students with appropriate tools and technical know-how to critically discuss the trade-offs between economic development and environmental protection and moving capitalism towards a
wider sense of accountability. The module will explore and examine the linkages between economic policies and environmental sustainability, the effects of international trade and globalisation on environmental resources, the role of international environmental agreements and the emergence of new forms of financial reporting centred on the principles of sustainability and social accountability.
Key topics covered in this module include:
• Fundamentals of Environmental Economics and Sustainable Development
• Economic Growth and Environmental Conflicts
• Measuring Sustainable Economic Welfare
• Contingent Valuation and Revealed Preference Methods
• Alternative Concepts of Capital: Environmental Accounting, Integrated Reporting, and the Triple Bottom Line
• International Trade and Environmental Protection
• Stakeholder Activism and Social Responsibility
• Political Ecology: Challenging Narratives of Environmental Degradation
• Financial Reporting and Climate Change.
• The Circular Economy
• The Role of Social and Solidarity Economies
How will I learn on this module?
You will be supported by a teaching and learning plan (TLP), which outlines the formal sessions, together with tutor-directed study and independent reading. The module will be taught through lectures (24 hours) and seminars (12 hours). You will be taught through a combination of interactive lectures, guest lectures by scholars and practitioners in the field of sustainability and accounting and seminars centered on case
studies and real-life situations. These lectures and seminar sessions will enable you to engage deeply with a number of alternative conceptual paradigms in the area of sustainability and their application in a real-world context.
The seminars will be based on the “project cycle” framework that is commonly used in sustainability studies. Key sustainable development problems will be introduced in the form of case studies that will be investigated in greater depth via means of individual reflection and group work.
Students will be stimulated to
1) discuss specific problems and issues within the environmental economics and accounting fields in detail;
2) consider specific strategies to help move from these problems to the solutions; and
3) evaluate among different tools of measuring progress towards these goals.
The emphasis will be increasing levels of students’ engagement in understanding theory, by analysing the real world in view of examining and evaluating solutions available within the literature. Independent learning will use both theory and application, focusing on the reflective practitioner approach to learning, comprising both knowledge and skills-based learning embedded in delivery sessions. Moreover, independent learning will encourage students to identify and pursue areas of interest in relation to sustainability analysis in view of achieving a deeper knowledge and understanding of the subject through a range of learning activities including reading, reflection, research and group work. In addition, the module will involve directed learning centred upon a range of activities including pre-reading, preparation for
interactive activities, and use of the discussion board to learn and share knowledge. Critical reflection on knowledge, experience and practice underpins the learning and teaching philosophy that you will be exposed to along with the explicit development of competence.
How will I be supported academically on this module?
The module is supported by the e-learning portal, which includes the Teaching and Learning Plan, lecture materials, seminar tasks, detailed guidance on the assessment, as well as additional material for independent study. The module tutor will ensure that all relevant materials and instructions are readily accessible to you. All lectures will be recorded and uploaded to the e-learning portal which you will be able to access to consolidate your knowledge and develop understanding. An electronic reading list includes core material to support your lectures/seminars and a comprehensive range of academic journal articles relevant to your studies. In addition to the lectures and seminars, the teaching team will maintain dedicated office hours where you can drop in and ask any questions pertaining to the module.
What will I be expected to read on this module?
All modules at Northumbria include a range of reading materials that students are expected to engage with. The reading list for this module can be found at: http://readinglists.northumbria.ac.uk
(Reading List service online guide for academic staff this containing contact details for the Reading List team – http://library.northumbria.ac.uk/readinglists)
What will I be expected to achieve?
Knowledge & Understanding:
• Critically apply knowledge and understanding of major theories and debates on sustainable development,
their scope as well as limitations (MLO1).
Intellectual / Professional skills & abilities:
• To develop creative and critical thinking skills that involve independence, understanding, justification and the ability to challenge the thinking of self and others. (MLO2).
Personal Values Attributes:
• Develop communication and team building skills in making oral presentations coherently and with
evidence; report writing skills in presenting arguments in a logical manner, backed by appropriate
research (MLO3).
How will I be assessed?
Formative Assessment
Formative assessment will be provided to you through a range of seminar activities which will enable you to prepare for the summative assessment during, and at the end of the module. This will encourage your active
participation in the learning process throughout the semester. The e-Learning portal will be used to permanently host these tasks after release to ensure that you can access the information required at all times.
Summative Assessment
The module is assessed by:
• A group presentation of 15 minutes focusing on a case study of a relevant sustainability. These group presentations will be carried out in Week 10 of the semester (25%) (MLO2, MLO3).
• An inquiry based assignment where in students will carry out independentr research on given topics and complete a report of 3000 words (75%) (MLO1 and MLO3).
Pre-requisite(s)
None
Co-requisite(s)
None
Module abstract
Climate change, degraded natural resources and the distribution of power and resources are some of the most profound challenges facing the global economy today. This module will introduce you to the key concepts and literature around these topics to investigate the relationship between economic growth and environmental protection. Adopting a multidisciplinary focus, it draws on key debates in political ecology, environmental economics and natural resource management. You’ll learn through a combination of traditional lectures with case study-based seminars in which you’ll focus on sustainability-related topics on a weekly basis. This will equip you to critically engage with contemporary issues involving economic sustainability across a range of socio-environmental contexts.
Course info
UCAS Code N405
Credits 20
Level of Study Undergraduate
Mode of Study 3 years full-time or 4 year sandwich
Department Newcastle Business School
Location City Campus, Northumbria University
City Newcastle
Start September 2021 or September 2022
Accounting BSc (Hons)
Courses starting in 2021 are offered as a mix of online and face to face teaching due to the ongoing Covid-19 pandemic.
We continue to monitor government and local authority guidance in relation to Covid-19 and we are ready and able to flex accordingly to ensure the health and safety of our students and staff.
Students will be required to attend campus as far as restrictions allow. Contact time will increase as restrictions ease, or decrease, potentially to a full online offer, should restrictions increase.
Our online activity will be delivered through Blackboard Ultra, enabling collaboration, connection and engagement with materials and people.
Current, Relevant and Inspiring
We continuously review and improve course content in consultation with our students and employers. To make sure we can inform you of any changes to your course register for updates on the course page. | https://www.northumbria.ac.uk/study-at-northumbria/courses/bsc-hons-accounting-uusaci1?moduleslug=af6030-sustainable-development-and-responsible-business&alttemplate=%7Bdf847541-4f68-426a-8940-4c60ff4c5262%7D&y=2021 |
Perspectives on the Fourth of July
This Perspectives on the Fourth of July lesson plan also includes:
Learners examine the foundation of the United States. In this Independence Day lesson, students investigate the significance of the Declaration of Independence as they research American historical events in the light of independence. Learners create slogans that promote Independence Day.
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Graduate studies in the School of History
Welcome to the UCD School of History rated in the top 100 for History around the world (QS World Rankings, 2019). Based in the heart of UCD’s main campus and home to a large and diverse group of world-class historians, we teach and research a broad range of histories that span the globe, from the early medieval period to the present day.
In the School of History, we offer an extensie range both taught and research graduate programmes in history and in archives management, at Certificate, Diploma, MA, and PhD levels. All our courses are offered on both a part time and full time basis.
Taught Masters
Our MA History courses offer both a challenging and a rewarding introduction to the advanced study of History. While our Diploma and Masters programmes involve taught modules, the highlight for our students is almost always the dissertation.
This offers an exciting opportunity to pursue a significant, independent and original body of research under the watchful supervision of a member of the School's academic staff. UCD School of History is a research-intensive department, and has a breadth of expertise to offer. The active research culture nurtures and encourages the next generation of scholars to push back the frontiers of understanding, to seek out new evidence, and to challenge accepted interpretations. | http://www.ucd.ie/history/study/graduateprogrammes/ |
Young scholars complete a t-chart identifying the advantages and disadvantages of having indentured servants. In groups, they research the use of serfs and slaves in various cultures and share their responses. To end the lesson, they discover why the colonists chose to have slaves instead of indentured servants.
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In 2005 Hurricane Katrina posed an unprecedented set of challenges to formal and informal systems of disaster response and recovery. Informed by the Virginia School of Political Economy, the contributors to this study critically examine the public policy environment that led to both successes and failures in the post-Katrina disaster response and long-term recovery. Building from this perspective, this book lends critical insight into the nature of the social coordination problems disasters present, the potential for public policy to play a positive role, and the inherent limitations policymakers face in overcoming the myriad challenges that are a product of catastrophic disaster.
Migration and International Trade
The US Experience Since 1945
Roger White
This unique book synthesizes and extends the immigrant–trade literature and provides comprehensive coverage of this timely and important topic. In that vein, the author contributes to the understanding of the relationship between immigration and trade and sheds light on a noteworthy aspect of globalization that both confronts policymakers with challenges and offers the potential to overcome them.
Fair Wages
Strengthening Corporate Social Responsibility
Daniel Vaughan-Whitehead
Over the last decade the emergence of corporate social responsibility (CSR) has contributed towards better corporate governance by tackling such burning issues as child labour and basic human rights violations. However, as the author argues in this important new book, the time has now come to incorporate wage issues into CSR. Daniel Vaughan-Whitehead proposes a new methodology, the ‘Fair Wage’ approach, which should allow all CSR actors to make progress in this field through a coherent and comprehensive set of fair wage dimensions and indicators. | https://www.elgaronline.com/browse?access=all&level=parent&pageSize=10&sort=relevance&sp=Economics_2010_and_before&t=PublicPol_Main_ID |
Global historians have outlined over the last two decades topics and approaches that set the foundations for a transforming field. Transcending national frameworks, challenging Eurocentric narratives and tracing border-crossing connections and interactions between societies, communities and individuals, as well as decentred comparisons are some of its common denominators that have gained substance through particular case studies. Doctoral researchers that in their dissertations explore global, transregional and transnational perspectives are key for forming these avenues and for reflecting on the related conceptual debates and socio-political conditions of writing world and global histories.
With that in mind, the European Network in Universal and Global History (ENIUGH) is happy to announce its summer school in partnership with the Flying University of Transnational Humanities (FUTH), and invites PhD students to present on-going research exploring relations, transfers and entanglements between actors or groups of actors located in, or spanning, different regions of the world in a comparative and longue durée perspective. The summer school provides the perfect platform to kick-start a week of intense discussions that will culminate in the 6th European Congress on World and Global History (25–28 June 2020).
10th Flying University of Transnational Humanities (FUTH) Summer School
Each year beginning in 2010, the Flying University of Transnational Humanities (FUTH) has gathered graduate students and young scholars in the humanities and social sciences across the globe for a summer school centering on presentations by leading scholars and sharing of information and perspectives by all participants. As a truly transnational, transregional, transdisciplinary collaboration, it profits from the willingness of participants to share the core argument of their current research project and to situate it in a global context.
FUTH takes its name from Poland’s Flying University, an underground educational movement first started in Warsaw in the late 19th century under Russian rule, and later revived during the Nazi occupation to offer alternative educational opportunities beyond the confines of state control and government censorship. FUTH was founded in 2010 by Jie- Hyun Lim, while he was the director of the Research Institute of Comparative History and Culture (RICH) at Hanyang University. Since 2015, its head office has been relocated to the Critical Global Studies Institute (CGSI) at Sogang University.
Currently, FUTH’s partner institutions are Leipzig University (Germany), University of Pittsburgh (USA), St. Andrews University (UK), University of Tampere (Finland), National Chiao Tung University (Taiwan), Cornell University (USA), NIOD (Netherland), Osaka University (Japan) and Sogang University (South Korea). The hosting of FUTH is rotated each year among these partner institutions. In 2020, the 10th FUTH Summer School is held in partnership with the European Network in Universal and Global History, on the eve of the 6th European Congress on World and Global History.
European Network in Universal and Global History (ENIUGH)
For more than two decades the European Network in Universal and Global History promotes research and teaching in the fields of world and global history. As a multilingual forum it serves the exchange among scholars based in Europe, while offering many opportunities to connect with colleagues from other world regions. Building on the long tradition of world history writing in Europe, ENIUGH promotes the multiplicity of topical and methodological approaches to the study of past and current processes of cross-cultural interaction and entanglements in historical and interdisciplinary scholarship. The network advocates the transcending of former Eurocentric, teleological and universalist assumptions, and seeks to help contextualizing the continent’s past within a global perspective. It is engaged in strengthening the linkages between the manifold institutions in Europe that contribute to a historical understanding of today’s globally integrated world and collaborates with other regional world and global history organizations.
VI ENIUGH Congress
Following the summer school participants can attend and profit from the 6th European Congress on World and Global History, that takes place in Turku, 25–28 June 2020. Under the theme “Minorities, Cultures of Integration and Patterns of Exclusion”, the congress seeks to stimulate research discussions on minorities and the processes of past and present minoritization as well as the resistance they engender from a global perspective. The various concepts of minority and minority positions as well as practices and narratives of inclusion, belonging, and exclusion with a focus on transnational and transregional constellations as well as comparative perspectives are at the core of this year’s congress.
Detailed information regarding the ENIUGH Congress is available at:
http://eniugh.org/congress
Application
The Call is open to PhD-students from history and related disciplines, who work in the interdisciplinary field of writing connected, entangled or comparative histories that incorporate transnational or transregional perspectives. Proposed topics can either relate to the theme of “minorities, integration and exclusion” or challenge from other angles the confines of national and Eurocentric historiographies.
The language of presentations will be English but papers in French and German are also accepted. Participants are expected to present a paper 3000–4000 words length as the basis for discussion with the whole group; the papers will be circulated among the participants beforehand.
The participation fee is 50,00 EUR and comprises summer school materials, lunch and dinner. Reservations in a nearby hotel/hostels will be made, and we offer support for securing the funding for travel and accommodation as well as regarding VISA (if applicable).
Applications should contain: a CV, a summary/exposé of the dissertation, and an abstract of your planned paper of 300 words.
Please send your applications electronically to ENIUGH Headquarters:
[email protected] by 31 March 2020. | http://www.globalhistorylab.com/news/cfa-international-summer-school/ |
As competition among the traditional great powers in the Asia region intensifies, Canada faces a stark choice: Should it align its foreign policy with the US-led free and open Indo-Pacific strategy? Shared values and material ties give Canada a clear incentive to follow the lead of the United States and Western-aligned democracies in the region. However, there are other considerations to take into account.
Follow the Leader presents the case for the development of a foreign policy based on understanding how Asia sees itself rather than Western presumptions. Examining a range of key issues, it draws on Asian scholarship, leadership statements, polling, and media to demonstrate Western misunderstanding of regional developments and to outline alternative, regionally based perspectives on Asia’s contemporary dynamics.
This critical analysis urges the Canadian government to chart an independent policy, arguing that whatever Canada might gain from following its traditional allies, it equally stands to lose by aligning itself with a consortium of states committed to self-preservation over regional stability.
This deeply informed work will guide Canadian policy makers, parliamentarians, policy analysts, scholars, and students through the complexities of Asian regional politics. It is also highly relevant reading for members of the Canadian business community and the interested public.
A sharp and original assessment of how Canada should understand and react to strategic developments in a region alternatively defined as Asia-Pacific or Indo-Pacific. From a critical theory perspective and using a wide array of sources in English and six Asian languages, it challenges the assumptions that underpin the dominant Western framing and illuminates the alternative narratives coming from within the region itself. Reeves’ prescriptions for omni-directional alignment and strategic integration offer a sophisticated perspective that will stimulate debate in both academic and policy circles at a moment of geopolitical turbulence and big choices.
Follow the Leader, Lose the Region juxtaposes the narrative of the ‘Indo-Pacific’ with Asian narratives of themselves to critically situate Canadian foreign policy towards this important region. The book adds substantially to public debate and provides valuable insights that contribute to policy-making.
This will quickly become a go-to ‘guide for the perplexed’ – it challenges our understanding of Canadian-Asian relations. It is fascinating.
Jeffrey Reeves is vice president of research and strategy for the Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada. He has served as director of Asian Studies at the United States Army War College and as an instructor at Peking University in the People’s Republic of China. His works include Chinese–Japanese Competition and the East Asian Security Complex: Vying for Influence and Chinese Foreign Relations with Weak Peripheral States: Asymmetrical Economic Power and Insecurity.
Introduction: Framing a Canadian Strategy in the Asia-Pacific
1 The Basics: A Critical Examination of Western Narratives on Asia
2 Asian Counter-Narratives: Indo-Pacific, Rules-Based Order, and Freedom and Openness
3 Asian Counter-Narratives: Western State Identity in the Asia-Pacific
4 Asian Narratives on Asia’s Security Order: Western Hegemony as a Source of Instability
5 Chinese Counter-Narratives: The Chinese Communist Party, Hong Kong, Xinjiang, and Foreign Affairs
6 Mapping a Canadian Policy Approach to Asia: National Interests, Asian Narratives, and Network Analysis
Conclusion: Toward Omnidirectional Diplomacy and Strategic Integration
Notes; Selected Bibliography; Index
The Stability Imperative
Human Rights and Law in China
The West and the Birth of Bangladesh
Foreign Policy in the Face of Mass Atrocity
Good Governance in Economic Development
International Norms and Chinese Perspectives
Edited by Sarah Biddulph and Ljiljana Biuković
Challenge the Strong Wind
Canada and East Timor, 1975–99
Exporting Virtue?
China’s International Human Rights Activism in the Age of Xi Jinping
China's Asymmetric Statecraft
Alignments, Competitors, and Regional Diplomacy
By Yuxing Huang
Receive the latest UBC Press news, including events, catalogues, and announcements. | http://www.ubcpress.ca/follow-the-leader-lose-the-region |
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Lesson 5.1: The Historical Jesus
Jesus of Nazareth comes publicly as the Messiah and preaches on the Kingdom of God. The Book of John notes, “Can anything good come out of Nazareth?” This was because Nazareth was an obscure village where Jesus lives. The gospels identify Nazareth as an inconsequential village (Bosworth, 2005). Jesus is the founder of the Kingdom of Heaven here on earth he dies to consecrate humanity. Additionally, the Holy Quran mentions Jesus the Nazarene as an important person. The figure of Jesus has a popular historical treatment in the universe. Historically, Jesus was a Galilean the evidence to this assertion lays in his activities, in this place such as choosing the twelve disciples (Burtt, 2004). Most of the scholars hold claims that Jesus was a Jew from the tribe of Judah. The disciples appear in all the four gospels.
Many scholars in the contemporary world, as well as historians, attest to the existence of Jesus. In the era of classical antiquity, those who oppose Christianity claim the existence of Jesus in that period. The Biblical accounts of Jesus baptism by John the Baptist appears in one of the Gospels in the Book of Matthew (Bosworth, 2005). The story of John the Baptist is authentic and not an invention of the early Christian Church. The criterion of multiple attestations guarantees authenticity in the historic baptism of Jesus. Multiple accounts in the four detail the evidence of baptism performed by Jesus. The criterion of embarrassment is credible evidence to the baptism of Jesus and is a historic event. The crucifixion of Jesus as detail in all the four of the Gospels attests to the historical existence of Jesus. This concept emanates debates among the scholars since some deny the historical existence of Jesus. In this light, these two facts in the life of Jesus command a universal assent that is impossible to deny when one studies the historic Jesus. It is hard for one to dispute the event of Jesus crucifixion by Pontius Pilate (Bosworth, 2005). This marks a firm establishment as a historic fact. It is impossible for the Christian community to invent a painful death of their leader. The criteria of multiple attestations and that of coherence help to verify that indeed the crucifixion of Jesus is a historic fact. Some of the scholars who propose the existence of historic Jesus offer evidence of documentation that mentions him.
Two of the canonical gospels, Matthew and Luke describe the genealogy of Jesus. The Book of Matthew 1:1-17 and Luke 3:23-28 trace the genealogy (Austin, 2011). Matthew traces the genealogy downwards while Luke traces the genealogy upward. Matthew says Jacob is the father of Joseph while Luke says Heli is the father of Joseph. Matthew and Luke detail the birth of Jesus in Bethlehem. The entire four Gospel mention the commissioning of the twelve disciples who assist him in the ministry in Galilee. This marks a foundation in Christianity since the disciples are the founders of the early church (Austin, 2011). The event of Baptism of Jesus is detail in the entire gospels. The Book of Matthew, Mark, and Luke detail the temptation of Jesus.
Jesus the Myth school of thought some scholars depict Heavenly Christ as being who does activities in a realm higher than other beings. The world crucifies the man outside Jerusalem to maintain order within the city (Burtt, 2004). Some scholars view Jesus in the revolution movements and rely on some of the historical scrolls that make a connection with the New Testament. My conclusion is that Jesus is truly a historical figure due to the following reasons: The evidence of historians and academicians attest to the existence of Jesus and John the Baptist at the same period. The evidence of the historical existence of Jesus lies in the Bible, early Christian narratives, and material of the early church. Academicians contend with the being of Jesus who lives in Galilee two millennia ago. The core of Christian theology has Jesus existence. The Gospels retell the life and death of Jesus to prove the legitimacy of his existence. The existence of modern Christianity evidences that Jesus caused a revolution to the Jews and Gentile community. Textual analysis in the biblical narratives mentions the existence of Jesus that is authentic. The accounts of historic Jesus appear in all the four gospels and are original and authoritative. The traditional church portrays the authors of the Gospel as apostles to enable them describe the stories. The Bible is a sufficient evidence to highlight and lay claim on the existence of historic Jesus.
Lesson 5.2: Early Christian Writings
Extracanonical refers to any text not available in the Biblical literature (Classen, 2012). Extracanonical writings contain some of the ancient text of religion and theology. Theses writings appear in the early seventh century. Some of the text appears before the assembly of the Torah. Canonization took place based on popularity of the works in the process some of the text did not meet the criteria and were subject to exclusion. Some of the later extracanonical writings have been discovered in Egypt in 1945 at Nag Hammadi (Classen, 2012). The later discovery of this extracanonical works helps in the proper reconstruction of the gospel cannon that extend the period of Christianity. The Gospel of Peter and the Gospel of Thomas are examples of extracanonical gospels that command authority in the early century.
The Early Christian Literature shows Gnostic influence that survives within Christian setting while outside the New Testament canon. Some of the Early Christian Writers author the Gospels and other manuscripts leading to the development of the New Testament (Austin, 2011). The Early Christian manuscripts date at the middle to the late second century. Some date from the early to middle third century, this makes them as the earliest Christian artifacts. The early Christian manuscripts derive a lot of detail that helps in writing the New Testament such as the Gospel of Thomas. All this manuscripts provide quality information as relates to the historic early Christians. Apostolic fathers are some of the prominent authors who borrow their wealth of knowledge from Jesus disciples. Church fathers have no contact with the disciples to claim the apostolic succession (Austin, 2011). For instance, the Gospel of Peter is a narrative that informs that Jesus felt no pain during the time of crucifixion since he remained silent. This narrative does not mention the aspect of death rather mentions ascension to depict direct access to God. This narrative exonerates Pontius Pilate from any responsibility in the crucifixion of Jesus. The Gospel of Peter depends on the canonical gospel since it embraces the gospel in the churches. The Gospel of Peter portrays no relationship with the Biblical narratives depicted in the Gospels. The infancy Gospel of Thomas alleges to inform on the preoccupation of Jesus from his infancy. This writing informs that Jesus was an infant prodigy at school since he instructs the teachers on the mysteries behind education concepts (Stenschke, 2009). The miracle that he performs fascinates his family and age mates at Capernaum. The language in this document is Greek since most of the historic manuscripts are in Greek language in the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries. The Infancy of the Gospel of Thomas contains Gnostic writings. I believe that the extracanonical works are valuable for the study today. This is because most of these writings help in understanding the biblical narratives. Similarly, one can comprehend the role of Jesus and Apostles in laying the foundation of the early church. These writings aim to propagate theological positions. The extra canonical works are not valuable and do threaten ones faith since they are incongruent with the Bible accounts. Modern historians often ignore the contribution and artifacts of the ancient Christians. This is because most are in fragments or papyrus so as to form a substantial canon of the Christian scriptures.
The Concept of the Historic Jesus
Historians, academicians, and other scholars make a valiant effort to apply historical methods to the existence of Jesus. Chronologically, the quest of historical Jesus takes place in the eighteenth and the nineteenth centuries. The quest, unlike prior approaches, applies historical methods to verify and analyze Biblical stories (Classen, 2012). The quest for historical Jesus introduces new methods and methodologies to determine the validity. The worldview seems to agree on the historical existence of Jesus as detail in the gospel accounts.
In the first quest development, scholars produce biographies that detail the life of Jesus. The biographies apply new techniques that are in harmony with the gospel narratives to produce a new picture in the life of Jesus (Tyson, 2011). The appearance of new data leads people in reading and making diverse interpretation. Scholars include new elements in the life of Jesus that do not appear in the gospel or any other historic elements. One scholar uses the incident of the Jesus entry in Jerusalem to retell a story that Jesus owned a donkey that helped him to travel various places during his missions.
The production of Lives of Jesus reiterates three opinions. Firstly, the works elaborated by the gospel depict Jesus as a reformist. Secondly, The Lives of Jesus have exclusions that fail to fit in the gospel accounts (Tyson, 2011). Lastly, Scholars in those biographies make their own opinion contrary to the opinion of the prior historians. Scholars in the first quest have diverse opinion in view of Christianity. For instance, one scholar portrays Jesus as a successful politician who will seize power to become the next king of Israel. Some scholars reject miracles and spiritual exorcism and accuse Bible authors of perpetrating lies. Some academicians do not work to recover historical Jesus but to criticize the writers of religion. Strauss offers a systematic in depth account on the life of Jesus. His account is unbiased since he merges gospel stories and the natural miracles using psychological interpretations. Schweitzer abandons the quest for historic Jesus to end the first quest.
The second quest begins with the lecture highlighting the problems of historic Jesus by Kasemann. Prior to this, Bultmann argues, the quest for historic Jesus is futile while Kasemann disagrees this opinion (Burtt, 2004). Kasemann claims that the gospel accounts contain valuable historical memoirs about Jesus other than the interpretation of theologians. This initiates the second quest for historic Jesus carried out by the German descent. Some of the historians in this era claim that Jesus of Nazareth figure is genuine and authentic. This is due the depiction of the earthly figure of Jesus.
The criterion of dissimilarity analyzes bible narratives of Jesus in the Jewish custom and practices, in the medieval time. The criterion of embarrassment introduced in the second quest notes that the early Christian Church would never invent the story of Baptism of Jesus (Austin, 2011). This is because John the Baptist did his work to cleanse sins while Jesus had no sin and it would lead to embarrassment since Jesus is higher than John is. The baptism of Jesus is a historic event together with the appearing of the dove and Heaven’s voice during the ceremony. Some existentialist led to the disappearance of the second quest, and people forgot the quest enormous contribution.
The third quest emerges as academicians present a new approach unlike the criteria of dissimilarity and embarrassment. In this era, the criterion of historic plausibility emerges. The principle of this criterion is to highlight the repercussion of historical context by comparing it to the multiple attestations (Classen, 2012). The criterion of execution notes that Jewish people rejected Jesus as their own as the Romans executed him. The criterion of circumstantial evidence considers the historical hypothesis and cites the areas of consistency. Modern scholars work to verify the work of Jesus while in Galilee. A mix of scholars discharges the third quest to allow for diverse opinion. The worldview agrees with the notion of existence of the historic Jesus.
References
Austin, K. (2011). Jews and Christians in Early Modern Europe. Reformation, 16(1), 195-208.
Bosworth, E. I. (2005). The Historic Jesus in Our Present Religious Experience. Religious Education, 20(1), 24-27.
Burtt, E. P. (2004). The Faults of the Early Christians as Shown in the Epistle of James. The Biblical World, 4(5), 331.
Classen, C. J. (2012). The Churches of the Early Christians. Philosophy and History, 6(2), 180-181.
Stenschke, C. (2009). Mapping the New Testament: Early Christian Writings as a Witness for Jewish Biblical Exegesis. Religion and Theology, 16(3), 312-314.
Tyson, J. B. (2011). C.T.R. Hayward. Interpretations of the Name Israel in Ancient Judaism and Some Early Christian Writings: From Victorious Athlete to Heavenly Champion. Studies in Christian-Jewish Relations, 2(2), 22-47. | https://www.wowessays.com/free-samples/early-christians-final-project-course-work/ |
This distinctive collection explores the use of narratives in the social construction of wellness and illness. Narratives, Health, and Healing emphasizes what the process of narrating accomplishes--how it serves in the health communication process where people define themselves and present their social and relational identities. Organized into four parts, the chapters included here examine health narratives in interpersonal relationships, organizations, and public fora. The editors provide an extensive introduction to weave together the various threads in the volume, highlight the approach and contribution of each chapter, and bring to the forefront the increasingly important role of narrative in health communication.
This volume offers important insights on the role of narrative in communicating about health, and it will be of great interest to scholars and graduate students in health communication, health psychology, and public health. It is also relevant to medical, nursing, and allied health readers.
Table of Contents
Contents: A.W. Frank, Foreword. Preface. Part I: Overview of Narrative and Health Communication Theorizing. P.M. Japp, L.M. Harter, C.S. Beck, Introduction. L.M. Harter, P.M. Japp, C.S. Beck, Vital Problematics of Narrative Theorizing About Health and Healing. A.S. Babrow, K.N. Kline, W.K. Rawlins, Narrating Problems and Problematizing Narratives: Linking Problematic Integration and Narrative Theory in Telling Stories About Our Health. Part II: Personal Narratives and Public Dialogues. P.M. Japp, Introduction. C.S. Beck, Becoming the Story: Narratives as Collaborative, Social Enactments of Individual, Relational, and Public Identities. L.M. Harter, E.L. Kirby, A. Edwards, A. McClanahan, Time, Technology, and Meritocracy: The Disciplining of Women's Bodies in Narrative Constructions of Age-Related Infertility. P.M. Japp, D.K. Japp, Desperately Seeking Legitimacy: Narratives of a Bio-Medically Invisible Disease. T. Workman, Death as the Representative Anecdote in the Construction of Collegiate "Binge Drinking" Problem. T. Carabas, L.M. Harter, State-Induced Illness and Forbidden Stories: The Role of Storytelling in Healing Individual and Social Traumas in Romania. A. Singhal, K. Chitnis, A. Sengupta, Cross-Border Mass-Mediated Health Narratives: Narrative Transparency, "Safe Sex," and Indian Viewers. Part III: Narrating and Organizing Health Care Events and Resources. L.M. Harter, Introduction. W.K. Rawlins, Our Family's Physician. J. Morgan-Witte, Narrative Knowledge Development Among Caregivers: Stories From the Nurse's Station. Sunwolf, L.R. Frey, L. Keränen, Rx Story Prescriptions: Healing Effects of Storytelling and Storylistening in the Practice of Medicine. S.L. Ragan, T. Mindt, E. Wittenberg-Lyles, Narrative Medicine and Education in Palliative Care. P.M. Buzzanell, L.L. Ellingson, Contesting Narratives of Workplace Maternity. M.Z. Miller, P.G. Martin, K.C. Beatty, Wholeness in a Breaking World: Narratives as Sustenance for Peace. Part IV: Narrative Sense-Making About Self and Other. C.S. Beck, Introduction. B.F. Sharf, How I Fired My Surgeon and Embraced an Alternate Narrative. W.A. Beach, J. Mandelbaum, "My Mom Had a Stroke": Understanding How Patients Raise and Providers Respond to Psychosocial Concerns. M.P. Keeley, J.K. Kellas, Constructing Life and Death Through Final Conversation Narratives. C. Bosticco, T.L. Thompson, An Examination of the Role of Narratives and Storytelling in Bereavement. D. O'Hair, D. Scannell, S. Thompson, Agency Through Narrative: Patients Managing Cancer Care in a Challenging Environment. C.S. Beck, L.M. Harter, P.M. Japp, Afterword: Continuing the Conversation: Reflections on Our Emergent Scholarly Narratives.
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Reviews
"This book is noteworthy for the authors' rich, poignant narratives that integrate communication, health, and healing. Students will find it compelling and health communication scholars will find it theoretically grounded, provocative, and a welcome addition to the field of health communication."
—Eileen Berlin Ray
Cleveland State University
"Bravo! Harter, Japp, and Beck have given us a volume that liberates the narrative study of health and healing from restrictive models of social research. This pioneering collection of essays and stories will undoubtedly define the field of qualitative health communication for the next generation. The narrative perspectives in this collection inspire and legitimize a distinctly human approach that brings new energy and vitality to the field by showing how stories of health and healing can be told, lived, heard, and understood. A huge hole in the literature of health communication has now been filled."
—Art Bochner
University of South Florida
"Editors Lynn Harter, Phyllis Japp, and Christina Beck, along with an outstanding array of chapter authors, have crafted a tight, engaging, and compelling volume. Individual chapters coalesce almost seamlessly to form a cohesive work that will appeal to many scholars, practitioners, and graduate students across health-related areas of inquiry and community outreach programs. Collectively, then, this edited volume reflects the cutting-edge in health communication thinking and research privileging the narrative paradigm."
—Jim L. Query, Jr. | https://www.routledge.com/Narratives-Health-and-Healing-Communication-Theory-Research-and-Practice/Harter-Japp-Beck/p/book/9780805850321 |
This unique book expertly analyses European political entrepreneurship in relation to the European Union’s approach towards the Agenda 2030 Sustainable Development strategy. It explores the role of European political entrepreneurs in shaping, influencing and realising the United Nation’s Sustainable Development Goals. Chapters examine EU actors in the context of numerous development goals to assess how political entrepreneurship challenges traditional EU institutions and promotes visionary activity.
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Implementing Sustainable Development Goals in Europe
The Role of Political Entrepreneurship
Edited by Charlie Karlsson and Daniel Silander
Environmental Assessments
Scenarios, Modelling and Policy
Edited by K. N. Ninan
In this authoritative book, leading international experts examine the use of scenario analyses and modelling in environmental assessments. Including chapters with a global or regional focus as well as in-depth case studies from Africa, Asia, Australia, Europe, North and South America, contributors analyse the latest research on the applications of scenarios and models and explore the opportunities and challenges in using them for policy relevant research and action.
Edited by Theodoros Zachariadis, Janet E. Milne, Mikael Skou Andersen and Hope Ashiabor
Critically assessing recent developments in environmental and tax legislation, and in particular low-carbon strategies, this timely book analyses the implementation of market-based instruments for achieving climate stabilisation objectives around the world.
Governing Oceans in a Time of Change
Fishing for the Future?
Marcus Haward
This incisive book addresses the challenges facing the current institutional framework for governance of high seas fisheries. Marcus Haward identifies significant issues and difficulties affecting the management of fisheries in areas beyond national jurisdiction, as well as highlighting the key role that fishing and fisheries play in global ocean governance.
The Impact of Environmental Law
Stories of the World We Want
Edited by Rose-Liza Eisma-Osorio, Elizabeth A. Kirk and Jessica Steinberg Albin
This cutting-edge book invites readers to rethink environmental law and its critical role in ensuring a sustainable future for all. Illustrating narratives of successful developments in environmental law, contributors draw out key lessons and practices for effective reform and highlight opportunities by which we can respond to environmental challenges facing the planet.
Edited by David M. Konisky
A comprehensive analysis of diverse areas of scholarly research on U.S. environmental policy and politics, this Handbook looks at the key ideas, theoretical frameworks, empirical findings and methodological approaches to the topic. Leading environmental policy scholars emphasize areas of emerging research and opportunities for future enquiry.
Citizens’ Solidarity in Europe
Civic Engagement and Public Discourse in Times of Crises
Edited by Christian Lahusen
Citizens’ Solidarity in Europe systematically dissects the manifestations of solidarity buried beneath the official policies and measures of public authority in Europe. In this exciting and innovative book, contributors offer comprehensive and original data and highlight the detrimental factors that tend to inhibit or annihilate solidarity, and those that are beneficial for the nurturing of solidarity.
Anna Grear
The editor takes an excitingly broad and refreshing approach to environmental justice, tracing the subject from its early developments to its contemporary need for a new non-anthropocentric ontology responsive to questions of human-non-human justice. This invaluable study includes 24 of the best available research articles in the field and offers a stimulating journey into the rich ambiguities, tensions and promise of environmental justice for the 21st century and beyond.
Creating China’s Climate Change Policy
Internal Competition and External Diplomacy
Olivia Gippner
Drawing on first hand interview data with experts and government officials, Olivia Gippner develops a new analytical framework to explore the vested interests and policy debates surrounding Chinese climate policy-making.
Edited by Shannon O’Lear
Challenging the mainstream view of the environment as either threatening or valuable, this book considers how geographic knowledge can be applied to offer a more nuanced understanding. Framed within geopolitics and using a range of methodologies, the chapters encapsulate different approaches to demonstrate how selective forms of knowledge, measurement, and spatial focus both embody and stabilize power, shaping how people perceive and respond to changing features of human-environment interactions. | https://www.elgaronline.com/browse?level=parent&pageSize=10&sort=datedescending&t_1=Environ_Main_ID&t_2=Environment_15 |
The University of Dundee offers a range of modules and courses dedicated to the history, literature and art of Scotland – catering to undergraduates, graduate students, post doctoral scholars and adult learners (distance learners and in classroom).
This fourth-year module introduces Scotland’s and Ireland’s leading writers in English chiefly of the 18th and 19th centuries, including Swift, Burns, Smollett, Edgeworth, Scott, Robert Louis Stevenson, and George MacDonald, along with medieval and early modern balladeers, as well as considering the influence of lesser known writers, such as Ramsay and Fergusson, on the countries’ literary traditions.
Study an important emerging area of contemporary literature – comics and graphic novels, examining the work of contemporary British comics who have revolutionised comics by treating the medium as one rich in literary potential and cultural significance, challenging the very notion of authorship in comics, a medium known for its creative anonymity.
This third year module focuses on a critical period in Scotland’s history which witnessed the restoration of the Stewart monarchy, revolution and dynastic change, incorporating union and the emergence of the British state, the rise and fall of Jacobitism, and considerable economic and social transformation.
Deliberately starting out with a broad perspective, the module introduces students to the themes and topics of Scottish and Irish history explored in greater depth in third and fourth year.
This third year level module offers students a comprehensive overview of Scotland’s diaspora history, focusing on an extensive range of themes and settlement locations. Covering the period c.1700 to 1945, the historical geographies explored include the ‘near diaspora’ of England, Wales and Ireland; Continental Europe; North America; the Antipodes, Africa; and Asia.
