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By examining the actions of the crime scene experts in the field of offender profiling use their knowledge to create personality characteristics on a suspect of a crime. The profilers are hopeful that the profile they give to the authorities working on the crime scene will help in eliminating defendants to allow the law enforcement agency to narrow down the suspect pool. This paper will analyze an article that was published called A Theoretical Review of the Process Involved in Deriving Background Characteristics from Crime Scene Actions. Through analyzing this paper topics that will be addressed will be the research related to criminal profiling, expansion of knowledge, applying the research, benefits and shortcomings, and an example and discussion applying to serial offenders.
Research Related to Criminal Profiling
The crime scene variable article that was chosen for this paper involves the way that by using techniques to categorize characteristics from the way that a person commits a crime in order to come to a conclusion about the offender. The article gives examples of research done on this topic which include studies done by Pinizzotto and Finkel, and Prentky and Burgess. In 1990 Pinizzotto and Finkel compared studies done by profilers, psychologists, groups of homicide detectives, and students the researchers found steps that gave clues to profiling implications. These steps explained by Alison, Bennell, Mokros, & Ormerod (2002) are:
(a) asses the type of criminal act with reference to individuals who have committed similar acts previously, (b) thoroughly analyze the crime scene, (c) scrutinize the background of the victim as well as any possible suspects, and (d) establish the likely mo...
... middle of paper ...
...ng procedures are lacking, and show little evidence on the scientific aspects. Pending related methods that can be consistently tested, investigators need to have caution when dealing with profiles (Alison, Bennell, Mokros, & Ormerod, 2002, p. 131-132). The methods that are used for the profiling process practice have similarities to common traditional trait theories of personality used before the 1970’s. The theories assume that there is no randomness, and will always have the same outcome when it comes to the offenders behavior characteristics (Alison, Bennell, Mokros, & Ormerod, 2002, p. 117). The article gives an example as to a way that profiling procedures can gain more scientific support by having psychologists that are accomplished in personality psychology and social psychology to evaluate profiling reports (Alison, Bennell, Mokros, & Ormerod, 2002, p. 116).
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November Marks Record Month for Florida’s DNA Database
The Florida Department of Law Enforcement (FDLE) today announced that during the month of November, the State of Florida’s Combined DNA Indexing System (CODIS), or DNA Database, documented the highest number of hits in a single month since its inception in 1989. From Nov. 1 – Nov. 30, the DNA Database recorded hits to 379 unsolved crimes, helping identify subjects in 269 investigations.
The DNA Database contains more than 700,000 samples and receives an average of 7,000 new samples each month. These samples undergo DNA analysis and are entered into the state’s CODIS database where they are compared against DNA evidence found at a crime scene. Hits are generated in one of two ways: when a DNA sample left at a crime scene matches to a known offender’s DNA in the database, or, when two crime scene samples in the database match one another – indicating the same offender may have been present at both scenes. Florida’s CODIS system is comprised of FDLE’s six regional DNA crime laboratories as well as Florida’s five locally-run crime laboratories. It interfaces with the FBI’s CODIS, enabling comparisons of DNA profiles between state databases.
“Over the last two decades, we’ve documented more than 16,000 hits,” said Crime Lab Analyst Supervisor Chris Carney, who heads up Florida’s Database. “The database is an amazing combination of science and technology and it’s become one of the most effective tools available to law enforcement for solving crime.”
Florida law requires offenders convicted of a felony and certain misdemeanors to submit a DNA sample to the DNA Database. The law further requires DNA analysis to be performed on each sample and the results of these analyses to be stored for comparison of DNA from unresolved cases in an attempt to identify the perpetrator.
In 2009, the Legislature expanded the law, contingent upon funding, to authorize the collection of DNA samples from individuals
arrested
for any felony offense, specified misdemeanor offense or an offense committed to benefit a criminal gang. The law will be phased-in over a 10-year period and collections will begin when funding is in place. FDLE has identified grant funds to partially fund the equipment needed for the first year of implementation and has requested additional dollars in the agency’s Fiscal Year 2011-2012 legislative budget request.
For Further Information Contact: | http://www.fdle.state.fl.us/News/2010/December/November-Marks-Record-Month-for-Florida%E2%80%99s-DNA-Data |
In today’s world, crimes happen every single day. Each crime is then followed by a detailed crime investigation that leads to finding out the actual preparator. Forensics has shown a vast improvement over the last few years. That is why these days, it is comparatively easy to find the actual criminal.
Due to ignorance, many people are unable to understand what crime scene investigation is all about. Here we will tell you what crime scene investigation is and what are the terms related to it.
Crime scene personnel
Initially, when a crime is committed, the following people enter the crime scene:
- Police officers
- CSI unit that documents the entire crime scene in detail
- The district attorney is there to see if any kind of search warrants are required
- Medical Examiner
- Specialists, if any expert advice is needed
- Detectives to interview the witnesses and lead to the conclusion
Often people get confused and ask what is a Civil Investigative demand as it seems similar to a criminal investigation. However, civil investigative demand is totally different as Federal agencies initiate sending notices to people accused of any wrongdoing.
In submitting a civil investigative demand, the judge’s help is not required as the agencies can execute the same.
Crime Scene protocol
Step 1 Interview– The first step in the investigation process is to interview either the witness or any other officer that is present there. This information could be factual in nature but would help the investigator in understanding the crime.
Step 2 Examine– The second step in the process is investigating the scene and finding out possible pieces of evidence. Officers will also identify points of entry and exit and outline the entire scene.
Step 3 Document-Next, you have to create a pictorial record of the scene. Basically, you have to draw the layout of the location and identify the victim’s exact position.
Step 4 Process-In the end, the crime scene technician processes the crime scene for evidence like physical and testimonial pieces of evidence. They have to collect all the pieces of evidence so that these can be sent to the laboratory for investigation.
Crime scene vocabulary
Crime scene– This is the place where the actual crime has taken place. It also includes any place where the police suspect something wrong has happened. Crime scenes can be of two types, i.e., the Primary crime scene and secondary crime scene.
The primary scene is the original location of a crime. On the other hand, the secondary crime scene may be an alternate location where additional evidence is found.
Suspect– This implies the people or one person who is suspected of committing the crime. There can be more than one suspect for a crime.
Accomplice– If the criminal is assisted in his crime by some other person, he is known as an accomplice. In case the partnership is proven, the accomplice faces the punishment too.
Alibi– Supposing the suspect can show that he was somewhere else at the time of the crime; this acts as an alibi. If the alibi is strong enough, they can absolve the suspect of the criminal charges.
Types of evidence
Obviously, evidence can also fall under different categories.
Testimonial evidence– This includes oral or written evidence from witnesses. Also, the court testimony of people who witnessed the crime falls into this category.
Physical evidence– Physical evidence is items that are present at the place where the crime occurred. It could include any items that the suspect was found to have with him.
Trace evidence– In trace evidence, we find items found in small amounts like hair, skin cells, or cloth fibers. The trace evidence can be recovered from the body or the suspect.
What does evidence do for the investigation?
- They prove that someone committed the crime
- Establish the critical aspects of the crime
- Link the suspect with the crime scene or the victim
- Find out the identity of the victim
- Prove the verbal witness authenticity
- Spare the innocent and absolve them of the crime
- Give the detectives the lead to move ahead in the case
Different types of Crime scene
Occasionally you would want to know what the different types of the crime scene are. You can divide a crime scene into three types.
- Outdoors- These are the most difficult when it comes to investigation. Exposure to elements like rain, wind, soil, and animal activity can contaminate the scene. Apart from that, the fact that the location is not correctly secured leads to further evidence getting destroyed.
Another problem is that you cannot analyze an outdoor crime scene in the nighttime. Also, if it is raining, the chances of proper investigations are further reduced.
- Indoors- Indoor crime scenes have limited chances of getting contaminated. Whatever contamination happens because of the presence of other people. There are chances that the suspect himself removes the evidence, which can be a hurdle in the investigation.
Sometimes in indoor crime scenes, the entire crime is reconstructed to see how things would have actually occurred. This makes it simple for investigators to identify the criminal.
- Conveyance- These are crime scenes where crime is conducted on the move, that is, those that utilize transportation. The common crimes in this category are robbery, grand theft, carjacking, sexual crimes, and homicide.
When they investigate such crimes, it is essential to see things outside the conveyance, too, for example, checking the footprints or tracks left by someone running away from the scene.
Conclusion
The crime scene is usually the place where an unfortunate incident occurred. However, there is more to it than just this simple definition. The above information will give you an idea of crime scene investigation and how it proceeds ahead.
Thanks to technology and forensics, it is no longer difficult to find who the actual culprit is.
Still, sometimes the investigation falters, and people escape from getting punished. There have been cases when the crimes were solved many years after the crime was committed. It totally depends on the manner in which they carry out the investigation, what type of lawyer to hire to solve the case and how smooth the investigation process is.
A professional writer with over a decade of incessant writing skills. Her topics of interest and expertise range from health, nutrition and psychology. | https://curiousmindmagazine.com/everything-you-want-to-know-about-crime-scene-investigation/ |
A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits.
Directional selection
Selection that favors phenotypes at one extreme of a trait's range.
stabilizing selection
Selection that favors the intermediate (middle) phenotype
Disruptive selection
Selection that favors both extremes of a phenotype but not the intermediate.
Microevolution
Small changes occurring within species, such as changes in allele frequencies.
Macroevolution
Evolution on a large scale affecting changes in species across populations
Lamarck
Proposed a theory of evolution based on use/disuse or by inheritance of acquired traits.
Hutton & Lyell
Theorized that the earth was very old, changing gradually over time.
Linneaus
Proposed a system of classification based on physical similarities.
Fitness
Ability of an organism to survive and reproduce in its environment
Gene pool
All alleles in a given population
Genetic drift
A change in the allele frequency of a population as a result of RANDOM CHANCE events rather than natural selection.
Gene flow
A change in allele frequency of a population as a result of immigration or emigration.
Sexual selection
Non-random mating. Organisms select a sexual mate based on physical or behavioral traits that are not necessarily related to survival.
Hardy-Weinberg Principle
Idea that the allele frequences in a population will remain constant. In other words, there is no evolution taking place.
Punctuated equilibrium
Pattern of evolution in which long stable periods are interrupted by brief periods of more rapid change
Adaptive Radiation (divergent evolution)
A single species evolves into several species
Convergent evolution
Unrelated organisms independently evolve similarities when adapting to similar environments
Coevolution
Process by which two species evolve in response to changes in each other
Speciation
Formation of new species
Biogeography
the study of where organisms live now and where they and their ancestors lived in the past
Anatomy
The study of structures
Homologous structures
Structures in different species that are similar because of common ancestry
Analogous structures
Body parts that share a common function, but not structure
Vestigial structures
Remnant of a structure that may have had an important function in a species' ancestors, but has no clear function in the modern species.
Embryology
Biological study of embryos and their similarities in an effort to determine relatedness among organisms
Biochemistry
Study of substances and processes occurring in living things
Paleontology
Study of fossils
Transitional fossil
Any fossilized remains of a life form that exhibits traits common to both an ancestral group and descendant groups
YOU MIGHT ALSO LIKE... | https://quizlet.com/392610155/evolution-vocabulary-flash-cards/ |
Evolution is a slow, step by step irreversible change or transformation, from simple to more complex or advanced, occurring in time and space.
The process of evolution can be broadly classified into two
1. Inorganic evolution: Which refers to the evolution of the living world.
2. Organic evolution: Which refers to the evolution of the non-living world.
Microevolution
1. It is the evolutionary change happening below the level of species.
2. Microevolution produces differences between different populations of a species (within species).
3. Microevolution over time may result in the formation of sub-species or geographical races.
4. The most common driving force of microevolution is natural selection in response to different environments.
Examples: Variety of beak shape among the finches of Galapagos island.
Colour change in peppered moth in England during Industrial Revolution.
Evolution of DDT resistant Insect populations.
Evolution of antibiotic resistant bacteria*.
All examples are changes occurring within a population in response to changing environment.
Macroevolution1. It is the evolutionary change happening at or above the level of species.
2. Macroevolution occurs between species.
3. Macroevolution over time may result in the formation of new species, genera, families, orders etc..
4. The evolutionary changes occurring in macroevolution is massive, involving macromutation, genetic divergence and adaptive radiation, producing major changes above species level.
Examples: Evolution of modern horse (Equus equus) from the genus Eohippus, which was less than 11 inches in height.
Evolution of birds from dinosaurs**
Evolution of tetrapods (animals with four legs) from fish**
Megaevolution1. It is the large scale evolutionary change happening at the level of class and phyla or division.
2. Megaevolution is a rare phenomenon, occurred only very few times in the entire evolutionary history of life.
3. Megaevolution may result in the formation of new biological organizational system, as new classes or divisions.
4. The actual process leading to megaevolution is not known as the phenomenon is extremely rare.
Examples: Origin of plants, animals and microorganisms
All these divisions are unique with distinctive biological organization.
Bacterial cells (Prokaryotes), leading to Eukaryotic cells with true nucleus and organelles
Evolution of Fungi, plants and animals from unicellular organisms
Evolution of amphibians from fishes.***Evolution of reptiles from amphibians.***
Evolution of birds and mammals from reptiles.***
All the above groups belongs to different classes as Pisces, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves and Mammalia respectively.
Remember, all the above terms are abstract and citing a clear cut example is often impossible. Evolutionary biologists greatly differ in their opinions.
Reference
*Russell, P., Hertz, P., & McMillan, B. (2013). Biology: the dynamic science. Cengage Learning.
**Starr, C., Evers, C., & Starr, L. (2010). Biology: Concepts and Applications Without Physiology. Cengage Learning.
***Yadev, B. N., & Kumar, D. (2000). Vertebrate zoology and evolution. Daya Books.
Image credits: | https://www.majordifferences.com/2015/06/difference-between-microevolution.html |
Scientists have analyzed the largest mass extinctions using artificial intelligence. As a result, they came to the conclusion that after such disasters, the evolution of surviving animals does not always accelerate sharply, as previously thought. The results of their calculations were published in an article in the journal Nature.
“The hypothesis that mass extinctions open the way for abrupt surges in evolution is considered one of the pillars of the classical theory of macroevolution. We analyzed the entire history of the existence of multicellular life on Earth using machine learning and found that the 15 largest extinctions and evolutionary explosions for the most part were not related to each other, “the researchers write.
Six of the largest mass extinctions are believed to have occurred over the course of life on Earth. The last of them happened about 65.5 million years ago, as a result of which the dinosaurs and all other large land and sea reptiles disappeared.
For a long time, scientists assumed that after such events a kind of evolutionary “explosion” occurs. Surviving animals begin to quickly fill empty ecological niches and adapt to them, changing their appearance. This concept, which is called “creative destruction”, is considered one of the foundations of the modern theory of macroevolution.
Excavations in recent years indicate that some of the largest extinctions, including the Permian one, have been accompanied by unusually long periods of flora and fauna recovery. Sometimes they lasted tens of millions of years. Therefore, scientists argue about why this process did not begin immediately after the cataclysms.
Evolutionary biologists, led by Professor of Uppsala University (Sweden) Graham Budd, tried to explain such discrepancies. They, using artificial intelligence, studied in detail the history of all extinctions on Earth and similar bursts in the frequency of formation of new species.
New laws of macroevolution
During the study, scientists learned when representatives of more than 137 thousand species of flora and fauna appeared and disappeared on Earth, traces of which paleontologists have discovered over the past two centuries. Using this data, biologists and mathematicians have measured the rate of extinction and formation of species in different geological eras. This helped them isolate all large, medium and small extinctions and speciation outbursts.
Likewise, Budd and his colleagues “saw” all of the largest mass extinctions, with the exception of the recently started sixth mass extinction, as well as seven less significant episodes of drastic declines in species diversity of flora and fauna. Scientists have compared the time of completion of these cataclysms with the time when 15 large evolutionary explosions began, which artificial intelligence found in paleontological data.
It turned out that most of the events from both groups did not coincide with each other in terms of time of occurrence. Moreover, many episodes of a sharp increase in the number of new species began when there were no mass extinctions. For example, something similar happened at the beginning of the Carboniferous and at the end of the Ordovician periods, when many new groups of flora and fauna appeared, but the existing species of plants and animals did not disappear.
Interestingly, these calculations indicate the existence of the opposite phenomenon. Budd and his colleagues dubbed it “destructive creation.” Scientists’ calculations show that representatives of one wave of species that arose as a result of one evolutionary explosion are gradually replacing other animals and plants that appeared during the previous similar event, which occurs every 19-20 million years.
What is the reason for such cycles of birth and destruction, scientists cannot yet say. However, they suggest that observations of the incipient sixth mass extinction, associated with both human activity and the end of the ice age, will help find an answer to this question. | https://earth-chronicles.com/science/in-connection-with-mass-extinctions-with-subsequent-evolutionary-explosions-doubted.html |
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Paper:
Triggering the Formation of Massive Clusters
Volume:
322,
The Formation and Evolution of Massive Young Star Clusters
Page:
277
Authors:
Elmegreen, B.C.
Abstract:
There are at least 2 distinct mechanisms for the formation of young massive clusters (YMC), all of which require galactic-scale processes. One operates in harassed fragile galaxies, in the dense cores of low mass galaxies, at the ends of spiral arms, or in galactic tidal shocks where transient and peculiar high pressures make massive clouds at high densities. The result of this process is usually only one or two YMC without the usual morphologies of local star formation, i.e., without hierarchical structure and a continuous power law distribution of cluster masses up to the largest mass. The other operates in the more usual way: continuously for long periods of time in large parts of the interstellar medium where the ambient pressure is already high as a result of the deep potential well from background stars and other gas. This second process makes clusters in a hierarchical fashion with size-of-sample effects, and tends to occur in nuclear rings, merger remnants, and even the ambient ISM of normal galaxies if the star formation rate is high enough to sample out to the YMC range.
Astronomical Society of the Pacific
Conference Series
© Copyright 1988 - 2018 - Astronomical Society of the Pacific
No part of the material protected by this copyright may be reproduced or used in any form other than for personal use without written permission from the ASP. | http://aspbooks.org/a/volumes/article_details/?paper_id=1328 |
Scarcely any palaeontological discovery is more striking than the fact, that the forms of life change almost simultaneously throughout the world.
|
Thus our European Chalk formation can be recognised in many distant parts of the world, under the most different climates, where not a fragment of the mineral chalk itself can be found; namely, in North America, in equatorial South America, in Tierra del Fuego, at the Cape of Good Hope, and in the peninsula of India.
For at these distant points, the organic remains in certain beds present an unmistakeable degree of resemblance to those of the Chalk.
It is not that the same species are met with; for in some cases not one species is identically the same, but they belong to the same families, genera, and sections of genera, and sometimes are similarly characterised in such trifling points as mere superficial sculpture.
Moreover other forms, which are not found in the Chalk of Europe, but which occur in the formations either above or below, are similarly absent at these distant points of the world.
In the several successive palaeozoic formations of Russia, Western Europe and North America, a similar parallelism in the forms of life has been observed by several authors: so it is, according to Lyell, with the several European and North American tertiary deposits.
Even if the few fossil species which are common to the Old and New Worlds be kept wholly out of view, the general parallelism in the successive forms of life, in the stages of the widely separated palaeozoic and tertiary periods, would still be manifest, and the several formations could be easily correlated.
These observations, however, relate to the marine inhabitants of distant parts of the world: we have not sufficient data to judge whether the productions of the land and of fresh water change at distant points in the same parallel manner.
We may doubt whether they have thus changed: if the Megatherium, Mylodon, Macrauchenia, and Toxodon had been brought to Europe from La Plata, without any information in regard to their geological position, no one would have suspected that they had coexisted with still living sea-shells; but as these anomalous monsters coexisted with the Mastodon and Horse, it might at least have been inferred that they had lived during one of the latter tertiary stages.
When the marine forms of life are spoken of as having changed simultaneously throughout the world, it must not be supposed that this expression relates to the same thousandth or hundred-thousandth year, or even that it has a very strict geological sense; for if all the marine animals which live at the present day in Europe, and all those that lived in Europe during the pleistocene period (an enormously remote period as measured by years, including the whole glacial epoch), were to be compared with those now living in South America or in Australia, the most skilful naturalist would hardly be able to say whether the existing or the pleistocene inhabitants of Europe resembled most closely those of the southern hemisphere.
So, again, several highly competent observers believe that the existing productions of the United States are more closely related to those which lived in Europe during certain later tertiary stages, than to those which now live here; and if this be so, it is evident that fossiliferous beds deposited at the present day on the shores of North America would hereafter be liable to be classed with somewhat older European beds.
Nevertheless, looking to a remotely future epoch, there can, I think, be little doubt that all the more modern marine formations, namely, the upper pliocene, the pleistocene and strictly modern beds, of Europe, North and South America, and Australia, from containing fossil remains in some degree allied, and from not including those forms which are only found in the older underlying deposits, would be correctly ranked as simultaneous in a geological sense.
The fact of the forms of life changing simultaneously, in the above large sense, at distant parts of the world, has greatly struck those admirable observers, MM. de Verneuil and d'Archiac.
After referring to the parallelism of the palaeozoic forms of life in various parts of Europe, they add, `If struck by this strange sequence, we turn our attention to North America, and there discover a series of analogous phenomena, it will appear certain that all these modifications of species, their extinction, and the introduction of new ones, cannot be owing to mere changes in marine currents or other causes more or less local and temporary, but depend on general laws which govern the whole animal kingdom.' M. Barrande has made forcible remarks to precisely the same effect.
It is, indeed, quite futile to look to changes of currents, climate, or other physical conditions, as the cause of these great mutations in the forms of life throughout the world, under the most different climates.
We must, as Barrande has remarked, look to some special law.
We shall see this more clearly when we treat of the present distribution of organic beings, and find how slight is the relation between the physical conditions of various countries, and the nature of their inhabitants.
This great fact of the parallel succession of the forms of life throughout the world, is explicable on the theory of natural selection.
New species are formed by new varieties arising, which have some advantage over older forms; and those forms, which are already dominant, or have some advantage over the other forms in their own country, would naturally oftenest give rise to new varieties or incipient species; for these latter must be victorious in a still higher degree in order to be preserved and to survive.
We have distinct evidence on this head, in the plants which are dominant, that is, which are commonest in their own homes, and are most widely diffused, having produced the greatest number of new varieties.
It is also natural that the dominant, varying, and far-spreading species, which already have invaded to a certain extent the territories of other species, should be those which would have the best chance of spreading still further, and of giving rise in new countries to new varieties and species.
The process of diffusion may often be very slow, being dependent on climatal and geographical changes, or on strange accidents, but in the long run the dominant forms will generally succeed in spreading.
The diffusion would, it is probable, be slower with the terrestrial inhabitants of distinct continents than with the marine inhabitants of the continuous sea.
We might therefore expect to find, as we apparently do find, a less strict degree of parallel succession in the productions of the land than of the sea.
Dominant species spreading from any region might encounter still more dominant species, and then their triumphant course, or even their existence, would cease.
We know not at all precisely what are all the conditions most favourable for the multiplication of new and dominant species; but we can, I think, clearly see that a number of individuals, from giving a better chance of the appearance of favourable variations, and that severe competition with many already existing forms, would be highly favourable, as would be the power of spreading into new territories.
A certain amount of isolation, recurring at long intervals of time, would probably be also favourable, as before explained.
One quarter of the world may have been most favourable for the production of new and dominant species on the land, and another for those in the waters of the sea.
If two great regions had been for a long period favourably circumstanced in an equal degree, whenever their inhabitants met, the battle would be prolonged and severe; and some from one birthplace and some from the other might be victorious.
But in the course of time, the forms dominant in the highest degree, wherever produced, would tend everywhere to prevail.
As they prevailed, they would cause the extinction of other and inferior forms; and as these inferior forms would be allied in groups by inheritance, whole groups would tend slowly to disappear; though here and there a single member might long be enabled to survive.
Thus, as it seems to me, the parallel, and, taken in a large sense, simultaneous, succession of the same forms of life throughout the world, accords well with the principle of new species having been formed by dominant species spreading widely and varying; the new species thus produced being themselves dominant owing to inheritance, and to having already had some advantage over their parents or over other species; these again spreading, varying, and producing new species.
The forms which are beaten and which yield their places to the new and victorious forms, will generally be allied in groups, from inheriting some inferiority in common; and therefore as new and improved groups spread throughout the world, old groups will disappear from the world; and the succession of forms in both ways will everywhere tend to correspond.
There is one other remark connected with this subject worth making.
I have given my reasons for believing that all our greater fossiliferous formations were deposited during periods of subsidence; and that blank intervals of vast duration occurred during the periods when the bed of the sea was either stationary or rising, and likewise when sediment was not thrown down quickly enough to embed and preserve organic remains.
During these long and blank intervals I suppose that the inhabitants of each region underwent a considerable amount of modification and extinction, and that there was much migration from other parts of the world.
As we have reason to believe that large areas are affected by the same movement, it is probable that strictly contemporaneous formations have often been accumulated over very wide spaces in the same quarter of the world; but we are far from having any right to conclude that this has invariably been the case, and that large areas have invariably been affected by the same movements.
When two formations have been deposited in two regions during nearly, but not exactly the same period, we should find in both, from the causes explained in the foregoing paragraphs, the same general succession in the forms of life; but the species would not exactly correspond; for there will have been a little more time in the one region than in the other for modification, extinction, and immigration.
I suspect that cases of this nature have occurred in Europe.
Mr. Prestwich, in his admirable Memoirs on the eocene deposits of England and France, is able to draw a close general parallelism between the successive stages in the two countries; but when he compares certain stages in England with those in France, although he finds in both a curious accordance in the numbers of the species belonging to the same genera, yet the species themselves differ in a manner very difficult to account for, considering the proximity of the two areas, unless, indeed, it be assumed that an isthmus separated two seas inhabited by distinct, but contemporaneous, faunas.
Lyell has made similar observations on some of the later tertiary formations.
Barrande, also, shows that there is a striking general parallelism in the successive Silurian deposits of Bohemia and Scandinavia; nevertheless he finds a surprising amount of difference in the species.
If the several formations in these regions have not been deposited during the same exact periods, a formation in one region often corresponding with a blank interval in the other, and if in both regions the species have gone on slowly changing during the accumulation of the several formations and during the long intervals of time between them; in this case, the several formations in the two regions could be arranged in the same order, in accordance with the general succession of the form of life, and the order would falsely appear to be strictly parallel; nevertheless the species would not all be the same in the apparently corresponding stages in the two regions. | http://theora.com/mbrowse/msdb/OriginOfSpecies/title/is/10-06%20-%20On%20simultaneous%20changes%20in%20the%20forms%20of%20life%20throughout%20the%20world/orderby/title/ |
Australia is well known as a dry continent; this reputation can be best demonstrated by the fact that two thirds of the continent has no runoff at all. One third has less than 250 mm of rainfall and the 750 mm isohyet is rarely more than 250 kilometres inland.
Much of the remainder is only seasonally or episodically moist and therefore karst processes can only operate for relatively short periods. The fact that many of the larger bodies of soluble rocks are found in the drier areas further reduces the opportunity for karst development. Even the well watered fringe is subject to extreme variability and the precipitation/evaporation ratio generally does not favour the ready availability of water.
The distribution of Australian karsts is shown this is about 4% of the continent and is an underestimate due to incomplete geological mapping. . It should be noted that a much larger area (around 15%) is underlain by limestone groundwater basins with a thick overburden of Quaternary deposits.
Climatic control of karst development can be seen dramatically in the difference between the dry Nullarbor Plain and the moist southeast of South Australia. Although the lithologies of the horizontally bedded, Tertiary limestones are very similar, the latter has extensive karstification in stark contrast to the Nullarbor.
This may in part be due to watertable change through tectonics as well as sea level fluctuations. Sea level changes have had an influence on the development of the Nullarbor caves but it may well be that the karst features of the Nullarbor are relics of former, more effective, precipitation regimes. There is, however, little evidence for this over the fifteen million years that the limestones have been above sea level.
In common with the other Gondwanaland continents Australia is poor in carbonate rocks. This is because much of the continent developed before carbonate rocks became an important proportion of the geological makeup of the earth. However, if the Precambrian shield area is ignored limestones and dolomite are present in relative abundance, but there is an extreme paucity of evaporite bedrocks in which karst features occur elsewhere in the globe. Australia is the only continent lacking Tertiary orogenic belts (excepting the Cape Range of W.A.); these usually contain extensive limestones and Australia misses out on this count as well. Illustration by M. Nyhof.)
Contact:- David Gillieson,
Senior Lecturer,
Dept. of Geography & Oceanography,
University College, University of New South Wales, Canberra, ACT 2601,
Australia.
Phone 61 6 2688305 Fax 61 6 2688313
email: [email protected]
Karst is a distinctive topography in which the landscape is largely shaped by the dissolving action of water on carbonate bedrock (usually limestone, dolomite, or marble). This geological process, occurring over many thousands of years, results in unusual surface and subsurface features ranging from sinkholes, vertical shafts, disappearing streams, and springs, to complex underground drainage systems and caves. (Photo by J. Marc.)
The process of karst formation involves what is referred to as "the carbon dioxide (CO2) cascade." As rain falls through the atmosphere, it picks up CO2 which dissolves in the droplets. Once the rain hits the ground, it percolates through the soil and picks up more CO2 to form a weak solution of carbonic acid:
H2O + CO2 = H2CO3
The infiltrating water naturally exploits any cracks or crevices in the rock. Over long periods, with a continuous supply of CO2-enriched water, carbonate bedrock begins to dissolve. Openings in the bedrock increase in size and an underground drainage system begins to develop, allowing more water to pass, further accelerating the formation of karst. Eventually this process leads to the development of subsurface caves. | http://earthsci.org/processes/geopro/karst/karst.html |
Voids/blowholes/vacuoles are frequent quality problems that can occur especially in the manufacture of thick-walled products. Although the cause of this problem is well known, it is often difficult and time-consuming to avoid it.
When cooling plastics from melt temperature to ambient temperature, the specific volume or density of the plastic changes considerably (see illustration). This behavior (change in volume during cooling) is called shrinkage.
In the extrusion of thick-walled products, the cause for the formation of vacuoles lies in the inhomogeneous cooling of the extrudate. While the outer skin of the product (profile, plate, tube, solid rod, flat bar, etc.) is usually actively cooled, the core temperature of the product is not directly coolable and thus remains at a very high temperature level for very long periods of time. In such a situation, caused by the extremely low thermal conductivity of plastics, the outer areas of the product become dimensionally stable (solid) while the core is still soft (or even molten).
While the edge areas of the extrudate are already cooled, the thermal induced volume change (shrinkage) continues to take place inside the material with a time delay. The core cools, builds up density and reduces its specific volume. This shrinkage of the core area creates tensions inside the material which act as a force on the adjacent product areas. These can then lead to deformation of the product (bowling, katana effect, sheet travel, etc.).
If the residual stresses are higher than the maximum yield stress, the material cracks.
However, if the shape stability of the geometry is higher than the tensile forces occurring, no deformation of the geometry can occur, which is often the case with very thick-walled products. However, if the tensile forces are greater than the maximum yield stress of the material at the same time, the material tears open inside due to shrinkage and forms a vacuole.
The following simulation result of a 250mm solid PP rod shows that even after 20m of cooling section length (880min extrusion time) the core of the material still has a temperature of more than 100°C. At the same time, the outside wall temperature has already cooled down to 28°C and is thus completely cooled and dimensionally stable.
A look at the crystallization times of different radial product sections is also very interessting. On the abscissa (X-axis), the illustration shows all radial layers of the solid bar into which the computer simulation was discretized (radius =0 corresponds to the core, radius = 125 corresponds to the outer product wall).
On the ordinate (Y-axis) the time period in seconds valid for the respective radial layer is displayed, how long the temperature range in which crystallization is possible was available at this radial position.
(Hint: Due to the fact that the product has not been completely cooled down at the end of the extrusion line (what was simulated using), in this diagram the core area shows a lower degree of crystallization than the areas between radius 60 and 90mm. If the calculation would be done for the whole cooling process, the result would look a little bit different.)
Avoidance of voids, vacuoles during extrusion
The reason for the formation of voids, vacuoles is (very often) the thermal volume shrinkage of the plastic. If the external dimensions of the product has already been cooled down so far that deformation is no longer possible, high stresses inevitably lead to the formation of vacuoles. These aspects must therefore be achieved in order to avoid cavities:
- Ensuring that cooling is as homogeneous as possible over the entire product cross-section
- Avoidance of very cold coolant temperatures
- Use of inline tempering zones in which the temperature differences within the material can be reduced (adjusted)
- Use of materials with higher critical yield stress
- Reduction of melt temperature
- More melt-pressure (if possible in the process)
However, the most effective approach to avoiding cavities in extrusion is the product and material-specific choice of the process parameters for the cooling section as well as the right choice of cooling section technology.
In our free download area, for which you can register here, you will find further information on the subject of vacuoles/blowholes as well as exemplary simulation results. | https://extrusion-training.de/en/wie-sie-lunker-in-dickwandigen-extrudaten-vermeiden/ |
6.3 The Fossil Record Key Concepts: How do most fossils form? How can scientists determine a fossils age? What is the Geologic Time Scale? What are some unanswered questions about evolution? Key Terms: Petrified fossil, mold, cast, relative dating,
radioactive dating, radioactive element, halflife, fossil record, extinct, gradualism, punctuated equilibria How do fossils form? The formation of any fossil is a rare event. Most fossils form when organisms that die become buried in sediments (particles of soil
or rock). Petrified fossils remains that become buried in sediment that are actually changed into rock Molds and casts A mold is a hollow space in sediment in the
shape of an organism or part of an organism A cast is a copy of the shape of the organism that made the mold Preserved remains Organisms can be preserved in other stuff, too like ice.
Determining a fossils age To understand how living things have changed through time, scientists need to be able to determine the ages of fossils. Scientists can determine a fossils age in two ways: relative dating and radioactive dating
Wait, what about carbon dating? Nevermind, on to relative dating. No, not this kind.
Really, relative dating: Scientists use relative dating to determine which of two fossils is older. It can only be used when the rock layers have been preserved in their original sequence. It will tell which of the fossils is older, but not the actual
age. Radioactive dating Allows scientists to determine the actual age of fossils. The rocks that fossils are found near contain radioactive elements, which are unstable
elements that break down over time. Half-life is the time it takes for half of the atoms in a radioactive element to break down, or decay What do fossils reveal? From the fossil record, scientists have learned
information about the history of Earth. The millions of fossils that scientists have collected are called the fossil record. Extinction Almost all of the species preserved as fossils are now extinct. A species is extinct if no members of that
species are still alive Geologic Time Scale The fossil record provides clues about how and when new groups of organisms have evolved. Scientists have created a calendar of Earths history that spans more than 4.6 billion years.
This calendar is sometimes called the Geologic Time Scale. It is divided into four major blocks of time: The Precambrian time, Paleozoic Era, Mesozoic Era, and Cenozoic Era Unanswered questions
Two unanswered questions about evolution: the mass extinctions and the rate at which evolution occurs Mass extinctions When many types of organisms become extinct at the same time.
Gradualism One theory, called gradualism, proposes that evolution occurs slowly but steadily. According to this theory, tiny changes in a species gradually add up to major changes over very long periods of time.
The problem is in the fossil record we often see long periods where no changes were made. It could be a gap (meaning missing fossils). No one knows. Punctuated Equilibria A theory that accounts for the gaps in the
fossil record. Species evolve quickly during relatively short periods. It is periods of rapid change separated by long periods with no changes. | https://www.darkhavenbookreviews.com/slide/63-the-fossil-record-welcome-to-ms-fuentesx27-webpage-for-cks-7uw9mx |
Colorado Technical university| Sci210-1104B-11| Phase 2 – Individual Project| | Deanna Filkins| 11/27/2011| | Phyletic gradualism is the theory that one species changes to another by combining the better genetic features of the species and these genetics mutate and result in an entirely different species. This change is slow and gradual and most often occurs in small populations. The species changes a little at a time over a certain period until it no longer has any traits of its ancestors. Thus, it becomes a new species. There are gaps in the fossil record which have raised many questions to the validity of this theory.
One example believed to be a result of phyletic gradualism is the foraminiferans. This tiny marine species remained the same from 10 million to 6 million years ago. They then began a gradual change which lasted approximately 600,000 years. At this point they were a totally different species from their ancestors. (Dictionary, 2009) Another example is found in rocks that dated at approximately 370 million years old, only sea creatures are found. However, in 1998, scientists found a fossilized fin that had 8 digits and the appearance was similar to the fingers on a human hand. This fossilized fin was determined to be 370 million years old. The Biologos Foundation, 2011). There is no doubt the fin was that of a sea creature, but the fossil is strong evidence of a gradually changing form. These examples are few and far between. There is very little evidence which supports phyletic gradualism due to no intermediate species being found in the fossil record. Punctuated equilibrium is a theory that evolution is characterized by long periods of stability in the characteristics of an organism and short periods of rapid change during which new forms appear, especially from small subpopulations of the ancestral form in restricted parts of its geographic ange. (Merrium-Webster, 1978). Tribolites, ancient arthropods, lived on this planet for over 300 million years. During this time, they took many forms—size ranged from less than a centimeter to two feet long. Due to the abundance of these creatures, scientists have a complete fossil record. In 1933, a German Jewish scientist, Rudolf Kaufman, noted that the evolution of tribolites was slow for long periods of time—then changed dramatically and quickly. This major change was punctuated. Punctuated equilibrium predicts the sudden appearance of new species in the fossil record.
Changes occur in small regions and populations; therefore, there is little probability of finding intermediate species. Presumably, major environmental changes in predation pressure, food supply and climate caused rapid periods of change. Likely, triggers for rapid evolution were severe droughts, major volcanic eruptions and the beginning and ending of the ice ages. Fossils are the best evidence of life history that we have today. They include such things as shells, seeds, skeletons, DNA and traces of organisms from long ago.
The fossil record reveals evidence of when life began, what kinds of organisms existed and the length of their existence. It provides information about how organisms evolved. Scientists can even determine what type of climate was in an area and how it changed. Due to many natural factors; such as decay—many organisms have not been preserved. The result is an incomplete fossil record. We will never know the complete record of most organisms that have existed on this planet. Over time, organisms have notably changed. | https://newyorkessays.com/essay-phyletic-gradualism/ |
Theory of socialism associated with Fabianism.
Socialism was not the result of revolutionary conflict, or of confrontation with the existing order. It arose naturally out of the processes of industrial society as the most efficient way of managing them. Socialism was thus both inevitable and gradual.
Source:
Rodney Barker, Political Ideas in Modern Britain (London, 1978)
Geology and biology
In the natural sciences, gradualism is the theory which holds that profound change is the cumulative product of slow but continuous processes, often contrasted with catastrophism. The theory was proposed in 1795 by James Hutton, a Scottish geologist, and was later incorporated into Charles Lyell’s theory of uniformitarianism. Tenets from both theories were applied to biology and formed the basis of early evolutionary theory.
Charles Darwin was influenced by Lyell’s Principles of Geology, which explained both uniformitarian methodology and theory. Using uniformitarianism, which states that one cannot make an appeal to any force or phenomenon which cannot presently be observed (see catastrophism), Darwin theorized that the evolutionary process must occur gradually, not in saltations, since saltations are not presently observed, and extreme deviations from the usual phenotypic variation would be more likely to be selected against.
Gradualism is often confused with the concept of phyletic gradualism. It is a term coined by Stephen Jay Gould and Niles Eldredge to contrast with their model of punctuated equilibrium, which is gradualist itself, but argues that most evolution is marked by long periods of evolutionary stability (called stasis), which is punctuated by rare instances of branching evolution.
Phyletic gradualism
Phyletic gradualism is a model of evolution which theorizes that most speciation is slow, uniform and gradual. When evolution occurs in this mode, it is usually by the steady transformation of a whole species into a new one (through a process called anagenesis). In this view no clear line of demarcation exists between an ancestral species and a descendant species, unless splitting occurs.
Punctuated gradualism
Punctuated gradualism is a microevolutionary hypothesis that refers to a species that has “relative stasis over a considerable part of its total duration [and] underwent periodic, relatively rapid, morphologic change that did not lead to lineage branching”. It is one of the three common models of evolution. While the traditional model of palaeontology, the phylogenetic model, states that features evolved slowly without any direct association with speciation, the relatively newer and more controversial idea of punctuated equilibrium claims that major evolutionary changes don’t happen over a gradual period but in localized, rare, rapid events of branching speciation. Punctuated gradualism is considered to be a variation of these models, lying somewhere in between the phyletic gradualism model and the punctuated equilibrium model. It states that speciation is not needed for a lineage to rapidly evolve from one equilibrium to another but may show rapid transitions between long-stable states. | https://sciencetheory.net/inevitability-of-gradualness-19th-century/ |
The indicator measures the proportion of beneficiaries who used the distributed non-food items for their intended purpose - an important aspect of the assistance's relevance and effectiveness.
Ask the following questions about 2 to 5 main types of non-food items that were included in the distribution. The data should be collected through post-distribution monitoring, about 3-4 weeks after the distribution.
Q1: Have you already used the provided [specify the item]?
Q2: What did you use [specify the item] for?
Q3: Can you please tell me why you have not used it?
In order to analyse the data, you must decide how many items must be used for the intended purpose in order for the indicator to be met (for example, at least 3 out of 4 items). Calculate the indicator's value by dividing the number of respondents who used the minimum number of provided NFI for the intended purpose by the total number of interviewed respondents and multiplying the result by 100. | https://www.indikit.net/indicator/26-shelter-and-nfi/123-use-of-non-food-items |
How is incidence rate expressed?
The term incidence rate refers to the rate at which a new event occurs over a specified period of time. Put simply, the incidence rate is the number of new cases within a time period (the numerator) as a proportion of the number of people at risk for the disease (the denominator).
Is incidence expressed as a percentage?
In epidemiology, incidence is a measure of the probability of occurrence of a given medical condition in a population within a specified period of time. Although sometimes loosely expressed simply as the number of new cases during some time period, it is better expressed as a proportion or a rate with a denominator.
What is the formula for incidence?
Incidence = (New Cases) / (Population x Timeframe) You watch a group of the 5,000 people in your town. During a five-year period, 25 individuals are newly diagnosed with diabetes mellitus.
How do you calculate incidence ratio?
An incidence rate ratio allows us to compare the incident rate between two different groups….We would calculate the incidence rate ratio (often abbreviated IRR) as:
- IRR = Incidence rate among smokers / Incidence rate among non-smokers.
- IRR = (7/100) / (1.5/100)
- IRR = 4.67.
How do you calculate incidence rate with example?
To calculate incidence, we divide the new bankruptcies throughout the study (29) by the total number of bankruptcy-free years (2,799) = (29/2,799) = 0.0104 or approx. 10 per 1,000.
What means incidence rate?
An incidence rate describes how quickly disease occurs in a population. It is based on person-time, so it has some advantages over an incidence proportion. Because person-time is calculated for each subject, it can accommodate persons coming into and leaving the study.
What is the difference between incidence and incidence rate?
Cumulative Incidence Versus Incidence Rate Cumulative incidence is the proportion of people who develop the outcome of interest during a specified block of time. Incidence rate is a true rate whose denominator is the total of the group’s individual times “at risk” (person-time).
How do you calculate incidence rate survey?
In other words, to calculate incidence in the contact of market research, the formula to be used is: Total number of qualified respondents divided by the total number of respondents who were screened for the study (qualified plus non-qualified). | https://www.wazeesupperclub.com/how-is-incidence-rate-expressed/ |
JNS) The number of people in the U.S. who harbor extensive prejudice against Jews has doubled since 2019 and reached the highest level in decades, according to a comprehensive study the Anti-Defamation League released on Thursday.
“ADL has been conducting these attitude surveys since the 1960s, and in some respects, this one is the most alarming,” said ADL CEO and National Director Jonathan Greenblatt in a press release.
The survey asked more than 4,000 U.S. adults about anti-Jewish tropes. Twenty percent of respondents—a proportion the equivalent of 52 million persons among the total population—agreed with six or more of the 11 anti-Jewish statements presented to them.
The findings represent a rise of 9 percentage points from the 11% measured in 2019.
Twenty percent of respondents say Jews have “too much power” in the U.S. Twenty-one percent agree with the statement that Jews “don’t care about anyone other than themselves,” and 53% say that Jews will go out of their way to hire other Jews.
“These findings reveal substantial beliefs that Jews are too powerful, selfish and insular,” Greenblatt said.
A high number of those surveyed harbor extremely negative views about Israel and people who support Israel. Eighteen percent say they are uncomfortable spending time with a pro-Israel person. It was also found that younger adults hold significantly more negative sentiments towards Israel and its supporters.“Those of us on the front lines have expected such results for a while now—and yet the data are still stunning and sobering: There is an alarming increase in antisemitic views and hatred across nearly every metric—at levels unseen for decades,” said Greenblatt. “From Pittsburgh to Charlottesville to the near-daily harassment of Jews in our greatest cities, antisemitic beliefs lead to violence. I hope this survey is a wake-up call to the entire country.”
Leave Your Reply
You must be logged in to post a comment. | https://www.jewishledger.com/2023/01/the-us-belief-in-antisemitic-stereotypes-nearly-doubles/ |
What is its purpose?
According to WHO (2005), 45% of maternal deaths occur within the first 24 hours after delivery. Ensuring that, at this time, women and their newborns stay at a health facility is therefore an essential measure for reducing the prevalence of maternal mortality. This indicator measures the proportion of women that were discharged from a health facility no earlier than 24 hours after childbirth.
How to Collect and Analyse the Required Data
There are two main possibilities for collecting the required data – select the one that is best suited to the context in which your project operates.
1) Use of the health facilities’ records: If you know that the health facilities keep records on how many hours / days after the delivery were women discharged and if you trust these records, use them for calculating the indicator’s value.
2) Conduct a quantitative survey among a representative sample of women who in the past six months delivered at the target health facilities. The facilities can help you to find these women (avoid using a general survey among women of reproductive age, as it is likely to result in a very small number of respondents).
RECOMMENDED SURVEY QUESTION (Q) AND POSSIBLE ANSWER (A)
Q1: Can you please tell me how long after the delivery of your youngest child did you leave the health facility where you delivered?
A1:
1) in less than 24 hours
2) in 24 hours or later
3) does not remember
Calculate the indicator’s value by dividing the number of women who were discharged from health facilities NOT earlier than 24 hours after childbirth by the total number of surveyed women. Multiply the result by 100. | https://www.indikit.net/indicator/7-maternal-and-child-health/303-discharge-after-delivery |
According to a survey conducted by the Sociological group "Rating" in October 2015, the majority of Ukrainian respondents (80%) agree with the statement that the Holodomor of 1932-33 was a genocide of the Ukrainian people, while 12% of respondents not agreed with this statement. 8%. – undecided.
It should be noted that over the past two years the number of those who agree that Holodomor was genocide has increased (from 66% in 2013 to 80% in 2015). In addition, the number of undecided on this issue has decreased almost twice over the last year.
Also the opponents quantity of Holodomor acknowledgment as genocide over the years 2010-2015 has decreased from 25 to 12%.
The assertion that the Holodomor of 1932-33 was genocide of the Ukrainian people was shared by most surveyed residents of all regions without exception. Most of all - the West (98%) and Centre (87%).
The younger respondents are and the higher the level of their income, the more of them support the thesis of acknowledgment of Holodomor as genocide.
Thus, among respondents whose native language is Ukrainian, 90%, supports the thesis, while among those who consider Russian their native - 60%.
Residents of villages more agree with the thesis about the Holodomor-genocide than the residents of the cities (84% versus 79%). | http://ratinggroup.ua/en/research/ukraine/dinamika_otnosheniya_k_golodomoru_noyabr_2015.html |
17 Mar 2023
The findings of a new poll published this week show that the public perception of international students in Britain is positive, with 64% of respondents stating the UK should continue to host the same number or more international students. The poll, commissioned from Public First by Universities UK, reveals the British public doesn’t consider lowering legal migration or reducing the number of international students should take priority over other concerns, such as NHS pressures and the cost of living. Just 9% of those surveyed believe there should be fewer international students entering the UK. In addition, 48% are of the opinion that international students should be permitted to remain in the UK for between one and five years after graduating, whilst just 13% said they should leave after their course has ended. The poll follows rumours over government restrictions that may curb the number of international students and dependents that can enter the country, together with ambiguous messages regarding working rights for international students in the UK.
Importance of international students
The findings from this poll also show that 62% of respondents acknowledge that students from overseas brought more to the UK economy than they took out, whilst 43% believe UK diplomacy benefits from hosting international students who have an optimistic view of the country. Furthermore, in regard to whether international students applying to so-called ‘elite’ universities should be granted preferential treatment, just 18% of respondents agreed, yet 67% said anyone who meets the visa requirements should come to the UK regardless of the uni they’re applying to. Chief Executive of Universities UK, Vivienne Stern MBE, said of the findings: “This new polling confirms that public perceptions of immigration, and of international students in particular, are not what the government may believe. The public understands the enormous contribution that international students make to our economy, institutions and research outputs, as well as enormously benefiting the UK’s international reputation. Our international institutions are cherished by the public, and we would hope that government policy follows suit,” she stated.
Universities UK represents a total of 140 universities in England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, working with these universities, the government and stakeholders to boost national and international higher education policy. | https://deveredestinations.com/blogs/International-students-make-enormous-contribution-to-UK-economy-poll |
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Europe’s COVID deaths could rise sharply
The COVID-19 pandemic could cost an extra 300,000 lives in Europe, according to a study of the number of people who have not been infected or vaccinated.
The work also predicts that the pandemic could lead to roughly one million hospitalizations in Europe, some of which would contribute to the death toll. But the authors note that their estimates are maximums that assume, for example, that all anti-infection restrictions are lifted (L. A. C. Chapman et al. Preprint at medRxiv https://doi.org/g6rt; 2021). The study has not yet been peer reviewed.
Researchers at the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine collected data on COVID-19 deaths in a range of age groups in 19 countries, and estimated the total number of people who had been infected in each country by early November 2021. This figure was used with data on vaccination rates to calculate the share of the population that had not acquired immunity to SARS-CoV-2 — and so was still at increased risk of being hospitalized or dying from COVID-19 if all restrictions were lifted. The analysis also accounted for people who could be at risk despite previous exposure or vaccination.
It found large variation: some 8 in 1,000 people in Romania could still be hospitalized, compared with fewer than one per 1,000 in England.
Gravitational-wave detectors release latest data
Gravitational-wave observatories have released their latest catalogue of cosmic collisions, bringing their total number of detections to 90. The new crop of 35 events includes one featuring the lightest neutron star ever seen, as well as two clashes involving surprisingly large black holes with masses more than 60 times that of the Sun (R. Abbott et al. Preprint at https://arxiv.org/abs/2111.03606; 2021).
The detections come from the two Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO) sites, in Louisiana and Washington State, and their sister detector, Virgo, in Italy. They were recorded during 21 weeks of operations, beginning on 1 November 2019, that racked up an average detection rate of one event every 4.2 days.
Gravitational waves are ripples in the fabric of space-time that are produced when large masses accelerate. Like the detections previously reported by LIGO–Virgo, the latest ones are all attributed to pairs of dense stellar remnants spiralling into each other and merging. The collaboration initially released data only on high-confidence detections, but the latest catalogue — as well as the previous one, released in October 2020 — includes any detections that have better-than-even chances of being genuine gravitational waves. The team estimates that around 10–15% of the latest candidates in the catalogue are false alarms, “caused by instrumental noise fluctuations”.
Sleeplessness and anxiety: PhD supervisors on toll of COVID pandemic
One-third of academics who supervise doctoral students say they have lost sleep during the pandemic because of their role, according to a poll of almost 3,500 supervisors in the United Kingdom. Two-thirds said that supervision responsibilities had increased, with many wanting more support to address the well-being and mental health of their PhD students.
Significant changes, affecting both supervisors and students, have been made to the PhD supervision process during the pandemic, says Ronny Gunnarsson, who researches medicine and public health at the University of Gothenburg in Sweden. “Many supervisors and PhD students have suffered emotionally from the lack of on-site meetings,” he says, a problem exacerbated by the loss of informal coffee-break-style chats that can often resolve difficulties.
There are currently about 22,000 PhD supervisors at UK universities, estimates the UK Council for Graduate Education (UKCGE), a charity based in Lichfield. To better understand the pressures and expectations supervisors face, both before and during the pandemic, the UKCGE launched a survey in May 2021 that was partially funded by the biomedical charity Wellcome and by the government agency UK Research and Innovation.
Around 15% of the country’s research supervisors responded, according to the resulting report (see go.nature.com/3ncnk9a). In general, they enjoyed and valued their role, with more than 80% saying it increased the quality of their research, and three-quarters saying they were satisfied with their effectiveness in the position.
But respondents also revealed the challenges they faced generally as supervisors, and more specifically during the COVID-19 pandemic (see ‘Stresses of supervision’).
Half of the respondents said that the pandemic had made the job more challenging. More than one-third agreed with the statement “concerns over supervision have kept me awake at night over the last 12 months”, with a similar proportion agreeing that, over the same period, “supervising doctoral candidates makes me feel anxious”. | https://kingoftandoorphilly.com/news/covid-deaths-gravitational-waves-and-pandemic-phd-supervision-nature-com/ |
The Institute of Policy Studies (IPS) in its insights from a survey of 4,131 Singaporean residents (most citizens) on race, religion and language, revealed in January that 51.9% Malay respondents felt that race is important to them in their overall sense of identity. The percentage for Indians and Chinese on the same question of importance of race was 28.4% and 22.8% respectively. The survey was conducted between December 2012 and April 2013.
In terms of religion, the percentage rose to 70.1% for Malays, who felt religion is important to them for their overall sense of identity.
Language
Of all the respondents, 36% believed that English-speaking people have to work “much less/less hard than others” in order to have a prosperous life in Singapore. Contrarily, percentage of respondents who believed that Malay-speaking and Tamil-speaking people have to work “harder than/much more than others” for a prosperous life was 41% and 44% respectively.
Notably, just a little over half (51.9%) of the respondents felt fine if people around them speak a language other than theirs.
A telling insights was on the question put to university-educated respondents, which was – “I am fine if a service staff does not speak to me in English in a shop on Orchard Road”. While 65.4% Malays and 66.8% Indians “strongly disagree/somewhat disagree” with the statement, 48.6% Chinese respondents “agreed/strongly agreed” with it. If this was because Indians and Malays felt that the service staff not speaking in English will invariably be speaking Mandarin, and thus showed disagreement, was not clear in the survey findings.
Also, a majority of respondents across all races showed support for Singlish, the unofficial national language of the country. When asked whether “the government should do more to curb the use of Singlish in Singapore”, only 29.3% Chinese, 40.9% Malays, and 40.6% Indians agreed or strongly-agreed with the statement.
Gambling
A majority (69.2%) of the total respondents saw gambling as “almost always or always” wrong, indicating that the opening of two casinos in Singapore in recent years is yet to influence the local opinion in their favour.
Preference to minorities
On the question whether “the government should give preferential/special treatment to minority groups”, the answers were much along the racial lines. Among Malays, 40.8% agreed and 25.5% disagreed. In Indians, 33.6% agreed, and 29.7% disagreed. But among the Chinese respondents, the trend was reversed. While only 23.5% Chinese agreed, 52% of the Chinese respondents didn’t feel that the government should give any preferential treatment to minority groups. | https://theindependent.sg/survey-insights-on-race-gambling-singlish-and-even-orchard-road-shopping/ |
The South Australia government Skills for All initiative was implemented in July 2012 and has undergone a number of updates and changes. Now the initiative has both strengths and weaknesses plus a possibly confused set of messages.
With a state election looming and whatever side of politics wins this is probably a good time to take stock and consider where to next?
Firstly let’s look at strengths and weaknesses as in an upcoming blog I’ll outline opportunities and alternatives to the current focus for Skills for All.
Strength #1 – “I’d recommend this course”
Results of the 2013 Graduate Survey Outcome Report published by DFEEST on Skills for All – Training for Jobs indicated a high level (91% of those surveyed) of people recommending their course to others and a number of areas for improvement or consideration.
The majority of people (80%) undertook their course, “…to get a job or to change jobs and improve career prospects.”
Weakness #1 – Lag in gaining employment
From the report,
There can be a significant period between graduation and employment for some respondents. Almost half of the respondents who commenced their current job after their course completed their training 6 months or more ago. This compares with less than one third of unemployed respondents who completed their course 6 months or more ago.
Survey results highlighted that for some there was a long lag between completing their course and gaining employment.
It seems that for those that were unemployed some completed lower level qualifications and perhaps in areas where opportunities are limited. Only a small percentage share of those who were unemployed completed the course to start their own business (1.9%).
Weakness #2 – Connection with job requirements and RPL
The connection between training and work or job requirements and tasks plus Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) still needs some further development as,
Respondents were less satisfied with:
- “My learning needs were appropriately assessed before I commenced training”;
- “The training prepared me well for work”;
- “I received sufficient and relevant practical training during my course”; and
- “I received appropriate recognition of my existing skills and knowledge”.
Other changes suggested by respondents to improve training were: having more time for practical training, better meeting individual learning needs, improving the management and administration of training services, improving equipment / facilities and assisting with work placement and employment.
From the student satisfaction survey results those in construction and business administration were least satisfied with recognition granted.
Strength #2 – Part time employment
In terms of participants employed during or after course commencement,
The largest share of this cohort (277 or 39.51%) completed a Certificate III level qualification with relatively greater numbers graduating from courses in Health Services, Community Services and Nursing. 393 or 55.43% of respondents were in part-time employment and 235 or 33.15% in full-time employment.
So perhaps in these areas training is better connected to work with opportunities and outcomes for part-time workers improving (or maybe if participants were working full time they didn’t respond to the survey?).
Weakness #3 – Course delivery mode, practical vs. theory
Course delivery mode, even though many respondents said that there were multiple modes for their course, reflects mostly “Classroom and practical based training with a trainer”. By comparison workplace training, work placements, web and online learning (which are used far more frequently in a workplace setting) were much less common or less frequently used.
I received sufficient and relevant practical training during my course…13.23% disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement. This level of dissatisfaction with the amount of practical training is of concern.
Strength #3 – Confidence
This is difficult to measure and calculate in terms of return but’s its pleasing to see positive comments about the level of confidence that participants gained particularly evidence in comments from those who were employed before commencing their course.
For example,
‘As I was already working in the field the additional training gave me further confidence and skills as well as reinforcing the importance of the work we do for children and families living with Autism. I also met others who are doing the same job so there was instant camaraderie and the chance to learn from them also.’ (Survey respondent – Best aspects of training)
Strength #4 – Personal benefits
Many survey respondents identified personal benefits from completing their course,
2232 (91.89%) of respondents indicated the course was personally beneficial with 60.27% indicating it was very beneficial. Responses were similar across respondents by employment status although respondents who gained employment during or after their course rated the level of benefit more highly with 69.46% rating the course as personally very beneficial.
Advancing skills and satisfaction of achievement were sighted most frequently by participants.
Weakness #4 – “Not happy and not what I expected!”
In the 2013 Student Satisfaction Survey Report,
10% withdrew because they were not satisfied with their training provider and a similar proportion because the training was either not what was expected or was not flexible enough.
An area for improvement particularly in terms of managing expectations and perhaps considering programs that give people practical experience of what the job and training requirements will be like before they commence.
Strength #5 – “I like the trainers”, “I got support” and “I used up to date resources”
Feedback indicated that, “Trainers had excellent knowledge of the subject content.”
Respondents were highly satisfied with the quality of trainers with 93.59% of survey respondents agreeing with the statement that “trainers had an excellent knowledge of their subject content” (52.03% strongly agreeing – Figure 13) and 91.74% agreeing with the statement that “trainers explained things clearly” (44.14% strongly agreeing Figure 14).
In terms of support,
91.87% of respondents agreed (40.6% strongly agreed) that they had “sufficient contact with trainers to support my learning and complete the course.”
Also,
89.29% of respondents agreed that their training used up-to-date equipment, facilities and materials.
Weakness #5 – Withdrawal stats
Another area from the student satisfaction (or lack thereof) results as the number of respondents who completed the survey and who withdraw was 603 (23.22%).
And when this is broken down,
The two most common reasons for withdrawal based on the adjusted total of 603 were “Changed jobs or started a new job” (15.75%) and “too many pressures on my time” (15.75%). 61 (10.12%) respondents indicated they withdrew because “I was not satisfied with my Skills for All training provider”, 33 (5.47%) “the training was not what I expected” and 21 (3.48%) “the training timetable was not flexible enough”.
Interestingly the highest responses for dissatisfaction were recorded in Business Administration. I have a specific opinion on this that I’ll reveal in a future blog.
Weakness #6 – “Where do I get advice?”
Students gained information on their options and courses from different sources with the least helpful being,
… InfoLine (17.77%), InfoCentre (17.91%) and Job Services Australia or Disability Employment Service Provider (JSA-DES) (19.05%)…
So some definite areas for engagement and product knowledge up skilling and I wonder if employers were asked this same question what their responses might indicate.
Also, was the Skills for Jobs in Regions contact and career development service providers an option to choose in the survey?
A confused set of messages
As Skills for All to Skills for Jobs has morphed and changed seemingly with each version of the Funded Training List (FTL) and policy announcements I would describe the messages about Skills for All/Jobs as confused.
If I was advising the new government and DFEEST (or its possible predecessor) I’d say this needs to be addressed urgently after the election is declared and here’s what I would suggest needs to be clarified:
- Firstly a vision for South Australia’s workforce (more on this in a blog soon)
- Who is Skills for All/Jobs for? Is it focused on addressing business, industry and employer needs (workforce demand) or individual needs (workforce supply)?
- What are the priorities? (Is it employment, up-skilling, retention, growth, workforce planning needs and please don’t say “All of the above!’
- How is the vision and priorities reflected in a list of critical job roles that informs the FTL remembering that 1 job role = multiple qualifications?
- Is it time to ditch the FTL for an approach that identifies:
- A vision for the SA workforce
- Economic priorities – areas where there is employment growth and outcomes (like Australian Apprenticeships)
- Industry priority sectors (which could also include those in decline) – skills needed for critical job roles and reflecting regional needs
- Motivational factors rather than target groups and things like establishing / expanding my business, commencing an Australian Apprenticeship or getting a job
I encourage you to post your ideas, what do you think are the strengths and weaknesses of Skills for Jobs in its current format?
Keep an eye out for the next blog on Skills for All – Opportunities and Alternatives, thank you.
Written by Wendy Perry, VET Strategist, WPAA, 8 March 2014. | https://workforceblueprint.com.au/skills-for-all-strengths-and-weaknesses/ |
Interest in news and belief in the importance of independent journalism run high in the Philippines…
The furor over the 70-11 vote by the House committee on legislative franchises on July 10 to deny the franchise renewal of ABS-CBN broadcast network mirrors a recent survey result showing a majority of Filipinos giving importance to independent journalism and keeping politicians in check.
The 2020 Digital News Report (DNR), an annual project of Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism, showed that 65 percent of Filipinos value independent media and 63 percent want politicians who lie to or mislead the public to be called out by reporting their inaccurate and dubious statements.
University of the Philippines (UP) professor Yvonne Chua presented the survey findings in a two-part webinar organized by the Philippine Press Institute (PPI) and the Philippines Communication Society (PCS) on July 3 and 10. Close to 100 journalists, journalism educators and students participated in the webinar, the second of which was timed as congressmen voted to deny ABS-CBN’s application for a new 25-year franchise to operate.
The survey was conducted online by international research and data analytics company YouGov from mid-January to later part of February, before the outbreak of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic. The project began in 2012 and this was the first time the Philippines was included. The survey covered 40 media markets in Europe, Americas, Asia Pacific, and Africa, The Philippines placed 35th in overall trust in the news with a low rating of 27 percent.
A significant 44 percent of the Filipino respondents identified politicians as the leading source of misinformation.
The survey had 2,019 respondents from the Philippines. Chua said they represented only “those who are online, which is 72 percent of the population, according to Internet World Stats.”
Globally, more than half of the surveyed respondents (56 percent) are concerned over false or misleading information disseminated by politicians, or one percent lower than the perceived sentiments of the Filipinos.
In voting against granting the ABS-CBN franchise, several lawmakers allied with President Rodrigo Duterte complained of having been treated unfairly in the TV network’s news stories, disregarding statements from the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), the Bureau of Internal Revenue (BIR), the Department of Justice (DOJ), and the National Telecommunications Commission (NTC) that the media giant has no violations of the laws and regulations.
According to Chua, associate professor at the journalism department of the College of Mass Communication in UP Diliman, the chilling effect of closing down ABS-CBN is unimaginable.
“If they can do it to the biggest media conglomerate in the country, what more (can they do to) the smaller ones,” Chua said in closing the webinar minutes after the House vote was announced.
ABS-CBN was the most used media brand accessed by Filipino respondents with 61 percent offline and 54 percent online. The network enjoys 61 percent trust rating, according to the 2020 DNR.
In the webinar, Chua also acknowledged the importance of media pluralism. “The more voices there are, the better it is for us,” she said.
“As we all know, the closure of ABS-CBN comes at a very bad time because they have the resources compared to (other) local media (companies) that are struggling. Even other big media (entities) are struggling or struggling to keep their operations going (because of the pandemic), ABS-CBN still manages to do that,” Chua said in the July 3 webinar.
Government-run People’s Television (PTV) News tied with ABS-CBN with 61 percent trust rating while online news Rappler has 49 percent. GMA remained as the top most media brand with 73 percent, the survey showed
With ABS-CBN shutting down, Chua raised concern on the reliability and credibility of the news Filipinos would have, saying it would bring “fierce implication” on journalism in the Philippines.
While this was happening to ABS-CBN, Rappler, an online publication critical to the Duterte administration, has been facing a string of court cases. While a Manila court has cleared Rappler, the publication’s chief executive officer Maria Ressa and former writer-researcher Reynaldo Santos Jr. were convicted of cyber libel. (Read Maria Ressa’s conviction here.)
How much will Filipinos miss local media?
While the same survey showed that interest in news is high and many Filipinos prefer news sources to be independent, almost half or 42 percent said they want to get news sources that share their point of view. The Filipino respondents were different compared to other media markets who prefer news with “no” point of view.
Also, users of Philippine newspapers and television would not miss local news sources as much as those in other countries will, the 2020 DNR showed.
The survey found that only 20 percent of newspaper users in the Philippines answered they will miss their local news source “a lot,” which is much lower compared to the other countries such as Germany with 54 percent, Norway with 49 percent, USA with 39 percent and UK with 25 percent of newspaper readers.
Only 25 percent of TV users in the Philippines answered they will miss their local TV “a lot” if it goes out of business. Again, this is incomparable to those in Germany, Norway, USA and UK with 56 percent, 45 percent, 48 percent and 33 percent, respectively.
The survey also showed that only 24 percent of local radio listeners and 20 percent of local news website visitors from the Philippines will miss such businesses if they stop operation.
The survey presented four possible answers to the question: would not miss it all, would not miss it very much, would miss it somewhat and would miss it a lot.
According to Chua, only the percentage of the respondents who answered that they get their news from local news sources are the basis of these percentages, and not the percentage of all the Filipino respondents which is 2,019.
“The answers on the following questions are based on the proportion of respondents who consume local news,” Chua said.
In her presentation in the first part of the webinar, on July 3, Chua said it will “tend to underrepresent traditional media habits,” and only “reflect urban, richer and more connected users.”
With few Filipinos missing their local news source, Ariel Sebellino, executive director and trustee of the PPI, attributed this to efforts discrediting Philippine media and curtailing press freedom.
“It is unfortunate (that) we are losing one of (our) media outlets as we speak of pluralism and I think that statement should be across all platforms,” Sebellino said.
For PCS president Kriztine Viray, the closure of ABS-CBN, which she described as a “historical tragedy,” will echo for a long time.
“The state has to remember that silencing impacts the entire profession. It should be more painful as the country is currently faced with an unprecedented crisis. The magnitude will be felt and reverberate for generations,” Viray said. | https://verafiles.org/articles/many-filipinos-keen-role-independent-press-keeping-politicia |
163. The consultation document explained that the Education Bill will include provisions to establish an Education Workforce Council for Scotland ( EWCS) which will take on the responsibilities of the General Teaching Council for Scotland ( GTCS), the Community Learning and Development Standards Council ( CLDSC) and register other education professionals.
164. They will have the following purpose: Through supporting and enhancing the professionalism of those involved directly and indirectly in learning and teaching, support Scottish education to be world leading in the delivery of high quality outcomes for all learners.
A higher proportion of respondents agreed than disagreed that the proposed purpose and aims of the Education Workforce Council for Scotland ( EWCS) were appropriate. There was some concern over the loss of GTCS's role, with some respondents supporting a continuation of existing bodies such as GTCS, the SSSC and CLDSC.
A wide range of different roles and functions were cited as being subject to mandatory registration with the proposed EWCS.
There was widespread support for the EWCS to be required to consult on the fees it charges for registration.
In terms of the principles that could be used in the design of the governance arrangements for the proposed EWCS, respondents cited the need for representation of all workers and parity of esteem across all registered professionals. The key principle cited was openness / transparency / accountability.
Question 17: Are the proposed purpose and aims of the Education Workforce Council for Scotland appropriate?
166. As Table 12 shows, of those who responded to this question, views were slightly in favour of the proposed purpose and aims of the Education Workforce Council for Scotland ( EWCS), with 188 agreeing and 149 disagreeing. Around one in six provided a 'don't know' response and around a third did not provide a response to this question.
167. Around two-thirds of respondents opted to provide further commentary in support of their response to this question.
168. The key theme, cited by around a third of those in favour of the establishment of the EWCS, was that this reflects the current direction of travel (cited primarily by respondents in local authorities, independent / third sector organisations and schools).
169. Other themes cited by small proportions of respondents in favour of the EWCS included that this is a valid goal to ensure that high standards are maintained and achieved by all individuals working within the education sector (cited by higher proportions of respondents in independent / third sector organisations, local authorities and professional associations / groups). Other themes were that being included in a professional body would facilitate better co-operation across individuals working within education or that this would promote professionalism for all working in the education sector.
170. The key concern emerging from almost half the respondents opposed to the establishment of the EWCS focused on concerns over the loss of the General Teaching Council for Scotland's ( GTCS) role and a preference for the continuation of GTCS. Highest levels of mentions for this issue came from local authorities, schools, professional associations / groups and headteachers. A smaller proportion of respondents also suggested retaining the GTCS for the teaching profession and setting up a separate organisation for other staff working within education.
Over the dilution of professional teaching standards (cited by highest levels of local authorities, professional associations / groups and professional learning organisations).
That amalgamation of GTCS and CLDSC will lead to a 'dumbing down' of the concept of professionalism and a loss of identity for the teaching and CLD professions.
As to whether EWCS would be independent and queries over its governance and accountability.
Queries over how EWCS will carry out its purpose and aims or how it will be backed up by training and development, funding and support.
EWCS could be too large and unwieldy or general concerns over the size and remit of EWCS.
173. Some respondents requested further detail on the registration process and likely fee levels.
174. Throughout this section of the consultation paper, the campaign noted its opposition to the establishment of the EWCS and noted that the GTCS is well established.
Question 18: What other purpose and aims might you suggest for the proposed Education Workforce Council for Scotland?
175. Around half of respondents opted to provide commentary to this question, although a number of these opted not to provide suggestions for other purposes or aims for EWCS. Any comments were made by very small proportions of respondents; many reiterated points made to the previous question.
176. Reference was made to the need for collaboration and collegiate working across all relevant sectors, with joined up thinking, a shared vision and shared standards that would encompass all individuals working within education. Small proportions of respondents also commented that anyone working in a school should have registration and accreditation and that it is important to recognise the contribution all individuals can make.
177. Some comments made by small proportions of respondents referred to standards within the sector, with comments of a need to recognise different types of learning and achievement and offer appropriate pathways for those working in the sector, or of the need to ensure fair and balanced standards and CPD for all parts of the workforce, based on existing frameworks for standards. There was also some reference for the need to acknowledge informal learning – this comment was made primarily in relation to the CLD sector in which informal learning takes place and is perceived to be valuable.