This fourth year Special Subject guides students through the sources indicative of the Scottish national movement from the mid-eighteenth century until the present day. Contextualised by political development within Great Britain, this module critically examines the intellectual foundations and political reach of Scotland’s nationalist movement. The discussion takes students into practical issues of source creation and source survival, contrasting campaigning and cultural materials with state-created documents in a nation without its own parliament. Students gain understanding of the complexities of nationalist narratives, including imperial and post-imperial political contexts to these narratives, intertwined with British state building and patriotism.
This degree will provide you with an understanding of the diverse forces at work in Scottish history since the early modern period, with a special focus on social, cultural and political development, and Scottish connections with the wider world.
Examine the many different interpretations of Scottish history, think critically about the various ways in which historians have viewed the development of Scotland over the past five centuries and consider some of the ways in which Scottish history has been portrayed in a popular context.
The MLitt in English Studies is a stand-alone postgraduate qualification. It can also be taken as research preparation for a PhD. We offer choice and flexibility: you can study full-time or part-time, and we have a wide range of topics from Arthurian to Contemporary Literature, reflecting our key strengths and expertise.
This degree offers specialist interdisciplinary study within Philosophy and English Studies. It brings together modules addressing the interrelations between literary practice and philosophical perspectives.
A highly interdisciplinary one-year, masters course, offering modules on Science Fiction literature, film, comics and other media, with scope to incorporate creative practice into your studies.
Pingback: Scottish Studies – what could this lead to after school? | https://dundeescottishculture.org/teaching/ |
Visit Jill Didur's faculty profile for more information, including a full bibliography.
This book examines current trends in scholarly thinking about the new field of the Environmental Humanities, focusing in particular on how the history of globalization and imperialism represents a special challenge to the representation of environmental issues. Essays in this collection examine the role that narrative, visual, and aesthetic forms can play in drawing attention to and shaping our ideas about long-term and catastrophic environmental challenges such as climate change, militarism, deforestation, the pollution and management of the global commons, petrocapitalism, and the commodification of nature.
The volume presents a postcolonial approach to the environmental humanities, especially in conjunction with current thinking in areas such as political ecology and environmental justice. Spanning regions such as Africa, Asia, Eastern Europe, Latin America and the Caribbean, Australasia and the Pacific, as well as North America, the volume includes essays by founding figures in the field as well as new scholars, providing vital new interdisciplinary perspectives on: the politics of the earth; disaster, vulnerability, and resilience; political ecologies and environmental justice; world ecologies; and the Anthropocene. In engaging critical ecologies, the volume poses a postcolonial environmental humanities for the twenty-first century. At the heart of this is a conviction that a thoroughly global, postcolonial, and comparative approach is essential to defining the emergent field of the environmental humanities, and that this field has much to offer in understanding critical issues surrounding the creation of alternative ecological futures.
Publisher: Routledge Press
The Partition of India in 1947 marked the birth of two modern nation-states and the end of British colonialism in South Asia. The move towards the 'two nation solution' was accompanied by an unprecedented mass migration (over twelve million people) to and from areas that would become India and Pakistan.
Diverse representations of the violence that accompanied this migration (including the abduction and sexual assault of over 75,000 women) can be found in fictional, historical, autobiographical, and recent scholarly works. Unsettling Partition examines short stories, novels, testimonies, and historiography that represent women's experiences of the Partition. Counter to the move for 'recovery' that informs some historical research on testimony and fictional representations of women's Partition experiences, Jill Didur argues for an attentiveness to the literary qualities of women's narratives that interrogate and unsettle monolithic accounts of the period.
Rather than attempt to seek out a 'hidden history' of this time, Didur examines how the literariness of Partition narratives undermines this possibility.Unsettling Partitions reinterprets the silences found in women's accounts of sectarian violence that accompanied Partition (sexual assault, abduction, displacement from their families) as a sign of their inability to find a language to articulate their experience without invoking metaphors of purity and pollution. Didur argues that these silences and ambiguities in women's stories should not be resolved, accounted for, translated, or recovered but understood as a critique of the project of patriarchal modernity.
Publisher: University of Toronto Press
© Concordia University
Concordia University uses technical, analytical, marketing and preference cookies. These are necessary for our site to function properly and to create the best possible online experience. | https://www.concordia.ca/artsci/english/research/bookshelf/jill-didur.html |
From a lecture series taught by Professor Daniel M. Cobb, Ph.D.
For a very long time, non-Indians wrote as though Native American history began in 1492—set in motion, of course, by the so-called discovery of the New World. Let’s examine both the consequences of that narrative and the creation of new narratives that challenge it.
This article is the second in a series on Native American peoples. Read the first part here.
In early historical works, Indigenous people were portrayed as supporting actors in the story of America, bit players in a master narrative that celebrated the founding and expansion of the United States. At worst, Indians were cast as treacherous villains and bloodthirsty savages; at best, as co-conspirators in their own undoing or tragic heroes who valiantly resisted before accepting the inevitability of their demise.
Either way, Indians exited stage left eventually. History, thus conceived, served as a handmaiden of conquest, and a powerful one at that. By writing Indians out of the past, this version of America’s origin story denied Native people a present and a future.
Perhaps the single most emblematic work in this tradition is historian Frederick Jackson Turner’s essay “The Significance of the Frontier in American History.” First presented before an august body of non-Indian historians in 1893, Jackson’s essay defined the frontier as “the meeting point between savagery and civilization” and the source of the unique—and decidedly white—American character.
So, too, did the assumption that the narrative must end in physical conquest. All through the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, non-Native historians wrote and rewrote the same history of inevitable conquest, though locating it in different times and places, and involving different Native people. Such history writing resulted in deeply internalized ideas about the impossibility of Indians having a present, much less a future.
Two hundred years have changed the character of a great continent, and blotted forever from its face, a whole, peculiar people. Here and there a stricken few remain; but how unlike their bold untamed, untamable progenitors! His degraded offspring crawl upon the soil to remind us how miserable is man, when the foot of the conqueror is on his neck. As a race, they have withered from the land. They will live only in the songs and chronicles of their exterminators.
Over the course of the 19th century, excerpts from Sprague’s oration were reprinted in multiple editions of McGuffey’s Eclectic Readers, which Native and non-Native children used to learn how to read. Just think about how these passages may have shaped their impressionable minds, what they communicated about Indians and Indian history.
By the late 19th and early 20th centuries, these messages about Indians and the end of Indian history were ubiquitous, appearing in academic writings, dime novels, sculptures, paintings, musical scores, plays, and moving pictures.
Now, however, we need to balance the construction of this oppressive historical narrative with the creation of counter-narratives that challenge it. And let me begin by observing that there has never been a time when Native people weren’t the authors of their own histories.
The Iroquois in the Northeast, as well as other peoples, created belts fashioned from clamshell beads called wampum belts. And they intended them to be read. Wampum belts narrate complex histories, record laws, and tell of the forging of relationships with others. The Western Apache in present-day Arizona recorded histories in the names and stories that they attached to places, or that places conveyed to them. And they still do.
Winter counts long served as history books for Plains people, such as the Lakota and Kiowa. Lakota pictographic calendars feature a single glyph for each year, referred to as a winter. The Kiowa pictographic calendars feature two glyphs for each year. For the Lakota, each glyph refers to the name of a winter and serves as a mnemonic device from which the keeper of the count tells a much longer history of their people.
During the 19th and into the 20th centuries, Plains Indian graphic art served as a way for Native people to record personal narratives. Ledger art, for instance, takes its name from the ledger or account books on which Native people drew or painted. Ledger art, however, actually continued a tradition of recording history and narratives through images inscribed on everything from rock walls and buffalo hides to teepees and articles of clothing.
Samson Occom (1723 – July 14, 1792) was the first Native American to publish his writings in English.
Through the 18th, 19th, and early 20th centuries, too, Native writers, including Samson Occom, William Apess, Christal Quintasket, and D’Arcy McNickle, to name just a few, fashioned first-person narratives, novels, and histories on terms of their own making. None of them told the story that Frederick Jackson Turner had in mind.
And I’d be remiss if I didn’t mention that on July 4, 1827—two years to the day after Charles Sprague characterized Indians as degraded offspring who would live only in the songs and chronicles of their exterminators—leaders of the Cherokee Nation opened a convention that led to the adoption of a constitution.
Modeled on the U.S. and other state constitutions, it reflected Cherokee values and was meant to protect Cherokee sovereignty. The foot of the oppressor certainly wasn’t on the necks of the Cherokees who made this full-throated proclamation of continuing independence.
Moving forward in time, Native and non-Native scholars transformed history from within colleges and universities during the second half of the 20th century. During the 1960s, the so-called New Indian History turned a critical eye toward celebratory conquest narratives and, if haltingly, began to craft Indian-centered stories that recorded Native history from Native points of view.
While many of the New Indian Historians rarely went beyond the archival sources generated by non-Natives, other scholars developed innovative approaches through American Indian Studies and ethnohistory, a blend of history and anthropology.
American Indian Studies grew out of demands made by Native faculty and students for culturally relevant curricula. The number of Indian faculty and students on college and university campuses was small but it was growing considerably during the 1950s. By 1969, Minnesota; the University of California, Berkeley; UCLA; and UC Davis had all started American Indian Studies programs, and many others followed.
By 1969, Minnesota; the University of California, Berkeley; UCLA; and UC Davis had all started American Indian Studies programs, and many others followed.
The main aim of these discussions was to assert that Indians were not just the inheritors of trauma but were also the heirs to vast legacies of knowledge about this continent and the universe that had been ignored in the larger picture of European invasion and education.
The creation of new historical narratives based on these principles developed unevenly, particularly in terms of the time periods on which they were focused. Most of the revisionist work from the 1970s through the 1990s, for instance, covered the 400 years between initial contact between Natives and newcomers and the end of the 19th century.
Around the Columbian Quincentenary in 1992 a new interpretive framework focused on encounters emerged. The historian James Axtell richly described encounters as mutual, reciprocal—two-way rather than one-way streets, generally capacious, and temporally and spatially fluid.
Histories modeled on encounters supplanted worn-out narratives of discovery and conquest by emphasizing diplomacy, negotiation, and exchange.
Histories modeled on encounters supplanted worn-out narratives of discovery and conquest by emphasizing diplomacy, negotiation, and exchange. In so doing, the problematic concept of a rigid, racially defined frontier gave way to dynamic conceptions of middle grounds, contact zones, edges, and borderlands.
Strangely, though, few scholars had much to say about encounters that took place after 1900. Instead, historians typically imagined 20th-century American Indian history as being fundamentally different in nature from the more distant past. In recent years, scholars have challenged the drawing of sharp distinctions between the distant and more recent past. Yes, the balance of power shifted dramatically through the 19th and 20th centuries.
But this shift amounted primarily to a change in the context of encounters between Natives and newcomers; it didn’t bring an end to the encounters themselves. If 20th– and 21st-century encounters have remained as mutual and reciprocal, as temporally and spatially fluid, and generally capacious as they ever were, then we can imagine the last two centuries as a seamless part of one grand narrative, one story. And so we return to the relationship between history and contemporary Native America.
Charles Sprague, Frederick Jackson Turner, and the frontier historians who came before and after them wanted people to believe that American Indian history had ended, that Native people would vanish, and that tribal sovereignty would disappear right along with them. They turned the past into a history that served as a weapon of conquest in the 19th century, and that serves as a roadblock to recovery and renaissance in Native America today.
But the creation of new historical narratives can help remove that roadblock. Indeed, recalling the words of Lumbee legal scholar David Wilkins, we can now add the rewriting of the old master narrative as yet another way that tribal sovereignty is manifested in the purposeful actions taken by individuals and groups. I find this reassertion of sovereignty through the reclaiming of history especially poignant in the context of the books and articles authored by Native scholars, such as Malinda Maynor Lowery, Joshua Reid, and Philip Deloria, all of whom offer historical perspectives on their own families, communities, and nations. Why does this matter?
Because, as Denetdale explains, for her and many other Native scholars studying and critiquing history plays a vital role in what she calls “the recovery and revitalization of our community, family, language, and traditions.” It’s about translating the events of the past into a different history, a history of Indigenous survival through more than 500 years of colonialism, one of the most extraordinary stories in human history.
From the course Native Peoples of North America, taught by Professor Daniel M. Cobb, Ph.D. | https://www.thegreatcoursesdaily.com/native-american-history-changing-narrative/ |
The Graveyard in Literature: Liminality and Social Critique
The Graveyard in Literature: Liminality and Social Critique will be published by Cambridge Scholars in late 2021. We are currently seeking a few final essays to complete the collection.
The theme for the Collection:
This volume focuses on literary and other cultural texts that use the graveyard as a liminal space within which received narratives and social values can be challenged, and new and empowering perspectives on the present articulated. They do so primarily by immersing the reader in a liminal space, between life and death, where traditional certainties such as time and space are suspended and new models of human interaction can thus be formulated. Essays in this volume will examine the use of liminality as a vehicle for social critique, paying particular attention to the ways in which liminal spaces facilitate the construction of alternative perspectives.
A Chapter should normally be no longer than 6000 words, and should be original and previously unpublished. If the work has already been published (as a journal article, or in conference proceedings, for example), the Publisher will require evidence that permission to be re-published has been granted.
If you are interested in submitting, please contact the editor with a brief proposal (250 words). Deadline for submission is 17th February 2021. | https://call-for-papers.sas.upenn.edu/cfp/2020/06/16/the-graveyard-in-literature-liminality-and-social-critique |
The history of South Carolina's lowcountry has been well documented by historians, but the upcountry--the region of the state north and west of Columbia and the geologic fall line--has only recently begun to receive extensive scholarly attention. The essays in this collection provide a window into the social and cultural life of the upstate during the nineteenth century. The contributors explore topics such as the history of education in the region, post-Civil War occupation by Union troops, upcountry tourism, Freedman's Bureau's efforts to educate African Americans, and the complex dynamics of lynch mobs in the late nineteenth century.
Recovering the Piedmont Past illustrates larger trends of social transformation occurring in the region at a time that shaped religion, education, race relations and the economy well into the twentieth century. The essays add depth and complexity to our understanding of nineteenth century southern history and challenge accepted narratives about a homogeneous South. Ultimately each of the eight essays explores little known facets of the history of upcountry South Carolina in the nineteenth century.
The collection includes a foreword by Orville Vernon Burton, professor of history and director of the Cyberinstitute at Clemson University.
This collection of essays also corrects an imbalance. Too much of our nation’s history has been written from the northeastern urban historical perspective. in addition studies of Charleston, the earlier European-settled black-belt regions of the coast, and in the midlands state capital of Columbia, with its political maneuverings, have dominated the history of South Carolina. We need these histories of the South Carolina upcountry to get an evenhanded story of South Carolina and American history. These articles highlight the advantages of studying history in a particular place. Places have history and tradition. Local history deals with all the people in the community, with all their ambiguities and contradictions, all their negotiations across lines of race, class, gender, and power. Local history offers a way to explore Jon Gjerde’s idea of community (which he expressed in The Minds of the West) with its “curious amalgam of cultural retention and cultural change, tradition and modernity, authority and freedom.” Local history includes practicalities and metaphysics. It brings to the profession the capacity to challenge a historiography and methodology that now tends toward the study of ideas and ideologies, discourses and cultural stances. Moreover, local studies provide the evidence for historical generalization, sometimes verifying and sometimes challenging popular interpretation. It can examine a larger subject, such as the civil rights movement, viewing it in microcosm . . . | https://www.questia.com/library/120097109/recovering-the-piedmont-past-unexplored-moments |
The Study of History - and its Decline?
Some writers suggest that the study of the past is no longer at the apogee of high culture or national identity as it has been for centuries, rather, today it has reached a denouement. In the West, younger generations do not care about their history. In a recent article appearing in Standpoint Magazine, Daniel Johnson lamented that the study of history has reached an all-time low.
We agree that the ways in which politicians and the public at large value history is problematic, but we would argue that the fragmentation of history—from the grand narratives of Leopold von Ranke, Auguste Comte and others to the nuanced approaches to historical subjects—affords greater insight into our place in the world as well as those who came before us. Proponents of these grand narratives used the nation as a unit of analysis for history at a time when our ascendant nationalism required it. Today, they use much smaller frames of reference and write micro-studies of communities, organizations, while also studying individuals left out of the larger political narratives.
In many ways, the grand narratives that are now seldom taught at universities actually helped to shift focus from male-dominated, political history to the current smaller narratives that are a more honest and wide-ranging examination of our pasts. The unintended consequence of Marxist history, for example, was that exploring the past through economic inequality led a whole generation of history students in the 1960s to ask questions about other social and cultural inequalities which surrounded them. It’s no surprise that by the 1960s, historians in their incipient careers shied away from what was understood as an archaic form of historical inquiry, many finding “big man” histories out of date. Instead, students of history were influenced by the contemporary context in which they studied, exploring topics against the backdrop of de-colonization, ecological issues, civil rights, women’s history, and others.
Ironically, despite vehement protests against the Vietnam War, many American veterans benefited from the GI Bill, who upon returning enrolled in universities across the United States. The experience of these students contributed to fields like war and society, that moved beyond the impersonal details of national and operational military history to explore the social, cultural, and psychological effects of warfare. Studying war was no longer associated with condoning it, but rather with attempting to understand it on a human level. That transformation highlights an important point: that the social and political context in which students study history has an immediate effect on what questions students ask of their history. Today, the American-led debacle in Iraq and coalition efforts in Afghanistan, not to mention other pressing issues in the Arab world, have pushed many universities across North America into hiring scholars of the Middle East to better understand our current affairs.
This is not to say that reading works like Jacob Burckhardt’s The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, Jan Huizinga’s The Waning of the Middle Ages, Marc Bloch’s The Historian’s Craft, or E.P. Thompson’s The Making of the English Working Class is not important. On the contrary, they afford young historians insight into how our craft has developed over the last century or so.
But is Daniel Johnson’s lament that undergraduates studying at Oxford today are not examined on “historical classics” like Edward Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire or Alexis de Tocqueville's L'Ancien Régime et la Revolution really that deplorable? The fragmentation of historical thinking has had many positive consequences, not least of which is a more nuanced understanding of the past across time and space. Many histories of marriage and sexuality, the environment, immigration, witchcraft, madness, PTSD, or emotions have contributed to how we understand the world in which we live today. These topics might sacrifice the breadth of Gibbon, von Ranke, and other great historians, but they often make up for it in their depth through a cautious probing of manuscript sources from a multitude of archives.
The study of history is far from a denouement. There are issues that might come at the “expense” of grand political narratives, but they are absolutely essential in understanding “those who came before us” and our place in the world today. In the Canadian context, it is no longer impossible to critically assess the impact of government policy and the residential school system on aboriginal peoples, or to explore issues of redress for the internment of Japanese-Canadians and the treatment of Blacks. We must accept that these are a part of our historical narrative, even if they are harsh truths about our past.
The study of history is far from a denouement. The transition from focusing on national identities to social ones is a change, not a failing as Johnson may describe it. Nonetheless, Johnson is right. History has lost its relevance to the greater public. When once historians told stories of national triumph and progress, today they work to uncover the stories untold in the grand narratives of nation-building, politicians and (largely) white men. New perspectives and access to an even wider body of sources continue to make the study of history a promising enterprise for historians and all Canadians. Whether history will reclaim its rightful position as the pillar of national identity or high culture is doubtful.
Exploring the stories of all people, not just those involved in the historic nation state, is important, but few historians have been able to translate them into consumable stories for non-academics. Historians will have to relearn that skill if they want to stay relevant in our modern society. The question remains: how can historians take their view from below and present it to the average citizen? For the majority of people, history is not an inherently interesting subject. For them, they must have a connection to past. If you are not a black man, how interested are you in the history of black men in Canada? Or an immigrant in imperial politics of the 1920s? Or a woman reading about the men who formed Confederation? If we are no longer able to write national histories that appeal to an entire nation, then historians have to write histories that connect through some other common appeal. Otherwise, they risk becoming as irrelevant as Johnson alleges, or worse, anachronistic scholars ignored by their fellow citizens, to whom they have a responsibility to educate. If historians do not strive to communicate history to non-historians, then we have reached an impasse between utility and scholarly purpose that is increasingly difficult to overcome. | http://clioscurrent.com/blog/2013/7/8/t00ma0aysjmgnev4h6vpixwxedfqyb |
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While written sources on the history of Greece have been studied extensively, no systematic attempt has been made to examine photography as an important cultural and material process. This is surprising, given that Modern Greece and photography are almost peers: both are cultural products of the 1830s, and both actively converse with modernity. Camera Graeca: Photographs, Narratives, Materialities fills this lacuna. It is the first inter-disciplinary volume to examine critically and in a theorised manner the entanglement of Greece with photography. The book argues that photographs and the photographic process as a whole have been instrumental in the reproduction of national imagination, in the consolidation of the nation-building process, and in the generation and dissemination of state propaganda. At the same time, it is argued that the photographic field constitutes a site of memory and counter-memory, where various social actors intervene actively and stake their discursive, material, and practical claims. As such, the volume will be of relevance to scholars and photographers, worldwide.The book is divided into four, tightly integrated parts. The first, Imag(in)ing Greece, shows that the consolidation of Greek national identity constituted a material-cum-representational process, the projection of an imagery, although some photographic production sits uneasily within the national canon, and may even undermine it. The second part, Photographic narratives, alternative histories, demonstrates the narrative function of photographs in diary-keeping and in photobooks. It also examines the constitution of spectatorship through the combination of text and image, and the role of photography as a process of materializing counter-hegemonic discourses and practices. The third part, Photographic matter-realities, foregrounds the role of photography in materializing state propaganda, national memory, and war. The final part, Photographic ethnographies, has an overtly anthropological focus and theorises the contexts of photographs inception and dissemination, discussing at the same time vernacular and popular readings and deployments of photography, and the ways through which it inscribes itself in collective memory.Show more
© 2021 Tales
All packages are shipped from our warehouse in the UK. | https://tales.as/camera-graeca-photographs-narratives-materialities_9781472424778 |
Module NHS-4380:
Leadership in context
Leadership in context 2022-23
NHS-4380
2022-23
Ysgol Gwyddorau Meddygol ac Iechyd
Modiwl - Semester 1
20 credits
Module Organiser:
David Evans
Overview
The module will provide students with the opportunity to critically evaluate the organisation and wider contexts for improving quality in health and social care context from different theoretical and methodological perspectives.
The module content also provides students with the opportunity to identify, apply and critically evaluate strategies and interventions to support improvements in the quality of health and social care.
Through the use of action learning, students will be encouraged to reflect and learn from their own leadership challenges and facilitation skills employed in their professional work.
Topics may include:
- The use of theory and research from different professional fields and disciplines in the designing and facilitating improvements in health and social care settings.
- Examine evidence and evaluate leadership and management concepts and practice.
- Explore & evaluate the role of culture, value and beliefs in organisations including their role is securing change & improvement
- Examine the multiple perspectives in assessing and evaluating quality improvement and change, including how quality and risk are assessed and improvement measured
- Identify organisational characteristics and factors influential to addressing the issues of risk and quality
- The importance and role of multi-disciplinary and inter-professional teams
- Examine the strategic environment including the role of regulation, legislation and policy.
Assessment Strategy
Threshold C grade, minimum 50% (pass)- Demonstrate knowledge of key areas/principles.- Have some, if only limited, evidence of background study.- Be focused on the question (assessment brief) with only some irrelevant material and weaknesses in structure- Attempt to present relevant and logical arguments.- Not contain a large number of factual/computational errors.- Describe major links between topics.- Attempt to analyse and/or explain problems.- Be free of major weaknesses in presentation and accuracy.
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Blog/Journal/Review
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Crynodol
Description
Students will be provided with taught, directed learning material, and two online tutorials to discuss the six points below. 1. Read and discuss the key challenges for the allocated leadership theories 2. How do these theories compare to other types of theories – what are the critical perspectives to consider? 3. What are the benefits and challenges of team work? 4. Critically review two papers provided relating to the effectiveness of team working and improvement 5. What are the challenges associated with team roles and team decision making? 6. Consider and discuss the challenges of inter-professional and inter-disciplinary team working Via the discussion board on Blackboard, students will engage in a discussion with peers about the issues raised. | https://www.bangor.ac.uk/courses/postgraduate-modules/NHS-4380/202223 |
What is Attachment?
British psychiatrist John Bowlby first coined the term attachment in 1958. It refers to the emotional connection babies, and young children make with their care givers and can inform;
- How we form emotional connections with self and others
- Our ability to trust other people
- How as adults maintain reationships
The History of Attachment Theory
Attachment theory by Bowlby
Attachment theory was first developed by John Bowlby following his observations of orphaned and emotionally distressed children between the 1930s and 1950s.
He found that infants had an instinctive drive to seek closeness to their caregiver for comfort and safety, and that infants became distressed when separated from their primary caregiver.
Bowlby believed attachment behaviour to be a survival-driven phenomenon, with an evolutionary basis.
Bowlby coined the term “secure base” (Bowlby, 1988) to describe the symbolic position of the attachment figure as a place of security. The presence of a secure base allows the child to experience the safety to explore, confident that the caregiver will continue to meet their basic security and safety needs.
Bowlby posited that the early emotional bond between caregiver (usually mother) and child was crucial for normal social and emotional development in the child.
Internal Working Systems
Bowlby’s theory of internal working systems describes the ways in which the child develops an internal view of themselves and their expectations of how others are likely to respond to them, which informs their social behaviour.
Bowlby theorised that a child’s interactive social experiences impact on their internal working system (Holmes, 1993). As the name suggests, Bowlby believed that an internal working system is not fixed, and can evolve with new experiences.
Mary Ainsworth's Attachment Theory - Summary
A student of John Bowlby, Mary Ainsworth took attachment theory in a new direction by studying the behaviour of the caregiver, and its impact on infant attachment.
Famously, Ainsworth conducted the “Strange Situation” experiments, in which infants’ behaviour and responses are observed in a new environment, when the caregiver is present, when a stranger arrives, when their caregiver leaves, as well as the infants’ response to their attachment figures on their return.
Ainsworth’s observations showed infant attachment to be more nuanced than Bowlby had first suggested. Following on from the Strange Situation study, Ainsworth developed a model of three attachment styles:
- Secure Attachment – The majority of the children observed in Ainsworth’s studies were found to be securely attached to their caregiver. This group of children felt confident exploring their environment in the presence of their caregiver, and were quickly comforted by them when upset. Ainsworth concluded that children with a secure attachment style experienced a caregiver who is consistently sensitive and responsive to their needs.
- Insecure Avoidant Attachment – Insecure avoidant children were not comforted by the presence of their caregiver and were observed to be independent of their caregiver both at a physical and emotional level, not seeking the comfort of their caregiver at times of distress. Ainsworth theorised that this group of infants is likely to experience an unavailable caregiver who is rejecting of their emotional needs.
- Insecure Ambivalent Attachment – Infants displaying signs of insecure ambivalent attachment showed signs of dependent behaviour, such as a reluctance to explore their environment independently of their caregiver, however they were less likely to be comforted by their attachment figure’s attempts to soothe them. Ainsworth posited that infants displaying insecure ambivalent attachment experienced inconsistent responses to their emotional cues and could not rely on their caregivers to respond sensitively and appropriately to their needs.
Mary Main and Judith Soloman - Disorganised Attachment
In 1986 researchers Main and Solomon observed a fourth attachment style – disorganised attachment – to describe infants who seem confused, hazy or anxious in the presence of their attachment figures, ( parents or caregivers)
The infants displayed disoriented behaviours suggesting that they were not secure with themselves or others. Further research indicated that an infant who was both 'Horrified and Terrified' and had very inconsistent caregiving may develop this attachment style.
Children who retain this attachment style may:
- Blame themselves and have low self-esteem. They may believe that their parent's lack of self-control was their fault.
- May become abusers as they have difficulty regulating their emotions and behaviour.
- Develop ADHD. A deficit in self-regulation, impulse control, and ability to self soothe.
“... in children, security or insecurity of attachment is not a characteristic of the individual, but rather of a relationship: it is not uncommon for a child to be securely attached with one parent, and disorganized (or insecurely attached) with the other (Main, 1995).”
Attachment Through our Lives
Our attachment to our primary carer begins to develop in the womb, and our attachment styles, influenced by our experiences, continue to evolve throughout our lives.
Traumatic experiences, relationships and therapy can all impact on our attachment styles and our internal working models in different ways.
Attachment styles often differ even between people who have had similar life experiences. The complexity and diversity of our patterns of attachment mean that addressing our attachment in therapy is likely to be a long-term and individual process.
This article was written for Counselling Tutor by Erin Stevens
References
Bowlby, J. (1988). A secure base: Parent-child attachment and healthy human development. New York: Basic Books.
Holmes, J. (1993). John Bowlby and attachment theory. London New York: Routledge.
Main, M. and Solomon, J. (1990) in: Greenberg, M., Cicchetti, D. & Cummings, E. Attachment in the preschool years : theory, research, and intervention. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. | https://counsellingtutor.com/attachment-theory/ |
Attachment From the first day of a babies life, it starts to form relationships. The attachment begins to develop properly from the age of 7 months. As the child develops, some may begin to direct attachment behavoir to more than one caregiver. These attachment figures are then arranged in a hierartical sense, with the primary caregiver placed at the top, followed by other caregivers such as relations, family friends and other familiar faces.
The objective of this essay is to provide a brief overview of the history of adult attachment research, the key theoretical ideas, and a sampling of some of the research findings. This essay has been written for people who are interested in learning more about research on adult attachment.
Bowlby's Theory of Attachment The theory of attachment was originally developed by John Bowlby -a British psychoanalyst who was attempting to understand the intense distress experienced by infants who had been separated from their parents.
Bowlby observed that separated infants would go to extraordinary lengths e. At the time of Bowlby's initial writings, psychoanalytic writers held that these expressions were manifestations of immature defense mechanisms that were operating to repress emotional pain, but Bowlby noted that such expressions are common to a wide variety of mammalian species, and speculated that these behaviors may serve an evolutionary function.
Drawing on ethological theory, Bowlby postulated that these attachment behaviors, such as crying and searching, were adaptive responses to separation from a primary attachment figure--someone who provides support, protection, and care. Because human infants, like other mammalian infants, cannot feed or protect themselves, they are dependent upon the care and protection of "older and wiser" adults.
Bowlby argued that, over the course of evolutionary history, infants who were able to maintain proximity to an attachment figure via attachment behaviors would be more likely to survive to a reproductive age.
According to Bowlby, a motivational system, what he called the attachment behavioral system, was gradually "designed" by natural selection to regulate proximity to an attachment figure. The attachment behavior system is an important concept in attachment theory because it provides the conceptual linkage between ethological models of human development and modern theories on emotion regulation and personality.
According to Bowlby, the attachment system essentially "asks" the following fundamental question: Is the attachment figure nearby, accessible, and attentive? If the child perceives the answer to this question to be "yes," he or she feels loved, secure, and confident, and, behaviorally, is likely to explore his or her environment, play with others, and be sociable.
If, however, the child perceives the answer to this question to be "no," the child experiences anxiety and, behaviorally, is likely to exhibit attachment behaviors ranging from simple visual searching on the low extreme to active following and vocal signaling on the other see Figure 1.
These behaviors continue until either the child is able to reestablish a desirable level of physical or psychological proximity to the attachment figure, or until the child "wears down," as may happen in the context of a prolonged separation or loss. In such cases, Bowlby believed that young children experienced profound despair and depression.
Individual Differences in Infant Attachment Patterns Although Bowlby believed that the basic dynamics described above captured the normative dynamics of the attachment behavioral system, he recognized that there are individual differences in the way children appraise the accessibility of the attachment figure and how they regulate their attachment behavior in response to threats.
However, it wasn't until his colleague, Mary Ainsworth —began to systematically study infant-parent separations that a formal understanding of these individual differences was articulated.
Ainsworth and her students developed a technique called the strange situation--a laboratory paradigm for studying infant-parent attachment. In the strange situation, month-old infants and their parents are brought to the laboratory and, systematically, separated from and reunited with one another.
In the strange situation, most children i. They become upset when the parent leaves the room, but, when he or she returns, they actively seek the parent and are easily comforted by him or her.
Children who exhibit this pattern of behavior are often called secure. Importantly, when reunited with their parents, these children have a difficult time being soothed, and often exhibit conflicting behaviors that suggest they want to be comforted, but that they also want to "punish" the parent for leaving.
These children are often called anxious-resistant. The third pattern of attachment that Ainsworth and her colleagues documented is called avoidant. Ainsworth's work was important for at least three reasons. First, she provided one of the first empirical demonstrations of how attachment behavior is patterned in both safe and frightening contexts.
Second, she provided the first empirical taxonomy of individual differences in infant attachment patterns. According to her research, at least three types of children exist: Finally, she demonstrated that these individual differences were correlated with infant-parent interactions in the home during the first year of life.
Children who appear secure in the strange situation, for example, tend to have parents who are responsive to their needs. Children who appear insecure in the strange situation i.
In the years that have followed, a number of researchers have demonstrated links between early parental sensitivity and responsiveness and attachment security. Adult Romantic Relationships Although Bowlby was primarily focused on understanding the nature of the infant-caregiver relationship, he believed that attachment characterized human experience from "the cradle to the grave.
Hazan and Shaver were two of the first researchers to explore Bowlby's ideas in the context of romantic relationships. According to Hazan and Shaver, the emotional bond that develops between adult romantic partners is partly a function of the same motivational system--the attachment behavioral system--that gives rise to the emotional bond between infants and their caregivers.
Hazan and Shaver noted that the relationship between infants and caregivers and the relationship between adult romantic partners share the following features: Three Implications of Adult Attachment Theory The idea that romantic relationships may be attachment relationships has had a profound influence on modern research on close relationships.
There are at least three critical implications of this idea.Bowlby’s theory Although the theory on attachment has developed and evolved since Bowlby first wrote about it, the features remained the same.
Bowlby said that . Attachment Theory: Background and Development.
In , at Tavistock Clinic in London, Bowlby published his first paper in family therapy, noting the success achieved by interviewing parents of troubled children about their own upbringing, in the children’s presence (Bretherton, ). Attachment theory is the result of joint and individual research by John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth (Ainsworth, ).
Drawing on concepts from psychoanalysts, developmental psychologists, psychology, and others, Bowlby formulated the basic theory.
To begin to understand the attachment theory one must first understand and have a clear definition of what attachment is. From my point of view attachment is a lasting, secure and positive bond between a child and a caregiver, a reciprocal relationship.
A Study On Bowlbys Attachment Theory Psychology Essay. Print Reference this. Disclaimer: This work has been submitted by a student. This is not an example of the work written by our professional academic writers.
The origins of attachment theory: John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth. Developmental Psychology, 28, pp. John Bowlby's Attachment Theory Essay Words | 9 Pages John Bowlby’s attachment theory established that an infant’s earliest relationship with their primary caregiver or mother shaped their later development and characterized their human life, “from the cradle to the grave” (Bowlby, , p.
). | https://panulykexih.caninariojana.com/john-bowlby-attachment-theory-essay-example-49129xv.html |
It is well recognized now that the quality of attachment an individual has with his or her parents in early childhood determines how well that child will thrive. Early attachment is a core issue that has great influence on one’s mental health throughout life.
For instance, the first five years of life determines the success of that child in school, work, and in relationships. Those children who have had secure parental attachments are well equipped to go out into the world and are able to succeed. Those with poor attachments to their caregivers, due to trauma, neglect, or abandonment, will likely be anxious, fearful, and withdrawn. These children may be more vulnerable to developing an alcohol or drug addiction. Those who experience high levels of stress and anxiety will tend to self-medicate with drugs, sex, gambling, alcohol, or other types of addiction. Essentially, the child with a poor attachment with his or her caregiver may later use drugs as a way to manage the anxiety or other intense emotions and perhaps even develop a life-long struggle with addiction. And they may eventually find themselves in drug detox and substance abuse treatment facilities.
In the 1960’s, psychiatrist John Bowlby developed the attachment theory based on his study of the difficulties that homeless and orphaned children experience. The theory’s main premise is that an infant must develop a strong bond with at least one primary caregiver in order to appropriately develop socially and emotionally.
In order for this bond to become secure between infant and caregiver, the following must happen:
- The caregiver must be responsive and sensitive in the way that he or she responds to the infant.
- The child must be able to consistently rely on the caregiver for soothing in times of stress.
- The caregiver must remain a constant in the child’s life from the 6 months to approximately 2 years of age.
Essentially, his research led to the understanding that infants will attach to parents who are consistent in their care giving throughout many months during early childhood. As children develop they will begin to use the attachment with their caregiver as a secure base from which they will move away to explore their environment and then later return. The way that caregivers respond to their children during this process can lead to distinct patterns of attachment, which in turn, lead to an internal model for that child, which he or she will unconsciously use in later relationships.
Later, in the early 1980’s, psychologist Mary Ainsworth applied this understanding to developmental psychology and theorized that there are four types of relationship patterns, which are described below. It is believed that certain components of all relationships have their roots in early attachment experiences. For example, those who did not experience a secure attachment with a caregiver may develop sensitivity to rejection in later relationships. This underlying issue of rejection alone can fuel an addiction and later lead one to seek addiction help and drug addiction therapy.
Ainsworth studied the behavior between caregivers and their infants, while observing how both reacted when they were separated and then reunited. Based on those reactions, she identified certain attachment types. These infant-parent attachment types are secure, avoidant, ambivalent, and disorganized.
Although there are many factors that contribute to a drug or alcohol addiction, recent advancement in psychological research indicates that the quality of an individual’s early relationships may have a great affect on his or her later life. Recognizing the role that an individual’s primary attachment plays in life can perhaps facilitate the prevention of alcohol and drug use. Certainly, attachment theory can also be applied to drug addiction treatment, using information about an individual’s early life to facilitate insight and change.
If you are reading this on any other blog than The Lakehouse Recovery Center or via my RSS Feed, it is stolen content without credit. | https://lakehouserecoverycenter.com/blog/addiction-help-learning-early-attachments/ |
Attachment theory is a concept in developmental psychology according to which a strong physical and emotional bond to a preferred attachment figure, usually the mother, is crucial for a child's normal social and emotional development. It was developed by the British psychologist, psychiatrist and psychoanalyst John Bowlby (1907 to 1990) between the 1950s and the late 1960s and later expanded by researchers like Mary Ainsworth. The theory describes the human propensity to proximity seeking, especially in infants from six months to two years of age, to a preferred attachment figure. Human beings are born helpless and their ability to connect to another individual gives them a sense of stability and security and increases their chances of survival. Parental responses are internalized and influence an individual's behavior in later relationships as an adult. Responsive and emotionally available caregivers who respond to the infant's needs raise individuals with an internally developed working model of intimate relationships. Unresponsive and emotionally unavailable parents are often seen to be the reason for aggressive behavior in children. It is important to distinguish between the concepts of attachment, attachment behavior and attachment behavioral system, which characterize the psychodynamic, the behavioral and the cognitive components of attachment theory. Attachment is the emotional bond to the caregiver and it can be secure and insecure. Crying, calling, reaching out and suckling on the caregiver are signals for positive attachment.