Question 19: Are the proposed functions of the Education Workforce Council for Scotland appropriate?
179. Of those responding to this question, slightly more (170) agreed with the proposed functions of the Education Workforce Council for Scotland, than disagreed (147), although over half of this sample did not provide a definitive response with 107 providing a 'don't know' response and 250 not providing any response.
180. Overall, 372 respondents opted to provide additional commentary in response to this question, although any themes emerging were cited by very small proportions of respondents.
181. A theme cited by the highest proportion of respondents, albeit a small proportion, was disagreement with the proposal to establish the EWCS. A very small proportion also queried the need for the EWCS as other organisations such as General Teaching Council for Scotland ( GTCS), the Scottish Social Services Council ( SSSC) or the Community Learning and Development Standards Council ( CLDSC) already perform the suggested functions. A very small proportion of respondents also felt the proposed remit for the EWCS is too large for a single organisation to undertake. Allied to this, a very small proportion of respondents noted a preference for retaining the GTCS for teachers.
182. However, a similarly small proportion of respondents noted that the proposed functions of the EWCS are appropriate.
That it will beneficial to bring together all individuals working within the education sector, to streamline services and help spread good practice.
A need for clarity over the types of professionals or practitioners who would be covered by the EWCS, with some requests for the CLD sector to retain its own identity.
The need for the EWCS to be accountable to local authorities as they are the employers of education professionals.
The function which notes 'promote family/carer/community engagement in and with the education system' does not sit well with professional regulation.
Question 20: What other functions might you suggest for the proposed Education Workforce Council for Scotland?
184. Less than half of respondents opted to provide any additional commentary in response to this question and respondents echoed a number of these identified at previous questions. A very small proportion of respondents suggested that the EWCS could be an umbrella organisation for the GTCS and the SSSC.
A need for stronger links with initial teacher education ( ITE) to ensure sufficient numbers of student teachers, consistency in ITE courses and access to teaching practice opportunities.
Creation of closer ties across professions to increase learning opportunities and provide accredited training.
Recognition and ratification of cross-professional development and the provision of support and development opportunities.
Improved working conditions for teachers and the need to deal with the current issue of teacher recruitment and retention, so that positive career options can be offered and improvements can be made to teacher health and wellbeing.
A need for registration to the EWCS to be fully inclusive across all practitioners, with some reference to the need to include volunteers working within the CLD sector.
The need for the organisation to be independent and free from political interference.
The need for functions to be clear and captured in legislation.
The need for the EWCS to be accountable to local authorities as they are the employers of professionals working within the education sector.
Question 21: Which education professionals should be subject to mandatory registration with the proposed Education Workforce Council for Scotland?
188. Overall, 414 respondents opted to provide commentary to this question and a wide range of different roles and functions were cited for mandatory registration with the proposed Education Workforce Council for Scotland. A small proportion of respondents reiterated the roles cited in the consultation paper (teachers, CLD practitioners, classroom assistants / ASL support workers, early years practitioners, school librarians, college lecturers and relevant support staff, and home / school link workers).
190. While most respondents focused on the types of staff who should be subject to mandatory registration within the proposed Education Workforce Council for Scotland, a small proportion noted their opposition to the establishment of the organisation. A small proportion also noted that all registration should remain with the existing bodies ( GTCS, SSSC etc) and a very small proportion were concerned that this would lead to a dumbing down of the teaching profession. A similar proportion agreed with the suggestion for a phased implementation period; or the need to treat volunteers within the CLD sector differently, with one organisation noting concerns over the potential loss of volunteers within the CLD sector if mandatory registration is introduced.
191. A very small number of respondents noted concerns over the potential cost of setting up the EWCS, with suggestions that this would be better spent on front-line education services or that it could be seen as poor use of public money. One organisation suggested a full analysis of the financial implications should be undertaken.
192. There were also a very small number of queries as to whether individuals currently registered with the SSSC would have to also register with the EWCS, with a suggestion that SSSC registration should continue for early years workers.
Question 22: Should the Education Workforce Council for Scotland be required to consult on the fees it charges for registration?
193. Table 14 shows that, of those responding to this question, there was widespread support across all sub-groups for the Education Workforce Council for Scotland ( EWCS) to consult on the fees it charges for registration, with 346 supporting this proposition and only 26 opposing it, although 59 respondents gave a 'don't know' response and 243 did not give any response.
There is a need for accountability and transparency in the setting of fees.
There should be variable registration fees or a tiered structure for different categories of staff.
Individuals need to know that charges are proportionate, fair and affordable.
There is a need for lower charges for support staff / charges for support staff should not be prohibitive.
While consulting on fees is the correct thing to do in principle, the functions of the organisation will have to be paid for either by self-financing and introducing a suitable level of fees to allow for this, or by being subsidised by government.
195. As outlined in the consultation document, in order to function effectively and to sustain confidence in its independence, the Scottish Government think that the Council governing the EWCS should be constituted to ensure that professionals do not form a majority. They anticipate a more 'board like' operation which holds the executive to account in exercising its core functions to deliver for relevant professions.
Question 23: Which principles should be used in the design of the governance arrangements for the proposed Education Workforce Council for Scotland?
197. Around half of the respondents provided a response to this question.
198. The key comment emerging to this question was the need for representation of all workers and parity of esteem across all registered professionals. Very small proportions of respondents noted that the composition of the Council should be proportionate, that it should not allow one registrant type to become dominant or that there should be equal representation of all groups. A small proportion of respondents also commented that they objected to the suggestion that the Council should be made up of non-professionals or felt that professionals should be in the majority.
199. The key principle cited by a very small proportion of respondents was that of openness, transparency and accountability, although there were also references to fairness, inclusive, equitable, professional, respect, clarity and honesty.
200. Very small proportions of respondents also noted that the organisation should be independent, that it should not have links to COSLA, the Scottish Government or Education Scotland or that it should follow the principles of GTCS, the SSSC and other existing registered bodies.
201. A very small proportion of respondents also felt there should be more consultation with the workforce, parents and children.
202. In terms of the Council structure specifically, there were a small number of comments on the need for the Council structure to have a Board and sector specific committees; or a small board and expert sub-groups; with a suggestion that a small board should not be dominated by one group of individuals. Additionally, respondents stated that the membership of the Council / Board should reflect its functions and intended outcomes and reflect the diversity in its registrant base.
203. The final question in the consultation sought views on whether "The Education Workforce Council for Scotland" is the right name for a body which will establish professional standards and registration for a range of education professionals?
Question 24: By what name should the proposed Education Workforce Council for Scotland be known?
205. Respondents cited a wide range of names that could be used for the proposed Education Workforce Council for Scotland, although most were made by only very small proportions of respondents. A small proportion noted that the name 'Education Workforce Council for Scotland' was acceptable; and a similar proportion felt it should be called GTCS. The main suggestion, from 8 respondents, was GECS - General Education Council Scotland. Other suggestions were each made by only one or two respondents and a list of all of the names suggested by respondents is included in Appendix 2.
Disagreement with the establishment of the Education Workforce Council for Scotland.
Use of the word 'workforce' does not imply professionalism and that the word 'profession' is needed in the title.
The use of the word 'education' is wrong / the name should reflect the wide range of practitioners working within the sector.
The name is less important than its function. | https://www.gov.scot/publications/analysis-responses-empowering-schools-consultation-provisions-education-scotland-bill/pages/7/ |
His message blames 'liberals' for spreading 'false information' over a recent news release by his administration, and says he has done a lot for seniors.
Gov. Paul LePage launched a phone campaign this week seeking to control damage caused by his recent statement that categorized Social Security as welfare – a statement that could be a liability for him among senior citizens, an important voting bloc in Maine.
The effort by LePage’s re-election campaign follows the controversy sparked by a news release issued by the governor’s office last week, while he was on a trade mission in China.
This week’s minute-long automated call features a pre-recorded message from LePage, in which he blames “liberal newspapers” and “liberal politicians” for the controversy and highlights his policies that have benefited seniors.
“I do not believe Social Security is welfare. Unfortunately, liberal newspapers, owned by a billionaire who opposes me, with liberal politicians Michael Michaud and Eliot Cutler, presented you with false information,” LePage says in the call.
LePage doesn’t explicitly identify the Portland Press Herald, which first reported the story and whose majority owner is S. Donald Sussman, the financier and philanthropist who is married to U.S. Rep. Chellie Pingree, D-Maine.
The phone campaign underscores the importance of winning senior citizens’ votes in Maine, which has the second-highest proportion of residents 65 and older and the highest proportion of baby boomers in the United States.
According to U.S. News and World Report, 76 percent of Maine seniors voted in the 2010 elections, second only to Washington state and well above the U.S. averages of 61 percent for senior citizens and 46 percent for all voters.
Maine’s turnout for voters of all ages in 2010 was 57 percent.
A poll conducted for the Press Herald by the University of New Hampshire Survey Center from June 12-18 showed Michaud, the Democratic candidate, with a slight lead among senior citizens. Forty-six percent of all respondents said welfare does more harm than good, and 41 percent said welfare recipients don’t need it.
LePage has made welfare reform a central issue in his campaign. Michaud recently called for the creation of an Office of Inspector General in the state Department of Health and Human Services to root out fraud and abuse. And Cutler, an independent candidate, has talked about the need to make it easier for people to make the transition from welfare to work.
This week’s robocalls were paid for by LePage’s re-election campaign. Brent Littlefield, LePage’s political adviser, would not provide additional information about the calls, including the cost, the number being made or who is being called.
LePage’s Social Security statement came as his administration defended Maine’s economic performance in light of newly released federal data ranking Maine’s personal-income growth for the first quarter of 2014 as 39th nationally and last in New England. One of the biggest reasons the Bureau of Economic Analysis cited for the low ranking was Maine’s refusal to expand Medicaid under the Affordable Care Act.
LePage’s office sought to clarify his statement the next day, saying that he was referring only to Medicaid as welfare. But Michaud and Cutler pounced on the governor, calling the remark an insult to Maine’s senior citizens.
In this week’s robocalls, LePage takes aim at Michaud.
Lizzy Reinholt, spokeswoman for the Michaud campaign, accused LePage of “backtracking” after realizing that his views aren’t held by most Mainers.
In a written statement, Cutler said the governor bears the responsibility for his statement. | https://www.pressherald.com/2014/07/01/lepage-launches-phone-campaign-over-social-security-remarks/ |
NEW YORK, NY – Canadians are the most welcoming among residents in 18 countries who were queried on whether immigrants are a burden or strength. Canada is home to 7.85 million people from overseas, ranking fifth worldwide in the number of immigrants, just below France’s 7.9 million foreigners. In a Pew Research Center poll with a wide range of pro- and anti-immigration results published last March 14, nearly seven of ten people in Canada responded affirmatively to this statement below:
“Immigrants today make our country stronger because of their work or talents”
A median of 56 percent of all respondents agreed that immigrants make their countries stronger. Residents of 11 of the 18 countries were on the positive side of immigration, with nearly all of them in higher-income Western nations, except Japan and Mexico. The minimum score among these 11 countries was 50 percent, by people of the Netherlands, all the way to 68 percent among Canadians expressing this feeling as well. Residents of Japan, Germany and the United States all scored the same 59 percent.
People in the other seven countries however, agreed with this statement of the polling organization: Immigrants today are a burden on our country because they take our jobs and social benefits. An average six of every ten people who were posed with this statement, affirmed it, in Israel, Russia, and South Africa. But respondents in Greece and Hungary were the most opposed, affirming that immigrants are a burden and that they take their jobs and social benefits. Those opposed to immigration constituted a median of 38 percent.
A Useful Study for Intending Filipino Immigrants
For intending immigrants in the Philippines and elsewhere trying to decide which country to settle in, this is a highly useful study to look into, to get an up-to-date, real-life gauge on the attitudes of the people of a given country towards immigrants. The feelings of a country’s people can also affect your chances of getting your dream job that would be a ticket to your desired lifestyle, including recreational activities you enjoy. We have written several articles in this space on fast-growing and high-paying US jobs.
Among 18 countries surveyed, the largest population of immigrants is found in the US, with over 44 million, constituting over 13 percent of its overall population of 329 million. A distant second in rank by immigrant population is Germany with 12.17 million immigrants, making up almost 15 percent of its 82 million people.
Ten of the 18 countries surveyed are in Europe, with large numbers of immigrants, and growing even larger with constant influx of foreigners from the Middle East and Africa.
France has 7.9 million immigrants constituting 11 percent of its 69 million people. The Netherlands is host to 2 million or nearly 12 percent of its 17 million people. Spain is home to almost six million immigrants, or nearly 13 percent of its total 46 million population. Sweden’s 17 million immigrants are a large 17 percent of its population of nearly 10 million, and the UK has a diverse cultural and geographic range of almost nine million immigrants, making up 13.4 percent of its population of 66 million people.
Canada Has a Lot of Positives
Canada may be the country you want to live in. It has a lot of positives. Its small population of 37 million means nine times as many people live in the neighboring US. Its economy is the world’s tenth largest with US$1.820 trillion total gross domestic product, where the per capita GDP is $48,601, sixteenth highest globally (2018 IMF data). By total area (land and water) it is the largest country in the Western Hemisphere having 3.85 million square miles, slightly more than the US’s 3.8 million. Canada is second largest worldwide after Russia’s 6.6 million square-mile total area.
The 2016 Canadian Census showed about 851,000 people of Filipino descent living in mainly urbanized areas. In 2011, that number was around 662,000, so the five-year cumulative growth was a high 28 percent. The most positive characteristic for you to consider Canada: its 7.85 million immigrants constitute a huge 21 percent of its total population of 37 million.
Kumar (Kem) Balani has an AB Journalism degree from the University of the Philippines and an MA in Politics from New York University. He is founder and publisher of Biz India Online News since 2002. Go to www.BizIndia.net to read book reviews, features, news, opinion columns, and videos on business, entertainment, investing, law, sports, technology, and more. | https://www.bizindia.net/immigrants-are-a-strength-majority-say/ |
Université Laval, Québec.
Congress Theme: ‘Healthy Agriculture for a Healthy World’
A total of 353 people from 31 countries attended the 20th International Farm Management Congress.
Here is a breakdown of attendees by type:
- Full Congress Delegates: 228
- One-Day Pass: 79
- Accompanying Persons’: 46
- Pre-Congress Tour of Southern Ontario Agriculture: 30
- Post-Congress Tour of the Maritime Agriculture (Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island): 37
The IFMA20 delegate survey was emailed to participants following the Congress, with reminder emails sent out. You can see the delegate evaluation survey form at the end of this report).
A total of 93 out of the 228 full Congress participants completed the survey, representing a 41% return rate. Note – all percentage figures given are rounded to nearest number.
Main Findings of the Survey:
For the first time, the Congress Evaluation Survey was conducted in online format only, garnering equal percent response at a 41% response rate (however, from 93 respondents, over double the number of respondents) to previous years where a paper survey provided during the Congress was combined with email responses following the Congress. The benefits of an online survey is the efficiency gained when comparing responses and calculating percentages as the survey software provided this data automatically. And, survey responses can be filtered per type of respondent for even more information on attendees. For example, responses from those who have attended previous can be compared with those who participated in IFMA20 as their first Congress.
At a 40% response rate, one must be careful in analyzing the demographic data of respondents as only a portion of delegates are represented. While the proportion of “first timers” was higher than previous years at 46% (prior to NZ congress this had normally been at around a third of delegates), there may in fact be more “first timers” responding to the survey. It is encouraging to see so many first timers, while it is also incredible to see respondents who have attended 10 – 20 previous Congresses.
With nearly 30% or one-third of respondents under the age of 40, there seems to be a significant number of young attendees, however with such a low representation from 41-50 year-olds, perhaps there is a new gap we must look at addressing. Once again those in the 51+ age group dominate at 62% which should be no surprise as people in this group are more likely to be able to afford the time and money to attend, and decide to attend without reference to others.
The wide range of occupations was much as we have come to expect, and this is a major attraction of the Congress, allowing an interesting exchange between all those involved in the industry. This is reiterated in the question that asks the respondents’ main reason for attending the Congress – the opportunity for international networking came out on top, as well as when asked to provide two highlights of the Congress.
We need to continue to work hard on attracting all groupings – but in particular the farmer and consultant / advisor groups. And again, do our best to assist younger people to attend. The most common solution to attracting younger delegates was providing a price differentiation and scholarship options for younger attendees.
The land area ‘managed or advised upon’ figure was substantial, but unfortunately several people who could have provided figures for this question chose not to, which is unfortunate as this is seen as vital in marketing the Congress to sponsors.
The question about where people first heard about the congress strongly emphasizes the importance of personal recommendations by colleagues (IFMA Members).
The reader can make their own conclusions of the Ratings Questions (9), but these show that in general we have an excellent basic formula for the congress and that the 20th Congress was highly appreciated by virtually all attendees. In the important areas for those who attended – the content of plenary papers and field trips – high ratings were received. Also, for the paper submission process. Later as respondents were asked to highlight two areas for improvement, notably respondents sought a better field trip experience through more information being provided and more experienced tour guides who could speak to the local area. Many felt the food could have had more variety and served in a more formal setting, while a significant number thought more time could be allotted for discussion following plenary and paper sessions, perhaps reducing the number of sessions. Or perhaps, seeking an opportunity for organized discussion sessions on given topics instead of plenary and paper sessions.
There were many good comments and expressions of thanks to the organisers and the venue providers, and the general hospitality experienced in Quebec.
The Pre Congress tour was a great success getting universal approval and high praise from those who participated – unfortunately the Post Congress Tour ran into some complications in planning and logistics, leaving the majority of participants unsatisfied. The need for detailed information about each day and each stop was emphasised.
In terms of suggestions for improvement and attracting more delegates not mentioned above, respondents emphasized the preference to have all of the events in one place, promoting Congress attendance to the field trip hosts, continuing word of mouth and target marketing to potential attendees and supporters, running a poster contest, allowing for more partial attendance, providing information on plenary and paper session speakers and titles earlier, and continuing to secure speakers who are not trying to sell delegates on their company or credentials.
As usual the need to keep costs down in terms of the Registration Fee featured in the survey – a continuing struggle for the Congress organisers when offering a great deal of diversity including meals and entertainment, not to mention transport, throughout the week.
Overall, 92% of the respondents ranked the Congress experience 70% or higher.
Our thanks go to all those who completed the Congress Evaluation Survey – your participation greatly assists IFMA Council and future congress organisers when planning congresses.
Report compiled and edited by Heather Watson, IFMA20 Council Representative, Canada – September 2015.
Download the Full Survey Report
IFMA20 Congress Delegate Survey Results – Sept 2015
You can download the full report here: | https://ifmaonline.org/ifma20-congress-quebec-delegate-evaluation-report/ |
During the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic, healthcare workers were asked to clean-shave their facial hair in order to comply with PPE regulations. This proposed a challenge for Muslim male healthcare workers sporting facial hair as it is intimately associated with male-Muslim identity (1). All four Sunni jurisprudence schools consider the maintenance of a beard an obligatory requirement for males (2); although it is commonly accepted under Islamic law that exceptions can be made in times of necessity (3).
This study involved the cross-sectional survey of healthcare workers in 19 different UK trusts. The survey comprised 11 questions. The survey was disseminated through online platforms to healthcare workers. There were a total of 34 responses collected between 18/10/2020-04/11/2020.
From the 34 survey responses, 35% of respondents clean shaved in order to pass their fit test. 32% felt forced to shave by their trust. Only 25% of respondents felt that their trust had alternatives such as hoods. Of those respondents who clean shaved (n=12), 50% felt forced to shave by their trust; 41.6% felt their Muslim identity was negatively affected; 50% felt their concerns were disregarded during the pandemic; 50% did not feel they could raise their religious concerns with their trust. Of those respondents who did not clean shave (n=22), 45% missed out on learning opportunities; 40.9% felt their working environment was made hostile by their decision.
This study concludes that a significant proportion of Muslim healthcare workers who complied with fit-testing requirements felt they were compelled to do so and likely did not receive appropriate consultation and communication from their respective employing trusts. Too few trusts offered alternatives such as hoods. Greater organisational awareness is required to highlight the importance of beards for Muslim men, so trusts can offer more effective support.
This study was limited by small sample size and narrow sampling demographics (i.e. lack of non-medical healthcare workers responded to the survey). A repeat survey at a later date will provide further insights into the evolving experiences of bearded Muslim healthcare workers during the ongoing pandemic.
References
- Peterkin A. One thousand beards. Vancouver: Arsenal Pulp Press; 2001. | https://www.jbima.com/article/sacrifices-in-the-face-of-the-pandemic-fit-testing-and-facial-hair-for-muslim-healthcare-professionals/ |
The Department for Business, Innovation and Skills (BIS) said that the average cost of reputational damage to large UK organisations stemming from breaches was between £50,000 and £180,000 in 2013, up from £25,000 to £115,000 in 2012.
"Reputational damage seemed to affect large organisations much more than the small ones," the BIS report on its information security breaches survey (22-page / 1.15MB PDF) said. "Although almost 70% of companies were able to keep knowledge of their worst incident internal, there was a large rise in adverse media coverage of security breaches."
EU privacy watchdog the Article 29 Working Party recently published guidance on reporting personal data breaches to regulators and the public. The guidance said businesses should consider the "likely secondary effects" of a data breach when determining whether to notify individuals about those cases.
The recommendations were aimed specifically at providers of publicly available electronic communications services in the EU who are under certain legal obligations to notify regulators and individuals about certain personal data breaches they experience. However, the Working Party said that it would be "good practice" for all organisations to follow the guidance. Proposed new EU data protection laws would, though, extend data breach notification obligations to all organisations under certain circumstances.
The survey, conducted by PwC on behalf of BIS, quizzed 1,125 respondents from businesses of varying sizes operating in a range of sectors in the UK about information security breach incidents affecting their organisation. IT professionals made up approximately a third of all respondents, with business managers, executives, non-executive directors among the others who participated. Around half of the respondents were from businesses based in London or the south east of England.
Upon analysing the survey's findings, BIS estimated that the cost facing businesses in dealing with information security breach incidents nearly doubled in 2013 compared to 2012, with the total cost soaring into billions of pounds. BIS said that "adverse media coverage of security breaches" was behind a "huge rise in the average cost of organisations’ worst breach of the year".
"Using the same basis as previous surveys, the cost of the worst breach of the year has nearly doubled last year’s figures to £65,000-£115,000 for small businesses and £600,000-£1,150,000 for large organisations," the report said. "As always, extrapolation of cost data across the whole of the UK should be treated with caution, especially given the self-select nature of the survey and the response levels for some of the questions. However, based on the number of breaches and the cost of the worst breaches, we estimate that the total cost of breaches has roughly doubled from 2013 and is in the order of billions of pounds per annum."
The survey revealed that the proportion of respondents that said their organisation had experienced a data security breach in the past year had fallen in comparison to 2012 figures, together with the average number of breaches organisations also identified. However, 81% of respondents from large organisations said that their business had experienced a data breach in 2013, with 16 being the median number experienced by each of those organisations during the year.
According to the survey, almost three quarters of all UK large businesses "suffered from infection by viruses or malicious software in the past year", although fewer companies reported attacks from unauthorised outsiders. More than one in ten large organisations (16%) know that their intellectual property or other confidential data was stolen by external hackers in 2013, it said.
The report also detailed a fall in the proportion of large organisations seeing "staff-related security breaches", although 58% of such companies still experienced such incidents, down from 73% in 2012. However, more than half of "the worst security breaches in the year" reported by businesses could be traced back to "inadvertent human error" (31%) or "deliberate misuse of systems by staff" (20%).
More than half of large UK businesses (52%) now have "insurance that would cover them in the event of a breach", the survey also revealed. A third of UK organisations do not have a contingency plan in place to deal with information security incidents when they arise, although just 43% of respondents said their contingency plans had proved effective.
"The sharp increase in the costs associated with security breaches underlines the fact that cyber security is a significant business risk that must be taken seriously," UK minister for universities and science David Willetts said. "Government is focusing its efforts on working in partnership with industry, academia and international partners. The benefits of a stable and secure cyberspace are a clear driver for a shared responsibility in improving the UK’s cyber security." | https://www.pinsentmasons.com/out-law/news/fewer-than-a-third-of-uk-businesses-worst-information-security-breaches-go-public |
Religion – In chapter 13, Advent, the children will learn that this is the time they prepare themselves for the birth of Baby Jesus.
ELA – The children will identify the letter "Rr" by sight and sound, identify the sound of the letter r at the beginning of words, sort words by beginning sound (b,r,t), use sight words (she, with, me, little) to complete sentences and use sight words/letter copybooks/sounding out skills to complete independent journal writing.
Math - In chapter 6, Two-Dimensional Shapes, the children will identify and describe circles, triangles, rectangles, squares and hexagons, compare two-dimensional shapes, complete shape patterns, and make patterns following a shape rule.
Thematic Unit/Art - The children will use a lower case r to make a rooster, use their handprints as antlers for a familiar red-nosed reindeer, and paint and assemble a racoon.
Science - The children will discuss the changes they are observing with the season of winter fast approaching. | https://saintdorothy.org/weekly-curriculum-highlights |
We have been in search of 2D shapes today. We were making sure we could name lots of 2D shapes and see if we could spot any around school. Some of us labelled all types of shapes and then found examples and put them into groups.
Look at home and see if you can find any examples of:
- Squares
- Rectangles
- Triangles
- Circles
- Pentagons
- Hexagons...
- .... even Trapeziums!
How many can you find? | http://www.scholargreen.cheshire.sch.uk/blog/2d-shape-hunt/265 |
Circles, Triangles & Rectangles
Circles are two-dimensional round shapes. A circle has no sides, which means it is infinite in all directions. Circles are usually drawn with a compass around a point on the paper. Circles are a mathematical shape with a continuous boundary. They have the same radius at every point which enables them to rotate around a single point, called the center.
Triangles are two-dimensional shapes that have three distinct sides connected by lines or angles. They can be equilateral (all three sides are equal), isosceles (two of the three sides are equal) and scalene (the side lengths do not measure up to each other). Triangles can also be right-angled, obtuse-angled and acute-angled.
A rectangle is a two-dimensional shape that can be defined as an object with four straight sides, the length of which is different than the width. A rectangle is made up of two lines that are perpendicular to each other and share the same endpoint. Rectangles are very commonly used in architecture and design because they are readily available to construct with straight edges. | https://simpleinternettool.com/area-calculator/ |
Can you tell your hexagons from your heptagons? Your octagons from your decagons? We explain how polygons are taught in primary school, with examples of regular and irregular versions of each multi-sided shape.
A polygon is a flat, two-dimensional (2D) shape with straight sides that is fully closed (all the sides are joined up). The sides must be straight. Polygons may have any number of sides.
A polygon A shape with curved sides is not a polygon. A shape that is not fully closed is not a polygon.
A regular polygon is a polygon in which all sides are of all the same length and at the same angles.
*A regular quadrilateral has a special name. It is called a square.
*There are different types of triangles: an equilateral triangle is a regular triangle and a right-angle triangle and an isosceles triangle are examples of irregular triangles.
Year 1 Children are taught to name common 2D shapes including polygons such as squares, rectangles, triangles, pentagons, hexagons and octagons. Children may learn the shapes through matching activities, going on a shape walk in the school grounds, flash-cards and games. They will look at real-life examples of shapes as well as pictures.
Year 2 Children will be taught to identify properties of shapes such as the number of sides and vertices (corners). Children will count the number of sides and corners on the shape. They will describe shapes using the properties, for example: This shape has 3 corners and 3 sides. What is the shape?
Year 3 Children will extend their knowledge of polygons to include different types of triangles and quadrilaterals. They will be introduced to heptagons, nonagons and decagons. Knowledge of shape properties will include angles and symmetry of these polygons. Children will describe shapes and identify them using their properties including symmetry and angles. They might be asked to sort shapes according to their properties using Venn diagrams and Carroll diagrams.
Year 4 Children are taught to compare lengths and angles of polygons to decide if they are regular or irregular. The vocabulary ‘polygon’, ‘regular’ and ‘irregular’ will be used. Children will be given a range of polygons to sort into regular and irregular; this might be be completing practical tasks or using ICT.
Year 5 Children will be taught to distinguish between regular and irregular polygons based on reasoning about equal sides and angles. Children will be given shapes to sort and asked to explain why the polygon is regular using the properties of angles and sides.
Year 6 At the end of KS2 children begin to find unknown angles in regular polygons. Children will be shown how to calculate unknown angles in polygons using their knowledge of angles and a given formula.
It is important to remember that all the internal angles of a regular polygon are equal.
In Year 6 children use this knowledge and the following formula to calculate the size of the angles.
Where n is the number of sides. | https://www.theschoolrun.com/what-is-a-polygon |
See entries that contain "shape"
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shape
pronunciation:
sheIp
parts of speech:
noun
,
verb
features:
Word History
,
Word Explorer
part of speech:
noun
definition 1:
the form of the outer surface or edge of an object.
Each slice of cheese has a square shape.
synonyms:
figure
,
form
similar words:
outline
definition 2:
physical condition.
People who exercise a lot are in good shape.
synonyms:
condition
related words:
condition
,
design
,
order
,
pattern
part of speech:
verb
inflections:
shapes, shaping, shaped
definition:
to give a certain form or shape to something.
We shaped the clay into a pot.
The piece of wood was shaped like a snake.
synonyms:
mold
similar words:
create
,
form
related words:
adjust
,
cake
,
trim
derivation:
shaped (adj.)
Word History
Shape
comes from an Old English word that means "to create, form, or destine."
Word Explorer
similar to shape
form
,
outline
some broader categories that include shape
geometry
,
mathematics
some descriptions of shapes
circular
,
irregular
,
square
some elements of shape
size
some examples of shapes
circles
,
cones
,
cubes
,
diamonds
,
rectangles
,
squares
,
triangles
some parts of shapes
angles
,
depth
,
diameter
,
exterior
,
height
,
length
,
side
,
width
some people associated with shapes
architect
,
engineer
some things conventionally associated with shapes
lines
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In second grade math, students will learn more geometry terms and will practice new geometry skills. Geometry is the study of shapes and objects and every year, more and more geometry terms are included in the curriculum. This is usually a fun unit that students look forward to.
Students will learn to identify the characteristics and properties of both two-dimensional and three-dimensional shapes. They’ll understand the difference between shapes like squares, rectangles, triangles, hexagons, trapezoids, and parallelograms. Parallelograms are shapes with four sides and two pairs of parallel sides. In second grade, they might also learn second grade math vocabulary like the geometry term “quadrilateral,” which is a shape with four sides and four corners. They’ll also learn more about three-dimensional objects and practice using terms associated with those, like vertices, base, and faces.
Students will practice classifying and sorting shapes based on their characteristics or attributes. This might include how many sides, corners, or faces they have. They might also be asked to complete tasks like finding or drawing shapes that are quadrilaterals or parallelograms. The geometry terms similar and congruent will become part of their vocabulary. They’ll learn about lines and how to determine if they are parallel, perpendicular, or intersecting. They’ll also need to determine if lines are horizontal or vertical. | https://www.learninggamesforkids.com/2nd-grade-math/geometry-terms-2nd.html |
Triangles and Parallelograms and Squares, oh my!
Since birth, every child has been absorbing thousands of impressions from his environment. The Sensorial Area in the Montessori classroom helps the child refine these impressions and bring order them. The material pictured above is called the 'Constructive Triangles' and it gives the child the experience of making linear shapes from triangles.
It is so exciting for the child to start to recognize these shapes in the greater environment! The children start to recognize rectangles, squares, circles, and much more!
The Montessori environment and materials allow for discovering and naming shapes using all the senses. When the child can recognize the shape in the greater environment, she can recognize it anywhere.
As you know, the child takes in everything without a filter. Maria Montessori called this the 'Absorbent Mind.' Through the refinement of the senses, the child opens the door for even more learning opportunities.
This is the beginning of exploration and discovery - as the child becomes more conscious of shape, dimension, color, sound, and depth, she can explore with greater joy, discovery, and focus!
The photographs in this post are courtesy of Meg Porter at Meg Porter Photography. | https://www.colmontessori.com/blog/archives/09-2016 |
Kenneth Abayan (University of Texas – Arlington, USA)
In our study, approximately 250 General Chemistry I students completed a series of activities which included three distinct modules, each featuring a different way of teaching stoichiometry. The methodologies were taken from science education literature and included: Dimensional analysis; use of ratios; and an operational method.1-3 The on-line experiment was conducted using a treatment-control model. Preliminary results showed, students that were exposed to the ratio method of stoichiometry analysis scored lower overall (avg. 42% sd. 30) on examinations compared to the dimensional analysis, operational methods, and the control group (avg range. 70%, sd.30). However, in this limited analysis, there was no statistically significant difference between the groups. The data will further be analyzed using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). Qualitative data revealed that students paid particular attention to the stoichiometry map provided which many agreed it helped them solve the particular stoichiometry problem regardless of the method that was presented.
References:
1. Cook, E.; Cook, R. L., Cross-Proportions: A Conceptual Method for Developing Quantitative Problem-Solving Skills. Journal of Chemical Education 2005, 82 (8), 1187-1189.
2. Selvaratnam, M.; Canagaratna, S. G., Using Problem-Solution Maps To Improve Students’ Problem-Solving Skills. Journal of Chemical Education 2008, 85 (3), 381-385. | http://bcceprogram.haydenmcneil.com/conference-info/p595-stoichiometry-way |
Kenneth Abayan (University of Texas – Arlington, USA)
In our study, approximately 250 General Chemistry I students completed a series of activities which included three distinct modules, each featuring a different way of teaching stoichiometry. The methodologies were taken from science education literature and included: Dimensional analysis; use of ratios; and an operational method.1-3 The on-line experiment was conducted using a treatment-control model. Preliminary results showed, students that were exposed to the ratio method of stoichiometry analysis scored lower overall (avg. 42% sd. 30) on examinations compared to the dimensional analysis, operational methods, and the control group (avg range. 70%, sd.30). However, in this limited analysis, there was no statistically significant difference between the groups. The data will further be analyzed using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). Qualitative data revealed that students paid particular attention to the stoichiometry map provided which many agreed it helped them solve the particular stoichiometry problem regardless of the method that was presented.
References:
1. Cook, E.; Cook, R. L., Cross-Proportions: A Conceptual Method for Developing Quantitative Problem-Solving Skills. Journal of Chemical Education 2005, 82 (8), 1187-1189.
2. Selvaratnam, M.; Canagaratna, S. G., Using Problem-Solution Maps To Improve Students’ Problem-Solving Skills. Journal of Chemical Education 2008, 85 (3), 381-385. | http://bcceprogram.haydenmcneil.com/conference-info/p595-stoichiometry-way |
Background: International Confederation of Midwives and World Health Organization recommend core competencies for midwifery educators for effective theory and practical teaching and practice. Deficient curricula and lack of skilled midwifery educators are important factors affecting the quality of graduates from midwifery programmes. The objective of the study was to assess the capacity of university midwifery educators to deliver the updated competency-based curriculum after the capacity strengthening workshop in Kenya. Methods: The study used a quasi-experimental (pre-post) design. A four-day training to strengthen the capacity of educators to deliver emergency obstetrics and newborn care (EmONC) within the updated curriculum was conducted for 30 midwifery educators from 27 universities in Kenya. Before-after training assessments in knowledge, two EmONC skills and self-perceived confidence in using different teaching methodologies to deliver the competency-based curricula were conducted. Wilcoxon signed-rank test was used to compare the before-after knowledge and skills mean scores. McNemar test was used to compare differences in the proportion of educators’ self-reported confidence in applying the different teaching pedagogies. P-values < 0.05 were considered statistically significant. Findings: Thirty educators (7 males and 23 females) participated, of whom only 11 (37%) had participated in a previous hands-on basic EmONC training – with 10 (91%) having had the training over two years beforehand. Performance mean scores increased significantly for knowledge (60.3% − 88. %), shoulder dystocia management (51.4 – 88.3%), newborn resuscitation (37.9 − 89.1%), and overall skill score (44.7 − 88.7%), p < 0.0001. The proportion of educators with confidence in using different stimulatory participatory teaching methods increased significantly for simulation (36.7 – 70%, p = 0.006), scenarios (53.3 – 80%, p = 0.039) and peer teaching and support (33.3 – 63.3%, p = 0.022). There was improvement in use of lecture method (80 – 90%, p = 0.289), small group discussions (73.3 – 86.7%, p = 0.344) and giving effective feedback (60 – 80%, p = 0.146), although this was not statistically significant. Conclusion: Training improved midwifery educators’ knowledge, skills and confidence to deliver the updated EmONC-enhanced curriculum. To ensure that midwifery educators maintain their competence, there is need for structured regular mentoring and continuous professional development. Besides, there is need to cascade the capacity strengthening to reach more midwifery educators for a competent midwifery workforce. | https://ir-library.mmust.ac.ke/xmlui/handle/123456789/2140 |
Sketching out our liberal-arts-major thoughts on what math in a new-kind-of-STEM school could look like, we mentioned something we dubbed "The Japanese Method" of teaching math — structured group problem-solving.
Pics or it didn't happen!
That, at least, was the response of one reader. What does "structured group problem-solving" actually look like?
Today: one of the most glorious ideas alive today in math instruction. (Note: all this is stolen shamelessly from the book The Teaching Gap: Best Ideas from the World's Teachers for Improving Education in the Classroom, by James W. Stigler & James Hiebert. If you haven't a copy, buy one — it's that eye-opening!
In short: great mathematics is a culture, not just a method — but methods can help carry cultures.
The gist: before showing students how to do a type of problem, just present them the problem, and let them struggle with it.
Start by letting them struggle by themselves. Then (often, though not always) let them struggle in small groups.
As they struggle, stroll around the classroom, noting how different groups have solved the problem in different ways. Make notes of a few different methods, and invite the creators of those methods to present them on the board.
Start with confusion. Spin understanding out of chaos.
An example, you say? Let's!
Try this problem on your own. Find x:
If you're bamboozled, good! I'm a math teacher, and I was stumped when I saw this.
If it helps, here are a few basic geometry rules the kids would be familiar with:
- There are 180º in a half turn (or "in a line") — so the fat angle above 'B' would be 150º, and the fat angle below 'A' would be 130º.
- There are also 180º in a triangle (or "three-pointed-three-liney-thing").
Let's pretend we gave this problem to a class of students.
First, we'd let them puzzle it over on their own. A minute or two might suffice.
Then, we might ask them to form small groups, and share what happened. What did they try? What did they find? What questions do they have?
As they chat, we (the teacher) would stroll about the room, noting different methods kids have come up with.
Let's assume we witness three different methods. After a few minutes, we ask a few students (let's call them Josh, Dana, and Sanket) to come to the board and share what they figured out.
Josh's Method
What did Josh do? He stretched out a line, and made a triangle — yay, triangles! Triangles are simple, and as previously mentioned, we know stuff about them — like that their inside angles add up to 180º.
Josh has labelled that top-left angle "30º", because it matches the 30º angle in the bottom right. (This is a cool previous pattern that they kids would come into this class already knowing.)
How big is that remaining angle? Well, we have the two other angles in that upper-triangle: 50º and 30º. And 50 + 30 = 80. So the remaining angle has to be 100º.
And our blessed x is smack up against that 100º angle, so it has to be 80º.
Well, done, Josh.
Now, much American math instruction would stop here: we've figured out x, after all! But is Josh's method the only way to solve the problem? Heck no!
A standard Japanese math lesson would progress to Dana's explanation.
Dana's Method
What did Dana do? She decided to drop a line straight down, and make two triangles — right triangles. If triangles are magic, then right triangles are even... magicaler?
Dana can quickly figure out the missing angles in these new triangles, because she recalls that the angles inside a triangle always add to 180º.
Using this, she finds that one angle is 40º, and the other is 60º.
Now she has a half turn (aka a "line") — 40º, xº, and 60º. Together, they have to equal 180º — so x must be 80.
Well done, Dana!
Even a quite progressive American-style math teacher might stop here. They've done their job: they've demonstrated to their students that math is creative, and that there isn't just one solution method.
Not our Japanese math teacher. Demonstrating a plurality of methods — student-originated methods — is the norm. So let's move onto Sanket.
Sanket's Method
Whoa: weird.
What's Sanket up to here? Well, like Dana, he decided to just drop a line down from the top to the bottom. But unlike Dana, he didn't make two triangles — he made one four-sided shape.
It's an interesting move. Four-sided shapes ("quadrilaterals", but aren't our lives already complicated enough?) are more complex then triangles. On the other hand, he just has one of them, rather than Dana's two triangles.
Then he gets to labeling: one angle is 130º, and another is 90º. A third angle is 60º. And the final angle is, of course, x.
Sanket recalls one thing about four-sided shapes: their angles add up to 360º. And so he adds 130 + 90 + 60 + x = 360, and finds (drumroll!) that x = 80!
Well done, Sanket!
To sum up:
This "structured group problem-solving method" starts with hard questions. (American math classes, by contrast, typically start by explaining "what to do".)
This method forces students to think for themselves, and then to think with peers. (American math classes typically start by forcing students to follow the teacher and book.)
And this method demonstrates that math is a creative, flexible pursuit — an art as well as a science. (American math classes typically demonstrate that math is about following set procedures — like filling out taxes.)
Is this method dangerous?
There is, I think, a very sensible apprehension that many of us might have to this method — that while students may learn the creative possibilities of math, they won't learn what works best.
There may be, for example, three different ways to solve the problem above, but students will benefit from learning the most efficient way.
This is an even more potent objection when we're teaching foundational processes — like adding, subtracting, multiplying, or dividing.
In our next post, I'd like to address this concern head on. | http://www.schoolsforhumans.org/blog/category/Math |
Celtic Studies are diverse in content and can focus on literature, art or language of Great Britain and Ireland. Our university rankings include Welsh, Breton, Cornish and Irish Gaelic.
OTHER LEAGUE TABLES
QUICK LINKS
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Sorted by: Facilities spend
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University name
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Overall score
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Entry standards
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Student satisfaction
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Research quality
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Research intensity
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Graduate prospects
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100%92%96%96%85%94%90%93%95%
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n/a78%90%78%55%69%67%n/a100%
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n/a92%96%92%90%86%92%89%79%
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80%64%78%80%72%81%73%71%74%
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100%80%75%62%96%98%53%91%69%
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80%80%70%85%45%n/a70%75%n/a
Facilities spend data not available for some institutions. These institutions are listed at the foot of the table.
Read the University and Subject League Tables Methodology to find where the data comes from, how the tables are compiled, and explanations of the measures used.
The following institutions have courses in this subject but insufficient data to be included in the ranking:
- - University of Aberdeen
- - University of Glasgow
- - University of Liverpool
- - University of Oxford
- - University of Wales Trinity Saint David
Measures
The maximum scores for the measures shown are as follows:
Entry Standards: No maximum
Student Satisfaction: 5.00
Research Quality: 4.00
Graduate Prospects: 100
Overall Score: 100.0
All measures used to compile the tables are available on the full table. | https://www.thecompleteuniversityguide.co.uk/league-tables/rankings/celtic-studies?sortby=facilities-spend |
Weaver, Paula E.
Childhood Education, v80 n5 p258 2004
As the effects of the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act and its ensuing mandates for compliance are felt in classrooms across the United States, the issues of high-stakes testing and rigorous benchmark paradigms are becoming a daily challenge for teachers. NCLB mandates rigorous testing for every child in grades 3-8 in reading and math. Children who do not pass the tests will not move on to the next grade. Schools that do not improve their test scores every year by the federally determined increment called adequate yearly progress (AYP) also will face consequences. These schools may lose federal funding, and the federal government may ultimately restructure them. There are three related postulations that can be made about the culture of teaching: (1) the culture of teaching honors children, not content, as the focus of learning; (2) the culture of teaching honors continuous learning, collaboration, and mentoring; and (3) the culture of teaching honors collaborative problem solving, goal setting, and assessment. These assumptions honor the individuality of students and teachers, and have emerged from decades of research and practical implementation. They emphasize the unique problem-solving ability that has been shown to be a standard of good teaching. Paula Weaver, in this article, hopes to shed light upon how the testing requirements of NCLB affect the values from which these assumptions stem.
Descriptors: Federal Legislation, Teaching Methods, Academic Standards, Standardized Tests, Mentors, Faculty Development, Teacher Collaboration, Honors Curriculum, High Stakes Tests, Peer Teaching
Association for Childhood Education International (ACEI) Subscriptions, 17904 Georgia Ave., Suite 215, Olney, MD 20832. Web site: http://www.acei.org. | https://eric.ed.gov/?q=source%3A%22Childhood+Education%22&ff1=souChildhood+Education&ff2=eduGrade+6&ff3=pubOpinion+Papers&id=EJ704663 |
Rutgers Alum Receives National Award for Innovative Math Teaching
When Ralph Pantozzi introduces the theory of probability to sixth graders at the Kent Place School in Summit, he leads the entire all-girls middle school out to the soccer field to start flipping coins: If it’s heads, take one step forward, and if it’s tails, one step back.
As nearly 150 students walk back and forth in seemingly random movements, they suddenly group themselves into a bell curve – a well-known statistical model illustrating the normal distribution of data. “It’s visually stunning,” Pantozzi says. “It both answers questions and leads to more questions.”
Instead of teaching math from a chalkboard, Pantozzi presents everyday problems, such as the probable outcome of a coin toss, to teach mathematical principles. Pantozzi, who developed his pedagogy as a student at Rutgers, was recently honored with a prestigious Presidential Award for Excellence in Mathematics and Science Teaching by the White House.
“Ralph is really unique and he’s extremely talented and extremely committed,” says Carolyn Maher, a distinguished professor at Rutgers Graduate School of Education, who taught Pantozzi. “He deserves to be recognized for his work.”
Pantozzi credits his professors at Rutgers not only for exposing him to innovative ways to teach math, but also for giving him the opportunity to apply these pedagogical strategies in real classrooms. As an undergraduate at Rutgers College studying mathematics, Pantozzi enrolled in a graduate course in which he used problem-solving to teach math to New Brunswick fourth graders on Saturday mornings.
“It was amazing what they could do,” Pantozzi says. “Many students in city schools are written off because they live in the city — they get lumped into a stereotype. But using these teaching methods, these students were doing math far above their grade level.”
Pantozzi used the same teaching methods as a student in Rutgers Graduate School of Education when he joined a research project that was following a group of students in Kenilworth from second grade through high school graduation. The researchers found that by teaching math using problem-solving, such as learning probability using a box of colored marbles, the students were better able to retain the information.
“Telling people about math often does not stick, but teaching them this way often does,” Pantozzi says. “The students find this much more memorable and they remember their math facts better when they see the connections.”
While working on his doctorate in education, Pantozzi became a math teacher in the same high school in Kenilworth and led a school-wide reform initiative to bring experiential learning to the math classes. Over the next decade, he taught and supervised math departments in three other districts.
As public schools in New Jersey and across the country began focusing on standardized test scores, Pantozzi found it more difficult to teach math by exploring real-world problems. “Getting students to do better in math sometimes requires patience,” he says. “They can get some things earlier than you might expect, but some things are going to take time to understand well.”
When the Kent Place School, an independent college preparatory school, asked him to build its math program in 2011, he immediately accepted the offer. With 600 students, the school had small classes where Pantozzi could apply his problem-solving pedagogy and the administration welcomed new approaches to teaching math.
Nine years later, students in Kent Place’s middle school show more confidence in their math skills, and students in the high school are enrolling in more math classes at the AP level or higher. “Both the level of academics and the joy with which the students approach math have increased under Ralph’s tenure,” says Julie Gentile, director of studies at the school.
Beyond the presidential award, Pantozzi has attracted national attention by speaking at education conferences and publishing pedagogical materials for math teachers. Last August, he was one of seven educators featured on the NPR “Science Friday” program because of their innovative approaches to STEM teaching. | https://www.rutgers.edu/news/rutgers-alum-receives-national-award-innovative-math-teaching |
Saints Students Excel at Mathematics!
INTERNATIONAL MATHS COMPETITION
Congratulations to Jessica James in Grade 10 who has been chosen for the South African team to represent our country in the International Mathematics Competition to be held in Bulgaria in July 2018.
SOUTH AFRICAN MATHEMATICS OLYMPIAD
Congratulations to all our Girls' College students who wrote the South African Mathematics Olympiad last Wednesday, 14th March 2018. A total of 204 students (95 seniors and 109 juniors) passed Round 1 and have progressed to Round 2 which will be written in May 2018. This is the highest number of successful candidates ever for our school, and again illustrates the progress we are making with teaching problem solving as a key Mathematical skill.
The top achievers in each grade were as follows:
Grade 12 Kate Pringle 90%
Grade 11 Kamryn Norton 80%
Grade 10 Natasja Troskie 80%
Grade 9 Nokukhanya Lefatshe 85%
Grade 8 Katherine Hollingworth 95%
Kate
Kamryn
Natasja
Nokukhanya
Katherine
PI DAY CHALLENGE
The Girls College’ Mathematics Department, with the help of Mrs Kathy Aitken, set a voluntary 10-question challenge for the students on Pi Day last week. Using QR codes and Google forms, students were required to submit the answers to 10 logic-type puzzles to win a small prize. The overall winners were as follows:
1st - Skye Tucker (Grade 9)
2nd - Erin Brammer (Grade 9)
3rd - Nicole Brink (Grade 10)
Skye Tucker
Erin Brammer
Nicole Brink
PI DAY BREAK-OUT
The Boys College hosted a Pi Day Breakout Challenge as part of their inter-house Mathematics competition on Pi Day last week. 6 teams from the Girls College joined 20 teams from the Boys College and 4 teams from Kearsney College in Kwazulu-Natal in tackling the challenge of “breaking out” using hidden clues and various problem-solving techniques.
Congratulations to our two teams of Grade 10’s. The “Irrationals” comprising of Rutendo Kawelenga, Nicole Brink, Amber Beresford and Tayla Orsmond, managed a very creditable 7th place finish overall, and the “Cutie Pis” comprising of Marisa Venditti, Gina Altshuler, Chichi Chimunda and Valeria Bojanini (our exchange student from Colombia) finished in 10th place. All the teams had a lot of fun on the night and we are certainly looking forward to entering more teams next year. | http://stithian.com/news/entry/saints-students-excel-at-mathematics |
Progress scores in a trust founded by the academies minister plummeted after a fast-track qualification was removed from government league tables in a move to clampdown on gaming.
The average Progress 8 score this year at the Inspiration Trust, which was founded by Lord Agnew, dipped more than in any other trust that entered most pupils into the ECDL qualification, according to new analysis by Education Datalab.
The BCS level 2 ECDL certificate in IT application skills was dropped from qualifications that count towards school performance table scores after accusations it was used to game league tables.
A clear relationship is visible, with those trusts that had higher ECDL entry rates on average being more likely to have experienced falls in their P8 scores between 2017 and 2018
It followed investigations by Schools Week that revealed some schools were allegedly teaching the qualification in just three days.
The new research reveals that the average Progress 8 (P8) score for Inspiration pupils fell from 0.56 in 2017 to 0.08 this year. The trust entered 93 per cent of pupils for the ECDL in 2017.
While figures for the school-level data for the number of pupils entered into the ECDL will be published in January, Inspiration confirmed it has stopped offering the course.
A spokesperson for the trust said it was “far too simplistic to claim a cause and effect from ECDL in a year when P8 scores have also been affected by new syllabi and splits in grade boundaries across dozens of subjects.
“There are too many moving parts and the changes too slight to draw any meaningful conclusions.”
But Philip Nye, the Datalab researcher who carried out the analysis, said in a blog published today that a “clear relationship is visible”, with trusts with higher ECDL entry rates on average “being more likely to have experienced falls in their P8 scores between 2017 and 2018”.
The data showed that for trusts with ECDL entry rates of 40 per cent or less, on average there was either no change, or a slightly positive change, in their scores.
However, among trusts that entered more than 80 per cent of their pupils for ECDL in 2017, P8 scores dropped this year by an average 0.13.
The next largest drop was at the Priory Federation of Academies Trust, which entered 85 per cent of pupils for the qualification in 2017.
Progress scores also dropped this year at The Fylde Coast Teaching School Trust, Seckford Foundation and Northern Education Trust. They had entered more than 80 per cent of pupils for the ECDL.
Rob Tarn, the chief executive of the Northern Education Trust, acknowledged the removal of the ECDL from league tables “undoubtedly had an impact” on scores.
But he said reductions in P8 at his schools were “largely a result of the then legacy curriculum model that led to a number of students having empty slots”. The trust no longer offered the qualification.
Aspirations Academies Trust and Delta Academies Trust both entered more than 80 per cent of pupils for the qualification, but their average scores increased.
Steven Kenning, the chief executive of Aspirations, said his trust had “never used ECDL to improve results”, adding that it was “just seen as an additional IT qualification for students”.
He said the trust did not enter any pupil for the ECDL this year, but achieved the “best ever results in some of our schools”.
More than 150,000 pupils entered the ECDL in 2017, up from just over 40,000 in 2015.
Nye said it was “no surprise” that schools took advantage of the ECDL, given that the main headline on which secondary performance was judged “is a zero-sum one”.
But he said that rather than focus on the “righting of league table wrongs”, it would be “much better … to hold a conversation about reducing the pressures that lead to gaming behaviour”.
Nerd note: The analysis looked only at schools that count towards each trust’s league table performance. This is based on the DfE’s own methodology, and only schools that have been with a trust for at least three years were included. | https://schoolsweek.co.uk/progress-scores-plummet-as-trusts-ditch-ecdl/ |
It is well known that non verbal communication is sometimes more useful and robust than verbal one in understanding sincere emotions by means of spontaneous body gestures and facial expressions analysis acquired from video sequences. At the same time, the automatic or semi-automatic procedure to segment a human from a video stream and then figure out several features to address a robust supervised classification is still a relevant field of interest in computer vision and intelligent data analysis algorithms. We obtained data from four datasets and we used supervised methods to train the proposed classifiers and, in particular, three different EBP Neural-Network architectures for humans templates, mouths and noses and J48 algorithm for gestures. We obtained on average of correct classification equal to a: 80% for binary classifier of humans templates, 90% for happy/non happy, 85% of binary disgust/non disgust and 80% related to the 4 different gestures. | http://ssrr.amtservices.it/?page_id=121 |
NMAT Score vs Percentile is a system that tells the candidates where they stand with respect to their NMAT scores compared to other candidates who have attempted NMAT. For eg, if a candidate has 95 percentile, they belong to the top 5% scorers of NMAT. The conversion of the NMAT scores of the percentile varies year by year.
- NMAT Scorecard: It will contain a scaled score for every section, overall score and percentile ranking. Check NMAT Cutoff
- NMIMS Bangalore has the highest cut off, and there requires the highest NMAT Scores to seek admission. Check NMIMS MBA Business Analytics Admission 2021
- NMAT Cut Off Percentile varies from college to college, depending on the branch. Check NMAT Participating Colleges
| |
Table of Contents
NMAT Score vs Percentile
Based on the previous years NMAT Percentile and Cut Off scores, it is possible to determine the scores vs percentile for NMAT. Candidates can refer to the following table:
|Score in NMAT||NMAT Percentile|
|230-240||99|
|210-215||95|
|>200||90|
NMAT Score vs Percentile: College Wise
|College||Percentile Required||Scores (Approximately)|
|NMIMS Mumbai||94||208|
|NMIMS Bangalore||91||200|
|NMIMS Hyderabad||90||200|
|XIMB||90||200|
|MISB Bocconi||70||170|
Also Check: NMAT vs SNAP: Which is Better?
NMAT Scoring System
Given below is the scaled scoring for NMAT:
|Section||Scaled Score Range|
|Quantitative Skills||0 - 144|
|Language Skills||0 - 96|
|Logical Reasoning Skills||0 - 120|
|TOTAL||0 - 360|
- All raw test scores are calculated on the basis of a common scale.
- All scores are equalized to ensure fairness.
- The percentile calculation is done only after all candidates have attempted the exam.
For more information check, How are NMAT Scaled Scores Calculated?
NMAT Highest Scores
|Year of Exam||NMAT Topper||NMAT Score||NMAT Percentile|
|NMAT 2019 Highest Score||Madhur Mehta||214||98|
|Nitesh Pandhi||210||98|
Check:
NMAT 2020 Sectional Cutoff
|Sections||Expected Cutoff|
|Logical Reasoning||65-70|
|Quantitative Skills||70-75|
|Language Skills||62-65|
For more information, check Cutoff for NMAT
NMAT Cut Off Scores
|MBA college||Expected NMAT cut off percentile|
|NMIMS Mumbai Campus||94|
|NMIMS Bengaluru Campus||91|
|NMIMS Hyderabad Campus||90|
|XIM, Bhubaneswar||90|
|VIT, Vellore||85|
|SRM University, Chennai||80|
|SDA Bocconi, Mumbai||70+|
|IBS (ICFAI B-schools), Hyderabad & 9 other cities||70|
|Alliance University, Bangalore||70|
|BSE Institute Ltd, Mumbai, New Delhi, Chennai, Kolkata, Ahmedabad||70|
|Shiv Nadar University, Greater Noida (Delhi NCR)||70|
|WOXSEN, Hyderabad||70|
|Amity University, Noida (Delhi NCR)||65|
|Thapar School of Management, Mohali||65|
|UPES, Dehradun||65|
|BML Munjal University, Gurgaon||65|
|ITM, Navi Mumbai||65|
|Mody University, Laxman Garh (Jaipur)||60|
|GSIB, Visakhapatnam||65|
Must Read News
NMAT Score vs Percentile FAQs
Ques. What is a good score in NMAT?
Ans. A score range between 230 – 240 which is around 90 percentile is a good score in NMAT Exam.
Ques. How many times a candidate is allowed to take the exam?
Ans. The candidates are allowed to take the exam for a maximum of three times.
Ques: Is there any reservation criteria for NMAT?
Ans: Yes, 30% seats are reserved for women
Ques: What is the expected cutoff for NMIMS, Mumbai?
Ans: 90 percentile or a score greater than 200 is the expected cut off for NMIMS, Mumbai
Ques: Will the score be mentioned on the NMAT score card?
Ans: Details mentioned on the NMAT score card are as follows:
- Scaled score for each section
- A total Score
- A percentile ranking
*The article might have information for the previous academic years, which will be updated soon subject to the notification issued by the University/College. | https://appcdstage.collegedunia.com/exams/nmat/score-vs-percentile |
Objectives: To determine how severity estimates vary depending on age, cognitive skills, and adaptive scores in a large sample of children diagnosed with autism
Methods: Participants included 726 participants diagnosed with ASD, ages 15 months through 17 years, drawn from a university based clinical research database. Examined measures included the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales – II (Adaptive Behavior Composite, Communication, and Socialization scores), Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule Comparison Scores (CS; also known as Calibrated Severity Score; Gotham et al., 2009) and several different measures of cognitive ability, including the Mullen Scales of Early Learning and Differential Ability Scales-II. Mild/No Impairment, Moderate, and Severe Impairment groupings were created in two ways. First, standard deviation splits were created by splitting data by standard deviation cutoffs (<70, 70-85, >85) for each measure. Next, tertile splits were created by separating the sample’s scores into equivalent thirds for each measure. Grouping labels were compared for consistency across the three measures used to define level of impairment.
Results: Discrepancies emerged between all groups such that participants with Mild, Moderate, and Severe CS demonstrated varying levels of adaptive, communicative, social, and cognitive impairment. A large proportion of the Mild CS group fell into Moderate-to-Severe groups on Vineland and Cognitive variables (52%-85% based on standard deviation splits, 59-84% based on tertile splits). Many participants in the Mild/No Impairment IQ group were also defined as Moderate-to-Severe based on the CS and Vineland variables (51%-90% for standard deviation, 35-72% for tertile). Discrepancies in severity classification for all variables were observed between standard deviation and tertile groupings as well as between age groups.
Conclusions: Discrepancies were found in the distribution of severity categorizations across adaptive, communicative, social, and cognitive functioning. Greater variability emerged when using tertile splits, suggesting that basing severity categorizations on comparisons with other diagnosed individuals within a group may lead to provider or site-specific biases in severity assessment. The differences between groups and age levels highlight the need for a more clearly elucidated method of classifying ASD diagnoses as mild, moderate, or severe according to proposed diagnostic labels, and further study of how those designations may change with development. | https://insar.confex.com/insar/2013/webprogram/Paper12522.html |
Master Gardeners volunteer about 20,000 hours each year to gardening programs around Ventura County. These programs include everything from hosting garden-based field trips for school children and building community gardens, to assisting with agricultural research. Here are a few examples:
- Staffing Master Gardener Helpline. Master Gardeners provide callers with free gardening advice,
... and troubleshoot common gardening problems on Tuesday and Thursday afternoons.
- Giving gardening talks and presentations
- Supporting applied research projects for UCCE advisors
- Hosting gardening workshops for home gardeners
- Participating in the Ventura Home and Garden Show
- Supporting the Ventura County Fair
- Answering gardener questions at community events and workshops
- Maintaining Master Gardener approved garden sites
We don’t make home visits, design or install your home garden, or make on-site diagnoses. However, when it involves gardening, contact us. Maybe we can suggest other organizations that may be helpful. | https://ucanr.edu/sites/VCMG/About_Us/Activities/ |
This systematic review of the literature examined the health and well-being impacts of school gardens and the factors that help or hinder their success. Researchers used multiple databases and a range of supplementary approaches in conducting this review of both quantitative and qualitative studies focusing on physical or mental health or well-being outcomes of school gardens. Forty studies met the inclusion criteria and were included in this review.
A quality appraisal of the studies indicated that the quantitative research was generally poor and offered only limited evidence of changes in children's fruit and vegetable intake. The qualitative studies represented somewhat better quality research and provided evidence of a range of health and well-being outcomes of school gardens. Certain groups of students seemed to benefit more than others from engagement with the school gardens. Students who did not do well in classroom activities tended to do better in garden-based activities. Researchers used the findings of this review to develop a conceptual model representing some of the possible mechanisms and pathways through which gardening could promote children's health and well-being.
Several cross-cutting themes emerged from the analysis of the qualitative studies: (1) school gardening can be integrated with the wider academic curriculum to maximize opportunities for learning; (2) school gardens seem to have particular benefits for children who have special behavioral, emotional, or educational needs and do not thrive in an academic environment; and (3) both students and adults (teachers, parents, and volunteers) benefited from the school garden programs. While this review did not include studies focusing only on educational impacts of school gardens, some of the included studies focusing on health and well-being benefits also reported academic benefits, such as increased levels of student engagement and motivation. Additional positive impacts of school gardening programs identified through this review include greater environmental awareness and the promotion of a sense of a connection to nature. Benefits experienced by adults included increased knowledge and skills relating to gardening and cooking. Factors threatening the success of school garden programs include the lack of funding and over-reliance on volunteers. Factors supporting success include involvement with local communities and integration of gardening activities into the school curriculum.
This review, while supporting the idea that school gardens can benefit students and adults in various ways, also highlights weaknesses in study design and reporting. More robust evidence is needed to promote school gardening programs as public health interventions. | https://eepro.naaee.org/research/eeresearch/school-gardens-benefit-students-and-adults-various-ways-yet-more-robust?page=1 |
At the edge of Somers Town, the Story Garden is an organic food growing oasis that supports the well-being of local residents through learning and social exchange.
The Story Garden is the home base for Global Generation, an educational charity which works together with local children and young people, businesses, residents and families to create healthy, integrated and environmentally responsible communities.
The garden provides a green social space in the heart of Somers Town while long-term plans for the site are drawn up.
The desire to nurture a strong sense of local ownership informed an unusual approach: we only built half a garden, limiting our remit to the design and installation of essential infra-structure so that space was left for others to have creative input.
Some 500+ volunteers of all ages have helped to build planters and garden furniture, spread mulch and water seedlings.
A small office and kitchen building with sheltered outdoor dining area was designed to disassemble and transport to a new location once the tenure on the site is up.
A timber-framed WC block and potting shed is clad in white translucent shingles and three shipping containers framing a central deck provide for a small workshop which is used by Central St Martins students as a satellite makerspace.
Our incremental approach leaves room for future customisation and adaptation.
The Story Garden is also the permanent home for the Milk Float, a roving community kitchen and workshop hosting gardening workshops and communal lunches across Somers Town.. | https://architizer.com/blog/projects/story-garden/ |
The OMA Center for Mind, Body, Spirit is committed to providing accessible, comprehensive health and wellness resources from a holistic standpoint, to those who are seeking alternatives to conventional medical and therapeutic treatments.
OMA Lecture Series is a biweekly event which has been hosted at the East End Cooperative Ministry in East Liberty, Pittsburgh. Each lecture highlights different holistic practitioners and experts from the Pittsburgh area and beyond, and invites them to share their knowledge and skills with attendees. Topics are varied, but all relate to mind-body-spirit wellness and each provide an opportunity for attendees to begin or continue their journey with personal wellness. Lectures are free to the public and we only ask for a donation from the heart if one is able to contribute. (Held virtually through zoom until further notice)
Workshops in Mind, Body & Spirit are held by practitioners locally, nationally and internationally. The first International workshop was Sept 7-9,2018 Dream Course from University of Damanhur, Italy. October/November 2020 a four-part mastermind group, Cultivating Change from Within, a Transformational Journey Toward Anti-racism was conducted using zoom.
Food for the Soul Series, brings all who participate into deep community, as a group with a sense of interdependence and commitment to one another’s growth. Food for the Soul, is designed to give the participants an opportunity to share in a simple meal of soup and bread as well as discussions regarding introspection/ideas on various subjects of body, mind, and spirit. Small groups of 8-10 individuals convene around a table and are facilitated by OMA members. These will be scheduled again for mid-2021.
Art in the Garden, is a year-round youth program designed to intentionally address the impacts of early childhood adversity and trauma on health and learning. It’s centered around investing in the resiliency and social and emotional development of Pittsburgh’s youth. Art in the Garden supports youth in holding themselves and others in compassion and helping them to grow in connectedness to themselves, each other, and the earth.
Art in the Garden includes a six-week summer program hosted at Borland Garden and is focused on meeting the needs of underserved youth in East Liberty and Larimer areas of Pittsburgh, the majority of whom are youth of color. Guided by a thoughtfully and professionally developed curriculum that focuses on secular mindfulness and emotional well-being. In collaboration with community partners, youth engage a variety of activities—from West African drumming and dance, to learning about food justice and building healthy soil, to creating ceramic sculptures—all of our programming invests in the resiliency and social and emotional well-being of Pittsburgh’s youth with an approach that addresses the effects of adversity and stress. Through daily art and environmental activities, youth develop their ability to identify and process emotions and to channel their emotions into creative activities and self-affirming forms of expression.
The curriculum and programming of AITG also responds to the demands set by youth themselves in the Youth Climate Strike platform which calls for mandatory climate education. As youth build awareness and literacy around ecological choices–i.e. through sharing, writing, or making art about their experiences and visions, growing food, sequestering carbon, composting, reducing consumption, and being in and with nature–ecological literacy develops as does and their abilities to care for themselves and others as well as the water, land, and air.
In collaboration with Earthen Vessel, all youths attending the summer camp receive a free breakfast and lunch daily. In collaboration with Youth Enrichment Services (YES), Art in the Garden also trains teens to be counselors and use a trauma-informed approach with young campers (i.e. remaining calm, attuned, and predictable); provides opportunities for students to use their voices in the arts and ecology; provides a space for students to engage issues around land access, food apartheid, regenerative gardening and farming practices, composting, and paths to individual and collective healing. (This program was due to start in 2020, but it is on hold due to considerations around Covid-19)
Following the summer camp, activities occur throughout the year for youth who attended AITG as well as youths who want to join the program. It is believed that by having activities throughout the year, the youth can build stronger family and community relationships, and build trust and confidence with the youths who attended AITG. Year-round programming has included: community mural making, family days in the Garden, a Fall event with pumpkin carving, storytelling, and on-line yoga and meditation.
In 2020, Art in the Garden programming was structured for most of the programming held on- line and limited events in the garden following CDC guidelines. All attempts will be made for the summer camp in 2021 depending on the pandemic and using CDC recommendations.
Surviving to Thriving is our vision is for Pittsburgh to become one of many models for best practices in social and emotional learning and in trauma-informed care and resilience. In order to support this vision, “Surviving to Thriving” teacher training for Art in the Garden educators, community partners, staff, parents and others working with youth were held prior to camp. This program supports adults in developing mindfulness practices, strengthening conflict transformation skills, developing awareness of the effects of implicit bias, building skills that foster supportive relationships with youth, and supporting youth in developing resilience and social and emotional intelligence. OMA’s goal is to expand Surviving to Thriving throughout Pittsburgh neighborhoods and create collaborative conversations regarding the impact of early childhood adversity and trauma on one’s cognitive, emotional and physical development as well as on interpersonal relationships and life choices throughout one’s life span. Through community collaborative learning sessions, we can develop greater awareness of needs that exist for healthy youth, adult, family and community development where all can thrive. Surviving to Thriving is a bridge designed to connect educators, community organizations, families and professionals across generations and the healthcare spectrum.
Trauma Conversations November 2020, “You are not Alone”, was launched. This is a virtual, monthly, program over a one-year period, that provides a forum for anyone who has experienced trauma from childhood or as an adult. Each session provides a panel of up to five who have experienced trauma, and/or a therapist, and a moderator. The panel session is designed to create a space for the telling and sharing of our stories around our diverse life trauma experiences and to explore the connections between us all. The panel’s disclosure and ‘breaking the silence ‘of their own history of abuse and the steps they have taken to heal, will facilitate each person’s own ability to share their own story and begin or continue to take the steps to ending their own silence and ending the pattern of victimization. In order to facilitate this, participants are provided a toolbox of techniques proven to help individuals cope with the sense of grief, reduce the negative effects of trauma, heal from the trauma, and move on with your life.
A Trauma Symposium for the Healing of All Generations is a three-day conference planned for the near future. This symposium is a city-wide call to action to address trauma and abuse as a public health issue. We seek to address the collective arena of trauma and its effects throughout the generations in order to break cycles of silence and harm. We aim to address, prevent, and mitigate adverse experiences, trauma, and abuse and hold space for all people to be a part of a city-wide transformation to support the wellbeing and health of all. Through collaboration with local and national individuals and organizations, we hope to show the possibilities for healing that emerge when communities come together to provide all people with access to holistic, trauma-informed care. We believe that when we heal ourselves in the present, we heal the generations to come.
Over the course of three days, this symposium will bring together many stake-holders. Firstly, individuals in need of trauma care, information, and resources will come together in the same room, hearing one another’s stories, gathering resources for healing and resiliency, and experiencing the reality that we are not alone: trauma affects everyone and seeing our shared struggle can deepen our capacity for healing.
Second, the symposium will bring those individuals into direct connection with practitioners of holistic trauma care for immediate, on-site intervention and longer-term treatment.
Third, the symposium will bring holistic practitioners into contact with traditional mental health organizations/clinicians, deepening the possibilities for referral along many pathways. Fourth, the symposium will bring policy makers and advocates into direct connection with individuals experiencing trauma–hearing their stories and listening to their insights–as well as with practitioners of holistic trauma care so that holistic practices can be better understood and more deeply incorporated into mental health public policy.
The Trauma Symposium and the Trauma Conversations in the Community are unique in that they will both highlight holistic treatment of trauma care and provide on-site opportunities to experience this carefree of charge. Thus, the symposium will be a point of intervention and will also address some of the stigma associated with mental health treatment. In a positive, celebratory, communal atmosphere, we will explore the ways mental and holistic health care is not correction for disease but an essential, necessary practice of self-care for all. Through a targeted series of community-based “Trauma Conversations,” we are building these networks of connections in advance of the symposium with the hope that participants in the community-based conversations will be interested in continuing to explore the prevention and healing of trauma within the context of the larger symposium.
Allegheny Intermediate Unit Community School, Turtle Creek requested that OMA to create a monthly curriculum/module for their students at risk in the Turtle Creek School (2019). This course guided the students (7th-12th) through seven modules that will help them learn to hold themselves and others in compassion. These practices foster the development of social and emotional skills: grounding techniques, regulating emotions, nonviolent communication, perspective taking, mindfulness and meditation, non-judgmental awareness, and gratitude. The students had the opportunity to express themselves using drawing, writing, theater and improv, physical movement, and engagement with nature. As they use these practices, they will find that instead of reacting impulsively, they will be able to step back and choose how they want to respond, even in difficult situations. Our premise is when we develop our ability to care for ourselves, our compassion for ourselves and others grows.