Attachment behavior refers to the need of the infant to stay in close proximity to the caregiver. It is observed in cases of separation or detachment and has a protective and instructive function. The protective function is in cases of danger when the infant seeks the proximity of its preferred attachment figure for security and comfort. In the absence of danger, the instructive function allows the child to interact and explore its surroundings while the mother serves as a secure base. Both attachment and attachment behavior are part of the attachment behavioral system which represents the relationship between the individual and its caregiver and the particular type of attachment. There are three main characteristics of attachment relationships: proximity seeking to a preferred figure, the "secure base," effect and separation protest. Proximity seeking refers to the dependency of the child on its caregiver and its need to stay close to one preferred figure. According to Bowlby, attachment is "monotropic," in nature because it occurs with a "discriminated figure," usually the mother, who is the main caregiver. However, children often seek the proximity of a small group of figures including the father, siblings and grandparents. The extent of proximity maintenance depends on the child's age and other outside factors such as potential danger or fear of separation. The "secure base," effect, first described by Mary Ainsworth, describes the mother as the safe haven to which the child goes for security and comfort when it is afraid or feels threatened. The secure base provided by the mother allows the child to explore the surrounding world.
The separation protest occurs when the child becomes upset and distressed because it is separated from its preferred attachment figure. In this case the infant is trying to punish the caregiver by crying, screaming, biting and kicking in a way to prevent separation and restore proximity.
If a child avoids its caregivers then it has an avoidant attachment to them. It is a consequence mainly of psychological unavailability and abusive or negligent care when children are punished for seeking proximity and comfort. As a result they try to minimize the need of attachment in order to prevent further rejection. The styles of secure attachment, ambivalent-insecure attachment and avoidant-insecure attachment were described by Mary Ainsworth in her Strange Situation research. There she revealed that children who cannot form a secure attachment to their parents in early childhood experience behavioral problems later in life. Early childhood attachment patterns are stored as internal working models and serve as guides in adolescence and adulthood. Neglected children who feel unworthy of care and later become unable to provide for others. Research shows that children with oppositional-defiant disorder (ODD), conduct disorder (CD), or post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) experience attachment problems often due to early abuse, neglect or trauma. | https://www.questia.com/library/psychology/child-and-adolescent-psychology/attachment-theory |
23 Mar 2015
has been conducted primarily in Western cultures, and basic attachment theory concepts such as the caregiver serving as a 'secure base' for exploration, the importance of a caregiver's sensitivity to an infant's communication, or the notion that secure attachment promotes greater social competence are deeply rooted in Western cultural values [and] are not applicable to other cultures." (Wei et al, 2004, p. 408). Discuss the above with focus on the Strange Situation attachment measure. Draw on additional research to support your argument.
Introduction:
There are contrasting views of attachment theory and the actions and signals of infants. What attachment theory does do is give us an insight into child and adult behaviour which is useful when considering this complex relationship. It also offers an alternative theory to those of many major paradigms such as those views held by behaviourists, or Freud's motivational theory.
Studies on strange situation classification in other cultures have sparked a lively debate on their universal versus cultural meaning (Bretherton, 1992). The purpose of this essay, is to provide a summary and critique of current and past research, on the assumption made by Wei, Russel, Mallinckrodt and Zakalik (2004) that most supporting research for attachment theory was conducted in Western cultures and is therefore not applicable to other cultures. The essay will focus mainly on strange situation assessment and how different cultures may affect the infant- caregiver relationship.
Attachment theory was first developed by Bowlby (1969) and is one of the earliest theories of social development. Bowlby, who held the psychoanalytical view that childhood experiences influence behaviour and relationships later in life, believed that the infancy-caregiver relationship was very important when studying attachment in childhood and in adulthood.
Bowlby's work was later elaborated on by Ainsworth (1989) who described attachment as the theory used to explain how childhood attachments serve as a model for future relationships. Ainsworth developed an assessment procedure called 'strange situation' which allowed the relationship between child and caregiver to be observed. Expanding on Bowlby's original theory, four major styles of attachment were found when using Ainsworth strange situation assessment, these were secure, insecure-avoidant, insecure- resistant and insecure-disorganised (Ainsworth, Bleher, Waters & Wall, 1978). Feeney and Noller (1996) stated that the patterns of infant behaviour that define these styles are systematically related to the amount of interaction between mother and infant and to the mother's sensitivity and responsiveness to the infants needs and signals.
Bowlby also believed that the theory of attachment was connected to the broader field of evolutionary psychology; the tendency to make strong emotional bonds to other individuals can be seen as an essential component of human nature (Bowlby, 1988). He suggested that attachment was necessary to promote survival through safety and emotional relationships; it also provides a secure base for exploration.
Evolutionary psychology largely impacted Freud and influenced the development of many of his theories (Brockman, 2007). Fonagy and Target (2005) who studied metallization, and argued that a mother can understand the mental state and attachment relationship of their child, gives an idea of the influence evolutionary psychology may have had on Freud's Psychoanalysis. It was from Freud's theories that Bowlby drew insight concerning the child-caregiver bond. However he was also influenced by developmental psychology and the view that children participate in their own development, he saw this as the defining distinction between attachment theory and other theoretical explanations for child caregiver-bonds (Vaughn & Bost, 1999).
Attachment theory can be seen as a biological process, as attachment will still develop even if a child is maltreated, it is not a learnt behaviour (Rutter & rutter, 1992). This can give insight into the nature verses nurture debate in contemporary developmental psychology as it explains how an infant attaches to a caregiver and continues to develop socially with that person as appose to acquiring their behavioural traits from birth.
Strange situation distributions across cultures:
Many studies have suggested that strange situation distributions differ across and within cultures; this raises doubt about whether or not we can regard how infants behave in the strange situation context as a valid indication of their attachment (Sagi, Van IJzendoorn & Koren-karie, 1991).Miyake, Chen and Campos (1985) found that distributions of attachment in Japanese children differed largely from that of the American 'standard' distribution (Ainsworth et al., 1978) where 70% of children formed a secure attachment to their caregiver, as appose to Japanese children who had a relatively large percentage of resistant attachment relationships. It was suggested that this could be due to Japanese children not being separated from there mothers on regular occasions (Miyake et al., 1985).
These cultural differences spark the question on whether or not attachment behaviours mean the same for each child and whether the behaviour they show in the strange situation can be accepted as their attachment.
Van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988) examined almost two thousand strange situation classifications obtained from eight different countries, they concluded that cross cultural validity should not be doubted only because it differs from Ainsworth et al.'s (1978) US 'standard' as its status is only achieved though aggregation over a wide diversity.
A study using strange situation assessment conducted by Keromoian and Leideman (1986) used 26 African children aged 8 to 27 months, they found similar results to findings in western studies where 61% of infants showed secure attachment to their mothers and 54% to other caregivers. These findings help provide validity for the strange situation assessment as they show that attachment in African infants is similar to that of infants in Western cultures.
Socialisation patterns and care giving circumstances have an impact on the perceived stressfulness of the strange situation in different cultures (Harwood, Miller & Irizarry, 1995). For example Grossman, Grossman, Spangler, Syess and Unzner (1985) carried out a study on German infants they found that two thirds of their sample were observed to be insecurely attached.
The suggestion for these findings was that German culture highly valued independence, and that some interpersonal distance was held between parent and child (Eysenck, 2004). German parents were found to consider some aspects of secure attachment in a negative way; this was reflected in the upbringing of their children (Sagi & Lewkowicz, 1987). The strange situation assessment may then produce less stress in German children as they are more used to episodes without their caregiver (Grossman et al., 1985) as appose to Japanese children who are given less independence as infants (Miyake et al., 1985).
However the fact that secure attachment is associated with many valued characteristics does not mean that this is necessarily the best form of attachment, children that obtain avoidant attachment may do so as these are the characteristics best suited for their culture (Harwood, 1995). So we can see that the notion of secure attachment being the best to promote children's proficiency is based mainly in western cultures.
Strange situation assessment is used to observe the relationship between infant and caregiver (Ainsworth, 1989) and gives us an insight into the different types of attachment infants may acquire. Although different cultures may affect the way in which a mother or caregiver reacts with their infant, it does not refer research from observing the importance of a caregivers sensitivity towards an infant and how this may affect the type of attachment that is formed.
Ainsworth (1963, 1967) studied the differences in the quality of mother- infant interaction in Uganda; she found that secure attachment was significantly correlated with maternal sensitivity, infants of sensitive mothers became securely attached whilst infants of less sensitive mothers were more likely to form an insecure attachment (Bretherton, 1992). Ainsworth, Bell and Stayton (1974) found in a study on Baltimore infants, those that had shown avoidant or resistant styles of attachment in the strange situation had a less sensitive relationship with their caregiver than those that showed secure attachment (Bretherton, 1992). The fact that similar patterns were observed in both settings became the basis for Ainsworth's assumption that attachment theory constructs are culturally universal (Wei, Russell, Mallinckrodt and Zakalik, 2004).
However Western attachment investigators have began to acknowledge the affect of cultural differences on attachment, yet they tend to maintain the idea that caregiver sensitivity is universal (van IJzendoorn & Sagi, 1999; Waters, Vaughn, Posada, & Kondo-Ikemura, 1995).
However fundamental differences can be seen in security between cultures for example, a study conducted on 20 preschool teachers, nine from United States and eleven from Japan; found that U.S teachers reacted to expressions of need, whilst Japanese teachers tended to anticipate the needs of their children (Rothbaum, Nagaoka & Ponte, 2006).
These findings suggest cultural differences in sensitivity, as sensitivity has been linked to attachment security it is apparent that these differing types of sensitivity will produce different levels of attachment. Fuertes, Dos Santos, Beeghly and Tronick (2007) found that attachment quality can be influenced by multiple factors, including infant temperament, coping behaviour, and mainly maternal sensitivity.
However it could easily be argued that the Rothbaum, Nagaoka and Ponte (2006) study only used a small sample of American and Japanese preschool teachers', and only concerns Japanese and American culture and can therefore not be generalised to a larger population. It also only focuses on the different levels of sensitivity between the cultures and not on the attachment relationship that is formed as a consequence of sensitivity.
Bowlby (1969) suggested that secure-base behaviour was regulated by a neurally represented control system that coordinated various input (mother's location/availability) with a set goal, to initiate attachment behaviours and exploration (Posada et al., 1995).
Bowlby drew on the Darwinian theory of Evolution to help make evident his attachment control system theory; he suggested that this control system was a product of natural selection (Posada et al., 1995). With this assumption it can be argued that if the control system that produced secure- base behaviour has occurred in humans through natural selection then it will be apparent across all cultures.
However although the concept of secure base may be evident across all cultures, it does not necessarily mean that the secure-base principle holds the same meaning for different cultures. The notion that a secure-base provides foundation for exploration is mainly emphasised in Western cultures, the belief that exploration will lead to a more independent individual is not likely to be shared by say Japanese culture, who as seen above do not promote independence ().
In Puerto Rico people live by ethics of community and are more concerned with things like respect, duty and obligation, for them attachment has more to do with the awareness of a person and situations in which these values must be exhibited ( ). This suggests that although all cultures see the importance in the secure-base concept, its meaning differs greatly.
It is clear that a vast amount of cross cultural studies of strange situation have focused on describing cultural differences in attachment classifications and attributing these differences to cultural practices ( Feeney & Noller, 1996). For example Grossman, Grossman, Spangler, Syess and Unzner (1985) and Miyake et al., (1985) studies showed differences in attachment due to cultural differences in parenting i.e. early independence in Germans.
From the research and arguments above it can be assumed that culture does play some role in the attachment style infants acquire and on some level the sensitivity shown by caregivers. However although secure attachment is meant to be the most dominant across cultures we cannot assume that infants that form insecure attachment bonds will become less successful adults, as the attachments formed may promote behaviour that is best suited to their culture. We must also be aware that there are other factors that may affect the attachment relationship seen in Ainsworth's strange situation, for example infant temperament. Each infant and caregiver differ even within cultures, there may still be a large diversity of people within a culture that would show different levels of sensitivity and parental technique to their infant.
The cultural effects may make the strange situation technique questionable as a reliable procedure for determining attachment bonds, but it is still able to give a great deal of information and understanding on the relationship between mother/caregiver and infant and how the bond formed affects the adult relationships and personality, for future researchers to elaborate on further.
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An emotional bond between an infant or animal and its caregiver, contributing to the infant or animal's experience of safety, comfort, and security while in the caregiver's presence and distress when temporarily separated.
Many developmental psychologists view attachment—the special relationship between infant and care-giver—as an important building block for later relationships and adult personality. Since attachment plays a central role in theories of social and emotional development, the scientific study of attachment has remained in the forefront of developmental psychology for the past several decades.
John Bowlby, a psychoanalytically trained clinician, developed modern attachment theory in the 1950s as a variant of object-relations, which was a variant of Freud's theory that the infant's tie to the mother is the cornerstone of adult personality.
Bowlby integrated a number of approaches into his theory, including systems and evolutionary theories to formulate a modern attachment theory.
Before widespread acceptance of Bowlby's theory, psychologists viewed attachment as a secondary drive, derived from primary drives like hunger. It was thought that attachment to the mother occurred because she supplied food and became the object of the infant's attachment through association with feeding and the reduction of other primary needs. Prior to Bowlby's theory, behaviorist psychologists theorized that the need for attachment arose from an infant's physical needs for food and warmth, both of which were provided by the mother. They believed that a baby's preference for the mother was the result of conditioning. A child was thought to be overly attached if crying and clingy behavior occurred frequently.
Research in the 1950s, however, cast these theories into doubt. One of the most famous research studies in this area was performed by Harry Harlow. He placed infant monkeys in a cage with two surrogate mother dolls: one made of wire holding a bottle of milk and the other made of soft cloth. According to the behaviorist view, the monkey should have developed an attachment to the wire mother because she was the source of food. But the infant monkeys developed attachments to the cloth mothers, suggesting that the need for comfort and warmth are more important, or more psychologically ingrained, than the need for food.
Later experiments with monkeys also revealed the effects secure attachments had on infants. In one experiment, strange foreign objects were introduced to a cage with an infant monkey. When alone, the monkey would react with fear. When the cloth mother was present, however, the infant would first retreat to the mother in fear, but then, having been reassured, it would begin to explore the foreign object. Human infants, too, are much more likely to react with fear to unknowns if a mother is not in the vicinity. With a mother present, however, an infant is much more exploratory—even if the mother is not within sight but nearby.
Bowlby became one of the first to map out stages of attachment, addressed in his writings, including his 1980 book, Attachment and Loss. Bowlby suggested that from birth until about the age of three months, babies are in the initial pre-attachment phase. Here, infants simply need to be held and demonstrate no preference for who does the holding. The next phase, attachment-in-the making phase, takes place from three to four months and is marked by an infant's emerging preference to be held by familiar figures, although it is important to note that the figure does not necessarily have to be the mother. According to Bowlby, the final stage of attachment is the clear-cut attachment phase. Beginning at about six months, this phase features an infant's clear insistence on its mother or its primary caregiver.
Mary Ainsworth, a prominent researcher in attachment and an associate of Bowlby's, devised a test to measure the type and degree of attachment a child feels for his mother. The test, called the Ainsworth Strange Situation test, involves a mother leading her child into a strange room, which the child is free to explore with the mother present. A stranger then enters the room and the mother leaves. If the infant becomes distressed, the stranger will try and console her. The mother then returns and the stranger leaves. In another scenario, the mother leaves again after the stranger returns. Finally, the mother returns for good and the stranger leaves. Based on the infants' response to their mothers' return, children are labeled "securely attached," "avoidant," or "ambivalent."
Psychologists believe that attachment serves to help children begin exploring the world. As the above studies show, if presented with a strange situation, an infant will either avoid or engage in exploration, chiefly dependent upon whether an attachment figure is present. Additionally, it has been shown that lack of attachment in early life can have a negative impact on exploratory propensity in later life. In 1971, researchers separated a group of monkeys from their mothers for six days and then analyzed their behaviors two years later in comparison to a control group that had not undergone separation. The group that had been separated was observed to be far more reticent in exploratory behaviors than the control group. Still other studies indicate that cognitive functioning in children is enhanced among "securely attached" (according to the Ainsworth scale) infants.
See also Behaviorism; Stranger anxiety
Further Reading
Karen, Robert. Becoming Attached: Unfolding the Mysteries of the Infant-Mother Bond and Its Impact on Later Life. New York: Warner Books., 1994.
Thompson, Andrea. "The Affection Factor." Working Mother (April 1995): 63.
Wise, Nicole. "What's in Passion?" Parenting (May 1993): 131. | https://psychology.jrank.org/pages/49/Attachment.html |
An investigation in to how a woman's attachment style influences her Adult Romantic Relationships.
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O'Flaherty, Anne
Date
2008
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BA (Hons) Counselling and Psychotherapy
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http://hdl.handle.net/10788/2537
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Dublin Business School
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Abstract
This research project reviews the current attachment styles of single and married women over thirty five. It primarily investigates the difficulties single women have in attaching in adult romantic relationships, and suggests Bowlby's theory on attachment style could have an effect. It begins with a review of attachment theory and states that an understanding of adult attachment is crucial for an understanding of the effects of attachment styles on relationships. It addresses the effect that each attachment style has on romantic relationships. The attachment style that developed with the primary caregiver continues in adulthood and is then reinforced by the selection of a partner with a similar attachment style. Participants with a secure style were found to be more comfortable with closeness and intimacy. Participants with a fearful, preoccupied or dismissing attachment style tend to have problems in attaching securely. Romantic love is a property of the attachment behavioural system of John Bowlby and according to his theory the parent/child relationship transfers to adult romantic relationships. This project examines this. | https://esource.dbs.ie/handle/10788/2537 |
Teacher recommended?
- Created by: khan
- Created on: 12-05-13 13:27
core theory - bowlby
- he belived a child needs one primary attachment ( monotrohy, usually with their mother).
- he also belived that they have a critical period for developing attachments 2/3 years.
- he belived i something called privation and deprivation.
- privation ( when a child does not form an attachment to a caregiver).
- deprivation ( when a child has formed an attachment to a caregiver, but it is broken).
evaluation of bowlby
- critics argue that children can make multiple attachments.
- bowbly said that there was a critical period but other example show it can be formed after this.
- bowlby argued the effects of deprivation were irreversible, others argue against this.
alternative theory - behaviourist theory
- behaviourists argue attachment is a result of learning (nurture).
- behaviour is reinforced, when a child is affectionate, their parents reward them and encourage their attached behaviour.
- classical and operant conditioning (associations between parent and getting needs met).
- social learning theory (modelling of others).
core study - Hazen and shaver
aim- wanted to see if attachment type in childhood reflected attachment type in adulthood.
method- questionaire was used to collect information from an opportunity sample of a group of people aged between 14 and 82. it was carried out in the US and was called the love quiz. there were two variabes that were measured: persons infant type and their attitude to their current adult relationship.
results- 1200 replies were recieved and 620 were analysed. adults with secure infant attachment had happy relationships as adults.
limitations of the study
- sampling method may have caused a unrepresentative sample.
- questionaires rely too much on respondents giving honest and accurate answers.
key concepts
attachment - an enduring bond formed with a significant other.
seperation protest - when an individual goes into distress when their attached figure leaves them.
stranger anxiety - when an individual shows anxiety and distress in the presence of an unfamiliar person.
secure attachment - when a child and caregiver have a relationship of trust and security.
insecure avoidant - the child is quite independant of the caregiver.
insecure ambivalent - a chld can be demanding and awkard with the caregiver.
applications - care of children
care of children in hospitals - ensure the child knows exactly what is happening; try to allow for regular visits/ primary caregiver being allowed to stay in the hospital.
day care - give meaningful activites, try to keep the same staff.
care of children in the family - keep continuity of caregivers. | https://getrevising.co.uk/revision-cards/attachment_50 |
Attachment is the deep connection established between a child and their primary caregiver, that profoundly affects the child’s development and their ability to express emotions and build meaningful relationships later in life.
Attachment becomes the engine of subsequent social, emotional, and cognitive development. This early experience of the infant stimulates growth of neuro-pathways that will sculpt enduring patterns of response in relationship.
The attachment experience affects personality development and a child’s sense of security. Research shows that it influences the ability to form stable relationships throughout life. Neuroscientists have found that attachment is such a primal need that there are networks of neurons in the brain dedicated to setting it in motion. The attachment development and experience provides the infant’s first coping system. Once established, attachment contains the platform for a child’s ability to survive independently.
Think about how incredible these facts are…. Science shows us that we were created for LOVE. From the moment we were formed in our mother’s womb, the attachment experience began. This need for love and attachment is a fundamental as well as crucial building block that we are hardwired for. Neuroscientist and attachment specialist Dr. Bruce Perry has been quoted to say that “Neurobiological research is clear that if children do not receive love, there is great insult on their development.”
Bowlby, a developmental psychologist, psychiatrist and the originator of attachment theory, came to the conclusion throughout his research that “the initial relationship between self and others serves as a blueprint for all future relationships.” Therefore, when our primary attachment experience is positive and we have an attentive, loving, protective caregiver we learn to trust, feel safe, and develop the ability to regulate and cope in our world. When there is great insult on our primary attachment relationship, and therefore to our development, we are left as adults without a healthy blueprint causing many painful experiences and greatly affecting the quality of relationships we may experience throughout our life span. We also may experience difficult situations or even trauma throughout our life. When this happens, we rely on our attachment system to recover or repair from such trauma. When an attachment system has been formed in an unhealthy way it impairs us greatly.
Early childhood experiences can deeply affect the attachment formed between the infant or child and caregiver. Things such as trauma, foster care, adoption, postpartum depression, drug abuse, a stay in the NICU, neglect or abuse have a significant and profound effect on the attachment cycle and can impair one’s ability to trust.
Attachment is also the way that children learn how to regulate themselves emotionally and physically. For example when a baby cries, the caregiver, usually without even thinking, will hold the baby and comfort them by co-regulating (holding, singing, bouncing, breathing calmly, talking to). We do not expect this baby to come into the world knowing how to regulate themselves. By co-regulating with the child or infant over many, many times, neural pathways are formed that teach the child how to self-regulate later. When this is not accomplished, we may see children, teens or even adults that don’t have the skill to regulate emotions and therefore will turn to other things to help regulate. These things could include self-harm, drugs, alcohol, unhealthy relationships or any other way to escape and manage the overwhelming emotions as they did not have the opportunity to master the skill of being able to self-regulate. So they live in a place where emotions are intolerable, desperately looking for relief from the emotional pain.
When an infant or child experiences their needs being met consistently, whether that be for comfort, to satisfy hunger or any other need, the child then internalizes the message of “I am safe,” “I am valuable,” “I belong” and “I can trust.” This happens at an early age and continues to develop over time through many interactions between the child and caregiver.
Attachment does not end in childhood, we carry those skills and experiences from early childhood into all of our relationships. It forms our view of our self-worth, our ability to trust, as well as our ability to feel safe in all relationships, especially close relationships and intimate partnerships. When there is a disconnect in relationship or a cycle of miscommunication or hurt, we can look at the attachment style and system of each person and help to establish healthy coping mechanisms as well as healthy relationships by looking at the attachment patterns. Whether we are working with a child and parent system to help prepare and build healthy attachment or we are working with an adult that needs help building a healthy attachment system to overcome a current life situation, we use the lens of attachment and trauma to understand ways to help regulate and establish healthy coping skills.
You may be wondering how your childhood experiences have shaped your attachment style. Let’s discuss Attachment Styles and how they develop…
Secure Attachment Style: We experience secure attachment when a caregiver is available, sensitive & responsive to emotional needs of the child. There is comfort in a warm, loving & emotionally close relationship. This relationship communicates emotions and needs honestly and openly.
This type of attachment experience allows children to grow into adults who can be close with a partner and also independent.
Anxious Attachment Style: We can develop this style when a caregiver is inconsistently responsive and unpredictable to the emotional needs of the child. The child then worries about rejection and abandonment and often stays in high alert.
This type of attachment experience leads to adults who have an ongoing need for reassurance from any partner and a struggle to trust that partner. This attachment style is highly emotional and struggles with personal boundaries.
Avoidant Attachment Style: When a caregiver is very emotionally unattuned, distant and rigid toward child it leads the child to learn how to be emotionally distant in order to the avoid the pain of rejection.
This type of attachment in an adult leads to distancing and rejecting behavior in intimate relationship, keeping his/her partner at arms length.
Disorganized Style of Attachment: This style may develop when a caregiver behaved inconsistently, was abusive, intrusive, and/or neglectful of child’s needs. The very one who was meant to protect and nurture the child harms the child. The one the child depends on and “needs” is also the one who hurts the child. This child struggles to learn how to regulate emotions, has difficulty with empathy and in turn can become aggressive.
This type of adult cannot tolerate emotional closeness in a relationship and can repeat patterns of abuse and dysfunctional relationship patterns.
As an adult we can work to heal our attachment wounds. Change begins with awareness. By having insight into our developmental trauma and seeking out a therapist who also understands, we can develop the skills and coping strategies needed to learn to regulate, as well as build and maintain meaningful relationships. | https://healingheartsccaz.com/attachment/ |
Let’s get on the same page.
Attachment theory was a concept developed by the British psychiatrist and psychotherapist John Bowlby, who worked in a Child Guidance Clinic in the 1930s. During his time in this career, he treated many emotionally troubled children.
His experiences here caused him to consider the social, emotional, and cognitive development of a young child’s bond with his or her mother. And so, attachment theory was born and is a field of study that is very much discussed and implemented to this day.
It’s believed that attachment is vital as a survival instinct. A baby will be attached to their parents for survival because, without them, they wouldn’t be able to exist. Since it’s an instinct, attachment theory is all about describing the “long-term psychological bond between people.”
Over time, it’s been defined that there are at least three key functions that are served by a secure attachment. These are:
It’s vital to remember that attachment type is a relationship-level description, not an individual’s. It is, as Bowlby called it, a long-term psychological bond between people.
So, since attachment is only assigned to one relationship, why is it so important?
Newborns are “unfinished” when they are born.
At birth, children’s brains are 75% underdeveloped. This means as their brains continue to develop, the relationships they have will play a critical role in the direction their development takes.
Our children’s early attachment style has a significant and long-term impact on how they view and interact with others, as well as providing them with a blueprint for what to expect (and accept) from future relationships.
“Caregivers’ sensitivity, or how well we connect and relate to our kids, how precisely we understand our child’s needs, how fast we respond to those needs, and most significantly, how ready we are to align with our children, has the largest impact on the quality of the attachment bond,” explains Sarah Harrison, a marketing writer at Essay Writing Services.
We, as parents, have the biggest influence on developing a strong bond during the first three years of life when brain development is most rapid and pliable.
Let’s take a closer look at the four attachment styles that children have in order to better understand their effects on long-term mental wellness.
This attachment style is pretty much the bread and butter of attachment styles and the one you’re aiming to achieve.
It’s achieved when children are securely connected and believe that their caregiver will consistently co-regulate their emotions, notice and meet their needs, and provide a safe home base for them to explore their surroundings while returning to them in times of need.
Mothers that are emotionally connected to their children are sensitive, warm, and available. When a baby is securely linked to their caregiver, they are usually distressed when they are removed from them and delighted when they are reunited.
Babies in insecure-avoidant attachment relationships may appear indifferent to their caregiver, act unconcerned when she leaves, and exhibit the same behaviours with strangers.
When the infant is reunited with her mother, she may try to avoid her. When their parents depart, insecurely connected babies are just as physiologically distressed (i.e., elevated heart rates), according to one study, but they have learnt to suppress their emotions in order to stay near to the parent without risking rejection.
Avoidance and emotional distance may become a way of dealing with the world for these children as they get older, and instead of problem-solving, they are more inclined to sulk or retreat.
Attachment is a requirement. Our children will move their attachment requirements to others, such as friends, who are likely incapable attachment figures if we do not fill it. As Gordon Neufeld puts it, it can lead to a peer-oriented approach rather than a parent-oriented approach, which can lead to a slew of problems.
So, if your child is being labelled as clinging, shy, or needy, rest assured that others are only misinterpreting healthy child development, and let’s fix that. Let us put our faith in our children’s need for a secure parent-child relationship, and you can perhaps even secure your own attachment styles and heal your past in the process. | https://www.kidsworldfun.com/blog/developing-a-secure-attachment/ |
According to Bowlby (1969) attachment is a” lasting psychological connectedness between human beings. he argues that babies are born innate that needs to attach to a human figure. The foundation of attachment starts from the mother’s womb, hear her voice and this make a baby nurtured and comforted. According to Ainsworth attachment (1979), Attachment is “an crucial part of the ground plan of the human species for an infant to become attached to a mother figure”. FORMATION OF ATTACHMENT Attachment develops gradually in a space of time rather than suddenly.
Critically evaluate the evidence on children’s early social development in relation to Bowlby’s views on attachment. Positive intimate relationships with spouses, relatives and friends are incredibly important to mental health in adulthood. John Bowlby 's Attachment Theory shows how relational patterns set early in life affect emotional bonds later in life. In 1958, psychologist John Bowlby pioneered "attachment theory," the idea that the early bond between infant and caregiver, and the infant’s need to be close to the caregiver is critical to a child 's emotional development and have a biological basis to ensure survival. The central theme of attachment theory is that mothers who are available and responsive to their infant 's needs establish a sense of security in their children.
Parenting styles literature review At present, it is well known that parents are not the only ones who contribute to the socialization process in children but they are still the main key concept in child development and socialization of children in society as the constitutes the first element of socialization for human beings (Maccoby, 1992). The relationship between parents and their children has a significant influence on the children, the parental styles are considering as effective elements that help the child to shape their view of themselves and their world (Santrock, 2005 as it cited in Sartaj and Aslam, 2010). Pinquart (2017) stated that there were two of perspectives had been adopted in parenting literature: first; a dimensional
Each phase develops on a basis of psychosocial crisis, such as intimacy versus isolation, or initiative versus guilt. Through each crisis, a basic virtue is established, such as hope. The first psychosocial phase of development occurs from the moment of birth to the age of about one and a half years. During this phase, infants are faced with the crisis of trust versus mistrust; infants are trying to determine whether the world is safe or if it should be feared, and the goal is to establish the virtue of hope in the infant. Given consistent and dependable care, infants will begin to gain a sense of trust in their caretaker.
Bowlby(1958) suggested that attachment can come from the caregiver providing safety and security for the infant. According to Bowlby, babies actively seek close proximity with their caregiver when under stress or threatened(Prior and Glaser,
The children of authoritarian parents tend to be controlled through shaming, the withdrawal of love, or other punishments and reasons for rules are not usually explained (Baumrind 1966). According to the research of Baumrind parenting styles shows results of predicting child well-being in the key areas of social competence, academic performance, behaviour and psychological development. Children and adolescents from authoritarian families tend to perform moderately well in school and be uninvolved in problem behavior, but they have poorer social skills, lower self-esteem, and higher levels of depression (Baumrind
Although parents may differ in how they exert control or socialize their children and the extent to which they do so, it is assumed that the primary role of all parents is to influence, educate, and socialize their children. The authoritative style of parenting has the following characteristics: an expectation of independence and mature behaviour from the child and clear setting of standards by the parents; firm enforcement of rules and standards, using commands and sanctions when necessary; encouragement of the child’s independence and individuality. Baumrind (1991), stated that in parental control and support, authoritative parenting style is high. She found that the
His theory is helpful for child development and adults too. The five Erikson’s stages of development are trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame and doubt, initiative vs. guilt, competency vs. inferiority and the last one is identity vs. role confusion. Freud and Erik’s theories have some similarities and differences in some stages of development. In the first stage of Freud’s theory he says oral stage is the weaning process where the child must become less independent upon caretakers. At the stage of 1st year Eric says it’s the stage of trust vs. mistrust.
Trice’s (1995) review of Ginzberg’s theory stated that during the fantasy choice, “children … aspire wifely and impulsively with the principal constraints being the father’s occupation and parental suggestions”. Ginzberg (1988) didn’t hint parental again until the tentative and realistic choice stages, in which he stated that children much, “work out a compromise between their interests, capacities, and values, and the opportunities and limitations of the environment”. It can be inferred that these “opportunities and limitations of the environment” may include parental influence, although he did not mention it specifically. He did however, say that the families were too relaxed by saying to children: “You make any choice you want. All I want is for you to be happy” (Ginzberg, 1988).
Whether that be a short or long period. Maternal Deprivation occurs when an attachment is ‘broken’. He also believes that the attachment figure does not have to be the mother of the child. It is known that Bowlby was in fact brought up by his nurse maid, Minnie and his Nanny, Nanny Friend. This is perhaps why he believes it doesn’t have to be the mother who gives the child love and affection in their early years. | https://www.ipl.org/essay/John-Bowlbys-Theory-Of-Attachment-Research-F358U92PCEDR |
This is the third of three blogs under the title
Individual Differences in Leadership and Engagement: Why Relationships matter.
Attachment Theory
Attachment theory or attachment is the foundation that helps explain not only the importance of leaders relationships but also an individuals functioning effectively and their ability to engage with their work. Attachment gives deeper meaning to the behaviors and emotions that leaders see in others everyday but struggle to understand and deal with. Attachment helps to explain how individuals “survive” internal bouts of uncertainty, confusion, and fear, as well as organizational conflicts, and engagement in their work and relationships. Attachment also explains how behaviors, once necessary to perform and succeed, are now interfering with productive relationships, and hinders rather than advances individual and team performance.
John Bowlby, a British psychoanalyst, originally developed attachment theory. Attachment Theory describes the formation and quality of relationships between individuals, particularly during times of stress, uncertainty, and confusion. Attachment is widely considered one of the most influential, scientifically tested, theories of human behavior and emotional regulation within the workplace. Seven decades of research has shown that attachment is a universal characteristic that predicts an individual’s development of relationship competence and positive self-image, essential elements of a leader’s ability to engage and inspire others and to be inspired and engaged themselves.
When you work with a public that is often very demanding and fickle at the same time , economic conditions, as well as the globalization and diversity of the marketplace, and you add in the uncertainty of shareholder concerns, supply chain disruptions, advancing technology, and new and expanding government policies and regulations, these struggles are quite likely to create the types of anxious, confusing, and threatening circumstances that activate attachment. Attachment has four defining characteristics:
- The primary feature is to and maintain physical and psychological proximity to the caretaker, that special individual who is stronger, wiser, and more capable.
- The second characteristic is that the attachment figure or primary caregiver acts as a safe haven or a source of comfort and security for the individual so that they experience diminished anxiety and/or relief from threatening circumstances.
- Third, the attachment figure serves as a secure base from which the individual explores the social and physical world. Here that means he/she is free to engage with coworkers, leadership and the organization, to be innovative, and problem solve. Just as Mitzi was free to continue on with our morning walk.
- Lastly, the individual experiences increased anxiety during unwanted or prolonged separation from the attachment figure.
Mental Models
Our early experiences actually shape our brain circuits and become represented as mental models of how we feel about ourselves and how we feel about others. Through repeated experiences, our mental models become automatic, acting at an unconscious level, and they have a lasting effect on future relationships and interactions at work!
By viewing the world through our mental models, all of us enact or construe experiences to fit their particular model. These unconscious strategies shape the way we interpret our interactions with clients, our coworkers, and managers, and affect the ways we behave towards others. Positive mental models become a source of strength, confidence, flexibility, and adaptability. Negative working models are a source of rigid or chaotic thinking that can lead to inappropriate or dysfunctional behaviors, the results of which stifle a person’s confidence and ability to actively engage with others and their work.
Because our brains are constantly bombarded with information. In order to do our work, our brains need to filter out and prioritize the information it receives. And when information is missing, our brains, based on this filtering, often fill in the blanks. Again, so we can go about our daily lives and function at work. That’s the good news! The bad news is that the brain also filters information and works to exclude information that goes against what we believe and expect from other people and about the circumstances or situations that we are in. And it does this even when there is evidence to the contrary. This is one of the big reasons efforts at organizational change can be so difficult.
Attachment Styles
Mary Ainsworth, a colleague of Bowlby’s, documented that these powerful mental models become organized into different patterns of behavior she called attachment styles. Currently four attachment styles have been identified.
The first attachment style is called secure. When the mother or caregiver consistently engages with an infant in a timely and appropriate fashion, any perceived “threat” is reduced. Then, the infant is able to calm down and she experiences her caregiver as reliable, helpful and supportive. The infant feels safe and secure in her world. Just as Mitzi felt safe with me.
Securely attached people have positive feelings about themselves and others, and can fully bring themselves towards their work and towards working with others, as well as learning new things (i.e. a new computer system). Moreover, if they run into difficulties, they feel confident that they can problem solve and/or gain support and help from their supervisor, manager or leader. The individual understands and balances the need for working alone and working together as a team.
Further, research findings show that when employees have a supportive, secure relationship with their leader, one where they feel a sense of security, they are more likely to trust others, work harder and follow directions, and to willingly devote themselves to the goals and objectives of the organization.
The second attachment style is called insecure/anxious. When an employee is faced with stressful situations and the leader’s responsiveness is out of sync with the employees needs, the employee experiences the leaders, or attachment figure, as unreliable, worries about the attachment figures support and accessibility, and is uncertain that relief from the stress will be provided. Their success at seeking and maintaining proximity to their attachment figure has been experienced as erratic, causing the employee to remain in a heightened state of anxiety.
Internally, the threat of disappointing, making a mistake, or not knowing makes the employee constantly strive to cover every eventuality. They constantly ask themselves, “Have I?” “Did I?” “Will I?” And “What if?” This constant anxiety takes a lot of energy out of us and our brains will not allow us to remain in this chronic state of heightened anxiety for very long. This can lead to excessive feelings and behavior based on guilt, agitation, and even anger, as well as poorer work performance.
The last two types of attachment style occur due to a leader’s ongoing or constant failure to provide support and comfort to their employees, they have abdicated their responsibility as the stronger, wiser, and more capable attachment figure.