Future Programs
OMA’s ultimate goal is to create a local community center that further enables our mission: to provide affordable holistic education and treatment options for the well-being of self, family and community. There will be various affordable programs, so that we may be able to reach all individuals, families and community members in their quest for optimal health and vitality. We continue to seek donations and sponsors that relate to our mission and to our goals of establishing and maintaining a local center.
Please consider a donation to OMA.
A monetary gift to OMA will contribute toward our goal of establishing a retreat center and community building for holistic health and wellness activities. | http://omapittsburgh.org/current-programs/ |
In October 2015 a ferry sank off the coast of the Heiltsuk First Nation near Bella Bella. First Met has connections with this area off the BC coast.
We have received a request to support a special garden project in Bella Bella and we want to encourage the First Met community to donate to show our support for this community-building initiative.
Jess Housty, a community development worker in Bella Bella says: "One of the challenges is that the spill (from the sinking) happened in the most productive area of our territory, where families typically harvest over 25 marine and inter-tidal species for sustenance.
It's been an obvious blow to food security but, on a less obvious note, many families have privately expressed to me it's also causing a huge emotional imbalance because many people associate their connection to the waters with their a sense of personal well being and ability to provide for their families.
The emotional stability that comes from being able to rely on our homelands is gone."
Qqs Projects Society, Housty's non-profit, runs a gardening and food self-sufficiency program near Bella Bella. Along with access from the local sawmill to at-cost building materials for planters, three seed companies have donated seeds and the society is is raising funds to hire local people, ideally displaced fishermen, to help clean the 2,300-square-foot site and assemble the planters.
The project also needs to bring in soil, purchase gardening tools and hopes to bring in some fruit trees.
If you feel you can donate any amount, large or small, to this project, please note on your cheque that it is for the Bella Bella Garden project or, if you drop it off, let the finance office know what is for for.
For further information about this project, please contact Janet Gray at 250-478-5066. | http://www.firstmetvictoria.com/news/bella-bella-garden-project |
In recent years, gardening has been on the rise.
Not only are homeowners using gardening to boost curb appeal.
More and more people are taking up the hobby in a bid for sustainability, physical health, and emotional well-being.
It’s hard to ignore all the great benefits gardening has to offer.
So it’s unfortunate that so many people still view gardening as solely a women’s venture.
Despite the cultural relationship between flowers and femininity, there’s nothing inherently gendered about gardening.
Before we can dismantle the stereotype of gardening as feminine, we need to understand where it comes from:
- Is it true that women garden more than men?
- Are women actually better at gardening than men?
- Do women dominate the professional horticulture industry?
Let’s learn the answers to these questions and explore the complicated relationship between gardening and gender.
Table of Contents
Is Gardening Considered a Feminine Activity?
Whether gardening is a feminine activity is entirely a matter of opinion.
Some people do view tending a garden as “women’s work.” Others have zero preference.
In the grand scheme of things, though, the opinions of others don’t really matter.
There is nothing about gardening that makes it inherently feminine or masculine.
What Is the Feminine Form of the Word Gardener?
In the English language, “gardener” is a gender-neutral word. That means we can apply it to both men and women.
While there is no modern feminine form of the word gardener, there is some historical evidence of one.
The term “gardeneress” has appeared in literature since the 17th century.
This word is more often used as a humorous take on gendered language than the actual title for a female gardener.
Again, men and women can be gardeners. There’s no need to use a different term for either gender.
Are Women Better at Gardening?
Whether gardening is feminine or not, nothing is stopping men from participating in this hobby.
But are men really as good at gardening as women are?
Men and women have the same potential to be great gardeners.
No one should let their gender stop them from growing a garden of their own!
With that said, we’re not the only ones wondering this question.
Here are a few theories for why we tend to think women are better at raising plants than their male counterparts:
It’s How We’re Raised
Many boys and men avoid gardening because they believe they don’t have the necessary skills.
The truth is that anyone can develop a green thumb with a little bit of practice.
So why does society think women are better in the garden?
This opinion largely comes from the fact that girls are taught how to tend to plants from a young age.
Compared to their male counterparts, girls are more likely to learn about different flower species or garden design.
Likewise, boys are more likely to learn how to mow the lawn or use power tools in their youth.
Once we reach adulthood, these teachings impact what hobbies we gravitate toward.
It’s in Our Genes
It’s true that a lot of our gendered view of gardening is how we’re taught from a young age. However, that might not be the whole story.
Back in 2013, the British Psychological Society actually found a correlation between biological sex and the ability to identify plants.
The study showed women were better at finding and identifying plants than men.
The theory behind these findings is that women were once responsible for gathering (while men took on the task of hunting).
Because the ability to find and identify edible plants was directly related to survival, this skill was passed down through the evolutionary line.
Of course, it’s important to remember that this was a very small study — only 50 participants were observed.
But it’s still an interesting theory for why women tend to thrive in the garden.
Do Men and Women Garden Differently?
Anyone can enjoy gardening. But there are some trends when it comes to which tasks men and women take on in the garden.
Keep in mind that these are only generalizations. Plenty of women partake in the activities that men prefer and vice-versa.
Gardening Activities Preferred by Men or Women
1. Lawn Care
The stereotype is true: According to a study by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, men spend more time caring for the lawn than women.
While not everyone would agree that lawn care counts as gardening, this data gives us some insight into how men and women spend their time working outdoors.
2. Vegetable Gardening
Going by the raw numbers, more women vegetable garden than men.
But if you compare the number of men who vegetable garden versus how many garden in total, it’s clear that men love to grow produce!
In many ways, vegetable gardening avoids the feminine stereotype of ornamental gardening.
Plus, agriculture has traditionally been a male domain.
3. Plant Selection
One of the most documented differences between male and female gardeners is the types of plants they prefer.
Generally, men prefer structured plants with bright colors like red and orange.
On the other hand, women gravitate toward softer profiles with pastel blooms.
4. Sustainability
While sustainable gardening is a big trend right now, some research shows that women are more likely to adopt organic and eco-friendly growing practices than men.
5. Division of Labor
Even when men and women share a garden equally, such as in the case of a married couple, common trends emerge in how the labor is divided up.
Men are more likely to complete physical projects (like digging and lifting) than women.
Women appear more likely to focus on design and lightweight tasks.
Is Calling Gardening Feminine Bad?
Calling gardening feminine isn’t necessarily bad. But the language we use to discuss gardening and other hobbies can have a bigger impact than we realize.
By saying that gardening is a feminine hobby, or that women should garden while men do other yard chores, we’re contributing to potentially harmful stereotypes.
This awareness is particularly important when spending time with children.
It’s very common for young boys and girls to avoid certain activities because they think these interests are only for the opposite gender.
If we want to foster a love of gardening and plant sciences in the future generation, one of the best things we can do is treat male and female gardeners equally!
7 Myths & Facts About Gardening and Gender (That Might Not Be True)
Myth #1: Women Have a Better Eye for Design
This isn’t just a myth in the world of gardening.
The idea that one gender is more creative than the other has been a cultural battle for ages.
Some research suggests that women have a knack for design because they can differentiate colors more easily.
On average, women also see more vibrant shades than men do.
In contrast, men are better at seeing quick changes and movement than women.
But when it comes to garden design, there is no solid proof that women are better than men.
Instead, any perceived differences in ability are likely a result of personal bias.
Myth #2: Women Lead the Horticulture Industry
At the end of the day, horticulture is a science.
While women might dominate in the home garden, horticulture falls victim to the same gender gap as any other scientific field.
The good news is that horticultural sciences are some of the most egalitarian in terms of gender.
According to a Data USA survey of five leading horticulture programs, men make up 54.4% of undergraduates on average.
In contrast, the 2019 American Community Survey found that 84.1% of all STEM professionals were men.
Myth #3: Gardening Was Always Seen as Feminine
Today, gardening is predominantly a women’s hobby.
If you went back a couple of hundred years — to before the 19th century — the opposite would be true.
After all, it’s only recently that gardening became a leisurely pastime.
Before the 19th century, gardens existed more for scientific or agricultural purposes rather than decoration.
Starting in the Victorian Era, however, the concept of upper-class women staying home with the children and tending to the house went hand-in-hand with maintaining a lovely garden.
Myth #4: Gardening and Gender Trends Are the Same Around the World
While places like the United States and Great Britain view gardening as a feminine activity, some cultures view gardening as masculine or gender-neutral.
For example, studies of urban farming across Africa showcase the regional and cultural differences in gardening and gender.
While women still dominate overall, there are multiple communities where men garden equally or more than women.
Fact #1: More Women Garden Than Men
According to the United States Census Bureau, 48.9% of women and 33.6% of men participated in gardening.
While this survey took place in 2008, these numbers likely haven’t changed dramatically in the last decade.
The U.S. Census isn’t the only organization to notice this trend. The National Gardening Association found that 54% of vegetable gardeners are female.
Of course, it’s also interesting to note that more men seem to participate in vegetable gardening than gardening overall!
Fact #2: Landscaping Is a Male-Dominated Career
Multiple sources support the belief that more women garden than men — at least in their free time.
On the other hand, men are far more likely to make a living in landscaping than women.
According to the Statista Research Department, 93.5% of landscapers and groundskeepers in the United States were men in 2020.
Now, a big part of this gender gap is because society views landscaping as more physically strenuous and labor-intensive.
But that doesn’t change the fact that landscaping and groundskeeping are forms of gardening (just by different names).
Fact #3: Women Prefer Floral Design
There are tons of gardening-adjacent jobs out there.
While some young professionals choose to go into the science side of horticulture, others prefer a more creative route.
According to Zippia, 84.5% of floral designers are women.
And this makes sense, especially when you compare the demands of floral design to a male-dominated career like landscaping.
While men are valued for their physical strength and endurance, women are often valued for their creativity and sentimentality.
Conclusion
Is gardening a feminine activity? No.
As we’ve seen, this is a common misconception that varies across time and culture.
Gardening is an incredible skill and pastime for all genders to learn and experience.
Approaching gardening as a gender-neutral activity is the best way to encourage both men and women to engage with the botanical world as a whole.
It’s great to see more women pursuing plant science. But it’s also important to create a space for young boys to try out gardening as a personal hobby.
So next time you find yourself associating gardening or flowers with femininity, take a moment to think about the impact of your words.
With just a few small changes, we could make a big difference in how future generations view this wonderful pastime.
Help someone by sharing this article – sharing is caring 🙂 !
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If you liked this article, then you don’t wanna miss out on upcoming posts.
Join our free newsletter today and be the first to know about the best healthy products, truly sustainable companies and an eco-friendly lifestyle! | https://citizensustainable.com/gardening-feminine/ |
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Gardening with Physical Limitations
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Tales with Tony
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Planning Your Garden
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Mud and more mud
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Leading from Wherever You Are
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Leadership Institute: Effective Coaching and Emotional Intelligence
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respective organizations, teams, and/or laboratories they must proactively work with others to lead them ... to more effectively lead within your organization. • Increase your ability to develop and lead others ... competence) to more effectively work with and lead others. Who should participate? • Leaders, managers, and ... | https://swel.osu.edu/search/site/urban%20agriculture%20gardening%20soil%20lead?f%5B0%5D=hash%3A4ms6td&f%5B1%5D=hash%3At0469t&f%5B2%5D=hash%3Aacjuyv&f%5B3%5D=hash%3Ad6o9bp&f%5B4%5D=hash%3A2lwttd&f%5B5%5D=hash%3Am9tb3s&f%5B6%5D=hash%3An0w4rm&f%5B7%5D=hash%3A2phugs&f%5B8%5D=hash%3A2rnydt&f%5B9%5D=hash%3Aifzm5o |
University of Bristol’s Student Action for Refugees (STAR) has launched a gardening project for refugees in the heart of St Pauls- a central place considered to be relatively accessible by volunteers and target group- asylum seekers and refugees. The Grow Group is a community gardening project for refugees and asylum seekers based in the grounds surrounding St Agnes’ Church and in St Agnes Park in St Pauls.
Fleur Williams, Co-President, UoB STAR Group said, “The project aims to improve social integration and well-being through gardening as well as giving refugee volunteers who are not fluent in English the opportunity to practise their language skills in an informal and relaxed environment.”
She added: “The project runs on a Saturday morning between 10am and 12pm and each session is followed by free hot drinks and cake inside the church. The site also has a play park which means it is accessible for whole families to come down together.”
The main focus of the gardening is on growing fruit and vegetables which volunteers can then harvest, the approach we foster is that the garden belongs to the volunteers that use it so people are encouraged to take ownership and decide what they want to grow and how they want the space to be used. We also hope that the project will help refugee volunteers feel valuable to local community as well as helping them regain a sense of normality. | https://bristol.cityofsanctuary.org/2018/03/16/bristol-university-students-launches-gardening-project-for-refugees |
Roots and Shoots aims to bring teams of young volunteers (aged 13+yrs) together with isolated older people (aged 50+yrs) as part of the Leicester Ageing Together service.
We will do this by using gardening as an approach to connect people back in to the community and reduce isolation and loneliness in our society.
What we do
Community garden programmes.
Connecting older people in to their community through local community gardening.
- Roots & Shoots are working within 5 wards to identify, establish and support grass roots gardening programmes. These ward areas are Belgrave, Spinney Hills, Wycliffe, Evington and Thurncourt.
- Local community projects could range from growing groups, allotment projects, to growing schemes and pocket park projects.
- If gardening programmes already exist in any of the 5 wards, we will endeavour to build a supportive and proactive partnership to develop sustainable approaches for community inclusion with other local groups and signpost older people to become active members.
- Our vision for creating/supporting these projects are for older people to become connected back in to the community, feel useful and wanted in their community and feel less isolated and lonely.
- We also want to ensure that our projects are co-designed and co-delivered by older people to ensure projects are suited to their needs and the needs of their local community.
Roots & Shoots Craft Cafe
Craft Café is a mobile workshop programme for older people, which provides the opportunity to engage in a range of arts activities with support from Roots & Shoots Intergenerational staff and volunteers.
The workshops and events are a place where everyone can learn new skills, renew social networks and reconnect with their communities.
The workshops/events can take place in a range of venues suitable to the needs of beneficiaries.
The Craft Cafe:
- Offers LAT beneficiaries a safe, social environment
- Teaches beneficiaries new skills
- Reduces isolation and loneliness
- Improves mental and physical health
- Encourages joy in later life
- Celebrates new and older artists
Activities could range from potting windowsill boxes, sowing and growing herbs, creative and arty gardening projects, pot crafts and murals just to name a few.
Volunteering.
Whether you are 13 or 113 years old, become a volunteer and help to open lonely eyes to a world of friendship and community connections with Roots & Shoots.
If you've been a beneficiary of Leicester Ageing Together and felt the benefits of the programmes, maybe you would like to share your experiences and help others out of isolation and loneliness?
Please note:
We are not trained gardeners, we are working with adults, the elderly and young people to build relationships, confidence and to create accessible spaces to serve the community and enhance connectivity. | https://focus-charity.co.uk/index.php?id=what-is-roots-and-shoots |
The following Community Garden’s will be hosting events for Community Garden Day, Saturday, Sept. 17:
Beltrami Community Garden, 1213 Spring St. NE, 11a.m.- 1p.m., will be hosting a casual event to mingle and swap tips and ideas for next year’s gardening season. They will have some dishes to share and will host a recipe swap. Other activities may be added. Please bring garden tips and recipes to share.
Friendly Manor Highrise Community Garden, 1206 2nd St. NE, 1-2:30p.m., join residents as they showcase their herb garden. Stick around for samples of stewed Swiss chard and other favorite garden recipes.
Northeast United Methodist Community Garden, 2510 Cleveland and 2535 Cleveland St. NE, 9-11a.m. Guests can tour their gardens and Walipini, while participating in mini canning demonstrations, creating miniature fairy garden furniture, and offering input for future skill-shares. Rain or shine!
Waite Park Community Garden, 3601 Lincoln Ave. NE, 4-6p.m. At the Waite Park Community Garden stroll, taste and vote on dish ideas prepared by gardeners. Gardeners are invited to prepare a recipe featuring zucchini, and bring samples to share with the public and a panel of community-member judges. There will also be garden tours, children’s activities and even a Pokémon Go Poke Stop.
For more information visit www.gardeningmatters.org. | https://www.mynortheaster.com/tag/gardens/ |
April is Stress Awareness month and also Action for Happiness’ Active April. Now that we have light evenings and some good weather on the way to improve our moods, there are lots of local projects to entice us outside.
Here at VAL we recently hosted GCDA’s training for local walk leaders who run friendly walking groups on most days of the week, starting from locations all over the borough – have a look at https://www.walkingforhealth.org.uk/walkfinder/lewisham-healthy-walks
Grove Park Community Group also have a regular walking group that meets on Wednesday mornings see details here
For the gardeners amongst us there are lots of local opportunities. Deptford Folk and Trees for Cities are planting new trees in the local area. Their next planting session will be in Sayes Court Park on Saturday 7 April followed by a community lunch – sign up here
Capital Growth are promoting a number of Big Dig gardening events on Saturday 21 April with local events at the Springbank Road Community Garden in Hither Green, Wildcat Wilderness in Catford and the Albany Gardening Club in Deptford. You can see a map of London events here
Frendsbury Gardens in Brockley run a low-cost monthly bug club for under-12s and will be hosting a free gardening workshop on Saturday 10 May where you can learn about organic weed control methods.
Lewisham is full of community gardens including Besson Street Community Garden in New Cross Gate, Farmstead Road community garden in Bellingham and Sydenham Garden that provides therapeutic gardening for people with mental health problems or other significant illness.
And if you just want to go for a walk, don’t forget wonderful Beckenham Place Park with its café and community space at the mansion house. | https://www.valewisham.org.uk/blog/spring-outside |
CURRENTLY RECRUITING!!
Life-supporting Shelter - 2022
Hideghegy eco-community
Location
Barnag is a pictoresque village 15 km north from Lake Balaton
Activity period
May-October 2022 (6 months)
Activity description
Mindenegyüttmegy Barnag is a community of people who changed urban life to a rural life, that fosters a sustainable world through organic food production, eco-architecture, dialogue between the rural and the urban, a festival and community spaces.
You will be participating in the community's activities as follows:
- outdoor tasks (gardening, taking care of animals, etc)
- planning local community and volunteer initiatives
- participating in the eco-architecture projects, especially creating the "HIdeg-hegy" shelter, a community space for learning, healing, culture and workshops - and a yurt!
- cooking on events, and joint cooking every day
- harvesting and conserving products of the garden
- creating posters, photos and different visuals, creating input and maintaining social media platforms
Accomodation, food and transport arrangements, other practical info
You will be volunteering 30 hours per week, sometimes weekends are included. Hungarian language support is provided.
Accommodation: Volunteers will be staying in a rented, furnished vineyard house, in an amazing landscape. There are 2 separate rooms hosting 2 volunteers each and a community space. It has a big garden, where volunteers can have their own orchard, if they wish so. The house is equipped with everything a volunteer might need. Internet connection will be provided. The garden shower used by the community can be used to shower and to wash clothes. The community location is 3 km far from the first village and living condition are very simple. Be aware of this condition when applying!
Transportation: Majority of the volunteering activities will be in the vicinity of the accommodation, in walking distance - but also at other locations of the association. On the hill one can walk or take a bike, but community members offer a ride, if needed. Public transport is accessible from the nearby Barnag village, where Veszprém, the nearest town, can be reached in 30 minutes.
Allowances: 150 EUR pocket money and 50 EUR food allowance per months. Two meal/day is together with the community members (usually lunch and dinners), the rest is taken care of individually, to which ingredients can be used from the pantry of our community kitchen.
Participant profile
We are welcoming volunteers who would like to be part of a growing community of young, committed green professionals in an amazing natural environment, who enjoy working in a garden, with trees and with animals, who want to learn how to organise a big eco-festival and who don't mind if the circumstances are sometimes a bit rough. | https://www.szatyorgoesabroad.org/volunteering/come-to-hungary/hideghegy-eco-community |
|'WHAT'S HOT FOR YOUR GARDEN'?
|
Find out at the Gardening Symposium on Saturday
July 12, 2007
BY LIZ ANDRES - VICTORIA COUNTY MASTER GARDENER
EDITED BY CHARLA BORCHERS LEON
Do you want to do some gardening whether we have rain, heat or shine?
You don't have to outsmart the weather forecasters this Saturday. Even the extended forecast in the faithful ol' Farmers' Almanac calls for partly sunny skies and temperatures in the mid-90s.
But should that be wrong, the date and time are right for a reprieve from the recent rain and muggy heat.
COME GARDEN IN THE COOL
Saturday, the Victoria County Master Gardeners are having their annual Gardening Symposium at the 4-H Activity Center located at 259 Bachelor Drive in the Victoria Regional Airport complex. If you are tired of being cooped up at home, come learn "What's Hot for Your Garden" in a dry, air-conditioned facility along with refreshments and lunch. Activities begin at 8:30 a.m. with coffee - and come to a close at 2:30 p.m.
HOW TO REGISTER
Registration forms are distributed around town at garden centers, nurseries, various businesses and the Extension Office at 442 Foster Field Drive at the airport - or you may find one on the Web at www.vcmga.org/2007Symposium.html. Download and print the form, then call the County Extension office at 361-575-4581 to reserve your spot.
The cost of the symposium is $30, now payable at the door, which includes the meal at noon and refreshments throughout the day. Deadline for registration is today although you may wish to call and see if you can register at the door.
Your Choice
This year's event is the fifth in a series, but the first to be held in the summer - in response to feedback from those of you who teach or have seasonal jobs that would allow you to attend an educational opportunity on a Saturday in the summer.
For those of you who will be gone on vacation, we apologize in advance and recommend that you consider the upcoming fall master gardener training classes starting in August or look towards the next symposium sometime in 2008.
Like the season, the topics were decided by you, your friends and neighbors. Ponds and water gardening is a popular topic for folk in Victoria, and we are very excited to offer a leading expert in the field of aquascapes for this portion of th program.
|Aquascape expert
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Steve Parker from Alpine Aquascapes in Katy will lead off the morning events with "Designing and Building a Water Garden." Steve and his company, along with two other businesses, provided professional expertise to local master gardeners and helped build the 15,000-gallon water garden in the expansion project of Victoria Educational Gardens (VEG). This new area was opened to the pubic on June 10.
Steve and his company also recently participated as one of the certified aquascape contractors in designing and constructing a water garden at Walt Disney World's Epcot Center in Florida. You will not only hear from a leading expert in the field, but will have time after lunch to tour the gardens and see first hand what was installed in the former swimming pool of Foster Field Officer's Club.
There will be master gardeners available to answer your questions or point you in the right direction for your answers.
Look for the ladies and gentlemen with the green and white nametags and/or wearing VEG T-shirts or visors.
Other hot topics
Other topics requested by you include "Container Gardening for your Patio and Yard" and "Gardening for Butterflies and Hummers" by Helen Boatman and Linda Valdez respectively, both Victoria County Master Gardeners and Mid-Coast Chapter Texas Master Naturalists.
|PHOTOS: HENRY HARTMAN/CREATIVE IMAGES
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Steve Parker and his business, Alpine Aquascapes of Katy, helped the master gardeners design and construct the new water garden at Victoria Educational Gardens. Parker will lead off the program with "Designing and Building a Water Garden."
|"Attracting and Managing Wildlife in Your Garden" will be presented by Victoria County Extension Agent Joe Janak.
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Another featured speaker is Laurie Garretson, herb grower and owner of Earthworks Nursery who will discuss "Herbs for Your Patio." Laurie is also the author of "Gardening with Laurie" in the Victoria Advocate alongside this column.
These speakers come from varied backgrounds and training experiences that will make our day together informative and fun.
For those interested in CEU credits, the symposium offers four hours for master gardener re-certification and two hours of TDA pesticide credit, one in general and one in integrated pest management.
|Learn how containers of various sizes, shapes and materials provide for plants of interesting design on your patio or in your yard at this Saturday's Master Gardener Summer Symposium.|
|As always, there will be a chance get answers to your questions. There will be a silent auction, goody bags and door prizes. And, Maria Sobczak, president of the Victoria County Master Gardeners, will give you an overview of the upcoming master gardener training beginning in August at the 4-H Activity Center.
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The objective of Victoria County Master Gardener Association is to increase the knowledge of gardening to its members and the general public. VCMGA continues to provide and share gardening knowledge through projects like symposiums and biannual plant sales, educational tours and the expansion project at VEG, the Annual Garden Tour with highlighted plant guide material, a water conservation project and participation at community events like the South Texas Farm & Ranch Show.
The Gardeners' Dirt is written by members of the Victoria County Master Gardener Association, an educational outreach of Texas Cooperative Extension-Victoria County. Mail your questions in care of the Advocate, P.O. Box 1518, Victoria, Texas 77901; or [email protected], or comment on this column at www.VictoriaAdvocate.com. | https://www.vcmga.org/2007_Jul12.html |
As the morning dew lifts in the Picardo Farm P-Patch, the pumpkin vines creep far: tangling about beanstalks, their fruit, a brilliant contrast of a bright orange against fresh green. The fall sun caresses radishes ready for plucking, their heads peering gingerly from the ground.
Removed from this scene’s idyllicism, one cannot help but feel a sense of panic: surface ocean waters are now 30% more acidic than before the Industrial Revolution, greenhouse gasses have caused five of the warmest years on record since 2010, and the ecosystem outside will likely be changed forever within the next half-century.
Climate change has made an indelible impact on Earth. Research suggests that a combination of environmental mismanagement, industrialization, and other human activities have caused climate change to progress at an increased rate and much farther than it would have naturally. The concept of climate change has even changed the social psyche, creating the phenomenon “climate grief,” an unprecedented, citizen concern for the mistreatment of the earth.
While government institutions have been slower to respond, the American public has become increasingly invested in addressing environmental issues and thus their own climate grief in their daily lives through composting, reducing water consumption, and even through gardening.
According to Dr. Peter Dunwiddie, affiliate professor of biology at the UW, these small scale attempts at outdoor engagement can have meaningful effects.
“I would say that local action is the start of something greater, and the smallest step can take the form of something as simple as working in the outdoors,” Dunwiddie said. “Supporting gardening is a way to begin working toward greater environmentally friendly efforts. Even experiencing the outdoors can provide people with a greater appreciation for the world around them.”
Outdoor engagement also benefits the humans involved. Scientists have long referred to “ecosystem services” when describing the ways outdoor exposure promotes human well-being. Though ecosystem services may not seem immediately apparent in urban environments, some green design projects have been cited for reducing crime and aggression in urban areas.
The City of Seattle has taken the correlation between human wellness and outdoor exposure into account with projects such as P-Patch Community Gardens, 89 of which have been established throughout the city. While other green spaces have been created and maintained within Seattle, P-Patches are unique in their goal of supporting a vibrant community of gardeners.
“P-Patches are great for the community because they help people realize that nature is all around us,” Dunwiddie said. “When I was a child, I had the chance to wander through my parents’ garden patch and identify vegetables. I think that community gardens are a great opportunity for people, especially children, to get back into nature.”
The benefits of such spaces help to increase the overall well-being of those within the community through interaction and ecosystem services.
“Being a citizen gardener can open a person’s eyes to how plants and soils work which gives them a better understanding of how [biological] systems work,” Dunwiddie said.
Dr. Linda Chalker-Scott, associate professor of horticulture at WSU, believes that practicing gardening within the urban environment is beneficial for human well-being, though this is not to say that there are not limitations to the practice as a means of environmental restoration.
“Citizen gardening is not ecological restoration,” Chalker-Scott said. “Restoration requires the use of native plants to restore an area to as close to former conditions as possible.”
While citizen gardening is not considered ecological restoration, the types of plants suitable for crafting a healthy urban environment are not as limited as people might think (though, gardeners should be aware of prevalent invasive species such as Himalayan blackberries or English ivy).
“I recommend using plants that are well adapted to their outdoor conditions,” Chalker-Scott said. “Native plants are not often suited to urban environments. Our urban heat island is nothing like the coniferous forests that used to be here.”
Chalker-Scott also believes that gardening can become a valuable scientific tool, educating people on the nuances of plant biology. While the field of botany is complex, there is benefit in understanding the flora around us and there are many resources available and ready to help people learn.
“I recommend people go online to resources that are science based,” Chalker-Scott said. “Our Garden Professors blog and Facebook group by the same name are exactly that. It's a good place to find current, relevant and peer reviewed information on all aspects of garden and landscape sciences.”
Despite the often debilitating effects of climate grief, a stroll through your local p-patch can remind you not only of the importance of conservation, but the availability of conservation-focused opportunities right outside your front door. Perhaps the opportunity to garden even gives people a glimpse of a connection to the natural environment.
“The outdoors can be life changing,” Dunwiddie said. “It can fundamentally change the way we think and who we ultimately become.”
Reach writer Andy Chia at [email protected]. Twitter: @GreatBaconBaron
Like what you’re reading? Support high-quality student journalism by donating here. | http://www.dailyuw.com/pacific_wave/article_bf24e3d4-07de-11ea-a4dc-271751cbf4b7.html |
A NEW HOME FOR YELLOW COCO CREATIVE NEST
Yellow Coco Creative Nest has been located in Nyuh Kuning, Ubud, Bali, Indonesia. Now a more permanent location is needed as our 3-year lease is up.
OUR VISION
For over 20 years Susiawan and I have been advocating for the arts as a teaching and learning tool in Indonesia, Canada and Japan. We believe the arts
connect us to each other regardless of culture, social status, or community affiliation.
We also believe the arts connects to our whole selves in the deepest ways.
The creative nest is not just a physical place, but it is also a model of education in which we weave the physical, cultural, emotional, intellectual and spiritual experiences of student and teacher, parent and child, to nurture learning and growth.
A key component in our programs and approach is the nurturing of a sense of wonder in connection to where we are as it is this sense that directly feeds the source of our creativity, spirit and humanity and brings us into a deeper relationship to the place
where we are living.
Our vision reaches beyond our local studio to sharing our unique holistic arts model to the rest of the world through workshops and training which supports parents, educators and other interested parties who are interested in a model of education based on
well-being (for all), sustainability and connections to self, others and the world.
Some of the programs we've designed and run are:
Early Years Circle Time (ages 0-4). This is a bilingual program (English/Indonesian) designed to bring families and caregivers with children together to develop kinesthetically, linguistically, socially and emotionally through song, dance,
creative movement, storytelling, drumming, and visual expression. The program also supports cross-cultural connection, knowledge sharing, and relations between parents and caregivers.
Holistic Arts Programs (ages 5-12). This program draws on local stories, mythology, through direct interaction with the people in the community (villagers, artisans, temple priests). From these experiences we share and express what we discover
through multiple modalities (drama, dance, music, visual expression, poetry, storytelling, puppetry) over given periods of time. Arts engagements have included: exploration of local festivals and rituals such as Ogoh2 and Nyepi (Balinese New Year), Rainbow
Foods (organic gardening and healthy eating), and Friendship Across Cultures Through the Arts (a special arts-based multi-lingual program) bringing English-speaking, Balinese-speaking and Indonesian-speaking children together.
Training for Teachers, Parents and Facilitators in our Holistic Arts Education Model. This model is designed to support more creative, holistic approaches to teaching and learning with a specific focus on local sites as a place of learning
through the arts. Participants share and explore holistic program examples, which nurture connections to personal creativity, rhythm of well-being and the interconnection between children/teens/adults to themselves, each other and the natural world.
Performances, Special Events and Ceremonies - Yellow Coco has run many community
performances in shadow puppetry, mime and story theatre by the founders, by visiting artists and by the children who join us in our programs. Special events and ceremonies have been designed and created to mark important cultural events and family rites of
passage which have brought us closer together as a community and acknowledged and provided the container for the recognition of important transitions.
Cultural Programs
We have also been offering a special window on the world of the culture of the archipelago with special programs with visiting students from Southeast Asia and beyond.These programs are hands on sharing both experience, history and philosophy of the various
cultural arts of Bali and the rest of Indonesia.
Community Partners/Affiliates
Over the past 3 years we've worked with the following local and international groups/organizations: Kinderland Jakarta, Dyatmika, Bali International School, Montessori Bali, Ubud Writers and Readers Festival, Odyssey Institute, Fivelements, BaliSpirit, Sunrise
School, Cheeky Monkeys, UNESCO, Asia-Paciific Network for Holistic Educators, Shinwa Women's University, Japan, Kindergarten Nyuh Kuning, Pelangi, Green School and Ubud Homeschoolers Communities, The Spring, Ubud, Yoga Swaha Kids, Indonesian University of
Teachers Training (UPI) - Bandung, Sampoerna Foundation - Jakarta, HUBUD, Bali, Museum Puri Lukisan, Ubud, Bali.
ARTS Research
We're open to and have received researchers interested in learning more about arts as a tool in education and recently hosted a Canadian researcher who was interested the arts and early childhood education from the perspective of traditional Balinese artists
and the traditional arts both in formal and in community based education. We helped to set up all of her interviews with Balinese artists, translated and liased for her to support her research efforts.
At Present
We want to continue our work with our multicultural community as now more than ever the need for such a space and approach that Yellow Coco provides is high. The numbers of families and children in our programs has increased dramatically and the community
has asked for more!
Without a more permanent location, we are unable to continue our work as the rising prices of rental spaces is out of our reach.
Please help us to keep doing what we are doing and deeping our work with the arts and community and support the longer term site.
OUR NEW SITE – Building Relations with Balinese Artists
We have found a location owned by a Balinese family that is just 5 minutes from our present location. On this site, one of the family members has a ceramic studio. For years he has wanted to work out of this studio but it has not been financially viable.
Upon meeting, we knew a there was a creative relationship was in the works. Bringing our two studios together would directly connect the communities of people we have fostered to the unique and talented work of Made. Because of our desire to create our nest
on his site, he hopes to be able to create full time out of his own studio. With local connections with the banjar (community) and klian (banjar head) we've been given the 'thumbs up' to begin to co-create and share with the community.
WE NEED YOU!
With your support we can make this dream a reality.
Please show your support by:
1. Making a donation (however large or small).
2. Share this campaign with colleagues, friends, family and networks by blogging, talking about the project and/or forwarding the link to this campaign. Every level of donation will make a difference! | https://www.startsomegood.com/yellowcoco |
Despite having spent many hours of my life shovelling dirt in the garden (usually with very little success), I never really understood why some gardens prosper while others perish. As someone native to the Northern-Cape, I only knew that no garden will survive without water. The Hoedspruit 1 Circle’s approach to food gardening showed me that community, creativity and curiosity are important ‘fertilizers’ that I missed in my previous gardening endeavours.
This Circle’s gardening improved the community involvement at schools and increased the production and sustainability of their gardens. I am convinced that my future gardening projects would stand a much greater chance of success if I follow similar principles. I also learned lessons from the Hoedspruit 1 story that can be applied in other types of projects and different areas of my life. In the body of this blog, I explore some shining themes from the Hoedspruit 1 projects.
Watch the video above that was compiled by the Hoedspruit Hub on the Hoedspruit 1 mandala gardens (click on the photo of the garden at the top or Click here).
Identifying a Need – Project cause
The need for a sustainable food security solution became apparent to the Hoedspruit 1 Circle during the COVID-19 Lockdown. Many families in the school communities were reliant on food donations, and it was clear that merely providing families with food packets was not solving the food security problem in the long run. Given this need and the fact that several of the circle’s business partners are involved in the sectors of fruit farming and nature conservation, all 8 partnerships decided to pursue food gardening as their PfP school project
Lessons Learned
I really believe that the Hoedspruit 1 Circle’s approach to gardening is one that carries several important lessons reaching beyond gardening projects. I have divided my favourite takeaways from Hoedspruit 1 into three sections: Curiosity, Creativity and Collaboration.
- Curiosity
It might be said that curiosity kills cats, and yet it is the most healing human characteristic. At PfP and SSA I have learnt that curiosity is the opposite of judgement. I personally believe that it is also a key element in growing a thirst for knowledge.
The Hoedspruit 1 Circle and community members attended training by the Hoedspruit Hub and K2C (Kruger to Canyons). These organisations joined forces to organise theoretical training which started before the first shovel hit the dirt, and were of support during the implementation. A key aspect of the training, were the lessons on permaculture. There are many definitions of permaculture. One definition I took a liking to was:
”At the core of permaculture is a philosophy of the art of respecting nature and working with it, rather than against it.”
(Reference #1 See the bottom of the blog for sources)
From what I understood, permaculture proposes that gardeners and farmers should learn from nature. An example is that different plants grow together in nature, because they naturally support each other. Equally, you do not have to replant everything after harvesting as it remains permanent (the ‘Perma-’ in Permaculture). By familiarising themselves with some key Permaculture methods and principles and using a well thought-out, creative, layout of their garden beds this Circle was able to maximise their garden produce per square meter and decrease the work required to maintain it.
Within two months, all the gardens were already contributing to the schools’ nutrition programmes and providing support to the neighbouring community (e.g. by donating to funerals). By the time the Hoedspruit Circle reached its formal closure, at the end of July 2020, several of the mandala gardens were so successful, that they were looking for markets to sell their surplus. At the end of this blog there are links to some permaculture resources I found, and I believe there is much more out there.
- Creativity
What could be more beautiful than a garden in the shape of a mandala? Yet it is the science of maximising production and pairing companion plants, that motivates gardening with this lay-out. After doing research of my own on garden lay-out, I was astounded by how using this beautiful design makes it easier to work in a garden and harvest the produce. Because there is less surface area used for footpaths between beds, the space that can be used for productive gardening is more. This design also supports the irrigation of the Hoedspruit gardens, which an added benefit that I did not even know about. Then again, my gardening knowledge is limited…
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A mandala shaped garden
|This is a mandala drawing|
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Four of the Hoedspruit 1 gardens:
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Dipone Secondary mandala Garden
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Sekoko Primary mandala Garden
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Diphuti Primary mandala Garden
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Molalana Primary mandala garden
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A video I found on a year round mandala market garden (Reference #4):
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The truth of the matter is that creativity and science are closely related. When you add the two magic happens. Uncle Einstein worded it best:
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As a final thought on creativity, I would like to shine a light on how the design of these gardens also symbolise the incredible community involvement that it inspired:
“The circle is the geometric symbol for community”
Peter Block, Community: The Structure of belonging
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- Collaboration and Community involvement
If community is the noun, then collaboration and partnership should be the verb (in my opinion).
I do not think that these gardens would have worked out as well without community involvement or a community centred mind-set. When I am the only person who works in my garden, and gets value from the garden, my enthusiasm fades. After a while watering the garden become a chore. With school veggie gardens and community gardens, there are many more sources of wisdom and energy to tap into.
At most schools in the Hoedspruit 1 Circle, teachers and community members raised their hands to assist not only with the maintenance of the garden, but also with the admin work related to the selling of produce. They were given an opportunity to join the training and learnt valuable skills which enabled them to take ownership of their school’s gardens and sustain them.
The schools and communities share in the literal and figurative fruit of the gardens through the contributions to the schools’ nutrition programmes, and through the donation and sale of produce to neighbouring communities.
I believe the communities and schools further benefit from the gardens through the sense of belonging that working together in a garden provides. That feeling of ‘being a contribution’ that is such an integral part of Partners for Possibility takes a physical form when you can see how your work sprouts from the earth and nourishes others. The beauty of a garden that I plant myself instils a beautiful ‘sense of place’ that connects me to where I live and to my planet.
My understanding of community involvement expanded beyond involving one’s direct neighbours through the Hoedspruit1 story. The government community, social enterprise community and international community are also part of my definition of ‘community’ now. Putting the school at the centre of the community, as per the PfP vision, has also gained new depth for me.
In addition to 250 Spekboom trees used for separation in the gardens, an IDC grant and further donations enabled the following acquisitions for each school: multiple fruit trees including citrus trees, mango trees, a pomegranate tree and a guava tree. In addition gooseberries, herbs, mustard, spinach, cabbage, beetroot, tomato and onion seedlings, as well as seeds were also acquired. The irrigation systems of the gardens were sponsored by Nedbank, the World Wildlife Fund, and the Department of Environmental Affairs’ Green Fund.
Sponsorship from the International Development Corporation and the Government of Flanders further supported their efforts. The Hoedspruit Hub’s support in raising funding and conducting training with K2C was pivotal in the implementation of the project. They remain involved along with the Kruger to Canyon Environmental mentors in doing follow-up training and monthly visits to the gardens.
Hoedspruit 1 has actively employed collaboration and partnership as a tool to attain their goals, with brilliant guidance by LPF Carien Taute. Partnering with other organisations enabled them to attain more sponsorships. Getting a local social enterprise involved and activating the resources and gifts within the Circle itself, was essential to their success. The community involvement that was gained through collaboration and partnership in these garden projects will ensure that the gardens are sustainable, and continue to thrive when the Hoedspruit 1 Circle celebration is a distant memory.
In Closing
There is much more that I need to learn about gardening, before I will be able to grow a garden half as spectacular as Hoedspruit 1, but I now know that organisation like the Hoedspruit Hub, K2C and Skills4All (Reference#5) can support me in my journey.
I am armed with ignited curiosity and the knowledge that I do not need to go it alone, because my community will support me. I am looking forward to finding new creative ways to approach projects, as I have learned the creativity and imagination make dreams of possibility into tangible reality.
Best of all is that, if I adopt the principles of Permaculture, I won’t have to dig so much!
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References and Research
Websites, organisation and videos from this blog post and more resources I found during my research
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Videos
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Hoedspruit 1 and Hoedspruit Hub video
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#4 Year round mandala market garden
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Shea O'Connor Combined School's food garden project
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Permaculture resources
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#1 Permaculture Definition used
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#2 Image of mandala drawing for colouring-in
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https://www.freepik.com/free-vector/floral-background-design_915767.htm#page=1&query=mandala&position=1
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#3 Image of mandala garden in the Mid-West of the USA
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https://www.midwestliving.com/garden/how-your-garden-can-help-you-achieve-ultimate-mindfulness/
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Rural Sprout on mandala gardens
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Permaculture News on mandala gardens
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https://www.permaculturenews.org/2017/03/24/going-build-mandala-garden/
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Permaculture Principles free downloads
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https://permacultureprinciples.com/resources/free-downloads/
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Organisations
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Hoedspruit Hub
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Hoedspruit Hub website: https://www.hoedspruithub.com/
Facebook:
www.facebook.com/hpedspruithub/
Instagram: | https://a-better-africa.com/show/pfp-stories/post/1424/lessons-learned-from-the-hoedspruit-1-mandala-gardens-story-curiosity,-creativity-and-community-collaboration |
The UCSC Arboretum will host “A Party for the Senses” event, an afternoon of plant-focused learning followed by an unforgettable dinner, from 2-7 p.m. on September 17. Attendees will see thriving unirrigated gardens in the summer, get plant recommendations in the time of fall plantings, and connect with a network that is changing our regional landscape. For tickets and more information, visit arboretum.ucsc.edu.
SANTA CRUZ
UCSC Farm offers a free guided tour
Take a free tour of the 30-acre UCSC Organic Farm from 2-3:30 p.m. Saturday. Visitors can enjoy visiting the organically managed greenhouses, hand-crafted garden beds, orchards, row-crop fields and children’s garden, while learning about the history of the site and the concepts of basis of organic farming and gardening. Perched on a meadow near the campus entrance, the farmhouse also offers views of Monterey Bay. For more information or to schedule a guided group tour at another time, email [email protected], visit agroecology.ucsc.edu or calendar.ucsc.edu.
SANTA CRUZ
The Gardeners’ Club publishes the August newsletter
Visit thegardenersclub.org to learn about a variety of gardening topics, including All About Dahlias, Using Vegetables for Stamping Projects, Interesting Gardening Books and much more. Save the date for the annual harvest fair, September 25 at the UCSC farm. The Gardeners Club meets on the second Thursday of the month at the Grange Aptos and is open to everyone.
CALIFORNIA
The Native Grasslands Association is hosting upcoming events
Visit the California Native Grasslands Association website. cnga.org to learn about upcoming events and classes. Landscaping with Nature: Habitat Gardening with Natives in the Built Environment will take place September 21 in Davis. The California Native Plant Society conference will be held September 18-22 in San Jose. You can also subscribe to the monthly newsletter.
SANTA CRUZ
Love’s Gardens organizes micro-tours
Love’s Garden will be hosting micro tours from 2-4 p.m. on September 11. Learn about the water conservation features of two Westside Santa Cruz gardens, including gray water and rainwater systems, drip irrigation, native plants, and more. For more information and to register, visit plantiful-possibilities.eventbrite.com or call 831-471-9100.
SANTA CRUZ
UCSC Arboretum holds a monthly community day
On the first Tuesday of each month, from 9 a.m. to 5 p.m., the Arboretum is open to visitors free of charge. Visit arboretum.ucsc.edu and click on events for more information about the Arboretum. NOTE: Due to limited parking at the Arboretum and the popularity of Community Day, we strongly encourage visitors to carpool, bike, walk, or use public transportation whenever possible. | https://www.eau-bio.com/home-garden-digest-sentinel-of-santa-cruz/ |
Description: Extension Master Gardener Volunteers are often asked to participate in, lead, or offer technical ... MAINTENANCE! Annuals for Ohio Gardens Speaker: Pam Bennett, Associate Professor, State Master Gardener ... Hydrangeas for Ohio Gardens Speaker: Eric Barrett, Mahoning County ANR Educator, Ohio State University ...
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Gardening with Physical Limitations
https://cfaes.osu.edu/news/events/gardening-with-physical-limitations
The Office of Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion in the College of Food, Agricultural, and ... Environmental Sciences is hosting a webinar on how to engage in gardening activities despite physical ... Design solutions to continue gardening with a disability, arthritis, low vision, and other age or health ...
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Backyard Poultry Production
https://franklin.osu.edu/news/backyard-poultry-production
important fact sheets dedicated to poultry. ...
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Change Style Preference: Strengthening Your Capacity to Lead Self & Others through Change
https://cfaes.osu.edu/news/events/change-style-preference-strengthening-your-capacity-lead-self-others-through-change-2
strengthen your capacity to lead and accomplish change within your department or organization. More ... change process; and • Developing techniques & strategies to successfully manage and lead people ...
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Spring Gardening Update
https://franklin.osu.edu/news/spring-gardening-update
social distancing? Gardening is an outstanding family friendly activity with major health and wellness ... garden. Please click here to read the Spring Gardening Update. ...
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EPN Zoom Webinar- April 15, 2020 Ohio State’s Celebration of the 50th Anniversary of Earth Day
https://cfaes.osu.edu/news/events/epn-zoom-webinar-april-15-2020-ohio-state%E2%80%99s-celebration-the-50th-anniversary-earth-day
program to hear from leading environmental and sustainability Ohio State faculty and students, and to ... of Agricultural, Environmental, and Development Economics Special Announcement on Ohio State’s Action ...
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EQ: Don't be a Sheldon online
https://cfaes.osu.edu/news/events/eq-dont-be-sheldon-online-1
IQ tests.” — Daniel Goleman What is Emotional Intelligence? It is the awareness of our emotions that ... Intelligence affects everything you do as you lead your team. Having a high Emotional Intelligence allows you ... to help drive yourself and your team to your highest success Sheldon Cooper is the lead character in ...
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Cut Flowers for Beginners
https://mastergardener.osu.edu/events/cut-flowers-beginners
Cut flower gardens are simpler to have than you may realize. Learn the basic supplies and ...
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Lauren J. Trapani
https://students.cfaes.ohio-state.edu/node/4410
sustainability issues impacting the world, production agriculture, and urban farming. In collaboration with three ... Guatemala. She presented results at the College of Food, Agricultural, and Environmental Sciences ... project lead, in addition to contributing to the chapter’s meetings, projects, and events. As someone who ...
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Winter 2020 Project Green Teacher Graduates
https://franklin.osu.edu/news/winter-2020-project-green-teacher-graduates
nearly 160 plus teachers and others interested in school gardening have completed the series. The series ... is open to educators and others interested in learning how to garden with children in school, ... | https://swel.osu.edu/search/site/testing%20urban%20agriculture%20gardens%20lead%20myths%20facts?f%5B0%5D=hash%3Aifzm5o&f%5B1%5D=hash%3Al1wg85&f%5B2%5D=hash%3Anik7u9&f%5B3%5D=hash%3A7lpb3h&f%5B4%5D=hash%3A4ms6td&f%5B5%5D=hash%3A3szs6a&f%5B6%5D=hash%3A232jhm&f%5B7%5D=hash%3A3nhvnm&f%5B8%5D=hash%3At0469t |
Kent State’s DeWeese Health Center Creates Community Garden to Foster Wellness on Campus; E-Inside; March 6, 2018
Kent State University’s DeWeese Health Center is on a mission to create a culture of wellness on campus that incorporates body, mind, spirit and financial well-being, as well as a sense of community. To this end, the DeWeese Health Center’s Wellness Committee recently accomplished one of its wellness initiatives of creating a community garden focused on growing fresh produce, learning best-practice gardening techniques and managing stress through connection with nature.
Serving on the committee are wellness ambassador Danielle Romig; health educator Sierra Baker; Adel Hanna,M.D.; nurse practitioner Holly Allison; psychologist Jayita Datta; and Interim Chief University Physician Jennifer D’Abreau, D.O.
The garden is a collaborative effort with help from staff of the Kent State Herrick Conservatory Greenhouse, DeWeese Health Center and the Office of Sustainability. Through this collaborative effort, Kent State employees planted and maintained the garden throughout the growing season.
The garden is located behind the DeWeese Health Center, which Dr. D’Abreau says is the perfect location. She was inspired by the garden at the Kent State Women’s Center, and she wanted to see what she could do to create a community garden.
“The garden needed to be esthetically pleasing,” Dr. D’Abreau says. “We found that this location was near a water supply in the back of the DeWeese Health Center, and there was already a fence, natural sunlight and the space avoided utilities.”
Kent State’s Facilities Planning and Operations office had to ensure there were no pipes before planting began, and initially the beds were not deep enough, so they had to go back and make them deeper.
The garden has eight raised beds. Health center staff maintain three of them, and the other five are maintained by Melissa Davis, horticultural facilities director for the Department of Biological Sciences, and Kent State students.
Tom Euclide, associate vice president for facilities planning and operations, piloted the project, and the Office of the University Architect designed the 4-by-8 raised bed layout. The garden was centered on the idea of companion planting, where different crops are planted next to each other in order to increase crop productivity.
“There were different themes for each of the raised beds, but all of them had the commonality of companion planting,” Ms. Davis says. “We planted tomatoes, peppers, cucumbers, pumpkins, gourds, strawberries, okra and marigolds.”
The gardens have started off on a small scale with several little community gardens across campus. Ms. Davis shares her hopes for future expansion and creating learning gardens.
“A learning garden is where students can learn basic principles behind gardening and companion planting,” Ms. Davis says. “Students can learn firsthand gardening skills that they can take home and use in their yards and communities.”
Kent State’s Sustainability Manager Melanie Knowles shared how gardens such as the one at the DeWeese Health Center offer multiple benefits to the Kent Campus.
“There’s the benefit of reducing food miles for the environment, the option of eating fresh, local produce and the affordability of this produce compared to others,” Ms. Knowles says.
Dr. D’Abreau says there’s a lot of space yet to be used within the garden and her hopes for the future are to be able to grow and produce more food for the Kent State community.
“I wish we had enough food so that we could donate it to the food pantry on campus and for those who are food insecure,” Dr. D’Abreau says. “There are a lot of Kent State students and employees who are food insecure, and we have so much land and space we can use in order to produce food for them to have.”
The wellness committee is hoping to begin planting and preparing the beds early this year, so the plants will have a longer time to grow and produce.
“It’s important to have gardens like these on campus for educational purposes, beautifying campus, providing fresh produce, working together to achieve goals and producing locally grown produce,” Ms. Davis says. | https://www.kent.edu/sustainability/news/kent-state%E2%80%99s-deweese-health-center-creates-community-garden-foster-wellness-0 |
Gardening can be one of the most profound ways to unearth the creative spirit buried within every one of us. Once you unleash this creative energy, you will be amazed at what happens in all areas of your life. Here are six ways you can use your garden as a tool for your creative awakening.
1. Explore plants, flowers and nature.
Often the scariest question to answer can be, what do I want? The sheer open-ended boundlessness can be overwhelming. Discovering your wishes is one of the most basic ways to begin unearthing your authentic roots. Here’s where to start. Take a walk in your neighborhood and local parks and arboretums. Take photos of any plant that you like. Visit your local nurseries – take time to touch, smell, look, and familiarize yourself with plants. If you have a nature trail near you, use it. Find a spot outside that you’re drawn to – sit, meditate, write, or just ‘be’. Let the beauty of nature sink into your soul.
2. Open yourself to possibilities.
The process of designing a garden is really all about being open to possibilities — standing before a blank canvas, facing the unfamiliar and opening your mind to seeing what might be. Ask yourself what would you do in your garden if there were no limits on time or money.
What we really want is the freedom to be playful and spontaneous, to be able to say yes when all grown-up reasoning dictates that we should say no or not now. This is one of the main reasons I love gardening. It is out of spontaneity that sometimes the best ideas and creative solutions arise. Play is creativity at work. It is an attitude, a spirit, a point of view and most of all, a way of living life. Play in your garden. Play in the dirt, play with ideas, play with new projects and play with possibilities.
4. Own your unique style.
We all have our own style. So many of us are afraid of owning our unique style — afraid of being thought of as having no taste, or worse, bad taste. But taste is so arbitrary! Who can really say what is appropriate and what isn’t? In order to live authentically, we need to stop concerning ourselves with what others think of us.
I know that I don’t quite fit in with the typical gardening world, and after many years I feel pretty happy about that. I have weeds and mistakes. I don’t plant according to a strict calendar. And I sometimes leave the dead stuff in toward the end of the summer because I like the way it looks juxtaposed against the bloom of new life. Your garden can be a wonderful laboratory for you to define and express your unique style. Forget about curb appeal, what the high priestesses of taste dictate or what types of gardens are “in” right now.
5. Make your own choices.
* Does it fit the tone, vision and style I want for my garden?
* Does it make sense? Is it appropriate for where I want to put it?
What can you do to take a risk?
Think of one risk you’ve been itching to take in your garden. Don’t say no to it right now; just sit with the possibility of doing it. That’s all you need to do for the moment.
Portions of above text taken from my book, Digging Deep: Unearthing Your Creative Roots Through Gardening, which can be purchased on Amazon.
NOW IT’S YOUR TURN. How do you re-ignite your creativity in your garden and/or life?
Fran I have been taking risks for years in the garden and re-inventing it…now I am more comfortable with my style…I plant natives and have taken out invasive bushes. I deliberately compost them so my neighbors won’t plant them. I figure why continue the problem.
The way you relate gardening to life is just lovely Fran. The idea of opening to possibilities really resonates with me, both in the garden and in my experiences.
I for one am glad you don’t fit into the typical gardening world because where you fit is just perfect.
Love these ideas, especially going against the grain and being creative. I listen to planting advice, but usually go with what moves me. Beautiful!
Cathy – I love that you go with what moves you – that’s what gardening is all about!
Fran, I’m not much of a gardener myself — but many of the widows that I’ve started connecting with are. I know that many of them feel like their creativity and aliveness has died out along with their loved one. Your advice is a wonderful gift for them! (and countless others).
Nature is such a great teacher and it shows us every day how death is part of life and how the creative, loving force of nature (and our inner nature) never dies.
It’s wonderful that you can give them practical, doable ways to learn these lessons and re-ignite the life force within.
Halina When dealing with a loss of a loved one, gardening is an affirmation of the cycle of life – it’s a great form of therapy and a tool in the healing process.
Nature is such an excellent teacher, Fran. And gardening is a wonderful way to directly communicate with her. I love the quote about Nature accomplishing everything without being in a hurry.
Your suggestions for igniting creativity through gardening are powerful, yet simple and can be applied in any facet of life. Thank you for sharing your wisdom through this beautiful post!
Always such a pleasure to read your writing!
Part motivational narrative and part garden design advisory, this book puts forth “tools for creative awakening” through gardening. Sorin, the owner of a garden design business and the gardening expert for iVillage.com, takes hesitant but motivated home gardeners by the hand and leads them down the path toward a satisfying horticultural experience. Through a process of designing the garden from concept to plan to plants in the ground, Sorin invites readers to develop a personal vision rather than conform to expectations or rules, offering a series of activities and exercises to guide this process. She focuses on interests and ideas rather than technical concerns with plant life zones (although short lists of items like key tools and rose care are included). Suitable to complement a body of more traditional garden design resources.-Jennifer Burek Pierce, Indiana Univ. SLIS, Indianapolis Copyright 2004 Reed Business Information.
You always thought that gardening would be a perfect way to express yourself and relax. | https://fransorin.com/creativity-exercises/ |
To help us through these difficult times, I’ve asked psychotherapist Dorothy Arnott – an avid gardener – to share her insights on the benefits of gardening for health and wellbeing.
During this challenging time, the earth has asked us to stand still, and through stillness, we often learn the most valuable lessons about ourselves. I believe I’m someone who likes to achieve and be productive, and I’m always working towards a goal. But current circumstances have taught me to slow down, observe more and really look at nature. A horse in a field lives in the moment, enjoying the sunshine, eating grass and living a simple life.
What if we took more time to learn from animals and from nature to live more simply and enjoy simpler pleasures? I’m guilty of being from a “want” generation – another bag, a new dress, a bigger house. But the lockdown has certainly taught me that I really don’t need any of that. Because I have realised I’m equally happy pottering around my house and garden. All I actually need is fresh food and comfy clothes!
Gardening for Health and Wellbeing
One way I’ve been passing the time is listening to podcasts and watching YouTube videos from spiritual gurus to get their take on things. One coach encouraged everyone to “connect with the Earth” which I thought was a really interesting idea. We’ve been taking from the Earth, her nourishment and her beauty without much regard for too long. Now it’s time to look after our planet. Even the smallest changes – recycling more, buying less, and growing more of our own food and becoming more self-sufficient – can surely make a big difference. Caring for the Earth also helps us to live in the moment, as well as calming our anxiety and enjoying simple beauty. Just a few reasons why gardening is good for health and wellbeing, and the advantages of spending time with nature.
Of course, every cloud, as they say, has a silver lining. During the lockdown, many of us have rediscovered the amazing therapeutic advantages of nature on our health and well-being. Whether it’s using our daily outdoor exercise time to take a stroll along the beach, a bike ride, or a jog around the local park. As well as spending more time in our gardens, or tending to houseplants and window boxes. Perhaps we are intuitively seeking out the healing power of nature.
So, it’s time to grab a trowel, fill up your watering can and get down and dirty! Let’s talk about the advantages of nature and gardening for health and wellbeing!
Why gardening is good for us
“Gardening is one of the world’s oldest healing arts.” Donald Norfolk, The Therapeutic Garden
“There’s a real ‘buzz’ about gardening and the health and well-being benefits of just “being” in the great outdoors at the moment. Gardeners have known about the health-giving aspects of spending time in the natural world for millennia, but it has taken the COVID19 restrictions to bring us all to our senses!
So, what makes gardening so powerfully therapeutic?
How can we benefit from it even if we have no outdoor space?
And can gardening help us to cope with the challenges of social isolation?
Read on to find out how attending to plants and weeding your garden can restore a sense of calm, as well as help us reconnect to nature. And also how gardening is good for our health and wellbeing.
Gardens are our sanctuaries
“The idea of gardens as sanctuaries – places of calm and safety – is embedded in many cultures throughout the world. Throughout history, gardens have been a point of unity and connection during times of global fear and turmoil. Likewise, the perfection and harmony of the biblical Garden of Eden and the Islamic paradise gardens are both examples of sanctuary gardens.
And now many of us have our own gardens, allotments, and even window boxes or the local park all of which perform a similar function. We can certainly garden almost anywhere, indoors as well as outdoors. And gardening can definitely help our health and wellbeing.
Most of us have a few house plants, now could be the time to pay them some extra attention, moving them around to create an indoor sanctuary. A place where we can sit and relax surrounded by the healing power of the greenery. Not only that, but plants such as Peace Lilies also help provide cleaner and clearer air. Read how plants can detox your home here.
In our gardens, whatever size they may be, we can similarly create a sanctuary, a space of calm, safety and contemplation. For a busy family garden, this might be a small area that is not colonised by footballs or toys! And in a larger garden, find a low maintenance spot that won’t remind you of all the work which needs to be done. A relatively secluded spot with somewhere comfortable to sit. As well as fragrant plants and perhaps a water feature – ideal for moments of rest, reflection or recuperation.”
Mindfulness in the garden
“Look at the flowers- for no reason. It is simply unbelievable how happy flowers are. “ Osho (1931- 1990)
“ When we forget about work, slow down and observe our natural surroundings, we are already entering a more mindful state. Our heart rate and blood pressure begin to lower, and paying attention to our breathing in fresh garden air or focusing on a particular flower, shrub or tree for just a few minutes can be remarkably grounding and restorative.
However, this is not the only aspect of gardening which can be approached mindfully. Weeding, cutting the grass and propagating cuttings are all tasks that particularly lend themselves to being in a ‘flow’ moment. By attending to the “here and now” helps put worries or concerns aside.
Mindful walking, preferably with bare feet on grass so that we are fully connected to the earth, is also recognised by many to be grounding and beneficial to our wellbeing.“
Connecting to the natural world
“To be part of and connected to the natural world is perhaps the greatest joy of gardening – and also one of the greatest challenges. Being surrounded by birds nesting, hedgehogs rustling, bees bumbling and insects pollinating is delightful. On the other hand, slugs, snails, caterpillars, rabbits, badgers, and deer can be less welcome! How we manage our relationships with all of these creatures can be demanding. But it can also help us to consider and reflect upon our role and responsibilities as part of the world’s ecosystem.
Connection with the natural world definitely brings many benefits, whereas disconnection with nature results in higher rates of physical and mental illness, attention difficulties, and diminished use of senses. Not a recommended way to live our lives. Find out more about Nature Deficit Disorder from Richard Louv.
Gardening is also a very good way to connect with other people. Gardeners share a passion and a language associated with an appreciation for the earth, plants, and wildlife. Not only that, but they also share a commitment to nurturing – and they love to encourage others to join them!”
Bringing out our (self) nurturing instincts
‘Let nature be your teacher.’ William Wordsworth
“Nurturing is undoubtedly integral to gardening. As children, most of us dabbled in growing mustard and cress on damp kitchen roll or runner beans in a pot. This taught us basic biology, gave us an idea about where our food comes from and most importantly, how to look after and nurture seedlings. We can continue to learn lessons about self-care and nurturing from our gardening experiences. Different plants have a different basic need for water, light, soil, and space to thrive, whereas some plants need support stakes while others benefit from hard pruning.
This is similar to our individual needs for the ‘right’ conditions in which to thrive, our varying needs for support and for appreciating when we have ‘overdone it’ and need rest and/or extra nutritious food. In tending for our gardens, we are not only nurturing our plants, but we have an opportunity to remind ourselves of our own self-care needs.
It is especially important to consider what sort of gardening suits us and our circumstances best.
If we prefer an orderly garden or have physical limitations, taking on a large untamed garden or allotment plot is obviously not wise. Nurturing ourselves, accepting our limitations with grace and the abundance of the garden with gratitude are all key lessons that can be learned. “
How gardening helps us grow
“Those who contemplate the beauty of the earth find reserves of strength that will endure as long as life lasts. “ Rachel Carson
“A garden grows people as well as plants. Whilst mindfulness can help us to move to greater acceptance of ourselves, gardening can help us to accept those things we cannot control. Most gardeners are unquestionably philosophical, we have to be. We cannot control the weather, we cannot grow all the plants we would like to because the soil or the situation of our garden is not ‘right’ for all plants.
As we practice acceptance of weather-related threats to our gardens, such as, late frosts, summer droughts, and unexpected high winds and the losses which are experienced, it can help us gain perspective and resilience in the face of ups, downs, and losses in other areas of our lives.
Small spaces and limited resources can lead to us becoming creative as gardeners, another ‘lesson for life.’ For example, a dying plum tree can become a support for a fragrant, vigorous rose or a spectacular clematis. Loss can lead to something new of beauty and value, a reminder of the benefits of acceptance and renewal in our own lives. “
Expanding our experience of abundance, generosity and vitality
“On my bathroom windowsill, I have two varieties of tomatoes, pot basil, coriander, and dill seedlings – an abundance of seedlings! The herbs could remain there, the tomatoes will be potted on into an outdoor space and the extra plants given to friends, family, and neighbours. At harvest time, vegetables can be preserved and stored as well as being shared with others.
Bunches of flowers freshly picked from friend’s gardens or allotments are always welcome, as are bunches of seasonal hedgerow plants. Nature is abundant, full of vitality and this can help us all to connect with our sense of abundance. Which without a doubt, is life-enhancing and encourages generosity.
Gardeners are generous with advice, cuttings and seedlings, produce and more advice! They are clearly passionate, seeing potential where others might see mud and muck, as well as being philosophical about loss and regeneration. In fact, research suggests they are physically and mentally healthier than their non-gardening peers.
Gardening for health and wellbeing
Even if we don’t have outside space, we can all unquestionably benefit from windowsill or window box gardening.
And in these strange days of restricted movement, there are opportunities to enjoy gardening online with updates from Sarah Raven at her garden in Perch Hill, Monty Don at Longmeadow on Gardener’s World, and various re-runs of garden make-overs and garden-related films. Maybe you have a copy of The Secret Garden stashed away!
There is also a wealth of gardening inspiration on Pinterest, Instagram and via interior and gardening magazines and their websites. And you can even take virtual tours of famous gardens!
One of my favourites is Monet’s Garden at Giverny which you can find online at House Beautiful here.
“The lesson l have thoroughly learnt, and wish to pass on to others, is to know the enduring happiness that the love of a garden gives.” Gertrude Jekyll ( Garden Designer)
Advantages of nature
“Lastly, gardening, along with being outside in nature and observing our surroundings mindfully, connects us to a sense of wonder. The first snowdrops emerging from frozen ground, and the delicacy of apple blossom and its amazing floral colour palette. Or the stupendous growth of squashes and pumpkins from such small seeds.
There is always something to be overawed by, and grateful for when the year is over, as plans for the next year emerge like tiny green shoots, symbols of hope and rebirth, something to celebrate.”
Dorothy Arnott is the daughter and granddaughter of gardeners, farmers, and teachers. She loves to share her passion for working with nature with others. As a therapist and counsellor, Dorothy recognises that time spent outdoors is essential to our mental health and wellbeing and she offers walking and talking therapy in nature, in part, to encourage this connection or attachment with the natural world around us.
For further information, contact her here. | https://doesitwork.tv/gardening-for-health-wellbeing/ |
Aside from our Community Food Market program and food skills workshops, we operate the following programs in the neighbourhood:
Kensington-Cedar Cottage Seed Sharing Library: In collaboration with the Kensington branch of the Vancouver Public Library, we started a seed sharing library in the fall of 2013. Throughout each growing season, we will be hosting gardening workshops on a variety of topics. The workshop series is called Seedy Saturdays (after the popular seed sharing events in other cities) and will include a seed swap at each event. So far, our workshops have covered seed saving, starting from seed, specialty gardening, companion planting, and permaculture.
We also have monthly Seed Savers Group that meets April to October. We have seed saving garden plots at the Kingcrest Community Garden across from the library.
Kingcrest Community Garden: The Cedar Cottage Food Network worked with local residents and the Park Board to develop and build a community garden at Kingcrest Park at Knight and Kingsway in the fall of 2014. The garden has 30 plots and 3 accessible beds. We grow seed for the Seed Library inside the Kensington branch of the Vancouver Public Library. E-mail kingcrestgarden[at]gmail[dot]com to put your name on the waitlist for a plot.
Intergenerational Garden Project: Connecting youth and seniors through gardens. For youth 12 to 17 , interested in learning how to grow their own food, email [email protected] to register.
Copley Community Orchard: Copley Orchard is the neighbourhood urban orchard that we have partnered with to offer programs that address food security, build the community, and keep the orchard a healthy green space.
Medicine Wheel Garden at John Henry Park: A learning garden where we grow native and medicinal plants for the community. | https://cedarcottagefoodnetwork.com/projects-events/ |
Sustainable Bellingham is a group of individuals that aims to educate people and assist organizations that share a common concern for the health of our Bellingham and Whatcom County community.
Who We Are:
Community-building Events – We host regular events to enrich and enliven the community and increase networking among the many organizations and groups that contribute to the well-being of our community.
Sustainable Bellingham’s E-mail Announcement List is a vehicle for sharing information about news and community events related to sustainability. One reader calls it “The hub for information pertinent to conscious change.”
Online Community: Our website has been created to be a central place for sustainability related resource sharing, a community calendar, an inventory of currently available human and natural resources, contact information and online forums, sustainability articles, and more.
Our Current Projects:
- Community Seed swaps and distribution
- Salish Seed Guild Garden
- Cascadia Skill Share Fair
- Roving Garden Parties
- Yoga In The Parks
Urban Gardening/Food Not Lawns – A Sub-Team actively engaged in urban garden and lawn to garden projects. | https://www.sustainablebellingham.org/ |
…Grad Stud Fr Social Theory & Educ System…
Education, Gilles Deleuze, French social theory, Michel Foucault, Translating thought,
…Grad Stud Fr Social Theory & Educ System…
Education, Gilles Deleuze, French social theory, Michel Foucault, Translating thought,
Director of the University of Minnesota Press and acquiring editor for projects in digital culture and social theory, including the series Electronic Mediations and Posthumanities. Interested in issues of scholarly communication, publishing, academic culture, and cultural history.
Burton Mack has made a number of important contributions to the study of early Christianity. One of, if not the most significant of these contributions is his use of the analytical categories of mythmaking and social formation in his construction of a social theory of religion. The analysis of mythmaking and social formation in early Christianity brings a critical historical and sociological focus to the study of Christian origins by focusing on the literary aspects of ancient texts, and the social aspects of ancient people and groups, and the dialectical relationship between the two categories. This article reviews the uses and criticisms of the categories of mythmaking and social formation in the study of early Christianity: beginning with Mack’s work on a social theory of religion and his seminal study of the Gospel of Mark (A Myth of Innocence), and moving on to studies that have both taken up and critiqued Mack’s use of the terms.
Dr Sandra Leonie Field is a political philosopher working at Yale-NUS College, Singapore. Her research investigates conceptions of political power and their implications for democratic theory. She approaches these themes through engagement with texts in the history of philosophy, especially Hobbes and Spinoza. More broadly, she teaches and is interested in political thought, theory, and philosophy, both historical and contemporary; moral philosophy, both Western and non-Western; and social theory.
After the death of Josip Broz Tito and under a severe economic situation, the former Yugoslavia went through a deep political crisis during the 1980’s which would end up in the rise of nationalistic leaders and movements, and the country’s break-up by the beginning of the next decade. During that time, the concept of community, central for the theory of self-management socialism and for Yugoslav constitutionalism, became the object of some of the most interesting intellectual reflections. In this paper we will analyze some interventions by the liberal philosopher Zoran Đinđić. We will particularly focus on his critique of Yugoslav socialism and his reflection on the concept of political community, influenced by his reading of the works of Thomas Hobbes, as well as by systemic social theory.
“Race” offers a compelling study of ideas related to race throughout history. Its breadth of coverage, both geographically and temporally, provides readers with an expansive, global understanding of the term from the classical period onwards: Intersections of Race and Gender // Race and Social Theory Identity // Ethnicity, and Immigration // Whiteness // Legislative and Judicial Markings of Difference // Race in South Africa, Israel, East Asia, Asian America // Blackness in a Global Context // Race in the History of Science // Critical Race Theory
My research is predominately in the field religion and social theory, specifically in the field of improvisational conspiracy, the overlapping belief systems of apocalyptic Christian thought and conspiracy theories, and the impact of these beliefs on the American political system. In my doctoral work, my focus has been on the John Birch Society of the 1950s and 1960s and how their form of improvisational conspiracism is linked to contemporary right-wing mobilization. I also have an interest in religion and pop culture, specifically within subversive or marginalized religious movements.
Georges Sorel’s use of the term diremption to describe his method has long been found obscure. This paper shows that the term was associated with Hegel, and that interpreting it in this light can help us make sense of Sorel’s method. Sorel, this is to say, in his revision of Marxism and his social theory more generally, was engaging specifically with Hegelian philosophy. In addition to clarifying Sorel’s method, this perspective allows us both to place Sorel more clearly in his fin-de-siècle context and to draw connections between his work and more recent marxisant theory.
I am a Senior Lecturer in Social Work at the University of Salford. My main research revolves around the experiences of people with mental health problems in the Criminal Justice system. This includes all areas of the CJS but I have focused on policing and mental illness. I argue the CJS has become, in many incidences, the default provider of mental health care. In the area of social theory, I am influenced by Wacquant’s analysis of processes of advanced marginality.and the development of the penal state. I have used has Jonathan Simon’s notion of “governing through crime” to the analysis of the history of community care. I am exploring social work’s response to poverty. I am working with colleagues to explore societal obsession with violent crime. Like all right thinking people, I am slightly obsessed with the Wire.
From Charles Taylor to Marcel Gauchet, theorists of the social imaginary have given us new ways to talk about the shared structures of meanings and practices of the West. Theorists of this group have argued against the narrow horizons of meaning that are deployed by deliberative political theories in developing their basic normative concepts and principles, providing an alternative to the oscillation between the constructivism and the realism. Theorists of the imaginary have enabled us to think about normatively charged collective imaginaries as logically prior to the construction of normative principles. What theorists of the imaginary have not done is make specific connections between the ontological background of social imaginaries and the normative utterance. This lacuna has left them vulnerable to the charges of ‘normative deficit’ and vagueness that Habermas and others famously make against philosophies of ‘world disclosure’. This article develops a conception of the normative utterance that enables us to reason through social imaginaries. In such reasoning, claims are not expressed in the propositional form of the Rawlsian or Habermasian justification, but through a complex engagement with the worldhood that informs normative judgments. | https://hcommons.org/?s=Social+theory |
This unique and insightful book brings together a collection of impactful essays written by former psychology doctoral students that feature hermeneutics as a method of qualitative inquiry.
Philip Cushman brings together eleven chapters in which his former students describe their hermeneutic dissertations - how they chose their topics, their approach to research, what they discovered, what it was like emotionally for them, and how the process has influenced them in the years since completion. The contributors explore important contemporary issues like social justice, identity, gender inequality, the political consequences of psychological theories, and offer fresh, critical perspectives rooted in lived experiences. The book showcases the value and importance of hermeneutics, both as a philosophy, and as an orientation for conducting research which aids in critical, culturally respectful, interdisciplinary approaches.
This is an illuminating reading for graduate students and scholars curious about the hermeneutic approach to research, particularly those engaged in fields like theoretical psychology, clinical psychology, psychotherapy, mental health, cultural history, and social work.
Table of Contents
- Hermeneutics and the Blooming of Mavericks: An Introduction
- Interpreting the Political Meaning of Manualized Trauma Treatment: A Hermeneutic Exploration of Battlemind and the Warrior Cult
- Psychotherapy and the Embodiment of Neuronal Identity
- Emerging into a World of Understanding: A Hermeneutic Exploration of Perinatal Mood Disorder and Clinical Practice
- A Hermeneutic Analysis of Trauma Diagnoses
- Feelings of Enlightenment: Emotion Focused Therapy’s Scientific Cloaking of Enlightenment Values
- Living Truth Between Traditions: A Hermeneutic Integration of Moral Perception and Mutual Recognition
- The Psychological Dissertation and the Voice of the Therapist: From the Indivisible Self to the Land of Intersubjectivity
- Encountering Questions About Being Human: Toward Improving Training Practices for End-of-Life Care
- Psychotherapy, Hermeneutics, and Relationality: Certainty Is a Dangerous Commodity
- Heidegger, Homelessness, and the Adopted Self: An Application of a Hermeneutic Methodology to an Essentially Hermeneutic Psychological Phenomenon.
- Are We Woke Yet? Hermeneutics and the Politics of 21st Century Social Justice
Philip Cushman
Part 1: Critiques of Texts and Practices
Sarah Peregrine Lord
Ari Natinsky
Kathleen M. Pape
Julianne Ludlam
Alex Gomez
Part 2: Philosophical Explorations
Maxim A. Livshetz
Daniel Masler
Part 3: Applying Hermeneutic Theory to Psychological Practices
Susana Lauraine McCune
Scott Perna
William Scott Abbott
MiNa Chung
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Editor(s)
Biography
Philip Cushman is a retired psychotherapist and retired Core Faculty member from doctoral programs in psychology at the California School of Professional Psychology (Alameda) and most recently at Antioch University Seattle, USA. His latest book is Travels with the self: Interpreting Psychology as Cultural History.
Reviews
Hermeneutic Approaches offers a different way of understanding human experience and places it in historical, social, and cultural contexts. Each chapter offers fresh and critical perspectives and treatments of lived experiences and shared worlds. Chapters – all well-written and accessible -- are paradigmatic examples of how hermeneutics may be used effectively in the study of contemporary social and cultural problems. Topics range from neuroscience to PTSD to Peripartum Mood Disorder to relational psychoanalysis to social justice to end-of-life care. It appeals to broad audiences both within and outside the academy, and in the United States and internationally.
Mary Beth Quaranta Morrissey, PhD, JD, MPH, Fordham University Global Health Care Innovation Management Center, USA; co-author of A Public Health Strategy for Living, Aging and Dying in Solidarity: Designing Elder-Centered and Palliative Systems of Care, Environments, Services and Supports.
This remarkable book describes the challenging and meaningful experiences that eleven former students had in writing their hermeneutic dissertations with Cushman's wise guidance. Students (and perhaps some faculty supervisors) are desperate for exactly this kind of concrete guidance -- it fills a unique and important niche both professionally and relationally.
Blaine J. Fowers, Ph.D. Professor of Counseling Psychology, University of Miami, USA.
Hermeneutic Approaches is a unique and thoughtful contribution to the intellectual life of psychology and all the social sciences. There is absolutely nothing of its kind in the world: it demonstrates in every chapter the deep connections between psychology, history, and philosophy, much to the chagrin of mainstream psychology’s claim to be apolitical. This will gain significant traction with several audiences, especially as multicultural and qualitative research push from the margins into center stage.
David Goodman, Ph.D. Associate Dean, Boston College, Lynch School of Education and Human Development, USA; co-editor of Race, Rage, and Resistance: Philosophy, Psychology, and the Perils of Individualism. | https://www.routledge.com/Hermeneutic-Approaches-to-Interpretive-Research-Dissertations-In-a-Different/Cushman/p/book/9780367686895 |
Below are a sample of courses I have taken at the graduate level.
Classes marked by an asterisk (*) were advanced courses taken alongside PhD students.
This course is a PhD seminar in which students will consider a variety of approaches to Old Testament hermeneutics and form a view on more helpful and less helpful approaches, reflect on approaches to the relationship between Old Testament faith and New Testament faith and form a view on more appropriate and less appropriate approaches, and apply these approaches to specific Old Testament texts.
This course is a PhD seminar on the content of OT ethics, on method in the study of OT ethics, and on issues raised by setting the OT in the context of Christian faith and vice versa. To pass the course, students will have demonstrated that they have read a number of the books of the OT and reflected on their ethical significance; considered key questions about the ethical interpretation of the OT; reflected on the relationship between OT ethics and NT ethics.
This course will be a focused seminar on the historical events of 6th – 4th Centuries BCE in Hebrew History, focusing on the events and aftermath of the Babylonian conquests of Judah in 597/587 BCE, the Persian conquests of Babylon beginning 539 BCE, and a survey of Biblical literature that can be reasonably dated to the 6th and early 4thth Centuries BCE. The goals of this seminar include: to become familiar with important examples of (Old Testament) Biblical Literature that illuminate the events of Mesopotamian and Persian relations with Judean territories, focusing on conquest, occupation, and/or exile of Judeans in the 6th and 5th Centuries BCE, and think creatively about the Biblical literature associated with these events by means of examining comparative (and usually much more recent) historical events, as well as contemporary modes of interpretation (e.g. especially postcolonial analysis & social science interpretation), and thereby think creatively about the potential implications of these historical and textual studies for contemporary Christian “Biblical Theology”. Biblical Theology is here generally conceived of as thinking theologically with Scripture as in some sense normative for contemporary Christian faith and practice.
This seminar is intended to ground advanced graduate students in the scholarly conversation about the history of Israel, which is foundational for every other critical method in Old Testament scholarship. Part One: Data and Method. Part Two: Special Topics and Case Studies.
This course will introduce the student to the more important remains of the literature of the Northwest Semitic sphere from the first millennium B.C.E., i.e., Old Phoenician, Old Aramaic, Old Hebrew, Ammonite and Moabite. Upon completion of this course the student will: be familiar with the ancient scripts used in alphabetic texts of the first millennium B.C.E.; be familiar with the basic grammatical forms in Old Phoenician, Old Aramaic, Old Hebrew, Ammonite and Moabite; be able, with the aid of lexicons, to translate texts in Old Phoenician, Old Aramaic, Old Hebrew, Ammonite and Moabite; be aware of the relationship between the Hebrew and Aramaic of the biblical texts and the languages of first millennium alphabetic inscriptions.
This course surveys the changing morphology, syntax, orthography, and phonology of the Hebrew language from an historical perspective. The course will help students gain increased competency in translating Standard Biblical Hebrew as well as gain exposure to the historical grammar of other diachronic phases of the language, such as Archaic and Late Biblical Hebrew. The course will also emphasize the ways in which the history of the Hebrew language informs and is informed by our interpretations of the Old Testament. Students will have demonstrated (1) competency in translating Standard Biblical Hebrew at an advanced master's level; (2) the ability to identify and describe the major phases and dialects of ancient Hebrew; (3) the ability to translate texts from archaic to late periods of the language using standard reference works; (4) the ability to vocalize unpointed Hebrew texts, including both pre-exilic inscriptions and Qumran texts.
This course, the first of a two-course sequence, introduces the language, literature, and culture of Ugarit, giving special attention to the ways that Ugaritology affects the study of the Hebrew Bible. Students successfully completing this course will have demonstrated (1) a working knowledge of the Ugaritic language and proficiency in the elementary principles of comparative Semitic philology (especially comparing Ugaritic with other Northwest Semitic languages); (2) familiarity with the Ugaritic textual corpus in translation; (3) ability to articulate the significant contributions of Ugaritology (a) as its own self-contained field within ancient Near Eastern studies and (b) as it informs the interpretation of the Hebrew Bible and ancient Israelite religion and culture.
This course, the first of a two-quarter sequence, begins to introduces the Akkadian language, and to survey the history and literature of ancient Mesopotamia, giving special attention to the ways that Assyriology affects the study of the Old Testament.
An introduction to the essential elements of the phonology, morphology, and syntax of biblical Aramaic, using the Aramaic portions of Ezra and Daniel. Some attention will be paid to other Aramaic literature for purposes of comparison. On completion of this course the student will be able to read the Aramaic biblical texts aloud, be able to identify nouns, pronouns, regular and irregular verbs and other grammatical forms, be able to identify subjects, adjectives, direct and indirect objects, prepositional phrases, and adverbs and other syntactical units, be able to read a basic narrative text in Aramaic, be able to use lexicons and reference grammars, and will have the tools with which to study other ancient Aramaic texts.
Dr. Mignon R. Jacobs, PhD.
The primary goal of this course is to develop exegetical skills through the Hebrew text of the Minor Prophets (Book of the Twelve), in light of particular contextual aspects. Towards this goal, texts will be analyzed using the methodological principles of concept-, form-, historical-, redaction-, and text-criticism. Specific attention will be given to systematizing various aspects of the exegetical study and discerning these aspects in modern writings and thoughts.
This course is an eclectic approach to a text that has taken on outsized significance in the Old Testament canon. In part, the course takes a "contextual" approach to Isaiah--that is, it attempts to understand proclamations of chapters 40-66 in their original historical and cultural contexts. This entails some study of the Babylonian Exile and postexilic Judah. The course also looks at Isaiah through diverse theological lenses, exploring the ways in which the book of Isaiah has spoken and continues to speak to readers. Finally, the course uses literary methods to study one of the greatest poets of the ancient world. For all these purposes, the original language of the text is of primary importance, so that the course will have a strong emphasis on Hebrew reading. Students completing this course successfully will demonstrate a grasp of the historical and cultural worlds of Isaiah 40-66, skill in reading Hebrew and in interpreting particular texts, especially as works of literature. They will enunciate richer and more uanced perspectives on the theological issues of the exilic and postexilic periods, and also the question of Christian and Christological appropriation of prophetic texts. They will also enunciate their understanding of ways in which Isaiah relates to the faith and life of their communities.
The primary goal of this course is to develop exegetical skills through the study of the Hebrew text of Judges. We will examine the historical, social, and theological background as well as the literary composition of the book of Judges. We will also examine how the book's messages relate to the larger purpose and message of the Former Prophets (Joshua-2 Kings). Some of the important theological topics that we will address in the book include covenant, gender issues, social justice, sin, and community. Students successfully completing this course will have demonstrated (1) an enhanced competence in basic Hebrew and exegetical skills; (2) a fundamental knowledge of the literary forms and thematic context of the book of Judges and how it relates to the larger theological objectives of the Former Prophets (Joshua-2 Kings), (3) an increased understanding of the social and historical background of the Hebrew Bible, and (4) a greater appreciation of the theological significance of the book of Judges within the Hebrew Bible.
The primary goal of this course is to interpret the book of Job in its literary, ancient Near Eastern, and theological contexts. To interpret the book of Job against the biblical wisdom canon as well as the greater biblical canon. To articulate better, more coherent, and more defensible theological responses to the difficult problem of innocent suffering.
The primary goal of this course is to survey the books of Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Ruth, Esther, Song of Songs, Lamentations, and Daniel. To examine the background, structure and theology of Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Psalms. To discuss the setting and development of the Writings of the Old Testament, their impact upon biblical theology, and their contribution to the Church.
Spiritual practices emerge out of spiritual traditions which, in turn, often emerge from thelife and experience of spiritual pioneers. In this course we will explore the lives of eightspiritual pioneers from the contemplative tradition (Patrick of Ireland, Benedict of Nursia, Hildegard of Bingen, Francis of Assisi, Clare of Assisi, Julian of Norwich, Ignatius of Loyola, and Frances de Sales) and the spiritual traditions they founded (or influenced). Within each tradition a spiritual practice will be examined (and often experienced) with an eye to its usein the postmodern church. In addition, these traditions will be put in conversation with contemporary spiritual traditions from the worldwide church. All this will be set in the context of the broad sweep of the history and theology of Christian spirituality.
This course surveys the acquisition and use of language within a cultural context. It examines the relationship of language to culture, language acquisition, and language analysis or linguistics, emphasizing the utility of such knowledge for educators. Stress is given to understanding language’s reciprocal relation with culture, the nature of language systems, and linguistic analysis to enable educators a better comprehension of second language acquisition within learning environments.
Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism are the largest living faiths. Consequences of European and other colonialisms. Students will learn to empathetically understand the religious and spiritual attitudes, thoughts, beliefs, oral and written traditions, decisions, and practices of the Hindus, Buddhists, and Muslims in their own contexts. Students will learn to deal not only with glaring similarities, but also with obvious differences of religious beliefs and identities, various interreligious approaches and proposals.
An introductory survey of the ideas and movements which have helped to shape Western Civilization and of the interaction of those ideas and movements with the Christian Church. Major contributions to the development of theological concepts will be examined from Plato and Aristotle, Augustine and Aquinas through Descartes and Hume. Modern philosophies which decisively influence contemporary theology will be introduced beginning with Kant and extending through present day issues. | http://ericamongegreer.com/courses.html |
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Cultural neuroscience is set to flourish in the next few years. As the field develops, it is necessary to reflect on what is meant by ‘culture’ and how this can be translated for the laboratory context. This article uses the example of the adolescent brain to discuss three aspects of culture that may help us to shape and reframe questions, interpretations and applications in cultural neuroscience: cultural contingencies of categories, cultural differences in experience and cultural context of neuroscience research. The last few years have seen a sudden increase in the study of adolescence as a period of both structural and functional plasticity, with new brain-based explanations of teenage behaviour being taken up in education, policy and medicine. However, the concept of adolescence, as an object of behavioural science, took shape relatively recently, not much more than a hundred years ago and was shaped by a number of cultural and historical factors. Moreover, research in anthropology and cross-cultural psychology has shown that the experience of adolescence, as a period of the lifespan, is variable and contingent upon culture. The emerging field of cultural neuroscience has begun to tackle the question of cultural differences in social cognitive processing in adults. In this article, I explore what a cultural neuroscience can mean in the case of adolescence. I consider how to integrate perspectives from social neuroscience and anthropology to conceptualize, and to empirically study, adolescence as a culturally variable phenomenon, which, itself, has been culturally constructed.
The recent emergence of cultural neuroscience represents an important challenge to the assumption of universality of the neural mechanisms associated with perceptual, attentional and social interaction processes. New data from functional neuroimaging studies mirror findings from cross-cultural psychology research, by showing differential brain activation patterns, in terms of degree and location, among adult individuals of different cultural groups engaged in a variety of cognitive tasks (see Han & Northoff, 2008 for a review). Certainly, with the advancement of neuroimaging technologies, and the formation of new interdisciplinary fields such as social neuroscience, neuroethics and most recently cultural neuroscience, there has been a renewed interest in ‘neural underpinnings’ of categories, or kinds, of people. The possibility of seeing the living brain in action has stimulated a drive to characterize these categories of people—for example, male and female, Republican and Democrat, prosocial and antisocial, Eastern and Western—in terms of neural signatures. Such categories, however, are not natural kinds; they are often culturally constructed, rather than rooted solely in the body or the brain. Cultural neuroscience holds much promise for furthering our insights into the meaning of the differences it finds, and has the potential to shed light on how social and cultural contexts interact with brain development. To do this, however, as this new subfield unfolds, it is crucial to attend to how culture is conceptualized in the design and interpretation of experiments. Drawing on insights from psychology, sociology and especially anthropology will no doubt prove increasingly valuable.
In this article, I use the example of the adolescent brain to discuss three challenges for cultural neuroscience concerning categories, meaning and scientific context, which require careful consideration to ‘culture’ in different ways. First, I suggest that an imperative for cultural neuroscience ought to include an inquiry into historical background of the phenomenon under study and the assumptions underlying it. This would involve an awareness of how a scientific category, such as a particular distinction between people, was shaped, with what goals and imbued with which views of the person or the mind/brain. Culture in this case, therefore, refers to the values and assumptions embedded in the category of adolescence when it was originally conceptualized as an object of scientific study (Daston, 2000). Secondly, I consider how cultural neuroscience can benefit from anthropology in understanding how a given category or experience under study in the lab may have different meanings in different cultures. Here, culture refers to the way in which the developmental environment—the system of beliefs, values, languages and social setting—of the individual is organized. Developmental histories may vary according to differences in, for example, historical customs, child-rearing practices and aspects of physical settings (Super & Harkness, 2002). Thirdly, and related to the first point about history, I briefly discuss the need to be mindful of the broader context in which current scientific knowledge about neuroscience is generated to suggest that culture at large may influence the questions we pose in the laboratory and the applications of the data. Culture in this case refers to the larger contemporary social institutions and practices that influence, and maintain, our ways of knowing as scientists (Hacking, 2002).
Thirty years ago, the brain was understood to be fixed and immutable in its final structure by early childhood. During the last decade, however brain imaging studies have suggested that cortical development is much more protracted than previously thought, and that beyond childhood the brain manifests significant degrees of malleability, peaking during adolescence and continuing during early adulthood (Gogtay et al., 2004; Paus, 2005; Toga et al., 2006). This may reflect human biological attunement to acquire and transmit elements of culture (Fiske, 2009). Adolescent plasticity, then, might be a period of development of cultural niches and the reciprocal shaping of the brain.
The last few years have seen a sudden increase in the study of adolescence as a period of both structural and functional plasticity (Burnett & Blakemore, 2009; Güroǧlu et al., 2009; Paus, 2005). One reason for this heightened interest in the adolescent brain is probably the recent availability of extensive new data sets about brain development. In the last decade, results from structural neuroimaging studies involving large samples of children and adolescents have given weight to previous smaller scale histological studies that used postmortem samples to demonstrate considerable neuroanatomical developments at puberty and beyond this stage, into early adulthood. Specifically, the neuroimaging data—from magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) studies—coupled with the earlier cellular findings (Huttenlocher, 1979) point to experience-dependent rewiring, most likely in terms of synaptic reorganization and increased axonal myelination of evolutionarily ‘newer’ parts of the brain, especially prefrontal and parietal cortex (see Blakemore & Choudhury, 2006, for a review). The evidence that the most pronounced developments are in brain regions associated with ‘higher’ executive functions and social cognition has inspired numerous studies investigating the cognitive correlates of the anatomical developments.
Data gleaned from functional MRI (fMRI) experiments suggest that the development of social emotional processing (Burnett et al., 2008), regulation of emotions (Hare et al., 2008), understanding of intentions (Blakemore et al., 2007), assessment of risk (Bjork et al., 2007), decision-making (Eshel et al., 2007), cognitive flexibility (Crone et al., 2006) and inhibition of impulses (Casey et al., 1997; Luna & Sweeney, 2004) correlate with maturation of the brain during adolescence. Among these, risk-taking and impulsivity are two sets of behaviours that have received considerable attention in adolescent brain research. Drawing on data from in vivo structural and functional studies of the developing human brain, and building on animal models, this research has suggested that heterochronous development of nucleus accumbens, associated with reward prediction, and prefrontal cortex, which subserves inhibition of impulses, account for risky behaviour (Casey et al., 2008). In light of the burgeoning field of social neuroscience and evidence of structural changes in the ‘social brain’ after childhood, the neural bases of social–emotional functioning during adolescence have recently become a new focus of research (Blakemore, 2008). Data demonstrating structural maturation in medial prefrontal cortex, parietal cortex and superior temporal cortex during adolescence correspond to developmental shifts in functional activation in these brain areas during tasks requiring self-processing, and the understanding of intentions and emotions of others. Such studies tend to suggest that the brain has a role to play in the ‘turbulence’ and ‘storm and stress’ (Hall, 1904) that typically characterize teenage life in psychological theories. The model of the maturing brain has thus served as an explanation for many teenage behaviours reported anecdotally with a number of implications for education, social and health policy.
Another reason for the focus on the adolescent brain often stated in neuroscience studies is the concern about adolescent mental health as a ‘public health problem’ (Steinberg, 2008). While most adolescents do not suffer from mental health problems, youth is the stage in life in which mental disorders are often thought to begin. It is increasingly speculated that the maturing brain may be of causal significance. Paus and colleagues, for example, suggest that developmental events during the maturation of frontotemporal pathways may have an important role to play in the development of schizophrenia during late adolescence (Paus et al., 2008). In a recent review, Patel and colleagues have argued that in order to meet the challenge of improving mental health of young people, researchers need to take a global perspective and to pay close attention to culture in terms of both risk factors and protective factors. Cross-national epidemiological studies comparing prevalence of mental disorders in young people aged 12–24 years reveal that rates vary significantly from one country to another, from 8% in the Netherlands to 57% in the USA (Patel et al., 2007). Moreover, within one country, cultural background has important influences on mental health. For example, in the UK, young people of English origin in the UK are four times more likely to suffer mental illness compared to those of Indian origin (Green et al., 2005; Liem et al., 2000). These cultural differences in incidence of psychiatric disorders are relevant for cultural neuroscience. Insights from social and cultural neuroscience—with their emphases on the study of self-concept, understanding of others and emotion regulation—are frequently used to investigate the neural bases of psychiatric disorders. If a major objective of cognitive neuroscience of adolescence is to further insights into mental health (Cody & Hynd, 1999; Nelson et al., 2005), studies in neuroscience that investigate cognition in typically developing adolescents need to engage with the question of culture (Choudhury & Kirmayer, in press). If cultural neuroscience is to contribute to this project, it must acknowledge and incorporate findings from anthropology that show considerable cultural variation in the transition from childhood to adulthood and, first of all, unpack the very category of ‘adolescence’ as we commonly know it in cognitive neuroscience.
In searching for biologically based explanations, scientific research has made important efforts in removing what have sometimes been insidious moral interpretations surrounding certain behavioural phenomena.1 However, given that normative conclusions are often drawn from biological theories, thoughtful scientific inquiry into aspects of personhood, identities, life stages and cultures, specifically efforts to find their functional or anatomical correlates, requires critical reflection about the origins of the categories. There are several sociological and historical theories about the ‘cultural invention of adolescence’ as a category of the lifespan that emerged as a product of modernization and industrialization (Ariès, 1962; Bucholtz, 2002; Coleman, 1961). Here, I will not enter into a discussion about the many social, cultural and economic factors such as shifting patterns of family life, urbanization, changes in employment and the introduction of full-time schooling, thought to have shaped the lived experience and categorization of adolescence. Rather, in this section, I will focus on describing one major historical influence on the contemporary scientific characterization of the features and duration of adolescence, established at the turn of the twentieth century in psychology.
Popular narratives and scholarly discourses are replete with conceptions of adolescent nature, as a troubled transitional period. Most of the available theories about, and definitions of, adolescence as a time of turmoil can be traced back to psychological theories from the late 19th century, developed in Western Europe and the USA. These notions of adolescence stem from the work of the American psychologist G. Stanley Hall, who was steeped in a nativist view of development and concerned with the primacy of nature over nurture, and who was foundational in defining adolescence in modern, scientific terms. While some contemporary researchers challenge Hall's theories, many of the research questions including the recent focus on risk-taking in psychology, psychiatry and neuroscience reflect the legacy of Hall's view in terms of the notions of, and hypotheses about, adolescence. In his two volumes, Adolescence: Psychology and Its Relations to Physiology, Anthropology, Sociology, Sex, Crime, Religion, and Education (1904), Hall laid the ground for new rigorous scientific observation and description of ‘adolescence … a new birth’ (pp. xiii) and a ‘transition stage [of] the soul’ (pp. vii). The scientific category of ‘adolescence’ was developed in a particular historical moment, in which particular cultural concerns were influential in shaping it. Hall was profoundly influenced by evolutionary theory, especially, German zoologist Ernst Haeckel's theory of recapitulation (Haeckel, 1866), which proposed that individual development parallels the historical record of species development (‘ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny’), a theory upon which Social Darwinism was predicated. Hall believed that ‘the child and the race are key to each other’ (Hall, 1904, pp. viii). This view reflected American and European sociological and scientific discourses of the time which linked the individual to society and which were deeply concerned with the progress and decline of mankind (Kaufmann, 2008). In these evolutionary terms, Hall likened children to ‘savages’ and adolescents to nomadic wanderers. As such, evolutionary ladders of individual psychological development from child to adult could be used to calibrate stages of development of cultures in terms of their intellectual and moral evolution. For example, in Adolescence, he described African, Indian and Chinese cultures as ‘adolescent races’, suggesting that the behaviour of these cultural groups represented arrested development. Adolescence, therefore, represented the transition from the primitive to the civilized. This recapitulative theory resonated with the nineteenth century view of the brain as an archive of the evolutionary past, in which ‘primitive’ limbic parts of the brain that develop first are controlled by ‘higher’ frontal areas that are later to develop. In all of these evolutionary theories, amongst which the scientific category of adolescence was developed, metaphors of hierarchy, ladders and transitions into civilization—of the brain, the individual, society and the human race—abounded (Gould, 1977; Smith, 1992; Young, 1990). Hall, along with other ‘boyologists’ and social reformers, was concerned with the transition from ‘the traits of savagery’ (pp. vii) during boyhood to the civilized modern man—a loyal, courageous and patriotic nation-builder. It has been argued that, at the turn of the twentieth century, a period of dramatic social change, the category of adolescence was invested with ideas that reflected preoccupations with nation building and imperialism (Lesko, 2001). Historicizing the category of adolescence that is now used widely to refer to an age bound period often associated with ‘psychological turmoil’ provides an insight into the cultural concerns that influenced its development. The category of adolescence, formed in the early twentieth century is deeply entangled with the normative and socio-economic dimensions of Western industrial societies.
While much research demonstrates that adolescence is a historical product, a recent large-scale ethnographic study has suggested that a ‘social stage intervening between childhood and adulthood in the passage through life’ exists across most cultures (Schlegel & Barry, 1991, p. 8). At the same time, increasing evidence from neuroscience is pointing to structural and functional changes in the brain during this period. What then does the historical construction of a scientific category mean for experimental investigation? Adolescence is of course ‘real’ in the sense that the category is used to organize many aspects of social life from the level of healthcare and education down to individual experiences. However, the facts about adolescence—its duration and its features—are also bound up with the social and cultural conditions in which it is experienced, studied and understood. Cultural neuroscience is well placed to deal with such contingencies by bringing an awareness of how the defining features of a category may differ depending on context, to the experimental design. It can, for example, use ethnographic data about child development, socialization processes and emotions to investigate the relationships between these culturally shaped processes and neural processes, as well as to guide the design of appropriate experimental stimuli.
Research suggests that in many contemporary cultures, development does not correspond neatly with adolescence as a distinct category of the lifespan bound by ages 10 and 19.2 For example, research carried out in Bangladesh, showed that childhood can extend up to puberty for those children attending school and without economic responsibilities, while those who enter employment are not considered children as soon as they begin to work, even if this is at the age of six (Blanchett, 1996). Other research has suggested that among the Hmong people, there is no middle transition stage between childhood and adulthood; instead at ages 11 or 12, adulthood begins as childhood ends (Tobin & Friedman, 1984). Currently, most of the data in neuroscience experiments are drawn from groups of individuals enrolled in particular schools and universities in the UK and USA, most likely representative of only certain socioeconomic status. Given the cultural differences in transitional periods between childhood and adulthood, age alone, as the defining markers of this category can therefore be inaccurate and seem arbitrary. The task of cultural neuroscience in this respect would be to investigate how neurocognitive developments interact with particular proxies of the cultural environment, and to consider when ‘adolescence’ as a category is useful to account for a particular cognitive difference, and if not, to conceptualize alternative variables that may relate to the cognitive process being studied.
If we assume that a transitional period of the life cycle, akin to adolescence, organized around puberty and of variable length, exists almost universally, the next question is what forms it takes and whether its features, too, are universal. Ethnographic research in Somoa conducted by anthropologist Margaret Mead brought the issue of cultural difference in the experience of adolescence to the fore. Her book, Coming of Age in Samoa (Mead, 1928) famously challenged Hall's ‘storm and stress’ model and argued that Samoan culture influenced psychological development of girls in such a way that the transition from childhood to adulthood was smooth and lacked the ‘natural’ turbulence with which it had been characterized by the evolutionary view. Unlike American culture, Samoan culture, she argued, did not place judgements and pressures on adolescents and was more relaxed, for example, in its views about sexuality. All of these factors were thought to make Samoan adolescence relatively tranquil and enjoyable and led to Mead's assertion of the primacy of nurture over nature. While Derek Freeman later critiqued Mead's culturally deterministic approach for a number of methodological reasons (Freeman, 1983), her ethnographic approach has been important for subsequent cross-cultural approaches to adolescence. Since then, a sizeable literature in psychology and anthropology has developed which has addressed cross-cultural differences in adolescence.
Schlegel and Barry's cross-cultural study of adolescents in tribal and traditional societies using data collected from over 175 societies around the world demonstrated that adolescence as a distinctive, socially marked stage of life is ubiquitous. These researchers put forward a biosocial theory, arguing that the social stage of adolescence is a response to the development of the reproductive capacity (Schlegel & Barry, 1991; Schlegel, 1995). Most notably, however, these cross-cultural studies challenge the notion that features of ‘storm and stress’ and a period of psychological crisis are universal inevitabilities in adolescence. For example, while mild forms of antisocial behaviour were present in some societies, it was certainly not generalizable as a feature. Similarly, aggressive and violent behaviour occurred in a minority of cultures and when present was heavily gendered with aggression in girls being particularly low. Cross-cultural researchers stress that the meanings of developmental tasks associated with adolescence such as the establishment of independence or autonomy may differ according to culture, and may be subject to change over time. For example, developing independence in some cultures may mean taking on duties to care for siblings or elders, and not necessarily separating from adults and orienting towards peers (Chen & Farrugia, 2002; Trommsdorff, 2002). Based on a study comparing five cultures that could be contrasted as ‘traditional’ and ‘modern’ or ‘collectivistic’ and ‘individualistic’, Trommsdorff suggested that ‘turbulent’ features such as intergenerational conflict stem from the focus on attaining independence from parents during this period and are linked to cultural values of individualism in Western societies (Trommsdorff, 1995). Certainly, in many cultures, particularly in pre-industrial societies, adolescence is not marked by such a characterization or psychological turmoil, and thus, both the characterization and length of this life stage vary according to culture. Puberty, too, which is clearly grounded in biology across cultures, interacts with the local environment. Menarche, which marks the beginning of puberty in girls, is occurring increasingly early in industrialized countries such as Japan or the USA. This finding may be connected to changes in dietary intake (Berkey et al., 2000). Even if puberty could be the biological marker of the start of adolescence in every culture, the end point is less clear.
In summary, adolescence conceptualized as a prolonged period of identity development linked to increased autonomy, intergenerational conflict, peer-relatedness and social psychological anxieties, is not the norm across cultures. Indeed, these features seem to depend on degrees of individualism, social/economic role expectations, gender and class (Dasen, 2000; Saraswathi, 1999). A historical appreciation of adolescence as a category of science as well as cross-cultural investigations of the experience of adolescence demonstrates that characteristics associated with this developmental stage may not only have biological bases but also social and cultural origins. Neural differences between ages could then lead us to examine the quality of the differences in terms of the associated experience and cultural meanings.
Culture is of course a heavily contested concept. Therefore, careful conceptualization and appropriation of culture and its proxies are crucial. It is important that geography, culture, ethnicity and race are not conflated, in order to avoid cultural essentialism. Within a country and an ethnicity, there is enormous intracultural variation (Gibbons, 1998) of ways of living and thinking, while others may be shared across countries or ethnicities. The construct of race, for instance, has a political history and, as a reference to skin pigmentation, is a generally unhelpful measure of difference where neuroscience is concerned. The use of race in the brain sciences has historically been coloured by ideological motivations related to racism and colonialism. All of these, conceptualized as categories of self-contained cultures that can be used to compare groups of people in scientific experiments, are challenged by globalization. The movement of people, of ideas about ways of living and ways of being and the transmission of knowledge through various media mean that most cultural communities are increasingly heterogeneous and give rise to hybrid identities (Kirmayer, 2006). Cultural neuroscience must acknowledge these changes and look for meaningful and measurable proxies of culture that cut across fixed, geographically bound conceptions of culture, and bear relevance to young people in increasingly fluid and diverse contexts. Such proxies may, for example, relate to measures of individualism/collectivism, interaction patterns with others, family size, diet, aspects of personality, caregiving, life stresses, or school settings. For example, a number of studies among Argentinian infants, US American children and adolescents, British and Finish adults using both behavioural and neuroimaging methods indicate that poverty—indexed by various measures such as personal and family income—is negatively correlated with performance on executive function and memory tasks (see Hackman & Farah, 2009 for a review). The causal relationship between socioeconomic status and differences in neurocognitive function is an important topic for future research.
Anthropology has generated a very complex discourse of culture, and it is exactly such complications cultural neuroscience needs to consider when designing and interpreting experiments that investigate the interaction between brain function and (some aspect of) culture. Super and Harkness (2002), for example, propose that culture ‘is usefully conceived … as the organization of the developmental environment’ (p. 270). They conceptualize culture as operational in three subsystems—(a) physical and social settings, (b) historically constituted customs and practices and (c) child rearing and the psychology of caretakers. The physical and social settings are the settings of daily life for example patterns of sleep and wakefulness, degree of early gender segregation, the amount/type of verbal interaction directed towards infants by caregivers. Historically constituted customs can be construed as community-wide solutions to child rearing, for example adult circumcision rituals in certain African cultures, or more routine, how to carry babies to keep them out of danger. The final subsystem is the psychology of the caregivers including beliefs concerning the needs of children and the community goals of child rearing. All of these aspects of culture are likely to influence cognitive development in adolescents. Indeed contemporary cross-cultural psychology research demonstrates that emotional understanding (e.g. Liem et al., 2000), moral reasoning (e.g. Skoe et al., 1999), behavioural inhibition (e.g. Rubin, 1998) and self-concept (e.g. Kuebli et al., 1998; Offer et al., 1988) in adolescence vary in different cultures.
More recent neuroimaging studies have shown that the neural structures supporting self-processing develop during adolescence, and their maturation may reflect different cognitive strategies in self-related judgments (Pfeifer et al., 2007; for a review see Sebastian et al., 2008). However, self-construal is strongly contingent upon culture with varying emphases placed, for example, on individuality, social, environmental and spiritual connectedness with styles of child-rearing having a strong role in shaping ‘cultural selves’ (Quinn, 2003). For example, Japanese infants are born into a culture where the self in a social matrix frequently comes before the self as an individual. Accordingly, naturalistic behaviour studies have shown that American children at 2.5 and 6 years exhibit more independence-related behaviour than their Japanese counterparts, who exhibit more interdependent behaviour (Caudill & Schooler, 1973). Neuroimaging studies have shown that in adults, the neural systems associated with representations of the self, relative to others, are modulated by culture (Chiao et al., 2009; Han & Northoff, 2008; Kobayashi et al., 2007; Zhu et al., 2007). The cultural differences in brain activation were interpreted in light of differences in individualist and collectivist cultures and their constructions of the self. Specifically, in individualists (as indexed by a questionnaire) the neural activation pattern was more distinct for the self and other, and in collectivists the activation patterns overlapped. It is also likely that culturally shaped ideas of the person influence the development of cognitive and neural processing of self during adolescence. One task for cultural neuroscience to avoid reifying cultural stereotypes in the lab, is to recognize the heterogeneity of cultural values within groups, for example within ‘Western’ and ‘East Asian’ groups as have been compared in recent studies.
In addition, cultural neuroscience needs to unpack concepts such as ‘self’ and ‘moral reasoning’ and acknowledge cultural differences in their very construal and in the way that they may be experienced. Designing paradigms that tap culturally relevant meanings of the concept under study is an important challenge for future studies. As some researchers have pointed out, ‘to explain what is going on in the black box is not to explain what is happening for the black box’ (Zahavi, 2004). Experiments in cultural neuroscience focusing on adolescence would benefit from additional methods to incorporate the structure of first person experience in ways that can be categorized and validated to understand how neurophysiological processes in the brain relate to what is happening for the adolescent (Gallagher, 2003). Triangulating on complex cognitive processes such as those involved in social cognition, by bringing together multiple levels including functional and structural MRI data, behavioural data as well as introspective reports, may provide richer insights into the meaning of differences in brain structure or function during development, and indeed in studies aiming to compare groups in cultural neuroscience studies. Retrospective reports can gauge several aspects of the task not captured by standard reaction time or BOLD responses to stimuli, such as the participant's understanding of the task, strategies employed, and a broad picture of the subjective experience of performing the task (Jack & Roepstorff, 2002). Such introspective reports might be especially helpful in making sense of group differences when performance levels are comparable, for example between age groups in developmental studies, but when neural activity differs.
Biological approaches to culture are certainly not new, and the field is marred by a difficult history. Scientific approaches to culture are clearly shaped by culture at large, and have in the past depended on ideological and practical motivations. A critical, that is, reflexive, cultural neuroscience, must acknowledge and examine the links between the cultural context in which neuroscience is practiced and the object of neuroscientific inquiry, itself (Choudhury et al., 2009). Cross-cultural psychology has already shown us that cognitive phenomena are shaped by social and cultural contexts of the person (Nisbett & Miyamoto, 2005). Cultural neuroscience has corroborated this in showing that the functional activation of neural structures supporting these cognitive processes is also modulated by cultural context (Han & Northoff, 2008). Scientific inquiry, including the making of neuroscientific knowledge, is itself a cultural activity, shaped by a number of social, economic and political factors, including the concepts employed in experiments, as described above. Neurocognitive phenomena, that is, the brain-based explanation as well as the actual observed neural processes and corresponding behaviour, are therefore shaped by systems of neuroscientific reasoning and methods of observation at any given moment. The epistemic culture of neuroscience in this way influences both the hypotheses and interpretations (Knor-Cettina, 1999; Young, 1995). From the research questions thought to be interesting, useful and worthy of funding, the assumptions about concepts and categories scientists work with, to what technologies are considered more objective and the potential applications of the findings, neuroscientific phenomena are subject to a range of cultural determinants beyond the laboratory.
Objectifying an identity, stage of life, culture or behaviour in terms of the brain interacts with the experience (and likely, the neural correlates) of that which is classified. Philosopher of science, Ian Hacking has called this kind of interaction between classification of people and their ways of being the ‘looping effect of human kinds’ (Hacking, 1995). Here, this idea of looping by no means aims to pit a constructivist argument against a realist science. Rather, it holds that while neuroscience reveals real phenomena about behaviour and its instantiation in the brain, the cultural context of neuroscience interacts with scientific knowledge claims and influences the experience of the people to which they pertain (Hacking, 2002). To give a concrete example of bio-looping, in psychiatry, the interaction of social and cultural processes that shape an individual's understanding of, and attention to, the body directly interacts with the experience of (and possibly biological reflections of) particular symptoms in psychopathological phenomena (Kirmayer et al., 2004; Kirmayer, 2005). In the case of adolescents, it is possible that culturally and historically shaped concepts of normal adolescence used in science, defined as a transition period of emotionality, risk taking and so on, create a space of possibilities of how to be, with which young people can constitute themselves, and which may in turn be encoded in the brain. Characterizing these behaviours in terms of the brain has the effect of reifying the classification, stabilizing it both as a neuroscientific phenomenon and a way to be an adolescent (Males, 2009). Recognizing that neuroscience itself is a cultural activity that may influence those under study by utilizing concepts and ways of seeing that are culturally and historically contingent reminds us that culture is not a ‘thing’ or an essence located in the brain that can be ‘revealed’ by neuroscience. Finally, it is important to acknowledge that adolescents are also producers of youth cultures, whose behaviours are not simply a consequence of being positioned within culturally or biologically sanctioned life stages (Wulff, 1995).
In this article I have drawn together insights from multiple disciplines to propose initial ideas about how cultural neuroscience can approach the subject of adolescence. Such an approach would recognize the many origins of adolescent behaviour, from the historical roots of ‘adolescence’ to the plastic nature of the brain, the dynamic social environment and the cultural scripts of adolescence, all of which shape subjective experiences of adolescence as well as knowledge about adolescence.
I have suggested, using available data from psychology and anthropology, that psychological turmoil is not an inevitable aspect of adolescence driven by the brain, across cultures. Rather, historical and ethnographic research demonstrates that the duration and characterization of adolescence are culturally contingent. Features such as risk-taking and increased incidence of psychopathology are certainly thought to be associated with adolescence in many cultural contexts. While existing neuroimaging studies of brain development in Euro-American contexts may demonstrate biological reflections of developing cognitive skills pertaining to these features, these differences do not demonstrate neurobiological causes of universal problem behaviours. The differences found in these studies can instead open up new questions and lead us to study more closely the contextual and experiential correlates—including socialization processes, economic roles, family roles, social and economic disparities—of these neural differences, by breaking down ‘culture’ into a number of possible indices, beyond just ethnicity or geography. Nuanced conceptualizations of culture will help to develop our understanding of the knowledge, schemas and practices associated with neural differences.
How can cultural neuroscience work within a framework that does not give primacy to either the brain or culture? One possible way is to blur the common distinction between ‘nature and culture’, or the brain and culture, and integrate an understanding of neurocognitive mechanisms with the social and cultural practices in which they are embedded. If the brain is in constant interaction with its context, then such dichotomies are untenable. Certainly, recent advances in genetics demonstrate clear bidirectional interactions between the brain and environment during development (e.g. McGowan et al., 2009). Cultural neuroscience must work towards developing an integrative explanation of how ‘meaning and mechanism’ intersect via the brain (Seligman & Kirmayer, 2008), and how this subsequently shapes behaviour. This echoes the social ontology of neuroarchaeology (Gosden, 2008; Renfrew et al., 2008), an interdisciplinary approach that emphasizes a ‘brain-body-world’ interaction in which none is causally determinant, but rather holds that human experience unfolds through an equal input from materials in the world and people. With respect to adolescent cognitive development, the corresponding developmental view of ‘bio-cultural co-constructivism’ (Li, 2006) usefully captures the interaction between the brain and culture in guiding cognitive development. Social neuroscience demonstrates that humans are endowed with certain neural dispositions to social stimuli and that the functional activity of the associated brain areas may shift during development. Cultural neuroscience might take this further to examine the interaction, reinforcement or ‘looping’ between processes that are neurally instantiated and those that are culturally scripted, during development.
The idea of studying brain–world interactions is certainly not new to neuroscience—there is, for example, a wealth of data demonstrating the interaction between the visual cortex and the environment, pointing to the role of the environment in shaping brain structure and perception. In this case, however, culture, arguably the most important part of the human environment, is particularly complex, especially in a globalized world. The way in which culture is measured and understood in the lab, therefore, requires careful scrutiny. Studying (the development of) the ‘encultured brain’ (Lende, 2008) requires a genuinely interdisciplinary approach. Cultural neuroscience is already building on findings from cross-cultural psychology. Bringing together methods and theory from anthropology promises to enrich experimental design and interpretations in cultural neuroscience. Transcultural brain imaging provides useful information about how individual brain function may be modulated depending on an aspect of culture. However, what are the real world thoughts, events, meanings and experiences that correspond to these neurophysiological processes? Pursuing the answers to this question requires a cultural neuroscience that incorporates insights from multiple disciplines to investigate the way in which behavioural phenomena are connected across many levels—neural processes, cognitive phenomena, culturally shaped behaviours and expressions—and recognizes the many locations of culture that shape the cognitive processes we study, and the way in which we study them.
None declared.
I am grateful to Max Stadler, Kelly McKinney and anonymous reviewers for thoughtful comments and suggestions during the development of this manuscript.
1For example, research in neuroscience has led to the shift towards the widely accepted explanation of autism as an organic developmental disorder, from previous psychoanalytic views that held the mother accountable.
2WHO (2005).
PubMed Central Canada is a service of the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) working in partnership with the National Research Council's national science library in cooperation with the National Center for Biotechnology Information at the U.S. National Library of Medicine(NCBI/NLM). It includes content provided to the PubMed Central International archive by participating publishers. | http://pubmedcentralcanada.ca/pmcc/articles/PMC2894667/?lang=en-ca |
We aim to foster a love of the Arts and use Drama as a tool to enable students to develop key skills in speaking, listening, reading and writing that will prepare them for their future.
Drama allows students to communicate with and understand others in new ways, whilst developing practical aspects of communication so necessary in today's increasingly information-centred world.
Students will learn to express themselves creatively and imaginatively, working collaboratively with their peers to develop confidence, resilience and co-operation through teamwork, devising their own pieces of meaningful drama and realising text in performance.
We aim to stimulate creativity in problem solving, challenge perceptions about the world, develop empathy of others and provide an outlet for emotion, thoughts and dreams within a wholly inclusive and safe environment.
Through an extensive range of topics stemming back through theatre’s rich history of mime and pantomime, to more thought-provoking and innovative styles of contemporary and physical theatre; students develop necessary skills to create and develop performance work, apply theatrical skills in performance, explore design roles in the industry and develop analytical and evaluative skills to appraise their own and others work, including the work of professionals. The topics and texts explored explore a diverse range of cultures, allowing students of all backgrounds to engage with and enjoy their learning in the subject.
Our extra-curricular programme extends learning and enjoyment beyond the classroom, allowing students further opportunity to create, perform and design for theatre in a more professional manner as part of our clubs or productions. We also aim to provide the opportunity for students to experience the wonders of professional live theatre, through an array of theatre visits.
Curriculum Overview
By Year 11 a student of Drama will have:
- developed knowledge and understanding of the characteristics of performance text and dramatic works including; context, staging, design elements and vocal/physical interpretation of role.
- developed creative skills to develop thought-provoking ideas and communicate meaning in a devised theatrical performance.
- developed analytical and evaluation skills to critically appreciate their own performance work and the works of professional theatre makers.
- developed the ability to interpret performance texts and communicate meaning to live audience, realising artistic intention in text-based drama.
By Year 13 a student of Drama will have:
- developed an informed, analytical framework for making, performing, interpreting and understanding drama and theatre.
- developed understanding of a range of theoretical research in informing the processes and practices involved in creating theatre and the place of practical exploration in informing theoretical knowledge of drama and theatre.
- developed an understanding and appreciation of how the social, cultural and historical contexts of performance texts have influenced the development of drama and theatre and understand the practices used in 21st-century theatre making.
- developed a range of theatre-making skills, creativity and independence to become effective contemporary theatre makers. | https://www.canon-slade.bolton.sch.uk/Curriculum/Drama/ |
Karl Marx (1818–1883) did not address the problems defined by Dilthey, but his approach to the problem of historicism was in some ways continuous with historicist hermeneutics. Marx's theories also had a major impact on social scientific approaches to the study and interpretation of history. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831), the nineteenth-century German idealist philosopher whose views Marx modified, saw history as the unfolding manifestation of the human spirit. According to Hegel, the human spirit will eventually reach a truly revolutionary stage in which it will be able to see through itself for the first time. This radical philosophical view of spirit developing a consciousness of itself was transformed by Marx into sociological language. Knowledge and consciousness can be socially constituted and grounded only in a distinct human subject. But such a reflexive and revolutionary consciousness will not develop in just any subject. The subject and the knowledge for this development has to be special—that is, specially located in history. For Marx, this historical process can be realized only through the embodied consciousness of a human subject whose social and historical location provides it with the privilege to achieve such awareness. This subject is the proletariat—the social class within modern capitalism that embodies the historical forces that will provide it with the capacity to see itself as an object produced by history (Marx and Engels). In this manner, Marx turned the problem of epistemology (the problem of knowledge) into a historicist sociology. All forms of knowledge are expressions of human activity and practice, and such knowledge can be grasped only as manifestations of the historical conditions in which they take their social form. In essence, culture, ideology, ethics, religion—the entire enterprise of knowledge making—is a reflection of the historical mode of human production, a process ultimately rooted in human labor. This history remains unseen, un-grasped, misunderstood, misrepresented by ideology. Thus estrangement or alienation—the inability to see the underlying reality—characterizes human history and can be overcome only by the historical rise of a human subject situated in ways that enable this kind of critical consciousness to take hold.
Much criticism has been leveled at how Marx privileged economic and material aspects at the expense of the cultural realm. Certainly, the problem of culture was not a central concern for Marx. Culture was relegated to the "superstructure" where ideas, values, ethics, and ideology circulated as fictitious echoes and reflections of the "real" activity of labor and the materialist dimensions of the class struggle. Yet Marx's views are crucial to the modern enterprise of interpretation, especially in the idea that subjects, actors, and texts cannot exist as autonomous entities or things in themselves, but are rather fundamentally immersed in social and historical contexts. In this manner, Marx's sociology, notwithstanding trenchant criticism, consistently challenged interpreters to understand that practices and texts are inseparable from social and historical conditions. The implications for interpretation were profoundly expanded. The most discrete activity was to be connected to the broader material, social, and historical formation. Whether it be a specific tool or element of technology, a cultural ritual, a poem, a scientific treatise, or a social institution under examination, the interpretive task is to understand the element in relation to a social totality (mode of production). Marx's seminal view—the historicist view of all things in the human world—remains a vibrant aspect of twenty-first century interpretation.
In contrast to Marx's theories, the sociology of Émile Durkheim (1858–1917) marked the rise of the cultural approach to the social sciences in which the study of symbolic production is central. For Durkheim, the underlying phenomenon to be interpreted is solidarity. Only through representations is human solidarity and society made visible and open to sociological interpretation. Thus, when cultural and religious solidarity is violated, the preeminent indicator of the collective response is repressive/penal law. Punishment expiates the sense of violation. In Durkheim's sociology the realm of cultural life is brought into view and interpreted through the study of symbolic and semiotic practices that express the underlying cultural cohesion but also govern and maintain it. This makes Durkheimian sociology a fundamentally interpretive enterprise. The social and cultural realm can be grasped only through symbolic production, because it is instantiated in and organized through it. Although Durkheim insisted on a social reality instantiated through routine cultural practices that sociology was to ascertain, his major contribution to modern cultural interpretation was his emphasis on the formal study of representations.
The hermeneutic insistence on identifying with the inner logic of a socially embedded subject also shares some traits with what the Scottish moralists David Hume (1711–1776) and Adam Smith (1723–1790) called human "sympathy" (A. Smith). It is in Max Weber (1864–1920), however, that historical hermeneutics finds a direct link to sociology. For Weber, the primary challenge for sociological interpretation is to decipher the modes of meaning and the forms of rationality characteristic of social activity. These forms of organized meaning ultimately have a cultural dimension, but for Weber the task was to grasp them as modes of rationality. The formulation and interpretation of modes of rationality provide the sociological keys to understanding the everyday practices of individuals engaged in organized activity. Drawing on the ideas of Dilthey and Heinrich Rickert (Hughes), Weber argued for a sociology that places interpretation at its core. According to Weber, "interpretive sociology considers the individual and his action as the basic unit, as its 'atom.'… The individual… is the upper limit and the sole carrier of meaningful conduct.… Such concepts as 'state,' 'association,' 'feudalism,' and the like, designate certain categories of human interaction. Hence it is the task of sociology to reduce these concepts to 'understandable' action, that is without exception, to the actions of participating individual men" (Gerth and Mills, p. 55).Weber synthesized both earlier hermeneutic currents as well as Marxian historicism. Yet he did not share Marx's faith in a notion of history that operates inexorably and fatefully to create a privileged subject (the proletariat) and instead placed the emphasis on the underlying rationality that makes every cultural formation a sociologically interpretable phenomenon.
With the work of Karl Mannheim (1893–1947), the problem of interpretation took a formidable turn toward the "sociology of knowledge." Mannheim shared the concerns of Dilthey, Marx, and Edmund Husserl, who insisted that the act of knowing and interpreting is always bound to social conditions. Thus, for Mannheim all knowledge was partial knowledge. Because of social context, a group can achieve a certain interest-based quality of understanding and generate in turn knowledge and truth claims based on views from its vantage point. These claims, however, can be understood (sociologically) only as elements in a pluralist arena of competing views, which are also relative to their location, social position, and point of view. The interpretation of a cultural expression thus hinges not only on the intrinsic meanings held by actors and subjects but also on a comprehension of the limits imposed by the location and conditions of the subject's social origins. Consistent with pluralist and relativist aspects of Franz Boas's anthropological writings, Mannheim's sociology of knowledge insisted that cultural views—statements, beliefs, values, literary productions, and so forth—always bear the stamp of their context. | https://science.jrank.org/pages/9817/Interpretation-Hermeneutic-Interpretive-Impulse-in-Rise-Social-Studies.html |
India is a vast subcontinent that is made even more vast by the sheer diversity of its coexisting cultures. To experience the true depth of this country would take a lifetime.
Theology and Religious studies program in India gives you an opportunity to visit religious sites in another culture and continent. Immerse yourself in the deep rooted history of India, stimulate curiosity about a variety of religious cultures, their histories and the present condition. This program will enable you to analyse and evaluate a range of political, social and cultural practices using methodologies drawn from the disciplines of Religious Studies. Participants will have the opportunity to study the beliefs and practices of various Indian faiths in historical perspective and with relevance to their modern expressions.
Enriching life experience along with the study opportunities, social work in India, observation of and participation in the social culture, the food, festivals, geography, wildlife and music, as well as academic enhancement. An opportunity to learn basic Hindi language. It will give you the chance to join an educational or vocational expedition, which would give you the depth of experience and the personal interaction and sharing.
You will be exposed to the religious observations through speaking to hosts and direct observation and participation at ritual events. This experience will enhance your academic study of religious studies by increasing cross cultural understanding and knowledge that is incomparable.
This program focuses on the role of religion in society. This enables you to think about the origins of religion in its various forms of expression. You will also witness the issues such as poverty and inequality, social justice, racism, etc. in the context of religion and theology. | http://ilsap.org/theology-and-religious-studies/ |
The narrow perspective of the medical/psychiatric model of care doesn’t adequately consider advocacy groups in its concept of community health care. The central issue to positive mental health, and the resolution of life problems, such as alcohol or other drug challenges, gambling, abuse, etc., is partly vested in a robust recovery management system that is sensitive to the spiritual and cultural needs of consumers. The continued indifference in clinical assessment protocols of ethnic and cultural identity is a significant variable that impacts a person’s concept of belonging and further defines a person’s relationship to the dominant cultural standards of health. The mental health professions appear reluctant to embrace a program of healing that includes people with the “disease” who believe that long term recovery from their “disorder” is not just biological and psychological but also communal and spiritual. This historical neglect of recovery-oriented supportive communities is one of the helping professional’s greatest weakness.
Keywords: Psychiatric model; Community health; Alcohol; Substance use; Gambling
Introduction
Professionals working in the field of substance use and abuse are engaged in a movement away from the conventional diseasetreatment model of care, with its emphasis on diagnosis and subsequent treatment, to a more holistic approach to recovery resilience and transformation. This approach addresses the mind/ body/spirit in its entirety and reflects an understanding of the power that faith, spirituality, personal empowerment, and community have on the healing process . However, as revolutionary as this model may be for many practitioners within the helping professions, this holistic approach to healing human suffering traces its practices throughout the religions of Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Taoism, and the first Earth-Based religions [2-4].
While there are still theologians who preach that natural disasters are God’s wrath against human frailties, many present-day faith leaders have adopted a more complex view of behavioral health challenges.
Religion and spiritual leaders in the post-modern era emphasize a human race fallen out of harmony with the natural earth and living in isolation from family and community. Through the excessive and careless misuse of resources, humans have set the globe on an unsustainable course. Technological advances have empowered humans to travel, explore space, or communicate via the internet with colleagues anywhere in the world. This empowering communication has not stopped the pace of human experience from being more isolated or dehumanized as a people or a nation .
Faith and Spiritual Communities as a Form of Healing
Part of humanizing the above technological advances can be found in the faith and spiritual communities. Buddhist practice encourages a return to a more ecologically balanced way of being in the world to preserve our natural resources, sustain the entire population, and engage in the community as a sacred experience. Doctrines from all the major religious faiths urge the act of giving to others. The Third Pillar of Islam is almsgiving. Buddhist practice underscores giving to those in need as the beginning of the path to Nirvana. Judaism teaches the act of doing a good deed for another as a path of the book of life. In Hinduism, Vedic theology promotes the sharing of personal wealth with neighbors in one’s community who are less fortunate. A basic tenet of Christianity is to give relief to the needy and bring comfort to others who are suffering. These deeds may pay homage to one’s faith, but the act itself is also a form of building and strengthening one’s community. These deeds are a recognition that the human condition is a shared cultural and collective experience and honors the mutual relationship between individuals, families, and their communities [6,7].
While human pain and the human condition, in general, predisposes us to existential crisis and feelings of disempowerment at both the individual and communal level, the practice of rites, rituals, and ceremonies traditionally acted as a path to recovery, resilience, and transformation. Rites and rituals that constituted religious practices, empowered believers, gave them a structure for creating meaning out of their suffering and offered a path to spiritual healing. A Cree Indian word, Oenikika, translated as the breath of life, was the traditional purification ceremony practiced by First Nation people in the Americas. A sweat lodge was built from branches, covered with tarps and blankets, and contained lava rocks and fire to emit steam. Specific ceremonies varied from tribe to tribe. Still, for all Native people, who use this tradition, the ceremonial lodge was constructed for sacred space, time for prayer, transformation, and healing of the spirit .
Historically, these practices of religion through rites, rituals, and ceremonies not only created meaning to human existence, but they also fostered a culture of community and group cohesion and identity, as opposed to a more isolated and dehumanizing sense of identity. For example, during the Oenikika Ceremony, as many as thirty tribal members sit in a circle at one time offering prayers of thanks and praise for the Great Spirit. After worship, the participants bring in food and gifts for the medicine man or woman leading Oenikika; this practice of gathering together for thanksgiving, prayer, and healing solidified social values and strong communal bonds .
The historical shift of one’s collective identity, which had solidified social and communal bonds, at least for Native and African people who endured holocausts, the destruction of kinship models, the tearing of the fabric of their very cultures was not a simple matter of free choice. Humans experience the self in isolation rather than in the community, where the immediacy of human contact once gave accurate feedback on how people connect. Instead, community and cultural experiences were defined by mass media and technologically based social networks. Large portions of society prefer to tune into reality television shows such as Survivor to watch human beings creating a false community. Internet-based social networks such as Facebook and Twitter have become the alternative meeting places for connecting with friends, family, and acquaintances. These artificial constructs, reality TV, Facebook, Twitter, etc. continue to create what Fromm (1941) described as a discrepancy between one’s “authentic self ” and creates a “psychic dissonance” that erodes emotional health .
Categorization and Assessment of Mental Health Challenges
The isolation of the human experience in conjunction with the biomedical perspective (as opposed to the psychosocial or spiritual) of psychoanalytic theory helped the emerging behavioral health professions join the mainstream of “medical science.” To be recognized by the nineteenth-century medical community, the science of mental health had to develop a system in which complex psychic phenomena were explained in terms of more straightforward, physically measurable data that followed scientific laws and were reasonably predictable. Historically, if the above science did not develop, the study of mental health would be reduced to non-scientific or mystical explanations. In turn, it would negate the evolution of the assessment and treatment of mental health issues and have a significant impact on the legitimacy of the evolving profession of psychiatry and, to some extent, psychology .
Historically, Sigmund Freud’s break with Carl Jung was more about the mundane effort to separate behavioral health challenges from religion and spirituality to join the mainstream scientific medical community. The need for diagnostic labels, which attempt to explain life in a singular dimension, primarily physical and mechanical, with little consideration to one’s culture or spirituality, was a necessity if the emerging profession of psychiatry was to establish itself as a part of medicine. Although psychiatry has tried to merge biomedical, psychosocial perspectives and, to some extent, spirituality in the diagnosis of behavioral health issues, the language does not sufficiently disguise its biomedical bias. Surely psychiatric labels do help one converse with professional colleagues and comply with managed care requirements (reimbursement agents). Still, the person in front of the therapist is more than a label and higher than modern science .
The Community Mental Health Movement
In 1961 a national mental health study was published titled “Action for Mental Health.” The study attempted to shift the care for “psychiatric patients” from the state mental health hospitals to community- based facilities. The Community Mental Health Act of 1963 established mental health centers, consultation, and prevention, and to provide services to as many people as possible from all different cultural perspectives. These new Community Mental Health Centers (CMHC’s) were intended to change society overall and solve various social problems. While this new “community psychiatry” approach extended an atmosphere of hope and optimism in the communitybased psychiatric field of practice, it fell short of its goals.
The initial intent was to deinstitutionalize the warehousing of people in long-term care psychiatric hospitals in which most physicians believed that treatment was the exception rather than the rule. Partly based on the ignorance of the medical perspective and the new wave of psychotropic medications in the 1950s and early ‘60s, people were being released into the community with a “bag of medicine” with no integrated aftercare plan. The 1963 report, “Action for Mental Health,” promised a psychiatric revolution of care and treatment that would shift to the home environment of people receiving services. The enormous amounts of money that would be saved because people receiving psychiatric care would no longer be hospitalized would be redirected to the entire community through community psychiatry. As we know today, the state hospital population was dramatically reduced, but only a small fraction of the money followed the patient into the community .
Almost sixty years later, the medical model of care that put individuals into the asylums was primarily responsible for moving the mental health problem out of the dark ages of the state hospitals and into the dark ages of community psychiatry. Practitioners in the field changed their name and shifted the place of practice to health care but, overall, continued to oppress and relegate people receiving services to second-class citizenship. The inability to abandon traditional medical models of care by many psychiatrists, and to lesser degree psychologists and clinical social workers, significantly contributed to the failure of the community mental health movement. The minimal success of psychosocial rehabilitation approaches stands in direct contrast to the continuing community health disaster of people living with serious mental health issues who share with their peers living with addictions and those who had formally committed crimes a sense of helplessness and despair. Without reinventing asylums or discovering a magic bullet to cure serious mental health challenges, the field of behavioral health continued to rely on mental health policies, practices, and services without adequate financial support for community care .
The community mental health movement has mainly failed because it was unable to deal with the community, its culture, its definition of deviance, its stresses, and its supports. Furthermore, it has given no more than lip service to the community prevention of mental disorders (health issues). Psychiatry is quickly withdrawing from the community and returning to the hospital before the failure becomes too apparent .
Culture and Ethnicity
Generally, culture is expressed as a shared, learned, system of values, beliefs, and attitudes that shape and influence perception and behavior. Culture is expressed through traditions, customs, art, folklore, history, norms, and institutions of a given people. Ethnicity (at times referred to as minority membership) is an integral part of one’s culture and must become an essential part of one’s behavioral health recovery. At present, there is insufficient research on the relationship between ethnic and cultural differences and their effect on the assessment, diagnosis, and treatment of dysfunctional behavior. Research on personality and maladaptive behavior has increased about similarities and differences and the impact these differences have on individuals living in different communities [15,16]. Differences become relevant in that clinicians must understand and be comfortable in their world views, be knowledgeable about the world views of the people receiving services and attempt to understand these views without making negative judgments [17,18]. Unless counselors consider the social, cultural, and community context of an individual, it is almost impossible to understand that person’s struggle. For example, research on cross- cultural comparisons of emotional disturbance and its expression has shown that depression often has very different meanings and interpretations in different societies. Most cases of depression worldwide are experienced and expressed in real terms of aching backs, headaches, fatigue, and a wide assortment of other somatic symptoms that lead individuals to regard this condition as a physical problem. Only in contemporary Western societies is depression seen principally as an intrapsychic experience .
Clinicians need to take account of cultural factors concerning cultural variations in emotional expression, body language, and religious/spiritual beliefs and rituals within societies such as the United States.
To transform health care delivery, stakeholders in the behavioral health community had to re-evaluate the way they assess individuals while being sensitive to an individual’s culture and ethnicity regarding diagnosis and treatment. The purpose of diagnosis is to identify areas of disruption in an individual’s life that harm current behavior and lifestyle. The danger in this restrictive perspective is that the clinician will often fail to consider ethnic and other cultural and community factors that influence behavior. The need for a more environmentally sensitive classification system, one that acknowledges the role that cultural and community factors play in behavioral health issues, and clinical judgments about them, is a topic of much debate. Historically, this cultural insensitivity has led to labeling (stigmatizing) individuals with inappropriate disorders. Certain behaviors and personality styles, when taken out of their ethnic or cultural context, could be viewed as deviant or dysfunctional when, in fact, they were culturally congruent. There is increasing pressure for practitioners to become more knowledgeable, comfortable, and skilled in working with individuals from different cultures, ethnic backgrounds, sexual orientations, genders, gender identities, and religious/spiritual orientations. A multicultural strength-based concept focuses on what the person is already doing that is successful .
The strength-based perspective of direct multicultural engagement is a paradigm shift away from the historical treatment emphasis on psychopathology, disease, and disorder. It attends not to personal deficits but accents resilience, strengths, gifts, and capacities. The strengths perspective is primarily a philosophy or way of interpreting information about our body, mind, and spirit that reinterprets self- defeating behavior, guilt, feelings, and dysfunctional relationships. The strengths approach is a more positive framework in which an individual’s life struggles are viewed as healthy, intelligent, and emotional responses to life events that might involve unwelcome incarceration, psychiatric hospitalizations, ethnicity/nationality, cultural differences, etc. The goal of all human interactions is to assist with the identification and augmentation of an individual’s strengths and resources. There is an expectation that resources exist both in the person and in their broader environment. It is assumed that the individual and the individual’s supporters know best how to utilize these resources .
The strength-based perspective allows one to view “pathology” from a broader wellness transformative function. This perspective is particularly relevant to behavioral health challenges and the development of resilience and protective factors in children and adolescents because it helps people recognize the more expansive worldview that one must create and make a part of their new reality . This new worldview system brings a different perspective to an otherwise blind life during mental health or alcohol and other drug challenges .
Assessment
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) of the American Psychiatric Association discusses no real distinct cultural or ethnic patterns that could influence the diagnostic process and, in turn, bias an evaluator from pursuing a strength-based plan. The DSM does not deal with cultural variations in the expression of maladaptive behavior. Even though culture and ethnic background do influence symptoms and etiology of many disorders. Cory cautions the clinician about misdiagnosis .
Diagnostic assessment can be especially challenging when a clinician from one ethnic or cultural group uses the DSM classification to evaluate an individual from a different ethnic or cultural group. A clinician that is unfamiliar with the nuances of an individual’s cultural frame of reference may incorrectly judge as psychopathology those normal variations in behavior, belief, or experience that are particular to the individual’s culture.
Many social scientists believe that ethnic identity is a significant cultural variable that impacts a person’s concept of belonging with other members of a subgroup and defines the individual’s relationship to the dominant culture. These shared influences can affect a person’s willingness to seek help concerning mental health challenges. Additionally, a person’s cultural perspective impacts how he/she may describe his/her problems to a professional worker . Concerning shared experiences, the counselor doesn’t need to be in recovery or a survivor of trauma to help an individual. What is more important is that the helper possesses or is receptive to a similar set of feelings and struggles. Sometimes our differences are as significant as our similarities. If an evaluator is oblivious, apathetic, and unskilled regarding a person’s values, beliefs, and customs, his/her culture, ethnicity, or recovery has little if any bearing on the individual’s competence. Insensitive Euro-Americans (Whites) are just as problematic as insensitive African Americans, Asian Americans, Latinos, or Native Americans. Cory in discussing culture in clinical practice, established some practical guidelines for working effectively with people from diverse populations :
• Learn more about your own culture and how it has influenced your behavior and thoughts about others
• Identify for yourself underlying assumptions about culture, race, ethnicity, gender, etc
• Expand your knowledge and experience with other cultural groups
• Learn to find your common ground with people of diverse backgrounds
• Recognize the importance of being flexible in the application of techniques that benefit different cultures
Two factors need to be emphasized concerning the above guidelines:
• Many Euro-Americans (Whites) have limited experiences with communities of color, their cultures, and their concerns and often labor under the belief that the ways of the dominant culture are preferred. Generally, Americans continue to go to different schools, live in non-integrated neighborhoods, attend segregated churches, and socialize in different parts of the community. Social scientists, as well as many others, believe that groups who live separately have difficulty understanding each other, trusting one another and generally, know very little about the social and cultural realities of individuals with different world views. Book knowledge about culture is not the same as living with and experiencing different cultures. Too often, individuals enter the healing professions with no meaningful contact or exposure to other cultures
• The interpersonal relationship or the development of effective therapeutic relationships foster the kind of respect, professional courtesy, and competence that helps experienced, skilled practitioners work effectively with culturally dissimilar people. Expertise in assessment and treatment requires that the counselor have enough breadth and depth in (1) cultural awareness and sensitivity, (2) a body of multicultural knowledge and experience, as well as, (3) a specific set of practice skills
If culture and ethics represent the vehicle in which we travel through life, the interpersonal relationship is the fuel that moves us through our life process. How the body, mind, and spirit become acquainted with one another is through our ability to interact with the environment and community. That interaction between conscious and unconscious activity balances the arrogant and insensitive, reads the non-verbal gestures, facial expressions, etc. and it helps shape the social encounter, leading to self-management and social competence. Without the interpersonal experience, there could be no journey, and without the tour, there could be no path to recovery. Counselors of various therapeutic orientations widely accept that human interaction is an essential part of the helping relationship. The core social interaction skills needed to help people develop better-coping behaviors focus on Empathy (accurate understanding), Respect (positive regard), and Genuineness (congruence). Through empathy, genuineness, and unconditional positive regard, helpers create the foundation for services that promote recovery and resilience in people experiencing behavioral health challenges [27-29].