The insecure/dismissing individual holds a positive image of himself or herself but a negative image or distrust of everyone else. They have an over-inflated view of themselves and attempt to control their fear, their surroundings, and their relationships. Exercising control over their surroundings gives this individual the illusion of safety and security. In some cases, they may engage in the bullying of others and/or pretend neediness or friendship as a means to control others and relieve their own fears or uncertainties.
The fourth attachment style is insecure/fearful. An insecure/fearful individual has a negative image of themselves and lacks trust in themselves or others. Evidence suggests that these individuals appear to be the most susceptible as targets of exploitation or bullying. Highly sensitive and fearful of rejection, these individuals are professionally very competent and skillful and because of this, most likely to be the first ones promoted.
Employees in all four attachment categories experience varying levels of stress, anxiety and confusion, however it is how their leadership responds to their distress that in part determines how well the employee ultimately copes with the stress, anxiety and confusion, as well as engaging actively at work.
Attachment provides the ideal framework for studying leadership and engagement because it stipulates that the need for security and protection is universal and a fundamental need for all employees! What this means is that leaders have their own attachment needs to be concerned with. Therefore, leaders have a dual role to play: one is that of a caregiver, available, supportive and helpful to the employees, and the other as a care-seeker, needing their own support and help to meet the demands of leadership and functioning work. Imagine the conflict resulting from a leader or manager asking and promoting engagement when everything inside of them is saying something different!
In general, as leaders, the feelings of anger, frustration, helplessness, confusion and anxiety that you experience in response to employees, are all useful tools for recognizing how various attachment styles are brought into the workplace and interact with each other to help or hinder inspiring and engaging others and engaging with others.
The principle objective here was to indicate the importance of positive relationship functioning between leaders and employees and its importance to active engagement at work. While there are significant challenges relative to leadership and engagement remaining, this post suggests three of those challenges might be:
- Where are YOU when it comes to providing the safe and secure environment? Like all positive, well-functioning relationships, if the leader is secure, then the promotion of safety and security for the employees is somewhat assured, freeing the employee to learn, develop and perform (i.e. engagement). However if the leader is insecure, then it’s quite likely the employees may adopt mistaken behaviors or actions he/she gets from the leader, under the mistaken belief that these behaviors and actions are the norm. In the latter case, the cycle of disrupted relationships continues, affecting the engagement of both of you.
- Once you are aware of how relationships can hamper your efforts at inspiring and engaging with others, then you are in a better position to do something about it.
- That we have widely different levels beyond which we begin to feel anxious and unsafe, and relief from these threatening circumstances becomes the primary motivator of our behavior.
Engagement is a choice, not a process. Engagement is a feeling, not a command. When threatening circumstances appear, leadership becomes a choice, and engagement happens when leaders choose to look out for those they lead, to provide an environment and the types of relationships that makes everyone feel safe and secure—just like with Mitzi and me (see the start of the first blog of this blog chain).
Note: This post is based, and has been expanded, on a talk given by Simon Sinek that is available on Ted.com. It is also based on a presentation I made at a leadership conference, May 2015, hosted by the Midwest Division of Quest Diagnostics in Denver, CO. Slides and complete citations for the presentation are available upon request. | https://www.hrchitects.net/relationships-matter-for-engagement-3/?shared=email&msg=fail |
Jie Wang. (2011). Analysis and Attestation of Linguistic Evidence in Judicial Practices. International Journal of Law, Language & Discourse 1(1), 54-66.
Abstract: On the basis of analysis of the mobile messages between the plaintiff and the defendant in the defamation case of Yang v Hu in which the authors testified as expert witness, this study shows that analyzing and attesting controversial linguistic evidence is indispensable in judicial proceedings. The expert opinion related to such kinds of linguistic evidence can help judges in maintaining the strength to the proof of the linguistic evidence. The main themes approached in this study are: the absence of the analysis and attestation of the key linguistic evidence in the court judgment, analysis of the linguistic evidence in the mobile messages as the linguistic evidence of the case, and status quo of legislation on expert witness of linguistic evidence in China. | https://www.ijlld.com/926/volume-1/1-1-wang/ |
The closing years of the 20th century provided increasing evidence of how changes in the political and socio-economic structures influence or sometimes even determine linguistic structure and/or behaviour. For this purpose the linguistic situation in Ukraine and the position of Ukrainian and Russian are examined in the period since the independence of the country in 1991 when rapid shifts in political, economic and cultural spheres have made a significant impact on language planning.Language politics of post-Perestroika and post-Communist era in Ukraine has resulted in deliberate changes in both status and corpus planning leading to the elevation of Ukrainian as the only official (“state”) language and downgrading Russian which, however, remains functional in many regions of the country. The linguistic picture would be incomplete without analysis of a mixed Russian-Ukrainian variety Surzhyk, which is not something stable and permanent. It is undergoing significant changes in the present linguistic environment as it is becoming the oral and even written language not only of Ukrainophones but also of Russophones.
Keywords: language planning, language politics, Surzhyk, Ukraine, Ukrainian language, Russian language
Published online: 10 July 2003
https://doi.org/10.1075/jlp.1.2.04kro
https://doi.org/10.1075/jlp.1.2.04kro
References
Chyrkov, Oleh
Clyne, Michael
Editorial
Fishman, Joshua A.
Jernudd, Bjorn
Kachlovs’kyj, Les’
Kaplan, Robert B. and Richard B. Baldauf Jr.
Kloss, Heinz
Kocherha, Olha
Panchuk, May
Plyushch, Maria
Ponomariv, Oleksandr
Sheremet, Hanna and Lesya Xanzha
Sheremet, Hanna, Natalja Trofimova, Oleksandr Michel’son
Shevelov, George Y.
Tauli, Valter
Cited by
Cited by 1 other publications
Krouglov, Alex
This list is based on CrossRef data as of 19 april 2022. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers. Any errors therein should be reported to them. | https://benjamins.com/catalog/jlp.1.2.04kro |
Studying policy and politics: bringing linguistic ethnography to interpretive policy analysis
Interpretive policy analysis and linguistic ethnography have both added important dimensions to our work. Rather than attributing different aspects of our work to different approaches (which tends to dichotomise rather than synthesise), we conclude by describing how our own dialogue across interpretive policy analysis and linguistic ethnography has enabled us to better understand and analyse the dispersed, microlevel practices that make-up health policy and planning, and the role of think tanks in shaping these.
This dialogue between linguistic ethnography and interpretive policy analysis is best illustrated with a concrete example. The work of Goffman is frequently drawn on by those adopting linguistic ethnography (see Rampton, Maybin and Roberts, this volume). It was an area of work that we engaged with on the Key Concepts course, encouraging us to connect with dramaturgical theory (specifically performance and impression management, Goffman, 1959). Whilst this work is highly relevant to our own research, it tends to focus on specific instances of interaction in single, defined spaces (e.g. classroom, police interview room) rather than multiple and dispersed micro-level policy practices. Engagement with interpretive policy analysis enabled us to foreground policy and planning as the object of our study, theorise them and then, building on Goffman's work (1959, see also Degeling, 1996), connect with relevant sensitising concepts (front-stage and back-stage) to guide our analysis. In this way, we connected the concepts and methods of linguistic ethnography with the policy-oriented approach of interpretive policy analysis.
The social theory allied to interpretative policy analysis has been important in guiding our conceptualisation of policy as a series of dispersed, micro-level practices (Yanow, 1996; Bacchi, 2000; Stone,
2001; Hajer and Wagenaar, 2003; Hajer, 2005; Wagenaar, 2011). This has guided data collection to ensure (as far as possible) that a range of actors, settings, interactions, artefacts and arguments allied to policy and planning were included within our study. We have at times been frustrated by a limited attention to data and close analysis of language within interpretive policy analysis (see, for instance, an article examining the development of alcohol policy, which employs 'rhetorical frame analysis' but then holds back from detailed analysis of language or rhetoric [Hawkins and Holden, 2013]). For us, this is where linguistic ethnography comes to the fore: the dialogue between language and context is one of the qualities of linguistic ethnography that we valued most and, guided by social and political theory, has led us to explore both 'front-stage' and 'back-stage' contexts of think tanks' work, along with the different linguistic resources employed in each; and to undertake close analysis of think tank language and arguments.
There is a clear commitment in linguistic ethnography to making analytic claims accountable to evidence (Rampton, Maybin and Roberts, this volume). We described above how policy is simultaneously distributed via multiple and dispersed policy practices, and at the same time held in common via overarching policy narratives that make sense of events and guide action. This presents particular challenges for us in 'making analytic claims accountable' (ibid.). Whereas many linguistic ethnography studies are able to demonstrate the key analytic point in a small strip of talk or a few exchanges, analysis of health policy and planning narratives often stretches over multiple and extended documents and/or exchanges and cannot easily be captured in a specific segment of data. Whilst this does not detract from close analysis, it does make it difficult to present 'evidence' of analytic claims in the conventional way. This is an irresolvable characteristic of our work. However, the dialogue between linguistic ethnography and interpretive policy analysis has been helpful in simultaneously encouraging us to undertake close analysis of policy practices (in ways that are unusual for linguistic ethnography) and pushing us to evidence our analysis (in ways not traditionally undertaken within interpretive policy analysis).
It has been argued that linguistic ethnography brings 'a formal, abstract discipline and tried and tested, finely-tuned methods for analysing text together with more open, reflexive social orientation of ethnographic methods, which offer analytic purchase on the related social practices and structures' (Tusting and Maybin, 2007: 576). This dual focus encourages rigorous linguistic work that also addresses social practice. However, it can lead to methodological tensions between the more 'closed' focus on linguistic text and a more 'open' sensitivity to context (ibid.). These tensions are characterised by on-going discussions about if and how language ties ethnography down and ethnography opens linguistics up (Rampton, 2007). In our work on think tanks, we regard this process as a balancing act, negotiating ethnography and language throughout the study so as to enable a conversation about text and context and expand understanding of the ways in which think tanks work to shape health policy.
Methodological tensions also raise interesting questions about the analytic gaze and what counts as data. We have drawn attention to the specific focus on policy as the object of our study and described the ways in which different data sources have, together, helped us to understand the work that think tanks do in shaping NHS reforms. It was interpretive policy analysis that provided a focus on policy, guided consideration of text and context, and enabled us to answer the 'what is data' question. Rather than asking 'what is going on here and how do we know it?' as we were encouraged to do on the Key Concepts course (Shaw, Copland and Snell, this volume), interpretive policy analysis encouraged us to ask 'how does a policy mean?' (Yanow, 1996), and 'how do we know it?'. This guided us to collect different sources and genres of data (documents, interviews) that, together, could provide insight into the overarching architecture of health policy and the narratives, coalitions and arguments allied to it.
Our study of think tanks' role in shaping health policy has illustrated the benefits that can be gained from a dialogue between linguistic ethnography and interpretive policy analysis. Linking language, context and social practice has been particularly valuable. This, of course, is characteristic of other work in the social sciences (Hammersley, 2007; Tusting and Maybin, 2007), with researchers having long been interested in the intimate relationship between policy, political language and political acts (see, for instance, Edelman, 1988; Degeling, 1996; Yanow, 1996; Bacchi, 2000; Fischer, 2003). History aside, it seems that linguistic ethnography has provided us with what Rampton (2007) calls 'a site of encounter': an opportunity to engage with and reflect on 'established lines of inquiry' (for instance, sociolinguistics), to introduce new foci for linguistic ethnography research (for instance, policy and planning), blend linguistic ethnography with relevant social theory and methodology (for instance, through the lens of interpretive policy analysis) and actively engage with an interdisciplinary community of like-minded scholars. | https://ebrary.net/79965/language_literature/studying_policy_politics_bringing_linguistic_ethnography_interpretive_policy_analysis |
This paper is an analysis of utterances produced by a three year old child in two contrastive settings and recorded on cassette tape. It is stated that in order for a child's innate language learning capacity to be activated there are some basic requirements: a supply of linguistic data, a mechanism by which new data may be tested and new rules formulated, and a device which stores those rules until the child is ready to use them. It is further stated that the utterances of the corpus can be divided into three functional categories with distinctive linguistic characteristics: Mimicry, Sound and Phrase Patterning, and Sentence Production. Sentence Production refers to well-formed sentences, described according to Chomsky's model and assumed to be representative of the child's own linguistic creativeness. Mimicry utterances, differing in syntax and lexicon from the utterances in Sentence Production, are analysed as evidence of a linguistic repository. Sound and Phrase Patterning, occurring in series of patterns similar to language learning drills, refers to utterances which can be considered as evidence of a mechanism by which new language forms are tested and additional rules of the language are formulated. | https://scholarworks.calstate.edu/concern/theses/n009w5151 |
The main objective of this paper is to perform a theoretical analysis of the main issues related to the concept of flow, starting from the stage of knowing in the company's treasury and continuing treasury structures and components classified and recognized in the accounts. We begin this research with a conceptual analysis of enterprise treasury domain definitions, interpretations, approaches, nuances, linguistic indices are sometimes useful, but can be misleading since scientists borrow words from the pool of words. There is the danger of getting contaminated by common understandings and meanings related to everyday, common sense. Analyzing the view of some reputable researchers, and academic elite Romanian definitions over time, we see that the treasury was distinctly defined. All these contradictions are based on our approach to the problem of how to combine the creative rational thinking. It is often said that a problem well put is half solved. Lucian Blaga "a problem not only never made ... objective data can be called only objective data to which we refer, in that they are outside the problem started, and in that matter absorbs as a receptacle theirs. All of these objective data we call the problem area. "(Black, 1974). | http://ohs.spiruharet.ro/index.php/record/view/1297 |
The LINGUIST List is dedicated to providing information on language and language analysis, and to providing the discipline of linguistics with the infrastructure necessary to function in the digital world. LINGUIST is a free resource, run by linguistics students and faculty, and supported primarily by your donations. Please support LINGUIST List during the 2016 Fund Drive.
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Academic Paper
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|Title:||A Chinese Yuppie in Beijing: Phonological variation and the construction of a new professional identity|
|Author:||Qing Zhang|
|Email:||click here TO access email|
|Institution:||University of Arizona|
|Linguistic Field:||Sociolinguistics; Phonology|
|Subject Language:||
Chinese, Mandarin
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|Abstract:||Recent sociolinguistic studies have given increased attention to the situated practice of members of locally based communities. Linguistic variation examined tends to fall on a continuum between a territorially based "standard" variety and a regional or ethnic vernacular. This article emphasizes the need for sociolinguistics, especially variationist sociolinguistics, to look beyond strictly local contexts and to go beyond treating variation as located along a linear dimension of standard and vernacular. Based on quantitative analysis of four phonological variables among Chinese professionals in foreign and state-owned companies in Beijing, this study demonstrates that professionals in foreign businesses employ linguistic resources from both local and global sources to construct a new cosmopolitan variety of Mandarin, whereas their counterparts in state-owned businesses favor the use of local features. The study shows that variation does not just reflect existing social categories and social change, but is a resource for constructing those categories and participates in social change.|
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This article appears IN Language in Society Vol. 34, Issue 3, which you can READ on Cambridge's site or on LINGUIST .View the full article for free in the current issue of
Cambridge Extra Magazine ! | http://www.linguistlist.org/pubs/papers/browse-papers-action.cfm?PaperID=5750 |
The debate on the role of grammar training in the language curriculum has shown that, at least in the last five decades, a part of the disagreement between the supporters of the opposite camps is based on conflicting assumptions about the meaning and sense of some of the terms of the discussion. Three of them will be considered in this dissertation as those that, once redefined, can yield a new perspective on how explicit grammar training can be integrated in the English curriculum. They are: (a) the scope of grammar and linguistics; (b) literacy itself, and (c) the objectives of the language curriculum. In this dissertation, grammar is claimed to be a pedagogical tool that can be used by students as well as teachers to do things: linguistic observations, analyses, transformations, and productions. This educational paradigm is based on a conceptualization of grammar and linguistics as the set of knowledge and analytical tools that functionally connect linguistic forms to socio-cultural context as well as pragmatic and rhetorical features. Literacy, in its widest sense, is redefined as the skill of attributing meaning to reality according to different semiotic codes. The objective of the language curriculum is to build a transferable metalinguistic awareness that enables learners to consciously observe and use linguistic variation not only in already familiar textual fields and communicative contexts, but also in others new to their experience. A set of grammatical categories roughly recognizable by both traditional grammars and new trends of linguistic research are the foci around which texts, mainly inductive observations and reflections, and re-writing activities are used to build a developmental linguistic competence, substantiated as the aforementioned transferable metalinguistic awareness. In order to underpin the theoretical elaboration that generated the pedagogical proposal with direct experiences in the class-room, a self-study is presented. As an application of the qualitative methodology of the narrative inquiry, the dialectical relationship between researcher, literature, and object of study is investigated through a hermeneutical analysis of the story of the production and testing of the material. The researcher's cultural and academic background, the transformation of the researcher's stance and attitudes in relation to the diverse sources of the debate about grammar, the researcher's expectations, and observations of students' reactions to materials generated compose the object of the qualitative analysis.
Advisor
Salvatore Attardo
Subject Categories
Arts and Humanities
Recommended Citation
Pizziconi, Sergio, "How To Do Things With Grammar: Rhetorical Function of Some Grammatical Categories in English" (2012). Electronic Theses & Dissertations. 199. | https://digitalcommons.tamuc.edu/etd/199/ |
OLMOS, Ricardo; LEON, José Antonio; ESCUDERO, Inmaculada and JORGE-BOTANA, Guillermo. An analysis of size and specificity of corpora in the assessment of summaries using LSA: A comparative study between LSA and human raters. Rev. signos [online]. 2009, vol.42, n.69, pp.71-81. ISSN 0718-0934. http://dx.doi.org/10.4067/S0718-09342009000100004.
Latent Semantic Analysis (LSA) is an automatic statistical method for representing the meanings of words and text passages. An emerging body of evidence supports the reliability of LSA as a tool for assessing the semantic similarities between units of discourse. LSA has also proved to be comparable to human judgments of similarities in documents. Before analyzing a linguistic corpus composed by digitized documents, this tool acquires the mathematical representation of the texts. The main objective of this study was to analyze what properties (general, condensed, diversified, and base corpus) different linguistic corpora should have so that the assessment of the summaries carried out by the LSA is as similar as possible to the assessment made by four human raters. Three hundred and ninety Spanish middle and high school students (14-16 years old) and undergraduate students read a narrative text and later summarized it. Findings indicate that the size of the corpora need not be as general and as big as those used in Boulder (made up by millions of texts and over one million words), nor do they have to be too specific (fewer than 300 texts and 5000 words) for the assessment to be satisfactorily efficient.
Keywords : Latent Semantic Analysis (LSA); summary; discourse assessment; linguistic corpus; university students. | https://scielo.conicyt.cl/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&pid=S0718-09342009000100004&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en |
Ever since we entered the digital communication era, the ease of information sharing through the Internet has encouraged online literature searching. With this comes the potential risk of a rise in academic misconduct and intellectual property theft. As concerns over plagiarism grow, more attention has been directed towards automatic plagiarism detection. This is a computational approach which assists humans in judging whether pieces of texts are plagiarised. However, most existing plagiarism detection approaches are limited to superficial, brute-force string- matching techniques. If the text has undergone substantial semantic and syntactic changes, string-matching approaches do not perform well. In order to identify such changes, linguistic techniques which are able to perform a deeper analysis of the text are needed. To date, very limited research has been conducted on the topic of utilising linguistic techniques in plagiarism detection.
This thesis provides novel perspectives on plagiarism detection and plagiarism direction identification tasks. The hypothesis is that original texts and rewritten texts exhibit significant but measurable differences, and that these differences can be captured through statistical and linguistic indicators. To investigate this hypothesis, four main research objectives are defined.
First, a novel framework for plagiarism detection is proposed. It involves the use of Natural Language Processing techniques, rather than only relying on the traditional string-matching approaches. The objective is to investigate and evaluate the influence of text pre-processing, and statistical, shallow and deep linguistic techniques using a corpus-based approach. This is achieved by evaluating the techniques in two main experimental settings.
Second, the role of machine learning in this novel framework is investigated. The objective is to determine whether the application of machine learning in the plagiarism detection task is helpful. This is achieved by comparing a threshold-setting approach against a supervised machine learning classifier.
Third, the prospect of applying the proposed framework in a large-scale scenario is explored. The objective is to investigate the scalability of the proposed framework and algorithms. This is achieved by experimenting with a large-scale corpus in three stages. The first two stages are based on longer text lengths and the final stage is based on segments of texts.
Finally, the plagiarism direction identification problem is explored as supervised machine learning classification and ranking tasks. Statistical and linguistic features are investigated individually or in various combinations. The objective is to introduce a new perspective on the traditional brute-force pair-wise comparison of texts. Instead of comparing original texts against rewritten texts, features are drawn based on traits of texts to build a pattern for original and rewritten texts. Thus, the classification or ranking task is to fit a piece of text into a pattern.
The framework is tested by empirical experiments, and the results from initial experiments show that deep linguistic analysis contributes to solving the problems we address in this thesis. Further experiments show that combining shallow and deep techniques helps improve the classification of plagiarised texts by reducing the number of false negatives. In addition, the experiment on plagiarism direction detection shows that rewritten texts can be identified by statistical and linguistic traits. The conclusions of this study offer ideas for further research directions and potential applications to tackle the challenges that lie ahead in detecting text reuse. | http://rgcl.wlv.ac.uk/phd-theses/miranda-chongs-phd-thesis-a-study-on-plagiarism-detection-and-plagiarism-direction-identification-using-natural-language-processing-techniques/ |
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The Arabicization of Christian Egypt: Reframing the Debate
The linguistic evolution of Egypt has been studied at some length, and with the invaluable evidence offered by the papyrological sources it has been possible to make very fine and detailed observations on the chronology and distribution of linguistic change. The different linguistic balance established by the Egyptian language with the two imperial languages that entered the country by conquest and served for centuries as languages of power is very striking: while Egyptian was used alongside Greek for a millennium after Alexander, being redefined and reinforced in the process, within half that time after the Arab conquest it gave way to Arabic, having shown only a relatively low and specialised degree of linguistic interaction with it. Even though this difference has been in the background of the academic discussion of the topic in recent decades, it has not been addressed directly, because the most recent work has largely been of a micro-historical nature, focusing on administrative linguistic practice. This presentation will first take a step back to look at the Orientalist historiography that still casts a shadow over the subject, and then suggest some new avenues of analysis drawing on recent work in socio-linguistics.
Please RSVP for the event here. | https://islamicstudies.ucla.edu/event/the-arabicization-of-christian-egypt-reframing-the-debate/ |
Clark (1993) lists nine variants of the name Waywurru. Blake and Reid (1999) have presented the most detailed analysis of the language materials relevant to this area. The resolution of this report is to consider Waywurru a language name (see Bowe 2002: 143), Minjambuta to be a probable dialect name, and Pallanganmiddang to be a clan name and possibly an alternative language name.
Minjambuta/Minubuddong:
‘Minubuddong’ is only found in the 1844 vocabulary papers of Robinson (Clark 2000g: 187) and the label ‘Minjambuta’ is only found in the writing of RH Mathews (1909). Lexicostatistical analysis by Blake and Reid (1999) of the vocabulary ascribed to this language has shown that when it is compared to neighbouring languages the scores are very low. For example, with the Yortayorta it is 12 per cent, and 15 per cent with the Dhudhuroa. Clearly, then, this vocabulary is not a dialect of Dhudhuroa or Yortayorta.
Pallanganmiddang:
Primary references range from 1840 to 1904 (Robinson passim; Smyth 1878; Curr 1886; Howitt 1904). Variant names take two forms: one that uses the Kulin suffix –yallum/-illum, and the other the non-Kulin equivalent –mittung/- middang. This does not imply the existence of two groups rather that from a Kulin point of view these people are Pallangoyallum, whereas from their own point of view they are Pallanganmiddang. The other fact that confirms that these variants refer to the same group is the reason that they refer to the same named individuals and are all associated with the same location:
Bontherambo Plains, Wangaratta. The unity of this group is supported by Barwick (1984), Clark (1993), Blake and Reid (1999: 16), and Bowe (2002:136). Howitt (1904: 71) identified this group as part of the Kulin confederacy. Barwick (1984, Mss) and Clark (1993, 1996a, b) have reconstructed Pallanganmiddang as a local group (clan) within the Waywurru language area. Yet, Dixon (1980; 2002), and Blake and Reid (1999) have determined Pallanganmiddang to be a language name, despite the weight of the primary references that indicates that Pallanganmiddang is a clan name.
Blake’s and Reid’s (1999) analysis of the linguistic records is that they are meagre: 341 words are sourced from Robinson; 46 in Smyth (1878) 109 in Curr (1886-7); and 63 in Murdock (1900). Their lexicostatistic examination of these sources has revealed that these words share only 25 per cent comparison with the Yortayorta, 21 per cent with Dhudhuroa, and 16 per cent with Wiradjuri, thus their conclusion that ‘it seems likely therefore that Pallanganmiddang represents a language quite distinct from those of its neighbours (Blake & Reid 1999: 17). This conclusion reached by modern linguistic analysis is supported by Curr (1965: 246-7) who recalled that ‘the Bangerang-speaking septs’ were ‘surrounded by a number of tribes which looked on them as foreigners, and hated them in common; spoke a different language from theirs’. It is also supported by Robinson’s 1844 reference that these peoples’ language was different to Wiradjuri. These 341 words belong to a language completely different to the languages surrounding it.
Waywurru:
This name is found in three distinct sources: the journal of Chief Protector Robinson (1840, 1841, 1842, 1844); evidence tendered by local squatter Benjamin Barber (1841); and in the correspondence and returns from Local Guardian David Reid at Barnawatha (Victoria 1860, 1861). The linguistic analysis of the vocabularies recorded at Wangaratta and Yackandandah has shown that they are not comparable to Yortayorta (see Blake and Reid 1999). | https://vacl.wp10.wiseinternet.net/language/waywurru/ |
At the stages of preparing materials for conducting a forensic linguistic examination and in the process of research, problematic issues of a procedural and methodological nature arise, which are debatable due to the lack of regulation and the absence of systematic scientific theoretical research in the field of linguistic examination. The analysis of expert practice indicates the need for further developments in the field of forensic linguistic expertise, based on which the author makes proposals for improving the methods of authorship research and the development of directions for further research in the field of semantic and textual research. The author focuses on the need to carry out developments in the field of linguistic expertise, taking into account not only the current practice of conducting forensic linguistic expertise. Also taking into account the generalization of new literary sources, the number of which is increasing and the data of which are of interest to linguistic expertise from the point of view of analyzing emerging in the field of modern linguistics problems, as well as the socio-political situation in the country.
Attention is drawn to the fact that the judicial and investigative authorities appoint linguistic examinations at almost all stages of the consideration of cases/proceedings or the investigation of offenses, and it is also becoming increasingly popular in connection with the appeals of individuals/legal entities. The data of the conducted research can serve as the basis for the creation of new directions of research in the field of forensic linguistic examination and contribute to the development of its theoretical and methodological foundations.
Key words: linguistic expertise, authorship research, semantic-textual research, creolized (polycode) texts, complex research. | https://digest.kndise.gov.ua/en/theoretical-principles-of-forensic-linguistics/ |
AbstractThe article reports on the features of polysemy in French terminological systems of linguistics at inter-system and intra-system levels. The existing studies concerning terminological semantics allow pointing out two aspects of the term structure: a semantic structure representing a complex of meanings, and a structure of the terminological meaning representing a complex of semes. The first aspect supposes the analysis of terminological polysemy regarded as a negative characteristic of terms. According to the second aspect some particularities of denotative and significative levels and their correlation to scientific concepts can be analyzed. In the given study the component analysis of the definitions of French terms – such as ‘sémantème’, ‘mot’ and ‘signe’ – reveals different types of polysemy and terminological variation. The analysis of semantic structures of these terms shows that terminological deviations are caused by objective differences at significative and denotative levels of the meaning as well as by the subjective use of occasional contexts of terms in linguistic research. The suggested results allow constructing a new classification of meaning relations of linguistic terms. Each type of relations is correlated to different elements of the term structure. The hierarchy of these elements is embodied into an abstract model that can be applied for the analysis of any term of the modern linguistic terminology.
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Published
2016-06-01
How to Cite
Zolotukhin, D. (2016). Polysemy in Linguistic Terminological Systems Based on the Analysis of French Linguistic Terms. Journal of Language and Education, 2(2), 61-67. https://doi.org/10.17323/2411-7390-2016-2-2-61-67
Section
Articles
Copyright (c) 2016 National Research University Higher School of Economics
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the Copyright Notice. | https://jle.hse.ru/article/view/1362 |
The overall goal of the TFLex project was to make language technology easier to use in tutorial dialogue and learning research. Specifically, we aimed to provide:
tools for fast and robust deep parsing of natural language, supporting tutorial dialogue and computer-assisted learning
lexical resources to be used in parsing, and tools to extend their coverage to new domains
tools that make language technology accessible to domain and educational experts
Approach
One of the big bottlenecks in designing tutorial dialogue systems is building semantic representa- tions of utterance content. Our approach to solving this problem is to develop tools resources for deep parsing combined with semantic interpretation and role labelling. These include building a fast parser with a grammar for syntactic and semantic interpretation (Objective 1), algorithms for extracting lexical entries from wide-coverage lexicons, and tools to support linguists in resolving inconsistencies and improving lexicon precision (Objective 2).
We are working on extending coverage of a parsing lexicon by combining information from lexical semantic resources developed in the computational linguistic community, in particular
FrameNet
. Because the existing lexicons have not been designed for parsing as primary application, and because they are built based on different linguistic theories, the information in them is sometimes incomplete or inconsistent.
Combining information from such different sources results in loss of precision. To improve precision, the automatically generated entries can be checked manually by experienced linguists. Our approach is to develop tools simplifying this process based on information from different lexicons and corpora.
Concise accomplishments
developing lexical resources for deep parsing
Expanded accomplishments
Developing Lexical Resources for Deep Parsing
Currently, tutorial dialogue systems only allow very limited forms of student input, and all data annotation is done entirely by hand. Deep parsing can facilitate the detailed analysis necessary for assessment of student input in tutorial dialogue systems and collaborative problem solving environments. In addition, linguistic features can improve classification accuracy. However, deep parsers are often difficult to extend to new domains because of their limited lexical coverage. Existing wide coverage lexical resources (used in information extraction and question answering) are not in the format suitable for deep parsers.
The Edinburgh team developed tools to improve coverage of deep parsers:
Developed a set of methods to extract verb lexical entries from a widely used and publicly available corpus:
FrameNet
(
McConville
and Dzikovska, 2007):
Extracted a lexicon with 2,600 verb senses from the
FrameNet
corpus, with the goal of further expanding the TRIPS lexicon (pending funding)
Developed a set of tools to check extracted entries and merge them efficiently with existing lexicon
Developed a framework to connect lexical resources to different parsers
All lexical entries are extracted into a framework-independent representation
The representation can then be mapped to lexical entries for different parsers. Currently, we are only using a mapping to the TRIPS parser. However, the approach should allow a mapping to a different parser, for example, if text rather than dialogue needs to be parsed, with a different grammar
Workplan
The work below is planned as part of the extension proposal funded by ONR, Grant N00014-08- 1-0179:
Integrate the features available from our lexicons and tools for deep parsing into tutorial dialogue tools for dialogue researchers (
TagHelper
and
TuTalk
) being developed at CMU as part of the connected grant number N000140510043.
Integrate the TRIPS/TFlex parser with the
TagHelper
tool, and evaluate the impact of deeper linguistic features on classification accuracy.
Extend the
TuTalk
tools to take advantage of the more detailed analyses output by the parser.
Add mappings from the
FrameNet
and TRIPS lexicons to a robust parser for text, to support analyzing essays.
Develop tools for quickly adding domain-specific vocabulary when a new domain needs to be analyzed.
Integrate the algorithms developed as part of this grant into BEETLE tutorial dialogue system (developed at the University of Edinburgh, supported by ONR grant N000149910165)
Extend the algorithms to extract lexical entries for nouns and adjectives
Merge the lexicon extracted from
FrameNet
with the TRIPS lexicon for use in the Beetle system
Evaluate improvements in parsing and interpretation quality (in the Beetle system) when using the extended lexicon
Major problems/issues
Technology transfer
Foreign collaborations and supported foreign nationals
Publications
Mark
McConville
and Myrosia O. Dzikovska (2007).
Extracting a verb lexicon for deep parsing from
FrameNet
.
Proceedings of the ACL Workshop on Deep Linguistic Processing, Prague.
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Efforts to use linguistics in information retrieval (IR) were initiated in the 1980s, and intensified in the 1990s, reporting performance benefits (see the overviews by Smeaton 1986 & 1999, Karlgren 1993, and Tait 2005). Later, these efforts decreased: baseline system performance improved, and the cost associated with linguistic processing was not worth the small benefits over the already improved baselines (Tait, 2005). At present, most research on linguistics for IR tends to be geared towards domain-specific IR applications that seem to benefit more from linguistics, like question-answering (Tait & Oakes 2006). Although such applications are important, they should not limit the scope of research into linguistics for IR. In this work, we present an alternative use of linguistics, part of speech information in particular, to compute a term weight of informative content. This term weight is a novel application of linguistics to IR, and can benefit retrieval performance of general IR systems.
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Piek VOSSEN (Amsterdam, Pays-Bas)Linguistic knowledge for more precision, richer answers and flexible systemspp. 23-39
Irion Technologies is a language technology company at Delft (The Netherlands) that incorporates linguistic knowledge to build new generations of information systems: conceptual retrieval, automatic extraction of terms and ontologies and open-domain dialogue systems. These systems are multi-lingual and cross-lingual and combine statistical, machine learning techniques with linguistic techniques. We have carried out evaluations of some of these systems. For information retrieval, we found advantages with respect to standard statistical approaches within special experimental settings that focus on ambiguity. Term extraction is clearly benefiting from rich linguistic knowledge and resources. Dialogue systems depend on the communicative models and systems that also require deep linguistic processing. From our perspective, language technology is definitely helping to make applications better and necessary to develop new applications.
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Pierre ZWEIGENBAUM, Brigitte GRAU, Anne-Laure LIGOZAT, Isabelle ROBBA, Sophie ROSSET, Xavier TANNIER, Anne VILNAT & Patrice BELLOT (CNRS-LIMSI)Apports de la linguistique dans les systèmes de recherche d'informations précises(Contributions of linguistics in the search for precise information)pp. 41-62
Searching for precise answers to questions, also called “question-answering”, is an evolution of information retrieval systems: can it, as its predecessors, rely mostly on numeric methods, using exceedingly little linguistic knowledge? After a presentation of the question-answering task and the issues it raises, we examine to which extent it can be performed with very little linguistic knowledge. We then review the different kinds of linguistic knowledge that researchers have been using in their systems: syntactic and semantic knowledge for sentence analysis, role of “named entity” recognition, taking into account of the textual dimension of documents. A discussion on the respective contributions of linguistic and non-linguistic methods concludes the paper.
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Horacio SAGGION (Sheffield, Grande-Bretagne)Automatic Summarization: An Overviewpp. 63-81
A summary is a condensed version of a document. It contains the most relevant information in context found in the source document. Automatic summarization is the process of producing text summaries by computer. Although research on automatic summarization started in the late 50s, the increasing volume of electronic text and recent international evaluation efforts have fuelled research in this field. The paper gives an overview of basic concepts in automatic text summarization together with examples of available tools, systems, evaluation, summarization experiments, summarization in practical settings, and discusses the role of linguistic information in the summarization task.
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Aurélie PICTON, Cécile FABRE & Didier BOURIGAULT (Toulouse / Toulouse)Méthodes linguistiques pour l’expansion de requêtes. Une expérience basée sur l’utilisation du voisinage distributionnel(Linguistic methods for expanding queries. An experiment based on the use of distributional closeness)pp. 83-95
This paper reports the results of a query expansion experiment making use of semantic data produced by a program that automatically performs the distributional analysis of a large corpus. This method allows us to take into account relations that go beyond classic lexical relations. We look at these results from both a global and a local perspective, showing that such broader and corpus-based semantic relations may be useful, provided that the expansion is controlled by a filtering technique based on the texts of the database (distributional feedback), and by an analysis of the query linguistic characteristics.
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Marie-Claude L'HOMME (Montréal, Canada)Ressources lexicales, terminologiques et ontologiques : une analyse comparative dans le domaine de l’informatique(Lexical, terminological and ontological resources: a comparative analysis in the field of computer science)pp. 97-118
The automatic or semi-automatic processing of texts often requires an access to external resources (e.g., lexical and terminological databases or ontologies), which can differ greatly in terms of both form and content. External resources can be used to assist other forms of processing and are expected to supply linguistic information - especially semantic information - that is not explicitly expressed in running text. In this article, the potential interest of lexical and terminological sources as well as ontologies for analyzing terms in specialized texts will be examined and evaluated. The evaluation takes into account the contents and the descriptive perspective of sources. We will focus on the field of computing assuming that this domain is representative of many others. The presence and description of 75 specific terms has been analyzed in six different sources. Results show that sources do not take into account the entire set of linguistic properties of terms.
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Mathieu VALETTE & Monique SLODZIAN (ATILF / INaLCO)Sémantique des textes et Recherche d’Information(Text semantics and Information research)pp. 119-133
The aim of this paper is to set out some of the proposals of text semantics for information retrieval - more specifically for content-based text classification. To start with, we will assess the contribution of linguistics to information retrieval by means of natural language processing techniques. This will give us an opportunity to look at the achievements that have been secured and to examine standard linguistic approaches to information retrieval. In particular, we will focus on the slow emergence of text considerations as the web expands. We intend to show that the ever-greater attention raised by text linguistics comes at a critical juncture in the evolution of information retrieval on the web. We will show how text categorisation is a departure from traditional approaches. The second and third parts will go into greater detail and examine the way text linguistics can apply to information retrieval. We will first lay out the methods used within the framework of a project aiming to filter racist web texts; we will then introduce some of the research currently conducted in the field of textual data analysis, which, in the near future, is liable to improve the methodology of information retrieval. | http://www.rfla-journal.org/en/content/past-issues/2008-1 |
10 upper division units of Electives.
Linguistics majors must pass all five core courses (Ling 100 + 4 of the 5 above) and maintain a C average overall in the major. Students who do not do so may be dropped from the major.
Transfer students who have taken linguistics courses at other institutions should consult the Undergraduate Advisors to see whether they can count towards the major. In any case, all Linguistics majors must take Ling 100, 110, 111, 115, 120 or 130 at UC Berkeley.