Conclusion
A comprehensive view of recovery from drugs and alcohol must be sensitive to an individual’s culture, ethnicity, and encompass an individual’s whole life, including mind, body, spirit, and community. The assessment should holistic and includes addressing selfcare practices, family, housing, employment, transportation, and education, clinical treatment for behavioral challenges such as primary healthcare, dental care, complementary and alternative services, faith, spirituality, social support networks, and community participation. The array of services and supports available should be integrated and coordinated.
References
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- Gitterman A , Germain CB (2008) The life model of social work practice: Advances in knowledge and practice (3rd edition). New York, NY: Columbia University Press. p: 632.
- Scoles P (2020) Faith, spirituality, and resilience in recovery. Kindle Publication.
- Null G (1998) Secrets of the sacred white buffalo: Native American healing remedies, rites and rituals, paramus, NJ: Prentice-Hall, pp: 350.
- Fromm E (1941) Escape from Freedom New York: Rinehart and Co.
- Scoles P (2019) Assessment and service planning in recovery. CA: Cengage Learning.
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- Geller JL (2000) The last half-century of psychiatric services, as reflected in psychiatric services. Psychiatr Serv 51: 41-67.
- Murray JE (1975) Failure of the community mental health movement. Am J Nurs 75: 2034-2036.
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- Jenkins JH, Kleinman A, Good BJ (1991) Cross-cultural studies of depression. In J Becker and A Kleinman edition, Psychosocial aspects of depression. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc, pp: 67-99.
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- Scoles P (2020) Building recovery resilience through culture, community, and spirituality. J Behav Health 9: 1-5. | https://www.scitechnol.com/peer-review/spirituality-culture-and-the-process-of-assessment-in-recovery-CAaS.php?article_id=11035 |
The Religious Studies Department at Chapman is dedicated to providing innovative and interdisciplinary courses that incorporate new directions in the study of religion and advances in scholarship.
Religion 329: Quantum Physics,
Cosmology, & Consciousness
In this unique course, students will be exposed to the latest scientific theories that investigate the role consciousness plays in our understanding of our cosmos, our brain, and our human condition. Topics such as quantum superposition, non-locality, and multiple dimensions will be juxtaposed with readings from Hinduism, Buddhism, and Daoism. No background in advanced science or religion is required.
Religion 322: Topics in
Theology: Feminist Theology
This course will focus on feminist theology, tracing its development in historical and cultural context and examining major issues raised by feminist theologians such as biblical interpretation, women in Christian history, patriarchy in church and society, global contexts of patriarchy, and roles of women in non-Christian religions.
Religion 329: Happiness: Exploring Its Spiritual and Rational Foundations
This course, taught by Prof. Gail Stearns and Adjunct Professor of Religious Studies, Prof. Jay Kumar, explores "happiness" as an underlying orientation to life, as defined and cultivated in the scriptures, practices and contemplative traditions of Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism and as understood through neuroscience and contemporary survey research findings. View flyer
Religion 335a: Hinduism and Religions of India
Dr. Phyllis Herman and Rev. Nancy Brink will lead a group of students to India in a 17-day, three credit course, to take place from January 7-24, 2013, with three days of on-campus lectures preceding the trip. The course is a study of the historical development of Hinduism and other religions in India; the texts, practices, and worldviews that characterize the various paths to liberation and salvation; and the dynamic interrelationships between followers of Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, and Sikhism in this region.The new class will travel throughout India including locations such as New Delhi and Jaipur. For more information on the course, please read through the syllabus and description of the trip.
Religion 329: Health, Healing, and Wholeness in World Religions
This course, taught by Dr. Jay Kumar, explores unique conceptions of health and wholeness found in major world religions, articulated through myths, symbols, texts, archetypes, and healing traditions. Health paradigms and concepts of wholeness from both earlier and contemporary interpretations of the Bible, Qur’an, the Vedas, and Buddhist literature will be examined, and global healing traditions from antiquity to the present will be explored using a multidisciplinary approach that combines religious study, archetypal psychology, cosmology, philosophy, art and medical sciences. Click to view flyer.
Religion 324: Discovering the Self through the Gospel of Mark
Interpretation of the New Testament (Formerly Rel 305)
Join this journey into discovering the self through spiritual narrative, taught by Prof. Gail Stearns. In the first half of this course, learn to read the Gospel of Mark as a narrative of Jesus’ life. In the second half, read biographical accounts of additional spiritual leaders from Christianity and other religious traditions. And throughout the course, learn methods of discovering and writing your own spiritual narrative. Click to view flyer.
Rel. 380: Law and Religion
Professor Lorin Geitner of the Chapman Law School will teach this course exploring the place and nature of law within a wide range of major religious traditions and cultures around the world, as well as laws about religion, particularly in the U.S. context, including the history of the First Amendment religion clauses and religious issues in American case law. Current debates related to issues of religion in law will be addressed such as capital punishment, gay marriage and teaching of religion in public schools. Click to view flyer.
Religion 213: Judaism: History and Religion
This course traces the history, beliefs, literature and practices of Judaism from its beginnings in the biblical period to modernity. Taught by archaeologist and historian of ancient Israel Prof. Julye Bidmead. Click to view flyer.
Religion 214: Introduction to Christianity
This course, taught by Prof. Rafael Luévano, provides a historical introduction to Christianity, including important events, key figures, defining beliefs, and theological perspectives, as well as the forms and expressions of Christianity, including contemporary ones. The divides between Western Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant traditions will be considered and various theological methods and schools will be explored, including modern Christian theological movements.
Honors 366: Deities and Demons: Ancient and Modern
Students in the University Honors Program are invited to embark on a journey with Prof. Julye Bidmead to ancient Mesopotamia through an examination of myths and rituals from the “cradle of civilization.” Our journey moves thematically through the literature exploring creation, afterlife, deities, magic, witchcraft, sexuality, and gender roles, with special attention to modern expressions of these ancient themes. This Honors course counts for religious studies credit. Click to view flyer. | http://chapman.edu/wilkinson/religious-studies/academic-programs/new-courses.aspx |
The unit gives an introduction to contemporary interpretation of the New Testament by reading it as a collection of different kinds of literature and by exploring the historical, cultural and social backgrounds of the New Testament writings. It introduces some methods used in the exegesis of biblical texts and explores some of the issues surrounding the application of the ancient writings to contemporary contexts. A series of incremental topics will be covered during the semester, presenting both an overview of the literature and specific study of representative sections of biblical material.
Unit code: BN8741Z
Unit status: Approved (New unit)
Points: 24.0
Unit level: Postgraduate Foundational
Unit discipline: New Testament
Proposing College: Uniting College for Leadership and TheologyShow when this unit is running
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Explore the historical, cultural and social contexts of the New Testament
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Analyse the use and limitations of selected methods of interpreting the New Testament
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Discuss the literary structure, rhetorical features and key words of certain New Testament texts
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Evaluate the contemporary relevance of specified texts and draw hermeneutical meaning from these texts
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Employ knowledge and skills developed in the unit to critique and develop resources suitable for selected ministry context(s)
A Level 8 unit in postgraduate theology and ministry awards
UCLT uses primary and secondary sources considered through different lenses to identify and explore the challenges of the unit material for the contemporary world. Students are engaged in a range of comparative, analytical and reflective practices to identify the original meanings of the text in their contexts and to interpret them hermeneutically. | https://ums.divinity.edu.au/unit/BN8741Z/public |
This course, through the use of the final two stages of Erickson's developmental model, facilitates the development of a framework which is utilized to assess the experiences and needs of the older adult and their families. Course requires a minimum of 25 volunteer hours with older adults.
Study of social, cultural and gender differences and issues related to counseling clients with various backgrounds, beliefs and concerns. Includes multicultural counseling techniques.
Topics designed around special theories, practices or interests in the field of counseling.
Examines use of standardized tests to study individuals, including test development, selection, administration and interpretation. Includes educational and mental health applications.
Focus on theory, research, techniques and tools used in life planning, transitions and career development.
Examination of psychological, social, intellectual, and physical influences on the development of personality and behavior patterns in children, adolescents and adults.
Examination of major theories and systems pertaining to abnormal behavior. Studies implications for psychotherapy and treatment planning and diagnosis using DSM-IV. Prerequisite: Minimum of 15 semester credit hours of graduate counseling coursework.
Examination of current and classic research linking biological factors to deviation of human development and behavior from what is considered to be the norm. Includes the impact of revolution in neuroscience on the etiology, diagnosis, and treatment of abnormal behavior. Study physiology of the central nervous system and how it triggers behaviors associated with a variety of DSM-listed disorders including depression, anxiety, addiction, and psychosis. Prerequisite: Minimum of 15 semester hours of graduate counseling coursework.
Examination of theories of personality development and therapeutic processes. Consideration of techniques for counseling applications and professional consultation.
Theories of group counseling. Includes techniques of observation, assessment and leadership in therapeutic groups.
As a preparation for Clinical Internship, students will expand their knowledge of the multi-axial system, DSM-IV/DSM-IV-TR diagnostic categories, differential diagnosis, and treatment planning. Emphasis will also be placed on the clinical interview and other initial assessment techniques, as well as skills critical to selecting and evaluating treatment options.
Introductory course presenting an integrated view of effects on personality development of childhood trauma, abuse and deprivation. Therapeutic interventions examined. Cross-listed with ACG 8400.
Exploration of ways to integrate science and ethics of psychology with social, cultural and faith contexts of the Christian mental health professional. Emphasis on historical, philosophical, and theological perspectives of spiritual formation and growth. Prerequisite: 15 semester credit hours of graduate counseling coursework.
Examination of traditional and contemporary theories of family systems and approaches to marriage and family counseling. Prerequisite: 15 semester credit hours of PYC/PYF courses.
Course provides students with knowledge and skills necessary to understand issues related to human sexuality. The course will explore the application of major human sexuality models in different cultures and worldviews.
Examines theories, techniques and applications of play, art, music, dance and other expressive therapeutic approaches. Prerequisite: Minimum of 15 semester credit hours of graduate counseling coursework.
Introduction to patterns, causes, assessment and treatment of substance abuse and other addictive disorders. Student begins preparation of required portfolio. Prerequisites: PYF 7132 and PYC 7922.
Covers biopsychosocial components of addiction, such as risk factors; physiology of cravings, withdrawal, detox; physical effects of substance abuse and other patterns of addiction; dual diagnoses; psychopharmacology and treatment options. Prerequisite: PYC 8142.
Course provides a multidisciplinary/multidimensional discussion. Topics include risk factors, outreach services, pretreatment, community education, referral networks and prevention activities in schools, the workplace, community groups, health care delivery organizations and others. Information is presented on best practices and care for select populations. Prerequisite: PYC 8142.
Integration of counseling foundation coursework and art applications and approaches. Content from individual and group counseling, human development, multicultural awareness, abnormal behavior, assessment and professional ethics and practice. Multi-arts expressions include, but are not limited to, art, play, music, dance/movement, drama, and writing. Prerequisite: Minimum of 15 semester credit hours of graduate counseling coursework.
Course provides knowledge and understanding of the ethical principles, laws, and regulations relating to the practice of marriage, family and child therapy.
In-depth study of major systems theories underlying family and relationship therapy. Prerequisite: Minimum of 15 semester credit hours of graduate counseling coursework.
Experiential course covering advanced assessment and therapeutic techniques used in marriage and family therapy. Prerequisites: PYC 8112 and PYC 8212.
In-depth study of systems theory applications to family and other therapy groups including brief review of traditional group counseling theories. Participation in group process is a significant part of the course. Prerequisites: PYC 7932 and PYC 8112 or PYC 8212.
Examination of sex-role stereotyping and its origins and consequences within the family, culture, and society. Includes counseling issues related to sex and gender-based prejudice and discrimination. Prerequisite: Minimum of 15 semester credit hours of graduate counseling coursework.
In-depth didactic and experiential examination of family system-oriented therapies with children and adolescents. Prerequisite: PYC 8212 or PYC 8112.
Examines principles and techniques for clinical practice of art therapy in residential, out-patient and private practice settings. Includes potential in art for the development of emotional, social, perceptual and cognitive strengths in children and adults.
Advanced study of Expressive Arts Therapy assessment, treatment planning and techniques as applied to selected client disorders and issues in education and clinical practice. Prerequisite: Admission to Expressive Arts Therapy specialty and PYC 8312.
Strategies will be studied for understanding, assessing, and counseling adults in young to middle adulthood, with attention to social, emotional and physical stressors specific to these adult life cycle stages and the transition between stages. Emphasis is placed on the individual within a systems context (family, organization, community, culture, etc.).
Specific strategies will be studied for understanding, assessing and counseling adults in late adulthood. Emphasis placed on social, emotional and physical stressors specific to this adult developmental stage and related transitions, as well as on understanding the individual within a systems context.
This course incorporates the diagnosis and treatment of sexual dysfunctions. Behavioral and non-behavioral methods and strategies are explored. Other topics include sexual abuse treatment with children and adults, medical factors related to sexuality and sexual functioning, and dynamics of interpersonal intimacy.
This course delineates theoretical and practical integration of eco-developmental approaches to psychological trauma. Consequences of early traumatic experience are mapped in the context of psycho-social developmental processes, including attachment, social interaction, emotional expression, and cognitive construction of worldview. The impact of repeated trauma in the lives of children and adolescents is explored in the context of developmental transformations and in relationship to psychopathology, gender, and bio-physiology.
Examines techniques for assessing emotional health, pathology and dysfunction and time-sensitive techniques for treatment. Includes student observation and participation. Prerequisite: Admission to Trauma, Abuse and Deprivation specialty.
This course prepares the student to carry out complex assessment and interventions within a family setting and with children. The primary focus is to stimulate reflection on and discussion of clinical work with traumagenic families, gain experience of and confidence in formulating and facilitating constructive clinical interventions. Topics also include strengthening the theory-practice link and increased skill in effective traumagenic family collaborative recovery.
Focus on advanced techniques and resources for assessing and treating the effects of trauma, abuse and deprivation on children and adults. Emphasis on holistic approach to recovery and growth. Prerequisite: Admission to Trauma, Abuse and Deprivation specialty.
Course examines health promotion models, preventive management techniques, and models and techniques for behavior change. Comprehensive inquiry focusing on psychological processes, and individual behaviors and lifestyles which affect a person's physical, emotional and social health. Topics include stress and illness, personality and disease, high-risk populations and behaviors, and gender and cultural issues.
Exploration of issues, policies and practices related to employee assistance programs in business, education, health care, and other settings. Includes consideration of counseling theories and relevant counseling techniques for employee assistance programs.
Advanced elective graduate topics in the field of Counseling. | http://ottawa.smartcatalogiq.com/en/2021-2022/Catalog/Graduate-Courses/PYC |
Publication Date:
21 November 2018 (online)
- Abstract
- Introduction
- Materials and methods
- Discussion
- Conclusion
- References
Abstract
Background: Cultural beliefs and traditional practices nearly affect all aspects of diabetes care. Therefore, understanding its broader cultural context can serve as important background information for effective care for diabetes. Materials and Methods: We conducted this study to explore the cultural determinants in diabetes care and to propose a broad theoretical framework for cultural assessment in persons with diabetes. Explanatory Model Interview Catalog interviews of 25 diabetes persons were conducted. Results: We found that perception about diabetes is influenced by tradition, customs and ethos. Diabetes does not show early signs and therefore symptoms are usually ignored until they interfere with their day-to-day living. Following dietary advice was the most difficult part of diabetes care due to varied cultural barriers. Due to cultural reasons, diabetes is still not assigned due priority by the family. Health illiteracy and cost of care were important barriers for seeking care. Diabetics taking conventional treatment often used complementary treatment, which may be hazardous. Language was also considered a barrier for effective diabetes care. Females struggle more for receiving appropriate care for their diabetes due to social and cultural factors. Conclusion: Cultural assessment needs to be done at various stages - initial assessment, identification of cultural issues in care, planning for culturally relevant intervention and evaluation. This calls for focused elements relevant to the presenting problem, necessary intervention, and participatory evaluation. Cultural values, beliefs, customs, and family patterns may be used as clues for planning diabetes care. Such interventions are likely to bear significant impact on diabetes care in times to come.
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Introduction
Globally, by the year 2025, the adult population will increase by 64% and prevalence of diabetes in adults will increase by 35%. This will in turn increase the number of people with diabetes by around 122%. Developed countries will have a 42% increase in number of people with diabetes. Developing countries are predicted to have an 82% increase in the adult population and 170% increase in the number of people with diabetes. India currently leads the world with 51 million people with diabetes and this number is expected to increase to 87 million by 2030, accounting for one-fifth of the world′s population of diabetes. The past decade has thus witnessed a rapid increase in the prevalence of diabetes in India.
Among diabetic patients, achieving optimal glycemic control requires them to take part in a complex set of tasks like adherence to dietary advice and medications, engagement in regular physical activity, quitting smoking, and monitoring blood glucose levels. Therefore, it is essential to place individuals and families in an appropriate context for diabetes prevention and care. Understanding the broader cultural context can serve as important background information for effective care for diabetes. Cultural beliefs and traditional practices affect nearly all aspects of the disease, like perception about diabetes, its assessment and diagnosis, care seeking behavior, expectation from providers, and so forth. Moreover, culture may influence diabetes self-management as well.
Very few studies have explored the effect of cultural beliefs and attitudes toward diabetes prevention and care services. It would be important for diabetes care providers to understand cultural determinants in order to provide holistic care for people with diabetes. Therefore, we conducted this study to explore the cultural characteristics-related to diabetes mellitus in India and its potential influence on diabetes care. We also propose a broad theoretical framework for cultural assessment for people living with diabetes [Table 1].
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Materials and methods
This qualitative study was conducted in rural western Uttar Pradesh (Agra) in the field practice areas of the Rural Health Training Centre, SN Medical College, Agra. Study participants were known cases of type 2 diabetes mellitus currently on treatment. For data collection, we used the Explanatory Model Interview Catalogue (EMIC) interviews of diabetic patients. EMIC, the progenitor of which is the famous anthropologist Arthur Kleinman refers to a framework of the semi-structured interview based on a particular operational formulation of the concept of illness explanatory models and a set of explanatory model interviews based on that framework. The EMIC approach is useful in studying the illness as well as understanding the social and cultural factors affecting the course of the illness. We interviewed 25 adult patients (15 male and 10 female) of type 2 diabetes mellitus after an informed consent from each participant. Interviews were conducted by trained researchers in local language, each lasting about 35-45 min. The sample was a convenience one. All interviews were recorded, with the consent from participants being interviewed. After the interviews, the recordings were transcribed into computer files. Care was taken to assure the respondents that they and the place of their work would not be identifiable in any subsequent report.
All interview transcripts were read by the researcher and coded in the style of a grounded theory approach for data analysis. Category headings were generated from the data and under these, all data were accounted for. Two independent researchers verified the seeming accuracy of the category system and after discussion with them; minor modifications were made to it. In the grounded theory literature, a good category system is said to have emerged from the data.
Findings
Age of respondents range from 36 years to 62 years and all of them were from rural areas. Three male and two female participants were illiterate. All respondents were currently on the antidiabetic medications.
Respondents believed that the way in which they perceived the illness depended upon their tradition, customs and ethos, which were observed in their society since generations. Respondents also said that people mostly try home remedies for their illness, before going to a doctor.
If anyone is ill in our family we first try home treatment, like using turmeric and milk for cold, ginger for cough. We also use Ayurvedic medications (Indian system of medication). We go to the doctor only if our home treatment does not work.
It was also learned that, perceptions regarding the diabetes were also influenced by cultural factors. Respondents stated that illness, and particularly chronic illness like diabetes, which do not show sign and symptoms early in the stage of disease are usually ignored until it interferes with their day to day living. One respondent noted that.
Diabetes is not a disease because it does not show signs and it does not interfere with day to day work.
Almost all respondents said that, they were told by their doctors to modify their diet. However, many felt that this was the most difficult thing to follow and religion or cultural factors were the main barriers. One respondent said:
Sweets are prepared during festivals and it is a ritual to use sweets a Prasad (offerings shared with other devotees after prayer) which we cannot refuse.
Many felt that that it is cumbersome to prepare a separate meal for one person in the home. Preparing special food for oneself or for one person goes against the cultural ethos of providing for all family members impartially.
Respondents also found difficulty in having frequent meals at short intervals as advised by their providers. Most of them were of the habit of taking morning and evening tea and two meals in a day. One male respondent narrated.
I have to go to farm for work early in the morning, so mostly take morning tea and go to work. I carry my food with me for lunch, which I eat between 1 and 2 (pm) in the afternoon. Then i take dinner at night when I am back home. People do not consider it a good thing to keep eating for the entire day (frequent meals).
Regarding diabetes care seeking behavior, we found that cultural factors influenced the access to health care delivery services in a significant way. Respondents said that many people were not aware about the available of diabetes care services and people also ignored the disease as it was not considered to be of sufficient priority by the family. Overall; health illiteracy and cost of care, particularly indirect cost of care, were important barriers for seeking care. One respondent said.
We feel why to go to doctors if we are not ill (not having signs and symptoms of illness). If we go to the hospital, we have to give an entire day. It also costs us 100 rupees to go to the hospital and doctors charge fees also.
It was also notable to learn that most of people with diabetes, who were on conventional treatment, also used other treatment, like home remedies or some Ayurvedic formulations (Indian system of medicine). Many respondents said this is a very common practice. One of the respondents mentioned-
I was diagnosed as diabetic 4 years back and since then I am taking the medication regularly. My uncle told me that diabetes is caused by excessive consumption of sweets, so consuming bitter things helps a lot. From the last 2 years, I am also taking Neem juice, which is bitter in taste along with the medication given by doctors.
Respondents observed that many times, it became difficult for them to understand what care providers were saying due to different language or too much use of English words during their conversation. As a result, people with diabetes, who sought care felt stressed and were not able to follow the correct advice. One respondent said.
Doctors are always in a hurry as there are more patients waiting for them. Many times, we do not follow what they say. Doctors use English words, which we do not understand.
Female respondents talked about the various social and cultural factors as a barrier to follow the dietary and care advice given by their providers. It was also noted that females ignore their own health and also lack sufficient support from family for care of their illness. One female respondent narrated:
I do not go for work. I am responsible for managing my home. I cook the food but the choice of food (to be cooked) is not mine. Usually, I cook what my children and husband like. I take care of everyone and therefore I do not get time for myself. I do not prepare meals as told to me by the nurse (health care provider) as my family does not like it. Usually I eat last, after my husband finishes therefore cannot eat on time as told to me by the doctor. I try to take medicine on time but sometimes I forget. My husband is busy with daily work, so he does not know what drugs I am taking for diabetes. He does not come with me to the hospital.
Males also agree with the female respondents′ views regarding difficulties faced by them for taking care of themselves. One male respondent said.
Women usually eat last in the home; for them it is very difficult to follow the doctor′s advice. The problem is more if there are grandparents in home (joint family) or if there are many members in the family.
It was also observed that female respondents were not aware of gestational diabetes. As a result they do not consider it important to check for blood sugar during pregnancy.
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Discussion
People negotiate and interpret culture in variable forms and in diverse contexts. Beliefs regarding illnesses and in particular, chronic illness like diabetes are greatly influenced by cultural norms in a significant way.
Culture and health beliefs and practices
Cultural factors and belief influences how people perceive their overall health, illness and practices related to it. Home treatment, self-medication or use of Ayurvedic herbs for treating illness is deep rooted in Indian culture. Ritual healings from spiritual healers are not uncommon. Ayurveda, the Indian system of medicine, which is culturally accepted in Indian community since ages, states that the persons are healthy till their bodily fluids are in the state of equilibrium or else the illnesses crop up. Diabetes has been referred in Ayurveda as a “Madhumeha” occurring due to inactivity, laziness, lack of exercise, excessive sleep and excessive use of yogurt, meat and soup of domestic, aquatic and marshy land animals, consumption of unmatured/nonaged grains, products of jaggery and sweets. However, what exactly constituted Ayurvedic medicines and what did not qualify being Ayurvedic remained a conjectural issue.
Cultural factors are responsible for the way in which the diabetes is perceived by the community, the manner in which the symptoms and signs related to diabetes and its complications are perceived. People from India have a common perception the diabetes is caused by excessive consumption of sweets. There is also a belief that consuming bitter vegetables or herbs will lower the blood sugar. Stress and worry, or genetic or hereditary risk factors for diabetes mellitus are not viewed as significant. However, there could be the urban-rural difference in the influence of environmental factors like stress on diabetes management as a whole. People also believe that smoking and alcohol are not related to diabetes mellitus or its complications. Therefore, for optimum care of people with diabetes, understanding of socio-cultural context is critical as it affects perceptions about how people with diabetes are viewed and supported by their family and how their family.
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Culture and dietary beliefs and practices
Dietary habits and practices are influenced by culture and religion as well as economic conditions. Oil and sugar are considered an integral part of the daily diet in Indian families. Religion is a key aspect of culture that often decides food habits and pattern. Culturally determined dietary practices involve the identification of foods, methods of food preparation, condiment selection, timing and frequency of meals, and the ritual, social, and symbolic use of foods. For example, nonvegetarian diet is not an acceptable food in Hindu communities. Fasting is often practiced by Hindus and Muslims. India is a country with several religious festivals. Sweets and high fat foods are significant components in this festivals and ceremonies. Foods, especially, sweets are shared as gifts with relatives and friends in ceremonies.
Dietary management is one of the most important components for a package of care for people with diabetes. Cultural beliefs are one of the many reasons for nonadherence with dietary recommendations in diabetes. Therefore, care providers′ familiarity of these dietary practices is essential for planning culturally appropriate dietary management for persons with diabetes.
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Culture and diabetes care seeking behavior
Disease management decisions are closely linked to cultural background and resources available. Cultural factors influence the access to health care delivery system and the way in which the families interact with health care practitioners. Even though, people and community do not consider diabetes as a stigmatized disease, many do not regularly participate in diabetes prevention, screening and care programs due to cultural beliefs, different priorities and limited access to services. Low health literacy, lack of knowledge related to diabetes services, misconception about diabetes, lack of family and social support and lack of patients involvement are some of the cultural determinants responsible for poor outcome of diabetes care program. A misbelief that diabetes is the result of divine intervention is often responsible for use of folk medicine leading to delay in care of diabetes until signs and symptoms of some complications emerge.
People with diabetes taking conventional modern medicine (allopathic medication) frequently use folk herbal medicine as home remedies or Ayurvedic medicine, either as supplements or complementary or alternative treatment. Prayer, acupuncture, massage, hot tub therapy, biofeedback, and yoga have been frequently used by persons with diabetes. Diabetics consuming juices and bitter herbs are not uncommon. Desire for early and maximum benefit was the most common reason for using these remedies. Health care providers′ understanding of these self-care practices are crucial for modification of treatment strategies and outcome evaluation. In most cases, providers are unaware of the fact that patients are taking Ayurvedic or herbal medication as well. It is important for care providers to be aware that many patients with diabetes may be using complementary medications that may have potential interactions with conventional medicines being used. Many of the herbal therapies may be hypoglycemic agents and in combination with conventional treatment of diabetes, may result in hypoglycemic crisis. Moreover, there is inconclusive evidence regarding the usefulness of herbal mediation in the management of type 2 diabetes.
As regards the use of drugs, people feel it is required when there are signs or symptoms of disease or illness. This perception of people is the single most important barrier for proper management of diabetes and adherence to treatment. People often judge the severity of an illness by the amount of pain, disability, and discomfort it produces in daily routine activities. Therefore, diabetes care providers are often disappointed with diabetes patients for not following up for blood sugar monitoring, early diagnosis and management of complications of diabetes, if any. Provider often feels that, since diabetes is a chronic disease, rural people do not care about the disease and about their health as well. People do not seek health care unless their condition interferes with social or personal activities of daily living, such as work and household maintenance functions. There is often reluctance to seek professional care unless necessary. For adherence to diabetes care, family and social support is vital. Diabetic patients with strong family support are more likely to follow the recommendations of diabetes care providers. All of these factors collectively act as barriers for effective diabetes care.
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Culture and communication between people with diabetes and care providers
Languages and local dialects change across cultures and societies and therefore may present as significant barriers in communication. Health literacy is also influenced by cultural beliefs and education, which further influence a person′s ability to obtain, interpret, and understand information about health and healthcare services. Compared with persons with diabetes mellitus having adequate health literacy, low health literacy has been associated with poor glycemic control and more risk of diabetes complications.
Lack of ability of communicate effectively often results in stress among care providers, poorer client understanding of disease, less recall of information, decreased client satisfaction and premature termination of care. Services of trained interpreter or bilingual family members may be useful in such situations. However, in such situations, an issue of confidentiality needs to be addressed. Culturally specific print materials in patient′s primary language may be provided and hence that the information is available to patients, their family members and to other people in their support system.
Familiarity of cultural understanding and communicating effectively is necessary for equal access to services. Therefore, diabetes care providers, to ensure effective communication with persons with diabetes need to present themselves as a colleague, establish ties with family and friends of patients, demonstrate supportive and personalized approach.
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Women and diabetes
Women are often are viewed as the custodian of family values and culture. This responsibility to maintain cultural practices and pass them on to younger generations can make it difficult for them to successfully make lifestyle changes leading to poor health outcomes. Nearly, three quarters of women find difficult for follow the care advice by doctors and self-medication is very common in women.
Furthermore, around 7-17% of women of child bearing age suffer from gestational diabetes or glucose intolerance during pregnancy. Cultural beliefs and practices during pregnancy and overall status of women in family presents as substantial barriers to adhere with providers advice for effective diabetes management. If diabetes during pregnancy is poorly managed, it will harm both the mother and infant.
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Framework for cultural assessment to plan and deliver culturally appropriate care
Cultural assessment is a focused and systematic appraisal of beliefs, values, and practices conducted to determine the context and substance of client needs and then to best adapt (or construct) and evaluate health interventions, and with the inculcation of a sense of responsibility in the afflicted individual for self-care. Cultural assessment needs to be done at various stages of care and may be focused on those elements relevant to the presenting problem, necessary intervention, and participatory evaluation.
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Conclusion
Improving diabetes care needs a better understanding of the cultural determinants. To address these issues in prevention and care services, diabetes providers are expected to bear cultural competencies for assessment and planning culturally appropriate interventions. The problem also lies with suggesting a diet regimen which does not fit well with the way people eat in India. Merely following international or Euro-American ways of eating is not the answer, unless the family structure is similar to that which exists in the Euro-American context. More creative ways of talking about diet need to be advised. It is all the more necessary that biomedical practitioners, who will be expected to bear the brunt if and when any public health program for diabetes is introduced, are attuned to the various factors affecting the understanding and treatment of diabetes. Cultural characteristics such as value systems, beliefs, customs, and family patterns may be used as clues for planning culturally appropriate care for diabetes. To deliver these culturally appropriate interventions and effective continuum of diabetes care needs innovative models with a multi-disciplinary team, including the lay care giver. These specific interventions, well aligned with local context and needs are likely to have a significant impact on diabetes care. However, such models need to be tested and evaluated.
How to cite this article: Sachdeva S, Khalique N, Ansari MA, Khan Z, Mishra SK, Sharma G. Cultural determinants: Addressing barriers to holistic diabetes care. J Soc Health Diabetes 2015;3:33-8.
Source of Support: Nil.
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Conflict of Interest
None declared. | https://www.thieme-connect.com/products/ejournals/html/10.4103/2321-0656.140885 |
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American business is in turmoil in recent times. But the fact remains that America has been the country which has achieved huge success in business activities in the past and has been the prime driving force of the world economy. This paper does a brief analysis of history of business in America and the values which America adopted and followed which helped the cause of American business in the past. Brief reasoning has also been done in the paper for finding out the cause of the present crisis but that is not the main theme of the paper. Further, the paper also covers the developments that have taken place in America in the field of business ethics.
Leadership and Management principles are imperative in all organizations where a group of people assemble for a common purpose, adopt common policies and practices, plan, organize, manage the resources and work in a team towards organizational goals. Most of the organizations work on the western management concepts of vision, leadership, motivation, decision making and planning, which explicitly find their basis in Indian Vedanta like the Bhagavad Gita. Written thousands of years ago, the Bhagavad Gita is not simply a fountain of wisdom for philosophers. It reveals several secrets of vision, leadership and the path to managerial success. It enlightens us on aspects of self-management and selfdevelopment by providing guidance to resolve 'conflict', 'poor productivity', 'absence of motivation' and so on which are in fact common plagues in enterprises across the globe. The Indian Vedanta is equal, if not superior, to management texts which heavily advocate western management concepts. There is, however, one major difference in the approach followed. While western management thought deals with problems at an extrinsic and peripheral level, the Bhagavad Gita tackles the same issues from the subliminal level of human psyche. It helps us to understand ourselves and the world. It advocates that once the basic thought process of man is improved, it will automatically enhance the quality of his actions, and consequently, their results. Through this study, we aim to gain deep understanding and insights into management concepts of vision and leadership with broader Indian perspective.
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Purnima Awasthi, Assistant Professor, Faculty of Social Sciences, B.H.U., Varanasi.
In recent years spirituality has emerged as a central focus in the field of health sciences. A strong body of studies bring out the potential of spirituality/religiosity to promote and maintain physical and mental health and ameliorate the deleterious effects of psychosocial stress on health. Rresearchers and clinicians now believe in the important connection of spirituality with health and wellness of an individual's life. Researches in the area of behavioral medicine have also shown that the spirituality generates insightful effects on the bodily conditions. Studies indicate that enhancement of one's spirituality affect medical and health condition in terms of positive outcomes of patients' health care. The present review deals the theoretical as well as empirical findings that include the influence of spirituality on health and well-being and its significance for patients suffering from various health problems. The findings indicate that spiritual need in medical care may create great encouraging results on a patient's health and well-being.
Leadership and power are linked. Both leadership and power have different dimensions attached to it which affect each other. The dyadic relationship could be complex for the person who is in leadership position or is in the process towards leadership. Spirituality which is no doubt an independent variable from the individual angle could have significant effect on the dyadic relationship of leadership and power. If understood properly the interplay of leadership, power, and spirituality many concepts related to ethical or unethical leadership could be cleared. This paper is an effort to study this triadic interaction to understand the reasons for leaders to be bad, good, great, or legendary. The stance taken in this paper is that it is the cultivation and demonstration of spiritual values that makes the difference. Some of the philosophical concepts from ancient Indian wisdom are also used in this paper to bring more relevance.
A Gandhian Concept Towards "Conflict Resolution & Peace"
Mahatama Gandhi has given so much to the present society through his vision and thoughts. Timeless wisdom which Mahatama Gandhi possessed and gave to the modern world has to be treasured. This paper covers one aspect of our life and that is conflict resolution and peace. This paper explores the detailed perspective of Gandhian philosophy on this aspect. It is proposed that his philosophy if followed could lead to effective resolution of conflict which lies within us and would help in self betterment and progress towards society development.
Executives in corporate setting face many complex situations that demand ethical decision making from the perspective of society and organizations. Various factors work in the final outcome of ethical or unethical decision making of executives. This paper briefly examines some of the major factors that may affect the decision making of executives in organizations. The intensity of these factors may vary from individuals to individuals, organizations to organizations, and situation to situation. | http://cshe.smsvaranasi.com/purusharth_journal_abstract_vol_IV_1.htm |
Explore our groundbreaking books that facilitate teaching across disciplines. To request an exam copy, click on “Request an Exam or Desk Copy” on the book page, and this will take you to our distributor’s site where you can order your copy.
Religion in America by Lisa D. Pearce and Claire Chipman Gilliland
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Conversion to Islam in the Premodern Age:
A Sourcebook edited by Nimrod Hurvitz, Christian C. Sahner, Uriel Simonsohn, Luke Yarbrough
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Learn how social factors promote mental health, influence the onset and course of mental illness, and affect how mental illnesses are diagnosed and treated.
This course explores how our understanding of mental health and illness has been influenced by social attitudes and social developments in North America and around the world. The course begins by situating our contemporary mental health practices in historical context, then looks at different aspects of mental health, mental illness and mental health services and their connections to what’s going on in our social environment.
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Charmaine Williams: Associate Professor, Faculty of Social Work.
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Mode of delivery:
External Online Synchronous
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Lectures will be recorded, and the video clips (2 for each session) will be made available on ARK. The videos will be available 7 days before the scheduled session, and students may watch them at a convenient time. Students are advised to read ALL assigned readings before watching the lectures.
A Tutorial session will be held live for 1hr during weeks 1-12 (Tuesdays, 2-3pm AET), using ZOOM (link will be available on ARK). Students are required to attend ALL Tutorial sessions, which are designed to help with their learning and fulfilling the assessment tasks.
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Semester 2
Tuesday, 2 pm to 5 pm
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Internal – face to face and External Online Asynchronous
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The face-to-face class will meet weekly at Pilgrim (Parkville) for lectures, workshops and discussion. No prior knowledge is assumed.
For online class, lectures and content will be available for students to work through in their own time. The asynchronous content will be supported by a weekly, non-optional evening online tutorial on Mondays at 7.30pm (Melbourne time).
Unit Description
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S Douglas
Semester 2
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- It is expected that students will attend in person.
- It will not be recorded. Power point slides may be available on ARK.
- There will not be an additional tutorial outside this set class time. The tutorial will usually be in the last hour of each week.
- There will be pre-readings required each week.
- There is no alternate mode of delivery for this class in 2022
Unit Description
The Gospel of Mark is a lectionary gospel full of humour, insight, and challenge, so why not come and deepen your understanding of Mark’s story of Jesus? This course will trace the narrative of this text as we pay attention to the literary, social, cultural, and theological contexts from which this gospel emerges. Taking this course will deepen your skills in interpreting the gospels and prepare you for the ‘Year of Mark’.
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Semester 2
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The unit will run between 9.30 a.m.–12.30 p.m. on Thursday mornings. The preference is for students to attend in person at the CTM. Students who are unable to attend face to face should make arrangements to do so synchronously online.
Classes will be planned to enable blended learning between classroom and online attendees, and aspects will be recorded for class use.
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Romans is the longest and probably the most influential letter that Paul wrote. It is also pretty challenging to interpret. This unit gives you a chance to wrestle with Romans and, as a result, to win a better understanding of Paul’s gospel in its ancient and contemporary contexts. You will learn how to approach the letter’s situation and argument in ways that shed light on Paul’s theology and its continued significance. You will also be given exegetical tools that will help you understand the difficult texts in the letter.
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This intensive (face to face) is offered over a course of 6 days (Fridays and Saturdays). The class will meet from 9:00 am to 5:00 pm on the advertised dates and will include scheduled breaks.
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Individuals of diverse cultures suffer from substance use disorders (
SUDs). These individuals and the families that love them face devastating adverse consequences. It is crucial for research to continue to develop best practices and policies that address the public health emergency that exists across all socioeconomic levels, races, genders, cultures, and so on. This chapter highlights the importance of addressing the current public health crisis of substance abuse and SUDswith various population groups from different cultural backgrounds. It emphasizes client-centered practice from an intersectional perspective with a special focus on families. Health practices and policies that decrease disparities in healthcare are important to the well-being of marginalized groups from different cultures. Culture and its impact on perceptions, beliefs, and behaviors of different groups are critical to developing evidence-based treatments for substance abuse that are efficacious.
This chapter highlights both the strengths of Arab American families and the challenges they face, as well as outline recommendations for clinical social work practice. It also highlights important similarities, differences, and false assumptions associated with Arab culture. It is essential to understand the culture of Arab American immigrants, their strengths and needs, their cultural attitudes toward mental health services, and the post-9/11 anti-Arab political climate before choosing an appropriate intervention approach. Based on these issues, social workers need to take into consideration the diverse cultural values held within the Arab community while practicing within mainstream American health delivery systems. Additionally, providers must educate themselves on Arabic culture and Islamic values. Finally, it is imperative that clinicians explore other appropriate approaches when dealing with Arab individuals, families, and communities that reflect on their experiences, such as linkages to immigration services or partnering with an imam for counseling.
- Go to chapter: Transracial Adoption and Transracial Socialization: Clinical Implications and Recommendations
Critical discourse on domestic adoption practices and the colonization of children of color via international adoption is ongoing, as adoption represents part of the larger narrative of historical oppression and institutionalized discrimination of communities of color domestically and internationally. The prevalence, continuation, and long-term outcomes of transracial adoption remain controversial. Considerable research over the past two decades has explored a variety of factors related to domestic and international transracial adoption. Extant research covers identity development of transracial adoptees, adoption microaggressions, names and identity for transracial adoptees, authenticity for transracial adoptees, and racial, ethnic, and cultural socialization of adoptees. This chapter provides a brief history of domestic and international transracial adoption practices, knowledge about transracial socialization patterns (i.e., racial, ethnic, and cultural) and their long term effects, and an understanding of the clinical implications of working with transracially adopted individuals. In addition, it provides a case vignette and discussion questions.
Native Americans are a young and growing population. Poverty, racism, and trauma are common factors in the lives of many Native people, and these provide a context for significant social and health disparities. It is also important to recognize the resilience and tenacity that have allowed Native people to survive as distinct cultural and political groups in spite of centuries of colonization. Helping professionals can play an important role in assisting Native clients to access needed services and nurture their resilience. Professionals can also bring a strong grounding in social justice to combat many of the struggles that affect Indigenous Peoples. This chapter discusses the demographic profile of the Native American population. It also discusses the psychosocial risks and needs of Native Americans. The chapter provides the assessment treatment approaches for social and health problems, although few have been developed or adapted for Native Americans.
The aging population is at a state of development that is not as focused on employment, and thus has difficulty finding its place in a society that defines people by their careers. Research is needed on the issues of aging workers, such as training needs, career transition issues, and retirement planning. Research is also needed on which accommodations, workplace modifications, and changes to policies and practices positively impact the retention and continued productivity of an aging workforce. Counselor practitioners are in a unique position to contribute to needed research design conceptualization, metrics, and analyses to test the multiplicity of interventions we will be exploring in the coming years to keep our aging workforce healthy and intellectually engaged in the employment environment. Counselors are experientially qualified to provide the needed services to keep this population productive and more fully engaged in their communities and continuing employment.
- Go to chapter: Risk and Resilience in Military Families Experiencing Deployment: The Role of the Family Attachment Network
Risk and Resilience in Military Families Experiencing Deployment: The Role of the Family Attachment Network
This chapter presents a family attachment network model to describe the adaptation of military families during the stress of deployment and their adjustment during the reintegration process. The family attachment network consists of multiple relationships existing at multiple system levels (e.g., individual, dyadic, subsystem, and system-wide interaction patterns), each of which has rules and attributes that are distinct and do not exist at other levels, yet are inextricably intertwined with other levels and the larger system. Similarly, within the family system, each attachment relationship is unique, such that a child’s attachment behaviors toward different caregivers can vary, siblings can demonstrate different attachment strategies with the same caregiver, and parent child attachment relationships often diverge from spousal attachment patterns. A central assumption of the proposed model is that attachment relationships and family systems are fundamental contexts for risk and resilience between military members and their families during the deployment cycle.
- Go to chapter: Spirituality and Culturally Diverse Families: The Intersection of Culture, Religion, and Spirituality
Spirituality and Culturally Diverse Families: The Intersection of Culture, Religion, and Spirituality
This chapter begins by providing an overview of contemporary religious trends in the United States and how these vary according to age, sex, and socioeconomic status to show their increasing diversity and the shifts that are taking place in people’s religious and spiritual identification. Following this demographic context, it examines the interrelation between ethnicity, religion, education, and religious and spiritual identification. To better understand some recent changes in the spiritual lives of Americans in the United States, the chapter reviews the distinction between religion and spirituality. Once used interchangeably, these terms have different meanings in today’s world. From there, it explores religious and cultural worldviews, their interrelationship, and how these influence feelings and behaviors. Finally, the chapter discusses implications for practice with ethnically diverse families and communities and provides a case example.
Suicide is a problem that knows no cultural boundaries. As the minority population in the United States continues to grow, it is essential for health and mental health providers to develop culturally relevant prevention and intervention efforts to address these at-risk populations. Risk and protective factors vary across culture and ethnicities, as do attitudes and perspectives regarding suicide acceptability. Intervention and prevention efforts should be guided by culturally relevant risk and protective factors for suicide and an understanding of attitudes toward suicide among the target population. This chapter explores the diverse demographic and ethnic profile of suicidal behavior in the United States and reviews known psychosocial risk factors for suicide within these cultural groups. It reviews the critical factors related to culture to be considered when conducting a risk assessment with suicidal clients. The chapter explores the treatment of suicidal individuals from culturally competent and evidence-based practice perspectives.
Assistive technology (AT) has a profound impact on the everyday lives and employment opportunities of individuals with disabilities by providing them with greater independence and enabling them to perform activities not possible in the past. Self-esteem, self-efficacy, and motivation are described as central elements in increasing a consumer’s confidence and belief in self. Good outcomes and efficacy expectations, as well as strong motivation, help lead to successful adaptation to AT. This chapter presents the human component of technology, the relationship between consumers and technological devices/equipment, and the acceptance and use by consumers. It offers recommendations to assist rehabilitation professionals in helping consumers with accepting, utilizing, and benefiting from technology. There needs to be a close and appropriate fit between the technological device and consumer. Therefore, the need for the counselor to actively listen and engage the consumer in the process is essential to the effectiveness and outcome of AT success. | https://connect.springerpub.com/search?query=&f%5B0%5D=content_source%3AMulticultural%20Perspectives%20in%20Working%20With%20Families%3A%20A%20Handbook%20for%20the%20Helping%20Professions&f%5B1%5D=content_source%3AThe%20Psychological%20and%20Social%20Impact%20of%20Illness%20and%20Disability&f%5B2%5D=subjects%3A157&implicit-login=true&sigma-token=sdy6RaJMfZAbI0unZNmLkEQUL42eTRN23Ex26AXz5Qg |
by Elena Riva
Professor Sarah Stewart-Brown can help us to explore what can be defined as wellbeing and mental wellbeing. I have been working alongside Sarah for a few years now and here a synthesis of what I have learned from her.
There is an endless number of definitions of wellbeing in literature and you have also produced your own definitions. The following section is for making sure we have a base-line idea of what we will consider wellbeing from here onward.
You do not have to read it all if you are already familiar with the concept of wellbeing and you can pick and choose which parts to read. If you are interested in the topic, there are several articles and reading suggestions at the bottom of this webpage.
After you have explored the material below to the extent you need, please jump to Wellbeing in the Learning & Teaching Environment: Pedagogies and Strategies for the Classroom (physical and virtual) and Beyond
(Mental) Wellbeing: disciplinary and historical context
Mental wellbeing is of interest to many different disciplines with different starting points and different needs in terms of measurement. These disciplines include psychology, philosophy, social science, economics and public health, and health and social care . The last decade has witnessed a considerable debate between and within disciplines on the nature of mental wellbeing.
Health
In 1946, the World Health Organisation defined health as:
Physical, mental and social wellbeing, not merely the absence of disease .
This definition implicitly defined health as:
- Holistic - recognising the interplay between the physical, mental and social self, was a profoundly important step. Although it had little impact at the time on the practice of medicine or public health, it has had a gradual and subtle impact on the way we think about health.
- A positive concept - this step enabled the gradual emergence of the discipline of health promotion from health education and disease prevention. It also influenced public health practice on the ground in schools and communities.
- Synonymous with wellbeing - this last attribute created confusion because the word ‘health’ is linked to health services and disease. As a result, most people - scholars, professionals and the public - now use the term 'wellbeing' to describe the positive end of the spectrum of health, with illness at the other end. Other words which are used include flourishing, positive mental health and wellness.
In practice often the term 'wellbeing' is often used to refer to the mental health component of wellbeing alone. This is confusing as wellbeing is holistic - physical, mental, social and (for some) spiritual.
In 2001 the WHO defined mental health as
A state of wellbeing in which every individual realises his or her own potential can cope with the normal stresses of life can work productively and fruitfully and is able to make a contribution to his or her community.
This definition was consistent with the 1946 definition of health as synonymous with wellbeing and therefore attracts similar confusion in terms of links with health services and disease. The definition is also notable in that it covers the functioning but not the feeling components of mental wellbeing (see below). The implicitly valued functions are those which enable a thriving economy, low health care costs and the wellbeing of others.
Social science and economics
Broadly speaking the social scientists and economists have adopted simple definitions of wellbeing, focusing on feelings and measured with questions about happiness and life satisfaction [4,5]. The Cambridge English Dictionary definition of well-being - ‘a state of feeling healthy and happy’ echoes this approach. Using the language of the ancient Greek philosophers, this view corresponds to hedonic wellbeing . Social scientists make the distinction between these outcomes, which they refer to as subjective wellbeing and objective wellbeing, which focuses on the social circumstances and structures that they regard as necessary for subjective wellbeing. Their research interests lie in demonstrating how the latter impact wellbeing and how these circumstances and structures can be changed. Social scientists have been less interested in personal development or improvements in psychological functioning and how these can be supported.
Psychology
In contrast, psychologists [7,8,9] are interested in defining and researching the different components/attributes of mental wellbeing, particularly those related to functioning. As a result, they have developed multidimensional measurement scales, which provide scores for different components of functioning like autonomy, agency, purpose in life, self-acceptance and interpersonal relationships.
As clinicians, they are also interested in ways of helping people develop insights, personal characteristics, and behavior which enable positive functioning. Different schools of thought offer different labels and perspectives to describe this, for example, ‘psychological wellbeing’ or 'self-determination’ theory . Positive psychologists have often used the term positive mental health in the place of mental wellbeing and the two terms can be regarded as synonymous. They have also introduced the concept of ‘flourishing’ to the wellbeing debate. Psychological functioning enables the skills to build positive relationships and implies that personal wellbeing is related to the wellbeing of others and therefore also to social wellbeing.
Psychologists have described 'traits' or stable psychological characteristics and 'states' which fluctuate according to what is going on externally. The latter has more in common with the feeling aspects of mental wellbeing and the former with the functioning aspects. In the past traits were regarded as primarily genetic, but now are recognised to be partly developmental. They can be honed even in adulthood through a variety of personal developmental practices or therapeutic interventions like emotional and social education, anger management, mindfulness-based approaches which develop self-awareness and self-regulation, and cognitive behaviour approaches which challenge negative beliefs, attitudes or mindsets. Positive functioning affords resilience to stressful life events and so supports positive feelings.
Philosophers and spiritual leaders
The psychologists' interest in mental wellbeing is more in line with that of the ancient philosophers and spiritual leaders who also aimed to help individuals develop themselves. Broadly speaking psychological wellbeing corresponds to the concept of eudemonic wellbeing. Aristotle suggested that this is achieved through the cultivation of the character traits and behaviours that maximise happiness for self and others. Many other spiritual texts offer advice for the cultivation of personal and social wellbeing .
Childhood
The literature on wellbeing in childhood is written from the perspective of educational psychologists and tends to refer to emotional and social wellbeing rather than mental wellbeing. The key positive attributes covered in writing on emotional and social wellbeing are self-esteem and positive relationships with peers. Emotional intelligence , and the closely related concept of emotional literacy, key skills for positive relationships with others, are recognised as important for wellbeing in childhood. Beyond these concepts, childhood wellbeing is largely defined in teh academic literature as the absence of emotional and behavioural problems .
Emotional and social development in childhood is a determinant of mental health in adulthood. This development is heavily influenced by the quality of relationships between parents and other carers, and their children. The capacity of parents to relate to their children in a way which enhances wellbeing is in turn influenced by parents' mental health.
Interdisciplinary perspective
An interdisciplinary perspective is necessary for understanding wellbeing. Whilst seemingly derived from different approaches and disciplines, the feeling and functioning aspects of mental wellbeing are inextricably linked. It can be surprisingly difficult when faced for example with the items in mental wellbeing inventories ' to decide whether an item measures feeling or functioning. For example, self-acceptance is an aspect of psychological functioning often measured by items like ‘I feel confident in myself’. But self-confidence is also a feeling which can fluctuate depending on external circumstances. Similarly, optimism is both a way of looking at the world or character trait and a feeling which comes and goes depending on external circumstances. The personal development required in enhancing psychological functioning is difficult to achieve when someone has negative feelings about their capabilities, but when it is achieved the accomplishment brings pleasure and the new skills increase emotional resilience to negative life events. Combining both feeling and functioning when measuring wellbeing has conceptual as well as practical validity. It also supports the positioning of mental wellbeing at one end of a mental health spectrum with mental illness or disorder at the other because mental illnesses are diagnose on the basis of the ways in which an individual is feeling bad or functioning poorly.
Summarising...
Mental wellbeing is the positive aspect of mental health. It is more than the absence of disease. People with mental wellbeing feel good and function well. Some people call this positive mental health, others call it flourishing. Mental health is influenced both by external circumstances and by how we respond to them. People who function well respond to challenging external circumstances in a way that is resilient and enables rapid recovery. External circumstances change all the time, so mental wellbeing fluctuates from time to time.
Mental health has a powerful influence on physical health, on learning, on productivity and on the quality of interpersonal relationships. So promoting mental wellbeing is important for public health, education, the economy and society.
Programmes to promote mental wellbeing aim to increase the number of people who feel mentally well and the amount of time they feel like this. They require both support and help for those who are ill or at risk of mental illness and programmes which aim to shift the curve so that the average mental health of the population is improved.
Theoretical distributions of mental health in normal populations
What's next?
After you have explored the material above to the extent you need, please jump to Wellbeing in the Learning & Teaching Environment: Pedagogies and Strategies for the Classroom (physical and virtual) and Beyond
References and additional readings
1. Mental Health Today…. And Tomorrow: Exploring current and future trends in mental health. Ed David Crepaz-Keay. Mental Health Foundation; Pavilion Publishing and Media Limited; 2015
2. World Health Organisation. Preamble to the Constitution of the World Health Organisation. Geneva; WHO. 1948
3. World Health Organisation. The world health report – mental health: New understanding new hope. Geneva; World Health Organisation. 2001
4. Stewart-Brown, S., “Population level: Wellbeing in the general population” in eds Mike Slade, Lindsay Oades and Aaron Jarden. P. Wellbeing, Recovery and Mental Health. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. 2015
5. Clark, A. E., Flèche, S., Layard, R., Powdthavee, N. and Ward, G., The Origins of Happiness; How new science can transform our priorities. Forthcoming 2017
6. Ryan RM, and Deci EL. On Happiness and Human Potentials: A Review of Research on Hedonic and Eudaimonic Well-Being. Annual Review of Psychology Volume 2001;52:41-166
7. Albee G W. Preventing psychopathology and promoting human potential. American Psychologist 1982; 37:1043-1050.
8. Huppert, F., & Ruggeri, K. (2017, in print). 16. The controversy of well-being. In D. Bhugra, K. Bhui, S. Wong, & S. Gilman (Eds.), Oxford Textbook of Public Mental Health. Oxford University Press.
9. Ryff C D. Happiness is everything, or is it. J Personality and Social Psychology 1989;57:1069-1081
10. Ryff, C., & Keyes, C. (1995). The structure of psychological well-being revisited. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 719–727.
11. Ryan RM and Deci EL. Self-Determination Theory: Basic Psychological Needs in Motivation, Development, and Wellness Guilford Press 2017
12. Hone, L.C., Jarden, A., Schofield, G.M., & Duncan, S. Measuring flourishing: The impact of operational definitions on the prevalence of high levels of wellbeing. International Journal of Wellbeing, 2014; 4: 62-90.
13. Schoch R. The Secrets of Happiness: Three Thousand Years of Searching for the Good Life Simon and Schuster 2008.
14. Salovey, P.; Mayer, J.D. (1989). "Emotional intelligence". Imagination, Cognition, and Personality. 9 (3): 185–211.
15. Stewart-Brown S, Edmunds L. Assessing Emotional and Social Competence in Early Years and Primary School Settings. Perspectives in Education (2003), 21:17-41.
16. Theda Rose, Sean Joe, George Warren Brown, Ashlie Williams, Ryan Harris, Gail Betz, Sarah Stewart-Brown Measuring mental wellbeing among adolescents: A systematic review of instruments". Journal of Child and Family Studies 2017;26(9):2349-2362. | https://change.dpl.online/what-is-mental-wellbeing-a-quick-dive-in-the-literature/ |
As for the other two phases of the project, this conclusion will take the form of a workshop, this time for a two-month, and organized by the whole team gathered around the project: "Writing Workshop stories of ancient mathematics - Reflecting on past practices and the future opening, 18th-20th-centuries".
Which mathematics was used to read ancient texts, and which impact had this on the reading and interpretation of the ancient texts?
using mathematical formulas to account for ancient procedures. Célestin Xiaohan Zhou will focus on 19th and 20th centuries reading of three sections of the Siyuan Yujian, the mathematical monograph completed by Zhu Shijie in 1303. He will compare how Qian Baocong (1892-1974) and Li Yan (1892-1963), among others, used modern symbols and formulas to interpret Zhu's text, and then compare this reading with the treatment of the same ancient texts by scholars from the Qing dynasty, who used different ways of interpreting the same procedures.
In the 19th and the 20th centuries, historians, anthropologists, philosophers, and also historians and philosophers of mathematics have used concepts of “peoples”, “nations”, “cultures” as key concepts for their work. This session of the workshop will examine how these concepts circulated from one field to the other, which meanings were given to them. It will also focus on the part played by mathematical knowledge and practices in these scholars’ views of “peoples”, “nations”, and “cultures”. Finally, it will address the issue of the impact such conceptual frameworks had on the projects pursued by historians and philosophers of mathematics, and on the facts of mathematical knowledge and practices on which they focused.
results on the eclipse records influence subsequent sinological studies?
David Eugene Smith (1860-1944), a mathematician, educator, collector, editor, and historian of mathematics, appears to be a ubiquitous protagonist of the historiography of ancient mathematics. His name is associated with the main projects that were developed in the early 20th Century in the United States for popularizing Sanskrit, Chinese, and cuneiform sources for teaching purposes. He promoted mathematics education as an independent academic field (he participated actively in the creation of the International Commission on Mathematical Instruction, and was its second president after Felix Klein). This session will examine the impact of David Eugene Smith on the historiography of mathematics, and his pioneering role in the promotion of history in mathematics education. In particular, we will consider to which extent Smith’s views on the history of arithmetic are influential at the present day in historical and educational practices, and at the same time, how his global approach of the history of mathematics was forgotten.
Through his mathematical books and also his writings on the history of mathematics, Augustus De Morgan (1806-1871) played a major role in the mathematical knowledge introduced in China and the Indian subcontinent. Alfred Zhihui Chen has established that De Morgan’s ideas on the history of mathematics, as well as the pieces of information he gleaned from various publications on the topic, also played an important part in shaping ideas about the history of mathematics in China and its position in a global history of mathematics. More precisely, Chen established how De Morgan’s notices for the Penny cyclopaedia were the main sources of Wylie’s 1852 Jottings on the Arithmetic of the Chinese , a work that had a tremendous impact in Europe. The session will examine De Morgan’s work on the history of mathematics in greater detail. It will also further analyze the reception of Wylie’s Jottings through an examination of the context, and also the ways, in which this publication was “translated” into German, and then French in the 1850s and 1860s. Ulrich Libbrecht had already emphasized how this process of reception left an imprint on views that took shape in Europe about the history of mathematics in China. We intend to analyze this process in greater detail.
From the 18th century onwards, European orientalists, historians of mathematics or philosophers were interested in what they perceived as a knowledge of algebra testified by texts in Arabic, Chinese and Sanskrit. How did they have access to these texts? With what ideas of algebra did they read these texts? How were categories such as “symbolism”, “equations”, “systems of equations", “unknowns” elaborated in relation to these texts? How was indeterminate analysis treated in this respect? Was it considered an algebraical practice? These are some of the questions we will tackle through specific case studies.
Following the session held on October 4, the first part of this workshop day will be devoted to a Marathi translation of De Morgan’s Elements Algebra, and a collective reading of (a translation of) the preface / introduction to this translation, reflecting on how it uses the history of mathematics.
The historiography of ancient astral sciences raises questions that echo, to a certain point, those raised by the historiography of mathematics. For instance, how were the corpuses that will be the basis of further histories shaped during the 19th century? In which way did such a shaping influence the way histories of astral sciences were written? Further, how were mathematical practices dealt with in relation to astral sciences? What preconception of the use of geometry and arithmetic influenced the way ancient astral sciences were read? | https://calenda.org/377254 |
able results (Smale, 1997). Although more genetically uniform than their early relatives, landraces are characterized by a high degree of genetic diversity within a particular field. Modern varieties, on the other hand, tend to exhibit little diversity within a particular field, but each plant contains genetic material from a wide variety of progenitors and is adapted to perform well across a wide range of agroclimatic conditions. A simple count of the varieties in a particular area or measures of genetic distance among varieties thus may not tell us much about the resilience of crop ecosystems or the availability of crop genetic resources for breeding programs (Raney and Pingali, 2005).
Transgenic techniques can directly affect agricultural genetic diversity. Transgenesis permits the introduction of genetic materials from sexually incompatible organisms, greatly expanding the range of genetic variation that can be used in breeding programs. Transgenesis allows the targeted transfer of the genes responsible for a particular trait, without otherwise changing the genetic makeup of the host plant. This means that a single transgenic event can be incorporated into many varieties of a crop, including perhaps even landraces. Compared with conventional breeding in which an innovation comes bundled within a new variety that typically displaces older varieties, transgenesis could allow an innovation to be disseminated through many varieties, preserving desirable qualities from existing varieties and maintaining or potentially increasing crop genetic diversity (Raney and Pingali, 2005).
On the other hand, the widespread incorporation of a single innovation, such as the Bt genes, into many crops may constitute a kind of genetic narrowing for that particular trait. Furthermore, transgenic crops that confer a distinct advantage over landraces may accelerate the pace at which these traditional crops are abandoned or augmented with the transgenic trait (Raney and Pingali, 2005). Regulatory regimes are concerned with the potentially harmful consequences of gene flow from transgenic crops to conventional varieties or landraces. In this context, it is important to recognize that gene flow from conventional varieties to landraces frequently occurs (especially for open-pollinated crops such as maize) and is often consciously exploited by farmers. It is likely that, in the same way, farmers would consciously select for transgenic traits that confer an advantage (de Groote et al., 2005).
Regulatory decisions influence the implications of transgenic approaches for biodiversity, often in unexpected ways. For example, when biosafety procedures require the separate approval of each plant variety containing a transgenic event, it slows the development of new varieties and narrows the range of genetic diversity available to farmers. Similarly, when new transgenic approaches to address a given production constraint (such as herbicide tolerance) are delayed, the approved technology may be overused with negative consequences for biodiversity and other environmental indicators.
Finally, genetic engineering allows scientists to take advantage of biodiversity. Increased documentation of genomes and understanding of functional genomics provides information that is needed to develop new traits and new varieties that are of high value. Thus, the availability of tools for biotechnology and their development enhance the value of biodiversity, and to some extent, biotechnology
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and biodiversity are complementary. Furthermore, biotechnology provides tools to restore local varieties after slight modification allowing them to withstand disease or other pressures. The development of precision farming technologies that allow for the modification of application of inputs, including seeds, in response to changes in ecological conditions will provide impetus to increase crop diversity to take advantage of these new possibilities.
5.6 Implications of Policy Simulations and Emerging Policy Issues: Synergies and Tradeoffs
5.6.1 Poverty and equity
Chapter 5 examined projected changes in agriculture and AKST out to 2050 based on existing assessments and methodologies. At this point there are no established methodologies to adequately describe changes in poverty and equity out to 2050. This can only be inferred based on the state of literature and the analyses presented here. Increased agricultural productivity has been a key driver for economic and income growth in most countries at some stage of economic development and will continue to be key to growth in many agriculture-dependent developing countries out to 2050. However, although agricultural and economic growth are critical drivers for poverty reduction and explain a significant share of the historical decline in poverty in most regions of the world, policies and investments in the fields of education, health, and infrastructure are also essential for sustained poverty reduction. Lipton and Sinha (1998) argue that, while globalization is changing the outlook for the rural poor by raising average incomes, it also tends to increase income variability both across regions (leaving some regions and countries behind) and across time, thus increasing the vulnerability of those who can least afford it. Moreover, while changes in macroeconomic and trade policy tend to produce large gains for both rural and urban areas, poor farmers and (landless) agricultural laborers, who often lack the skills, health, information, or assets needed to seize new opportunities (Sinha and Adam, 2006, 2007), tend to be left out of the general economic growth process, as they may be concentrated in remote rural areas or geographic regions ill-equipped to gain from globalization/liberalization.
To redress potentially adverse impacts on equity, investments in human capital are crucial for the poor. Moreover, given emerging health and food safety issues, investments in health and nutrition are similarly important. Even with rapid economic growth and active investment in social services, some of the poor will be reached slowly if at all. And even among those who do benefit to some extent, many will remain vulnerable to adverse events. These groups will need to be reached through income transfers, or through safety nets that help them through short-term stresses or disasters. | https://www.weltagrarbericht.de/reports/Global_Report/Global_5_354.html |
Q&A: modern crop breeding for future food security
Published: 25 February 2019, Springer Nature, BMC Biology.
By Dr Kai Voss-Fels, Dr Andreas Stahl & Dr Lee Hickey
Abstract
Farmers around the world have recently experienced significant crop losses due to severe heat and drought. Such extreme weather events and the need to feed a rapidly growing population have raised concerns for global food security. While plant breeding has been very successful and has delivered today’s highly productive crop varieties, the rate of genetic improvement must double to meet the projected future demands. Here we discuss basic principles and features of crop breeding and how modern technologies could efficiently be explored to boost crop improvement in the face of increasingly challenging production conditions.
What is the demand for plant-based food products?
The current number of 7.6 billion people on this planet is estimated to increase to about 10 billion by 2050. With this rapid population growth the world has become increasingly urbanized and the ratio of food producers to food consumers has significantly declined. This has placed pressure on food production globally, but intensified, more efficient agricultural production has met these demands. There are, however, serious concerns that the forecasted increase in demand for plant-based products by up to 70% within the next three to four decades cannot be met through increased production using current crop varieties and farming practices. This represents an unprecedented challenge for all related fields of agricultural and environmental research.
Which crops do we eat?
Although about 300,000 plant species are edible, only a fraction of them are used for human nutrition. Around 200 species are regularly consumed, and only three of them—rice, maize and wheat—provide 60% of the energy in the human diet. In addition to cereals, other major food crops include roots and tubers, sugars, pulses, nuts, oil-bearing crops, vegetables, fruits, spices, and others such as tea and coffee. While food crops are grown and harvested for profit in many developed countries, they make an important contribution to food security through global trade. In developing countries, subsistence farmers often grow food crops where hunger is still a serious issue. Many crops important for local diets in developing countries have received little investment, known as orphan crops (e.g. sorghum, finger millet and cassava), and with some rapid genetic improvement they could be cultivated more broadly to help diversify human diets and improve farming systems through better crop rotations.
How did our major food crops evolve?
The beginning of crop development dates far back into human history and is widely accepted to have its origin in the ‘Fertile Crescent’, a region that today spans part of the countries of Iraq, Palestine, Syria, Lebanon, Cyprus, Jordan, Israel, Egypt, Turkey and Iran. Recently, new evidence emerged that prehistoric bread-like products were produced in South-west Asia 14,400 years ago , which were made from root tubers (Bolboschoenus glaucus) and seeds of wild einkorn (Triticum boeoticum), one of the ancestors of today’s wheat. Interestingly, this pushes back the evidence of bread to at least 4000 years before agriculture emerged. This suggests that early bread-making culture may have fuelled domestication of our first crops . During settlement and the advent of agriculture, humans selected the most favourable plants of the available ancestral types, and this process of co-evolution between plant species and humankind resulted in today’s food crops. Seeds from the best performing plants were retained after harvest and sowed in the next season, leading to a continuous improvement of characteristics favourable for human nutrition and local production. This first form of breeding selection without any enforced crossing represented the main form of plant improvement for several thousands of years, shifting plant characteristics to increase their usefulness . So-called domestication traits were the prerequisite for successful cultivation. A good example was the elimination of the seed dispersal mechanism in cereals like wheat and barley, known as seed shattering. While seed shattering at maturation is essential for wild grasses to disperse and reproduce, this characteristic is undesirable for farming. Therefore, plant genotypes that retained their seeds and thereby showed reduced yield losses were selected in the process of domestication. Because only few plants carried the desirable mutations, the strong selection pressure acted as a genetic bottleneck on the diversity available in our modern crops (Fig. 1a). Considering the extremely long evolution of crops, modern plant breeding has only recently been practiced, mainly after the formulation of Mendel’s Laws of Heredity in 1865. Mendel’s early genetic studies on peas and his resulting theories about inheritance and trait segregation paved the way for targeted crossing between parental genotypes, a practice that underpins modern crop improvement. However, in order to be able to meet the increasing demand for plant-based products, rates of genetic improvement must be doubled by the middle of this century
Why the need for speed?
New technology and advances in science offer new opportunities to further improve the efficiency of agriculture while reducing its environmental footprint, as well as enrich human diets with more nutritious foods. Since the Green Revolution, steady increases in crop productivity have occurred; however, there is concern that yield improvement is beginning to plateau. The current rate of annual yield improvement for major crops ranges between 0.8 and 1.2%, which must be doubled in order to meet the highly increased future demand for plant-based products . Without new approaches that help boost productivity of staple crops through genetic improvement, global food security will be severely compromised in the next two to three decades, given the current global consumer behaviour. There are two main avenues by which crop productivity on farms can be improved: i) through the deployment of genetically superior crop varieties, or ii) via the adoption of better management practices. Ideally, both are addressed in parallel to provide a step-change in productivity, similar to what was achieved during the Green Revolution (see below). One of the major bottlenecks of plant breeding is the time it takes to develop an improved crop variety. Traditionally, it can take one or two decades because of the many steps of crossing, selection and testing required. Therefore, plant breeders and researchers around the world are developing new technologies and approaches to help speed up the efficiency of crop breeding. On farms, the adoption of poor or suboptimal management practices results in a yield ‘gap’, where the potential of crop yields are not realised. This gap exists even in developed countries, but is often largest in developing countries where machinery and other equipment and supplies, along with agronomy advice, are not readily available. Closing the yield gap is considered a challenging, yet high-priority, goal for enhancing productivity and global food security.
What determines crop yield?
One of the most important traits that plant breeders aim to improve is ‘yield’. Depending on the species this can be ‘grain yield’, ‘total biomass’ or ‘total amount of sugar’ per area harvested. Yield represents a highly quantitative trait, which means that it is determined by numerous factors, including the interplay of many underlying genes with typically small effects (G), the environmental conditions under which the plants are grown (E) and the management practices applied (M). In most circumstances, there is a strong interaction among the G, E and M, which results in a high degree of complexity at the level of trait expression . Each of those main complexes unfolds into several components that themselves represent complexes as well. In cereals, for example, the G component for grain yield can be understood as a higher-level complex consisting of several genetically determined components that jointly affect yield. For a crop like wheat, important yield components include the number and size of kernels per ear (e.g. per spike or panicle) and the number of ear-producing tillers per plant. Each of those major yield components unfolds into several lower-level physiological components, for example the number of spikelets per spike and the number of kernels that are produced per spikelet. The genetic constitution of a variety directly determines its yield potential, e.g. when considering genetic resistances against plant diseases caused by fungal or bacterial pathogens. Major environmental effects that are relevant to plant breeding are the amount of water that is available for the plant (mostly determined by frequency and distribution of precipitation), soil composition, radiation intensity and temperature. Interactions of G and E are most extreme when the order of merit of different varieties changes depending on the environmental conditions they were grown in. For example, a maize variety that produces a very shallow root system and allocates relatively limited resources to below-ground plant development might be able to produce significantly higher yields than a variety that produces a large, deep-reaching root system when both varieties are grown at a location characterised by sandy soils with a low water storage capacity and frequent rainfalls throughout the growing season. However, the situation changes entirely when both varieties are grown on production sites that are characterised by deep soils with a high water storage capacity and extremely low precipitation throughout the crop-growing season, leading to severe droughts. Especially phenology-related traits like flowering time can also play a key role in determining the plants’ performance in a given environment.
How does plant breeding work?
The plant kingdom is extremely complex and the optimal plant breeding strategy is highly species-dependant. However, any breeding program can be broadly classed into three main processes: i) the creation of new genetic variation, ii) the selection of candidates based on defined merits and iii) the testing, propagation and release of improved crop varieties. The conventional way of creating new genetic variation is to make targeted crosses between selected individuals to create progeny that segregate for the trait of interest, typically representing the start of a breeding program. After that, a main task of the breeder is to identify genetically superior individuals from typically large populations (thousands to tens of thousands of genotypes). This typically involves multi-year and -location testing of candidates in replicated experimental field trials in order to estimate the genetic potential of a genotype across a range of growing conditions as accurately as possible. It is important to consider that most important crop species can be propagated as inbred lines or clones, thereby allowing repeated testing of the same genotype in different production conditions. For most important crop species, modern selection strategies have been developed that incorporate genome information based on next-generation DNA sequencing technologies in the breeding process (see below). In the final stage, breeders will typically register their most promising variety candidates (typically only one or two) at a legal variety testing department that runs multi-year and -location evaluation trials to assess if the variety has distinctly improved characteristics that warrant its official registration. Once registered, the new variety becomes available to farmers. Depending on the crop this process can take up to one to two decades, making breeding programs very rigid and complex endeavours.
How does the mode of reproduction determine the breeding strategy?
The main principle ways of sexual propagation relevant to most crop species are outcrossing and inbreeding . Outcrossing species sexually reproduce through hybridization of gametes from two different plants, whereas for inbreeding species both gametes originate from the same plant. Many important cereal crops, such as wheat and barley, are inbred species that produce hermaphrodite flowers. These flowers have biological mechanisms that minimise outcrossing. Classical breeding strategies that have been widely used for these crops are referred to as ‘pedigree breeding’ approaches, typically resulting in fully homozygous line varieties. Here, plant breeders make crosses by manually removing anthers from the ‘female’ plant (known as emasculation) and then apply pollen from a different ‘male’ plant. In this way, directed crosses can be made even for inbreeding species. Depending on the size of the breeding program the total number of directed crosses can range between less than 100 to a few thousand. The offspring segregate and breeders select the best plants during multiple rounds of recurrent inbreeding and field testing. A high level of homozygosity is critical to ensure that the variety that is grown by farmers does not segregate further, potentially exposing recessive genetic variants with detrimental effects on agronomically important traits. In outcrossing species, breeders aim to improve a plant population from which the best individuals are recurrently selected and intercrossed during the breeding program, making it conceptually different from line breeding for inbreds, which results in one single, improved genetically homozygous line. The rate of success of population breeding programs depends on whether the target traits are expressed before or after flowering, determining how efficiently unfavourable individuals can be removed to ensure that they are not passing on genetic material to the next generation. One of the most popular strategies for outcrossing crop species is hybrid breeding. Here, two genetically distant inbred lines are crossed to generate fully uniform F1 hybrids that show a significantly higher performance than both parents. This approach takes advantage of a phenomenon called heterosis (or hybrid vigour) and while different theories have been developed, its biological basis remains elusive. In maize, spectacular yield increases have been realised since the implementation of hybrid breeding in the early twentieth century. In rice there are hybrids that produce up to 30% more yield than common inbred lines. However, a major challenge is to practically ensure directed crossing and efficient production of hybrid seed. Breeders typically deploy genetic sterility mechanisms to make sure that genotype A is only pollinated with pollen from genotype B without pollen contamination from other sources (e.g. other genotypes or self-pollination), although chemical hybridization agents that are typically less efficient are used for some species. This restricts the availability of hybrid varieties for some crops, like wheat and barley. For commercial breeders hybrid varieties are very attractive because farmers cannot regrow the seeds they harvested but have to buy new seeds in every growing season. This is because seeds harvested from F1 hybrids (i.e. the F2 generation) will cause serious yield decreases (due to the 1:2:1 segregation), protecting IP of the hybrid variety and promoting higher profits from seed sales each year.
Who is breeding the crop varieties?
Crop improvement programs are run in both the public and private sector. Public plant breeding programs typically produce germplasm, which is freely available to producers, researchers and other breeders, although there are IP regulations and material transfer agreements involved. On the other hand, seeds produced by private plant breeding programs underlie stricter IP regulations and have to be purchased through the breeding company or the contracted seed distributor. Several international research institutions run public crop breeding programs. For example, CGIAR represents a very large global partnership consisting of 15 agricultural research organisations whose joint agenda aims at improving global future food security, reducing poverty and improving human health and nutrition. Their joint investments into crop improvement run into the billions of US dollars. One of the partners is CIMMYT (The International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre) based in Mexico, which is leading the wheat and maize improvement programs. CIMMYT has developed numerous varieties grown on millions of hectares worldwide. Another important public crop improvement organisation, which is heavily involved in the improvement of rice varieties, is the International Rice Research Institution (IRRI) based in the Philippines, representing the largest non-profit agricultural research organisation in Asia. Public crop improvement programs are also important for ‘pre-breeding’, which bridges discovery research and applied crop breeding. On the other hand is the private plant breeding sector, which is dominated by big multinational companies like Bayer, Syngenta and Corteva. These companies produce and commercialise seeds of highly productive varieties that can be purchased by farmers. In Europe, for example, there is a strong mid-tier for plant breeding consisting of small to mid-scale companies. While the big players mostly conduct breeding research using their own facilities and in-house resources, smaller companies typically depend on collaborative R&D activity with public research institutions and/or other small companies.
What was the green revolution?
The Green Revolution describes the tremendous increase of grain yield associated with improved genetics and application of plant protection chemicals and mineral fertilizers. While it took almost 10,000 years for humans to produce one billion tons of grain globally, the Green Revolution led to a doubling of that amount in just 40 years between 1960 and 2000. A key driver of the Green Revolution was the introduction of so-called semi-dwarfing genes (reduced height, Rht-genes) in wheat. Varieties carrying the Rht genes were shorter (Fig. 1b) and much better at utilizing increased amounts of applied nitrogen. In comparison to taller varieties, which tend to lie flat on the ground (lodging) as a result of high nitrogen fertilization and/or increasing grain load, Rht-carrying varieties contribute to a better nitrogen use efficiency, preventing nitrogen from being wasted and polluting neighboring ecosystems . Today, dwarfing genes are widespread in modern cereal varieties worldwide and a range of different Rht genes have been characterized. The first deployed Rht genes, including Rht-B1b (formerly Rht1) and Rht-D1b 8b (formerly Rht2) originated from the Japanese wheat variety ‘Norin 10’, which is a progeny of the Japanese semi-dwarf landrace ‘Daruma’ and an American high-yielding variety. Norin 10 was central for the creation of several important Green Revolution wheat varieties. Also for barley and maize the orthologous genes sln1 and dwarf8 were discovered. These genes generally encode transcription factors that target components of the gibberellin acid (GA) pathway, which regulate GA response. GA is a tetracyclic diterpenoid acid that is important for the onset of flowering and pollen development, as well as a key determinant of cell elongation and therefore plant height. Consequently, wheat and rice plants that carry semi-dwarfing genes are shorter and realize a higher harvest index, defined as the ratio of grain yield over the entire plant biomass. The advent of smaller, more stable varieties with a higher harvest index was accompanied by several positive effects, including an improved allocation of nutrients and assimilates to the grains and a reduction of residual plant biomass .
How does climate change affect crop production?
Climate change is a generic term that describes the recent and forecasted change of multiple environmental parameters. Most of them, including atmospheric CO2 concentration, temperature and the frequency and amount of precipitation, affect plant growth. While a higher CO2 concentration usually increases photosynthesis, a lack of rainfall at critical developmental stages decreases crop yields. The record-breaking Millennium droughts in 1996/97, 2001–2003, 2006 and 2018 in Australia or 2003, 2010, 2015 and 2018 in Europe are examples for extreme effects of drought on crop production. On the other hand, like CO2 concentration, increasing temperature can accelerate plant growth due to a higher enzymatic activity. Beyond the temperature optimum, which is very crop and variety specific, higher temperatures result in heat stress, which is considered a major cause of wheat yield loss in developing countries. It has been estimated that each °C increase leads to a decrease of global wheat production of 6% . Increasing temperature can also indirectly affect crop yields due to an increased occurrence of pests and diseases. Clearly, the magnitude of impact of climate change on crop yields will depend on the geographic region. For example, an increase in temperature of 4 °C has been forecasted to reduce wheat yields by 20–30% in tropical regions, whereas in temperate regions, the same temperature change will not likely lead to dramatic yield losses . It is very difficult to attribute specific weather events to climate change since effects are mainly measurable as long-term trends. Furthermore, environmental effects on crop yields can vary strongly from year to year. There are arguments that with increased temperatures the atmosphere can hold more water. However, different spatiotemporal evaporation rates which are not synchronized with increased atmospheric water holding capacity drive changes in global precipitation. Hence, drought events are predicted to become more frequent and severe in many crop-growing regions. Plant breeding is expected to play a central role in meeting the challenge to adapt crops to future growth conditions.
What is the genomics era of crop improvement?
Over the past ~ 10,000 years, crops were mainly improved through selection of superior individuals that showed characteristics favourable for human nutrition and production, but without enforced crossing involved. The formulation of Mendelian laws heralded the beginning of modern plant breeding, which has changed tremendously over the past 150 years. The introduction and continuous development of theoretical frameworks, including quantitative genetics principles and the rapid advances in the field of modern biotechnology and genomics, have made plant breeding a very complex discipline . Modern plant breeding programs involve expert teams that combine very broad and different skillsets, such as genetics, statistics, agronomy, biochemistry, physiology, bioinformatics, molecular biology and economics, making them highly interdisciplinary. Advances in DNA sequencing technologies have revolutionised crop breeding and research, opening up the ‘genomics era’ of crop improvement. Today, whole-genome reference DNA sequences are available for most important crop species and very cost-efficient genotyping platforms to ‘DNA fingerprint’ plants have been developed. The DNA marker of choice is typically single-nucleotide-polymorphism (SNP) markers because they are ubiquitous in crop genomes and very easy and cost-efficient to score. It has therefore become standard practice in modern crop improvement to genotype large populations of plants with thousands to tens of thousands of markers on a routine basis. Even whole-genome resequencing data are becoming increasingly available, providing unprecedented insights into structural diversity across crop genomes . Using the latest statistical genetics approaches, vast amounts of genotype data are used for various purposes. For instance, a very promising modern selection strategy that incorporates genome-wide DNA marker information is ‘genomic selection’ in which statistical models or machine learning algorithms are deployed to link genomic polymorphisms to phenotypic variation. The underlying theoretical foundation of the approach is that genes (or more generic quantitative trait loci (QTL)) that affect the trait of interest (e.g. grain yield) are tagged by DNA markers, allowing one to derive effect approximations for each of those QTL on the target trait. A prediction equation is used to calculate a genomic estimated breeding value for each genotype, based on whole-genome marker profiles, without actually testing those genotypes in field trials. This allows breeders to predict genotype performance as soon as DNA marker profiles can be generated (i.e. at seedling stage). Ultimately, the time until selection decisions are being made is significantly decreased, which leads to increased genetic gain per unit of time. Since its formal introduction in 2001, genomic selection has led to tremendous increases in genetic gain in animal breeding (e.g. dairy cattle) and it has a huge potential for crop improvement as well.
Can new technologies speed up crop improvement?
The rate of improvement of genetic yield potential has to be increased beyond the rates currently achieved in ongoing breeding programs to protect global food security in times of rapid population growth and climate change. Thus, new or different approaches are needed to accelerate the crop breeding process. Over the past decades, numerous technologies have emerged that can accelerate plant breeding, such as genomic selection (described above). In addition to genomics approaches described above, other new methodologies such as gene editing technology are fast-evolving and protocols have been refined for most major crop species. In CRISPR gene editing systems, guide RNA directs the Cas9 enzyme to the target DNA site and cuts the DNA. This can be used to activate or deactivate alleles of a target gene to enhance plant performance, e.g. through improving disease resistance or drought tolerance . Despite the promise of gene editing and strong support from the scientific literature regarding safety and sustainability, many countries have employed strict legal frameworks as a consequence of controversial discussions—mainly ideology-driven—and a rejection of genetically modified food. On the other hand, a very widely used and accepted breeding method is mutation breeding, which uses chemicals or radiation to induce random mutations throughout the genome instead of genetically engineered (targeted) mutation. In fact, spontaneous mutations in the plant genome occur naturally. For example, in a wheat field the size of one hectare, about 20 billion mutations occur each year (Prof. Detlef Weigel, personal communication). This is why the majority of the plant science community argue that mutations induced using genome editing where no foreign DNA is introduced should be considered a non-GM tool. Alternatively, ‘speed breeding’ developed by Dr. Lee Hickey and colleagues provides a non-GM route to rapidly introduce or stack new trait variation. This technique uses controlled environmental conditions and extended photoperiods to achieve up to six generations per year, instead of just one or two in the field. This can speed up the development of inbred lines following a cross, similar to doubled haploid technology, which is a lab-based technique that has been a revelation for breeding crops like maize and winter wheat. Most of the modern technologies have been proven to assist the development of improved crop varieties. However, more efficient breeding strategies that effectively combine these technologies could lead to a step-change in the rate of genetic gain. Ongoing investment from the public and private sectors is necessary to build and maintain capacity for sustained crop improvement to ensure the development of crops that are capable of feeding the world in the future. | https://qaafi.uq.edu.au/blog/2020/02/modern-crop-breeding-future-food-security |
Plant genetics, breeding, and biotechnology students are interested in agricultural biotechnology, genetic engineering, and research in genetic mechanisms that control crop growth and development.
Students prepare for many research opportunities in industry and acquire the necessary background for graduate studies. Students also learn the fundamentals of genetics and practical plant breeding as well as the latest developments in genetic engineering, environmentally sound crop production practices, development of varieties appropriate for the agriculture of developing countries, and strategies for developing plant lines adapted to environmental stresses. Opportunities exist for training both in laboratory and field practices important to modern genetics research. A professional internship involving practical aspects of the option is required.
Graduates enjoy a wide range of employment opportunities in the seed and biotechnology industries and in plant genetics research and teaching. Students specializing in plant breeding are prepared for a broad spectrum of careers involving development of improved crop varieties and their adaptation to crop production systems. | https://www.admissions.purdue.edu/majors/a-to-z/plant-genetics-breeding-and-biotechnology.php |
There are now almost 7.25 billion human beings inhabiting this planet, and it has been projected that world population growth may exceed 70 million annually over the next 40 years. The world population will be approximately 9.2 billion in 2050, when the concentration of carbon dioxide and ozone will be 550 ppm and 60 ppm, respectively and the climate will be warmer by 2ºC . At that time it is expected that approximately 90% of this global population will reside in Asia, Africa, and Latin American countries [2,3]. Currently, about 1 billion human beings suffer from hunger; 3 billion malnourished people suffer one or more micronutrient deficiencies (especially vitamin A, iodine and iron) and live with less than 2 US dollars per day; and anthropogenic climate change continues to affect food output and quality [4,5]. By 2050, to sufficiently feed all these people, the total food production will have to increase 60 to 70% to meet a net demand of 1 billion tonnes of cereal for food and to feed, and 200 million tonnes of meat [6-8], depending on assumptions of population growth, income growth and dietary changes. This projected increase of global crop demand is partly due to a growing global population, but a larger driver is increasing global affluence and associated changes in diet due to higher incomes [4,8]. As global incomes increase, diets typically shift from those comprised of mostly grains, to diets that contain greater proportion of meat, dairy products, and eggs and more vegetables and fruits [4,8-10].
In order to meet these demands, global livestock production systems are shifting from using mostly marginal lands and crop residues to more industrial systems which require less land and use of higher value feed crops [11,12]. Increasing demand for meat and dairy products is also of importance to the global environment because their production requires more land, water and other resources [13-15]. Livestock production is also responsible for other environmental impacts. Besides livestock production is estimated to be responsible for 18% of total greenhouse gas emissions , and animal products generally have a much higher water footprint than vegetal products .
In 2008, the world’s arable land amounted to 1,386 M ha, out of a total 4,883 M ha land used for agriculture . Each year, arable and agricultural land is lost due to deforestation, overgrazing, agricultural activities, gathering and overexploitation for fuel-wood, urbanization and industrialization. The most direct negative impact of agriculture on biodiversity is due to the considerable loss of natural habitats, which is caused by the conversion of natural ecosystems into agricultural land. The arable land is limited. Increases in arable land can only be done by deforestation. Agricultural production should be increased without further deforestation. This requires innovation and better technologies, as well as substantial investment, to increase yields on existing agricultural land.
Climate models predict that warmer temperatures and increases in the frequency and duration of drought during the twenty-first century will have negative impact on agricultural productivity [19-24]. For example, maize production in Africa could be at risk of significant yield losses as researchers predict that each degree-day that the crop spends above 30°C reduces yields by 1% if the plants receive sufficient water . These predictions are similar to those reported for maize yield in the United States . Lobell et al. further showed that maize yields in Africa decreased by 1.7% for each degree-day the crop spent at temperatures of over 30°C under drought. Wheat production in Russia decreased by almost one-third in 2010, largely due to the summer heat wave. Similarly, wheat production declined significantly in China and India in 2010, largely due to drought and sudden rise in temperature respectively, thereby causing forced maturity . Warming at +2°C is predicted to reduce yield losses by 50% in Australia and India [27,28]. Likewise, the global maize and wheat production, as a result of warming temperatures during the period of 1980 to 2008, declined by 3.8% and 5.5%, respectively . So climate change poses a serious threat to species fitness [29,30], and to agro-ecosystems essential to food production .
Climatic variation and change are already influencing the distribution and virulence of crop pest and diseases, but the interactions between the crops, pests and pathogens are complex and poorly understood in the context of climate change . We will need to integrate plant biology into the current paradigm with respect to climate change to succeed in defeating emerging pests and pathogens posing a new threat to agriculture due to climate change [33-35].
In this context we can ask: can we feed and clothe the growing world population while simultaneously preserving or improving ecosystems and the natural environment?
History shows that modern agriculture has the potential to feed the world population but also to be worst and even catastrophically with the natural environment. Some examples are deforestation, overgrazing and erosion, in many parts of the world, which contributed to the outright collapse of ecosystems. One classical example is Madagascar's central highland plateau that has become virtually totally barren (about ten percent of the country), as a result of slash-and-burn deforestation, an element of shifting cultivation practiced by many natives. Intensification of production systems have also led to reduction in crop and livestock biodiversity, and increased genetic vulnerability and erosion. In contrast, the “Green Revolution”, which began providing high-yielding crop cultivars and high-input management techniques to developing countries in the 1960s, has prevented mass starvation and improved living standards throughout the world . Dwarfing, photoperiod insensitive genes and host plant resistance genes to pathogens and pests were bred for various crops during the "Green Revolution" . Crop yields were increased in many nations of Asia and Latin America by innovations of the “Green Revolution”. Calorie consumption would have dropped by about 5% and the number of malnourished children would have increasing by at least 2%; i.e., the "Green Revolution" helped to improve the health status of 32 to 42 million pre-school children. Since the beginning of the "Green Revolution" in 1960, land devoted to crops increased some 10%, land under irrigation has doubled, pesticide use by agriculture has tripled, fertilizer use is up 23-fold, pesticide use is up by a factor of 53. Nowadays, forty per cent of crop production comes from the 16% of agricultural land that is irrigated. Irrigated lands account for a substantial portion of increased yields obtained during the "Green Revolution". The enhancement of yield achieved in the "Green Revolution" (29% in food supplies per capita since 1960) may have been associated with an increased level of greenhouse gas emissions associated with higher fertilizer production and application, but, overall, its net effect has been calculated to have reduced CO2 emission by some 161 gigatons of carbon (GtC) over the period 1961-2005 , implying that gains in crop productivity can make a positive contribution to reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
Developing sustainable agriculture in environmentally sensitive systems is the great challenge of the coming decades. More food, animal feed, fiber, fuel, and forest products must be produced with less available land, water, and nutrients, to meet basic human needs and improve the sustainability of production . In addition, pressure from an increasing global human population will necessitate more efficient and diversified land use.
Identifying the most appropriate technologies and practices to achieve these objectives are critical. This requires the building of a knowledge base to support such tasks. Agro-ecological approaches are known to increase farming system productivity, to reduce pollution, and to maintain biodiversity through careful management of soil, water, and natural vegetation. The agenda for a new “Green Revolution” needs to consider new approaches to promote innovations in plant science, agricultural and management practices and benefits to farmers and consumers.
Modern production agriculture in the developed world is highly industrialized. There is considerable discussion about the inadequacy of the dominant model of agricultural intensification and growth, which relies on increased use of capital inputs, such as fertilizer and pesticides . Technology and purchased inputs, e.g. fertilizer, pesticides and water are required to maintain high levels of production, and use of these inputs continues to increase in the developing world. Despite the critical need for agricultural production and continued improvements in management practices, current systems are still not in “harmony” with the environment because they can create many problems for ecosystems and human communities. The generation of unacceptable levels of environmental damage and problems of economic feasibility are cited as key problems with this model of industrial agriculture [39,41]. Specific external costs of industrial agriculture which should be improved include soil deterioration, erosion, declining surface water and groundwater quality, limited recycling of nutrients, excessive use of off-farm fertilizers and pesticides, diminished biodiversity within the agricultural system (both in terms of the variety of crops sown and coexisting species), lapses in food safety, and the loss of rural employment. By developing new field crops, and trees that meet societal needs, plant breeding plays a distinctive and crucial role in addressing these challenges, which must be dealt with immediately to develop sustainable agronomic systems for the future.
In this article two general ways are described in which plant breeders can engage in environmental issues: i) by breeding plants that are better adapted to environment and environmental stresses, producing more with less and where productivity can be maintained in the face of increasingly variable weather patterns and sub-optimal conditions, as well as pest and disease pressures; and ii) by breeding plants that can alter and “improve” environments, as breeding alternative crops and crops for new uses or breeding for local adaptation and sustainable solutions. Previously, the concepts of crop biodiversity, soil biodiversity and agro-biodiversity were briefly presented.
2. Crop biodiversity, soil biodiversity and agro-biodiversity
2.1. Crop biodiversity
Today, 150 plant species (out of 250,000 known plant species) dominate the world’s agricultural landscapes, but only 12 crop species provide 80% of the world’s food chain . Three main cereals: wheat, rice and maize, provide about 50% of the energy we obtain from plants.
The wise use of crop genetic diversity in plant breeding can contribute significantly to protect the environment. A major role of genetic resources will be to provide germplasm resistant to pests and diseases, more efficient in their use of water and nutrients and less dependent on external inputs to maintain current levels of productivity. Natural genetic diversity is becoming increasingly important to understanding the ways in which we can improve plant breeding. There is a continuing need to assemble and screen germplasm strategically and discover new sources of variation that will enable developing new crop cultivars. Complex traits can be improved dramatically by bringing novel alleles from diverse ecotypes into breeding material.
Crop genetic biodiversity is considered a source of continuing advances in yield, disease and pest resistance, and quality improvement. It is widely accepted that greater varietal and species diversity would enable agricultural systems to maintain productivity over a wide range of conditions. The loss of biodiversity is considered one of today’s most serious environmental concerns. In the last 50 years vegetable genetic resources have been lost, on a global scale at the rate of 1-2% per year and it has been estimated by FAO that 6% of wild relatives of cereal crops (wheat, maize, rice, etc.) are under threat as well as 18% of legume species, and 13% of solanaceous .
There is a growing world-wide awareness about the need to conserve plant germplasm for the use of future generations. Consequently, considerable media attention has been given to the creation of the Svalbard Global Seed Vault (see http://www.croptrust.org/main) and relates to storage of seeds of many economically important crops [3,45]. Gene banks are crop genetic diversity reservoirs and sources of alleles for sustainable genetic enhancement of crops . Indeed breeding gains depend on capitalizing on the useful genetic variation present in the crop gene pools, which for many crops is being conserved in gene banks. There are about 1,700 gene banks and germplasm collections around the world (the number in FAO's database). They maintain about 7.4 million accessions of plant genetic resources, with cereals and legumes constituting 52% of the accessions . The CGIAR consortium holds about 0.7 million accessions of 3,446 species from 612 genera. The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-arid Tropics (ICRISAT) possesses one of the largest gene banks in the world with approximately 115,000 accessions of cereals (sorghum, millets) and legumes (chick-pea, groundnut, pigeon-pea) . In spite of these large collections maintained
Research undertaken on the large global collection of sorghum landraces and genetic stocks held at ICRISAT (in excess of 35,000) demonstrates how the challenge of maintaining a large number of accessions and the related information documented for this collection can be addressed by gene bank curators. Different sampling strategies were proposed to obtain core collection subsets of reduced size . Three core collections subsets were established following: i) a random sampling within a stratified collection (logarithmic strategy); ii) non-random sampling based upon morpho-agronomic diversity (principal component score strategy); and non-random sampling based upon an empirical knowledge of sorghum (taxonomic strategy). These core collections subsets did not differ significantly in their overall phenotypic diversity according to principal component representation of the morpho-agronomic diversity using the Shannon-Weaver diversity indice. But when comparisons for morpho-agronomic diversity and passport data were considered, the principal component strategy subset looked similar to the entire landrace collection. The logarithmic strategy subset showed differences for characters associated with the photoperiod reaction that was considered in the random sampling stratification of the collection. The taxonomic strategy subset was the most distinct subset from the entire landrace collection. It represented the landraces selected by farmers for specific uses and covered the widest range of geographical adaptation and morpho-agronomic traits.
In the same sorghum landraces collection of ICRISAT, partial assessment of host response to five sorghum diseases provided another means to quantify the importance of agro-biodiversity in resistance . Frequency distributions of host response to major sorghum pathogens were the same between the entire collection and core collection subsets for all diseases, except between the entire collection and the logarithmic core subset for grain mold. This was not surprising because the sampling strategy for this core subset and the material included in the screening for this disease did not match. The logarithmic core subset had the widest range of adaptation to photoperiod whereas only photoperiod insensitive germplasm had been screened for grain mold. The lack of accessions that fall in the highest resistance class for some diseases in the core subsets is the result of sampling statistics, but the χ2 tests for homogeneity clearly confirmed that the entire collection and the core subsets included the same distribution of variation with only the above stated exception for grain mold in the logarithmic strategy core subset. New accessions with high resistance to specific diseases are likely to be identified by completing the screening of the core subsets. This rational, targeted approach may also be cost-effective and more precise than long term screening of the entire collection. Furthermore this analysis also shows that large sample sizes do not appear to always be associated with capturing useful variation for disease resistance (i.e., entire
The latest database on world plant genetic resources highlighted that there are still large gaps, more specifically in crop wild relatives and landraces, in
2.2. Soil biodiversity
Biodiversity and soil are strongly linked, because soil is the medium for a large variety of organisms, and interacts closely with the wider biosphere. Soil biodiversity exceeds the aboveground systems biodiversity, and is crucial for the sustainability of agro-ecosystems . It consists of macrofauna or soil engineers (earthworms and termites), mesofauna (microarthropods such as mites and springtails), microfauna (nematodes and protozoans), and microflora (bacteria and fungi). The soil organisms perform a number of vital functions such as: i) decomposition and degradation of plant litter and cycling of nutrients; ii) converting atmospheric nitrogen into organic forms (immobilization) and remineralization of mineral nitrogen, leading to the formation of gaseous nitrogen; iii) suppression of soil pathogens through antagonism; iv) regulating microclimate and local hydrological processes; v) synthesizing enzymes, vitamins, hormones, vital chelators and allelochemicals that regulate population and processes; vi) altering soil structure and other soil physical, chemical and biological characteristics; and vii) microbial exudates have a dominant role in the aggregation of soil particles and the protection of carbon from further degradation [64,65]. Biological activity helps in the maintenance of relatively open soil structure; it facilitates decomposition and its transportation as well as transformation of soil nutrients. It is not surprising that soil management has a direct impact on biodiversity. This includes practices that influence global changes, soil structure, biological and chemical characteristics, and whether soil exhibits adverse effects such as soil acidification.
Soil acidification has an impact on soil biodiversity. Roem and Berendse in the Netherlands, examined the correlation between soil pH and soil biodiversity in soils with pH below 5 in grassland and heath land communities. A strong correlation was discovered, wherein the lower the pH the lower the biodiversity. Soil acidification reduced the numbers of most macrofauna and affected rhizobium survival and persistence. So extremely low pH soils may suffer from structural decline as a result of reduced microorganisms. This brings a susceptibility to erosion under high rainfall events, drought, and agricultural disturbance.
Land use pattern, plant diversity, soil desertification and pollution, including those resulting from N enrichment, alter soil biodiversity [67-69]. The changes in soil biodiversity are also observed through effects on soil organisms as a result of the changes in temperature and precipitation and through climate-driven changes [like rising atmospheric/ambient CO2 (hereafter aCO2) and warming] in plant productivity and species composition.
Accumulated evidence so far reveals that soil biota is vulnerable to global changes and soil disturbance. Castro et al. , in a multifactor climate change experiment, reported increased fungal abundance in warmed treatments, increased bacterial abundance in warmed plots with elevated atmospheric CO2 (hereafter eCO2) but decreased in warmed plots under aCO2, changes in precipitation altered the relative abundance of proteobacteria and acidobacteria where acidobacteria decreased with a concomitant increase in the proteobacteria in wet relative to dry treatments, altered fungal community composition due to the changes in precipitation, and differences in relative abundance of bacterial and fungal clones varied among treatments. All these observations led the researchers to conclude that climate change drivers and their interactions among them may cause changes in the bacterial and fungal abundance, with precipitation having greater effect on the community composition.
Dominique et al. in their research, where the influence of plant diversity and eCO2 levels on belowground bacterial diversity were analyzed observed that the variability in plant diversity level had significant effects on bacterial composition but no influence on bacterial richness. This research therefore suggests that the soil microbial composition is mainly related to plant diversity, assuming that different plant species might harbor specific rhizospheric microbial populations, rather than altered soil carbon fluxes induced by eCO2 which can lead to increased photosynthesis. Bardgett points out there is sufficient evidence to show that the transfer of carbon through plant roots to the soil plays a primary role in regulating ecosystem responses to climate change and its mitigation.
Very little is known about the influence of eCO2 on the structure and functioning of below ground microbial community. In a 10-year field exposure of a grassland ecosystem to eCO2, Zhili et al. detected a dramatic alteration in the structure and functional properties of soil microbial communities. They found the total microbial and bacterial biomass significantly increased under eCO2, while the fungal biomass remained unaffected. Furthermore, the structure of microbial communities was markedly different between aCO2 and eCO2. More recently, using tag-encoded pyrosequencing of 16S rRNA genes, Deng et al. also found that the soil microbial community composition and its structure were significantly altered under eCO2. In both studies, the changes in microbial structure were significantly correlated to soil moisture, soil status relative to C and N contents, and plant productivity.
2.3. Agro-biodiversity
Agro-biodiversity is the result of the interaction between the environment, the variety and variability of animals, plants and microorganisms that are necessary for sustaining key functions of the agro-ecosystem, and the management systems and practices. It is the human activity of agriculture which shapes and conserves this biodiversity.
Agro-biodiversity consists of the genetic diversity within the species, the species diversity, and the ecosystem diversity, which comprises the variation between agro-ecosystems within a region.
There are several distinctive features of agro-biodiversity, compared to other components of biodiversity: i) agro-biodiversity is actively managed by farmers and would not survive without this human interference; ii) due to the degree of the human management and interference, conservation of agro-biodiversity in production systems is inherently linked to sustainable use; iii) many economically important agricultural systems are based on ‘alien’ livestock and crop species introduced from elsewhere; iv) in regards to crop diversity, diversity within species is at least as important as diversity between species; and v) as stated before in industrial-type agricultural systems, much crop diversity is now held
Agro-biodiversity provides the main raw material for intensifying sustainable crop yields and for adapting crops to climate change, because it can provide traits for plant breeders and farmers to select input-efficient, resilient, climate-ready crop germplasm and further release of new cultivars. Agro-biodiversity is crucial to cope with climate changes as the entire diversity of genes, species and ecosystems in agriculture represents the resource base for food . Many farmers, especially those in environments where high-yield crop cultivars and livestock races do not prosper, rely on a wide range of crop and livestock types. This is the best method for increasing the reliability of food production in the face of seasonal variation. Diversified agricultural systems not only render smallholder farming more sustainable, but also reduce the vulnerability of poor farmers since they can minimize the risk of harvest failures caused by the outbreak of diseases and pests, by droughts or floods, or by extremely high temperatures, all of which will be exacerbated by climate change .
Monoculture means growing a single plant species in one area. Monoculture however should not be regarded as synonymous to a single crop cultivar in a farmers’ field since monoculture can present intra-specific genetic diversity. For instance, a crop under monoculture can be a mixture of distinct cultivars or landraces having genetic variation within each population. Intra-specific crop diversification can provide a means of effectively controlling diseases and pests over large areas and therefore contribute to sustainable intensification of crop production. Nonetheless, an agro-ecosystem with many species of different taxa will be richer in species diversity than another agro-ecosystem where many species of the same taxon occur. Genetically diverse populations and species-rich agro-ecosystems may show greater buffer potential to adapt to climate change. Agro-biodiversity at the gene, species and agro-ecosystem levels increase resilience to the changing climate. Promoting agro-biodiversity remains therefore crucial for resilience of agro-ecosystems.
There is much evidence that global agriculture would benefit from an intensified utilization of existing biodiversity. We need to shift the focus of agricultural research from genes alone to management and their interactions. There is much to be gained with mixed cropping, as shown in a study performed by Tilman et al. , where plots with 16 species produced 2.7 times more biomass than monocultures. Bullock et al. in comparing meadows with different number of species, found, after 8 years experiment, that the richer meadows yielded 43 % more hay than species-poor fields. Increased grassland diversity promotes temporal stability at many levels of ecosystem organization . Mixtures of barley cultivars in Poland generally out-yielded the means of cultivars as pure stands . The highly intensive agricultural system of home gardens are some of the most diverse production systems in the world and also some of the most productive [80,81]. Agro-biodiversity in home gardens reduces year-to-year variation, thus contributing to stability in yield. Although they are usually highly labor intensive and small, they provide income and nutrition for millions of small farmers throughout the world.
3. Plant breeding, agriculture and environment
3.1. Introduction
Farming and plant breeding have been closely associated since the early days when crops were first domesticated. The domestication of staple crops, for example, rice and soybean in eastern Asia; wheat in the Middle East; sorghum in Africa; and maize, beans, and potatoes in the Americas , began independently, in multiple locales, 5000-12 000 years ago . For thousands of years, these crops were grown and morphologically altered by farmers, who selected the most desirable and adaptable cultivars to plant in the next growing season. Without understanding the science behind it, early farmers saved the seed from the best portion of their crop each season. Over the years, they selected the traits which they liked best, transforming and domesticating the crops they grew.
After the discoveries of Darwin and Mendel, scientific knowledge was applied to plant breeding in the late 1800s . Commercial hybridization of crop species began in the United States in the middle of the 1920s with sweet corn and followed by onions in the 1940s . With the implementation of hybrid crop breeding, yield per unit land area rapidly increased in the United States and since that time, public and private breeding companies have been placing more and more emphasis on the development of hybrids, and many species have been bred as hybrid cultivars for the marketplace. Besides heterosis, hybrids also allow breeders to combine the best traits and multiple disease and stress resistances. Furthermore, if the parents are homozygous, the hybrids will be uniform, an increasingly important trait in commercial market production. The creation of hybrid cultivars requires homozygous inbred parental lines, which provide a natural protection of plant breeders’ rights without legal recourse and ensure a market for seed companies.
In the 1970’s breeders’ rights protection has been provided through International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV), which coordinates an international common legal regime for plant variety protection. Protection was granted for those who develop or discover cultivars that are new, distinct, uniform, and stable . Cultivars may be either sexually or asexually propagated. Coverage for herbaceous species is 20 years. Protective ownership was extended by UPOV in 1991 to include essentially derived cultivars . At the same time, the farmer’s exemption (which permitted farmers to save seed for their own use) was restricted; giving member states the option to allow farmers to save seed. Additionally, in Europe after 1998 and the United States after 2001, plant breeding companies can take advantages of patent laws to protect not only the cultivar itself but all of the plant’s parts (pollen, seeds), the progeny of the cultivar, the genes or genetic sequences involved, and the method by which the cultivar was developed . The seed can only be used for research that does not include development of a commercial product i.e., another cultivar, unless licensed by the older patent. The patents are considered the ultimate protective device allowing neither a farmer’s exemption nor a breeder’s exemption (that permitted the protected cultivar to be used by others in further breeding to create new cultivars) . The use of patents for transgenic crops introduces additional problems according to the IAASTD report developed with the contribution from 400 scientists around the world, and adopted by 58 governments. In developing countries, especially instruments such as patents may boost up costs and restrict experimentation by individual farmers whereas potentially undermining local practices for securing food and economic sustainability. Thus, there is particular concern regarding present intellectual property rights instruments, which may inhibit seed-saving, exchange, sale, and access to proprietary materials of vital importance to the independent research community, specifically in view of the need for analyses and long term experimentation on climate change impacts [84,85].
Research and development (hereafter R&D) for improved seed development is expensive. Such product protection has presented a business incentive to corporations to invest in the seed industry, which supported an enormous increase in private R&D leading to strong competition in the marketplace between the major seed companies. The majority of current crop cultivars sold nowadays are proprietary products developed by private R&D. A significant consequence of this increase in R&D has been a reduction in public breeding programs. As a result, the cost for R&D to develop new crop cultivars is shifting from the publicly supported research programs to the customers of the major seed companies [4,87].
One of the main factors to determine success in plant breeding is crop biodiversity and genetic capacity. Access to genetic variation, biodiversity, is required to achieve crop cultivar improvement. No practical breeding program can succeed without large numbers of lines (genotypes) to evaluate, select, recombine and inbreed (fix genetically). This effort must be organized in order for valid conclusions to be reached and decisions to be made. Scientists, breeders, support people and facilities, budgets, and good management are requirements to assure success in the seed business. Science must be state-of-the-art to maximize success in a competitive business environment. The continued need for fundamental breeding research is critical to support development of new technology and expansion of the knowledge base which supports cultivar development, competition among proprietary cultivar results in owner-companies striving to do the best possible research to develop their own products and to compete on genetic and physiological quality of crop seed in the marketplace. Reasonable profit margins are essential to pay back the R&D costs to the owner and to fund future research on developing even better crop cultivars to stay competitive. There is considerable genetic variation within the numerous crop species, which can be exploited in the development of superior proprietary cultivars. The consequences of this dynamic situation will mean relatively short-lived cultivars replaced by either the owner of the cultivar or a competitor seed company. This intense competition means constantly improved and more sophisticated cultivars. Seed companies are in the business of manipulating genes to improve plant cultivar performance for a profit. The success of the research is judged by the success of the product in making a reasonable profit. The research must improve economic performance starting with the seed production costs and including the farmer-shipper/processor and the end user. If any link in this sequence of events is weak or broken, the new cultivar will likely fail [4,88].
Modern plant breeding is the science of improving plants to achieve farmer needs and better fit production environments, but it is a long-term proposition. Each released cultivar represents a culmination of a decade or more of work, from initial crosses through final testing. The rate of improvement is a function of the amount of heritable genetic variation present in a population, the time it takes to complete a breeding cycle (from seed production through selection to seed production again), which can range from multiple generations per year (e.g. maize on field sites in both hemispheres) to decades (some trees require 8 years of growth before flowering). In hybrid crops, several years (multiple breeding cycles) are necessary to develop inbred lines that must then be tested in hybrid combinations. Many years of testing under various environmental conditions must be conducted to ensure that the new cultivar (inbred, hybrid, or population) will perform well for the farmer, consumer, or end-user before any substantial additional investment is made to increase production and distribution of the cultivar.
Biotechnology is a new and potentially powerful tool that has been added by all the major seed corporations to their crop breeding research programs, and is part of an ongoing public research for developing genetic engineered crop projects. It can augment and/or accelerate conventional cultivar development programs through time saved, better products, and more genetic uniformity, or achieve results not possible by conventional breeding . Genetic engineering provides innovative methods for modern plant breeding to adapt crops to agricultural systems facing new challenges brought by the changing climate. New breeding methods, relying on genetic engineering, can accelerate the pace to improve crops, or be more precise in transferring desired genes into plant germplasm. Some limited target traits already available in transgenic cultivars include those adapting agriculture to climate change and reducing their emissions of greenhouse gases.
Plant breeding may benefit from recent advances in genotyping and precise phenotyping, and by increasing the available agro-biodiversity through the use of genomics-led approaches. Today marker-assisted breeding is applied to a broad range of crops and could facilitate domesticating entirely new crops. Marker-assisted selection is particularly important for improving complex, quantitatively inherited traits that alter yield, and for speeding up the breeding process . Crop genomics has also been improving in the last decade and today there are faster and cheaper systems being increasingly used in gene banks, genetic research and plant breeding, e.g. for studying interactions between loci and alleles such as heterosis, epistasis and pleiotropy, or analyzing genetic pathways. Advances in crop genomics are providing useful data and information for identifying DNA markers, which can be further used for both germplasm characterization and marker-assisted breeding. Genomics- assisted breeding approaches along with bioinformatics capacity and metabolomics resources are becoming essential components of crop improvement programs worldwide [84,91].
Progress in crop genome sequencing, high resolution genetic mapping and precise phenotyping will accelerate the discovery of functional alleles and allelic variation associated with traits of interest for plant breeding. Genome sequencing and annotation include an increasing range of species such as wheat, rice, maize, sugarcane, potato, sorghum, soybean, banana, cassava, citrus, grape, among other species. Perhaps, one day further research on the genome of a plant species from a drought-prone environment may assist in breeding more hardy and water efficient related crops due to gene synteny.
Transgenic breeding involves the introduction of foreign DNA. While conventional plant breeding utilizing non-transgenic approaches will remain the backbone of crop improvement strategies, transgenic crop cultivars should not be excluded as products capable of contributing to development goals. Available commercial transgenic crops and products are at least as safe in terms of food safety as those ensuing from conventional plant breeding [89,92-94].
The use of transgenic crops remains controversial worldwide after almost two decades of introducing them into the agro-ecosystems. Using plant-derived genes to introduce useful traits and plant-derived promoters, may overcome some concerns about the development of genetically engineered crops. In this regard, cisgenesis addresses some negative views regarding the use of genes from non-crossable species for breeding crops. Cisgenesis involves only genes from the plant itself or from a crossable close relative, and these genes could also be transferred by conventional breeding methods. Crop wild relatives are therefore a valuable source of traits for cisgenesis.
Plant breeders need to understand the various valuation strategies very early in the breeding process if they are to direct long-term selection toward reducing agriculture’s negative environmental impacts and achieving greater sustainability while maintaining productivity. Regardless of method, breeding objectives can be broadened to include traits which reduce the environmental footprint of traditional production systems (e.g. nutrient and water use efficiencies that reduce off-farm inputs), to adapt crops to new climates, to host plant resistance to tackle old and emerging pathogen epidemics, or new cultivars for new production systems (e.g. perennial polycultures that mimic the biodiversity of natural systems), albeit with some reduction in rate of gain for the traditional agronomic traits of interest. Interdisciplinary crop improvement strategies accounting for ecological, socio-economic and stakeholder considerations will help identify traits leading to plant cultivars using fewer inputs, less land, and less energy, thereby resulting in a more sustainable agricultural ecosystem.
The impact of breeding on crop production is dependent upon the complex relationships involving the farmers, the cultivars available to them, and the developers of those cultivars. Farmers consist of commercial producers with varying size land holdings ranging from moderately small farms to very large ones, and subsistence farmers with small farms often on marginal lands. The subsistence farmers are usually poor. Several types of cultivars are available. The least sophisticated in terms of methods of development are landraces, also known as local cultivars. Modern cultivars consist of development by crossing and selection alone, those developed by crossing and selection with specific important improvements are often obtained from crosses with wild species or by transgenic methods, and F1 hybrids between desirable inbred lines. The developers of landraces are usually farmers themselves, and are obtained by repeated simple selection procedures of generation after generation. Improved cultivars and hybrids are created either by public sector breeders or seed companies.
Nearly 70% of the world's farmers, from 570 million world exploitations, are small/subsistence and poor farmers. They feed 1,5 billion of the world's population. So they are also a key for biodiversity and for improving the sustainability. For these farmers improved cultivars, hybrids or transgenic seeds tend to be riskier than landraces, since the higher costs associated with seeds and production impose a greater income risk. The lack of capital available denies them the opportunity to invest in production inputs. Small farmers may have lower production costs with landraces because they achieve adequate yields with fewer inputs. In addition, profits from improved hybrid or transgenic cultivars tend to be more variable. Yields are often higher but market prices tend to be inconsistent. For example in India states of Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra, farmers have been promised higher yields and lower pesticide costs when using
3.2. Breeding to adapt plants to the environment
3.2.1. Producing more with less
In the coming decades we will need to produce more with less. Fresh water suitable for irrigation is expected to become increasingly scarce and the costs of fertilizer and other agricultural inputs will increase as fossil-fuel costs rise. Nevertheless, continuing gains in production per hectare must be realized to offset the loss of premium agricultural lands (e.g. from urbanization and industrialization), while supplying a growing population. By developing resource efficient plants, plant breeders can continue to improve the sustainability of agricultural ecosystems. Plants requiring fewer off-farm input applications (specifically water, pesticides, nitrogen, phosphorus, and other nutrients) decrease the cost of production, lower fossil energy use, and reduce contamination of water systems, which help to improve public health and stabilize rural economies [95,96].
Although modern plant breeding efforts initially focused on improving uptake of inputs, recent efficiency gains have been made in physiologically increasing yield and biomass production without further increasing inputs. Many crops already have genetic variation in nutrient use efficiency, utilization, and uptake [97-99] and plant breeding will further improve these traits. Intensive agro-ecosystems should emphasize improvements in system productivity, host plant resistance and enhance use-efficiency of inputs such as water and fertilizers.
Water use-efficiency and water productivity are being sought by agricultural researchers worldwide to address water scarcity. Under water scarcity, yields of crops, are a function of how efficiently the crop uses this water for biomass-growth, and the harvest index. Water use efficiency is the ratio of total dry matter accumulation to evapotranspiration and other water losses. An increase in transpiration efficiency or reduction in soil evaporation will increase water use efficiency. Water productivity is the ratio of biomass with economic value produced compared to the amount of water transpired. Both water use efficiency and water productivity may be improved through plant breeding. Farooq et al. discuss the advances in transgenic breeding for drought-prone environments. In their review, they noted the testing of 10 transgenic rice events [unique DNA recombination taking place in one plant cell and thereafter to be used for generating entire transgenic plant(s)] under water scarcity. It seems the transgenic expression of some stress-regulated genes leads to increased water use efficiency.
Agriculture contributes significantly to greenhouse gas emissions. Nitrous oxide and dioxide are potent greenhouse gases released by manure or nitrogen fertilizer, particularly in intensive cropping systems. Nitrous oxide (N2O), which is a potent greenhouse gas, is generated through the use of manure or nitrogen fertilizer. In many intensive cropping systems nitrogen fertilizer practices lead to high fluxes of N2O and nitric oxide (NO). Several groups of heterotrophic bacteria use NO3 as a source of energy by converting it to the gaseous forms N2, NO, and NO2 (nitrous dioxide). N2O is therefore often unavailable for crop uptake or utilization.
Genetic enhancement of crops shows great potential for reducing N2O emissions from soils into the atmosphere. Some plants possess the capacity to modify nitrification
Almost one-fifth of global methane emissions are from enteric fermentation in ruminant animals. Apart from various rumen manipulation and emission control strategies, genetic engineering is a promising tool to reduce these emissions. The amount of methane produced varies substantially across individual animals of the same ruminant species. Efforts are ongoing to develop low methane-emitting ruminants without impacting reproductive capacity and wool and meat quality. A recent study by Shi et al. , to understand why some sheep produce less methane than others, deployed high-throughput DNA sequencing and specialized analysis techniques to explore the contents of the rumens of sheep. The study showed that the microbiota present in sheep rumen was solely responsible for the differences among high and low methane emitting sheep. It was further observed that the expression levels of genes involved in methane production varied more substantially across sheep, suggesting differential gene regulation. There is an exciting prospect that low-methane traits can be slowly introduced into sheep.
Crops are bred for nitrogen use efficiency because this trait is a key factor for reducing nitrogen fertilizer pollution, improving yields in nitrogen limited environments, and reducing fertilizer costs. The use of genotypes of same species efficient in absorption and utilization of nitrogen is an important strategy in improving nitrogen use efficiency in sustainable agricultural systems. Crops are being bred for nitrogen use efficiency because this trait will be a key factor for reducing run-off of nitrogen fertilizer into surface waters, as well as, for improving yields in nitrogen limiting environments. There are various genetic engineering activities for improving nitrogen use efficiency in crops [98,102]. The gene Alanine aminotransferase from barley, which catalyzes a reversible transamination reaction in the nitrogen assimilation pathway, seems to be a promising candidate for accomplishing this plant breeding target. Transgenic plants over-expressing this enzyme can increase nitrogen uptake especially at early stages of growth. This gene technology was licensed to a private biotechnology company, and is slated to be commercialized within the next six years . A patent gave this biotechnology company the rights to use the nitrogen use efficiency gene technology in major cereals, as well as, in sugarcane.
Keeping nitrogen in ammonium form will affect how nitrogen remains available for crop uptake and will improve nitrogen recovery, thus reducing losses of nitrogen to streams, groundwater and the atmosphere. There are genes in tropical grasses such as
3.2.2. Adapting to global climate change and for abiotic and biotic stress tolerance
Extreme weather events are expected to increase in both number and severity in coming years . Climate change impacts agro-ecosystems through changes over the long-term in key variables affecting plant growth (e.g. rising temperatures) and through increasing the variability (frequency and intensity) of weather conditions (rainfall, drought, waterlogging and elevated temperatures). These changes affect both crop productivity and quality. In addition to physically destroying crops, climate change has altered host-pathogen relationships and resulted in increased disease incidence, in insect-pest borne stress in crop plants, and in invasive pests which feed and damage them.
There are two ways to adapt crops to new environments: developing new crops (long-term endeavor starting with domestication) and introducing target traits into existing crops through plant breeding, which includes genetic engineering. However, the job of crop improvement is becoming increasingly difficult. Cultivars which are not only high yielding but are also efficient in use of inputs are needed, tailored to ever more stringent market demands, able to maintain stability under increasing climate variability, and potentially contribute to climate mitigation. These multi-trait demands for new cultivars provide significant challenges for crop breeders, and standard selection approaches struggle under such complexity. To maintain productivity in the face of increased climatic variability, both the population and the plant cultivars will need to be continually developed to withstand “new” climate extremes and the stresses which these will entail .
Many breeding programs are already developing plants which tolerate extreme weather conditions, including drought, heat, and frost [107,108]. Plant breeders are also beginning to address expected changes due to increased climate variability, by increasing genetic diversity sources and by adjusting selection and testing procedures .
More frequent weather extremes will likely affect the existing ranges of not only agronomic cultivars but also local native plant species . Because some genetic variation useful for climate change adaptation will be found only in wild plant relatives of cultivated crops, preserving genetic biodiversity is essential in order for breeders to select plants that will be well-suited for future environmental conditions .
Global climate change notwithstanding, additional stress tolerances in crop species are needed to maintain productivity and survival. In the near future, tolerance to various soil conditions including acidic, aluminum-rich soils (particularly in the tropics) and saline soils (especially those resulting from irrigation), will be increasingly important for production on marginal agricultural lands or as the salt content of irrigated lands increases . Bhatnagar-Mathur et al. suggested that genetic engineering could accelerate plant breeding to adapt crops to stressful environments. They further underline that engineering the regulatory machinery involving transcription factors (TF; a protein binding specific DNA sequences and thereby governing the flow of genetic information from DNA to messenger RNA) provides the means to control the expression of many stress-responsive genes. There are various target traits for adapting crops, through genetic engineering, to high CO2 and high O3 environments of the changing climate . Ortiz , Jewell et al. , and Dwivedi et al. [117,118] provide the most recent overviews on research advances in genetic engineering for improved adaptation to drought, salinity or extreme temperatures in crops. The most cited include TF, and genes involved in: i) signal sensing, perception, and transduction; ii) stress-responsive mechanisms for adaptation; and iii) abscisic acid biosynthesis for enhanced adaptation to drought. Transporter, detoxifying and signal transduction genes as well as TF are cited for tolerance to salinity. Genes related to reactive oxygen species, membrane and chaperoning modifications, late abundance embryogenesis proteins, osmoprotectants/compatible solutes and TF are pursued in crop genetic engineering for temperature extremes.
Transgenic crops provide the means to adapt crops to climate change, particularly in terms of drought and salinity. Duration and intensity of drought has increased in recent years, consistent with expected changes of the hydrologic cycle under global warming. Drought dramatically reduces crop yields. Genetic engineering may be one of the biotechnology tools for developing crop cultivars with enhanced adaptation to drought . It should be seen as complementary to conventional plant breeding rather than as an alternative to it. The function of a TF such as the
Soils affected by salinity are found in more than 100 countries, and about 1/5 of irrigated agriculture is adversely affected by soil salinity. Therefore, breeding salt-tolerant crops should be a priority because salinity will most likely increase under climate change. Mumms lists some candidate genes for salinity tolerance, indicating the putative functions of these genes in the specific tissues in which they may operate. Genes involved in tolerance to salinity in plants, limit the rate of salt uptake from the soil and the transport of salt throughout the plant, adjust the ionic and osmotic balance of cells in roots and shoots, and regulate leaf development and the onset of plant senescence. The most promising genes for the genetic engineering of salinity tolerance in crops, as noted by Chinnusamy et al. , are those related to ion transporters and their regulators, as well as the C-repeat-binding factor. The recent genome sequencing of
In the quest for breeding transgenic rice and tomato, advances showing salt tolerance have occurred. Plett et al. were able to show an improved salinity tolerance in rice by targeting changes in mineral transport. They initially observed that cell type-specific expression of
Transgenic crops can also contribute to climate change mitigation efforts by reducing input use intensity . The integration of genetic engineering with conventional plant breeding, within an interdisciplinary approach, will likely accelerate the development and adoption of crop cultivars with enhanced adaptation to climate change related stresses . Global warming will reduce yields in many crops about 6% and 5% average yield loss per 1°C in C3 and C4 crops, respectively, whose optimum temperature ranges are 15–20°C and 25–30°C . The extent of yield loss depends on crop, cultivar, planting date, agronomy and growing area. For instance, an increase of 1°C in the night time maximum temperature translates into a 10% decrease in grain yield of rice, whereas a rise of 1°C above 25°C shortens the reproductive phase and the grain-filling duration in wheat by at least 5%, thereby reducing grain yield proportionally. Heat stress will exacerbate climate change impacts in the tropics, while it may put agriculture at risk in high latitudes where heat-sensitive cultivars are grown today. Hence, new cultivars must be bred to address heat stress. Ainsworth and Ort suggested giving priority to traits improving photosynthesis for adapting to heat stress. However, plants have various mechanisms to cope with high temperatures, e.g. by maintaining membrane stability, or by ion transporters, proteins, osmoprotectants, antioxidants, and other factors involved in signaling cascades and transcriptional control [133,134]. Furthermore, Gao et al. noted that
Globalization has, among other consequences, led to the rapid spread of plant disease and invasive pests. Being immobile, plants are unable to escape pathogens causing plant disease and pests which feed and damage them. Plant disease is mainly caused by fungi, bacteria, viruses, and nematodes. Approximately 70,000 species of pests exist in the world, but of these, only 10% are considered serious . Synthetic pesticides have been applied to crops since 1945 and have been highly successful in reducing crop losses to some pest insects, plant pathogens, weeds and in increasing crop yields . One estimate suggests that without pesticides, crop losses to pests might increase by 30%. Despite pesticide use, insects, pathogens and weeds continue to exact a heavy toll on world crop production, approaching 40% [138,139]. Pre-harvest losses are globally estimated at 15% for insect pests, 13% for damage by pathogens, and about 12% for weeds . Developing resistant cultivars reduces the need for expensive and environmentally damaging pesticides to be applied. For example, a recent outbreak of
Weather influences how pathogens and pests affect and interact with crops and their host plant resistance, and thus climate change can also have wide-ranging impacts on pests and diseases . Late blight, which is caused by
3.3. Breeding plants to improve the environment
In general, plants are bred for their most obvious end products, including grain, fiber, sugar, biomass yield, fruit quality, or ornamental qualities. However, plants deployed across the landscape in agricultural or forestry settings affect the environment in measurable ways. Perennial crops have environmentally beneficial properties not present in annual crops, such as helping to prevent erosion in agricultural systems, providing wildlife habitat, and acting as sinks for carbon and nutrients. Traditionally, perennial crops have not been a major focus of breeding programs because they generally take more time and scientific knowledge to improve, and therefore, products such as new cultivars are often not produced within the timeframe of funding cycles. Current tree breeding programs are developing elms (
New crop cultivars developed by plant breeders must help improve soil health, reduce soil erosion, prevent nutrient and chemical runoff, and maintain biodiversity. The goal to breed projects for forages, which include several species, is to produce a high yield of leaf and stem biomass, as opposed to grain, for ruminant animals. In the tropics many forages are perennial, providing year-round erosion control, improving water infiltration as compared with that, from annual cropping systems, and in some cases, sequestering carbon. The forage breeding program at the University of Georgia (UG) has developed cultivars in several species and has been proactive in developing agreements with private-sector commercial partners to oversee seed production and marketing of new cultivars. Among the cultivars developed at UG is ‘‘Jesup MaxQ’’ tall fescue, a cultivar carrying a non-toxic endophytic fungus that was both highly persistent under grazing and greatly improved animal weight gain and feed efficiency over standard cultivars. In addition, this program developed the first true dual purpose, grazing and hay, alfalfa cultivar ‘‘Alfagraze’’, followed by several further improved alfalfa cultivars like ‘‘Buldog 805’’ which persist through summer under cattle grazing .
Cover crops are annual species planted in rotation with crops to specifically improve soil conditions and to control weeds, soil-borne diseases, and pests [146-148]. Continuous cover crops can reduce on-farm erosion, nutrient leaching, and grain losses due to pest attacks and build soil organic matter as well as improve the water balance, leading to higher yields [149,150]. For instance, in Kenya, Kaumbutho and Kienzle showed in two case studies that maize yield increased from 1.2 to 1.8–2.0 t/ha with the use of mucuna legume as cover crop, and without application of nitrogen fertilizer. Besides farmers who adopted mucuna legume as cover crop benefited from higher yields of maize with less labor input for weeding.
Many current perennial and cover crop cultivars are essentially wild species bred from germplasm collections and developed to increase success in managed agro-ecosystems. As compared with non-native vegetation, plant species native to a particular region are generally thought to survive on less water, use fewer nutrients, require minimal pesticide applications, and be non-invasive; however, counter examples for both native and non-native species are plentiful . As potentially valuable species are identified, breeding to improve them for traits of consumer importance will be needed to broaden available biodiversity in cultivated landscapes. With a changing climate, species considered critical to the landscape may require human-assisted hybridization with distant relatives to better ensure survival from threats posed by novel pests or diseases.
Alternative crops are also being bred for new uses, such as removing toxic chemicals and excess nutrients and improving degraded soils, including mine spoils . Phytoremediation is a biotechnology to clean the contaminated sites of toxic elements (e.g. Cd, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Fe) via plant breeding, plant extracting, and plant volatilizing . The last few years have seen a steady expansion in the list of hyper-accumulator species, which could be valuable plant resources for phytoremediation. For example an ecotype of the Zn/Cd hyper-accumulator
A major goal of harmonizing agriculture with the environment is to “tailor” crops to individual landscapes. Plant breeding has always maximized production by selecting for adaptation in the target environments of interest, using local environmental forces for plant selection . By selecting breeding germplasm growing under local environmental conditions, individual cultivars can be optimized for small regional areas of production that fit prevailing environmental and weather patterns. Likewise, plants could be tailored to provide specific ecosystem services to local environments, to address local needs. One cost-effective way to achieve this is through participatory plant breeding, which involves local farmers in the breeding process.
Alternative crop rotations, planting densities, and tillage systems may make production more environmentally benign but will require altering breeding targets and an understanding that systems biology is complex and rarely has simple solutions. For example, no-tillage systems used for soil conservation can lead to colder soils in spring and change the prevalence and onset of various soilborne diseases, thus requiring the addition of specific disease resistances in the breeding objectives . Breeders must select from conditions prevailing under new management practices to ensure cultivars will be optimally productive.
4. Conservation and use of biodiversity – opportunities for cooperation and new partnerships
Plant genetic resources for food and agriculture are the quintessential global public good. No nation is self-reliant. A viable market for their conservation and trade does not exist. The conservation of plant genetic resources is a prerequisite for addressing climate change, as well as water and energy constraints, which will grow in importance in the next decades. The Svalbard Global Seed Vault is an International Treaty which establishes a multilateral System to facilitate access and benefit sharing of plant genetic resources. The Treaty has an insurance policy and provides legal framework for a cooperative and global approach to manage this essential resource. The Svalbard Global Seed Vault has a mechanism for ensuring the permanent conservation of unique crop biodiversity, the Global Crop Diversity Trust, which is structured as an endowment fund .
Plant breeding is vital to increase the genetic yield potential of all crops. As menthioned a result of the Green Revolution was the increase of global productivity of the main food staples. Such achievements ensued from crop genetic enhancement partnerships. These partnerships include national agricultural research institutes and international agricultural research centers. For many decades the global wheat yield increased due to an effective International Wheat Improvement Network (IWIN) officially founded as an international organization in 1966 . This wheat network deployed cutting-edge science alongside practical multi-disciplinary applications, resulting in the development of genetically enhanced wheat germplasm, which has improved food security and the livelihoods of farmers in the developing world . The spring wheat germplasm bred in Mexico under the leadership of Nobel Peace Laureate Norman Borlaug was further used for launching the Green Revolution in India, Pakistan and Turkey . The network was broadened during the 1970s to include Brazil, China and other major developing country wheat producers. It resulted in wheat cultivars with broader host plant resistance (especially to rusts), better adaptation to marginal environments, and tolerance to acid soils. Nowadays IWIN, an international "alliance", operates field evaluation trials in more than 250 locations, in roughly 100 countries it tests improved breeding lines of wheat in different environments. The number of wheat cultivars released annually in the developing world doubled to more than 100 cultivars by early 1990s due to this networking and the strengthening of national capacity . The widespread adoption of newly bred wheat cultivars, especially in South Asia and Latin America, due to yield increases, led to 50% average annual rates of investment returns . The urban poor also benefited significantly because grain harvest increases drove wheat prices down. Every year, nursery sets and trials are sent to various researchers worldwide, who share their data from these trials to catalogue and analyze. The returned data are used to identify parents for subsequent crosses and to incorporate new genetic variability into advanced wheat lines that are consequently able to cope with the dynamics of abiotic and biotic stresses affecting wheat farming systems. The full pedigree and selection histories are known and phenotypic data cover yield, agronomic, pathological and quality data .
The International Network for Genetic Evaluation of Rice (INGER) is one more example of world cooperation. It was established in 1975 as a consortium of national agricultural research systems of rice-growing countries and Centers of today’s CGIAR Consortium. INGER was initially founded as an International Rice Testing Program, but soon became an integral component of world national rice breeding program. INGER partners can share rice breeding lines. Every year partners provide about 1000 genetically diverse breeding lines, which have been grown in about 600 experiment stations from 80 countries. This network facilitated the release of 667 cultivars worldwide, which translated into 1.5 billion US dollars of economic benefits. It was estimated that ending INGER could lead to a reduction of 20 rice cultivars per year and to an economic loss of 1.9 billion US dollars . Further analysis by Jackson and Huggan has shown how genetic conservation of landraces can lead to significant gains in rice breeding.
Two other examples of cooperation and partnership are the Latin American Maize Project (LAMP) and the Germplasm Enhancement of Maize (GEM). The LAMP was established as a partnership between Latin America and the United States to assess national germplasm and facilitate the exchange of maize genetic resources across the American continent . The United States Department of Agriculture, the participating national agricultural research systems and a multinational seed corporation provided the funding. The aim of LAMP was to obtain information about the performance of maize germplasm and to share it with plant breeders for developing genetically enhanced open pollinated and hybrid cultivars. The maize germplasm was tested for agronomic characteristics from sea level to 3300 m, and from 41°N to 34°S across 32 locations in the first stage and in 64 locations (two per region) in the second stage. These locations were clustered according to five homologous areas: lowland tropics, temperate and three altitudes.
There were a total five LAMP breeding stages . In the first stage, 14,847 maize accessions belonging to a region were planted for evaluation in trials using a randomized complete block design with two replications of 10m2 plots at a single location, which was environmentally similar to that from where these landraces were originally collected. The next step included the assessment of the upper quintile (20%) of those accessions evaluated for agronomic performance in the previous stage. These accessions were planted in two locations with two replications, and the upper 5% were further selected according to their performance. These best selected accessions of each country were interchanged among regions belonging to the same homologous area in the third stage. They were tested in two locations with two replications in each region. The selected maize accessions from the same homologous area were mated with the best tested accession of the region in an isolated field within each region. In the fourth stage, combining ability tests of 268 selected maize accessions were carried out with a local tester using two replications at two locations within each region. The elite maize germplasm was integrated into breeding programs in the fifth stage, which was the last. The best cross combinations and heterotic pools were also determined by LAMP. Maize breeders obtained access to the most promising accessions identified by LAMP to widen the crop genetic base. A LAMP core subset has been made available for encouraging further use in broadening of maize genetic diversity .
The GEM was set up to introgress useful genetic diversity from Latin American maize landraces and other tropical maize donor sources (lines and hybrids) into United States’ maize germplasm, to broaden the genetic base of the “corn-belt” hybrids [169,170]. GEM owes its existence to LAMP because it has used the Latin American landrace maize accessions selected by LAMP in crosses with elite temperate maize lines from the private seed companies in North America . GEM used a pedigree breeding system to develop S3 lines. The GEM breeders arranged their crosses into non-Stiff Stalk and Stiff Stalk heterotic groups .
LAMP provided the first step through the sharing of information needed to select gene bank maize accessions for further germplasm enhancement. GEM completed the process by returning to genetically enhanced breeding materials derived from gene bank accessions. This improved germplasm can be further used in maize breeding in the United States and elsewhere. LAMP and GEM are very nice examples of international and national public-private partnerships in crop germplasm enhancement.
Agricultural plant breeding is a typical commodity- or species-oriented and solves problems within a species, rather than making breeding choices based on system wide needs. For example, maize breeders currently maximize the area in which maize can be grown, and maximize the amount of maize produced throughout that area. If environmental harmony is to be a key breeding objective, then a change in agricultural thinking to appropriately value whole cropping systems will be required. Achieving these goals will require collaboration among the private, public, and non-profit sectors, and with society as a whole. Programs within the private sector excel at breeding major, profitable crops, and have economies of scale to increase the efficiency of production and ultimately provide farmers with seed. As a valuable complement to commercial breeding programs, public and non-profit breeding programs may focus on developing alternative crops, breeding for small target regions, tackling long-term and high-risk problems, evaluating diverse genetic resources, and, importantly, conducting basic research on breeding methodology to enhance efficiency. Only publicly funded breeding programs, and in particular those based at universities, can provide the necessary education and training in plant breeding and in specialized fields such as ecology. Without trained students from public programs, private commercial breeding programs suffer from an erosion of intellectual capital. Conversely, without the private sector to commercialize public-sector-derived products, beneficial traits and new cultivars cannot easily and quickly be put in the hands of farmers, as has been seen in developing countries without a developed seed industry . As stated, seed production is high technology and a cost intensive venture and only well organized seed companies with good scientific manpower and well equipped research facilities can afford seed production.
Although due to globalization, most breeding research and cultivar development in the world is presently conducted and funded in the private sector, mainly by huge multinational seed companies. Public breeders, cultivar development activities and research are disappearing worldwide. In general, this means there are fewer decision-making centers for breeding and cultivar development. This has also resulted in the focus on relatively few major crops produced worldwide, to the detriment of all the other cultivated crops. It is imperative that national governments and policymakers, as part of a social duty, invest in breeding research and cultivar development of traditional open-pollinated cultivars and in the minor crops. More investments in this area will mean less expensive seed for growers to choose from, and an increased preservation of crop biodiversity. To accomplish these goals new approaches may be required to crop breeding research and development by both the public and private sector. Until recently, breeding research and development which targets small-scale and poor farmers has largely been undertaken by public sector institutions and national agricultural research institutes. However, the capacity to undertake the work was mainly dependent on national or international funding and expertise. The work has been limited by the capacity of these institutions to pay for it. As a result, crop breeding advancement has varied enormously among countries and even within regions in developed and still developing countries. In the area of plant breeding, the process to produce improved cultivars is slow, and it requires long-term sustained commitment that may not fit the continuing changes in the national and international politics to fund research. The application of biotechnology promises acceleration in some aspects of plant breeding, but the adoption of more advanced technology raises the cost of research significantly at a time when investment funding has diminished. Public plant breeding remains a key component of crop breeding research systems worldwide, especially in developing countries. However, the increasing presence of private sector breeding and a decrease in national and international support makes it difficult for the public sector to continue operating in the traditional manner. Declining funding for public crop breeding coupled with the rapid increase of crop production and an urbanizing population has created a difficult situation. Public sector breeding must be strengthened. More public sector crop breeders are needed worldwide to select and to produce non-hybrid cultivars of the minor crops. Breeding of major crops and other minor crops must continue as a viable endeavor. This will benefit small farmers, and will safeguard biodiversity and food security in developing countries.
While the maintenance of vigorous public sector breeding programs in areas where private companies are not interested in providing low cost cultivars is highly desirable, an additional approach to maximize crop and agricultural research input would be the development of global programs with public-private partnerships. The public sector may support portions of crop and agricultural R&D, unattractive to the private sector, and feed improved breeding lines and systems to the private sector for exploitation in regions where the private sector is active, and nurture private sector development in regions where it is lacking. In recent years, private plant breeding programs have increased in number and size. Financial investment also increased, as well as interest in intellectual property protection. The spirit of original attempts to protect plant breeders’ rights was that granting a certificate of protection should not inhibit the flow of information and products through continued research by the entire plant breeding community [106,107]. In a classic sense, the patent is a defensive tool to prevent competitors from reaping benefits which rightfully belong to the inventor. In the modern context, it is an offensive weapon, to stifle competition, prevent further innovation by others and maximize income [106,108]. The United States utility patent, it is a way to slow down the flow of progress in plant breeding research, unless the research is within the company holding the patent. While obviously benefiting that company, it is a big step backwards for the plant breeding community and by far, for agriculture itself. The intellectual property protection must encourage research and free flow of materials and information [106,108]. Protection should be for the cultivar only. There should be no constraint against other breeders using that cultivar in further research, including further breeding. Another breeder should be free to use the protected cultivar in a cross, followed by further development through pedigree breeding. Another breeder should also be free to transfer genes controlling economic traits into the protected cultivar by the backcross method or by genetic transformation procedures [106,107].
5. Conclusions
The growing demand for food in the next decades poses major challenges to humanity. We have to safeguard both arable land for future agricultural food production, and protect genetic biodiversity to safeguard ecosystem resilience. Besides we need to produce more food with less inputs.
Plant breeding is the science of improving plants to further improve the human condition. Plant breeding has played a vital role in the successful development of modern agriculture via "new" cultivars. Plant breeders are continually improving the ability of cultivars to withstand various environmental conditions. By reducing the impact of agriculture on the environment while maintaining sufficient production will require the development of new cultivars.
Climate change is altering the availability of resources and the conditions crucial to plant performance. Plants respond to these changes through environmentally induced shift in phenotype. Understanding these responses is essential to predict and manage the effects of climate change on crop plants.
In the foreseeable future and an increase in population will need significant production. Breeding and modern agricultural technologies can increase yield on existing agricultural land. As a result, they can make a significant contribution to biodiversity conservation by limiting the need to expand agricultural land and by allowing nature to be maintained for conservation purposes and harmony between agriculture and the environment.