In addition to the five core courses, 10 upper division units of electives, taken for a letter grade, are required. Five of the elective units must be selected from upper-division course offerings within the Linguistics Department; the remaining units may be courses from other departments, subject to the approval of the Linguistics Department. List of pre-approved courses in other departments that can count as electives towards the Linguistics Major.
As the range of possible electives is so wide, the focus of the major may vary considerably from student to student. Frequently chosen topical groupings of elective courses are: linguistic methods and theory; Indo-European studies; the structure of a language or language group; an area connecting linguistics with some related discipline such as anthropology, philosophy, psychology, sociolinguistics, computer science or rhetoric.
In concert with departmental undergraduate learning goals, students are strongly advised to include at least one writing-intensive course in their elective options. Examples of writing-intensive Linguistics electives include C105, 106, 123, 124, 142, 150, 151, and 181. It is usual for at least one of these courses to be offered each semester.
Linguistics 3 (Linguistic Diversity) An introduction to the scope of human linguistic diversity.
Linguistics 5 (Language and Linguistics) A general survey of the field of Linguistics.
Linguistics 24 (Freshman Seminar) Designed to give freshmen an opportunity to explore an intellectual topic with a faculty member in a small-seminar setting.
It is important that students plan their program of study with a departmental Undergraduate Advisor, who can assist in planning the timing of required courses and in the selection of electives.
In addition to attaining a basic mastery of the field of linguistics, linguistics majors develop skills in critical thinking, in communication, and in the use of research methodologies. The array of courses offered by the Department includes both the required "core" courses in Phonetics and Phonology, Syntax and Semantics, Morphology, and Historical Linguistics, and a broad range of electives. The core courses allow linguistics majors to master the basics of the discipline, such as the nature of sounds and sound systems, the nature of word structures and syntactic structures, the interaction of syntax and semantics, and the nature of linguistic change, while the elective courses allow students to investigate areas of particular interest. Students learn to apply problem-solving skills in each of these areas. Perhaps more important, a linguistics major develops critical thinking skills. By graduation, linguistics majors can employ both theory and empirical evidence in order to evaluate different linguistic arguments, analyze complex linguistic patterns, and understand the role played by assumptions in argumentation. Further, linguistics majors develop advanced verbal skills; they are able to communicate effectively in oral and written form about specific linguistic issues, and they can produce well-organized oral presentations and original written reports supported by empirical evidence. These skills do not disappear at graduation; no matter what profession a linguistics major decides to pursue, throughout a lifetime s/he will possess a working knowledge of sources of reliable information about languages and linguistics and will be able to understand and evaluate current linguistic issues in the world at large. Below is a list of more specific goals, with information about which courses fulfil them. Courses shown in boldface are specifically devoted to the learning goal in question.
These skills are introduced in Ling 5 and Ling 100 and reinforced in the core classes (Ling 110, 111, 115, 120, 130) as well as in most upper division electives.
Laboratory and experimental methods are introduced in Ling 110 and reinforced in several electives, including Ling 105, Ling 113, Ling 122 and Ling 140.
Quantitative analysis of linguistic data is introduced in Ling 100 and reinforced in Ling 106, 110, 113, 120, 122, 124, 139, 150, 151, and 181. Ling 160 is dedicated specifically to this learning goal.
Fieldwork and linguistic data elicitation are introduced in Ling 110 and 115 and reinforced in electives Ling 113, 122, Ling 170 and 181; Ling 140 is dedicated specifically to this learning goal.
Acquire knowledge of traditional linguistic analysis in the core areas of linguistics. This goal is introduced in Ling 100 and reinforced in other core classes and electives: Phonetics and phonology (Ling 110 and 111, as well as Ling 113, 122, 130, 131, 139, 140, 148, 170, 175), Morphology (word structure) (Ling 115, as well as Ling 122, 139, 140, 170, 175), Syntax (sentence structure) (Ling 120, as well as Ling 104, 105, 122, 124, 140, 170, 175, 181), Semantics (meaning) (Ling 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 121, 122, 124, 139, 140, 155, 170, 175, 181), and Historical linguistics (language change) (Ling 130, as well as Ling 106, 122, 131, 139, 155, 170, 175, 181).
Acquire knowledge of language in its various contexts and interfaces. The various contexts of language, listed below, are introduced in Ling 100 and reinforced in several of the core courses, but are addressed most directly in electives: Pragmatics (language usage) (Ling 124, as well as Ling 100, 104, 105, 106, 108, 120, 123, 139, 155, 170, 175, 181)), Sociolinguistics and anthropological linguistics (language in its socio-cultural context) (Ling 150, as well as 100, 105, 110, 124, 130, 139, 151, 155, 170, 175, 181), Psycholinguistics (language and cognition, language acquisition) (Ling 11, 105, 110, 147, 148), Language and the natural sciences (neurolinguistics, language evolution) (Ling 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 110), Language and the humanities (Ling 105, 106, 107, 108, 123, 124, 131, 139, 155, 181).
A goal of the linguistics major is for students to communicate their knowledge effectively. The subgoals, listed below, are introduced in Ling 5 and 100, in the form of weekly written assignments and discussion sections where student participation is expected. The first two goals are reinforced in virtually every core and elective course. The second two vary by course and instructor and year. The last is reinforced in the writing-intensive electives, which include Ling 106, 123, 124, 142, 150, 151, and 181.
A goal of the major is for students to acquire knowledge and analytical abilities that they can transfer from the classroom to their broader life during and after their university career. This goal is not the dedicated topic of any one class; rather, it is a generalized aim of all classes in linguistics to relate the topics covered to students' lives in the world.
Several capstone experiences are available to Linguistics majors, as a means of integrating the skills and knowledge gained in the major into a significant intellectual product or experience. Students may elect to write an honors thesis, in which they work with an advisor on a year-long research project which they write up in the form of a thesis. Students may participate in faculty research projects, ranging from laboratory experiments to fieldwork with a consultant. Certain classes (e.g. Ling 113, 140, 170) are routinely devoted to developing student-led research projects. Aside from capstone experiences, learning goals for the major are assessed in the classroom through regular written assignments. The core classes for the major all revolve around weekly homework assignments in which students solve complex problems and write up their solutions in a professional manner. Students receive feedback on their analyses and their presentation skills. Most electives require a term paper or similar assignment. Few linguistics classes use multiple-choice tests; by the end of the major, students have had significant experience at high-grade linguistic analysis, argumentation and exposition. | https://lx.berkeley.edu/ugrad/major |
65. Can You Use Languages to Solve Crimes?
The Five-Minute Linguist - Bite-sized Essays on Language and Languages Third Edition - Caroline Myrick
Natalie Schilling [+]
Georgetown University
Natalie Schilling is a Professor of Linguistics at Georgetown University in Washington, DC. She has authored and co-authored books, articles and chapters on a wide range of topics connected to the study of language variation and change. Her publications include Sociolinguistic Fieldwork (2013, Cambridge University Press), American English: Dialects and Variation (with Walt Wolfram, 3rd edition, 2016, Wiley-Blackwell), The Handbook of Language Variation and Change (co-editor, with J.K. Chambers, 2nd edition, 2013, Wiley-Blackwell), and English in America: A Linguistic History, an audio-video course with The Great Courses. She has served as a forensic linguistic expert in cases involving authorship attribution, speaker profiling, and possible false confessions. She regularly teaches forensic linguistics, to audiences ranging from university students to FBI agents, to incarcerated individuals. Composite characters based on Dr. Schilling have in two TV series – once in the CBS series Criminal Minds (Alex Blake, FBI agent/Georgetown linguistics professor) and once in the Discovery Channel’s miniseries Manhunt: Unabomber (Natalie Rogers, a linguist at Stanford University).
Description
When there’s linguistic evidence at a crime scene, or when language itself constitutes the crime, linguists can use their expertise in the structure, meaning, and use of language to help investigators solve crimes. Forensic linguistics can involve author or speaker profiling, authorship attribution, and voice identification. While linguistic analysis of language evidence can be invaluable, forensic linguistics is not DNA analysis, and an individual’s distinctive linguistic patterns do not constitute a ‘linguistic fingerprint’. That being said, criminals still leave behind important language clues, and forensic linguistics can go a long way toward uncovering them. | https://www.equinoxpub.com/home/view-chapter/?id=38187 |
«A Linguistic 2-Tuple Based Environmental Impact Assessment for Maritime Port Projects: Application to Moa Port», vol. 358, Springer International Publishing, 2017, pp. 333-348.
«A Review of Hesitant Fuzzy Sets: Quantitative and Qualitative Extensions», Springer International Publishing, 2016, pp. 109-128.
«Description Logic Class Expression Learning Applied to Sentiment Analysis», Witold Pedrycz. Shyi-Ming Chen., vol. 639, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing, 2016, pp. 93-111.
«Attitude-based Consensus Model for Heterogeneous Multi-criteria Large-Scale Group Decision Making: Application to IT-based Services Management», vol. 55, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2014, pp. 155-177.
«A Belief Rule-Based Generic Risk Assessment Framework», vol. 7, Springer, 2013, pp. 145-169.
«A Context-Aware Mobile Recommender System Based on Location and Trajectory», vol. 171, Springer, 2012, pp. 153-162.
«A Heterogeneous Evaluation Model for the Assessment of Sustainable Energy Policies», vol. 107, Springer Berlin / Heidelberg, 2011, pp. 209-220.
«A Method Based on AHP to Define the Quality Model of QuEF», vol. 123, Springer Berlin / Heidelberg, 2011, pp. 685-694.
«A Multicriteria Linguistic Decision Making Model Dealing with Comparative Terms», vol. 107, Springer Berlin / Heidelberg, 2011, pp. 229-241.
«A Web-Based Consensus Support System Dealing with Heterogeneous Information», vol. 267, Springer, 2011, pp. 357-381.
«Academic Orientation Supported by Hybrid Intelligent Decision Support System», Intech, 2011, pp. 241-262.
«COMAS: A Multi-agent System for Performing Consensus Processes», vol. 91, Springer Berlin / Heidelberg, 2011, pp. 125-132.
«Hesitant Fuzzy Linguistic Term Sets», vol. 122, Springer Berlin / Heidelberg, 2011, pp. 287-295.
«Using OWA Operators to Integrate Group Attitudes towards Consensus», vol. 123, Springer Berlin / Heidelberg, 2011, pp. 273-282.
«A Linguistic Recommender System for Academic Orientation», vol. 3, Bussiness Science Reference, 2010, pp. 1231-1243.
«Algunas claves para garantizar el éxito en la Teleformación», 2009, pp. 121-135.
«Experiencia Didáctica sobre la Asignatura del Campus Andaluz Virtual», 2009, pp. 96-109.
«A Fuzzy Linguistic Recommender System To Advice Research Resources in University Digital Libraries», vol. 220, Springer-Verlag, 2008, pp. 567-585.
«A Knowledge Based Recommender System Based on Consistent Preference Relations», vol. 117, Springer, 2008, pp. 93-111.
«A linguistic decision based model applied to olive oil sensory evaluation», vol. 220, Springer, 2008, pp. 311-329.
«Linguistic Assessment Approach for Hierarchical Safety Analysis and Synthesis», vol. 117, Springer, 2008, pp. 249-270.
«Using fuzzy multi-attribute data mining in stock market analysis for supporting investment decisions», vol. 233, Springer, 2008, pp. 289-306.
«Aplying a Semantic Hypermedia Model to Adaptive Concept Maps in Education», 2007, pp. 384-391.
«Comunicador Aumentativo para Niños Autistas», 2007, pp. 129-166.
«Multi-objective Evolutionary Algorithms in the Automatic Learning of Boolean Queries: A Comparative Study», vol. 42, Springer-Verlag, 2007, pp. 71-80.
«A linguistic hierarchical evaluation model for engineering systems», Elsevier, 2006, pp. 295-305.
«A Multi-granular Linguistic Hierarchical Model To Evaluate The Quality Of Web site Services», vol. 201, Springer, 2006, pp. 247-274.
«A Multi-granular Linguistic Hierarchical Model To Evaluate The Quality Of Web site Services», vol. 201, Kahraman, Cengiz (Ed.), 2006, pp. 247-274.
«An Adaptive Module for the Consensus Reaching Process in Group Decision Making Problems», vol. 3558, Springer, 2005, pp. 89-98.
«Fuzzy Linguistic Preference Modelling for Group Decision Making», Copicentro Granada S.L., 2005, pp. 55-63.
«Self-Tuning Fuzzy Rule Bases with Belief Structure», vol. 5, Springer, 2005, pp. 419-429.
«Techniques to Improve Multi-Agent Systems for Searching and Mining the Web», vol. 5, Springer, 2005, pp. 463-486.
«Toma de Decisión en Grupo en Contextos Heterogéneos», Copicentro Granada S.L, 2005, pp. 41-51.
«Un sistema de evaluación basado en técnicas de decisión difusas», 2005, p. -.
«Un Sistema Java para la evaluación de la viabilidad de un Sistema ERP», Copicentro Granada S.L., 2005, pp. 41-51.
«A Multi-Granular Linguistic Decision Model for Evaluating the Quality of Network Services», Springer, 2004, pp. 71-92.
«Measurements of Consensus in Multi-granular Linguistic Group Decision Making», vol. 3131, Springer, 2004, pp. 194-204.
«Combining Heterogeneous Information in Group Decision Making», Elsevier, 2003, p. -.
«Information Gathering on the Internet Using a Distributed Intelligent Agent Model with Multi-Granular Linguistic Information», 2002, p. -.
«Representation Model for Aggregating Linguistic Information: Issues and Analisys», vol. 97, Springer, 2002, pp. 245-260. | https://sinbad2.ujaen.es/es/publicaciones?type=2 |
Linguistic information system
The linguistic information system or linguistic system is a sub-network of the human information system in the brain. The system used by an individual for his or her linguistic activity.
Comments
Based on observation of people’s linguistic activity, it seems to be safe to conclude (1) that a person’s linguistic system operates, e.g. for speaking and understanding, and (2) that it has been acquired and is further expandable, adaptable, and otherwise changeable.
We do not assume that different people have the same linguistic system, nor that a person’s linguistic system consists of rules, nor that it has a form prescribed by some pre-existing linguistic theory, and certainly not that it is genetically determined by a language gene.
The system is divided into stratal systems. At the high end of this system is content, the network of concepts; at the low end is expression, the phonetic forms. As you go higher in the system, you find larger and larger inventories: The number of morphemes in a language is quite large in comparison with the number of phonemes; the number of lexemes is even greater; and the number of sememes or concepts is larger still. These "emes", as understood by neurocognitive linguistics, are not items in the usual sense but just intersections of various relationships.
Neurocognitive linguistics attempts to understand this system itself, whereas other theories represent language as an abstraction based on analysis of the system's output, without any detailed attention to the actual human mind or brain.
The system is in itself static -- it contains no processes nor is their any motion in the system itself -- and it is thus independent from the processes which use it, such as that for converting from a semantic representation to speech. This type of independence is essential for a realistic model of such processes.
The linguistic system is like the highway system and the linguistic description like the highway map. As a highway system it is static: There is neither motion nor directionality. Cars can go on the highway in either direction, except for one-way roads. This is because the linguistic system is a non-process type of system; there is no motion in the linguistic system itself. The cars, the network impulses traveling in both directions, maintain two primary processes: decoding from expression to content, or what happens when one understands, and that of encoding from content to expression, or what happenes when one speaks.
When encoding is in progress, the activation of the network is proceeding at lower levels for the beginning of a sentence while it is still at higher levels for the end. Indeed, the first few words of a sentence may be completely produced from the bottom of the phonology while the remainder is still incompletely formulated at the lexemic stratum.
The structure of the system is what it is in part because of heredity. It has been built as it has because of the DNA. But a very important part of the structure is there because of the person's experience during his life. It would be a mistake to overemphasize either the hereditary or the experiential aspect.
Sources
- Lamb, Sydney M.. 2006. Being Realistic, Being Scientific. LACUS Forum 32: Networks.
- Lamb, Sydney M.. 2004. Language and Reality: Selected Writings of Sydney Lamb. London: Continuum.
- "Interview with Sydney Lamb" at LangBrain. | http://glottopedia.org/index.php/Linguistic_information_system |
Since Luis Ivens Ferraz’ work of the 1970s on the four Gulf of Guinea creoles, it has been generally accepted that we are dealing with closely related languages based on historical and linguistic data. However, Ferraz (1987: 348) considers that the Gulf of Guinea creoles share similarities because “(…) they grew up together, with slaves and settlers introduced through the central administration in São Tomé. Hence different languages developed in the archipelago rather than dialects of one contact language.” This paper will reassess the linguistic relation between the Gulf of Guinea creoles and the typological contribution of the African strata. It will be argued that there is indeed substantial linguistic evidence that the GGCs are the result of a common ancestor, a proto-Gulf of Guinea creole. Furthermore, since Ferraz (1979) it has generally been assumed that the substrate of the Gulf of Guinea creoles, in particular of Santome, is halfway Edo and Kongo. I will argue, against this claim by showing that most of the features that are shared by the GGCs or can be reconstructed to the proto-GGC relate to the Niger delta, and Edo in particular, whereas western Bantu languages only played a secondary or adstratal role.
Published online: 18 December 2013
https://doi.org/10.1075/bct.57.06hag
https://doi.org/10.1075/bct.57.06hag
Cited by
Cited by 4 other publications
Gonçalves, Rita
GONÇALVES, RITA
Lorenzino, Gerardo Augusto
This list is based on CrossRef data as of 06 october 2021. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers. Any errors therein should be reported to them. | https://benjamins.com/catalog/bct.57.06hag |
Knight vs Samurai: What Are The Differences Between Them?
Medieval Europe shared numerous resemblances with medieval Japan but also had several differences. Both Knight and Samurai were great warriors. They were well trained and had very good manners as well. They had knights in ancient Europe and Samurai in ancient Japan. Samurai vs knights ran in battle horses and fought for the honors and dignity of their country in a true spirit. They were fighting differently and were trained with various stuff, let’s take a look at the similarities and distinctions more closely: Knight vs Samurai.
Knight vs Samurai: What Are The Differences Between Them?
1. What Is The Knight?
In fact, a Knight is an individual awarded a knighthood honorary title by a monarch or other political chief for an obligation to the monarch or nation, particularly in the military capacity. The Knights were excellent fighters and very artful as well as having good manners. They were usually known as well-educated warriors. They strived for their country’s honor and respect.
There was a rule called Chivalry and Knights follow it tightly. They tend to fight in a small group and nerve enemies by their fierce appearance. In the fight, Knights wore armor and used swords along with shields which were made of metal.
Each inch of their body was covered by a metal outfit during the combat. At the age of seven, the Knights had to begin training by serving at the lord’s castle. A knight has a soldiery rank and must be involved in tournaments.
2. What Is The Samurai?
“One who serves” implies the term Samurai. In feudal Japan, Samurai belonged to a strong military caste. There are no ranks of samurai warriors. As mentioned above, The Knight has a “Chivalry” rule and the Samurai follows a rigid standard of behavior known as “Bushido” which is “The way of the warrior”. It has a religious meaning for the Samurai. Also fighting with the same spirit as Knights, Samurai is always willing to sacrifice for national self-esteem.
Samurai use distance strategies for weapons. They use the Sword when they are close to their opponents, and they use arrows when they are far away. Samurai take great care of their swords that is their lives and their honor. During the fight, they wore two swords, a Katana and a shorter blade.
3. Pros And Cons Of Their Armor
European Knights:
|Advantages||Disadvantages|
|A knight was physically difficult to defeat due to the enormous quantity of armor.||Knights lost their power when wearing heavy metal armor made of metal.|
|The entire body was very well shielded by the metal cover.||Linen underclothes had to be carried to avoid steel armor chafing.|
|The main means of transportation are horses.||Riding horses help them move faster, but they will get hurt when they fall off their horseback.|
|A knight used a lot of strong, big weapons and also a shield.||It was very restricted and hard to move in their armor.|
|Certain knights from certain locations were easily identified because of their armor.||The armor had many different parts.|
Japanese Samurai:
|Advantages||Disadvantages|
|Extremely qualified in a variety of other combat abilities.||Most of their weapons such as arrows cannot pierce the armor of a knight.|
|The Armor was light, as it was mostly bamboo, with small pieces of metal and cloth.||Samurai were less protected and more vulnerable to the body because of their thin armor.|
|The Samurai could fight fairly easily on horseback and foot.||Mainly fighting on foot, they were overpowered when confronted with a horse knight|
|Good for duel fighting, especially for the accurate and fast motions of samurais.||Knights had stronger weapons than those of Samurai’s|
|It made moving easier because it was not heavy.||Their armor had various parts.|
Video explanation:
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4. Main Differences Between Knight And Samurai
- Samurai vs Knight were well trained and were fantastic fighters.
- Knights were located in Europe, while we met Samurai in Japan.
- Knight vs Samurai begin their training since infancy.
- The Samurai wears a leather or steel armor laid with silk cords while the armor of Knights was made of metal
- Knight followed the “Chivalry” rule, while “Bushido” was the religious belief of Samurai.
- If a samurai’s father was a Samurai, he must be a samurai as well.
- If a Knight’s dad was a Knight, he can choose to follow his Dad’s career or not.
- Knight plays “Joust” while Samurai plays “Kendo”.
- A knight had a rank in the army, but a samurai had no.
- Compared to Knight, Samurai looked scarier.
- Samurais tend to optimize the functions of weapons, while Knights tend to attack their enemies.
- Knight vs Samurai both had different weapons.
- In terms of armor, samurai wore more leather than metal.
In general, Samurai vs Knight are from two different continents, each has its advantages and disadvantages. They are the pride in the ancient warriors of each country. Their fighting spirit of the nation is undeniable. This article aims to provide useful information about two prominent feudal warriors, helping people have a better understanding of an important part of human history.
Frequently Asked Questions
1. How Heavy Was A Knight’s Sword?
A long sword is a kind of European sword with a double-handed hilt with a handle of roughly 16 to 28 cm (about 6 to 11 in); the straight twin blade is roughly 1-1.5 kg (2.2 to 3.3 lbs) in length, and weighing around 1 to 1.5 kg (2.2 to 3.3 lbs).
2. Short Comparison Of Chivalry And Bushido?
They began with literal meanings, “Bushi” which translated “soldier” and “chivalry” which derived from French “Chevalerie”, “which means” horseman. Both Bushido and Chivalry have developed into concepts and rules for the behavior of a person who claims to be a samurai or a knight. Chivalry is a broader social term: take care of the sick, defend the weak, be faithful to your liege lord, and so forth.
3. What Is The Proper Way To Wear A Samurai Sword – Blade Up Or Down?
Samurai prefers letting the blade side up because of the following reasons:
In order to keep the blade sharp. The blade may become blunted by gravity and friction on a downside blade against the scabbard.
Reduce the risk of leg or finger cutting when the sword collar loosens because of rub and tear.
4. Why Were Samurai Swords So Strong?
Traditional Japanese Katanas are known for their unbelievable power and capacity to cut. These swords were created in Japan at the beginning of the 5th century. Steel techniques have been introduced from China and Korea, while the iconic sword curve is believed to have been influenced by weapons of the Arabic style.
The swordsmiths were able to gradually refine and purify the blade makeup, using native Japanese steels called Tamahagane, by piling the metal till a dozen times. The completed blades had their enormous power, which would be checked repeatedly to guarantee that the metal did not contain imperfections.
5. Which Is Better Knight Or Samurai?
This is so challenging a theoretical question that we will never have a clear answer. Still, let’s try to imagine a single-combat duel between them, who do you think would win?
- Physical strength: European knight win. By comparing the size of their armors (6′ to about 6’5″compared to 5’3″-5’5″), we can know that European knights were higher and may have some advantages.
- Armor: Even. It is believed that in the same period, Western metal quality exceeded its rivalry and the armor of knights covered most of his body which means it offers better protection. However, samurai armors are more light-weighted and allow better freedom of movement.
- Swords: Samurai win. Actually, katana is not really lighter than knight swords (them taking the weight of the warrior into account). But it is deadlier. Firstly, the katana was well-roundedly designed to be suitable for slicing or thrusting, one or two-handed. Moreover, thanks to special hardened treatment and expert constant care, the katana was always razor-sharp.
- Swordsmanship and martial arts: Even. Samurai and knight styles of unarmed fighting and using swords differ tremendously according to different purposes and functions. One serious problem is that we know little about a knight fighting technique. We just know for sure, the fight you saw in Hollywood movies can be nowhere near the real Medieval heritage martial arts.
Now, many other factors that can change it all are the scenario, the personality of the warrior himself, and even the culture.
6. Did Knights Ever Fight Samurai?
No. During the European colonization of Southeast Asia (the 1600s), knights have been already replaced by soldiers and gunpowder.
7. Would A Samurai Beat A Viking?
Again, we never know for sure. But we can roughly break down some of the following factors:
- Weight, strength and pain resistance: Vikings win
- Armor, sword, skill, and range: Samurai win
Since skill and sword are huge factors, Samurai can have a higher chance of victory here.
8. Who Would Win Ninja vs Samurai?
Armed 1-1 fights or large-group fights: Samurai wins. They usually have 2 swords (a katana and a wakizashi) while ninjas normally don’t even use swords. Samurai also possess horses and are highly trained since infancy for one and one thing only, killing. This victory for samurai is in fact proved by Japanese history many times. For instance, in the Tensho-Iga war (1581), the samurai of Oda Nobunaga gained victory after defeating the ninja clans. However, thanks to the fight, the samurai were impressed by ninja irregular fighting skills and even began using the ninja spies.
Other circumstances that Ninja may win:
- In their advantageous areas like mountainous terrain where they can make use of their hiding and survival skills.
- When they fight in small groups and they can utilize other methods to kill the enemies. For example, poison, ambush, and lay traps were commonly used by ninja. The ninja can even sneak and wait until nights when the samurai sleep or apart from his weapon long enough (such as when he’s in the toilet) to finish him. There are no rules on this.
Last but least, you need to know that the fighting between samurai and ninja is extremely rare because they tended to work together.
Conclusion
Hopefully, after reading this blog, you have found out the similarities and differences between Knight vs Samurai. If you still have any questions about these warriors, feel free to ask Question Japan!
33 Responses
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both the long sword and the katana are excellent weapons. but for me the long sword is better. better steel, longer reach, cross guard, long sword flexes more. katana’s aren’t flexible so if they bent they stay that way. but they are better at cutting. long swords are really good at penetration. And a knight in armour isn’t a clumsy fool. you can move freely in full plate armour. the only down side is you get tired faster than others. knights did not use bow and arrow in battle but they used various other weapons. from blunt weapons like maces to long swords to lances and so much in between. if anything they had more variety of weapons to choose from. and the shape of the katana didn’t come from arabic swords. the katana is built straight and it curves in the cooling process automatically because there is a different in heating and cooling rate of the edge and the rest of the blade. do not use this as a source for your project. this is so wrong.
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Also, samurai carried their katanas blade up due to it allowing for a quicker draw and slice. Test it yourself and you will see.
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wow this is cool information to know! i know samurai would use martial arts, such as kendo, karate, judo, as well as others. did knights have a hand to hand fighting technique, or would they rely on brute strength / weaponry? for instance, if a samurai for were to fight a knight without any weapons, who would most likely win? would the knights heavy armor be an advantage, or disadvantage? feel free to reply, i would love to see peoples thoughts and opinions about this.
European knights in full plate armor were in fact surprisingly agile and quick (even capable of mounting a horse on their own), due to the distribution of the armor’s weight on different areas of the knight’s body. You can see plenty of evidence of this in videos shot by historical reenactors.
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Look up Fiore dei Liberi if you want to know how knights fought. His manual is one of the oldest surviving documents of the 14th century. | https://questionjapan.com/blog/travel-tips/knight-vs-samurai/ |
Medieval Mace is one of the very earliest of weapons from the Middle Ages. It dates back as early as the war hammer or possibly even earlier. It was something that could be constructed reasonably easy without too much weapon building skill.
History of mace:
Maces were used by a different cultures from prehistoric times.
Sample locations and times:
Prehistoric times, precolumbian America, Africa, ancient Egypt, medieval Europe. Latest mass use of maces was during ww1.
Mace use:
The earliest maces had heavy objects attached to the end rather than metal blades or spikes. The overwhelming usefulness of the mace was its ability to generate enormous swinging force that could bring a tremendous blow to an opponent. This is why it had a heavy end. It generated more force than a sword. As weapons, armor, and metal working skills developed over the centuries the mace also developed many ingenious ways to cope by the use of spikes or blades that could pierce or even slice through armor. It was also very economical to make.
Common opinion is mace was a peasant weapon. This is not true, mace was widely used also by knights because its capability to penetrate any armor and cause a serious wounds even without armor penetrating.
Types of mace:
One handed mace, two handed mace, flanged mace, spiked mace. Flail is often classified as a type of mace what is not too correct. | http://getasword.com/blog/432-mace-medieval-weapons/ |
"A pair of mass graves containing [at least] 25 Crusaders who were slaughtered during a 13th-century war in the Holy Land have been unearthed in Lebanon." Source: Daily Mail (Sept. 2021).
"A team of international archaeologists uncovered the gruesome scene at Sidon Castle on the eastern Mediterranean coast of south Lebanon."
Note: The "Sidon Castle" here refers to the land castle, aka Saint Louis castle, not the Sidon sea castle. I think the two structures are connected. I imagine these crusaders were killed during a battle that raged over the entire area and were later buried together near the land castle.
The original study can be found here.
No English available. This is the only video I could find of the castle where these graves were discovered.
"Wounds on the remains suggests the soldiers died at the end of swords, maces and arrows, and charring on some bones means they were burned after being dropped into the pit.
"Other remains show markings on the neck, which likely means these individuals were captured on the battlefield and later decapitated.
"Historical records written by crusaders show that Sidon was attacked and destroyed in 1253 by Mamluk troops, and again in 1260 by Mongols, and the soldiers found in the mass graves likely perished in one of these battles."
Note: According to the original paper, researchers found evidence that fires had been started in both mass graves. The majority of the injuries were apparently caused by "heavy bladed weapons such as swords and axes," but there is evidence for all sorts of really brutal mayhem:
"The evidence for trauma most likely reflects injuries sustained in close combat, in which both pointed and bladed weapons were involved, in addition to crushing injuries from blunt force. The large sharp force injuries such as the ‘scoop’ lesion ... where a slice of bone is removed by a glancing blow, and the other more deeply penetrating sharp force lesions, demonstrate the use of bladed weapons. Crush injuries would be compatible with projectiles from siege engines, such as catapult stones, and blows from rounded maces. Penetrating wounds of square or diamond shape may have been caused by arrows, lances, or blows from the spiked mace. The lesion pattern is consistent with the weaponry of the period including swords, axes, maces, war hammers, arrows, lances and javelins."
Also see: Mass Grave of Slaughtered Crusaders Discovered In Lebanon (Sept. 2021). | https://www.ancientworldreview.com/2021/12/crusaders-mass-grave-discovered-in-lebanon.html |
Battle Guide in a Nutshell — General, Medieval, and Western European
Disclaimers and notes: This is more or less a list of details to consider when writing a Medieval battle. I will place all my sources at the bottom with more specific redirects, such as the page(s) or chapter. I cannot get everything, however, as Medieval history is a large and complex topic. Battles and warfare are voluminous subjects, even when examining just the Medieval period. With that said, we must also examine the veracity of primary sources, especially from this time period. There are also exceptions to many things, or, we have those moments where "is stranger than fiction," or, "sometimes real-life people have plot armor." If you know of any, leave them down below. They are always a fun read. We should strive to write about the exception. Which is more interesting, the standard army routing the weaker foe or the ill-fated band of lowly peasants who manage to hold out against a superior force?
Pre-ramble: Cinema and TV show producers and directors have access to the same material as I do (arguably more) and yet make basic mistakes. I am not referring to the movies or shows that aren't trying to be realistic, but those that are.
I. Before the Battle
Preparing for battle and knowing where the armies stand is essential when discussing battles.
IA. Size
Numbers are hard to find, and reliable numbers are next to impossible. These numbers are from John Beeler's "Warfare in feudal Europe, 730-1200".
Philip II of France's professional army consisted of around 2,700 soldiers (up to 2,800), most of which were infantry, roughly 2,000 of them were. That leaves less than 1,000 for cavalry, sergeants, and others. By 1213, several armies in Europe sought to limit the Capetian rise to power. At this point in time, Philip II was able to bring 24,000-27,000 soldiers for the raging war. Taking the lesser estimate of 24,000, Beeler has these estimates: 17,000-foot soldiers, 5,000 mounted sergeants-at-arms, and 2,000 knights. In all, they were unequally divided among the command Philip II and his son, Louis. However, an army of this size would have been anomalous and remarkable for the time (Beeler, Warfare in feudal Europe, 730-1200, 42-43). However, this is a far more agreeable estimate than the questionable claims of 100,000 on each side, as those at the time were often alleging. Some, however, may put the size at half of Beeler's or less. Take this into consideration when writing about the scale of a battle. If it is typical for the time, then it could be close to 10,000-12,000. If the army's goal is to limit (or defend) the power and growth of a kingdom, then 20,000 is a large army. Nevertheless, keep in mind that a commander would not use all 20,000 in a single battle. Many of these soldiers, especially knights, were divided among various lords.
It is also imperative to consider where the armies are fighting. A pitched battle was uncommon compared to the sieges, raids, and other battles of the period (Beeler, 45). Sieges took much time, resources, and manpower. On the note of available troops, a limit on how long someone was required to serve was standard for the time, thus maintaining an army of consistent size could be problematic for long campaigns and sieges(Jones, 118). The time limit on service was often over a month. Given how long it could take, a sieging army might have been helpful elsewhere, as Archer Jones notes it could have taken an entire campaign season (149). Keep in mind the season as well. No army would want to lay siege during the coldest and least fruitful days of the year for numerous reasons. The safest courses of action required much coordination from the attackers; they needed the proper equipment (ideally artillery, and depending on the period, gunpowder) and controlled the flow of supplies, resulting in weakened and desperate defenders who faced surrender or starvation.
In short, consider who the armies at play are, how wealthy they are, and their societal structure. Even republics saw the strength of mercenaries, and the great kings hired them frequently. While the mercenary today has this reputation of being a rugged, stone-cold killer who is all in it just for the gold, this is a recent development. Mercenary companies likely developed close relations with their employers due to frequent use. If loyalty were such a huge problem, nobody would have hired them, as no lord would throw money at a group of people prone to switching sides. Mercenaries were, for sure, less prone to cracking, shattering, and fleeing when compared to the motley troop of peasants with no experience in war.
IB. The Gear
While Charles Oman magnifies the prominence of knights to debatable proportions, he is correct in that in the collection of those 17,000 units of infantry, there was no discernable standard of their equipment (Charles Oman, The art of war in the Middle Ages : A.D. 378-1515, 64). He points out that those of sturdy discipline and formal training were quite the exception. If they were prepared and well-regulated, then it would be reasonable to assume that they were mercenaries. On average, the fact that most were lacking in gear, shy on morale, and weak in discipline is what made cavalry so much more effective. I will explain soon enough why Oman is wrong to assume that foot soldiers were practically worthless, but as far as the battle is concerned, only a select few were truly ready to face it with an ounce of courage. Mercenaries were frequently employed even if they were expensive. So, let's talk about the infantry.
In short, they were given the short end of the stick. Given that they were non-nobles (the less friendly term is peasant), they were given less importance. Good gear was expensive, training took a lot of time, and for the tactics of the time, they were seen as another tool to get the knights into action. Thus, the average foot soldier was ill-trained, had meagre armor, used a spear and shield, and knew little about combat (Verbruggen, The art of warfare in Western Europe during the Middle Ages: from the eighth century to 1340, 99-100). Up until the late 1200s, they were largely seen as an ineffective fighting force. By 1302, their significance in the battle of Courtrai changed the perspective drastically (Verbruggen, 98). With that said, they could carry an array of equipment, especially starting from the late 1200s and early 1300s (Verbruggen, 146). Crossbows, longbows, short bows, swords, hammers, shields, pikes, spears, battle-axes, the famous halberd, and much more. What equipment one might have depended explicitly heavily on time period, who the army was fighting, wealth, and even culture. These pikes, spears, and halberds were exceptional at preventing or stopping charges (especially cavalry). When soldiers' distance between their enemies decreased, some found these long polearms to be unwieldy. Thus they would drop them in favor of a secondary or tertiary weapon (Verbruggen, 147). For protection, mail (a lot less than a knight would have), gambesons, doublets, coifs, and simple helmets were common. Despite this, foot-soldiers needed excellent command, leadership, discipline, and unyielding formations to see the peak of their utility in a battle. These elements came with time and experience, but, for a long time, they did not come with training (Verbruggen, 154).
What about the valiant knight charging into battle? They consisted of a fraction of the army's size for a reason. Gear, armor for the horse, riding training, lances, helmets, hauberks, swords, and shields to make a complete set was expensive and time-consuming. The primary limit, of course, was the horse. Learning to ride, fight on horseback, and even equip the horse with its gear was reserved for a select few. This is especially true for when plate armor becomes more prominent, as it was designed and made specifically for the wearer. For reference, Verbruggen states that a fully equipped armoured cavalrymen would cost roughly "fifteen mares or nearly twenty-three oxen." (24). In other words, an exorbitant amount of wealth. As far as training, riding was only part of it (and that took considerable effort in the context of war), many knights were expected to be well-versed in martial arts (Verbruggen, 29). The training process began at a young age; it was an extensive, gruelling, and expensive process. Once complete, it was well worth it in battle.
Mail is far more effective than movies or shows would have someone believe. As a general note, keep in mind that armor did work, especially plate armor. How effective it was depended heavily on the weapon, type, and period. If a knight's plate armor is obliterated by a soldier with a short sword, something strange has happened. Even though a full suit of plate armor was heavy, the wearer was not a stiff tinman. He was far more flexible than one might think. There are numerous videos online about medieval armor, and they help give perspective. Remember to keep it consistent, too. Do not show any favors to the protagonists if other characters are wearing the same armor.
II. The Battle
Now is the time to talk about actually fighting. This will encompass quite a bit.
IIA. The Goal of the Battle
This can vary from sieging, raiding, taking a strategic position, holding a strategic position, or taking out an army with no hope of escape. However, the leader hoped that the battle might be the one that ended the war. Sometimes a glimmer of gold waited behind the enemy's banner.
IIB. Infantry
Chessmaster François-André Danican Philidor once said "[Pawns] are the soul of chess.” Infantry did almost everything; they were the soul of war. They had various duties from maintaining, setting up, and using siege equipment, scouting, foraging, building camps, holding positions, stopping cavalry charges, and shielding others. At the battle of Bouvines, one lord used them to create a protective circle for the cavalry (Oman, 64). Their effectiveness has generally been overlooked and understated. This is primarily because taking down knights on the offense was dangerous, risky, and often did not work. If the cavalry blundered a charge, then a well-commanded group of infantry might have been in a good position to throw everything at the knights (Verbruggen, 162). From there, they could take the horse and knight for ransom. When used correctly (by the 1300s and onwards, typically), infantry was a formidable force.
For the most part, prior to the 1300s, infantry was used in defense, especially in forming garrisons. Still, heavy cavalry could charge through a line of infantry with impunity. Verbruggen estimates that "ten riders were mechanically equal to a hundred foot-soldiers, and that a galloping rider exerted a force equal to that of ten foot-soldiers on the defensive" (165). It may not be 100% accurate, but heavy cavalry had the power to decide and shape battles. It, undoubtedly, was frightening to the victims of a charge. Assuming a soldier had the right gear, they could kill, wound, or capture the horse and knight. If a group of soldiers mobbed the knight, he had no hope of survival and could beg for mercy, resulting in his capture and ransom. However, sometimes knights would dismount. Even without a horse, they posed a severe threat. These knights were fully equipped with excellent armor (again, mail was no joke) and had formal training in the art of war. The Battle of Courtrais/Battle of the Golden Spurs and the Battle of Agincourt remain clear examples of the triumph of infantry. They let loose arrow volleys, surrounded, dismounted, and butchered the mounted warriors. In both cases, the terrain was not perfect for cavalry. Those who led infantry had to use the numbers advantage wisely, as a group of knights eradicated an uncoordinated and ill-equipped group of soldiers.
Formations were also paramount and varied from army to army, but also changed based on the immediate threat. When cavalry was charging, infantry formations were tight to make it harder for enemy cavalry to trample through, but sometimes a column was used. If flanks were an issue, soldiers marched into circular or crown formations. If archers were the immediate threat, they readied shields and adopted loose formations (Verbruggen, 160-161).
Remember that infantry could have a wide variety of weapons and armor. Think about what is practical—a one-handed flail was not—and apply that. Many light infantry units favored the bow early on. However, eventually the crossbow had great prominence due to the significant reduction in time it took to train someone (Jones, The art of war in the Western world, 118-119). They could reinforce their knights or fire at light infantry, especially if their targets lacked a shield. Swords were never exceptional at getting through most forms of armor, but axes, maces, and hammers delivered heavy force against targets. A crafty, trained, and experienced swordsman could get by armor, but the average grunt on the frontline was not familiar enough with their weapon to penetrate it. Spears and maces made for great weapons due to their simplicity and effectiveness; it took far less time to train someone to use a spear or mace than most swords. Though if infantry was caught in a close melee, their sword was decent at cutting through the lightly armored foes, but practically worthless against knights.
IIC. Knights
These soldiers were elite. Trained, well-armored, well-equipped, and typically educated in war, they were a massive threat and were always respected on the battlefield. They were regarded as nearly impenetrable with a complete set of mail (and later plenty of plate). Thus, commanders used them well and wisely, as the cost of losing them was far too much. As disciplined warriors, knights, too, understood the importance of formations, and so they charged together in a tight formation to break their enemy's. Whenever possible, these mounted warriors were also the vanguard of flanks and went to great measure to protect them (Verbruggen, 94-95). They were known to, on occasion, dismount and fight on foot.
Nevertheless, their greatest strength was on horseback. Since they were more mobile than infantry, they could efficiently run down soldiers in retreat. Sometimes they reinforced the infantry or regrouped allied infantry in retreat. These units dominated the field when matched against an enemy lacking in discipline, morale, and experience.
Both infantry and knights were under the control of their commander, who, either by himself or an officer, would ride out into battle and issue orders. While the medieval battle may often be portrayed as hectic and chaotic, communication was vital to success even in ancient times.
Knights, too, had a variety of weapons at their disposal. After trampling through enemy lines, a knight could continue their fight with a secondary weapon, as a lance was not practical in a prolonged, close quarters engagement. This could be a mace, axe, or a sword of some variety. When a knight matched another knight in a fight, outside of a charge, they hoped to dismount their opponent. They both had an understanding that the fight was difficult. If they were already dismounted, knights frequently engaged in wrestling, hoping to be in a sufficient enough position to stab their foe in the weak spots of their armor. While it is hard to estimate how long this could take, the Combat of Thirty, a famous battle between knights and squires, lasted for hours. The fight was agreed upon between two factions, however. A real engagement between knights could still take a long time.
IID. Landscape & Weather
This is an essential element that is often overlooked. This always demands respect and deference; else, an army will perish. Leaders considered if they were by or in the forest, hills, mud, rocky, a nearby river, etc. French cavalry at the time formed the paragon of war; it was unmatched and led France into being a dominant military power. Some, such as Beeler, point out that most feudal powers used infantry (59). This might run contrary to what I have already written, but you can see why when one thinks about the theme. When infantry decided key victories, it was because knights had limited effectiveness due to the terrain (Verbruggen, 188). Do not take terrain and geography lightly.
III. Strategy
The higher goal. Often, military leaders were faced with raiding and sieging. Defenders buckled down in tight, strategically important fortresses or easy-to-defend locations (Archer Jones, 146). Carrying out a long invasive campaign was tricky, chiefly due to supply shortages. Invading armies could carry enough for a while, but not long enough as necessary, so they had to live off the land or communicate with locals or those back home (Verbruggen, 293). Taking surrounding territory, such as farms or towns, was done to coerce defenders into withdrawing from their fortress. However, if the defenders knew the enemy army's whereabouts, they could move their food stock and people beforehand. Only in rare cases was destroying supplies and razing buildings viable. Providing equipment, such as ammunition, spare weapons, shields, and armor, was also important. Weapons could take a heavy beating in battle or even break; thus, soldiers needed to have their weapons in good condition before a battle.
When it came time to take out an army, attackers desired a strategy that permitted them to encircle their foe, though it was limited to an attacker who had a large force at his disposal (Verbruggen, 282). Otherwise, using superior numbers often prevailed. Sometimes attackers tried to starve out their enemy, typically when laying siege. Even when sieged, defenders could beat their enemies, especially if they were lacking in siege equipment. Success could be limited to those who won a siege with great effort, as it was costly and may not leave them with sufficient momentum to carry out the war and take another fortress (Verbruggen, 289). Defenders sought to limit or destroy supply lines, which, if successful, was devastating (Verbruggen, 290). When forced to face an enemy on the battlefield, the defender wanted to move to a position they could hold with ease, usually through the terrain or geography, such as a rocky location to limit the effectiveness of cavalry.
Coming back to communication, this is still one of the most important aspects of any war. Medieval commanders knew this just as well as their predecessors. Jones makes a point of this and controlling movement, claiming that a campaign sought to seize, dominate, and constrict the flow of information (123).
IV. Conclusion
There is a lot that goes into war, and I know I cannot cover everything. Specific information on armor, siege engines, weapons, and events are not here. This is meant to be a general guide or a list of things to consider when writing a battle or army on the march. Here is the list of sources, I know they aren’t in a formal style, sorry. Thank you for reading.
Archer Jones, The art of war in the Western world. | https://www.roleplayerguild.com/topics/186932-battle-guide-in-a-nutshell-general-medieval-and-western-european/ooc#post-5308081 |
Unbeknownst to most, a war has broken out between the West Kingdom and the Kingdom of An Tir near Gold Beach. Like most wars, a crazy reason was concocted for the war: Which cake was better? But rather than blood and death, there was sweat, bruises and compliments amid the clash of arms and battle cries.
The event was organized by the Society for Creative Anachronism, which is a non-profit educational society, an international living history group with the aim of studying and recreating medieval cultures.
I infiltrated the war like a common man. I paid my dues and the former princess of the Principality of the Summits took pity on me and lent me clothes. The Lazy J Ranch near Gold Beach was filled with medieval tents. A multitude of colorful flags bearing coats of arms floated in the wind. The tents were not the easy-to-assemble polyester type, but were canvas and poles. I was told that anyone arriving would be inundated with volunteers to help pitch the complicated tents, even at 1am.
People were dressed in medieval period clothing from many nationalities around the world. Luckily, you didn’t have to. Everyone was friendly and loved answering my questions. After a brief walk through the hordes of tents, I made my way to the battlefield and saw warriors wandering around with chariots of armor and/or a squire wearing layers of armor and weapons. Eventually, 150 warriors (in my opinion) girded their armor and practiced heavy weapons or a rapier. Then they gathered in the makeshift castle bounded by hay bales and canvas walls. After the rules of engagement were discussed emphasizing safety, the battle began. Blunt arrows rained down and “dead” warriors, determined by an honor system, went sitting on bales of hay outside the castle. Eventually the arrows ran out and there was a fierce clash as the warriors with shields fought their way past the spears and spears to do close combat. Between frays, fruits and drinks were distributed to dead and living warriors. Many compliments were shared as the Warriors discussed tactics for their opponents to successfully “kill” them.
As a castle, the siege finally came to an end. Amid the imaginary castle carnage, a squire has been knighted by reigning King Sven Fallgr Gunnarsson and Queen Rauokinn Eyverska Starradottir of the Kingdom of An Tir. A steel sword was brought in and sworn to loyalty. According to the future knight’s preference, he was knighted with his own sword, a rattan sword wrapped in yellow and blue duct tape, weathered and frayed from its use over the year.
At the equestrian field, warriors learned to fight on horseback. I could only imagine how difficult it was to control a horse and a gun. Next, armored infantry warriors helped desensitize the horses to the touch of shields and weapons and the sound of their armor. The rule is never to hit the horse. For the practice of jousting, the warriors learned to ride horses in full armor and very noisy. I recoiled when a warrior fell from his horse to the thud of a huge pile of metal hitting the ground. He was back on his horse soon after. Eventually, he rode a horse, played with a light javelin, and hit a small target painted with a red heart.
At Town Square I had a delicious steak meat and mushroom pie, although I was tempted to try the Scotch egg.
At the end of the day, it was the court. It was formal and long. I had learned throughout the day that Kings/Queens/Princess/Princesses are awarded to winners and their wives after winning combat tournaments. There are three elite orders: Knights – obviously masters of sword fighting, Pelicans – masters of service, and Laurels – masters of arts and sciences. I found out in court that the award ceremonies were long, written scripts. However, the outfit and decor was gorgeous and looked like an ornate movie set. An award recipient came to the ceremony with an entourage dressed in green and she was carried on a palanquin.
The Society for Creative Anachronism was formed at a 1966 UC Berkeley medieval studies graduate and author Diana Paxson’s backyard party. There was a “Grand Tournament” of helmets, masks fencing, a semblance of costume (clothing) and combat with plywood swords. , padded maces and fencing foils. It ended with a parade. The SCA was perpetuated by many science fiction writers of the time such as Marion Zimmer Bradley. Today the SCA has expanded into many medieval arts with illuminated scrolls, tournaments, wars and ceremonies.
The “A&W” Anti versus West War is an annual event (except during the pandemic) but each county and principality has regular meetings to explore medieval arts, battle and history. If you’re interested, start with the website: https://www.sca.org/ You can find meetings near you, using your zip code once you’ve browsed the huge website. Or you can attend events like me, as a regular mundane. | https://stmartin-guide.info/war-breaks-out-in-gold-beach-all-for-fun-new/ |
I just can't stop thinking about weapons & armor. You know how it is-- or at least, I do, this happens to me all the time-- when your brain gets into a rut, & keeps turning over the same problem. Over & over. I'm stuck in a loop thinking about gear & equipment. I blame the legacy of Dungeons & Dragons, partially-- obsessing over the differences between a scimitar & a longsword or field plate & plate mail is built into that game. Some of it is George R. R. Martin's fault, since he is able to write about the perils & perks of armor really well. Ultimately, it comes down to my philosophy about roleplaying games-- the rules are little white lies, sure. A framework lurking behind everything that should be hidden under the umbrella of suspension of disbelief. That is one side of the yin yang, but the other is that a well crafted rule can actually add to the story. Elegance in design is important, & how the rules portray things like Sanity or Honor or Humanity can create a genre practically out of thin air. The same goes for more mundane applications; if you build a system with robust martial arts mechanics, the game is going to be more kung fu than a game that advantages heavy brawlers encased in steel, lugging tower shields. I want Oubliette to fall on the "realistic" side of the fence, but I don't want to bypass the charm of a more cinematic approach entirely. I want to have enough oomph to the rules to suggest a plausible & naturalistic world, but at the same time I want them to be abstract so that the game doesn't get bogged down with bean counting & number crunching. Oubliette isn't a combat simulator, but combat is an important form of narrative conflict-- & some Players (like Radarless) really respond when you spice up a story with a fight.
The World of Darkness system has a good rough shape for what I want out of a system, but I can't help wanting to tweak & fiddle with it, especially because it is largely aimed at modern day storytelling, & my campaign is a post-historical retro-futurist uncanny valley of a setting. I want to hover around swords & shields, with black powder firearms as a regular feature. That means I have to look at what we're working with. Chew on it, mull it over. I haven't quite come to any conclusions, but I don't think my thought processes are in vain. In my last post about armor, kromelizard brought up shields, which are an important point. I think very few RPGs give enough emphasis to the shield-- in Dungeons & Dragons you might pick up a few points of AC but mathematically you are often better served by wielding two weapons or one big one, two handed. Which is exactly what I mean by rules serving genre-- a samurai dual-wielding her daisho or a berserker with a huge claymore is pretty cool in a high fantasy milieu, but it isn't very plausible from a historical perspective. World of Darkness didn't have any shield rules until Armory came out, & when they did the rules were fairly prohibitive. Shields gave you a +2 to Defense but a -2 to your attacks. Ambidextrous characters took only a -1, but I think ambidextrous characters are goofily omnipresent in fantasy. Maybe a Merit that negated the penalty? One dot, then two dots? I'm not opposed to the penalty system, but as I've said before, I tend to prefer systems that reward Players for remembering the odds that are stacked against them.
I think that, from a rules point of view, you only need to address three kinds of shields: small, large & tower. If you go with a bonus/penalty system the way WoD does, all you need to do for small & large is say +1/-1 & +2/-2, right? Done. Wood, wood wrapped in leather, steel, bronze, who cares? Kite-shaped, fiddle-shaped, round, square, six of one, half dozen of the other! Since Defense scores are going to tend to be around 2 or 3, that is a fairly significant boost. I also kick around-- well, okay. One thing that DnD Fourth Edition did well was create the "standard action, move action, minor action" schema. It makes me wonder about porting some of those ideas over. In World of Darkness, you can double your Defense by foregoing your "standard action." You know, rather than attacking, you duck & weave. What if a shield granted you the same ability, but only cost you a "move action?" Is that a reasonable notion? It diversifies character options, which is always a good thing, if you ask me. Just something I'm kicking around. As for tower shields, those are an exceptional case. I don't think there needs to be a very good system for them, because they aren't really applicable at a Player Character level. I mean, "tower shields" that are actually of use in a melee are just "large shields," while anything bigger is effectively a piece of siege weaponry, & outside the scope of what I really care about.
One problem endemic to the World of Darkness combat system is that of strength requirements. The "average" attribute in the World of Darkness system is 2, but many of their weapons have extraordinary strength requirements. Shields, for instance, has a strength requirement of 3. That isn't so bad-- especially if "light shields" exist (they don't, but that is fixed easily enough)-- but there are far worse offenders, if you ask me. A halberd, for instance, has a strength requirement of...4!? Isn't the whole point of a polearm that you can slap it in the hands of a peasant conscript & be like-- "point it at that guy, maybe try to trip him"? Now, slavish devotion to the rules could allow you to come up with a no-prize-- "well then most people in history were fighting with those weapons with the penalty for low strength!"-- but that doesn't fly with me. Assuming a penalty as a default is bad game design. Then again, a lot of the weapons in Armory are unbalanced; it is a good jumping off point, a good place to dig for brainstorming, but I wouldn't take it as gospel.
Reading up on armor some more, I noted one thing I'd been overlooking-- I'd noticed it before but subsequently forgotten about it-- "bulletproof" armor downgrades lethal damage from gunshots to bashing. Now, I've chucked the "ballistic/melee" armor rating dichotomy of World of Darkness out the window. Not out of anger-- it is a good system in a game where firearms are the default-- but out of a reasonable desire to simplify. I don't need it; guns are extant but not prevalent, & black powder firearms aren't exactly high velocity armor piercers. Heck, breastplates used to be "proofed" by pistol shots, with the dent reinforced as a badge of authenticity. I am comfortable applying the same Armor Rating across the board. Or, well-- am I? It isn't gunfire & melee weapons that keeps me thinking, but rather maces, picks & swords. Bashing, Piercing & Slashing, those were the damage types in the d20 Oubliette campaign, & they allowed a pretty evocative "rock, paper, scissors" approach to the realities of antique armor. You know, chainmail is great for stopping a sword (or a shark) but when getting clobbered with a warhammer, it isn't going to be all that helpful. Armor had damage reduction, & that reduction was bypassed by a certain weapon type. Slashing weapons would cut through leather & hide, Blunt weapons would ignore chain & scale & Piercing weapons would get through plate & other heavy armors. In the more skirmish intensive system of d20, it worked well, but I think it would be the wrong approach for World of Darkness. Far easier to give warhammers some kind of ad hoc armor piercing property, don't you think?
My point was-- it got away from me!-- that there is precedent for "downgrading" damage. That is nice to see. It can be interwoven into the armor system very nicely-- it provides an upper echelon. You know, light armor can be +1 & include studded leather, kevlar-like spider silk, a chain shirt; medium armor can be +2, your chain mail, ashigaru lamellar, alchemist's brigandine; heavy armor is the +3 like the full samurai suit, your ceramic reinforced encounter suit or a man-at-arms in mail & cuirass; then topping it out you've got your full suits of custom made plate armor, your exoskeletons, the truly top of the line stuff that encases the character & downgrades damage from lethal to bashing. This is all stuff that I would need to balance out, though. On some level World of Darkness adheres to the philosophy that "the real world isn't balanced, why should the game be?" which is a question that I've always though answers itself-- because it is a game. I don't buy social station or cost as a balancing factor-- I have a hard time believing that any game will actually hold up those barriers. Again, that is probably the legacy of Dungeons & Dragons talking, but characters are always finding hoards of gold or the corpses of ancient heroes. They befriend empresses & kings. If you want a system that keeps things flowing, you've got the balance it at the roots, keep the fundamentals even. Otherwise you are building an uneven landscape, which will channel the story in directions you might not want it to go. Things like social penalties are as much a problem for the Narrator as the character-- they shouldn't be ignored, by any means but if they are the sole factor you rely on to keep things even keeled, you'll be sorry. | https://mordicai.livejournal.com/1930687.html |
It is safe to say that castles were the most important weapon in medieval warfare. In addition to these fortresses, there were a plethora of medieval weapons created that were made from whatever the raw materials were available at any given time. These weapons could be something as simple as arrows to an object as complex as a catapult.
Knives And Daggers
A knife had a single blade while a dagger had a double blade; both were used for stabbing.
- Anelace – This can be described as a dagger or a short sword. It was usually carried at the small of the back.
- Dirk – This is a Scottish word meaning a short dagger. This was used as a back up and carried by the left hand that was holding the shield.
- Katara – Originating in South India was this very short punching sword. It had a horizontal hand grip and the blade sat on top of the knuckles.
- Misericorde – Quite a long, thin knife that delivered the death stroke. It was narrow enough to strike between any gaps in the armor plates.
- Sgian dubh – This means “black knife” which really meant that it was a secret. It was worn by the Scottish with a kilt and usually hidden in the boot.
- Cinquedea – A heavy blade developed during Italian Renaissance in Northern Italy. It was usually carried in place of a sword and worn beside the buttocks to be easily drawn from the back.
- Stiletto – A long skinny blade used for stabbing. It is an Italian word meaning “pointed instrument” and gained a great deal of fame in the High Middle Ages even though it was created much earlier.
Midieval Swords
Fencing With Five Different Medieval Weapons
Midieval Swords
Swords were used either as a clubbing or thrusting weapon. They could be double or single edged, straight or curved.
- Arming Sword – A traditional military piece used with a buckler or shield. Even if a knight wasn't in armor, he still wore this sword.
- Longsword – A straight double-edged blade that was held by two hands in combat used for slicing, hewing and stabbing. It was popular from the 13th until the 17th century.
- Zwiehänder – Created in Switzerland, this two-handed sword was used primarily by the Germans. They were also used for breaking up pike formations.
- Claymore – A two-handed sword used in late Medieval Times. It was smaller than the swords of that era. A cross-guard was present with two round, large concave plates to protect the hand.
- Falchon – A single-edged, one-handed sword combining the power of an axe with a
sword's versatility. Of all of the medieval weapons, this one was most widely used.
Medieval Weapons
Medieval Blunt Weapons
Medieval weapons often consisted of blunt objects. These did not have a penetrating point or sharp edge. Its sole purpose was to hit someone.
- Club – The very simplest of all medieval weapons was the club. This was essentially a short stick or staff, made from wood and held in one hand. There are still clubs used today as a law enforcement baton or in Martial Arts.
- Morning Star – This was a weapon with one or more spikes on the end. It was used by infantry and cavalry and was a very versatile piece since it could be used to hit or stab someone.
- War Hammer – This was a later creation in medieval weapons. It resembled a long hammer and was used for close combat. These were strong enough to damage an enemy through their armor or used to hit a horse's legs so they would collapse, resulting in the rider to fall to the ground.
- Quarterstaff – These were English medieval weapons made from hardwood and often had metal tips. They were very long two-handed clubs that could deliver crushing blows.
Midieval Poleax's
Midieval Crossbow
Medieval Spear And Poleaxe Weapons
Spears were types of medieval weapons that were dated from the Stone Ages described as a very long slender object. Poleaxe forms of weapons had the characteristics of axes on poles.
- Bardiche – A cleaver type of blade that varied in shape and was attached to a pole with one or two sockets. This was a very heavy weapon.
- Pike – A pole weapon used by infantry. It was a very long weapon ranging from 10 to 20 feet or more. It could be used to attack the enemy without getting close however, it was of no use in close up combat.
- Swordstaff – This was a blade that was connected to a staff's end that gave the benefit of a sword at a further distance. Like the pike, it was of no used up close but ideal for far away attacks.
Medieval Long Range Weapons
Medieval weapons often consisted of objects like bows and axes that could strike an opponent without getting too close.
- Bow – This was used to project arrows with the use of a string. The limbs were curved and usually made from wood. These are still used for hunting or archery.
- Crossbow – These medieval weapons were traditional bows that were mounted on stocks that shot projectiles. They had a shorter draw than regular bows with the same amount of power.
- Shuriken – These were concealed weapons usually thrown at the opponent. They were sharp small blades that could be made of various materials and were used as a secondary weapon.
- Throwing Axe – These medieval weapons were thrown overhead the way you would throw a baseball. A skilled user could rotate the axe in air once so that the blade would penetrate the person or object.
Medieval Siege Engine
Medieval Siege Engines
These devices were created to break through fortifications or city walls. They could either attack a castle or simply starve out the people by giving them no opportunity to escape.
- Catapult – These were able to throw a projectile a very long distance and was one of the most effective medieval weapons during warfare.
- Ballistae – Torsion springs and two levers were used to hurl projectiles. The invention of the torsion spring allowed lighter items to be thrown more rapidly with greater results.
Medieval weapons were constantly created and changed as the military had more need for them as this was a bloody era full of much violence. Weapons of today are a direct result from the inventions during these Medieval Times.
Midieval Weapons Books
Comments
Don't forget about the battle Flail. The flail is a unique and popular weapon as well. :)
wow!Those medieval weapons looks awesome. I look forward to read more guides like this
Wonderful and comprehensive hub.
Even though i'm a martial artist,i always have fascination with medieval weapons.
I really enjoyed reading your hub since I am really interested in medieval weapons and armor. thanks! | https://hubpages.com/education/An-Informative-Guide-To-Popular-Medieval-Weapons |
How is chain mail different from plate armor?
This is what a Brandenburg knight could have looked like around 1260.
The boots that you wear on your legs
They shouldn't be in the iron.
You must now wear a knight's dress.
The good boy was sorry for that;
He spoke with fierce reluctance:
What my mother gave me
That shouldn't come from me
May it be harmful or pious.
The wise man wonders in silence
And does the fool's will.
So he lets him on his boots
Pull two light iron trousers,
He then laces with noble braids
On him golden knight spurs,
Knit the pair of straps around the knees
And then hands him the neck mountain.
He kept quiet until his wish was granted:
Soon he was completely wrapped in steel.
Only one of the three knights is already wearing chain leggings - miniature from a Tristan manuscript, approx. 1240. Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Munich, Ms. Germ. 51, fol. 86r. Taken from: German Medieval Armies 1000-1300.
The leg protection of the knight on the right is shown in a strikingly different way, possibly a different type of armor should be marked with it - miniature from a Parzifal manuscript, middle of the 13th century. 19, fol. 49c. Taken from: German Medieval Armies 1000-1300.
In this illustration from the early 13th century you can see the chain leg warmers, which are still open and only tied at the back. On the sole of the foot, too, the chain legs are only tied with straps - Christ's Descent from the Cross, the three women at the grave, sleeping guards. Detail from the Gloucester Psalter, Munich, BSB, Clm 835, fol. 26v. Taken from: Elisabethpsalter
The hands were covered with chain mesh Leather mittens protected, which were pinned to the arm ends of the chain mail. The palms of these mittens were not covered with chain rings and had an opening through which you could stick your hand out. There were longitudinal slits, large recesses, but also openings at the base of the mittens. The mittens clearly dominated the glove well into the 14th century. According to the sculptures and illustrations, it can be assumed that padding for additional protection of the fingers was not necessarily used, the gloves appear too thin and filigree.
On this French sculpture from the 13th century, the longitudinal slit on the inside of the chain mittens can be clearly seen. Only the outer surface is covered with chain mesh. (Musée des Antiquités, Rouen; from: Knight Hospitaller, I, 1100-1306. D. Nicolle and C. Hook. Warrior Series. Osprey Publishing, Oxford, 2001)
The Chain hoods (hauberk) were sometimes still attached to the chain mail. The chin and front neck area was protected by the so-called ventail, which can be closed separately. Should the chain hood be stripped off, the valve would have to be opened. At this time, however, the separate chain hood began to establish itself. In the German-speaking countries, in comparison to the rest of Europe, there is one shape that is particularly noticeable in which the neck and shoulder apron of the chain bonnet consists of two rectangular pieces of chain that hang down smoothly at the front and back. The "bibs" were worn over the chain mail or over the tunic, so that a second protective chain mesh layer existed in the endangered chest and back area. However, the shoulder area, which is also highly endangered, remained uncovered by this hood shape. This is probably why separate chain hoods from subsequent epochs have a circumferential collar that also includes the shoulders.
A padded one was worn under the chain hood Fabric hood (batwât, huetelin, hûbe, gupfe), probably also under the chain mail padded undergarment (Gambeson, doublet). It is noticeable in contemporary images that such heavily padded textile armor was worn mainly by foot soldiers without chain mail, while lighter upholstery apparently predominated under the chain gear. Only at the end of the 13th or beginning of the 14th century are more evidence of the heavily padded gambeson in combination with chain mail. Contemporary text but also image sources suggest additional or separate upholstery. This is what Ulrich von Liechtenstein calls one around 1250 Shoulder guards (spaldenier, espalier, spaliera) made of fabric. A sleeveless one was worn over the armor Coat of arms or tabard (wâpenroc). Presumably it was originally introduced as a protection against the sun's rays through experiences of the Crusades. It then acquired more and more an ornamental and heraldic character. This was perhaps also done in order to be able to distinguish the fighters who were unrecognizable under the armor. In the religious orders of knights, the tunic became a regular uniform at an early stage, the psychological aspect of which should not be underestimated for friend and foe.
Efforts had always been made to protect the trunk with the vital organs in particular. Chainmail obtained in this way shows that the ring diameter in the torso area was significantly smaller (and therefore safer) than the rest of the shirt. The density of the braid decreased below the waist and on the arms. This saved weight at the same time. Another method for the special protection of the upper body consisted in the already described deeply pulled down bib of the chain hood. Text sources suggest that two chain mail items were also worn on top of each other. Likewise were already Breastplates made of iron (plate) or a leather one Cuirass (French cuirie, from cuir: leather) worn over the chain mail, covered by the tunic. Appeared in the middle of the 13th century Plate skirts - Tabs with many incorporated plates - as protection over the chain mail.
As a knightly equestrian helmet (and symbol of status) the Pot helmet (helm, helmvaz), which completely covered the head and had only narrow viewing slits (venster) and ventilation holes. It offered excellent protection against arrows, but above all against lances. The disadvantage was the very poor visibility and ventilation. The flat top also offered cutting weapons a good point of attack, so that in the 14th century the top of this helmet shape was increasingly rounded off so that the weapons could slide off more easily.
The Rider shields had become smaller and smaller due to the improved armor, but still represented a very important part of the protective equipment. They were triangular in shape, about 80 cm high and between 54 and 75 cm wide.
The knight's main weapon of attack was not the sword, but the 3 to 3.5 m long one lance (gleve), which was preferably made of ash wood, as this wood has good elasticity. But hornbeam or fir wood were also used, the latter mainly for tournament lances, which should break easily for safety reasons. The shaft usually had a square or hexagonal cross-section and tapered towards the tip. Here the lance was provided with an iron point, which was usually double-edged or square. Handling the lance required a lot of practice. For example, the knight could easily hit a head-sized target with her. And the increased penetration power of the lance on impact due to the speed of the horse was enormous. The preferred tactic of the knight armies was to break through and dissolve enemy lines by means of concentrated cavalry attacks with an inserted lance.
Handling and armor-piercing effects of the lance, depicted in the so-called Maciejowski Bible (around 1250); Source: Old Testament Miniatures; S.C. Cockerel. Braziller, New York, 1969, fol. 11r
Lance tips 12/13. Century from Mecklenburg, length approx. 30 cm; Source: Schoknecht
If the enemy armies were wedged together, the knight could use various weapons. The typical sword this era usually had a one-handed handle with a brazil nut or disk pommel and a straight quillons. The length of the (double-edged) blade was just under a meter and the weight, depending on the version, between 1000 and 1400 g. The sword blades were forged from mono or stringy refined steel and had a wide groove for flexibility and weight saving. Except for the tang, they were hardened and tempered as hard as a spring (approx. 52 Hrc). This relatively low hardness already shows that the break resistance of these cutting weapons was more important than an extremely hard edge. The pommel and quillons were made of forged iron. The handle made of two wooden shells covered with leather.
Larger swords with longer handles, which were more likely to be wielded with two hands, have also been used. Some authors refer to these swords as saddle tree swords or hand and a half swords. Other weapons that were often used were the mace, ax and dagger (misericord), which had been part of the knightly armament again since the second half of the 13th century. The maces were in principle more developed clubs. In order to increase their weight and thus their striking power, they were equipped with striking heads made of iron or bronze. The hammer heads were provided with protruding bulbs or (in contrast to the maces of the infantry) with strikingly short spines. One of the author's assumptions: Perhaps they deliberately did not want to kill with these weapons, but rather just knock the enemy unconscious or incapacitated in order to collect ransom money. Such practices were the order of the day at the tournaments. The shafts of the maces were designed for one-handed use on horseback and were therefore relatively short.
Saint Mauritius also wore a dagger on his right side in the 2nd half of the 13th century. The unusual diamond-shaped pommel shape (here covered by the arm) is, by the way, identical to the pommel shape of his sword - an early evidence of the 14th century fad of wearing paired swords and daggers.
Depiction of an early iron hat from the Bamberg Psalter (around 1230). Its construction corresponds to an archaeological find, the so-called Wilnsdorfer Eisenhut. This consists of two parts, the riveted umbrella is still very short compared to later monkshood models, the dome, which is driven from one piece, is relatively high (original height of the Wilnsdorf iron hat find: 20 cm with a diameter of 27 cm; literature: W. Bauer, 1979 :)
Eisenhut, 13th - 14th century, place of discovery: Desert of Marsleben (Vorharz); composed of 4 parts (calotte made of two half-shells, above it a slightly arched iron band running in the middle, sloping brim; riveted), inside there are rivets and organic traces (felt or leather), which can probably be assigned to a helmet padding. (Literature: Demuth, 2006)
Only very few could afford chain mail in the period under discussion. They will have been reserved for well-paid professional soldiers and wealthy citizens. The padded gambeson was the rule here. In contrast to the designs worn under chain mail, these cloth armor could reach considerable thicknesses, which made them excellent protective clothing. The hands were rarely protected by gloves. As a shield, they often carried a small fist shield with a shield boss with them. But the large, outdated equestrian shield shapes were still used with them. The paverse, a large rectangular shield, was very popular with crossbowmen, behind which the archer could safely draw his crossbow. The most important weapon was the spear, but early war scythes were also used. A dagger knife, which was also needed as a tool, was also part of the equipment. Swords, including single-edged swords (e.g. falchion), were rarely used. As a firearm, the crossbow (still with a horn or composite tendon bow) was apparently much more popular than the bow in this country.
More information on high medieval crossbowmen
The obligation of the townspeople to do military service for the margrave was based on their town charter, some towns even achieved full liberation. The municipal contingent was under the supervision of the mayor, under whom the guild masters commanded.
The peasants were only obliged to serve in the army to a limited extent. During the war they had to follow the margrave into the field for three days in a four-horse cart. In the defense of the country, however, they were used as garrisons in castles and at river crossings and strategically important road points. They also had to help build the fortifications.
This is what a soldier with a gambeson, armor hood, iron hat and spear could have looked like.
This miniature from the world chronicle by Rudolf von Ems (late 13th century) shows a siege scene. What is striking is the use of large, actually outdated drop shields, which, due to their large area, apparently still enjoyed a certain popularity during sieges. The three arm cuffs on the small rider shields stand out. The crossbowman, of all people, wears a pot helmet, everyone else either wears an iron hat or only a chain hood. The use of archers can be seen very nicely on this picture. Library of St. Gallen Cathedral, Switzerland. Taken from: German Medieval Armies 1000-1300.
First version: Joachim Meinicke in January 2002
Many thanks to Uwe Winkler, Märkisches Museum (Stiftung Stadtmuseum Berlin) for support with research and access to the collection
Sources and literature:
Andreas Schlunk and Robert Giersch; The Knights - accompanying volume for the exhibition of the same name in the Historical Museum of the Palatinate in Speyer; Stuttgart 2009; Konrad Theiss Verlag GmbHt
Maurice Keen; Chivalry; London 1984; Rowohlt
Die Zeit der Staufer, Volume 2, exhibition catalog, Württembergisches Landesmuseum, Stuttgart 1977
Ortwin Gamber, Armament of the Staufer Era, in: Die Zeit der Staufer, Volume 3, exhibition catalog, Württembergisches Landesmuseum, Stuttgart 1977
Ulrich Lehnart; Early and high Gothic clothing and weapons; Wald-Michelbach 1998; Karfunkel Publishing House
Christopher Gravett, Graham Turner; German Medieval Armies; Oxford, Great Britain 1997; Osprey Publishing Ltd.
Pestalozzi Association of the Province of Brandenburg (ed.); The province of Brandenburg in words and pictures; Berlin 1900; Publishing house Julius Klinkhardt
The Mark Brandenburg - Issue 44; Berlin 2002; Lucie Großer Edition, Marika Großer Verlag
Adriaan von Müller; Nobleman ... citizen, farmer, beggar man - Berlin in the Middle Ages; 1979 Berlin; Haude & Spenersche publishing bookstore
Citizen, farmer, nobleman - Berlin in the Middle Ages; Exhibition catalog; Museum for Pre- and Early History Berlin; Nicolaische Verlagbuchhandlung; Berlin, 1987 Dr. Hermann, Brosien, Knowledge of the Present - Prussian History - History of the Mark Brandenburg, Greßner & Schramm, Leipzig 1887
German Medieval Armies 1000-1300. C. Gravett, G. Turner. Osprey Military 310. Oxford, 1997
English Medieval Knight 1200-1300. C. Gravett, G. Turner. Osprey Military 310. Oxford, 2002
Medieval Scandinavian Armies (1). D. Lindholm, D. Nicolle. Osprey Military 310. Oxford, 2003
The Elizabeth Psalter in Cividale del Friuli. Harals Wolter-von dem Knesebeck. German publishing house for art history, Berlin, 2001
Ulrich Schoknecht, A find of medieval weapons from Levetzow, Wismar district, Bodendenkmalpflege in Mecklenburg - Yearbook 1967
Ingo F. Walther (Ed.), Codex Manesse - Die Miniatures der Große Heidelberger Liederhandschrift, 4th edition, Insel Verlag, Frankfurt Main, 1989
Harald Wolter-von dem Knesebeck, Das Mainzer Evaneliar, Schnell & Steiner Verlag, Regensburg 2007
Benoit Van den Bossche, Claude Sauvageot, Strasbourg - Das Münster, Schnell & Steiner Verlag, Regensburg 2007
Eberhard Freiherr von Künßberg, Der Sachsenspiegel. Pictures from the Heidelberg manuscript, Insel-Bücherei No. 347, Insel Verlag, Leipzig,
Wolfram von Eschenbach, Parzival, transmission from Wilhelm Hertz, Reclam, Stuttgart 1985
Heribert Seitz, Edged Weapons (Volume I), Klinkhardt & Biermann, Braunschweig 1965
Erik D. Schmid; The Journal of The Mail Research Society Vol. I, No. I, July 2003
Dr. Riedel, Adolph Friedrich; The Mark Brandenburg in 1250; Hohenzollern Collection; 1902
W Bauer: excavations and finds in the castle of Wilnsdorf. In: D. Ellger, ed. Contributions to archaeolog. Castle research and ceramics of the Middle Ages in Westphalia 1st monument plant. and Research in Westphalia 2. Bonn, 1979, 153-178
Volker Demuth: Medieval weapons. In: Archeology in Saxony-Anhalt, special volume 4. Halle, 2006, p. 236
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What is the name of the large round Spartan shield?
What is the name of the large round Spartan shield?