There is still a debate among researchers on the best strategy to keep pace with global population growth and increasing food demand. One strategy focuses on agricultural biodiversity, while another strategy favors the use of transgenic crops. There are short research funds for agro-biodiversity solutions in comparison with funding for research in genetic modification of crops. Favoring biodiversity does not exclude any future biotechnological contributions, but favoring biotechnology threatens future biodiversity resources. The future breeding programs should encompass not only knowledge of techniques but also conservation of genetic resources of existing crops, breeds, and wild relatives, to provide the genes necessary to cope with changes in agricultural production. Therefore, agro-biodiversity should be a central element of future sustainable agricultural development [173,174]. The concept of sustainability rests on the principle that the present needs must be addressed without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs . Sustainable agriculture is an alternative to solve future fundamental and applied issues related to food production in an ecological way .
Farmers in developing countries, especially small farmers, have problems specific to their cultural, economic and environmental conditions, such as limited purchasing power to access improved cultivars and proprietary technologies . These farmers have an important role in conserving and using crop biodiversity. The future of the world food security depends on stored crop genes as well as on farmers who use and maintain crop genetic diversity on a daily basis. In the long run, the conservation of plant genetic diversity depends not only on a small number of institutional plant breeders and seed banks, but also on the vast number of farmers who select, improve, and use crop diversity, especially in marginal farming environments. Their extensive farming systems using landraces or open-pollinated cultivars increase sustainability and less impact from stresses caused by drought, insect and diseases, due to long-term
The introduction of genetically modified technology has been hailed as a gene revolution similar to the "Green Revolution" of the 1960s [41,177]. The "Green Revolution" had an explicit strategy for technology development and diffusion, targeting farmers in developing countries, in which improved germplasm was made freely available as a public good, a particular success in Asia. In contrast to the "Green Revolution", the push for genetically modified crops is based largely on private agricultural research, with cultivars provided to farmers on market terms . To date efforts on genetically modified crops have been focused on crops considered to be profitable enough by large plant breeding companies, not on solutions to problems confronted by the world's small farmers. Existing biodiversity in combination with plant breeding has much more to offer the many world’s farmers, while genetically modified crops have more to offer the large-scale farms and agro-industry, and this explains why they have received so much research funding. Genetically modified crops and their creation may attract investment in agriculture, but it can also concentrate ownership of agricultural resources. There is particular concern that present intellectual property rights instruments, including genetically modified organisms, will inhibit sowing of own seeds, seed exchange, and sale . And in developing countries, patents may drive up costs and restrict experimentation by the public researcher or individual farmer.
Transgenic crops can continue to decrease pressure on biodiversity as global agricultural systems expand to feed a growing world population. Continued yield improvements in crops such as rice and wheat are expected with insect resistant and herbicide tolerant traits that are already commercialized in other transgenic crops. Although the potential of currently commercialized genetically modified crops to increase yields, decrease pesticide use, and facilitate the adoption of conservation tillage has yet to be realized in some many countries that have not yet approved these technologies for commercialization. Technologies such as drought tolerance and salinity tolerance would alleviate the pressure in arable land by enabling crop production on sub-optimal soils. Drought tolerance technology is supposed to be commercialized within less than three years. Nitrogen use efficient technology is also under development, which can reduce run-off of nitrogen fertilizer into surface waters. This technology is supposed to be commercialized within the next six years.
One of the major arguments for genetic modified technology is that new cultivars can be developed more quickly than in traditional plant breeding [111,116,179]. But like new cultivars derived from conventional breeding methods, transgenic cultivars developed under laboratory conditions have to be tested under field conditions and this means several years of field trials to ensure that the inserted traits will actually become expressed and have the desired effects in local environments. So currently there is little difference in the speed with which either method (transgenic or conventional) will result in the release of new cultivars.
The knowledge gained from basic plant research will underpin future crop improvements, but effective mechanisms for the rapid and effective translation of research discoveries into public good agriculture remain to be developed. Maximum benefit will be derived if robust plant breeding and crop management programs have ready access to all the modern crop biotechnological techniques, both transgenic and non-transgenic, to address food security issues. This will require additional investments in capacity building for research and development, in developing countries. Technology implementation alone is not sufficient to address such complex questions as food security. Biotechnologies will make new options available but are not a global solution. We must ensure that society will continue to benefit from the vital contribution that plant breeding offers, using both conventional and biotechnological tools. Genetic engineering has the potential to address some of the most challenging biotic constraints faced by farmers, which are not easily addressed through conventional plant breeding alone. Besides other promising traits seems to be host plant resistance to insects and pathogens. However, transgenic cultivars will have one or a few exogenous genes whereas the background genotype will still be the product of non-transgenic (or conventional) crop breeding. One should follow a pragmatic approach when deciding whether to engage in transgenic plant breeding. Biotechnology products will be successful if clear advantages and safety are demonstrated to both farmers and consumers.
There is a need of investment in research breeding and cultivar development in traditionally open-pollinated cultivars and in the minor crops. More investments in this area will mean cheaper cultivars for growers to choose from and more preservation of crop biodiversity. In recent years, private plant breeding programs have increased in number and size. Financial investment also increased, as well as interest in intellectual property protection. Protective measures, especially patenting, must be moderated to eliminate coverage so broad that it stifles innovation. The intellectual property protection laws for plants must be made less restrictive to encourage research and free flow of materials and information. Public sector breeding must remain vigorous, especially in areas where the private sector does not function. This will often require benevolent public/private partnerships as well as government support. Intellectual property rights laws for plants must be made less restrictive to encourage freer flow of materials. Active and positive connections between the private and public breeding sectors and large-scale gene banks are required to avoid a possible conflict involving breeders’ rights, gene preservation and erosion. Partnerships between policy makers with public and private plant breeders will be essential to address future challenges. Many current breeding efforts remain under-funded and disorganized. There is a great need for a more focused, coordinated approach to efficiently utilize funding, share expertise, and continue progress in technologies and programs.
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Agro- biodiversity is a component of biodiversity which is the combination of life forms and their interactions with one another and with the physical environment which has made the earth habitable for humans. Plant genetic resources for food and agriculture (PGRFA) are the back bone of global food security. They comprise diversity of genetic material available in traditional varieties, modern cultivars, crop wild relatives and other wild species. Available genetic diversity provides the options to develop, new and more productive crops, through selection and breeding, which are tolerant/ resistant to various abiotic and biotic stresses and adapted to changing environments. Whether they are used in traditional farming systems, conventional breeding, or new biotechnologies, plant genetic resources are the foundation for sustainable agriculture and global food security now and in the future. The ability of certain varieties to withstand drought, grow in poor soil, resist an insect or disease, give higher protein yields or produce a better tasting food are traits passed on naturally by the genes present in that particular plant genetic resource. This genetic material constitutes the raw material that plant breeders use to breed new crop varieties. Without genetic diversity, options for long-term sustainability and agricultural self-reliance are lost. Further wild species of crop plants and their relatives are the source of many genes imparting resistance against many disease pests and abiotic stresses. They are also source of genes that determine quality and other attributes.
To fulfil the ever increasing demand of food, better understanding and management of plant genetic resources is essential. Genetically uniform modern varieties are replacing the highly diverse local cultivars and landraces in traditional agro-ecosystems. Changes in land-use pattern are significantly affecting diversity of the wild species. Globalization, industrialization, urbanization, changing life styles and market economies are contributing indirectly to the loss of diversity, particularly of minor and neglected crops. Therefore, available germplasm ought to be conserved. Germplasm conservation requires proper collection to capture maximum variation. Afterwards, conservation and regeneration of collected germplasm is required to minimize losses through time.
Figure 1. Components of Plant Genetic Resources
Germplasm collection
Germplasm collection involves gathering samples of a species from populations in the field or natural habitats for conservation and subsequent use. The unit of collection may be seeds or vegetative propagules, depending on the breeding system of the species. Collection is easy in species producing small seeds in abundance. However, it becomes problematic when seeds are unavailable or non-viable due to damage of plants by grazing or diseases; large and fleshy seeds that are difficult to transport; or where samples are not likely to remain viable during transportation due to remoteness of the collection site from the genebank.
Germplasm conservation
Collected Plant Genetic Resources can be conserved by two methods, namely in situ and ex situ. In situ conservation involves maintaining genetic resources in the natural habitats where they occur. In this method wild and uncultivated plant communities are conserved in their natural habitat and crop cultivars in farmers' fields as in the traditional agricultural systems. Ex situ conservation involves conservation outside the native habitat. It is usually used to safeguard populations in danger of destruction, replacement or deterioration. Approaches to ex situ conservation include methods like seed storage, field genebanks and botanical gardens. DNA and pollen storage also contribute indirectly to ex situ conservation of plant genetic resources. Among the various ex situ conservation methods, seed storage is the most convenient for long-term conservation of plant genetic resources. This involves desiccation of seeds to low moisture contents and storage at low temperatures.
On-farm conservation
On-farm conservation is in situ conservation of plant genetic resources at farmer's field. It ensures involvement and active participation of farmers and local people in conservation of plant genetic resources. Hence land races useful for local community and suitable for local climate are conserved for long time. On-farm conservation of plant genetic resources requires a recognition that farmers control the decision making process; and that conservation is concerned with the maintenance of the capacity of crop plants to change and adapt. Good participatory practices strengthen local capacity to manage on-farm conservation. Good practice is a system or process, which, over time maintains, enhances and creates crop genetic diversity, and ensures their availability to and from farmers and other citizens for improved livelihoods on a sustainable basis. For community-based on-farm conservation some practices are considered as good such as; participatory extent, distribution analysis, social seed networks, participatory community sensitization, diversity fairs, diversity blocks, diversity kits, community biodiversity register as well as participatory plant breeding etc.
Farming communities are maintaining considerable amounts of genetic diversity for food and agriculture in some cases reason may be economic inability to purchase modern varieties but in turn it enhances agro-biodiversity conservation. Local knowledge and culture can be considered as an important part of agro-biodiversity conservation. It is, therefore, crucial to understand local circumstances (i.e., local crop diversity, local knowledge, local customs, local food culture, local seed system and local institutions) before promoting on farm conservation in a particular area. Within a community some farmers are maintaining and conserving relatively more diversity, they play important role in informal social seed networks. Such farmers should be promoted through government assistance in developmental activities. On-farm conservation is community-based hence community participation is essential in this process. Sensitization of farming community can be used to enhance community participation. A community may be sensitized through village level workshop, traditional food fair, lok geet (local songs), road side drama etc.
Farmer's choice for conservation
Farmers choose to maintain the landraces they value by planting the seed, selecting the seed from the harvest or exchanging it with other farmers, and replanting. Their choices determine whether or not genetic resources of social value for crop improvement continue to be grown in situ. Farmers may cease growing landraces if changes in the production or marketing environment cause them to lose their relative value. Maintaining diversity of any land race by farmers indicates that the land race is valuable for that particular agro-climatic condition because farmers continue to grow land races beneficial to them in resource crunch condition. Moreover, it is also important to understand options for cultivation of modern varieties because in some crops released varieties are not available for a particular production environment. Farmers adopt two choices either to shift less divers land race or to modern variety, both cause genetic erosion.
The status of crop diversity in the farmer's field is mostly measured by counting farmer-named varieties. It has been observed that there is consistency between farmers' naming of varieties and that of on the basis of agro-morphological and biochemical characterization. For farmers, genetic diversity in the field means varietal diversity, which they can clearly distinguish on the basis of agro-morphological traits, phenological attributes, postharvest characteristics and differential adaptive performance under abiotic and biotic stresses.
Value of conserved landraces
The value of landraces lies in their evolutionary potentials and future use in plant breeding. Because the social benefits of conserving genetic resources are often obscure, widely spread and not fully fetched by farmers. Assessing values and costs of conserving evolutionary potential of genetic resources provides a basis for determining the total value of any genetic resource in traditional farming systems. When varieties such as landraces are not traded on markets, farmers' perceptions of their importance can be used as indicators of their perceived private value to them. Although the potential public value of these landraces as rare, diverse and adaptable genetic resources cannot be accurately predicted. Breeders' and conservationists' perceptions of the relative distinctness of varieties can be used as perceived public value. The varieties with both the highest current use value (private value to farmers) and the greatest potential value (public value to society in general) are those that cost least to conserve on farms. But need is to promote and support the land races with rare public value but farmers are investing in diversity conservation of such land races. Therefore, in the current scenario on-farm conservation need to be promoted to ensure food security.
Identifying locations and households for conservation
For long term on-farm conservation of crop genetic diversity suitable locations should be identified where farm households have a high probability of cultivating landraces. In such sites incentives for diversity conservation can be created to the households. The proportions of households growing diverse, rare and adaptive landraces are comparatively higher in the remote villages as compared to villages located near towns and road side.
Impact of farmers networks in on-farm conservation
In on-farm agro-biodiversity conservation as well as utilization farmers' informal seed systems play a significant role. In this informal seed system farmers' networks are important component through which seed and other genetic materials flow among the farming community members. Along with the material flow, knowledge-based information is also disseminated from farmer to farmer through similar networks. So with the help of associated indigenous technical knowledge recipients utilize material properly. A network is usually dynamic in nature, which may change over time due to various factors that influence the social structure of a community. For any intervention to be effective, it will be important to determine stability of the networks over time. Stable network will be useful in informal seed systems for conservation and utilization of plant genetic resources.
Participatory plant breeding (PPB) as a new crop improvement approach
Participatory Plant Breeding (PPB) is a process of involving scientists and farming communities in breeding activities in order to increase the value of crops by improvement of their genetic material. In order to encourage on-farm conservation farmers should be involved in plant breeding and varietal selection programme. Presence of plant breeders in this process will make it worthy. It is a selection of segregating lines by farmers in collaboration with breeders in their target environments using their own selection criteria. It may be used as a method to create new varietal diversity for the targeted environment. It is expected that it will be successful in producing a farmer acceptable variety than produced through conventional breeding programme. This is because selection is done in the target environment and under actual management conditions of farmers. PPB basically helps to develop farmers' varietal choice and to disseminate technology faster. Successful implementation of PPB may have social, economic or genetic benefits, in both long and short term aspects.
Peoples' Biodiversity Charter (PBC) as a tool to monitor local crop diversity
There are different methods to document the knowledge base on genetic resources held by local communities such as Peoples' Biodiversity Charter, Community Seed Register and Village Community Register. The purpose of PBC is to build capacity of local institutions to manage information at community level for on-farm management of agro-biodiversity for social, economic and environmental benefits. PBC refers to "a record, kept in a paper or electronic format by community members, of the genetic resources in a community, including information on their passport data, agroecology, cultural and use values. It helps to access the information and crop seeds, market and seed networks, document status of crop resources with reasons for maintenance, in describing ecology and diversity with area-specific needs.
Strengthening on-farm conservation through a community seed bank
Small scale farming households need different types of seeds to allow for varied physical environments, to benefit from the many end uses of each crop and as a coping strategy for complex, diverse and risky environments. Certain landraces are maintained because of their religious and cultural significance in specific communities. But due to unavailability of seeds of these land races farmers choose the modern varieties. The community seed bank will lead to sustainable local seed security. It will fulfil the community's requirement for quality landrace seed and will help to increase farmers' access to quality seed as a means of conserving local crop diversity to maintain on-farm. This approach is based on indigenous knowledge and is low cost, managed by the local community.
Importance of home gardens in on-farm conservation
Home garden refers to the traditional use of land around a homestead where several species of plants are grown and maintained by the household members and their products are primarily intended for family consumption and utilization. Home gardens are used as traditional sources of food and nutrition. These are important contributors to food security and livelihoods of farming communities. Home gardens are typically cultivated with a mixture of annual and perennial plants that can be harvested on a daily or seasonal basis. Home gardens, with their intensive and multiple uses, provide a good safety net for these households during food deficit periods. These gardens have been important sources of food, fodder, fuel, medicines, spices, herbs, flowers, construction materials, income and are important means of on-farm conservation of a wide range of plant genetic resources.
Awareness Programs
Community participation is vital to on-farm conservation and in the use of local agro-biodiversity. A community will conserve agro-biodiversity if they know the importance and value of material conserved. Farmers and farming communities may not be aware of the benefit of the local agro-biodiversity they have. Therefore, it is important to create awareness and sensitization of farming communities on the value of agro-biodiversity as well as need for its conservation. Awareness adds value to the local crops and makes farming communities, consumers, development workers, and policy-makers conscious of conservation and utilization of local agro-biodiversity. There are different methods to make aware and sensitize community for conservation of agro-biodiversity such as personal contact, group approach and mass media approach. Mass media approach is most cost effective and reaching to large population. Among the different means of mass media, radio broadcasting is the fastest and most powerful means of reaching large areas and masses of rural people at a time. Therefore, farming communities may be easily sensitized about on-farm conservation through radio broadcasting in local language.
Conclusion
Conservation of agro-biodiversity is essential for the future generation. It is crucial to food production; but these resources have been eroding at an unprecedented rate as a result of introduction and promotion of modern varieties and cash crops. Along with these important resources of mankind, the traditional knowledge of cultivation, management and use associated with them are also in serious threat of extinction. In view of the farmers' knowledge and their contribution in management of agro-biodiversity, on-farm conservation may be a boon to conserve plant genetic resources for food and agriculture for future generations. Therefore, there is an urgent need to promote on-farm conservation of agro-biodiversity in the farmer's field.
About Author / Additional Info: | https://www.biotecharticles.com/Agriculture-Article/Food-Security-through-On-Farm-Conservation-of-Agro-biodiversity-3368.html |
NOTE: We asked Dr Doug Gurian-Sherman, a senior scientist at the Union of Concerned Scientists, what he made of the statements by Mark Lynas to the effect that GM is actually safer than conventional breeding because it "just moves a couple of genes, whereas conventional breeding mucks about with the entire genome in a trial and error way." He sent us this response which spells out in detail how Lynas is being both overly simplistic and misleading.
One point that Doug Gurian-Sherman makes that is particularly damaging for the "safer" argument is that GM crops involve not just genetic engineering, which as he notes is less precise in a couple of important ways, but their development into crops that can go into farmers' fields almost invariably requires conventional breeding as well. So genetic engineering isn't an alternative to conventional breeding, but a less precise addition.
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Comparing the "precision" of genetic manipulation between genetic engineering and breeding is really like comparing apples and oranges.
GE is clearly less precise in a couple of ways: 1) the gene is inserted into the crop genome randomly (there are technologies in the works that may change this, but have not been used in practice), which can affect the expression of the transgene and surrounding genes, 2) because the new gene may not be co-adapted to the crop genome, it may have unexpected effects on the function of other genes, 3) the tissue culture steps used in the GE process add random genetic and epigenetic changes to the genome (newer methods probably less so, but still some, and these can be reduced by backcrossing).
Typical breeding - crossing of two varieties of a crop, which is the large majority of all breeding, doesn't "mess with" the whole genome. Genes are randomly assorted, which simply means that, as when people have children, copies of co-evolved genes are partitioned in an orderly way among offspring. It is more like shuffling a deck of cards. The genes are mostly the same when varieties of a crop are crossed. The different combinations can have some unpredictable effects, and it is possible that some could be harmful, but that is unlikely.
Importantly, these genes are co-adapted to work together when mixed through breeding, including regulation of gene function. But when GE occurs, with new genes, this probably will not be the case (if it is not "cisgenic") - quite unpredictable results (not necessarily harmful), which one could call imprecise.
That does not mean that conventional breeding is without risk. Harmful recessive genes might be expressed through some crosses during breeding, but if so, they are more likely to make the plant grow poorly than harm anyone. Pro-GE scientists and others often use the examples of breeding using mutagenesis (or tissue culture - one of the steps typically used in GE!), which are unregulated, as examples where there is a lot of imprecision. And that is true. But maybe those things should be regulated rather than deregulating GE! Also, I don't think that either mutagenesis or tissue culture were ever very widely used (there is some dispute about this for mutagenesis. It is hard to get good numbers) because they ARE too messy. On the other hand, about 99 percent of the mutations and so on can typically be removed after mutagenesis or tissue culture by backcrossing to the normal parent for about 10 generations. That is not true, of course, for a transgene!
Sometimes breeding can also activate transposable elements in the genome that move around and cause some mutations. And there are always a few random mutations each generation during breeding. But that is normal, and typically of little or no consequence. In any case, it must be remembered that breeding is always done anyway with GE [breeding is used as a step after the crop is engineered]! After the gene is inserted, that plant is crossed with the parent varieties and other varieties many times. So with GE, we necessarily get the imprecision of GE (insertions site, lack of genomic adaptation), plus the effects of tissue culture, and very minor effects that may occur through breeding. But again, it is important what kind of breeding (or GE, the gene gun is messier than using Agrobacterium) we are talking about.
The other example used by pro-GE people to say that breeding is imprecise is crossing with wild relatives (or even distantly related crop varieties, e.g. landraces), where more genes or alleles (variants of genes, e,g, smooth or wrinkled seed coats in Mendel’s example) can be introduced into the crops. Most of these will be alleles rather than really new types of genes, and all virtually all will be well regulated as part of the crop genome, but that does not mean that some of these will not be harmful. And there are actually a few examples (rolled out ad nauseum by pro-GE scientists, e.g. Lenape or Magnum Bonum potato varieties) of harmful changes. But the genes that can be accessed this way are not nearly as varied as what can be accessed through GE, so I believe that means more uncertainty with GE (as a whole rather than any specific example). For example, the harmful changes in potatoes were increases or changes in alkaloids. But alkaloids already exist in potatoes, and are well known, and so these changes are easy to look for. That is not to say that there may not be some unanticipated harmful changes, just, in my opinion, that they are more likely to be familiar than with GE.
So again, unfortunately, it is not so simple (and, Lynas seems to selectively choose his data to favor GE), and is why I said comparing the precision of GE and breeding is like comparing apples and oranges. For the garden variety of breeding, though, I think it is clear that Lynas is way off, because along with GE itself, breeding is used in the GE process, so there are the additive effects of breeding and GE.
The most challenging examples for those of us supporting breeding are crosses with wild relatives, because there is greater possibility for harm, but also greater opportunity to introduce useful traits. | https://gmwatch.org/en/main-menu/news-menu-title/archive/78-2013/14586-is-genetic-engineering-more-precise-than-conventional-breeding |
Agriculture conferences focus on the topic of Agriculture Engineering. Agricultural Engineering is that the scope of engineering involved with the planning, construction and improvement of farming instrumentality and machinery. Agricultural engineers integrate technology with farming. As an example, they style new and improved farming instrumentality that will work additional expeditiously, or perform new tasks.
Agricultural Advanced Machines
Agricultural resource management
Polymer in agriculture
Agricultural machinery
Nanotechnology in agriculture
Bio information system
Precision farming, Remote Sensing and Agri GIS
Agricultural biotechnology, conjointly called agritech, is a part of agricultural science involving the utilization of scientific tools and techniques, together with recombinant DNA technology, molecular markers, molecular medical specialty, vaccines, and tissue culture, to switch living organisms: plants, animals, and microorganisms. Agricultural Biotechnology also helps in climate adaptation, stress management, and disease management. Biotechnology has introduced modern technologies to deal with the global food crisis.
GM crops
Tissue culture
Genetic engineering
Genes and traits of interest for crops
Technologies for rapid crop improvement
Safety testing and government regulations
Genomics technologies for tropical agriculture
The environmental impact of agriculture is that the impact that totally different farming practices wear the ecosystems around them, and the way those effects are often copied back to those practices. Some of the environmental issues that are related to agriculture are climate change, deforestation, genetic engineering, irrigation problems, pollutants, soil degradation, and waste.
Forecasting in agriculture
Mitigation and adaptation
New crops for a new climate
Global warming & agriculture
Effects of CO2 on plant growth
Food security and climate change
Climate change impacts on agriculture
Impacts on nutrition, quality and resource use efficiency
Food security could be alive of the supply of food and individuals' accessibility thereto, wherever accessibility includes affordability. Globalization, in particular, has significant effects on the food supply chain by validating scale effect in the food distribution industry.
Food and nutrition security
Food packaging technology
Food storage and technology
Fermentation Technology and Cereals
Post-Harvest Handling and Processing
Innovative ways of feeding increasing population
Sustainable intensification of food production systems
Plant science is the study of plants in all their forms and interactions using a scientific approach. Plant Science will accelerate the application of gene technology to agriculture. The scope of the plant science ranges from developing molecular techniques for genetic engineering to ecological research in the field of plant science.
Plant tissue culture
Plant Biotechnology
Plant genome sciences
Plant synthetic biology
Plant science and natural products
Plant physiology and biochemistry
Medicinal and aromatic plant sciences
Plant pathology and plant-micro-biology
Soil science is that the study of soil as a resource on the surface of the planet as well as soil formation, classification and mapping; physical, chemical, biological, and fertility properties of soils; and these properties in relevance the employment and management of soils.
Agriculture Water Management for rising Crop Productivity. It conjointly helps within the understanding of plant water use, quantifying crop transpiration and soil evaporation and permits U.S.A. to plan methods to boost crop production, scale back unproductive water losses and stop land and water degradation.
Soil chemistry
Microbial inoculants
Soil and Plant Analysis
Land and water management
Soil fertility & plant nutrition
Soil Microbiology and Soil Remediation
Soil physics and advance physical techniques
Crop protection is that the science and apply of managing plant diseases, weeds and different pests that harm agricultural crops and biological science. Agricultural crops embrace field crops, vegetable crops, and fruits. The crops in field are exposed to several issues. The crop plants could also be broken by insects, birds, rodents, bacteria, etc.
Entomology is that the study of insects and their relationship to humans, the surroundings, and different organisms. Entomologists build nice contributions to such various fields as agriculture, chemistry, biology, human/animal health, molecular science, sociology, and forensics
Pollinators
Weed Science
Insect Science
Biological pest control
Application of Taxonomy
Barrier-based approaches
Biotechnology-based approaches
Pest/Disease management, integrated pest management
Fertilizers and pesticides each have definite professionals and cons related to their use. Each varieties of chemical tend to extend yields, and therefore create a major distinction in food production, significantly in countries that struggle sporadically with famines. On the opposite hand, they each will cause pollution once erosion carries the chemicals off of farms together with worn soils when every precipitation. There’s additionally concern by some authorities that insecticides create a risk, not solely to non target animal and plant species, however to humans in addition.
Single nutrient fertilizers
Multi-nutrient fertilizers
Bio-fertilizers
Environmental effects of fertilizers
Health effects of pesticides
Insecticides
Herbicides
Bio-pesticide
Food science is that the study of the physical, biological, and chemical makeup of food; and therefore the ideas underlying food process. Food technology is that the application of food science to the choice, preservation, processing, packaging, distribution, and use of safe food.
Food engineering
Food chemistry
Food & nutrition
Food technology
Food microbiology
Food packaging
Food nutrients
A greenhouse may be a structure with walls and roof created primarily of clear material, like glass, within which plants requiring regulated atmospheric condition are grownup. These structures aim size from little sheds to industrial-sized buildings.
Horticulture has been defined as the culture of plants for food, comfort and beauty. According to an American horticulture scholar, "Horticulture is the growing of flowers, fruits and vegetables, and of plants for ornament and fancy." A more precise definition can be given as "The cultivation, processing, and sale of fruits, nuts, vegetables, ornamental plants, and flowers as well as many additional services"
Fruit and vegetable breeding
Arboriculture
Turf management
Seed physiology
Greenhouses and horticulture
Horticultural produce marketing and value chains
Floriculture
Animal husbandry is the branch of agriculture concerned with animals that are raised for meat, fiber, milk, eggs, or other products. It includes day-to-day care, selective breeding and the raising of livestock
ICEAH 2020 provides an opportunity to young researchers and scientist to explore the leading and current research developments in the field of Livestock Farming & Genetic Engineering.Poultry farming
Agricultural productivity is measured because the quantitative relation of agricultural outputs to agricultural inputs. Whereas individual product area unit sometimes measured by weight, their varied densities create measure overall agricultural output troublesome.
Agribusiness includes agrichemicals, breeding, crop production (farming and contract farming), distribution, farm machinery, processing, and seed provide, similarly as promoting and retail sales. | https://eureka-science.com/Partnering-conferences/Expo-Agriculture-Horticulture/track_categories.php |
Copyright © 2015 by author and Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution International License (CC BY).
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Received 10 December 2014; accepted 24 December 2014; published 16 January 2015
ABSTRACT
The world population is estimated to be 9.2 billion in 2050. To sufficiently feed these people, the total food production will have to increase 60% - 70%. Climate models predict that warmer temperatures and increases in the frequency and duration of drought during the present century will have negative impact on agricultural productivity. These new global challenges require a more complex integrated agricultural and breeding agenda that focuses on livelihood improvement coupled with agro-ecosystem resilience, eco-efficiency and sustainability rather than just on crop productivity gains. Intensifying sustainability agro-ecosystems by producing more food with lower inputs, adapting agriculture to climate change, conserving agro-biodiversity through its use, and making markets to work for the small farmers are needed to address the main issues of our time. Plant breeding has played a vital role in the successful development of modern agriculture. Development of new cultivars will be required while reducing the impact of agriculture on the environment and maintaining sufficient production. Conventional plant breeding will remain the backbone of crop improvement strategies. Genetic engineering has the potential to address some of the most challenging biotic constraints faced by farmers, which are not easily addressed through conventional plant breeding alone. Protective measures and laws, especially patenting, must be moderated to eliminate coverage so broad that it stifles innovation. They must be made less restrictive to encourage research and free flow of materials and information. Small farmers have an important role in conserving and using crop biodiversity. Public sector breeding must remain vigorous, especially in areas where the private sector does not function. This will often require benevolent public/private partnerships as well as government support. Active and positive connections between the private and public breeding sectors and large-scale gene banks are required to avoid a possible conflict involving breeders’ rights, gene preservation and erosion. Plant breeding can be a powerful tool to bring “harmony” between agriculture and the environment, but partnerships and cooperation are needed to make this a reality.
Keywords:
Breeding, Modern Agriculture, Climate Changes, Biodiversity, Environment, Ecosystems, Transgenic Crops, Small Farmers
1. Introduction
There are now almost 7.25 billion human beings inhabiting this planet, and it has been projected that world population growth may exceed 70 million annually over the next 40 years. The world population will be approximately 9.2 billion in 2050, when the concentration of carbon dioxide and ozone will be 550 ppm and 60 ppm, respectively and the climate will be warmer by 2˚C . At that time it is expected that approximately 90% of this global population will reside in Asia, Africa, and Latin American countries . Currently, about 1 billion human beings suffer from hunger; 3 billion malnourished people suffer one or more micronutrient deficiencies (especially vitamin A, iodine and iron) and live with less than 2 US dollars per day; and anthropogenic climate change continues to affect food output and quality . By 2050, to sufficiently feed all these people, the total food production will have to increase 60% to 70% to meet a net demand of 1 billion tonnes of cereal for food and to feed, and 200 million tonnes of meat - , depending on assumptions of population growth, income growth and dietary changes. This projected increase of global crop demand is partly due to a growing global population, but a larger driver is increasing global affluence and associated changes in diet due to higher incomes . As global incomes increase, diets typically shift from those comprised of mostly grains, to diets that contain more vegetables and fruits and a greater proportion of meat, dairy products, and eggs - .
This shift from plant-based diets to more intensive demand for animal products is termed as the “Livestock Revolution” and it is estimated that approximately 40% of the world’s population will undergo this revolution to more animal consumption by the year 2050 . In order to meet these demands, global livestock production systems are shifting from using mostly waste products, crop residues, and marginal lands to more industrial systems which require less land and use of higher value feed crops . In developing countries with high rates of increasing animal product demands, a greater proportion of cereals are being directed towards animals . Increasing demand for meat and dairy is also of importance to the global environment because their production requires more land and other resources than plant-based foods - . In fact, livestock production is the single largest anthropogenic use of land. According to a 2011 analysis, 75% of all agricultural land (including crop and pasture land) is dedicated to animal production . Livestock production is also responsible for other environmental impacts. Livestock production is estimated to be responsible for 18% of total greenhouse gas emissions , and animal products generally have a much higher water footprint than plant-based foods .
In addition to growing meat and dairy demands, affluent nations are also directing a growing proportion of high-value feedstock to bio-fuel production. A great majority of bio-fuel feedstock are human-edible, especially from maize in the United States and sugarcane in Brazil. In 2010 global bio-fuel production represented 2.7% of global fuel for road transportation (at 107 billion liters produced), which is more than a 450% increase from the year 2000 . To produce these fuels the United States and Brazil combined dedicated over 460 million tonnes of maize and sugarcane, respectively, to bio-fuel production in 2010, which is 6% of global crop production .
In 2008, the world’s arable land amounted to 1386 M ha, out of a total 4883 M ha land used for agriculture . Each year, arable and agricultural land is lost due to deforestation, overgrazing, agricultural activities, gathering and overexploitation for fuel-wood, urbanization and industrialization. The most direct negative impact of agriculture on biodiversity is due to the considerable loss of natural habitats, which is caused by the conversion of natural ecosystems into agricultural land. The arable land is limited. Increases in arable land can only be done by deforestation. Agricultural production should be increased without further deforestation. This requires innovation and better technologies, as well as substantial investment, to increase yields on existing agricultural land.
Climate models predict that warmer temperatures and increases in the frequency and duration of drought during the twenty-first century will have negative impact on agricultural productivity - . For example, maize production in Africa could be at risk of significant yield losses as researchers predict that each degree-day that the crop spends above 30˚C reduces yields by 1% if the plants receive sufficient water . These predictions are similar to those reported for maize yield in the United States . Lobell et al. further showed that maize yields in Africa decreased by 1.7% for each degree-day the crop spent at temperatures of over 30˚C under drought. Wheat production in Russia decreased by almost one-third in 2010, largely due to the summer heat wave. Similarly, wheat production declined significantly in China and India in 2010, largely due to drought and sudden rise in temperature respectively, thereby causing forced maturity . Warming at +2˚C is predicted to reduce yield losses by 50% in Australia and India . Likewise, the global maize and wheat production, as a result of warming temperatures during the period of 1980 to 2008, declined by 3.8% and 5.5%, respectively . So climate change poses a serious threat to species fitness , and to agro-ecosystems essential to food production .
Climatic variation and change are already influencing the distribution and virulence of crop pest and diseases, but the interactions between the crops, pests and pathogens are complex and poorly understood in the context of climate change . We will need to integrate plant biology into the current paradigm with respect to climate change to succeed in defeating emerging pests and pathogens posing a new threat to agriculture due to climate change - .
In this context we can ask: can we feed and clothe the growing world population while simultaneously preserving or improving ecosystems and the natural environment?
History shows that modern agriculture has the potential to feed the world population but also to be worst and even catastrophically with the natural environment. Some examples are deforestation, overgrazing and erosion, in many parts of the world, which contributed to the outright collapse of ecosystems. One classical example is Madagascar’s central highland plateau that has become virtually totally barren (about ten percent of the country), as a result of slash-and-burn deforestation, an element of shifting cultivation practiced by many natives. Intensification of production systems have also led to reduction in crop and livestock biodiversity, and increased genetic vulnerability and erosion. In contrast, the “Green Revolution”, which began providing high-yielding crop cultivars and high-input management techniques to developing countries in the 1960s, has prevented mass starvation and improved living standards throughout the world . Dwarfing, photoperiod insensitive genes and host plant resistance genes to pathogens and pests were bred for various crops during the “Green Revolution” . Production in agriculture was increased in many nations of Asia and Latin America by the “Green Revolution”. Crop yields in the developing world would have been at least 20% less and food prices about 19% higher than they were in 2000 without the innovations of the “Green Revolution” . Calorie consumption would have dropped by about 5% and the number of malnourished children would have increasing by at least 2%; i.e., the “Green Revolution” helped to improve the health status of 32 to 42 million pre-school children. Since the beginning of the “Green Revolution” in 1960, land devoted to crops increased some 10%, land under irrigation has doubled, pesticide use by agriculture has tripled, fertilizer use is up 23-fold, pesticide use is up by a factor of 53. Nowadays, forty per cent of crop production comes from the 16% of agricultural land that is irrigated. Irrigated lands account for a substantial portion of increased yields obtained during the “Green Revolution”. However, the global rate of increase in the irrigated area is declining, per capita irrigated area has declined by 5% since 1978, and new dam construction may allow only a 10% increase in water for irrigation over the next 30 years . The enhancement of yield achieved in the “Green Revolution” (29% in food supplies per capita since 1960) may have been associated with an increased level of greenhouse gas emissions associated with higher fertilizer production and application, but, overall, its net effect has been calculated to have reduced CO2 emission by some 161 gigatons of carbon (GtC) over the period 1961-2005 , implying that gains in crop productivity can make a positive contribution to reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
Developing sustainable agriculture in environmentally sensitive systems is the great challenge of the coming decades. More food, animal feed, fiber, fuel, and forest products must be produced with less available land, water, and nutrients, to meet basic human needs and improve the sustainability of production . In addition, pressure from an increasing global human population will necessitate more efficient and diversified land use. High crop yields of main staples will still be needed for freeing land to cash or more nutritious crops such as fruits and vegetables, as well as to prevent biodiversity losses and protect the environment by avoiding the use of today’s forests, woodlands, pastures, rangelands and mountain sides for agriculture. Furthermore, recent research shows that investment in crop yield gains compares favorably with other commonly proposed climate change mitigation strategies, and should be a priority target to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
Identifying the most appropriate technologies and practices to achieve these objectives are critical. This requires the building of a knowledge base to support such tasks. Fortunately, the World already possesses the know-how and research capability required to achieve the main objective to transform agriculture into a fully natural resource-based system which manages eco-efficiently its surrounding environment and associated biodiversity. Agro-ecological approaches are known to improve farming system productivity, reduce pollution through sound methods of nutrient and pest management, maintain biodiversity reserves, and enhance habitat quality through careful management of soil, water, and natural vegetation. Infrastructure (particularly roads and irrigation), incentives, institutions and other innovations beyond agriculture are also needed to implement such a global change of rural landscapes in the short- to mid-terms. The agenda for a new “Green Revolution” needs to consider new approaches to promote innovations in plant science, agricultural and management practices and benefits to farmers and consumers.
Modern production agriculture in the developed world is highly industrialized. There is considerable discussion about the inadequacy of the dominant model of agricultural intensification and growth, which relies on increased use of capital inputs, such as fertilizer and pesticides . Technology and purchased inputs, e.g. fertilizer, pesticides and water are required to maintain high levels of production, and use of these inputs continues to increase in the developing world. Despite the critical need for agricultural production and continued improvements in management practices, current systems are still not in “harmony” with the environment because they can create many problems for ecosystems and human communities. The generation of unacceptable levels of environmental damage and problems of economic feasibility are cited as key problems with this model of industrial agriculture . Specific external costs of industrial agriculture which should be improved include soil deterioration, erosion, declining surface water and groundwater quality, limited recycling of nutrients, excessive use of off-farm fertilizers and pesticides, diminished biodiversity within the agricultural system (both in terms of the variety of crops sown and coexisting species), lapses in food safety, and the loss of rural employment. By developing new field crops, and trees that meet societal needs, plant breeding plays a distinctive and crucial role in addressing these challenges, which must be dealt with immediately to develop sustainable agronomic systems for the future.
In this article two general ways are described in which plant breeders can engage in environmental issues: 1) by breeding plants that are better adapted to environment and environmental stresses, producing more with less and where productivity can be maintained in the face of increasingly variable weather patterns and sub-optimal conditions, as well as pest and disease pressures; and 2) by breeding plants that can alter and “improve” environments, as breeding alternative crops and crops for new uses or breeding for local adaptation and sustainable solutions. It is also presented the impacts of transgenic crops, commonly referred to as genetically modified crops on biodiversity.
2. Plant Breeding, Agriculture and Environment
2.1. Introduction
Farming and plant breeding have been closely associated since the early days when crops were first domesticated. The domestication of staple crops, for example, rice and soybean in eastern Asia; wheat in the Middle East; sorghum in Africa; and maize, beans, and potatoes in the Americas , began independently, in multiple locales, 5000 - 12,000 years ago . For thousands of years, these crops were grown and morphologically altered by farmers, who selected the most desirable and adaptable cultivars to plant in the next growing season. Without understanding the science behind it, early farmers saved the seed from the best portion of their crop each season. Over the years, they selected the traits which they liked best, transforming and domesticating the crops they grew.
After the discoveries of Darwin and Mendel, scientific knowledge was applied to plant breeding in the late 1800s . Commercial hybridization of crop species began in the United States in the middle of the 1920s with sweet corn and followed by onions in the 1940s . With the implementation of hybrid crop breeding, yield per unit land area rapidly increased in the United States and since that time, public and private breeding companies have been placing more and more emphasis on the development of hybrids, and many species have been bred as hybrid cultivars for the marketplace. Besides heterosis, hybrids also allow breeders to combine the best traits and multiple disease and stress resistances. Furthermore, if the parents are homozygous, the hybrids will be uniform, an increasingly important trait in commercial market production. The creation of hybrid cultivars requires homozygous inbred parental lines, which provide a natural protection of plant breeders’ rights without legal recourse and ensure a market for seed companies.
In the 1970’s breeders’ rights protection has been provided through International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV), which coordinates an international common legal regime for plant variety protection. Protection was granted for those who develop or discover cultivars that are new, distinct, uniform, and stable . Cultivars may be either sexually or asexually propagated. Coverage for herbaceous species is 20 years. Protective ownership was extended by UPOV in 1991 to include essentially derived cultivars . At the same time, the farmer’s exemption (which permitted farmers to save seed for their own use) was restricted; giving member states the option to allow farmers to save seed. Additionally, in Europe after 1998 and the United States after 2001, plant breeding companies can take advantages of patent laws to protect not only the cultivar itself but all of the plant’s parts (pollen, seeds), the progeny of the cultivar, the genes or genetic sequences involved, and the method by which the cultivar was developed . The seed can only be used for research that does not include development of a commercial product i.e., another cultivar, unless licensed by the older patent. The patents are considered the ultimate protective device allowing neither a farmer’s exemption nor a breeder’s exemption (that permitted the protected cultivar to be used by others in further breeding to create new cultivars) . The use of patents for transgenic crops introduces additional problems according to the IAASTD report developed with the contribution from 400 scientists around the world, and adopted by 58 governments. In developing countries, especially instruments such as patents may boost up costs and restrict experimentation by individual farmers whereas potentially undermining local practices for securing food and economic sustainability. Thus, there is particular concern regarding present intellectual property rights instruments, which may inhibit seed-saving, exchange, sale, and access to proprietary materials of vital importance to the independent research community, specifically in view of the need for analyses and long term experimentation on climate change impacts .
Research and development (hereafter R & D) for improved seed development is expensive. Such product protection has presented a business incentive to corporations to invest in the seed industry, which supported an enormous increase in private R & D leading to strong competition in the marketplace between the major seed companies. The majority of current crop cultivars sold nowadays are proprietary products developed by private R & D. A significant consequence of this increase in R & D has been a reduction in public breeding programs. As a result, the cost for R & D to develop new crop cultivars is shifting from the publicly supported research programs to the customers of the major seed companies .
One of the main factors to determine success in plant breeding is crop biodiversity and genetic capacity. Access to genetic variation, biodiversity, is required to achieve crop cultivar improvement. No practical breeding program can succeed without large numbers of lines (genotypes) to evaluate, select, recombine and inbreed (fix genetically). This effort must be organized in order for valid conclusions to be reached and decisions to be made. Scientists, breeders, support people and facilities, budgets, and good management are requirements to assure success in the seed business. Science must be state-of-the-art to maximize success in a competitive business environment. The continued need for fundamental breeding research is critical to support development of new technology and expansion of the knowledge base which supports cultivar development, competition among proprietary cultivar results in owner-companies striving to do the best possible research to develop their own products and to compete on genetic and physiological quality of crop seed in the marketplace. Reasonable profit margins are essential to pay back the R & D costs to the owner and to fund future research on developing even better crop cultivars to stay competitive. There is considerable genetic variation within the numerous crop species, which can be exploited in the development of superior proprietary cultivars. The consequences of this dynamic situation will mean relatively short-lived cultivars replaced by either the owner of the cultivar or a competitor seed company. This intense competition means constantly improved and more sophisticated cultivars. Seed companies are in the business of manipulating genes to improve plant cultivar performance for a profit. The success of the research is judged by the success of the product in making a reasonable profit. The research must improve economic performance starting with the seed production costs and including the farmer-ship- per/processor and the end user. If any link in this sequence of events is weak or broken, the new cultivar will likely fail .
Modern plant breeding is the science of improving plants to achieve farmer needs and better fit production environments, but it is a long-term proposition. Each released cultivar represents a culmination of a decade or more of work, from initial crosses through final testing. The rate of improvement is a function of the amount of heritable genetic variation present in a population, the time it takes to complete a breeding cycle (from seed production through selection to seed production again), which can range from multiple generations per year (e.g. maize on field sites in both hemispheres) to decades (some trees require 8 years of growth before flowering). In hybrid crops, several years (multiple breeding cycles) are necessary to develop inbred lines that must then be tested in hybrid combinations. Many years of testing under various environmental conditions must be conducted to ensure that the new cultivar (inbred, hybrid, or population) will perform well for the farmer, consumer, or end-user before any substantial additional investment is made to increase production and distribution of the cultivar.
Biotechnology is a new and potentially powerful tool that has been added by all the major seed corporations to their crop breeding research programs, and is part of an ongoing public research for developing genetic engineered crop projects. It can augment and/or accelerate conventional cultivar development programs through time saved, better products, and more genetic uniformity, or achieve results not possible by conventional breeding . Genetic engineering provides innovative methods for modern plant breeding to adapt crops to agricultural systems facing new challenges brought by the changing climate. New breeding methods, relying on genetic engineering, can accelerate the pace to improve crops, or be more precise in transferring desired genes into plant germplasm. Some limited target traits already available in transgenic cultivars include those adapting agriculture to climate change and reducing their emissions of greenhouse gases.
Plant breeding may benefit from recent advances in genotyping and precise phenotyping, and by increasing the available agro-biodiversity through the use of genomics-led approaches. Today marker-assisted breeding is applied to a broad range of crops and could facilitate domesticating entirely new crops. Marker-assisted selection is particularly important for improving complex, quantitatively inherited traits that alter yield, and for speeding up the breeding process . Crop genomics has also been improving in the last decade and today there are faster and cheaper systems being increasingly used in gene banks, genetic research and plant breeding, e.g. for studying interactions between loci and alleles such as heterosis, epistasis and pleiotropy, or analyzing genetic pathways. Advances in crop genomics are providing useful data and information for identifying DNA markers, which can be further used for both germplasm characterization and marker-assisted breeding. Genomics-assisted breeding approaches along with bioinformatics capacity and metabolomics resources are becoming essential components of crop improvement programs worldwide .
Progress in crop genome sequencing, high resolution genetic mapping and precise phenotyping will accelerate the discovery of functional alleles and allelic variation associated with traits of interest for plant breeding. Genome sequencing and annotation include an increasing range of species such as banana/plantain, cassava, citrus, grape, model legumes, maize, potato, rice, sorghum, sugarcane, soybean, among other species. Perhaps, one day further research on the genome of a plant species from a drought-prone environment may assist in breeding more hardy and water efficient related crops due to gene synteny.
Transgenic breeding involves the introduction of foreign DNA. The use of transgenic crops remains controversial worldwide after more than 1.5 decades of introducing them into the agro-ecosystems using specific frameworks to regulate their release and commercialization. While conventional plant breeding utilizing non- transgenic approaches will remain the backbone of crop improvement strategies, transgenic crop cultivars should not be excluded as products capable of contributing to development goals. Breeding of transgenic crops so far seems to have been responsible and regulatory agencies have proceeded with caution in releasing transgenic crops. Available commercial transgenic crops and products are at least as safe in terms of food safety as those ensuing from conventional plant breeding - . Farm level profitability will ultimately determine whether farmers adopt and retain new transgenic crop technology, which may also depend on much more than technical performance particularly in the developing world; e.g. national research capacity, environmental and food safety regulations, intellectual property rights and agricultural input markets.
Decisions, policies and procedures about monitoring transgenic crops should be science-based, and this approach requires education. There will be continuing assessment on the need for, and type of monitoring as new (and unique) products are developed and released to agro-ecosystems. For example, when deploying transgenic crops with host plant resistance to an insect pest (e.g. expressing Cry insecticidal proteins derived from Bacillus thurigiensis) numerous experiments are conducted to determine effective insect resistance management strategies for farmers. Collecting baseline data is indeed essential for effective monitoring and guiding research on transgenic crops. Environmental, food and feed safety aspects should also be investigated before releasing trans- genic crops. Another research area should focus on the unintentional spread of transgenic traits into conventionally-bred crop or landrace gene pools of the same species, particularly in the centers of crop diversity or origin. Transgene flow raises a new set of ecological and economic issues for scientists and policymakers to consider for transgene containment. Appropriate measurements should also be taken when transgenic and conventional crops of the same species coexist in the same locations if some farmers wish to grow crops for transgenic-free markets. The global spread of transgenic crops also has significant implications for organizations involved in germplasm conservation and genetic enhancement. Protocols, which are most likely based on polymerase chain reaction (PCR) markers for detecting specific recombinant DNA sequences in bulked samples collected from sentinel plots, are therefore needed to monitor unintentional transgene flow in gene banks and breeding plots. Using plant-derived genes to introduce useful traits and plant-derived promoters, will also overcome some concerns about the development of genetically engineered crops. In this regard, cisgenesis addresses some negative views regarding the use of genes from non-crossable species for breeding crops. Cisgenesis involves only genes from the plant itself or from a crossable close relative, and these genes could also be transferred by conventional breeding methods. Crop wild relatives are therefore a valuable source of traits for cisgenesis. The impact of transgenic crops on biodiversity is discussed in chapter 3.
Plant breeders need to understand the various valuation strategies very early in the breeding process if they are to direct long-term selection toward reducing agriculture’s negative environmental impacts and achieving greater sustainability while maintaining productivity. Regardless of method, breeding objectives can be broadened to include traits which reduce the environmental footprint of traditional production systems (e.g. nutrient and water use efficiencies that reduce off-farm inputs), to adapt crops to new climates, to host plant resistance to tackle old and emerging pathogen epidemics, or new cultivars for new production systems (e.g. perennial polycultures that mimic the biodiversity of natural systems), albeit with some reduction in rate of gain for the traditional agronomic traits of interest. Interdisciplinary crop improvement strategies accounting for ecological, socio-economic and stakeholder considerations will help identify traits leading to plant cultivars using fewer inputs, less land, and less energy, thereby resulting in a more sustainable agricultural ecosystem.
The impact of breeding on crop production is dependent upon the complex relationships involving the farmers, the cultivars available to them, and the developers of those cultivars. Farmers consist of commercial producers with varying size land holdings ranging from moderately small farms to very large ones, and subsistence farmers with small farms often on marginal lands. The subsistence farmers are usually poor. Several types of cultivars are available. The least sophisticated in terms of methods of development are landraces, also known as local cultivars. Modern cultivars consist of development by crossing and selection alone, those developed by crossing and selection with specific important improvements are often obtained from crosses with wild species or by transgenic methods, and F1 hybrids between desirable inbred lines. The developers of landraces are usually farmers themselves, and are obtained by repeated simple selection procedures of generation after generation. Improved cultivars and hybrids are created either by public sector breeders or seed companies.
Nearly 70% of the world’s farmers, from 570 million world exploitations, are small/subsistence and poor farmers. They feed 1.5 billion of the world’s population. So they are also a key for biodiversity and for improving the sustainability. For these farmers improved cultivars, hybrids or transgenic seeds tend to be riskier than landraces, since the higher costs associated with seeds and production impose a greater income risk. The lack of capital available denies them the opportunity to invest in production inputs. Small farmers may have lower production costs with landraces because they achieve adequate yields with fewer inputs. In addition, profits from improved hybrid or transgenic cultivars tend to be more variable. Yields are often higher but market prices tend to be inconsistent. For example in India states of Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra, farmers have been promised higher yields and lower pesticide costs when using Bt cotton, thus they acquired loans to afford the costly seeds (Monsanto has control over 95% of the Indian Bt cotton seed market and this near monopoly has resulted in great increased prices). When, in many cases, the farmers found the yields failed to meet their expected result, the consequences were usually very serious and many farmers died by committing suicide over the past 15 years, perhaps due to this reason. This situation of using Bt cotton seeds was explained by the absence of irrigation systems combined with specialization in high-cost crops, and played low market prices. Without collateral help these farmers are usually unable to secure a loan from a bank or money lender . Rates are often unmanageably high for those able to get a loan, with strict penalties for late payments. Similarly, a lack of education, resources, skill training and support prevent these farmers from using improved cultivars and then to generate a stable income from their production. In addition, governments do not usually regulate the price of crops or even provide market information. Improving market information systems for crops and facilitating farmers’ access to credit are then essential components for a strategy to enable poor farmers to grow improved cultivars. A major obstacle to success in crop production using improved cultivars is the shortage of affordable credit. Desperate for cash, subsistence farmers are forced to sell their crops immediately after the harvest to middlemen or their creditors at unfavorable prices. Low cost quality seeds are essential for these poor farmers to improve their life .
2.2. Breeding to Adapt Plants to the Environment
2.2.1. Producing More with Less
In the coming decades we will need to produce more with less. Fresh water suitable for irrigation is expected to become increasingly scarce and the costs of fertilizer and other agricultural inputs will increase as fossil-fuel costs rise. Nevertheless, continuing gains in production per hectare must be realized to offset the loss of premium agricultural lands (e.g. from urbanization and industrialization), while supplying a growing population. By developing resource efficient plants, plant breeders can continue to improve the sustainability of agricultural ecosystems. Plants requiring fewer off-farm input applications (specifically water, pesticides, nitrogen, phosphorus, and other nutrients) decrease the cost of production, lower fossil energy use, and reduce contamination of water systems, which help to improve public health and stabilize rural economies .
Although modern plant breeding efforts initially focused on improving uptake of inputs, recent efficiency gains have been made in physiologically increasing yield and biomass production without further increasing inputs. Many crops already have genetic variation in nutrient use efficiency, utilization, and uptake - and plant breeding will further improve these traits. Intensive agro-ecosystems, central to food security and reducing rural poverty, should emphasize improvements in system productivity, host plant resistance and enhance use- efficiency of inputs such as water and fertilizers.
Water use-efficiency and water productivity are therefore being sought by agricultural researchers worldwide to address water scarcity in drought-prone environments across the world. Under water scarcity, yields, of some crops, are a function of the amount of water used by the crop, how efficiently the crop uses this water for biomass-growth (i.e., water use efficiency or above-ground biomass/water use), and the harvest index; i.e., the proportion of grain yield to above-ground biomass. Water use efficiency is the ratio of total dry matter accumulation to evapotranspiration and other water losses; i.e., water entering and being lost from the system which is not transpired through the plant. An increase in transpiration efficiency or reduction in soil evaporation will increase water use efficiency. More recently, water productivity was re-defined at the crop level as the ratio of biomass with economic value produced (for example grain yield of cereals) compared to the amount of water transpired. This water productivity has been labeled as “productive” because transpiration is the only water flow in a field actually passing through the crop. Both water use efficiency and water productivity may be improved through plant breeding, as biomass accumulation and harvest index. Farooq et al. discuss the advances in transgenic breeding for drought-prone environments. In their review, they noted the testing of 10 transgenic rice events [unique DNA recombination taking place in one plant cell and thereafter to be used for generating entire transgenic plant(s)] under water scarcity. It seems the transgenic expression of some stress-regulated genes leads to increased water use efficiency.
Agriculture contributes significantly to greenhouse gas emissions. Nitrous oxide and dioxide are potent greenhouse gases released by manure or nitrogen (N) fertilizer, particularly in intensive cropping systems. Nitrous oxide (N2O), which is a potent greenhouse gas susceptible to denitrification, is generated through use of manure or N fertilizer. In many intensive cropping systems common N fertilizer practices lead to high fluxes of N2O and nitric oxide (NO). Several groups of heterotrophic bacteria use NO3 as a source of energy by converting it to the gaseous forms N2, NO, and NO2 (nitrous dioxide). N2O is therefore often unavailable for crop uptake or utilization. Proper amounts and timing of N applications can reduce NO2 emissions (50% less) in intensive irrigated agro-ecosystems without significantly affecting crop yields. An optical, hand held sensor which calculates the normalized differential vegetative index, thereby assessing yield potential as plants grow, can reduce unneeded N fertilizer inputs, saving farmers’ money and protecting the environment by reducing trace gas emissions. Genetic enhancement of crops shows great potential for reducing N2O emissions from soils into the atmosphere. Some plants possess the capacity to modify nitrification in situ because they produce chemicals which inhibit nitrification in soil. This release of chemical compounds from plant roots suppressing soil nitrification has been called biological nitrification inhibition, which seems to vary widely among and within species, and appears to be a widespread phenomenon in some tropical pasture grasses, e.g. Brachiaria humidicola. Nitrification inhibition also enhances agro-ecosystem fertility in a sustainable way especially under high nitrate leaching and denitrification fluxes, which may account for the ecological advantage of African grasses over indigenous grasses of other tropical pastures. Biological nitrification inhibition may be an interesting target trait of crop genetic engineering for mitigating climate change.
Almost one-fifth of global methane emissions are from enteric fermentation in ruminant animals. Apart from various rumen manipulation and emission control strategies, genetic engineering is a promising tool to reduce these emissions. The amount of methane produced varies substantially across individual animals of the same ruminant species. Efforts are ongoing to develop low methane-emitting ruminants without impacting reproductive capacity and wool and meat quality. A recent study by Shi et al. , to understand why some sheep produce less methane than others, deployed high-throughput DNA sequencing and specialized analysis techniques to explore the contents of the rumens of sheep. The study showed that the microbiota present in sheep rumen was solely responsible for the differences among high and low methane emitting sheep. It was further observed that the expression levels of genes involved in methane production varied more substantially across sheep, suggesting differential gene regulation. There is an exciting prospect that low-methane traits can be slowly introduced into sheep.
Crops are bred for N use efficiency (hereafter NUE) because this trait is a key factor for reducing N fertilizer pollution, improving yields in N limited environments, and reducing fertilizer costs. The use of plant species or genotypes of same species efficient in absorption and utilization of N is an important strategy in improving NUE in sustainable agricultural systems. Whole plant physiology, quantitative genetics, and forward and reverse genetic approaches are providing a better understanding of the physiological and molecular controls of N assimilation in crops under varying environments. Crops are being bred for NUE because this trait will be a key factor for reducing N fertilizer pollution as well as for improving yields in N limiting environments. There are various genetic engineering activities for improving NUE in crops . The gene Alanine aminotransferase from barley, which catalyzes a reversible transamination reaction in the N assimilation pathway, seems to be a promising candidate for accomplishing this plant breeding target. Transgenic plants over-expressing this enzyme can increase N uptake especially at early stages of growth. This gene technology was licensed to a private biotechnology company, which was founded in the last decade with the aim of promoting sustainable agriculture by running a profitable company . A patent issued a few years ago gave this company the rights to use the NUE gene technology in major cereals (wheat, rice, maize, sorghum, and barley), as well as, in sugarcane. Today they are testing the technology with rice in China, and researching further with rice and wheat in India, and planning to assess its value for maize and rice in sub-Saharan Africa through private-public partnerships.
Keeping N in ammonium form will affect how N remains available for crop uptake and will improve N recovery, thus reducing losses of N to streams, groundwater and the atmosphere. There are genes in tropical grasses such as B. humidicola and in the wheat wild relative Leymus racemosus that inhibit or reduce soil nitrification by releasing inhibitory compounds from roots and suppressing Nitrosomonas bacteria . Their value for genetic engineering crops for reducing nitrification needs to be further investigated.
2.2.2. Adapting to Global Climate Change and for Abiotic and Biotic Stress Tolerance
Extreme weather events are expected to increase in both number and severity in coming years . Climate change impacts agro-ecosystems through changes over the long-term in key variables affecting plant growth (e.g. rising temperatures) and through increasing the variability (frequency and intensity) of weather conditions (rainfall, drought, waterlogging and elevated temperatures). These changes affect both crop productivity and quality. In addition to physically destroying crops, climate change has altered host-pathogen relationships and resulted in increased disease incidence, in insect-pest borne stress in crop plants, and in invasive pests which feed and damage them.
There are two ways to adapt crops to new environments: developing new crops (long-term endeavor starting with domestication) and introducing target traits into existing crops through plant breeding, which includes genetic engineering. However, the job of crop improvement is becoming increasingly difficult. Cultivars which are not only high yielding but are also efficient in use of inputs are needed, tailored to ever more stringent market demands, able to maintain stability under increasing climate variability, and potentially contribute to climate mitigation. These multi-trait demands for new cultivars provide significant challenges for crop breeders, and standard selection approaches struggle under such complexity. To maintain productivity in the face of increased climatic variability, both the population and the plant cultivars will need to be continually developed to withstand “new” climate extremes and the stresses which these will entail .
Many breeding programs are already developing plants which tolerate extreme weather conditions, including drought, heat, and frost . Plant breeders are also beginning to address expected changes due to increased climate variability, by increasing genetic diversity sources and by adjusting selection and testing procedures .
More frequent weather extremes will likely affect the existing ranges of not only agronomic cultivars but also local native plant species . Because some genetic variation useful for climate change adaptation will be found only in wild plant relatives of cultivated crops, preserving genetic biodiversity is essential in order for breeders to select plants that will be well-suited for future environmental conditions .
Global climate change notwithstanding, additional stress tolerances in crop species are needed to maintain productivity and survival. In the near future, tolerance to various soil conditions including acidic, aluminum-rich soils (particularly in the tropics) and saline soils (especially those resulting from irrigation), will be increasingly important for production on marginal agricultural lands or as the salt content of irrigated lands increases . Bhatnagar-Mathur et al. suggested that genetic engineering could accelerate plant breeding to adapt crops to stressful environments. They further underline that engineering the regulatory machinery involving transcription factors (TF; a protein binding specific DNA sequences and thereby governing the flow of genetic information from DNA to messenger RNA) provides the means to control the expression of many stress-responsive genes. There are various target traits for adapting crops, through genetic engineering, to high CO2 and high O3 environments of the changing climate . Ortiz , Jewell et al. , and Dwivedi et al. provide the most recent overviews on research advances in genetic engineering for improved adaptation to drought, salinity or extreme temperatures in crops. The most cited include TF, and genes involved in: 1) signal sensing, perception, and transduction; 2) stress-responsive mechanisms for adaptation; and 3) abscisic acid biosynthesis for enhanced adaptation to drought. Transporter, detoxifying and signal transduction genes as well as TF are cited for tolerance to salinity. Genes related to reactive oxygen species, membrane and chaperoning modifications, late abundance embryogenesis proteins, osmoprotectants/compatible solutes and TF are pursued in crop genetic engineering for temperature extremes.
Transgenic crops provide the means to adapt crops to climate change, particularly in terms of drought and salinity. Duration and intensity of drought has increased in recent years, consistent with expected changes of the hydrologic cycle under global warming. Drought dramatically reduces crop yields. Genetic engineering may be one of the biotechnology tools for developing crop cultivars with enhanced adaptation to drought . It should be seen as complementary to conventional plant breeding rather than as an alternative to it. The function of a TF such as the Dehydration-Responsive Element Binding (DREB) gene in water stress-responsive gene expression has been extensively investigated . The main research goal was to gain a deep understanding of TF in developing transgenic crops targeting drought-prone environments . For example, the DREB1A gene was placed under the control of a stress-inducible promoter from the rd29A gene and inserted via biolistic transformation into wheat bread . Plants expressing this transgene demonstrated significant adaptation to water stress when compared to controls under experimental greenhouse conditions as manifested by a 10-day delay in wilting when water was held. Saint Pierre et al. indicated, however, that these transgenic lines did not generally out-yield the controls under water deficit in confined field trials. Nonetheless, they were able to identify wheat lines combining acceptable or high yield under enough irrigation which also showed stable performance across the water deficit treatments used in their experiments; i.e., severe stress, stress starting at anthesis, and terminal stress.
Soils affected by salinity are found in more than 100 countries, and about 1/5 of irrigated agriculture is adversely affected by soil salinity. Therefore, breeding salt-tolerant crops should be a priority because salinity will most likely increase under climate change. Mumms lists some candidate genes for salinity tolerance, indicating the putative functions of these genes in the specific tissues in which they may operate. Genes involved in tolerance to salinity in plants, limit the rate of salt uptake from the soil and the transport of salt throughout the plant, adjust the ionic and osmotic balance of cells in roots and shoots, and regulate leaf development and the onset of plant senescence. The most promising genes for the genetic engineering of salinity tolerance in crops, as noted by Chinnusamy et al. , are those related to ion transporters and their regulators, as well as the C-re- peat-binding factor. The recent genome sequencing of Thellungiella salsuginea, a close relative of Arabidopsis thriving in salty soils, will provide more resources and evidence about the nature of defense mechanisms constituting the genetic basis underlying salt tolerance in plants .
In the quest for breeding transgenic rice and tomato, advances showing salt tolerance have occurred. Plett et al. were able to show an improved salinity tolerance in rice by targeting changes in mineral transport. They initially observed that cell type-specific expression of AtHKT1 (a sodium transporter) improved sodium (Na+) exclusion and salinity tolerance in Arabidopsis. Further research explored the GAL4-GFP enhancer trap (transgenic construction inserted in a chromosome and used for identifying tissue-specific enhancers in the genome) to drive expression of AtHKT1 in the root cortex in transgenic rice plants. The transgenic rice plants had a higher fresh weight under salinity stress due to a lower concentration of Na+ in the shoots. They also noted that root-to- shoot transport of 22Na+ decreased and was correlated with an up-regulation of OsHKT1, the native transporter responsible for Na+ retrieval from the transpiration stream. Moghaieb et al. bred transgenic tomato plants producing ectoine (a common compatible solute in bacteria living in high salt concentrations). Ectoine synthesis was promoted in the roots of transgenic tomato plants under saline conditions, which led to increased concentration of photosynthesis in improving water uptake. Likewise, the photosynthetic rate of ectoine-transgenic tomato plants increased through enhancing cell membrane stability in oxidative conditions under salt stress.
Transgenic crops can also contribute to climate change mitigation efforts by reducing input use intensity . The integration of genetic engineering with conventional plant breeding, within an interdisciplinary approach, will likely accelerate the development and adoption of crop cultivars with enhanced adaptation to climate change related stresses . Global warming will reduce yields in many crops about 6% and 5% average yield loss per 1˚C in C3 and C4 crops, respectively, whose optimum temperature ranges are 15˚C - 20˚C and 25˚C - 30˚C . The extent of yield loss depends on crop, cultivar, planting date, agronomy and growing area. For instance, an increase of 1˚C in the night time maximum temperature translates into a 10% decrease in grain yield of rice, whereas a rise of 1˚C above 25˚C shortens the reproductive phase and the grain-filling duration in wheat by at least 5%, thereby reducing grain yield proportionally. Heat stress will exacerbate climate change impacts in the tropics, while it may put agriculture at risk in high latitudes where heat-sensitive cultivars are grown today. Hence, new cultivars must be bred to address heat stress. Ainsworth and Ort suggested giving priority to traits improving photosynthesis for adapting to heat stress. However, plants have various mechanisms to cope with high temperatures, e.g. by maintaining membrane stability, or by ion transporters, proteins, osmoprotectants, antioxidants, and other factors involved in signaling cascades and transcriptional control . Furthermore, Gao et al. noted that bZIP28 gene (a gene encoding a membrane-tethered TF) up-regulated in response to heat in Arabidopsis. Some of these genes can be used in crop genetic engineering to enhance plant adaptation to heat stress. For example, some stress-associated genes such as ROB5, a stress inducible gene isolated from bromegrass, enhanced performance of transgenic canola and potato at high temperatures . Likewise, Katiyar-Agarwal et al. introduced hsp101 gene (a heat shock protein gene from Arabidopsis) in basmati rice. This transgenic rice had a better growth in the recovery phase after suffering heat stress.
Globalization has, among other consequences, led to the rapid spread of plant disease and invasive pests. Being immobile, plants are unable to escape pathogens causing plant disease and pests which feed and damage them. Plant disease is mainly caused by fungi, bacteria, viruses, and nematodes. Approximately 70,000 species of pests exist in the world, but of these, only 10% are considered serious . Synthetic pesticides have been applied to crops since 1945 and have been highly successful in reducing crop losses to some pest insects, plant pathogens, weeds and in increasing crop yields . One estimate suggests that without pesticides, crop losses to pests might increase by 30%. Despite pesticide use, insects, pathogens and weeds continue to exact a heavy toll on world crop production, approaching 40% . Pre-harvest losses are globally estimated at 15% for insect pests, 13% for damage by pathogens, and about 12% for weeds . Developing resistant cultivars reduces the need for expensive and environmentally damaging pesticides to be applied. For example, a recent outbreak of Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum led to the devastating Xanthomonas wilt of banana in the Great Lakes Region of Africa, thereby threatening the food security and income of millions of East and Central African people who depend on this crop. Transgenic banana plants with the hypersensitivity response-assisting protein (Hrap) gene from sweet pepper did not show any infection symptoms after artificial inoculation of potted plants with Xanthomonas wilt in the screen house . Selected transgenic banana plants with putative host plant resistance to Xanthomonas wilt are ongoing confined field-testing in East Africa, where elevated temperatures, due to the changing climate, will likely favor banana production.
Weather influences how pathogens and pests affect and interact with crops and their host plant resistance, and thus climate change can also have wide-ranging impacts on pests and diseases . Late blight, which is caused by Phytophthora infestans, ranks as the most damaging potato pest. Late blight accounts for 20% of potato harvest failures worldwide, translating into 14 million tonnes valued at 7.6 billion US dollars. Global warming will increase late blight spread, e.g. expanding its range above 3000 meters in the Andes . Chemical control may lead to more aggressive strains of the pathogen and chemical control is often regarded as being environmentally damaging. Cisgenic potato cultivars with late blight resistance are becoming available and will impact growers, consumers and the environment favorably . Related wild Solanum species can be a source of alleles to enhance host plant late blight resistance in potato. For example, S. bulbocastum (a wild relative with high resistance to late blight from Mexico) was used to breed the cultivar “Fortuna” using genetic engineering. Cisgenesis allows inserting several host plant resistance genes from wild crop species in one step without linkage drag (reduction in cultivar fitness).
2.3. Breeding Plants to Improve the Environment
In general, plants are bred for their most obvious end products, including grain, fiber, sugar, biomass yield, fruit quality, or ornamental qualities. However, plants deployed across the landscape in agricultural or forestry settings affect the environment in measurable ways. Perennial crops have environmentally beneficial properties not present in annual crops, such as helping to prevent erosion in agricultural systems, providing wildlife habitat, and acting as sinks for carbon and nutrients. Traditionally, perennial crops have not been a major focus of breed- ing programs because they generally take more time and scientific knowledge to improve, and therefore, products such as new cultivars are often not produced within the timeframe of funding cycles. Current tree breeding programs are developing elms (Ulmus spp.), chestnuts (Castanea dentata), hemlocks (Tsuga spp.), and other species which are resistant to introduced diseases and insects . As compared with natural selection, artificial selection via plant breeding has overcome these stresses more effectively by rapidly incorporating diverse exotic genetic sources of resistance, hybridizing to include multiple, different genetic resistances into the same plant, and making use of off-season locations or artificial conditions to shorten generation cycles. A more complex example which may be feasible in the future is tree breeding for larger and improved root systems to decrease soil erosion, sequester carbon, and improve soil quality by increasing soil organic matter.
New crop cultivars developed by plant breeders must help improve soil health, reduce soil erosion, prevent nutrient and chemical runoff, and maintain biodiversity. The goal to breed projects for forages, which include several species, is to produce a high yield of leaf and stem biomass, as opposed to grain, for ruminant animals. In the tropics many forages are perennial, providing year-round erosion control, improving water infiltration as compared with that, from annual cropping systems, and in some cases, sequestering carbon. The forage breeding program at the University of Georgia (UG) has developed cultivars in several species and has been proactive in developing agreements with private-sector commercial partners to oversee seed production and marketing of new cultivars. Among the cultivars developed at UG is “Jesup MaxQ” tall fescue, a cultivar carrying a non-toxic endophytic fungus that was both highly persistent under grazing and greatly improved animal weight gain and feed efficiency over standard cultivars. In addition, this program developed the first true dual purpose, grazing and hay, alfalfa cultivar “Alfagraze”, followed by several further improved alfalfa cultivars like “Buldog 805” which persist through summer under cattle grazing .