Here you can get a good look at how an Aspis looked like on the inside. The Aspi (also known as a Hoplon) is a large round shield used in Ancient Greece. It was the Weapon of the Spartans.
What were Spartan shields made of?
The hoplite shield, or aspis (although it is commonly called a ‘hoplon’), was heavy, weighing about 30 pounds. They were constructed out of wood with an outer layer of bronze. Due to its defensive nature, Spartans using it as a weapon could gain the advantage of surprise.
Are there any Spartan shields?
The basic elements of the ancient Greek Spartan body armor consisted of a shield (hoplon, from which comes the name hoplite for the Greek infantryman), helmet and a cuirass or breastplate. The word for an individual soldier’s equipment of weapons and armor is panoply. Ancient Greek hoplite Athenian shield.
Can a samurai beat a Viking?
The samurai’s might be the fastest opponent a viking can cross path with so, obviously, the speed and skills goes to the samurais, which I think are the key points to their victory. So, the samurais 8/10. Vikings have much more efficient and superior weaponry.
Would a Knight beat a Viking?
The knight is the probable winner. The knight looses out every time. The armor weighs too much and is a burden to work with. The viking would crush the Knight and if the knight was on a horse, all that is needed is to knock him off the horse.
What is the difference between a Viking and a knight?
to become a viking you had to be from Scandinavia and live in a clan and be skilled at fighting. to become a knight you had to have people in your bloodline that are or where knights or show the king you are worthy enough.
Who defeated Mongols?
Alauddin
How far did Genghis Khan conquer?
At their peak, the Mongols controlled between 11 and 12 million contiguous square miles, an area about the size of Africa.
What stopped the Mongols from conquering the world?
The major battles were the Siege of Baghdad (1258), when the Mongols sacked the city which had been the center of Islamic power for 500 years, and the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260, when the Muslim Mamluks were able to defeat the Mongols in the battle at Ain Jalut in the southern part of the Galilee—the first time the …
Who defeated the Mongols in the Middle East?
Jalal al-Din had defeated Mongol forces on several occasions during the war of 1219-1221. After suffering a defeat by an army personally led by Genghis Khan, however, Jalal al-Din was forced to flee.
Did the Mongols ever lose?
‘Mongolian-Bulgar battle’) or the Battle of Kernek was the first battle between Volga Bulgaria and the Mongols, probably one of the first skirmishes or battles the Mongols lost. It took place in autumn 1223, at the southern border of Volga Bulgaria….
|Battle of Samara Bend|
|Casualties and losses|
|Unknown||Unknown|
Did anyone ever defeat the Mongols?
Yes, they were. Their most famous defeat was in 1260 at the battle of Ain Jalut. The Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt and Syria, defeated the Mongols because of a great commander called Baibars, who was a freed slave.
Who defeated Mongols first?
It also marked the first of two defeats the Mongols would face in their attempts to invade Egypt and the Levant, the other being the Battle of Marj al-Saffar in 1303….Battle of Ain Jalut.
|Date||3 September 1260|
|Location||Near Ayn Jalut, Nazareth, Galilee|
|Result||Mamluk victory Mongol invasion of the Mamluk Sultanate is halted.|
Did anyone defeat Genghis Khan?
The Naimans’ defeat left Genghis Khan as the sole ruler of the Mongol steppe – all the prominent confederations fell or united under his Mongol confederation.
What countries beat the Mongols?
The Mongols were defeated in Vietnam, Japan, Egypt and in their second invasion of Hungary. All of these defeats were “Tutoburg Forest” moments that they never expanded beyond. The Mongols invaded Japan two times in 1274 and 1281. The first invasion consisted of 20000 soldiers and 300 ships.
Who beat the Mongols in Europe?
In 1271 Nogai Khan led a successful raid against the country, which was a vassal of the Golden Horde until the early 14th century. Bulgaria was again raided by the Tatars in 1274, 1280 and 1285. In 1278 and 1279 Tsar Ivailo lead the Bulgarian army and crushed the Mongol raids before being surrounded at Silistra.
Why didn’t Mongols invade Europe?
They chose not to go any further into Europe, because their conquests there were not as profitable as other potential areas much closer to Mongolia would be. They simply changed their priorities. However, Europe was gripped by paranoia for a long time. Fearing that the Mongols might one day come back.
Could the Mongols conquer Europe?
Unlikely. But not because the European nations of the time had superior battle tactics or military technology (indeed, the Mongols had Chinese technology, which at the time was the most advanced in the world. | https://janetpanic.com/what-is-the-name-of-the-large-round-spartan-shield/ |
What Was It?
Your basic down-and-dirty brawler, the Fighter makes use of a wide range of weapons and armor in order to deliver efficient hurt to deserving foes.
What Inspired It?
The Fighter was Conan the Barbarian through and through. John Carter of Mars minus the laser guns. Your classic huge, muscular man with a sword in one hand and a buxom newly-liberated slave girl hanging off the other. He probably speaks without bother with things like "articles" or "grammar," and when other people describe him they probably use words like "thews" and "sinews." He may not be highly educated, but he know exactly where to put the pointy part of a sword for maximum effect. The Paladin
The Paladin took the Fighter concept in a very specific direction: As holy warriors sworn to work to protect others and uphold the greater good, Paladins gained greater power and impressive spiritual skills. The tradeoff? They could only behave according to the strictures of D&D's Lawful (or Lawful Good) alignment, limiting their potential solutions for problems as well as their potential allies.
The Ranger
The Ranger uses his strength to commune with nature and befriend animals. This may sound silly, but when a Ranger's animal pals include eagles, bears, and even dragons, you probably don't want to laugh too loudly. A Ranger probably won't help much in cities, but he's an invaluable ally in the wilderness... you know, where most D&D adventures take place.
The Monk
If you grew up in a Christian-dominated society and the word "monk" evokes visions of dudes in sackcloth and tonsured hairstyles, this class might have been a little confusing at first. No, the D&D Monk draws upon the Eastern monastic tradition of ascetic living and sweet martial arts. Devastatingly powerful unarmed fighters, Monks tend to be a little fragile since they don't wear heavy armor. But they make up for it with their mastery of the spirit, which allows them to channel their inner strength anf the power of the Earth to heal themselves and others. What's Its Legacy?
The fighter is basically the default class in any kind of role-playing game. After all, it's the easiest role in a combat-driven RPG to understand: You hit something, it dies. But there's surprising nuance to this class and its interpretations.
No look at character classes would be complete without the Final Fantasy Job System, one of the most detailed and considerate distillations of character skills in the medium. The Job System typically includes Knight and Monk among its most basic classes, with interesting variants along the way. The Mage Knight allows players to retain the standard perks of the Knight class with elemental augments, where Rangers and Archers incorporate ranged combat skills into their repertoire. Final Fantasy's Job-based games also offer one of gaming's purest takes on the D&D Monk class, fast and powerful albeit fragile.
The Fighter concept mutates in interesting ways for RPGs that stray from the classic sword-and-sorcery template. In Mass Effect, for instance, most combat revolves around shooty sci-fi weapons... but then you have the Soldier class, which leans on heavy weapons and high durability, and the Vanguard, whose strength is closing the gap with enemies quickly to deliver a shotgun blast to the face. Similar concept, different execution.
In massively multiplayer RPGs, the Fighter's descendants usually serve as the base of the team, serving the essentials roles of tank and the DPS. And of course you have those old-school fantasy brawlers, where Golden Axe's barbarian and the alarmingly pinheaded Amazon in Dragon's Crown uphold the classic archetype. | https://www.ign.com/articles/2013/05/02/the-rpg-archetypes |
The term lance has become a catchall for a variety of different pole weapons based on the spear. The name is derived from lancea, Roman auxiliaries' short javelin, although according to the OED, the word originally came from the Iberian Language. The lance, under many names, was also heavily employed in the Asian steppe. In the strictest sense, the lance is a heavy, long thrusting spear used on horseback and couched under the arm on one hand. Often, any spear which is not thrown (e.g. a thrusting spear) is called a lance when used from horseback. The medical lance, a small poking instrument usually used to create small prick in the skin for a blood sample, or to make a hole for draining fluid from a pustule or other blemish, is a metaphoric reference to the cavalry weapon, as is the slang usage "lance", in reference to the penis.
The use of the basic cavalry spear is so ancient, and warfare so wide-ranging and cross-cultural by the beginning recorded history, that it would be difficult to determine which populations invented the lance on their own and which learned it from their enemies.
The best known usage of military lances was that of the full-gallop closed-ranks and usually wedge-shaped charge of a group of knights with underarm-couched lances, against lines of infantry, archery regiments, defensive embankments, and opposition cavalry. It is commonly believed that this became the dominant European cavalry tactic in the 11th century after the development of the stirruped saddle (which prevented the charge from suddenly turning into a pole vault), and of rowel spurs (which enabled better control of the mount). Cavalry thus outfitted and deployed had a tremendous collective force in their charge, and could shatter most contemporary infantry lines. Recent evidence has suggested, however, that the lance charge could be (and was) effected without the benefit of stirrups.
While it could still be generally classified as a spear, the lance tends to be larger - usually both longer and stouter and thus also considerably heavier, and unsuited for throwing, or for the rapid thrusting, as with an infantry spear. Lances did not have spear tips that (intentionally) broke off or bent, unlike many throwing weapons of the spear/javelin family, and were adapted for mounted combat. They were often equipped with a vamplate, a small circular plate to prevent the hand sliding up the shaft upon impact. Though perhaps most known as one of the foremost military and sporting weapons used by European knights, the use of lances was spread throughout the Old World wherever mounts were available. As a secondary weapon, lancers of the period also bore swords, maces or something else suited to close quarter battle, since the lance was often a one-use-per-engagement weapon; after the initial charge, the weapon was far too long, heavy and slow to be effectively used against opponents in a melee.
Because of the extreme stopping power of a thrusting spear, it quickly became a popular weapon of footmen in the Late Middle Ages. These eventually lead to the rise of the longest type of spears ever, the pike. Ironically, this adaptation of the cavalry lance to infantry use was largely tasked with stopping lance-armed cavalry charges. During the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries, these weapons, both mounted and unmounted, were so effective that lancers and pike men not only became a staple of every Western army, but also became highly sought-after mercenaries.
In Europe, a jousting lance was a variation of the knight's lance which was modified from its original war design. In jousting, the lance tips would usually be blunt, often spread out like a cup or furniture foot, to provide a wider impact surface designed to unseat the opposing rider without spearing him through. The center of the shaft of such lances could be designed to be hollow, in order for it to break on impact, as a further safeguard against impalement. They were often 4 m long or longer, and had special hand guards built into the lance, often tapering for a considerable portion of the weapon's length. These are the versions that can most often be seen at medieval re-enactment festivals. In war, lances were much more like stout spears, long and balanced for one handed use, and with decidedly sharp tips.
The mounted lance saw a renaissance in the 18th century with the demise of the pike; heavily armoured cuirassiers used 2-3 m lances as their main weapons. They were usually used for the breakneck charge against the enemy infantry.
The Crimean War saw the most infamous though ultimately unsuccessful uses of the lance, the Charge of the Light Brigade.
After the Western introduction of the horse to Native Americans, the Plains Indians also took up the lance, probably independently, as American cavalry of the time were sabre- and pistol-armed, firing forward at full gallop. The natural adaptation of the throwing spear to a stouter thrusting and charging spear appears to be an inevitable evolutionary trend in the military use of the horse, and a rapid one at that.
American cavalry and Canadian North Western Mounted Police used a fine lance as a flagstaff. In 1886, the first official musical ride was performed in Regina, this fine ceremonial lance plays a significant role in the choreography. The worlds oldest continuous Mounted Police unit in the world, being the New South Wales Mounted Police, housed at Redfern Barracks, Sydney Australia carries a lance with a navy blue and white pennant in all ceremonial occasions.
During the Boer Wars, British troops successfully used the lance against the Boers in the first few battles, but the Boers adopted the use of trench warfare, machine guns and high powered rifles. The combined effect was devastating, so that British cavalry were remodeled as high mobility infantry units ('dragoons') fighting on foot. It was not until the development of the tank in World War I that mounted attacks were once again possible, but its mechanical technology doomed both the horse cavalry and the lance.
"Lance" is also the name given by some anthropologists to the light flexible spears (technically, darts) thrown by atlatls (spear-throwing sticks). These are, however, more often referred to as "atlatl javelins". Some were not much larger than arrows, and were typically feather-fletched like an arrow or crossbow bolt, unlike the vast majority of spears (one exception would be some, though certainly not all, varieties of the ballista bolt, a mechanically-thrown spear). See "spear" for more information.
Lance (unit organization): The small unit that surrounded a knight when we went into battle during the 14th and 15th centuries. A lance might have consisted of one or two squires, the knight himself, one to three men-at-arms, and possibly an archer. Lances were often combined under the banner of a higher ranking nobleman to form companies of knights that would act as an ad-hoc unit.
List of lances
Spears that are often considered lances include: | https://1066.co.nz/Mosaic%20DVD/whoswho/text/Lance%5B1%5D.htm |
Goliath was a giant man with a giant attitude. He was the champion fighter of the ruthless Philistine army who knew no fear. With one look at this looming beast, the entire Israelite army was immobilized. No one was brave enough to answer the impossible challenge to duel this great warrior. So for forty days they were at a standstill, with Goliath shouting across the battlefield, taunting the Israelites, and slowly draining them of all hope of a victory. This one evil man made the Israelites forget that they were the soldiers of the all-powerful, living God.
When David – a lowly shepherd boy – approached King Saul and offered his skills to defeat Goliath, the ruler was skeptical. How could someone without proper training and strength take down a literal giant? But Saul was desperate and out of options. Determined to conquer Goliath and end the war, he agreed. He assumed triumph could only be found by matching Goliath’s level of weaponry, so Saul gave David his very own armor and sword. But when David was given these heavy type of weapons, he quickly concluded he couldn’t even function – much less fight – with those tools. The same things that were Goliath’s strengths would have been David’s hindrances.
So David entered the battlefield with the two weapons he knew he could rely on: his trust in the power of God and his shepherd’s sling. When others looked at Goliath, they saw an opponent too mighty to defeat. But David saw a target too big to miss! Don’t be fooled – David was not fighting unprepared. He had armor with the strength to match Goliath’s, but it didn’t look the same. It was invisible. He was spiritually equipped.
Ephesians 6:10-18 describes in detail the resources that God has placed in our hands. Too often we face our world day to day and try to wield its weapons instead of fighting with the infallible power God has given each and every one of us! The way to fight the giants the enemy sends your way is not through the same tactics they use – those will only slow you down and cause you to stumble. We must enter our battlefield armed with the armor of God, our trust in Him, and confidence in the abilities God has gifted us. Never let the challenge of a battle or a beast make you forget that the One who overcame the grave and has a train that fills the entire temple is fighting with you. On your own, your giant will seem too big to take down. But with the Lord, it’s an easy target. | https://p7clubs.com/devotion/2018/06/an-easy-target |
Prior to taking my first swordsmithing class with Sam Salvati, I never heard the name “Ewart Oakeshott” before. During my first class, though, we were allowed to browse through a copy of the book “The Sword in the Age of Chivalry,” as it explained the type of sword we were making as well as offered designs for the non-blade pieces such as the guards.
While I haven’t gotten around to buying a copy for myself yet, I have been keeping an eye out for any of his other works, which lead me to recognizing this title while browsing the library.
The book is “A Knight and His Weapons”, a small book with some history. Let’s take a look what’s inside!
Oakeshott’s books tend to revolve around the history of whatever theme is within the title. In this case, this book’s pitch is an explanation of the arms used by European knights and how they evolved and changed over time.
In this book, you have a short and easy to follow history of the various arms used by medieval knights. There are chapters for spears/polearms (including lances and axes), maces, firearms, and of course, the ubiquitous sword and dagger (the largest chapter of the book).
Within each chapter, you are presented with the history of the weapon, including how it evolved to match armor and production methods, how it rose and fell with various military tactics, and even various changes to the name over time and across borders.
The biggest appeal of this book is within it’s simplicity: it’s written in an easy to consume fashion, from the language to the length.
When a book is barely over 100 pages and contains multiple chapters, each chapter focusing on one topic, it’s already going to be easy to pick up and find what you need. Oakeshott also wrote this with the neophyte in mind, as everything is clearly laid out and explained (foreign words translated, terms well explained, etc).
It’s a solid primer on the topic if you are just starting in on your research. Oakeshott is well known for his research on medieval arms and armor, so any of his books are well worth grabbing. This one is only a part of an overall series on European knights, and if the others are written just as well, then you have a solid short series to learn everything you need to get started with researching knights.
For me, the book is just too simple. The language is geared not only toward the neophyte, but also to the layman in a rather boring way. For a work that is mostly academic, I was expecting something with a bit more to it than this. In my opinion, the language is one of the great assets to assist people with learning, but also detracts from the quality of the book.
Sadly, the book is also dated. Since the book was published, a number of other weapons have been found at various other sites, more records have been uncovered and translated, and technology has made certain tasks that were impossible an everyday job. There are a few points here that I had to question the validity of that I am still researching, solely because I could have sworn I read about it in a recent book (within the last ten years) that contradicted these points.
Oakeshott’s typography of the sword. This book as a two-page version of this list, albeit much shorter.
Honestly, I’m not giving this book a rating. It’s just too short to really bother with a rating system, especially since it only covers one facet of knights while the other books of the series cover the castle, armor, and battle tactics. Hard to tell if it’s a cash grab or just an approach to have a short book on the topic to make it easy to consume.
If you are looking into the history of the weapons wielded by European knights, you can’t go wrong with starting here. It’s short, easy to read (to the point of being casual at times), and filled with some rather interesting historical details, as well as why things are as they are (whether by design or how they were preserved).
I think any reenactor/recreator, metalworker, or even cosplayer that has an interest in the history of weapons, their function, or even why they evolved the way they did should pick up this book. It’s not a tough read (I finished it within an hour after work one night), and it is both gripping and informative.
If anything, it’s a good primer into the arms used by European knights throughout history. It’s not nearly as intense as Oakeshott’s other works (often double the length to cover a single chapter of this one), but again, it’s more of an introduction than an in-depth work.
Copies of A Knight and His Weapons are still produced and readily available for purchase on websites like Amazon, retailing at $12.95 with cheaper copies available from other sellers. | https://stickybunton.com/2016/12/14/a-knight-and-his-weapons-a-review/ |
"There are still knights in our time!" - This phrase we say when we want to compliment gallant, selfless and fearless man. However, we almost do not think about what was actually knighted and after that they had to pass. Here are some interesting facts from the life of the medieval horsemen.
11 photos
2 Crossbow
At one time, the Knights were the incredible power and strength on the battlefield, and they are not able to beat anybody. And the secret warriors of the wing-to-use tools such as the crossbow. Short powerful bow, equipped with a wooden lodge with a groove for arrows or lead bullets, was one of those kinds of missile weapons, the most widespread in the army of the state of the Teutonic Order of the Blessed Virgin Mary as in Prussia and Livonia (Livonia). The crossbow was quite easy to use and distinguished by a special flight up arrow (at a distance of 300 meters).
3 Spiral staircases
The story begins a spiral staircase in the days of medieval castles and knights, where such a staircase structure serves not only to save space and moving from floor to floor, much to implement important strategic and military function - to protect the castle from invaders. Once the enemy army fell into a fortress, its soldiers was extremely difficult to move around the narrow and curved staircase, and everyone who walked up it was easy to destroy one.
4 Money Matters
It turns out to be a knight cost the soldiers is very expensive. Armor, weapons, horses, servants - all it cost a huge amount of money. All they needed was forced to provide a ruler. For this was invented by a special system under which the governor gave the Knights of small plots of land, which could lease to others. Thus, as the lessor, the knight on the money could buy everything you need, and because the land is granted to the governor, the warrior had any time to be ready to fight in the army.
5 Knightly virtues
All persons who call themselves knights, was ordered to comply with the Knight's Honor Code, which read that Knight never and under no circumstances should contact with the enemy. Also, it should be gallant towards the noble lady and protect it from all sorts of dangers. In addition, the knight observing the fasts, attend daily Mass, made offerings to the church. However, the secular ideals of knightly behavior suddenly disappeared on the battlefield - the battle was impossible to remain courteous and not die.
6
Origin knighthood
It is believed that chivalry was born in the era of the Roman Empire and its roots in the Catholic Knights Ordo Equestris, based Holy See.
7
Armor
None of the knights would have thought to go to the battlefield without armor, which were made for each individual soldier. High quality armor was not only the key to success in the battle, but also a status symbol - the better the armor were the more influential person was considered a knight.
8 Knights Duel
In fact, in those days it was not so many wars, so the Knights are constantly involved in the battles. Therefore, as an exercise in tactics of fighting began to arrange knightly tournaments. It is noteworthy that the focus has always been the melee warriors.
9 Education knight
Education knight was quite a difficult process. Future soldiers began to prepare since the age of 7 to 14 years. During this time, the boy became a squire at the Knights Court overlord. At 21, a ceremony was held knighted - it accounted for testing the physical, military and moral maturity of the tournaments, matches and banquets.
10 Crusades
As you know, the Crusades were undertaken to liberate the Holy Land from the Muslims. Many believe that there were only a few, but in fact their number is equal to about ten, and they lasted for almost 200 years. Unfortunately for Knights, they have failed, because ultimately the Holy Land into the hands of the Saracens.
11 Modern Knights
With a knighthood in 1560, in fact, ceased to exist, but continued jousting tournaments held in the traditions of education as a chivalrous spirit of the young warriors. At present, some famous people were awarded the title of knights, such as Elton John, Dzhuzha Dench and Sir Paul McCartney, though they do not have to put on the armor and fight with swords.
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Who do we have? | https://bashny.net/t/en/165841 |
In recent years our great Emperor Reto has led the Empire in a series of campaigns that have brought glory to our flag and blessed our warriors, those cherished servants of Rondra, with fame and renown. An iron scourge and a cold wind have swept across our lands, bringing renown to our noble young warriors. But with renown comes responsibility and we must never forget that victory is only granted to those who possess more than just a strong sword arm. Victory is won by the sword, the mind and the grace of Rondra. If willpower and energy are as one, then a warrior might even match the mighty Leuin. Invincibility comes from within, vulnerability from without. We conclude the theoretical training at the academy with a more practical aspect of the martial arts - a tour of the Imperial Arsenal. Indeed, with a tour of Emperor Reto's legendary arsenal!
The arsenal is full of innumerable weapons that have proved their worth in one of our Emperor's many campaigns. In its halls lie countless spears and swords - their dark gleaming metals rusted, polished or perhaps still encrusted with blood. Innumerable the axes, sabers and cleavers, discarded on the battlefield after some bloody melee that saw the end of many a poor devil. Some of the blades are bare, others clad in battle-worn scabbards, piled together like sickles in the meadow. Then there are the daggers, with their handguards of gold and silver, fencing rapiers, warhammers, knives, lances, pikes, halberds and scimitars. Anything ever made for crushing, stabbing, cutting and shooting a foe can be found here.
You will notice that the Court Scriptors have divided the collection into two main categories: Close Quarters Weapons and Ranged Combat Weapons. The first category is divided into ten sub-categories: 1.Daggers 2.Fencing Weapons 3.Axes and Maces 4.Sabers 5.Swords 6.Spears 7.Staves 8.Two-Handed Blunt Weapons 9.Two-Handed Swords - the tenth category is unarmed combat. In spite of its all too lethal outcome, the arsenal does not, of course, have any exponents relating to that tenth category... Ranged Combat Weapons, on the other hand, may be divided into three categories: 1.Crossbows 2.Bows 3.Throwing Weapons.
The Emperor's collection of Ranged Combat Weapons is so diverse and so vast that it will take many years to compile a full list of these exponents. However, a discussion of this matter will do little to broaden our knowledge of the subject at hand. The use of armor, helmets and shields, along with the art of building bows and forging weapons will be covered in detail in other courses at the academy. And keen-minded students will notice at a glance that the collection encompasses an incredibly diverse range of helmets, armor plates and shields.
As you well know, it can take up to 20 years to truly master a fighting skill. One can learn the basic techniques in half a divine cycle, but one will not develop any real expertise without at least 5-10 divine cycles of practice. A true master can kill with a single blow. These mighty champions are enormously important on the battlefield, as just one such warrior can slaughter several hundred opponents within the hour. A warrior, who is yet to master his weapon, will need to strike his opponent several times before it is defeated. If you are lucky, the first blow will cause such a mighty wound that one's opponent will seek to flee the field.
If a battle draws on for too long, the victor will emerge from the fray discouraged, frazzled and with weapons that are blunt from bloody toil. Those who do not truly understand the cost of waging war, will never truly understand what glorious prize may be won in battle.
Those who stride into battle without first learning the fundamental laws of battle will return exhausted and with sorry hearts.
This is the lesson that you must learn as you march through the halls of Emperor Reto's arsenal. | https://drakensang.fandom.com/en/wiki/War_%26_Weapons |
Power Weapon: The officers of the Imperial Guard use a variety of powered weapons to defend and attack in close combat, be they swords, axes, maces, or even clubs.
How powerful is a lasgun?
Subject: How strong is a Lasgun? They are strength 3. Effective lasgun hits are usually enough to kill a human equivalent.
What is Imperial Guard armor made of?
Most guardsmen wear Flak Armour, a cheaply produced, lightweight armour vest provided en-masse to Imperial Guard units. A flak vest consists of a skeleton of lightweight, flexible metal. This skeleton is then wrapped in multiple layers of a high-tensile fabric that is the main protective component of the armour.
Why did Imperial Guard become Astra Militarum?
Origins of the Astra Militarum
This was done to prevent the possibility of large-scale rebellions occurring again, as the new regulations ensured that the link between fleet and army was severed. Since then, the Imperial Guard has endured the vast majority of the fighting in the Imperium’s wars.
Do lasguns use ammo?
Though not as powerful as kinetic projectile weapons such as the ubiquitous Bolter, the lower cost of production, the lack of a requirement for ammunition production and resupply make the Lasgun the best choice for the large forces of the Imperial Guard. A Long-Las.
How many shots are in a Laspistol shot?
They have longer range and higher ammunition capacity than a Laspistol (the laspistol power packs having roughly 80 shots before depletion, compared to roughly 150 shots for a lasgun), but are nowhere near as powerful as a Lascannon.
How much energy is in a lasgun?
In the game of Warhammer 40,000, a unit of 100 guardsmen could, at the maximum effective range of their lasguns, pump out 5,000,000 joules of energy into a tank.
How tall are Imperial guards?
Depending on the model, 1 and 1/4th to 1 and 1/2 inches tall (hats, swords, poses, etc come in to play).
Who commands the Imperial Guard?
Lord Commander Militant of the Imperial Guard: This is the highest rank of the strategic staff of the Departmento Munitorum. A powerful official, he is often appointed to a position on the High Lords of Terra, the governing body of the Imperium.
Do Imperial Guards Fight Chaos Space Marines?
As a matter of fact, there are fewer Marines than planets in the Imperium. It has thus been said that while Space Marines win battles, the Imperial Guard wins wars. … In the expansion, Chaos Unleashed they are the one of the main enemies of the playable Chaos Space Marines in Exterminatus mode. | https://gsi-alarme-securite.com/protection-of-information/what-weapons-did-the-imperial-guard-use.html |
On April 5, 1242, the famous battle between the Livonian Order and the units of the north-eastern Russian principalities led by Alexander Nevsky took place on Lake Peipsi. The Battle on the Ice still raises debates among historians about its scale, significance, composition and exact location of the battle. The familiar image of the battle was formed after 1938 mainly due to the film “Alexander Nevsky” by Sergei Eisenstein, in which the formidable German knights in terrible heavy armor meet with Russian “heroes” and beat each other with swords and not only. Yuri Kukin tried to find out what else he fought besides the sword on Lake Peipsi: the history of spears and maces in the material diletant.media.
"Battle on the Ice". Miniature of the Facial Chronicle of the mid-16th century
The weapons of Europeans and Russian warriors in the XIII century were in many ways similar, which is not surprising, given the common roots, for example, of the Viking legacy. So, battle axes were used by warriors on both sides. In addition, both Russians and Europeans had a similar manner of fighting: the emphasis was on cavalry, consisting of more affluent and, accordingly, better armed people, while the rest fought on foot, using simpler weapons.
A spear
Types of copies
And spears cracked, and the sound of swords rang out, and there was a slashing so angry that the ice on the lake began to move: there was no ice, it was covered all over.twist
From “The Life of Alexander Nevsky”
Spear was, in fact, one of the most common weapons for a long time for several reasons. First, the spear was not such an expensive and prestigious weapon as the same sword. The spear was still used by primitive people: it was a stick sharpened at one end. Even in the Middle Ages, such a spear was still popular among poor peasants who could not afford more advanced weapons.
Secondly, the spear is a universal weapon. It was used by both riders and foot soldiers, so this weapon was present on Lake Peipsi in the arsenal of both sides. The shaft of the spear of the Russian foot warrior (spear) reached two meters, cavalry - three. The tip of the spear was called "feather." Its size was inversely proportional to the size of the shaft with a length of 25–40 cm: the shorter the spear, the more powerful and larger the feather, and vice versa.
The tip of the spear - the spear of the Russian foot warrior
And, thirdly, the spear could be used, including, as a throwing weapon - a dart, for the Russians - a sulitz. Such weapons are lighter and smaller than other varieties. The Elder Livonian rhymed chronicle states that the Russian wars "had countless bows," but it is believed that the bow could not completely replace the sulitsu: this spear was used when approaching the enemy either to defeat the enemy, or threw into a shield to make it heavy uncomfortable to protect.
Tip of Sulitsa
Mace
A mace, a type of club, can also be considered a universal weapon in the sense that any warrior could have it. The mace was a wooden or metal rod, the shock of which was crowned with a heavy spherical head (first stone, and then metal). Reaching a length of 50–80 cm, the mace was a more modern and more sophisticated mace — a baton with a thickened hammer.
Types of clubs
It was believed that the mace, as well as the club, was the favorite weapon of the European militant clergy, who went on crusades, because it could cause serious damage without shedding blood, that is, without leaving open wounds. However, with the development of cavalry, it came to be understood that this shock-shattering weapon can be effectively used to strike both the rider in order to knock him off the horse, and on the enemy on foot.
It is the mace and its varieties (for example, a six-feather-mace with six metal feathers) will be considered the symbol of a “warlord”. However, with the development of armor as a weapon, it will fade into the background, being not so effective in battle. | https://en.broadwayblogspot.com/3605-universal-weapon-spear-and-mace.html |
Vs.
the Pirate, murderous killer of the high seas.
Stats
- Year - 1423
- Height - 5' 11"
- Weight - 180 lbs
- Armor - Plate
- Gear - 70 lbs
- Loyalty - God (Judeo-Christian)
- Symbol - Knight's helmet
History
A knight was a member of the warrior class of the Middle Ages in Europe who followed a code of law called "chivalry". In other Indo-European languages, cognates of cavaliers or riders are more prevalent (e.g. French chevalier and German Ritter), suggesting a connection to the knight's mode of transport. Since antiquity a position of honor and prestige has been held by mounted warriors, such as the Greeks and the Romans, and knighthood in the Middle Ages was inextricably linked with horsemanship.
Plate armor for Knights were used in circa 1250 and grew in popularity in the 1400s. If they had the money, Knights would normally wear Plate instead of the previous armor, mail. Many Knights used both Plate Armor combined with mail armor (especially for their joins like Coifs for the neck.)
Knights earned their legendary reputation as warriors during the Crusades for the "Holy Lands." They believed that they were on a divine mission from God himself to retake the "Holy Lands" from the current Muslim occupants.
The First Crusade
Lasting 1096–1099 AD; the First Crusade was overall a success in retaking the Holy Lands, however this war also was highly controversial for its hypocritical brutality.
Byzantine emperor Alexios I Komnenos was facing pressure from the growing Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm; which was rebuilding the Persian Empire by taking christian Byzantine territories in their expansion. Pope Urban II at this same time was facing division in the church; with an 'anti-Pope' Clement III claiming to be the right Pope of the Catholics. Urban II saw the Seljuks as an opportunity to unify Christians under all sects and to confirm his position as the true Pope by retaking the Holy Lands.
Urban II declared Plenary Indulgence (a blessing to guarantee passage into Heaven, regardless of past sins) to anyone who would join the Crusades. While many warriors and Knights did join; many unskilled peasants (including women, children, elderly, criminals and the insane) joined as well.
People's Crusade
Peter the Hermit preached to the masses across Europe (beginning in France) and collected a peasant army known as the People's Crusade. Similar clerics rallied other armies as well. However the peasant crusaders began raiding and attacking European kingdoms (especially Hungary) as their logistics were so poor that they were already starving on their march east-ward. Emicho of Leiningen infamously massacred Jewish populations across Germany (even after the Jews paid his extortions), and other Crusader factions would continue similar antisemitic massacres despite Urban II directly denouncing such actions.
Peter's People's Crusade invaded Turkish territory. They pillaged and massacred both Christian and Muslim towns alike and the army quickly dissolved into chaos. On the 21st of October 1096 the Battle of Civetot was fought. The Turkish forces crushed the unskilled and disorganized peasants with a successful ambush and encirclement; with only 3,000 out of 40,000 of the Crusaders surviving. The People's Crusade was a complete disaster; with 10,000s of European soldiers and civilians dying while Turkish causalities were at a minimum.
Knights of France
The army of the First Crusade was led under 7 different factions with 5 of them led by a knight;
- Hugh I of Vermandois; who was the brother of a French King.
- Godfrey of Bouillon; leading a massive German army.
- Godfrey's brother, Baldwin I, also joined.
- Bohemond of Taranto; the clever yet deceptive leader who led some of the most experienced and elite Knights in Europe.
- Bohemond's nephew, Tancred, also joined.
- Raymond IV of Toulouse; leading the largest of the armies. He was the only Knight to swear no oath to the Byzantines.
- Raymond also affiliated himself with Adhemar of Le Puy; a Bishop personally appointed by the Pope to assist the leaders.
- Robert of Flanders; who has the strongest alliance with the Byzantines.
- Byzantine forces under Alexios I Komnenos
- Peter the Hermit also joined this crusade with the remains of his Peasant army.
When the Crusaders invaded Turkey, the Turks initially ignored the army; assuming that this force was another wave of unskilled peasants like from the Peasant's Crusade. The Siege of Nicaea was successful primarily because of this; the Turks unable to send a sizable army in time to end the siege. With naval support; Nicaea was completely surrounded and surrendered to the Byzantines.
The 1097 Battle of Dorylaeum was a celebrated battle due to the discipline of the Knights under Bohemond; who held their lines for 7 hours to defend themselves against arrow fire. The Knights were too slow to fight the horse-archers, but the other Crusaders reinforcements arrived to push the Turks back.
The leaders of the Crusades began rivalries against each other; which led to infighting over the conquered territories. Baldwin I was the most infamous example of this; attempting to use his larger army to extort territory from Tancred. Tancred's forces fought back against Baldwin, causing him to abandon the Crusade. Baldwin would later befriend Thoros of Edessa, only to betray Thoros by assassinating and replacing him in this coup. Baldwin would later be the King of Jerusalem.
The siege of Antioch was one of the largest sieges due to the massive walls. Bohemond bribed a guard in order to sneak into the city. However the Turks surrounded the city while the Crusaders were still within the walls. The Crusaders were rallied when mystic Peter Bartholomew claimed to have found the Lance of Longinus; the spear that stabbed Jesus during his crucifixion (this claim was later discredited when the monk tried and failed to prove his holiness by engulfing himself in fire). This rally led by Raymond broke the Turks.
Bohemond occupied the city after its fall, as he previously threatened to break from the siege if not allowed to keep it. Bohemond would remain in this city for the rest of the Crusade. Hugh I left the Crusades and returned to Europe after this siege. The Byzantine forces were satisfied with conquering Turkey and did not want to invest further.
The Seige of Jerusalem began on July 13, 1099. After climbing over the walls with siege towers, the battle turned into a massacre especially against Muslims and Jews. (Although Raymond showed some mercy to the Muslims) Tancred was the only Knight attempting to rescue civilians of all sides, but with little success. However, some were allowed to leave or were ransomed or taken as slaves.
Since Jerusalem was so politically and religiously important; the Knights of the Crusade fiercely debated over who would rule the city as King. Raymond surprisingly denied the crown (most likely in an attempt to gain more support by appearing humble). Godfrey also denied the crown, but accepted responsibility for being the new defender of the city.
Vizier Al-Fadal attempted to reclaim Jerusalem for the Shia-led Fatimid Caliphate (which attempted to take the Sunni Turkish lands long before the Crusades began). Godfrey struggled to get a sizable army, as Raymond (who still commanded the majority of the Crusader Army) journeyed eastward and refused to assist due to the recent political bickering.
On August 4th 1099; Tancred was paroling the Mediterranean shore when he captured a Fatimid scout; discovering the invading army. Godfrey and Tancred left Jerusalem, and eventually Raymond agreed to assist. On August 12th, the Crusaders surprised the Fatimids at The Battle of Ascalon. The Fatimids assumed that the Knights would stay in Jerusalem and so never considered creating defenses for his camp outside of the city of Ascalon. The Fatimids outnumbered the Knights 2 to 1; but the disorder of the ambush made this irrelevant and the Knights were significantly more experienced due to surviving so many extreme battles in the past. The Fatimids survived the battle by escaping into the city, and still had a sizable army, but this was still a crushing defeat for the Shia Muslims.
Raymond and Godfrey again bickered over who would control Ascalon. It was agreed that the Fatimids could keep the city, so that there would be no imbalance of power between the competing Knights. Muslims would launch raids from Ascalon in the future until the Europeans finally left Jerusalem. Godfrey refused to crown himself king. A very humble and pious Christian, Godfrey refused to wear "a crown of gold where his Savior had worn a crown of thorns". He instead elected to be declared "Defender of the Holy Sepulchre" (Christ's tomb). He died one later under mysterious circumstances and replaced by his brother Baldwin. Baldwin, who wasn't as humble as his brother, crowned himself as the first King of Jerusalem. The Knight Arnulf tortured local Orthodox Christians in order to discover a relic declared to be The True Cross of Jesus; which further popularized the success of the Crusade. Only 300 Knights stayed in the Holy Lands as most returned to Europe, although other Europeans did immigrate to the Holy Lands.
The Second Crusade
1147–1150 Islamic victory; with the Muslim conquest of the County of Edessa (in modern day northern Syria).