Cover crops are annual species planted in rotation with crops to specifically improve soil conditions and to control weeds, soil-borne diseases, and pests - . Continuous cover crops can reduce on-farm erosion, nutrient leaching, and grain losses due to pest attacks and build soil organic matter as well as improve the water balance, leading to higher yields . For instance, Kaumbutho and Kienzle showed that maize yield increased from 1.2 to 1.8 - 2.0 t/ha in Kenya with the use of a mucuna (velvet bean) cover crop using case studies conducted from 2004 to 2007; and Pretty and Hine found that farmers who adopted mucuna cover cropping benefited from higher yields of maize with less labor input for weeding (maize following mucuna yields 3 - 4 t/ha without application of nitrogen fertilizer, similar to yields normally obtained with recommended levels of fertilization of 130 Kg∙N/ha).
Many current perennial and cover crop cultivars are essentially wild species bred from germplasm collections and developed to increase success in managed agro-ecosystems. As compared with non-native vegetation, plant species native to a particular region are generally thought to survive on less water, use fewer nutrients, require minimal pesticide applications, and be non-invasive; however, counter examples for both native and non-native species are plentiful . As potentially valuable species are identified, breeding to improve them for traits of consumer importance will be needed to broaden available biodiversity in cultivated landscapes. With a changing climate, species considered critical to the landscape may require human-assisted hybridization with distant relatives to better ensure survival from threats posed by novel pests or diseases.
Alternative crops are also being bred for new uses, such as removing toxic chemicals and excess nutrients and improving degraded soils, including mine spoils . Phytoremediation is a biotechnology to clean the contaminated sites of toxic elements (e.g. Cd, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Fe) via plant breeding, plant extracting, and plant volatilizing . Phytoremediation of land contaminated with inorganic and/or organic pollutants has attracted much attention and research over the last decade - . Among the various approaches comprising phytoremediation, phytoextraction of metals and metalloids is probably the most challenging task. Where soils are impacted by industrial or mining activities, the degree of pollution is usually severe, making phytoextraction unfeasible within a reasonable time frame because of the high quantity of the pollutants present in the soil. Simple mass-balance calculations show that phytoextraction is potentially feasible only in low or moderately contaminated soils. For more heavily contaminated soils, phytostabilization with tolerant plants may be used to stabilize the contaminated sites and reduce the risk of erosion and leaching of pollutants to water bodies. Hyper-accumulation of metals or metalloids is important for the phytoextraction strategy . The last few years have seen a steady expansion in the list of hyper-accumulator species, which could be valuable plant resources for phytoremediation. A word of caution however, as the hyper-accumulation ability of some reported “hyper-accumulators” have yet to be confirmed in studies using field contaminated soils. Chaney et al. discussed situations where phytoextraction may be applicable, such as paddy soils contaminated with moderate levels of cadmium (Cd) giving rise to Cd concentrations in rice grain exceeding the safe limit. An Indica-Japonica hybrid cultivar of rice was found to be an effective Cd phytoextractor, removing 7% - 14% of soil Cd; this had the effect of decreasing subsequent Cd accumulation in soybean seeds in a pot study by 24% - 46% . The efficient translocation of Cd from roots to shoots appears to be the main reason for the efficient Cd accumulation in this rice cultivar, although the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. A major QTL responsible for the root to shoot translocation of Cd has been identified in an F2 population constructed from the parental lines of rice differing in Cd accumulation in shoots by 13-fold . While the trait for high Cd accumulation in shoots is useful for phytoextraction, the opposite is true for the strategy of breeding crops low in Cd accumulation for the benefit of food safety . Many of the previous studies on phytoextraction have focused on hyper-accumulators. Small-scale field trials have shown that an ecotype of the Zn/Cd hyper-accumulator Thlaspi caerulescens from southern France was able to phytoextract Cd efficiently through the different seasons with good growth of biomass . This ecotype possesses a high-affinity Cd uptake system which is not suppressed by Zn . The Chinese brake fern Pteris vittata has a strong ability to hyper-accumulate arsenic (As) and shows promising potential for phytoextraction of and from contaminated soils under field conditions , but the plant thrives only in the humid tropic/subtropical climates. Phytoextraction using high biomass plants such as willow (Salix sp.) and poplar (Populus sp.) has also been proposed . Some Salix species are good accumulators of Cd and Zn, and up to 20% of soil Cd was removed by cropping three S. asmithiana in a lysimeter study . A large proportion of the metals are stored in leaves, so plants either have to be harvested before leaves fall or the fallen leaves are to be collected. Such biomass plants may be grown on contaminated areas not suitable for food production, allowing gradual phytoextraction of metals while the biomass may be used to generate energy by pyrolysis .
New perennial crops and tree species [e.g. switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), poplar (Populus spp.), Miscanthus, Arundo, etc.] are being developed as improved cellulosic feedstock for biofuels that will have a higher yield and energy content than was previously available . Cellulosic biofuels provide one approach for mitigating the impacts of global warming associated with fossil-fuel combustion, but concerns over appropriate implementation and environmental impacts remain . Frontier approaches should be applied to study the possible advantages of perennial biofuel crops more photosynthetically productive, entail lower input costs, and improve soil nutrient input and retention. Through alliances with the bio-energy industry, research should also adapt industrial processes to biomass sources and sources to promising processes. Biofuels should form therefore part of a global, cross-cutting agenda of agricultural research, involving partners in the farming and energy sectors.
Simply developing more productive feedstock does not necessarily lead to enhanced environmental health. Without crop rotation, further monocultures of grain maize or increased palm oil production could have net negative environmental effects in the long term, but such efforts may be a necessary transition to facilitate infrastructure development for cellulosic feedstock. There is a concern however, that energy crops might inadvertently compete for land currently allocated for food crop production, and thereby raise food prices, must be considered carefully. Breeding alternative crops needs to be undertaken in close consultation with agronomists, economists, ecologists, and the commercial sector or industry, to ensure that new cultivars have the proper traits making them both profitable and sustainable.
The increasing demand, particularly by the industrialized world, for biofuels should take into account the agro-ecosystems and its biodiversity to ensure their healthy management. The agricultural systems required for producing biofuels need to be sustainable for an efficient use of biomass, and partitioning it among energy, feed, food and CO2 fixation demands. They should be more eco-efficient for using existing farmland or marginal (dry, waterlogged, saline) tracts. Although some advocate that bio-energy can play a role for mitigating climate change by reducing greenhouse emissions, appropriate life-cycle analysis will be needed on a case by case basis to determine the use of land resources and estimate net carbon emissions of each suggested renewable energy technology. The agenda for plant breeding may include increasing plant grain and biomass productivity, optimizing the chemical and physical attributes of biofuel sources, and improving specific traits in first- and second-generation biofuel crops, within a framework of sustainable agriculture.
A major goal of harmonizing agriculture with the environment is to “tailor” crops to individual landscapes. Plant breeding has always maximized production by selecting for adaptation in the target environments of interest, using local environmental forces for plant selection . By selecting breeding germplasm growing under local environmental conditions, individual cultivars can be optimized for small regional areas of production that fit prevailing environmental and weather patterns. Likewise, plants could be tailored to provide specific ecosystem services to local environments, to address local needs. One cost-effective way to achieve this is through participatory plant breeding, which involves local farmers in the breeding process.
Alternative crop rotations, planting densities, and tillage systems may make production more environmentally benign but will require altering breeding targets and an understanding that systems biology is complex and rarely has simple solutions. For example, no-tillage systems used for soil conservation can lead to colder soils in spring and change the prevalence and onset of various soilborne diseases, thus requiring the addition of specific disease resistances in the breeding objectives . Breeders must select from conditions prevailing under new management practices to ensure cultivars will be optimally productive.
3. Impact of Transgenic Crops on Crop Biodiversity and Agro-Biodiversity
The potential impact of transgenic crops on biodiversity has been a topic of interest both in general as well as specifically in the context of the Convention on Biological Diversity. In a recent review, Carpenter took a biodiversity lens to the substantial body of literature existing on the potential impacts of genetically modified crops on the environment, considering the impacts at the crop, farm, and landscape scales. Overall, the review finds that currently commercialized transgenic crops have reduced the impacts of agriculture on biodiversity, through enhanced adoption of conservation tillage practices, reduction of insecticide use, and use of more environmentally benign herbicides. Increasing yields also alleviate pressure to convert additional land into agricultural use.
Respecting crop biodiversity is widely accepted, that greater varietal and species diversity would enable agricultural systems to maintain productivity over a wide range of conditions. With the introduction of transgenic crops, concern has been raised that crop genetic biodiversity will decrease since breeding programs will concentrate on a smaller number of high value cultivars. Three studies (two in the United States on cotton and soybean and one in India on cotton) have analyzed the impact on the introduction of transgenic crops within-crop genetic biodiversity . Studies in the United States of genetic diversity on cotton and soybean both concluded that the introduction of transgenic cultivars was found to have little or no impact on biodiversity. In contrast, the introduction of Bt cotton in India initially resulted in a reduction of on-farm varietal biodiversity due to the introduction of technology in only a small number of cultivars, which has since been offset by more Bt cultivars becoming available over time . Carpenter concluded that from a broader perspective, transgenic crops may actually increase crop biodiversity by enhancing underutilized alternative crops, making them more suitable for widespread domestication.
Respecting agro-biodiversity plants have a major influence on soil communities of micro- and other organisms fundamental to many functions of soil systems, such as nitrogen cycling, decomposition of wastes, and mobilization of nutrients. The potential impact of Bt crops on soil organisms is well studied. A comprehensive review of the available literature, by Icoz and Stotzky , on the effects of Bt crops on soil ecosystems included the results of 70 scientific articles. The review found that, in general, few or no toxic effects of Cry proteins on woodlice, collembolans, mites, earthworms, nematodes, protozoa, and the activity of various enzymes in soil have been reported. Although some effects ranging from no effect to minor and significant effects, of Bt plants on microbial communities in soil have been reported, they were mostly the result of differences in geography, temperature, plant cultivar, and soil type and, in general, were transient and not related to the presence of the Cry proteins. Studies published since the Icoz and Stotzky review have reached similar conclusions, including novel studies on snails.
In a study conducted in the northeastern part of the United States, Hoheisel and Fleischer investigated the seasonal dynamics of coccinellids and their food (aphids and pollen) in a vegetable farm system containing plantings of Bt sweet corn, Bt potato, and transgenic insect-resistant squash . The results indicated the transgenic vegetable crops provided conservation of coccinellids and resulted in a 25% reduction in insecticide use. In a similar study with these same crops, Leslie et al. compared the soil surface-dwelling communities of Coleoptera and Formicidae in the transgenic crops and their isolines and found no differences in species richness and species composition but found that the transgenic vegetables required fewer insecticide applications. Such results are clear that genetically modified technology can be introduced within vegetable integrated pest management (IPM) systems and transgenic vegetables can offer novel and effective ways of controlling insects and the pathogens they transmit .
Another main concern of transgenic crops is the unintentional spread of transgenic traits into weedy species . There are examples of transgene escape and some evidence for selective advantage of herbicide resistance picked up by weeds . The risk of herbicide resistant genes from a transgenic crop cultivar being transferred to weed relatives has been demonstrated in field crops such as canola/oilseed rape and sugar beet . Rose et al. has demonstrated that a “transgenic mitigation strategy” may impart a negative genetic load to hybrids ensuing from crosses between the weed field mustard and oilseed rape crop. The transgenic mitigation measure was a fitness-mitigating dwarfing gene beneficial for crops but deleterious for weeds (i.e., the hybrid weed is dwarfed due to this mitigation gene and is therefore outgrown by its non-trans- genic counterparts). This finding challenges the view that a transgenic plant might always endow a wild relative with a so-called fitness gene, making it harder and giving it the potential to become a “super-weed”. Furthermore, Palaudelmàs et al. found that transgenic maize volunteers had low plant vigor, rarely had cobs, and produced pollen which cross-fertilized neighbor plants only at low levels (0.16% in the worst-case scenario and was below the Regulation EC 1830/2003 establishing the adventitious threshold of 0.9% for coexistence). None- theless, transgene flow raises a new set of ecological and economic issues for scientists and policy makers to consider for transgene containment.
Crop production practices also have significant effects on the composition of weed communities. Changes in the types of weeds that are important locally are termed weed shifts. Such shifts are particularly relevant for managing weeds in herbicide tolerant crop systems in which tillage practices and herbicide use both play major roles in shaping the weed community. There are reports in literature of fourteen weed species or groups of closely related species that have increased in abundance in glyphosate resistant crops . At the same time in six states of the United States, in a survey of transgenic maize, soybean, and cotton growers, between 36% and 70% of growers indicated that weed pressure had declined after implementing rotations using glyphosate resistant crops. The use of herbicides can also result in changes to weed communities through the development of herbicide tolerant weed populations. Globally, glyphosate resistant weeds have been confirmed for 21 weeds in 15 countries . Most of these cases have been reported where glyphosate resistant crops are commonly grown. The development of weeds resistant to glyphosate will most likely require modification to weed control programs where practices, in addition to applying glyphosate, are needed to control the resistant populations.
The introduction of herbicide tolerant transgenic crops has been associated with the increased adoption of conservation tillage practices, which decreases run-off, increases water infiltration and reduces erosion. Trends in the adoption of conservation tillage have been studied in the United States and Argentina, the largest growers of herbicide tolerant transgenic crops. While conservation tillage was already being adopted by some growers prior to the introduction of genetically modified herbicide tolerant crops in both countries, studies have shown a positive two-way causal relationship between the adoption of conservation tillage and the adoption of genetically modified herbicide tolerant crops.
As stated, the most direct negative impact of agriculture on biodiversity is due to the considerable loss of natural habitats, which is caused by the conversion of natural ecosystems into agricultural land. Increases in crop yields allow less land to be dedicated to agriculture than it would otherwise be necessary. According to Carpenter a large and growing body of literature has shown that the adoption of transgenic crops has increased yields, particularly in developing countries. A review of the results of global farmer surveys made by Carpenter , found the average yield increases for developing countries range from 16% for insect-resistant corn to 30% for insect-resistant cotton, with an 85% yield increase observed in a single study on herbicide-tolerant corn. On average, developed-country farmers report yield increases ranging from no change for herbicide-tolerant cotton to a 7% increase for herbicide-tolerant soybean and insect-resistant cotton. Brookes et al. have estimated the benefit of these yield improvements by reducing conversion of land into agricultural use. They estimate that 2.64 million hectares of land would probably be brought into grain and oilseed production if biotechnology traits were no longer used.
Storer et al. stated that the most direct landscape level effects of growing Bt crops would be expected for target pest species for which the crop is a primary food source and is mobile across the landscape. Area-wide pest suppression not only reduces losses to adopters of technology, but may also benefit non-adopters and growers of other crops by reducing crop losses and/or the need to use pest control measures such as insecticides .
Several studies have investigated the impact on the introduction of Bt corn and cotton on regional outbreaks of pest populations, reporting evidence of regional pest suppression in Bt corn and cotton in various areas of the United States and in Bt cotton growing regions of China - . The effects of transgenic crops on above-ground non-target invertebrates have been the subject of a large number of laboratory and field studies. By the end of 2008, over 360 original research papers had been published on non-target effects of Bt crops . A comprehensive review of the literature by Naranjo included 135 laboratory-based studies on nine Bt crops from 17 countries and 63 field-based studies on five Bt crops from 13 countries, which were analyzed using meta-analysis techniques. In general, laboratory studies identified greater levels of hazard than field studies, at least partially explained by differences in organisms studied, and frequently higher protein exposure in lab studies compared to exposure levels in the field . Field studies demonstrated few harmful non-target effects, with non-target effects of insecticides being much greater than Bt crops . More recent literature on non-target impacts of Bt crops are largely consistent with Naranjo’s conclusions . Studies on non- target impacts of herbicide tolerant crops, such as the United Kingdom Farm Scale Evaluations (FSE), have found that the effects on various groups of arthropods followed the effects on the abundance of their resources. Where weed control was more effective, the reduction in weeds and weed seeds led to decreases in insects which live in or on weeds, and vice versa. Other studies on non-target impacts of herbicide tolerant crops, conducted for herbicide tolerant soybean and maize in the United States and herbicide tolerant canola in Canada, have reached similar conclusions. FSE results on the bird survey were in accord with differences in food availability found in the studies. Specifically, a greater abundance of granivores was found on conventional than on genetically engineered herbicide tolerant sugar beet, as well as on genetically engineered herbicide tolerant maize after application of herbicides to the genetically modified herbicide tolerant field. No differences were detected in spring oilseed rape. In the subsequent winter season, granivores were more abundant in fields where conventional sugar beet had been grown than on genetically engineered herbicide tolerant fields. Several bird species were more abundant on maize stubbles following genetically engineered herbicide tolerant treatment .
The pest management traits embodied in currently commercialized transgenic crops have led to changes in the use of pesticides which may have impacts on biodiversity. If the planting of genetically modified pest-resistant crop cultivars eliminates the need for broad-spectrum insecticidal control of primary pests, naturally occurring control agents are more likely to suppress secondary pest populations, maintaining a diversity and abundance of prey for birds, rodents, and amphibians. In addition to the studies on the non-target impacts of transgenic crops compared to conventional practices, many studies have quantified changes in pesticide use since the introduction of genetically modified crops. Reductions ranging from 14% to 75% of total active ingredients have been reported for Bt crops compared to conventional crops in Argentina, Australia, China, India, and the United States . Brookes and Barfoot indicated that transgenic crops grown by farmers were able to lower pesticide spraying by 443 kg (9.1%) of active ingredients, thereby decreasing the environmental impact associated with herbicide and insecticide use by 17.9%. These authors also emphasize that transgenic crops significantly reduced the release of greenhouse gas emissions from their cropping area, which was equivalent, in 2010, to removing 8.6 million cars from the roads. Fewer surveys have captured changes in herbicide use in genetically modified herbicide tolerant crops, perhaps because the impact of genetically modified herbicide tolerant crops has largely been a substitution between herbicides applied at different rates, and therefore, changes in the amount of herbicide used is a poor indicator of environmental impact. Several studies have been done to apply environmental indicators to observed changes in pesticide use related to the adoption of both insect resistant and herbicide tolerant crops, which all show a reduction in the environmental impact of pesticides used on transgenic crops . A life cycle assessment made by Bennet et al. showing that transgenic sugar beet tolerating herbicide would be less harmful to the environment than the conventional sugar beet crop because of the lower emissions from herbicide manufacture, transport, and field operations.
Some benefits of genetically modified crops are expected to decline over time, and potential benefits and risks may become more numerous as technology is applied to more crops . For example the plants from Bt cotton seed have been effective in controlling damage from bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera) in Chinese cotton production since 1999, reducing the need for pesticides and increasing incomes of Chinese farmers. However, field data collected in 2004 indicates that these benefits are being eroded by an increasing use of pesticides aimed at the control of secondary pests . This was confirmed in 2009 by Wang et al. , who claimed that the increased problems with secondary pests were of less importance than the decreased use of insecticides due to growing Bt cotton. In United States maize fields another pest, the rootworm has developed resistance to the toxin from Bt, as reported by the Environmental Protection Agency .
Knowledge gained over the past 15 years that genetically modified crops have been grown commercially indicates the impacts on biodiversity are positive on balance. By increasing yields, decreasing insecticide use, increasing use of more environmentally friendly herbicides, and facilitating adoption of conservation tillage, transgenic crops have contributed to increasing agricultural sustainability. Previous reviews have also reached the general conclusion that genetically modified crops have had little to no negative impact on the environment . Most recently, the United States National Research Council released a comprehensive assessment of the effect of genetically modified crop adoption on farm sustainability in the United States which concluded: “generally, genetically modified crops have had fewer adverse effects on the environment than non-genetically modified crops produced conventionally” . Thus, transgenic crops can continue to decrease pressure on biodiversity as global agricultural systems expand to feed a world population expected to continue to increase for the next 30 to 40 years.
4. Conservation and Use of Biodiversity: Opportunities for Cooperation and New Partnerships
Plant genetic resources for food and agriculture are the quintessential global public good. No nation is self-re- liant. A viable market for their conservation and trade does not exist. The conservation of plant genetic resources is a prerequisite for addressing climate change, as well as water and energy constraints, which will grow in importance in the next decades. The Svalbard Global Seed Vault is an International Treaty which establishes a multilateral System to facilitate access and benefit sharing of plant genetic resources. The Treaty has an insurance policy and provides legal framework for a cooperative and global approach to manage this essential resource. The Svalbard Global Seed Vault has a mechanism for ensuring the permanent conservation of unique crop biodiversity, the Global Crop Diversity Trust, which is structured as an endowment fund .
Plant breeding is vital to protect the yield gains made to date, and to further increase the genetic yield potential of all crops. As a result of the Green Revolution, global productivity of the main food staples steadily rose since the 1960s. Such achievements ensued from crop genetic enhancement partnerships. They are models illustrating partnering for exchange, evaluation, release and use of plant genetic resources worldwide. These partnerships include national agricultural research institutes and international agricultural research centers. For many decades the global wheat yield increased due to an effective International Wheat Improvement Network (IWIN) officially founded as an international organization in 1966 . This wheat network deployed cutting-edge science alongside practical multi-disciplinary applications, resulting in the development of genetically enhanced wheat germplasm, which has improved food security and the livelihoods of farmers in the developing world . The spring wheat germplasm bred in Mexico under the leadership of Nobel Peace Laureate Norman Borlaug was further used for launching the Green Revolution in India, Pakistan and Turkey . The network was broadened during the 1970s to include Brazil, China and other major developing country wheat producers. It resulted in wheat cultivars with broader host plant resistance (especially to rusts), better adaptation to marginal environments, and tolerance to acid soils. Nowadays IWIN, an international “alliance”, operates field evaluation trials in more than 250 locations, in roughly 100 countries it tests improved breeding lines of wheat in different environments. The number of wheat cultivars released annually in the developing world doubled to more than 100 cultivars by early 1990s due to this networking and the strengthening of national capacity . The widespread adoption of newly bred wheat cultivars, especially in South Asia and Latin America, due to yield increases, led to 50% average annual rates of investment returns . The urban poor also benefited significantly because grain harvest increases drove wheat prices down. Every year, nursery sets and trials are sent to various researchers worldwide, who share their data from these trials to catalogue and analyze. The returned data are used to identify parents for subsequent crosses and to incorporate new genetic variability into advanced wheat lines that are consequently able to cope with the dynamics of abiotic and biotic stresses affecting wheat farming systems. The full pedigree and selection histories are known and phenotypic data cover yield, agronomic, patho- logical and quality data .
The International Network for Genetic Evaluation of Rice (INGER) is one more example of world cooperation. It was established in 1975 as a consortium of national agricultural research systems of rice-growing countries and Centers of today’s CGIAR Consortium. INGER was initially founded as an International Rice Testing Program, but soon became an integral component of world national rice breeding program. INGER partners can share rice breeding lines. Every year partners provide about 1000 genetically diverse breeding lines, which have been grown in about 600 experiment stations from 80 countries. This network facilitated the release of 667 cultivars worldwide, which translated into 1.5 billion US dollars of economic benefits. It was estimated that ending INGER could lead to a reduction of 20 rice cultivars per year and to an economic loss of 1.9 billion US dollars . Further analysis by Jackson and Huggan has shown how genetic conservation of landraces can lead to significant gains in rice breeding.
Two other examples of cooperation and partnership are the Latin American Maize Project (LAMP) and the Germplasm Enhancement of Maize (GEM). The LAMP was established as a partnership between Latin America and the United States to assess national germplasm and facilitate the exchange of maize genetic resources across the American continent . The United States Department of Agriculture, the participating national agricultural research systems and a multinational seed corporation provided the funding. The aim of LAMP was to obtain information about the performance of maize germplasm and to share it with plant breeders for developing genetically enhanced open pollinated and hybrid cultivars. The maize germplasm was tested for agronomic characteristics from sea level to 3300 m, and from 41˚N to 34˚S across 32 locations in the first stage and in 64 locations (two per region) in the second stage. These locations were clustered according to five homologous areas: lowland tropics, temperate and three altitudes.
There were a total five LAMP breeding stages . In the first stage, 14,847 maize accessions belonging to a region were planted for evaluation in trials using a randomized complete block design with two replications of 10 m2 plots at a single location, which was environmentally similar to that from where these landraces were originally collected. The next step included the assessment of the upper quintile (20%) of those accessions evaluated for agronomic performance in the previous stage. These accessions were planted in two locations with two replications, and the upper 5% were further selected according to their performance. These best selected accessions of each country were interchanged among regions belonging to the same homologous area in the third stage. They were tested in two locations with two replications in each region. The selected maize accessions from the same homologous area were mated with the best tested accession of the region in an isolated field within each region. In the fourth stage, combining ability tests of 268 selected maize accessions were carried out with a local tester using two replications at two locations within each region. The elite maize germplasm was integrated into breeding programs in the fifth stage, which was the last. The best cross combinations and heterotic pools were also determined by LAMP. Maize breeders obtained access to the most promising accessions identified by LAMP to widen the crop genetic base. A LAMP core subset has been made available for encouraging further use in broadening of maize genetic diversity .
The GEM was set up to introgress useful genetic diversity from Latin American maize landraces and other tropical maize donor sources (lines and hybrids) into United States’ maize germplasm, to broaden the genetic base of the “corn-belt” hybrids . GEM owes its existence to LAMP because it has used the Latin American landrace maize accessions selected by LAMP in crosses with elite temperate maize lines from the private seed companies in North America . GEM used a pedigree breeding system to develop S3 lines. The GEM breeders arranged their crosses into non-Stiff Stalk and Stiff Stalk heterotic groups .
LAMP provided the first step through the sharing of information needed to select gene bank maize accessions for further germplasm enhancement. GEM completed the process by returning to genetically enhanced breeding materials derived from gene bank accessions. This improved germplasm can be further used in maize breeding in the United States and elsewhere. LAMP and GEM are very nice examples of international and national public-private partnerships in crop germplasm enhancement.
Agricultural plant breeding is a typical commodity- or species-oriented and solves problems within a species, rather than making breeding choices based on system wide needs. For example, maize breeders currently maximize the area in which maize can be grown, and maximize the amount of maize produced throughout that area. If environmental harmony is to be a key breeding objective, then a change in agricultural thinking to appropriately value whole cropping systems will be required. Achieving these goals will require collaboration among the private, public, and non-profit sectors, and with society as a whole. Programs within the private sector excel at breeding major, profitable crops, and have economies of scale to increase the efficiency of production and ultimately provide farmers with seed. As a valuable complement to commercial breeding programs, public and non-profit breeding programs may focus on developing alternative crops, breeding for small target regions, tackling long-term and high-risk problems, evaluating diverse genetic resources, and, importantly, conducting basic research on breeding methodology to enhance efficiency. Only publicly funded breeding programs, and in particular those based at universities, can provide the necessary education and training in plant breeding and in specialized fields such as ecology. Without trained students from public programs, private commercial breeding programs suffer from an erosion of intellectual capital. Conversely, without the private sector to commercialize public-sector-derived products, beneficial traits and new cultivars cannot easily and quickly be put in the hands of farmers, as has been seen in developing countries without a developed seed industry . As stated, seed production is high technology and a cost intensive venture and only well organized seed companies with good scientific manpower and well equipped research facilities can afford seed production.
Although due to globalization, most breeding research and cultivar development in the world is presently conducted and funded in the private sector, mainly by huge multinational seed companies. Public breeders, cultivar development activities and research are disappearing worldwide. In general, this means there are fewer decision-making centers for breeding and cultivar development. This has also resulted in the focus on relatively few major crops produced worldwide, to the detriment of all the other cultivated crops. It is imperative that national governments and policymakers, as part of a social duty, invest in breeding research and cultivar development of traditional open-pollinated cultivars and in the minor crops. More investments in this area will mean less expensive seed for growers to choose from, and an increased preservation of crop biodiversity. To accomplish these goals new approaches may be required to crop breeding research and development by both the public and private sector. Until recently, breeding research and development which targets small-scale and poor farmers has largely been undertaken by public sector institutions and national agricultural research institutes. However, the capacity to undertake the work was mainly dependent on national or international funding and expertise. The work has been limited by the capacity of these institutions to pay for it. As a result, crop breeding advancement has varied enormously among countries and even within regions in developed and still developing countries. In the area of plant breeding, the process to produce improved cultivars is slow, and it requires long-term sustained commitment that may not fit the continuing changes in the national and international politics to fund research. The application of biotechnology promises acceleration in some aspects of plant breeding, but the adoption of more advanced technology raises the cost of research significantly at a time when investment funding has diminished. Public plant breeding remains a key component of crop breeding research systems worldwide, especially in developing countries. However, the increasing presence of private sector breeding and a decrease in national and international support makes it difficult for the public sector to continue operating in the traditional manner. Declining funding for public crop breeding coupled with the rapid increase of crop production and an urbanizing population has created a difficult situation. Public sector breeding must be strengthened. More public sector crop breeders are needed worldwide to select and to produce non-hybrid cultivars of the minor crops. Breeding of major crops and other minor crops must continue as a viable endeavor. This will benefit small farmers, and will safeguard biodiversity and food security in developing countries.
While the maintenance of vigorous public sector breeding programs in areas where private companies are not interested in providing low cost cultivars is highly desirable, an additional approach to maximize crop and agricultural research input would be the development of global programs with public-private partnerships. The public sector may support portions of crop and agricultural R & D, unattractive to the private sector, and feed improved breeding lines and systems to the private sector for exploitation in regions where the private sector is active, and nurture private sector development in regions where it is lacking. In recent years, private plant breeding programs have increased in number and size. Financial investment also increased, as well as interest in intellectual property protection. The spirit of original attempts to protect plant breeders’ rights was that granting a certificate of protection should not inhibit the flow of information and products through continued research by the entire plant breeding community . In a classic sense, the patent is a defensive tool to prevent competitors from reaping benefits which rightfully belong to the inventor. In the modern context, it is an offensive weapon, to stifle competition, prevent further innovation by others and maximize income . The United States utility patent, it is a way to slow down the flow of progress in plant breeding research, unless the research is within the company holding the patent. While obviously benefiting that company, it is a big step backwards for the plant breeding community and by far, for agriculture itself. The intellectual property protection must encourage research and free flow of materials and information . Protection should be for the cultivar only. There should be no constraint against other breeders using that cultivar in further research, including further breeding. Another breeder should be free to use the protected cultivar in a cross, followed by further development through pedigree breeding. Another breeder should also be free to transfer genes controlling economic traits into the protected cultivar by the backcross method or by genetic transformation procedures .
5. Conclusions
The growing demand for food in the next decades poses major challenges to humanity. We have to safeguard both biodiversity and arable land for future agricultural food production, and we need to protect genetic biodiversity to safeguard ecosystem resilience. We must produce more food with less input, while deploying every effort to minimize risk. Agricultural sustainability is no longer an option, it is mandatory!
Plant breeding is the science of improving plants to further improve the human condition. Plant breeding has played a vital role in the successful development of modern agriculture via “new” cultivars. Plant breeders are continually improving the ability of cultivars to withstand various environmental conditions. By reducing the impact of agriculture on the environment while maintaining sufficient production will require the development of new cultivars.
Climate change is altering the availability of resources and the conditions crucial to plant performance. Plants respond to these changes through environmentally induced shift in phenotype. Understanding these responses is essential to predict and manage the effects of climate change on crop plants.
In the foreseeable future and an increase in population will need significant production. Breeding and modern agricultural technologies can increase yield on existing agricultural land. As a result, they can make a significant contribution to biodiversity conservation by limiting the need to expand agricultural land and by allowing nature to be maintained for conservation purposes and harmony between agriculture and the environment.
There is still an on-going debate among researchers and in the media on the best strategy to keep pace with global population growth and increasing food demand. One strategy favors the use of transgenic crops, while another strategy focuses on agricultural biodiversity. There are short research funds for agro-biodiversity solutions in comparison with funding for research in genetic modification of crops. Favoring biodiversity does not exclude any future biotechnological contributions, but favoring biotechnology threatens future biodiversity resources. The future breeding programs should encompass not only knowledge of existing practices but also conservation of a wide pool of genetic resources of existing crops and breeds, including their wild relatives, to provide the genes necessary to cope with changes in agricultural production. Therefore, agro-biodiversity should be a central element of future sustainable agricultural development, instead of just a source of traits which can be used in current breeding programs. The concept of sustainability rests on the principle that the present needs must be addressed without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Sustainable agriculture is an alternative to solve future fundamental and applied issues related to food production in an ecological way.
Farmers in developing countries, especially small farmers, have problems specific to their cultural, economic and environmental conditions, such as limited purchasing power to access improved cultivars and proprietary technologies. These farmers have an important role in conserving and using crop biodiversity. The future of the world food security depends on stored crop genes as well as on farmers who use and maintain crop genetic diversity on a daily basis. In the long run, the conservation of plant genetic diversity depends not only on a small number of institutional plant breeders and seed banks, but also on the vast number of farmers who select, improve, and use crop diversity, especially in marginal farming environments. Their extensive farming systems using landraces or open-pollinated cultivars increase sustainability and less impact from stresses caused by drought, insect and diseases, due to long-term in situ selection of these crops cultivated as opposed to the fertilizer, herbicide, and pesticide demands in an intensive crop based system with improved, hybrid, or transgenic cultivars. That is why we should also be alerted and particularly alarmed by the current trend to exclusively use improved, hybrid, and transgenic crop cultivars. Farmers do not just save seeds; they are plant breeders who constantly adapt their crops to specific farming conditions and needs. This genetic biodiversity is the key to maintain and improve the world’s food security, and agriculture sustainability.
The introduction of genetically modified technology has been hailed as a gene revolution similar to the “Green Revolution” of the 1960s. The “Green Revolution” had an explicit strategy for technology development and diffusion, targeting farmers in developing countries, in which improved germplasm was made freely available as a public good, a particular success in Asia. In contrast to the “Green Revolution”, the push for genetically modified crops is based largely on private agricultural research, with cultivars provided to farmers on market terms. To date efforts on genetically modified crops have been focused on crops considered to be profitable enough by large plant breeding companies, not on solutions to problems confronted by the world’s small farmers. Existing biodiversity in combination with plant breeding has much more to offer the many world’s farmers and consumers, while genetically modified crops have more to offer the agro-industry and some large- scale farms, and this explains why they have received so much attention and research funding. Genetically modified crops and their creation may attract investment in agriculture, but it can also concentrate ownership of agricultural resources. In developing countries, patents may drive up costs; restrict experimentation by the public researcher or individual farmer, while undermining local practices that enhance food security and economic sustainability. There is particular concern that present intellectual property rights instruments, including genetically modified organisms, will inhibit sowing of own seeds, seed exchange, and sale.
Transgenic crops can continue to decrease pressure on biodiversity as global agricultural systems expand to feed a world population expected to continue to increase for the next 30 to 40 years. Due to higher income elasticity of demand and population growth, these pressures will be greater in developing countries. Both current and pipeline technology hold great potential in this regard. The potential of currently commercialized genetically modified crops to increase yields, decrease pesticide use, and facilitate the adoption of conservation tillage has yet to be realized, as there continue to be countries where there is a good technological fit, but they have not yet approved these technologies for commercialization. In addition to the potential benefits on expanded adoption of current technology, several pipeline technologies offer additional promises of alleviating the impacts of agriculture on biodiversity. Continued yield improvements in crops such as rice and wheat are expected with insect resistant and herbicide tolerant traits that are already commercialized in other crops. Technologies such as drought tolerance and salinity tolerance would alleviate the pressure to convert high biodiversity areas into agricultural use by enabling crop production on sub-optimal soils. Drought tolerance technology, which allows crops to withstand prolonged periods of low soil moisture, is anticipated to be commercialized within less than five years. This technology has particular relevance for areas like sub-Saharan Africa, where drought is a common occurrence and access to irrigation is limited. Salt tolerance addresses the increasing problem of saltwater encroachment on freshwater resources. Nitrogen use efficient technology is also under development, which can reduce run-off of nitrogen fertilizer into surface waters. Technology promises to decrease the use of fertilizers while maintaining yields, or increase yields achievable with reduced fertilizer rates where access to fertilizer input is limited. This technology is slated to be commercialized within the next 10 years.
One of the major arguments for genetic modified technology is that new cultivars can be developed more quickly than in traditional plant breeding, but like new cultivars derived from conventional breeding methods, transgenic cultivars require several years of field trials to ensure that the inserted traits will actually become expressed and have the desired effects in local environments. When genes coding for certain traits are transferred, typically from one plant species to another, the desired traits are not always expressed unless the environment interacts with the genes in the anticipated way triggering the desired response, which depends on the regulating sequences inserted with the gene. This means that new transgenic cultivars, developed under laboratory conditions in a controlled climate, have to be tested under field conditions, as in more traditional breeding methods, so currently there is little difference in the speed with which either method will result in the release of new cultivars.
The knowledge gained from basic plant research will underpin future crop improvements, but effective mechanisms for the rapid and effective translation of research discoveries into public good agriculture remain to be developed. Maximum benefit will be derived if robust plant breeding and crop management programs have ready access to all the modern crop biotechnological techniques, both transgenic and non-transgenic, to address food security issues. This will require additional investments in capacity building for research and development, in developing countries. Technology implementation alone is not sufficient to address such complex questions as food security. Biotechnologies will make new options available but are not a global solution. We must ensure that society will continue to benefit from the vital contribution that plant breeding offers, using both conventional and biotechnological tools. Genetic engineering has the potential to address some of the most challenging biotic constraints faced by farmers, which are not easily addressed through conventional plant breeding alone. Besides other promising traits seems to be host plant resistance to insects and pathogens. However, transgenic cultivars will have one or a few exogenous genes whereas the background genotype will still be the product of non-transgenic (or conventional) crop breeding. One should follow a pragmatic approach when deciding whether to engage in transgenic plant breeding. Biotechnology products will be successful if clear advantages and safety are demonstrated to both farmers and consumers.
There is a need of investment in research breeding and cultivar development in traditionally open-pollinated cultivars and in the minor crops. More investments in this area will mean cheaper cultivars for growers to choose from and more preservation of crop biodiversity. In recent years, private plant breeding programs have increased in number and size. Financial investment also increased, as well as interest in intellectual property protection. Protective measures, especially patenting, must be moderated to eliminate coverage so broad that it stifles innovation. The intellectual property protection laws for plants must be made less restrictive to encourage research and free flow of materials and information. Public sector breeding must remain vigorous, especially in areas where the private sector does not function. This will often require benevolent public/private partnerships as well as government support. Intellectual property rights laws for plants must be made less restrictive to encourage freer flow of materials. Active and positive connections between the private and public breeding sectors and large-scale gene banks are required to avoid a possible conflict involving breeders’ rights, gene preservation and erosion. Partnerships between policy makers with public and private plant breeders will be essential to address future challenges. Many current breeding efforts remain under-funded and disorganized. There is a great need for a more focused, coordinated approach to efficiently utilize funding, share expertise, and continue progress in technologies and programs.
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Cultivation constraints, breeding intervention approaches, and possible solutions for some underutilized legumes.
Abstract
Sustainable agricultural productivity is hampered by over-dependency on major staple crops, neglect and underutilization of others, climate change, as well as land deterioration. Challenges posed by these limiting factors are undoubtedly contributing to global food insecurity, increased rural poverty, and malnutrition in the less developed countries. Miscellaneous neglected and underutilized grain legumes (MNUGLs) are crops primarily characterized by inherent features and capabilities to withstand the effects of abiotic stress and climate change, significantly replenish the soil, as well as boost food and protein security. This chapter provides insight into the benefits of MNUGLs as food and nutritional security climate smart crops, capable of growing on marginal lands. Exploring and improving MNUGLs depend on a number of factors among which are concerted research efforts, cultivation and production, as well as utilization awareness across global populace geared toward reawakening the interest on the abandoned legumes. The emergence of the clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR/cas9) technology combined with marker-assisted selection (MAS) offers great opportunities to improve MNUGLs for sustainable utilization. Advances in improvement of MNUGLs using omic technologies and the prospects for their genetic modification were highlighted and discussed.
Keywords
- climate change
- CRISPR/cas9
- food security
- marker-assisted selection (MAS)
- omic technologies
- underutilized grain legumes
1. Introduction
The world is confronted with the challenges of climate change, terrorism, and poverty, among other factors, which hinder food production, food availability, as well as food and nutritional security. Globally, food insecurity and low supply in many areas are threatening the human population and survival in the areas where terrorism and transborder and internal displacement of persons are entrenched in many parts of the world. Food as an important commodity for survival is under threat, and if survival strategies are not devised, the catastrophe will be overbearing. A number of crop species are becoming extinct from our agricultural and forest fields, while some others are declining both in cultivation and utilization. A review of global food security indicates re-strategizing crop genetic improvement and production agronomy toward grain legumes to identify climate-resilient species and varieties with enhanced grain features [1, 2]. This is highly desirable considering the significant roles that grain legumes play in the food cultures around the world as veritable sources of quality protein, natural medicine, animal fodder, natural fertilizers, and environmental restoration products, alongside the well-established soil enrichment property of symbiosis with nitrogen-fixing bacteria .
In order to meet the global food demands, focus should be on promoting the cultivation and utilization of other crops which have been neglected and underexploited but have the potential to enhance food and nutrition security especially in the developing countries of sub-Saharan Africa. With the recent negative impact of climate change being experienced globally, Africa is the most affected as a region that depends on rain-fed agriculture. The effect of increased drought on agricultural crops has led to yield reductions at harvest, death of livestock, and loss of income and jobs in some parts of Africa especially in Somalia, Kenya, and Ethiopia. This has drastically increased the level of malnutrition and food insecurity. Most of the staple crops are unable to withstand the harsh environmental changes currently taking place. Nevertheless, miscellaneous neglected and underutilized grain legumes (MNUGLs) are more advantageous over the conventional staple crops. These MNUGLs are often linked to the cultural heritage of their places of origin, well adapted to precise agroecological areas, harsh environments, and marginal lands. They also perform well in traditional production systems with little or no external inputs [4, 5, 6].
The chapter will cover some selected minor grain legumes with huge potentials to boost protein security in period of hunger and malnutrition in the sub-Saharan Africa and elsewhere. The species are known by many appellations such as miscellaneous, neglected, underutilized, underexploited, and under-researched, among others. These MNUGLs could be further improved using recent advancements in omic technologies for better acceptance and utilization as well as for improved food security.
2. What are miscellaneous, neglected and underutilized grain legumes (MNUGLs?)
Globally, neglected and underutilized species (NUS) are often identified based on their local usefulness, localized domestication, adaptation coupled with general abandonment by mainstream agricultural researchers, extension services, plant breeders, donors, technology providers, policy- and decision-makers, as well as consumers [2, 6]. NUS are classically identified based on certain criteria which include the following:
Local importance in consumption and production systems
Adaptation to agroecological niches/marginal areas
Representation by ecotypes/landraces
Cultivation and utilization based only on indigenous knowledge
Rare representation in ex situ collections
Uncoordinated attention from national agricultural and biodiversity conservation policies, research, and development
Neglect by mainstream market system
In reality and broad consideration, a large percentage of such NUS are underutilized legume crops. As such these legume species are classified as minor grain legumes, though consumed as food and forage crops in many parts of the world. Thus, we can refer to this category of legume crops as MNUGLs. On global distribution, these species are endemic to the tropical regions of the world. Several reports and findings have established that MNUGLs are drought-tolerant, endure and thrive under harsh environments, highly adaptable to varying ecogeographical settings, and withstand or mitigate conditions such as heat, drought, diseases, frost, cold, and insect pest attack [1, 5, 7]. These qualities could be scientifically explored for crop improvement and sustainable utilization. Apart from these good qualities, MNUGLs also contain high-quality proteins and micronutrients which are comparable to those found in conventional legumes. They are also indispensable in crop rotation strategies to fertilize agricultural soils.
3. General background information: grain legumes
Grain legumes belong to the family Fabaceae of the Angiospermae and are considered rich in high-quality proteins with significant impacts on the nutrition, diet, and health of many people across the world. The family Fabaceae is divided into grain legumes and pasture/forage legumes. The grain legumes are grown mainly as pulses providing food for humans, while pasture legumes are cultivated to feed domestic animals. Based on plant utility and economy, legumes are categorized into major and minor species. Major legumes are popular and common with well-established domestication and cultivation, agronomic practices, utilization, and conservation. Examples include soybean (Glycine max L.), cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.), groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.), common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), pea (Pisum sativum L.), and chicken pea (Cicer arietinum L.), among others. Minor legumes are less known, less exploited, neglected, and considered underutilized. Several species in this category include winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus L.), pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan L.), lablab (Lablab purpureus L.), lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus L.), jack and sword bean (Canavalia sp.), mung bean (Vigna mungo L.), bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea L.), marama bean (Tylosema esculentum L.), kersting’s groundnut (Kerstingiella geocarpa Harms), African yam bean (AYB) (Sphenostylis stenocarpa Harms), and rice bean (Vigna angularies L.). The wild species of the minor grain legumes include kersting’s groundnut (Kerstingiella geocarpa Harms), marama bean (Tylosema esculentum), and the wild Vigna species such as V. ambacensis, V. vexillata, V. luteola, V. oblongifolia, and V. racemosa, among others. These species are found in many African countries and could be exploited for food, medicine, agriculture (as cover crops and fodder), and more importantly for genetic improvement of cowpea and related species [8, 9].
A review of literatures indicated that most of the MNUGLs have been relegated to unimportant underutilized crops grown by the older generation of farmers [5, 10]. Thus, sizeable and valuable genetic resources housed within MNUGLs would have been lost due to neglect and lack of concerted focused research. Several authors have highlighted the usefulness of MNUGLs as food security in lean times as farmers in rural areas make a living on the species [11, 12]. Presently, there is no available genome sequence of MNUGLs species which could be utilized for successful breeding and for specific purposes.
3.1 Brief description on some selected MNUGLs
3.1.1 African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa Ex. A. Rich Harms)
The African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa) with somatic chromosome number 2n = 22 is a dicotyledonous species . AYB is an important food crop in tropical Africa with great medicinal values and pesticidal potential . AYB contains approximately 29 and 19% crude protein in its grain and tuber, respectively, though lower than that of soybean (38%) . The seeds are edible like the common beans and cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), and the tubers are richer in protein than Irish potatoes and 10 times the amount in cassava tubers [16, 17]. The whole seed is also rich in potassium (649.49 mg/100 g) and phosphorus (241.21 mg/100 g) . The most prominent minerals in AYB whole seeds were reported as magnesium (454.16 mg/100 g), potassium (398.25 mg/100 g), and phosphorous (204.86 mg/100 g) with appreciable amounts of calcium (37.44 mg/100 g) and iron (11.70 mg/100 g) . Similarly, Ojuederie and Balogun confirmed the average proximate parameters of AYB seeds to include protein (22.40%), fat (1.90%), total carbohydrate (56.40%), total ash (3.60%), and moisture (11.80%) with a caloric value of 1396.10 Kjg−1. Some of the accessions evaluated in their study had up to 25% protein (TSs 41, TSs150, and TSs152). An inverse relationship was detected between the concentrations of protein and carbohydrate. Higher carbohydrate content of 62.50% was obtained in accession TSs153, with a protein content of 19.30% . The pods and seeds are resistant to major pests of cowpea such as cowpea pod borer (Maruca vitrata) and cowpea weevil (Callosobruchus maculatus) [19, 20]. This resistance was attributed to the lectin present in the seeds as confirmed in the study of Ojuederie who reported high levels of lectin in the seeds of AYB especially for accessions TSs68 (73.34 Lu mg−1) and TSs5 (66.87 Lu mg−1). Valuable diversities that can be explored for diverse utilization purposes have also been reported in AYB [9, 22, 23].
3.1.2 Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea)
Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) is less used in many parts of Africa, yet its nutritional and health benefits are well established . It is the fourth crop among the grain legume crops after the well-known groundnut, cowpea, and soybean. In recent times, there has been renewed interest for cultivation of V. subterranea in the arid savannah zones to mitigate the effect of stress and increase protein supply to people of that region . Bambara groundnut is resistant to drought, withstands stress, contains higher nutrients than other legumes, and is known to produce good yield even when grown on poor soils . The protein composition contains 6–43% globulin, 14–71% albumin, 1.6–2.2% prolamins, and 3.3–5.2% glutelins . Bambara groundnut gets about 51–67% of their N nutrition from symbiotic fixation; hence the crop could serve as high-protein forage for livestock [24, 26].
3.1.3 Winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus)
Psophocarpus tetragonolobus popularly known as winged bean with somatic chromosome number of 2n = 18 is one of the old legumes . Winged bean is a multipurpose legume plant with all parts being edible and useful as medicine in tropics of Asia, Africa, and Latin America. It is grown in many parts of the humid tropics, including Central and South America, the Caribbean, Africa, Oceania, and Asia . All parts of the plant are considered rich in vitamins, minerals, protein, and secondary metabolites such as phenolic and flavonoids . Leaves are usually eaten like spinach, flowers are used in salads, tubers are eaten raw or cooked, while seeds are consumed when cooked . In addition, winged bean is highly resistant to biotic and abiotic stresses and thus capable of growing under varying environmental conditions. It is now a toast of many scientists trying to explore its rich potentials [28, 30]. The seeds of winged bean also exhibit tolerance to storage pests . Apart from its seeds, the tubers/roots are also nutritious and rich in protein of about 20%, while the leaves and flowers are also high in protein (10–15%) .
3.1.4 Lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus L.)
Lima bean is grown for its edible seeds and as leafy vegetable in the Caribbean, Peru, Mexico, and Asian regions [33, 34]. Rich in protein, lima beans are resistant to viral and rust diseases and withstand insect pests, drought, and abiotic stress . The species also tolerates different levels of aluminum and manganese toxicity which can be exploited to advance the sustainable utilization of other legumes .
3.1.5 Hyacinth bean (Lablab purpureus L.)
Hyacinth bean (Lablab purpureus L.) is cultivated for its edible seeds and pods. It is mainly grown in Africa and Asia as source of food in the form of vegetable, green pods, and seeds . Several field trials suggested that the species is drought tolerant and water efficient and produces high yield [37, 38]. The protein content is comparable to that of soybean. Reports also indicate that L. purpureus has potential to be a source of pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical as medicine and traditional medicine in Asia and Africa .
3.1.6 Jack bean (Canavalia ensiformis L.)
Canavalia ensiformis known as jack bean is the most economically important species in the genus Canavalia, with enormous potentials to serve as food for both humans and livestock . It is widely distributed in Africa, Asia, and America, with large-scale cultivation reported in Congo and Angola . It is rich in protein and thrives well in poor and acidic soils. Jack bean is mainly grown for its nutritious pods, seeds, and as fodder. It is a forage crop with high green manure capacity to enrich the soils and also to control soil erosion. The crop tolerates adverse environment, drought, heat, and leached soils; also it resists pest attacks . The leaf of jack bean contains crude proteins and fiber comparable to other legumes [15, 39, 40]. Jack bean possesses deep root system which enables the plant to penetrate deeply into the soil which enables it to withstand very dry conditions. Raw jack bean contains toxic compounds such as tannin, phytate, saponins, canavanine, concanavalin A (hemagglutinin), and trypsin inhibitors .
3.1.7 Sword bean (Canavalia gladiata L.)
Sword bean (Canavalia gladiata L.) is another species in the genus Canavalia of the Fabaceae family with rich potentials likely to be adopted as an important source of food, leafy vegetable, medicine, forage, and as cover crop. It is a vigorous perennial climber plant usually cultivated as an annual. Reports indicated that sword bean originated from the Asian continent and is now known in the tropics as an introduced species. The red sword bean is one of the edible beans of China reportedly rich in antioxidant polyphenols with great medicinal uses [41, 42]. Furthermore, the seed coat of the bean is rich in gallic acid and its derivatives, mainly gallotannins, a common trait found in legume polyphenols . The chemical composition of seeds of sword bean has been reported and compares quite well with soybean [43, 44, 45]. Average yield ranges from 720 to 1500 kg/ha which can be compared with soybean yield of 600–1000 kg/ha [43, 46]. The fruits mature in 6–10 months after planting. The sword bean is relatively resistant to attack from pests and diseases .
3.1.8 Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan L. Millsp)
Cajanus cajan, commonly known as pigeon pea, is an erect, perennial shrub, or woody plant widely grown in the tropical regions . Pigeon pea is mainly cultivated for its edible seed grains as well as feed, forage, and fuel. It has a diploid genome with somatic chromosome number of 2n = 22 . Most farmers depend on C. cajan as alternative source of protein to support workers and families during lean times . The plant grows well in areas with low rainfall and varying climatic conditions. It is a drought-tolerant crop capable of withstanding poor soil and abiotic stress . Diversity exists in seed coat color, size, texture, and taste. The leaves are source of medicine in combination with other plants such as mango and lemon to treat malaria and typhoid fever. The dried woody stem is used as firewood for cooking by women in farms. Its seed protein content is high (20–22%) and is quite rich in vitamins such as vitamin B and minerals which can promote health .
3.1.9 Kersting’s groundnut (Kerstingiella geocarpa Harms)
Kersting’s groundnut is an indigenous legume grown in Africa for its edible seeds. It is considered rich in nutritional proteins and minerals. Its protein content of 12.9% is higher than that of bambara groundnut (12.1%) and cowpea (7.1%), while the total amino acid content of the seed is 42% . It is a likely alternative source of quality protein for feed and food in the tropics [50, 51]. The crop can withstand drought, pest, and diseases. It adapts to varying ecological conditions of tropical Africa. However, only the elderly farmers cultivate this crop as alternative source of protein, and as such it has been neglected and underutilized in several African countries.
3.2 Research efforts and constraints to the global cultivation and adoption of MNUGLs
MNUGLs are increasingly becoming rare across the world with their associated valuable genetic resources disappearing rapidly in all their natural ranges. Therefore, there is the need for a paradigm shift from present scenario of neglect to sustainable cultivation, exploitation, and utilization of the species. In recent years, grain legume stakeholders had advocated for an increased global cultivation and production of MNUGLs toward sustainable solution to food and protein security, plus agricultural and environmental restoration [1, 52]. Similarly, significant efforts are ongoing to increase genomic resources and apply innovative breeding techniques to improve the nutritional quality and yield of legume crops, alongside enhanced resilience to climate change [1, 53]. MNUGLs are highly adapted to agroecological niches/marginal areas having capacity to contribute considerably to global protein security and productive agricultural practices and alleviate rural poverty, among others. The potential genetic resources available among and within the MNUGLs have not been properly explored to advance sustainable utilization for future food and nutritional security as well as biodiversity maintenance to alleviate the negative effects of climate change and abiotic stress. Likewise, the possibilities of the species to withstand abiotic stress even in the face of biological limiting factors are important to their continued use and survival. In order to prevent total genetic erosion/loss of valuable genetic resources and exploit MNUGLs for present and future food, nutrition, and protein security, a holistic approach needs to be adopted to improve the species.
Constraints limiting the sustainable cultivation and utilization of MNUGLs include long cooking time of seeds, growth habit requiring mandatory staking, intensive labor requirements, and lack of staking materials [22, 54, 55]. Others are low product market demand, poor seed quality, high cost of labor, postharvest diseases, and anti-nutritional factors (ANF) . The constraints to cultivation and utilization of MNUGLs, breeding intervention approaches, and possible solutions are presented in Table 1.
|Species||Common name||Constraints||Breeding intervention approaches||Possible solutions||References|
|Sphenostylis stenocarpa||African yam bean (AYB)||Long cooking time of seeds, growth habit requiring mandatory staking, low product market demand, poor seed quality, high cost of labor, postharvest diseases, pod shattering, and anti-nutritional factors (ANF)||Traditional breeding approach, assessment of genetic diversity of landraces using molecular markers (AFLP, SSR), and|
marker-assisted selection. No successful breeding lines so far
|Tissue culture, micropropagation, morphological evaluation of AYB for desirable agronomic traits and for breeding purposes. Whole genome sequencing and the use of gene editing tools to improve the species genetically on the observed constraints||[9, 12, 21, 56, 57, 58]|
|Vigna subterranea||Bambara groundnut||Labor intensive, low seed supply to farmers, pest attack, low yield, long cooking time, anti-nutritional factors, and difficulty in dehulling||Assessment of genetic diversity of landraces using SSR marker||Mutation breeding for genetic enhancement of protein and methionine contents, effective processing methods, mapping and QTL analysis of phenotypic traits in F2 and F3 derived genotypes, whole genome sequencing, and the use of gene editing tools to improve the species genetically on the observed constraints||[32, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64]|
|Psophocarpus tetragonolobus||Winged bean||Indeterminate growth habit, high cost of labor, ANF, pod shattering, late maturing, low yield, and scandent habit||Use of molecular genetic tools to support genetic improvement, gene-based SSR markers, mutation breeding to obtain varieties with erect stem, multiple branches, bushy habit, and long pods||Transcriptome sequencing for gene discovery and marker development. Comparative genomic analyses coupled with NGS sequencing, identification of functional SNPs associated with agronomically important traits, and|
the use of gene editing tools to improve the species
|[32, 65, 66, 67]|
|Phaseolus lunatus||Lima bean||Pest and disease attacks, market constraints, growth habit requiring mandatory staking||Transcriptome sequencing to identify and select putative parents/hybrid for genetic improvement||Transcriptome sequencing for gene discovery and development of marker, early maturing, dwarf, erect, high yielding, and non-shattering varieties with reduced anti-nutritional factors|||
|Lablab purpureus||Dolichos/hyacinth bean||Pest and disease attacks||Molecular characterization using SSR markers for classifying dolichos bean based on photoperiod sensitivity||Development of expressed sequence tags (ESTs) and transferability of SSR markers from other legumes for diversity evaluation, applications of metabolomics, proteomics and next-generation sequencing technologies to discover candidate markers for the development of agronomically improved varieties||[69, 70, 71, 72, 73]|
|Canavalia ensiformis||Jack bean||Long cooking period, intensive labor requirements, low economic gain, and anti-nutritional factors||Little or no breeding intervention approaches||Breeding for host plant resistance and general genetic improvement||[74, 75]|
|Canavalia gladiata||Sword bean||Hard seed coat, insect pest attack, anti-nutritional factors||Little or no breeding intervention approaches||Breeding for host plant resistance and general genetic improvement||[74, 75]|
|Cajanus cajan||Pigeon pea||Tall, shrubby, and woody habit, insect pest attack, long cooking period, and intensive labor requirement||Genetic diversities evaluated using AFLP, DarT, SSR, and SNPs, development of new hypervariable SSR markers, ESTs characterized, and transcriptome sequencing to characterize putative hybrids||More development of genomic resources, transcript profiling in combination with genome editing tools to identify expression quantitative loci (eQTLs), and general genetic improvement of the species||[76, 77, 78]|
|Kerstingiella geocarpa||Kersting’s groundnut||Postharvest pest attack||Little or no breeding intervention approaches||Breeding for host plant resistance and general genetic improvement|
|Phaseolus vulgaris||Common bean||Pest and disease attacks, rarity of improved germplasm, poor marketing value, low yield, and susceptibility to harsh climatic conditions||Breeding, screening, evaluation, and comparison of the genetic potentials of hybrids for improved grain yield using best and suitable methods on segregating populations||Development of drought-tolerant varieties and water use efficiency, breeding for improved cooking time, and the use of genotyping by sequencing for rapid identification of large number of SNPs for trait mapping||[79, 80, 81]|
3.3 Genetic potentials of MNUGLs
In recent times, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations estimated that around 800 million people particularly in the developing countries suffer from food and nutrition insecurity . The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the 2030 Agenda adopted by the United Nations in September 2015 (
Though huge genetic potentials exist among and within MNUGLs, genetic erosion or loss of valuable genetic resources is alarming. The discovery and utilization of untapped potential genetic resources within the minor crop gene pool deserve research attention. Concerted research efforts are therefore needed to prevent the continuous loss of genetic resources among the MNUGLs. Recent reports indicate that development of effective phenotyping and breeding approaches constitute a challenge among the MNUGLs . Modern breeding efforts to improve disease resistance, quality, and yield are also constrained by low level of genetic diversity available to breeding programs [1, 52]. Though fairly large genetic diversity exists in seeds of grain legumes in gene banks, such diversities have not been fully utilized in active breeding programs [1, 85, 86]. Large quantities of these minor grain legumes are reportedly available in Africa which if properly harnessed could mitigate the effect of malnutrition and poverty in sub-Saharan Africa. The diversity existing among the seeds of the species are worthy of research attention for food, agriculture, and medicine (Figure 1).
3.4 Genetic improvement and prospects of MNUGL
Genetic and breeding efforts to improve the underutilized and neglected legume crops in architecture, period of maturation, yield, and nutritional contents have not recorded commiserate level of success as expected [88, 89]. Traditional hybridization and other breeding techniques, though have been used for some desired intentions, are yet to translate to desired results. Few successful crosses have been recorded so far on MNUGLs. Few successes have been reported on Cajanus cajan and some species [90, 91]. Reproductive barriers such as embryo abortion have been reported in many MNUGLs as limiting factors to genetic enhancement/improvement. However, tissue culture and micropropagation could be further employed to overcome such barriers with capacity to generate fertile haploid plants [5, 6].
Advancement in DNA technology has enhanced our understanding on the huge potentials available in the genome of many plant species and particularly the underutilized legumes. Several genomic breakthroughs involving genetic engineering of cereal crops have been reported [92, 93]. DNA-based methods are reliable and have been employed to identify, trace, and certify plant genealogies, origins, and phylogenetic relationships [94, 95]. DNA barcoding has been applied to identify and characterize some underutilized and neglected legumes such as Lablab purpureus, Tylosema esculentum, Vigna subterranea, V. vexillata, and Vigna unguiculata [96, 97].
The use of molecular markers for marker-assisted selection (MAS) or breeding programs has played significant roles in the assessment of the level of genetic diversity or relatedness among various species of underutilized legumes [9, 98]. Globally, different DNA techniques such as random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD), amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs), inter simple sequence repeats (ISSR), single feature polymorphisms (SFP), single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP), and chloroplast gene RBCL, among others, have been employed to evaluate the genetic relationships and diversities among neglected underutilized species [85, 99, 100]. RAPD and ISSR markers were used for genetic diversity studies in winged bean by Mohanty et al. . The study linked the physiological and phytochemical parameters to the genotypes investigated. Distinct winged bean novel lines were identified, and the information from analysis of photosynthesis rate, photosynthetic yield, and stomatal conductance data revealed two clusters in correspondence with the phytochemical affinities of the genotypes. The use of SSR, SNP, and genotype by sequencing (GBS) for the studies of phylogenetic relationships and genetic diversities among the MNUGLs is rare due to lack of sequence information; hence RAPD and AFLP were used for such species, and attempts were made in transferability of specific SSR markers in cowpea for genetic diversity studies in underutilized legumes by other authors as in the case of African yam bean .
Globally, complexity of plant genomes had led to advancement in genome sequencing, determination of polyploidy, genome size, repetitive DNA sequences, and transposable elements toward genetic engineering of plants to generate useful products apart from innate uses [102, 103]. Transposable elements (TEs) are ubiquitous in flowering plant genomes of which higher percentage of such genomes are occupied by TEs . Studies have shown that TEs via their amplification, methylation, and recombination contribute to the restructuring of plant genomes, epigenomes, centromeric regions, and evolution of new genes for novel genetic functions [99, 105, 106]. Identification of TEs in a species is critically significant to the understanding of their functional roles . Therefore, detail description of TEs is a major procedure to precisely identify specific genes and evaluate association between genes and TEs in a complex sequenced genome . Such studies have not been applied on MNUGLs to understand the role of transposons in long duration of seed cooking of most of the MNUGLs and expressivity of secondary nutritional metabolites. We believe that such studies will have an overall influence on the genetic manipulation of the MNUGLs, understanding of potential gene-TE interaction, identification of active TEs for functional genomics, and development of TE-based molecular markers for genotyping studies. Currently, sophisticated sequencing genomic approaches such as de novo transcriptome sequencing are being utilized to identify and describe key genes responsible for varied economic, nutritional, physiological, and pharmaceutical uses of plant species [30, 88, 108, 109]. Transcriptome sequence analysis is one of the molecular tools that can also be applied to MNUGLs for improvement purposes. It is hoped that some of these tools will be employed in due course, not only to analyze genetic diversity among the MNUGLs but also to identify key genes that will be potentially useful for breeding and utilization purposes. Genes that are useful for varied needs could be identified, described, and extracted from the MNUGLs, thus ensuring the sustainable utilization of the species. Proteomics and genomics are increasingly being applied to unravel a number of genetic constraints and proffer robust solutions toward their sustainable production and utilization [24, 110]. These areas combined with metabolomics offers great possibility in the quest for improvement of MNUGLs. Consequently, the application of molecular breeding tools such as marker-assisted selection, genomic selection (GS), and genome-wide association (GWAS) has been appraised to influence scientific efforts for improving grain yield of orphan crops in the developing countries [111, 112]. These of course, including next-generation sequencing (NGS), have greatly enhanced the improvement of many commercial crops which the MNUGLs can also benefit from.
Recent advancement in omic technologies such as genomics, proteomics, transcriptomics, and metabolomics has equally enhanced our understanding of the genetic structure of plant species, as well as the expression of genes through transcriptomic/proteomic profiling and their role in the overall metabolism of plants [32, 113]. Recently Vatanparast et al. used transcriptome sequencing to develop SSR and SNP markers for winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus) and also gave insights into the divergence of the Kunitz-type trypsin inhibitors, which are essential anti-nutritional factors in winged bean and other legumes. Transcriptome sequencing is inexpensive and a reliable method for efficient and rapid identification of molecular markers in underutilized plant species . Future prospects also lie in the adoption of high-throughput tools including gene editing, GWAS, and clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR), among others, toward genetic improvement of the species for sustainable cultivation, production, and utilization.
4. Conclusions
Significant improvement and scientific breakthroughs have been reported on many crop species based on molecular characterization, linkage genetic maps, MAS, and genomics, which cannot be said of MNUGLs [114, 115]. MAS in combination with the traditional hybridization techniques provides clear-cut potential to enhance the overall improvement of plant species. The areas of genomics and proteomics are rapidly expanding in the field of food and agriculture, medicine, and environment. Though few genomic studies have been conducted on some MNUGLs, proteomics and metabolomics have not been employed to explore the rich potentials available in MNUGLs. Generally, these sets of grain legumes have not been subjected to biotechnological techniques/solutions including sophisticated tissue culture micropropagation and genetic engineering which offer great opportunities to improve the species for sustainable utilization. Genome editing provides the possibility to modify the genomes of the MNUGLs particularly for plant architecture, hardness of the seeds, and anti-nutritional factors. The emergence of the CRISPR technology supports this position to possibly enhance the genomes of MNUGLs for higher productivity and utilization via removal of the constraints. Added to this advancement is the use of high-throughput targeted genotyping using next-generation sequencing to effectively unravel the rich diversity potentials available among the MNUGLs. Through proteomic analysis, essential genes and their pathways can be discovered. This is of utmost importance considering the present increased changes in climatic conditions leading to abiotic stresses such as drought and extreme temperatures. MNUGLs are known to be resilient crops capable of withstanding unfavorable environmental conditions. Proteomics therefore offers plant breeders the opportunity to study the broad spectrum of proteins present in underutilized plant species and could give a clue on specific proteins produced by MNUGLs under abiotic stresses, as well as information relating to nutritional and yield traits. On global research funds and activities, research funds are usually not available for these species as many funding agencies or organizations are skeptical about their sustainable utilization and overall benefits to human and environment and hence to the organizations. Stakeholders including policy-makers and plant breeders, among others, should as a matter of urgent priority consider the MNUGLs as important crops for research and development toward food and nutritional security as well as socioeconomic development of rural areas where these species are abundantly available.
Conflict of interest
Authors declare no conflict of interests. | https://www.intechopen.com/online-first/neglected-and-underutilized-legume-crops-improvement-and-future-prospects |
The Israel Plant Gene Bank (IGB) of the Agricultural Research Organization (ARO) is the national Center to conserve the genetic resources of regional vegetation. The IGB is a physical repository for collected seeds for current and future uses and development, and is also part of the collection and conservation program for wild plant and landrace seeds from natural habitats all over Israel.
The wealth and diversity of Land of Israel plant life is in danger due to habitat loss caused by intensive urbanization, infrastructure construction and the rapid transition to modern agriculture based on elite lines with extremely limited genetic diversity.
The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has issued frequent warnings in recent years of an anticipated global food crisis. Rising temperatures and extreme climactic changes in part may affect the amount and quality of available precipitation for agricultural crops. Different forecasts suggest that the occurrence of agricultural pests and disease will also increase due to climatic changes. To ensure food security, agricultural plant breeders must today develop crop varieties that can withstand changing environmental conditions.
New agricultural varieties must be cultivated to withstand extreme climatic changes, beyond a narrow focus on crop quantity or quality. Plant breeders today must emphasize resilience to climatic changes: extreme temperatures, short and intense rainfall regimes, and changing diseases. Wild plants and landraces are vast repositories of genetic diversity for crop improvement. Their genetic variety can improve crop adaptability to current and future environmental challenges.
The IGB collection preserves genetic variety and is one of the essential components for the preservation of the genetic biodiversity of Israeli flora. Israel contains some of the richest variety of plant species found in the world. The region is recognized as the center of genetic diversity and is characterized by the abundant presence of crop wild relatives(CWR) of grains (wheat, barley, oats), legumes (peas, lentils, chickpeas), fruit trees (plum, pear, fig), vegetables (garlic, carrot, cabbage), aromatic plants (sage, fennel, hyssop), and productive plants (flax, clover, alfalfa). CWR are defined by the European Crop Wild Relative Diversity Assessment and Conservation Forum as wild species closely related to food and fodder crops, and by extension, forestry species, ornamental and industrial crops, and other species of socio-economic importance (such as medicinal and aromatic plants), to which the wild relatives may contribute genetic material. The IGB holds 95% of the 370 different CWR native to Israel.
Crop landraces of Israel
Landraces are dynamic populations that evolve over generations, due to natural and human selection for adaptation to local environments, produce stable yields, and contain extensive genetic diversity and buffering capacity. Over the 20th century, landraces in Israel and all over the world were replaced by a very small number of “modern” varieties bred and grown in high-input industrial farming systems for uniformity, high yield, and suitability for mass food production. Local landraces that evolved considerable genetic diversity for adaptability and resilience, as well as high nutrient content and rich and varied flavors, are in danger of extinction.
Wheat provides a classical regional example for the decline of genetic diversity. Since the early 20th century, wheat genetic diversity has been sharply eroded by the persistent genetic selection for high and stable yields, as well as the quality requirements of the flour milling and baking industries. Modern wheat strains are based on a small number of high-yield varieties with narrow and fragile genetic diversity, while traditional wheat strains contain a genetic diversity developed over thousands of years through selection by traditional agriculture in different environments.
In the late 19th century hundreds of traditional wheat strains were cultivated in Israel. During the 20th century, these were replaced by a small number of modern “semi-dwarf” strains that were cultivated for their high yields, uniformity, capacity for intensive agricultural management with high inputs (synthetic, usually chemical fertilizers, pesticides, etc.), and suitability for mass food production. As intensive agriculture expanded, semi-dwarf bread wheat strains (Triticum aestivum) were introduced in the 1960s and 1970s, and traditional strains were discarded from the seed map in Israel. By the 1980s, traditional wheat strains had been entirely abandoned. These factors have led to the disappearance and near extinction of traditional strains of genetically diverse Israeli wheat.
The IGB maintains a unique collection of local landraces that have been collected since the beginning of the 20th century. These were deposited in the IGB and other gene banks globally, and are now exported back to Israel and provide Israeli and international researchers with access to important pools of traits and genes for better research and breeding in the face of climate change pressures and growing food demand. | http://www.israelagri.com/?CategoryID=404&ArticleID=1663 |
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