The Third Crusade & The Kingdom of Cyprus
Norman king Richard I attempted to launch a crusade in the early 1190s. Ricard's general Guy of Lusignan conquered the island of Cyprus on June 1, 1191; however this territory was Byzantine and was conquered in response to Isaac Komnenos of Cyprus imprisoning Richard's men (when Richard was forced to go to the island to avoid a storm). Richard did not plan to own a territory so far away from England and so sold the island to the Knights Templar: creating the Kingdom of Cyprus lasting 1192–1489.
Richard went from the island into the Holy Lands. This Crusade captured the territories of northern Israel for the Crusaders and allowed both Christian and Muslim pilgrimages to be legally protected within either territory.
The Kingdom of Cyprus became a relatively wealthy kingdom despite its small size. Its geographic location allowed it to be a vital Catholic naval base as well as a trading post. Cyprus would be used in several later Crusades where Knights would launch naval invasions from. Cyprus would be absorbed into the Republic of Venice in February 1489.
Even today, Cyprus is affected by European and Islamic influence; with the Turkish invasion of Cyprus in 1974 and Northern Cyprus existing as an unrecognized Turkish puppetstate in 17 June 1983. The Republic of Cyprus is noticeably the most South-Eastern state of the European Union and is home to NATO navy bases.
The Fourth Crusade
1202–1204
The Fifth Crusade
In 1217–1221, The Crusaders attempted to invade the Ayyubid dynasty directly through the Nile River, but a flood of the river prevented the invasion and forced a surrender for the Crusaders. Status quo ante bellum.
This Crusade is noticeable for having the Islamic Turkish Sultanate of Rum ally themselves with the Crusaders; although this was primarily an attempt to conquer Syrian territory (which also failed).
The Sixth Crusade
In 1228–1229, The Ayyubid dynasty was facing revolts in Syria and was not prepared or powerful enough to engage against the Crusade, and so decided to diplomatically surrender Jerusalem to the Crusaders before any major fighting occurred.
The Seventh Crusade
In 1248–1254, France led by King Louis IX launched an invasion of Egypt against the Ayyubid dynasty. It failed and Louis was captured. However the Mamluk Sultanate was beginning its overthrow against the Ayyubid and so Louis manipulated the political situation in his favor by assisting the Mamluk in exchange for his freedom. Afterwards he attempted to invade Jerusalem, but failed and returned home.
The Eighth Crusade
In 1270, France attempted to invade and occupy Tunis (in modern day Tunisia) but failed when a dysentery outbreak killed Louis IX and much of his army; forcing the Crusaders to retreat.
The Ninth Crusade
Tripoli and Acre were Crusader states that survived the majority of Muslim invasions throughout the Crusades, but in 1271 AD they were threatened by the Mamluk Sultanate. England and France allied themselves with the Mongol Empire. The Mamluk however repelled the Mongol invasion and reclaimed their land. The Mamluk then attempted to invade Cyprus, but failed. The Crusaders however realized they lacked the manpower to complete the Crusade and a peace treaty was formed.
Aftermath of the Holy Lands
Tripoli would fall in 1289 and Acre in 1291 to the Mamluk Sultanate. The Ottoman Empire would replace the Mamluk and reign between 1299–1923.
In the aftermath of WWI; the Middle East was divided by primarily Western backed puppetstates (with many national borders created with the intention to divide and weaken certain groups unequally, most noticeably the Kurds).
After WWII, the nation of Israel was declared on 14 May 1948 as a home for many Jews displaced by the war (especially the Holocaust). However there was immediate outrage and conflict that broke out; especially Palestinians who previously lived in Israeli territory. Most Muslim nations do not recognize Israel as a nation and instead have accused Western powers of trying to influence the region similarly to the Medieval Crusades.
Renaissance
As the Arquebus was introduced during the early Renaissance, the use of Medieval Warfare was replaced by Pike and Shot tactics; most noticeably perfected by the Spanish Tercio (including the Conquistadors like Hernán Cortés and Francisco Pizarro) in the 1500s. The early 1600s still saw use of plated Knights (most noticeably the French Gendarmes), but lighter Cuirassiers were introduced during the Thirty Years War. The Cuirassiers used carbines, pistols and dragoon shotguns to shoot the slower armored Catholic Knights from a safe distance while having superior mobility to outflank the Knights: a deciding factor in the Protestant victory at The First Battle of Breitenfeld (1631). The full body plate armor was essentially replaced by primarily the Steel Cuirass for both Tercio and Cuirassiers. Bulletproof Plate Armor was too expensive, slow and heavy to be relevant; and thus the Medieval plate armored Knight became effectively extinct.
Post-Medieval Knights
Even today, people can still be knighted by European royalty, but this is more of a symbol of honor and respect and most Knights today did not engage in warfare. Plate armored Knights existed until the invention of the Musket, which allowed common and cheap foot soldiers to easily kill a trained and expensive Knight with a long ranged weapon.
Weapons
|Weapon||Pirate||371|
|Close Range:||
|
Plate Armor
|
|
103
0
|Mid Range:||Halberd||108|
|Long Range:||Crossbow||106|
|Special Weapons:||Morningstar||54|
Deadliest Warrior: The Game
- Close Range: Broadsword, Mace
- Mid Range: Poleaxe, Halberd
- Long Range: Light Crossbow, Heavy Crossbow
- Special Weapons: Morningstar
- Armor: Maximillian Fullplate, Coat of Plates
Battle
In a world where France is still using knights in the 18th century, the battle begins with a Pirate discovering a dusty treasure chest in the middle of the forest. In the distance, the Knight comes riding in on his horse. The Pirate opens the chest and begins counting the gold doubloons inside, but hears the horse coming towards him. He looks up and sees the Knight with his Morningstar in one hand and a shield in the other. Thinking that he is trying to steal his treasure, the Pirate pulls out one of his Flintlock pistols. The Knight begins swinging his Morningstar and signals his horse to charge at the Pirate. The Pirate aims his pistol and fires, but the bullet was deflected off the Knight's Plate. He pulls out another pistol and fires a second time, but the bullet bounces off of the Knight's Helmet. The Knight's horse dashes at the Pirate, and the Knight successfully hits him with the Morningstar. The Pirate gets up and desperately scrambles for the Grenado in his pocket. The horse turns around and begins to charge at the Pirate again. However, the Pirate manages to light the fuse on the Grenado and throws it at the Knight. The explosion knocks the Knight off his horse.
The Pirate slowly approaches the Knight, thinking that he is dead. The Knight sits up and shoots his Crossbow at the Pirate, hitting his leg. The pirate grimaces in pain and tries to pull the arrow out, while the Knight gets up and hits him with the Morningstar again and throws him to the floor. However, the Pirate pulls out his Blunderbuss as he hits the floor and shoots the Knight in the chestplate, sending him flying back. The Pirate then grabs his treasure chest and tries to run away, once again unaware that he still hasn't killed the Knight.
The Pirate reaches the shore and sees his ship in the distance. He turns around and is annoyed to see that the Knight, though injured, is still following him. "Oh, bloody hell," he groans. He runs ahead to put down his treasure, then turns around and fires his third Flintlock pistol. The bullet hits the Knight, but he shakes it off and runs towards the knight with his Broadsword in hand. The Pirate pulls out his Cutlass sword and engages in a sword fight with the Knight. The two get their swords stuck in the sand, and the Knight uses this opportunity to kick the Pirate to the ground. He pulls out his Broadsword and tries to strike the Pirate, but the Pirate manages to roll out of the way. He backs himself up towards the bottom of a cliff, while the Knight slowly trudges towards him.The Knight swings his sword, but the Pirate parries with his sword and then kicks the Knight to the floor. The Knight gets back up and clumsily swings at the Pirate, who effortlessly dodges the sword. The Pirate then throws sand at the Knight's helmet, distracting him long enough to charge at him and throw him to the floor. As the Knight tries to regain consciousness, the Pirate runs to his fourth Flintlock pistol, which fell out of his pocket earlier on, and grabs it. He returns to the knight, who is still on the floor, and opens the medieval helmet's visor. He shoves the pistol at the Knight's face and fires at point-blank range, killing him instantly. The Pirate gets up and roars in victory.
Expert's Opinion
The Experts agreed that the Knight's defeat was due to the Pirate's blunderbuss and grenado. While the Knight had superior training, armor, and weapons, it was all trumped by the lethal and instant killing power of the Grenado and Blunderbuss. While it had a tendency to jam, the Blunderbuss' easily penetrated the Knight's armor and killed him easily, the exact reason armor became obsolete after the discovery of guns. The Knight was a victim of his time rather than his skill, and due to the Pirate's gunpowder weapons, literally, "brought a knife to a gunfight," in this case.
In Deadliest Warrior: The Game
- Class: Champion
- Weapons:
- Close-Range: Broadsword/Mace
- Medium-Range: Halberd/Pole Axe
- Long-Range:Light Crossbow/Heavy crossbow
- Special Weapon: Morningstar
- Shield
- Armor:Maximillian Armor/Coat of plates
- Finisher: The Knight hits the victim in the side with his morning star, then brings it back down on top of their head, killing them. He pulls out his short range weapon and stands over his dead adversary, denouncing the enemy.
- In skirmish mode if one has more than two characters on the enemy team and uses the special finisher on the enemy before he dies, you can cause a glitch by skipping the scene animation right when the morning star hits the 2nd time. In which will cause the weapons and shields to go crazy!!! The shield will disappear but still can be used. However the Broadsword or the mace may have the chance to kill instantly, this applies to the Long range weapons also.
Trivia
- The helm worn by the Knight in the episode is called a Bascinet.
- The Knight, has so far, the heaviest armor in the show at 70lb.
- The Knights Templar was formed by 12 knights in 1119, twenty years after the First Crusade, to protect Christian pilgrims to Jerusalem. They were recognized as legitimate in 1139 by Pope Innocent II. They eventually became the shock troops of the Catholic Church before their destruction in 1307.
- Documentary on the fall of the Knights Templar
- The Knights Templar adopted the red cross flag in 1312. Switzerland, Denmark, Norway, Iceland, and the United Kingdom of Great Britain still use the red cross in their flags today.
- The Knights Templar is credited for inventing modern banking in Europe; creating The First Bank of London.
- Members of the Knights Templar swore an oath to never use profanity under any condition, permanent chastity, and never to bathe.
- The Templar's flag was a plain white banner with the latin black text "Non nobis, Domine, non nobis, sed nomini tuo da gloriam." or translated to "Not unto us, O Lord, not unto us, but to thy name give the glory."
- One of the most noticeable spiritual successors of the Knights Templar is the Order of the Christ in 1319. Portugese King Henry the Navigator began early Portugese naval exploration by sending the Order of the Christ to wage war against the Moors and other Muslims in order to gain influence over North Africa.
- Knights who survived a battle that was lost became exiled as punishment; sometimes only a year, sometimes permanently.
- Technically knights have been featured multiple times on the show. William Wallace was formerly a Scottish knight and nobleman, and William the Conqueror was also knighted. Vlad the Impaler would also have been a knight or at least had a knight's training. Knights reappeared in season 3 as Joan of Arc's troops against William the Conqueror, but with different weapons and without their visors on.
- Knights have existed in most European countries, but the one specifically used on the show is the French Knight. It's most likely because France was famous for their exceptional knights and was a superpower in Europe during the middle ages.
- In real life knights became extinct after being killed off by musketeers. Musketeers were seen as cowardly at first. Knights have attempted to adapt by reinforcing their armor to stop musket fire but eventually died out because any armor that was affordable and light enough for combat couldn't fully stop rounds from a Musket. Other theories why the Medieval Knight disappeared from the battlefield includes economic reasons and social shifts.
- The Viking Housecarl was conceptually similar to a Knight. Housecarls and Knights fought each other frequently. Since some Vikings (like the Normans) transitioned into the mid-late Medieval Knight: it was possible for a Housecarl to be Knighted.
- Not all Knights rode horses, but all Chevaliers were horsemen Knights. Before Chivalry began, what would be considered a Knight in early Medieval Europe was simply anyone who was a horseman.
- There is no single mentality of what Chivalry was. Chivalry could indeed be about justice and nobility, faith and loyalty or war and brutality. Every European nation and even every individual Kingdom or Lordship had their own definition of a warrior code, constantly changing depending on the politics and culture of the times. Many codes clearly contradicted other codes. Some forms of Chivalry were brutal enough to allow war crimes; including mass rape and execution. It was very common for Knights to ignore their Chivarious code, even if some did intend to follow them strictly.
- One of the reasons European Knights had the heaviest armor of their time was due to other regions of the world were relatively warmer than Europe. Heavy armor made warriors overheat easily, so it was only practical in cooler climates.
- The colors of a Knight was unique to the Knight itself. Only until the renaissance would European nations have standardized colors.
- Knecht means servant, in a manner similar to the word 'Samurai'. This word eventually evolved into the word 'Knight'.
- The Crusades were not specifically aimed at the Holy Lands and consisted much more than only 9 Crusades. There were crusades against pagans and even other Christians.
- The Northern Crusades were aimed at northern Europe and Western Slavic lands; extinguishing the last pagan tribes of Europe with forced conversions and genocide.
- The Reconquista was one of the longest crusades; lasting from 718 – 1492 to push out Islamic occupation of the Iberian Peninsula.
- Although Knights were expected to fight in wars, they can avoid conscription by paying their lord a scutage: this allows the Knight to escape combat while still contributing to the war effort by paying this tax.
- When not in war; Knights would maintain law and order in their town. It was common for Knights to exercise judicial powers; being police or judges to crackdown on crime.
- The king or lord had higher legal authority and could legally overrule the Knight. It was expected for the Knight to take care of their royal guests; providing them with food, shelter and other supplies. Some corrupt kings would devastate the economies of these towns by demanding too much food. This caused some Knights to lie to these kings; including pretending that a plague was in town.
- Robber Knights were Knights that either oppressed their subjects or were literal bandits, essentially the opposite of a chivalrous knight. | https://deadliestwarrior.fandom.com/wiki/Knight |
This is a two-part question:
Which, if any, WW1 artillery pieces would be able to damage or destroy a modern tank presuming it got a direct hit. That is - what can today's armour NOT protect against that existed before that armour was designed
What is the destructive power of today's tanks compared to various artillery pieces from WW1
You are ignoring the very real differences between gun types and their ordnance.
Gun Types:
Direct fire:
These weapons fire along line of sight at high speed and at very low elevations. They include muskets, rifles, cannons, and - in a later era - anti-tank weapons. Much of the damage is done by the velocity of the projectile, whether a solid shot such as a cannon ball or bullet or an exploding one like an anti-tank ordnance. In order to obtain the high muzzle velocity a high ratio of charge weight to projectile weight is required - consequently also improving accuracy especially once rifled barrels became common place. The projectile approaches it's target at a nearly horizontal elevation
Indirect Fire - Howitzers:
These indirect fire weapons fire at elevations of from roughly 15 degrees to 45 degrees. The increased angle of fire allows for a much lower ratio of charge weight to projectile weight, allowing for heavier projectiles - ideal for high explosive ordnance where the bigger the bang the better. Accuracy is less than for an direct fire weapon, so effectiveness is only obtained for larger targets.
Indirect Fire - Mortars: These indirect fire weapons fore at elevations of from 45 degrees to 85 degrees. Some damage is done by vertical penetration of the projectile in addition to its explosive charge. Accuracy is reduced again relative to howitzers due to the longer flight time.
Note that the key difference between the use of howitzers and mortars is that howitzers increase range by increasing elevation (towards 45 degrees) while mortars increase range by reducing elevation (towards 45 degrees.
An effective anti-tank weapon (and its ordnance) must have the following characteristics:
High muzzle velocity to penetrate the armour (up to a foot thick on the front of heavy tanks) and allow acquiring fast moving targets;
Explode after initial target contact; and
Direct fire so as to be aimed at a smallish target.
An effective anti-personnel weapon and its ordnance must in contrast have these characteristics:
Medium muzzle velocity as formed units (and trenches) are fairly large and stationary or slow moving;
Explode on - or ideally shortly before - target contact; and
Indirect fire for effectiveness against targets behind terrain.
An effective siege gun
Muzzle velocity irrelevant as fired only at stationary targets such as buildings;
Explode on - or after as in a bunker buster - contact; and
Indirect fire for effectiveness against targets behind terrain.
Weapons commonly used in WW1 were designed for use against structures and personnel, so of the latter two types. When tanks appeared they could get by with quite light armour because no direct fire anti-tank weapons existed on the battlefield.
The rifles (calibre too small to penetrate armour), howitzers and siege guns (both too inaccurate and with too slow a projectile for targeting tanks effectively) of World War One were designed for a very different purpose than weapons designed to target and destroy small, fast-moving, armoured targets such as tanks. Other than lucky hits on the tread, there was little most WW1 units could do against tanks until specialized anti-tank weapons had been developed and distributed.
The largest WW1 artillery pieces (especially the siege mortars) were very large indeed and even a dud shell from one would do serious damage if it landed on the engine deck of a modern (or indeed almost any) vehicle by sheer kinetic impact force alone.
For example the Austrian "Schlanke Emma" fired a 385kg projectile (yes… ). It'd probably crush through the engine covers and do serious damage to the engine of a modern tank (or indeed any tank in history). Of course the chances of scoring such a direct hit would be miniscule, and even a near miss would likely do little but rattle the tank and maybe stun the crew for a few minutes.
Similar with the Paris gun used by the Germans. Smaller projectile but higher impact speed giving it more kinetic energy.
Then there was the massive Big Bertha firing shells nearly 900kg in weight. The impact of a shell from one of those would be similar to being hit by a 1000lb aircraft bomb…
And while the central powers had the most famous big guns, the British had several 12 inch howitzers and railway guns that would have made a big bang as well if a shell of one hit an armoured vehicle on the engine deck.
But none of these weapons were even close to being accurate enough or fast enough to aim and fire to be useful as anti-tank weapons.
A direct hit from a heavy howitzer or cannon (6" and up) against anything other than the frontal armor of a MBT should do serious damage. (I'll leave it as vague as that because I have no exact source handy. But WWI artillery shells were in the same ballpark as WWII artillery shells, and the frontal armor of late WWII tanks was better than the side, top, or rear armor of modern tanks. Big artillery could kill tanks during WWII if they could hit.) But as Pieter pointed out, these weapons were not designed for direct fire against agile ground targets.
Heavy coastal artillery and ships firing inland would also be effective and it might have a slightly better chance to track the tank, as long as they can bear at all -- coastal batteries were usually pointed seawards. | https://gh.nowurthinking.com/8679-in-comparison-to-todays-tanks-how-powerful-were-vari.html |
Hammers is a generic term for all blunt weapons used one-handed, this includes axes as well. Larger weapons use the Polearm skill. This skill includes hammers, maces, clubs, short staves, tonfa, etc. | http://orps.wikidot.com/hammers |
Dev Blog #30: Orc Faction Reveal
We’ve gotten many a question regarding the enemy diversity in Battle Brothers. Until now we always had to put off these questions - but not any longer. We present to you the first major faction after the Undead: The Orcs!
The Orc faction has unique characters, skills, weapons and most of all tactics compared to the Undead and will force the player to challenge everything learned before. Lets get into some details.
Introduction
As long as humans remember there have been tensions with the wild Orc tribes that roam the surrounding lands. Orcs live as nomads, constantly on the move to support themselves by hunting, gathering and raiding anyone weaker than their tribe. They do not possess knowledge of agriculture or mining, relying instead on taking what they need from others. Indeed, Orcs are quick to take up weapons, and in Orc culture, he who spends time gathering, crafting or building when it is easier and faster to just take these things away from others is considered simple-minded. Life for an Orc, then, is to a large part establishing dominance over others and taking things for him or herself.
Although there are many distinct Orc tribes out there, they have a lot in common. They usually are ruled by the most powerful Orc in the tribe, a Warlord, that ascends to leadership by brute force and has to defend his claim also by leading the tribe to greater spoils. Therefore, different Orc tribes are constantly feuding each other and any alliances are usually short-lived.
As human settlements began to spread out, confrontations with the Orcs started to escalate quickly from smaller skirmishes into a full-out Orc invasion and subsequent war. The war ended with a costly human victory which had the Orcs withdraw from the settled lands and back into the wild. There, it didn't take long for the Orc tribes to begin feuding each other again and lose sight of the human lands. This is where they stayed until now, except for occasional raids on outlying farms and villages. Yet, many a man and woman live in fear of the day that the Orc tribes unite again and start an invasion, leaving nothing but burning rubble in its wake.
To make matters worse, Orcs are technically just one half of a larger faction, the Greenskins, with the other half being the Goblins. However, both Orcs and Goblins are highly autonomous and you'll only see them work together on rare occasions. One such occasion is an invasion, with the Greenskins being the Greater Evil in your game of Battle Brothers.
In battle Orcs tend to rush at the enemy and overwhelm them with the sheer power of their assault. Those who still stand after the initial onslaught find themselves disoriented and in a complete chaos. After the battle line has been dissolved, Orcs that put themselves in a battle frenzy by meditation and drugs rush in and finish what is left of the disorganized and shocked defenders.
Orc Physique
In Battle Brothers, Orcs are physically stronger than humans. An adult orc towers a human and has the strength to use weaponry and wear armor with great effect that would quickly tire out any human. With their strength, they also gain a percentage damage bonus to every attack - less for young Orcs , and more so for adult ones. While Orcs are subject to fatigue and morale, just like your Battle Brothers are, they have plenty of both, and it takes a while for an orc to run out of steam or realize that a battle has turned against him.
For many Orcs , their physicality is also expressed in their Charge skill. With this skill, Orcs can charge a Battle Brother over a short distance and hurl themselves against their target, stunning it for one turn. A Spearwall can repell charging Orcs and a Shieldwall can offer some protection against being stunned from the impact - but shields don't have a high life expectancy against Orcs, as their damage bonus also applies against shields.
Orcs focus entirely on the offense, where they excel. They use their skills to crush the player's battle line with raw force and have it quickly dissolve into a chaotic frenzy where they generally have the upper hand. For this reason, meeting an Orc warband head-on in open battle is usually a bad idea and will leave you at a disadvantage. On the other hand, Orcs neglect defense; while some of them will carry shields, they seldom make active use of them, prefering instead to attack. Due to their reckless fighting style and just physically being big targets, they're also easier to hit than other opponents. In prolongued engagements, or in up-hill battles, where defense matters more than offense, Orcs may suddenly see themselves at a disadvantage.
Orc Weapons and Armor
Orcs have their own distinct weapons and armor they wear, which matches their physique. They do know how to craft metal but are not particularly good at honing and refining their works. This is why Orc weapons are usually very heavy and lack balance - although the player can loot and use these weapons, they’re clearly not made for use by humans and are hard to use effectively but for the strongest of Battle Brothers. Orcish armor, however, can not be used by the player. The physiology of Orcs is just too different from humans, so no helmet or piece of armor would actually fit.
The rough and big Orc hands do not allow them to use ranged weapons like bows to great effect, and neither does it fit their mentality. They resort therefore to throwing weapons like javelins that have limited range but can inflict high damage also to armored targets and may even damage shields if they hit those.
Young Orc
Young Orcs make up the back bone of Orc society, as Orcs usually don't have a high life expectancy but are quite reproductive. They have relatively bright green skin because Orc skin tends to start out bright and gets increasingly darker over the years. Young Orcs are ferocious fighters that make up for their lack of experience and skill with pure strength and recklessness. You'll find them armed usually with one-handed weapons and sometimes light shields. Since they've yet to prove themselves and lay claim to spoils of battle, their equipment will consist of different types of leather armor that Orcs have the resources to produce themselves, and sometimes no armor at all. They're armed with lighter Orc weaponry and human weapons and shields they've scavenged from the fields of battle.
Orc Warrior
If a Young Orc survives long enough to grow to adult age, he may eventually become an Orc Warrior. As evident from their darker skin color and collection of scars, these seasoned fighters have a lot of combat experience and skill in addition to their great strength. Years of gathering spoils from raids and battle have allowed them to collect enough metal to have it melted and made into heavy metal armor, large Orc weaponry and often very heavy and durable metal shields.
Orc Warriors, perhaps also due to the massive armor they wear, do not charge opponents. Instead, they simply march into enemy ranks with their shields in front, pushing enemies out of their way and walking through an enemy battle line unimpressed in order to break it. It takes a formation two ranks deep to push against an Orc Warrior doing this, as one or even two humans alone can not compete in pure strength with an adult Orc Warrior.
Orc Berserker
Berserkers are Orcs that put themselves into a battle frenzy by taking drugs, potions or by hypnosis - and some of them are just straight up crazy. They can occasionally be found wandering alone on what could be described as pilgrimages to slay particularly dangerous beasts. If they succeed, they may wear parts of the slain beast as decoration, possibly also in the belief that it confers powers to them. However, other than these trophies, they don't wear any armor. Instead, some of them cover their body with war paintings that are supposed to channel the energy of spirits to protect them. Due to this, many berserkers have their bodies littered with scars telling of their exploits.
The unique ability of the Orc Berserker is that each time he hurts or kills an opponent, he gains "battle rage". With increasing battle rage, he gains damage to his attacks, increased bravery and initiative, and damage resistance. Each turn he loses some rage again. A berserker that can repeatedly hit or kill opponents and become enraged can spiral out of control and be very hard to take down.
Berserkers use a variety of Orc weapons, but no shields. Their most fearsome is a long and heavy chain with a big weight or striking head at the end that they swing recklessly around, mowing down foe and friend alike. Other Orcs respectfully prefer to stay clear of them if they can, especially if they swing around one of those chains. This often leaves Berserkers to fend for themselves at the flanks of a battle, just as they appear to hold a special position in Orc society outside of battle.
To be continued..
Those have been just three types of Orcs, but we have several more in store. Also, we’ll present the Orc faction in action in a commented gameplay video soon!
Until then let us know what you think about them so far and if you have any ideas for any additional Orc weapons, skills or classes! | https://www.moddb.com/news/dev-blog-30-orc-faction-reveal |
flight of a baseball,
or the "bend" of a
soccer kick
are excellent ways for students
to learn the basics of forces and
the response of an object to external forces.
A ball in flight has no engine to produce continuous
thrust and the
resulting flight is similar to the flight of shell
from a cannon, or a bullet from a gun. This type of
flight is called ballistic flight and on this
page we present the equations that describe ballistic flight.
Ballistic flight only occurs under the ideal
conditions that
weight
is the only force acting on the object.
There is no
thrust
and no
aerodynamic drag
acting on an object in ballistic flight.
Such flight conditions would occur on the
Moon, where there is no
atmosphere to produce drag.
On Earth
a baseball or a soccer ball generate a moderate amount of
aerodynamic drag
and the flight path is not strictly ballistic.
Ballistic flight is, however, a
first approximation to the flight of a ball. The actual
flight equations
including drag are much more complex because the drag is constantly
changing throughout the flight. Drag depends on the
square of the velocity
and the velocity changes during the flight.
The drag also depends on the
air density
which is a function of the weather conditions and altitude.
For ballistic flight,
the ball is normally inclined at some angle
to the vertical (or horizontal) as it is launched. We
resolve
the initial velocity into a vertical component V0 and a
horizontal component U0.
The horizontal motion is uniform because there is no external
force in the horizontal direction. So, according to Newton's
first law
of motion, the horizontal velocity remains a constant and the
distance x which the ball travels is given by the velocity
times the expended time t:
U = U0
x = U0 * t
In the vertical plane,
weight is the only external force
acting on the object.
Because the weight of the object is a constant, we can use the
simple form of Newton's
second law
to solve for the vertical motion:
-W = F = m a = m dV/dt
where W is the weight, m is the mass, V is
the vertical velocity, t is the time, a is the acceleration,
and F is the net external force.
The positive direction is upwards, so the weight is preceded by a
negative sign. Solving the equation:
dV/dt = - W/m = -g
V = Vo - g t
where g is the gravitational acceleration which is equal to 32.2 ft/sec^2
or 9.8 m/sec^2 on the surface of the Earth.
The value of the gravitational acceleration is different on the
Moon and Mars.
Vo is the initial velocity leaving the
launcher. The location at any time is found by integrating the
velocity equation:
dy/dt = V = Vo - g t
y = Vo t - .5 g t^2
where y is the vertical coordinate.
With this general description of the motion of a ballistic object,
we can derive some interesting conclusions.
Notice that the flight equation includes no information about the object's
size, shape, or mass. All objects fly the same in purely ballistic flight.
This is similar to
Galileo's principle
that all objects fall at the same rate in a vacuum. If drag can be ignored,
the flight of the object depends only on the initial velocity and the
gravitational acceleration.
At the highest point
in the flight, the vertical velocity is zero. From the velocity
equation we can determine the time at which this happens:
V = 0
t = Vo / g
The time to maximum altitude varies linearly with the launch velocity.
Plugging this time into the altitude equation we obtain:
y = Vo (Vo / g) - .5 g (Vo / g)^2
y = .5 * Vo ^2 / g
The maximum altitude changes as the square of the launch velocity. Doubling
the launch velocity produces four times the maximum altitude.
equations presented on this page:
Select planet, mode, and units
If drag included, enter weight or mass,
area, drag coefficient, altitude, or air density
Press Compute Button
This page shows an interactive Java applet which calculates the max altitude
and the time which it occurs for a ballistic shell.
To operate the calculator, you first select the planet using the choice button
at the top left.
For ballistic flight, select the "Ignore Drag" option
with the middle choice button. On another page
we develop the equations for
flight with drag.
You can perform the calculations in English (Imperial) or metric units.
Enter the initial velocity,
then press the red "Compute" button to compute the maximum height and
the time to maximum height.
Notice that entering a different value for the weight or the
area does not change the computed maximum height.
We provide an on-line web page that contains only this
calculator.
You can also download your own copy of the calculator for use off-line.
The program
is provided as Fltcalc.zip. You must save this file on your hard drive
and "Extract" the necessary files from Fltcalc.zip. Click on "Fltcalc.html"
to launch your browser and load the program.
Now consider the impact with the ground at the end of the flight. At
impact the altitude is zero. Using the altitude equation:
y = 0
Vo t = .5 g t^2
t = 2 Vo / g
The total flight time varies linearly with the launch velocity. The
total flight time is twice the time to reach maximum altitude. So a
ballistic shell takes as long coming down as it does going up. If we
substitute this time into the velocity equation:
V = Vo - g (2 Vo / g)
V = - Vo
The velocity at impact has the same magnitude but opposite direction
as the velocity at launch.
You can study ballistic flight characteristics by using the
HitModeler
simulation program for the flight of a baseball.
Or you can use the
RocketModeler
program to simulates the flight of a model rocket.
Or you can use the
SoccerNASA
simulation program for the flight of a soccer ball.
Navigation ..
+ Inspector General Hotline
+ Equal Employment Opportunity Data Posted Pursuant to the No Fear Act
+ Budgets, Strategic Plans and Accountability Reports
+ Freedom of Information Act
+ The President's Management Agenda
+ NASA Privacy Statement, Disclaimer, | https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/K-12/airplane/ballflght.html |
What is the formula for projectile motion?
h = v 0 y 2 2 g . This equation defines the maximum height of a projectile above its launch position and it depends only on the vertical component of the initial velocity. A rock is thrown horizontally off a cliff 100.0 m high with a velocity of 15.0 m/s.
What is the importance of projectile motion?
The projectile motion emphasizes one important aspect of constant acceleration that even constant acceleration, which is essentially unidirectional, is capable to produce two dimensional motion. The basic reason is that force and initial velocity of the object are not along the same direction.
How many types of projectile motion are there?
In a Projectile Motion, there are two simultaneous independent rectilinear motions: Along the x-axis: uniform velocity, responsible for the horizontal (forward) motion of the particle. Along y-axis: uniform acceleration, responsible for the vertical (downwards) motion of the particle.
What is the nature of projectile motion?
The horizontal velocity of a projectile is constant (a never changing in value), There is a vertical acceleration caused by gravity; its value is 9.8 m/s/s, down, The vertical velocity of a projectile changes by 9.8 m/s each second, The horizontal motion of a projectile is independent of its vertical motion.
How do you prove that a projectile motion is parabolic?
1 Answer
- Path of a projectile.
- Motion along horizontal direction: we neglect the friction due to air, then horizontal component of the velocity i. e., u cosθ will remain constant. Thus.
- Motion along vertical direction : The velocity of the projectile along the vertical goes on decreasing due to effect of gravity.
What is a projectile give any two examples?
Although any object in motion through space (for example a thrown baseball, kicked football, fired bullet, thrown arrow, stone released from catapult) may be called projectiles, they are commonly found in warfare and sports.
What do you mean by projectile motion and prove that?
Projectile is any body that is thrown or projected. This proves the projectile will be a parabola. If the gravity is absent then the body will not have a parabolic path, it will move randomly just like it will move in space.
What is range projectile motion?
The range of the projectile is the displacement in the horizontal direction. There is no acceleration in this direction since gravity only acts vertically. shows the line of range. Like time of flight and maximum height, the range of the projectile is a function of initial speed.
What is the maximum range of projectile?
45 degrees
How far will a projectile travel?
Furthermore, since there is no horizontal acceleration, the horizontal distance traveled by the projectile each second is a constant value – the projectile travels a horizontal distance of 20 meters each second.
What is the maximum range?
The greatest distance a weapon can fire without consideration of dispersion. Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms.
What is maximum range formula?
If a projectile is launched at a speed u from a height H above the horizontal axis, and air resistance is ignored, the maximum range of the projectile is Rmax=ug√u2+2gH, where g is the acceleration due to gravity. The angle of projection to achieve Rmax is θ=arctan(u√u2+2gH).
What are the conditions for maximum range?
This condition is true for all 8 only if the familiar equation describing the par- abolic trajectory of the projectile. speed. It can be seen by inspection that the maximum horizontal range occurs when the firing angle is 45° above the horizontal.
What is the condition for maximum horizontal range?
Answer: If a particle is projected at fixed speed, it will travel the furthest horizontal distance if it is projected at an angle of 45° to the horizontal. This is because the maximum sin2a can be is 1 and sin2a = 1 when a = 45°. The velocity of the particle at any time can be calculated from the equation v = u + at.
What do you mean by horizontal range of a projectile?
The horizontal range of a projectile is the distance along the horizontal plane it would travel, before reaching the same vertical position as it started from. The horizontal range depends on the initial velocity v0, the launch angle θ, and the acceleration due to gravity. The unit of horizontal range is meters (m).
At what point in its trajectory does a projectile has minimum speed?
A projectile have a minimum speed at the highest point of its trajectory. This is because horizontal speed of the projectile remains constant. Since the only force exerted on the projectile is gravity, which is 9.8 ms2 acting downwards and has no effects on the horizontal velocity. | https://www.mvorganizing.org/what-is-the-formula-for-projectile-motion/ |
to look at because it isn't affected much by the air it moves through.
One can therefore ignore effects like air drag or aerodynamic lift in
the case of a shotput.
You have perhaps heard that a shotput follows a parabolic
trajectory. A parabola is a line that is given by the equation
y(x) = a + bx + cx²,
where a,b,c are constants. Why does a shotput follow a parabolic
arc, and not some other curve?
The answer lies in the nature of motion in the presence of gravity.
And to look at that, let's first drop the shotput from the top of a
wall of height h (making sure no one we like is standing below). If
we record its fall with a video or film
camera, we can write its height y as a function of time t. Say
the wall has a height of 10 m (a very high wall); you'd get a table
of y(t) such as second column below (units are put in brackets,
like [s] for seconds and [m] for meters):
It takes a little over 1.4 s for the shotput to drop from a height of
10 m.
Note that the shotput falls larger distances in equal time
increments as time increases; in other words, its speed, the
rate at which it drops, increases with time.
Suppose in addition to
the film camera you had one of those guns the cops use to measure
speed (maybe I'll show how those work in a later chapter).
Then you'd get the speed measurements v(t) shown in the third
column.
Notice that the downward (negative) speed increases linearly: each
0.1 s interval adds -0.98 m/s to the speed. This is known as
constant acceleration: the acceleration of an object due to
gravity near the surface of the Earth is a constant 0.98 m/s per 0.1
s, or 9.8 m/s per s downward, written 9.8 m/s². This constant is usually
called g, and it's an important number for projectile motion:
g = 9.8 m/s² = 32 ft/s².
If, instead of dropping the shotput from rest at the top of the wall,
we threw it upward, then it would start with a positive vertical
speed, travel upward, reach a maximum height and then fall back
down. There is really no difference in this case, and the vertical
speed still has -9.8 m/s added to it every second by gravity. This is
exactly what happens with the shotput!
While a shotput is traveling horizontally downfield, it is actually
undergoing the exact same vertical motion that it would have if just
thrown straight up.
The shotput toss is just a combination of constant horizontal motion
and downward vertical acceleration. Here's what it looks like from the side (hit
RELOAD to replay this GIF animation 10 times):
I've used numbers approximately matching the world record
shotput trajectory of Randy Barnes, USA, 1990. I've assumed he
launched the shotput from a height of 2 m at a 45-degree angle to the
ground. I label the vertical position of the shotput
with y and the horizontal position (distance downfield) with
x.
Since the shotput travels an equal horizontal distance every 0.1 s,
the horizontal velocity vx is constant!
Gravity has no effect on horizontal motion, so the shotput
simply coasts with the initial horizontal velocity that Randy gave it.
However, gravity does affect the vertical velocity
vy in the same way it did in the earlier example:
vy changes by -0.98 m/s in each 0.1 s interval.
The combination of constant horizontal velocity and constant downward
acceleration results in a parabolic trajectory as seen above. You can vary the launch angle and initial speed and see the resulting trajectories with the Projectile Applet.
Here are the equations that govern projectile motion, in case you need
them. The initial conditions are that the object starts at
x0 and y0 with horizontal and vertical
speeds vx0 and vy0.
If one eliminates t from the last two equations, one gets the
parabolic equation for y(x). | http://bsharp.org/physics/shotput?printable |
Explanation:
This does intuitively make sense.
Nonetheless, we can also prove this using a bit of algebra and calculus. Even if you can't do the second bit, first bit should make sense. The task is:
Consider this diagram.
Prove that the distance
Still here? Lets go.
Let's say we are firing a projectile with a velocity of
Considering vectors, the vertical velocity of the particle is
Find the time it takes for the particle to return to the ground if we throw it up and that velocity.
Using the equation
Now, consider the horizontal motion
since
Now, as an extra challenge, can you prove that the angle that gives the maximum r is
We can use some trig identities to help us with this expression, then differentiate to find the maximum angle. | https://socratic.org/questions/58e54e81b72cff30dcbee158 |
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