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Found in Districts | Chatham Gateway District
Lat: 42.4042813
Long: -82.1907916
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About Chatham-Kent
Admist a quaint turn of the century setting, Downtown Chatham welcomes visitors with a rich bounty of Victorian architecture, cultural treasures, delightful specialty shops and culinary delights. The restoration of many historic buildings has transformed the area into a picturesque and bustling streetscape decorated with stunning murals. For a day, a weekend or a week’s vacation, Chatham-Kent is a perfect getaway. The area features natural parklands, beaches, cultural experiences, family attractions and quaint towns. Chatham-Kent offers many unique experiences and is known as the Classic Car Capital and home to the RM Classic Car exhibit showing one of North America’s finest collections of classic and antique vehicles.
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The New Baltimore Farmers Market Opens 12th Season with more Local Food, Farmers, Growers, & Producers
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Historically, local people’s experiences and knowledge regarding natural disasters have been largely unknown to the wider world. But especially since the tsunami of 2004, which had particularly devastating effects on the west coast of North Sumatra, a new politics of commemoration has emerged, motivated by the desire not to forget such collectively tragic and influential events, but to make experiences of disaster accessible and understandable to a wider public. Examples are the tsunami museum in Aceh, the ‘lava tours’ and exhibitions on the slopes of Mt. Merapi near Yogyakarta in central Java and the stone monuments at the Lapindo mud flow near Sidoarjo in eastern Java.
While these initiatives serve the purpose of remembering the destruction and suffering as well as the victims of these particularly severe disasters, there is also an economic incentive, which in some cases may even be the driving force. Regional governments, and sometimes also local entrepreneurs, have identified new possibilities for promoting affected areas as tourist attractions, including offering disaster ‘experiences’ with voyeuristic appeal to domestic and international visitors.
This seminar will investigate the commemoration of natural disasters in the context of Indonesia’s growing tourism industry, and also offer some reflections on how cultural differences in dealing with and responding to calamities and loss have figured in the commodification of disasters.
About Gabrielle Weichart
Gabrielle Weichart is a Senior Lecturer in Social and Cultural Anthropology at the University of Vienna. She has done extensive research in different regions of Indonesia and Australia and published on Indigenous art, vernacular architecture and food cultures. Her current interests include the commodification of cultural heritage and natural disaster as well as the interplay of consumption, gender and sociality in contemporary Indonesia. | https://crawford.anu.edu.au/news-events/events/20523/memory-heritage-and-commodification-many-sides-disaster-tourism-indonesia |
The EUMillennialsTOUR project aims at developing a transnational tourism product mixing together culture, education, knowledge capitalization and entrepreneurship up-skilling. It is co-funded by the COSME programme of the European Union.
The idea is to offer an immersive learning/ creative trip addressed to the edu/ school-trip tourism market field, thus comprising hands-on curriculum-linked activities addressed to youth, in particular those involved in the cultural and creative sector aged from 15-18 and from 19-25.
Objectives
To stimulate the young generations to the value of EU industrial heritage sites as memory of our past, in particular regarding the remarkable period of the Industrial Revolution, representing a unique moment in our history for the progress of humanity, from a cultural and social perspective, and a strong mean of EU cultural identity
To support young people in their knowledge capitalisation, by providing direct and life experiences in those places where the industrial revolution happened, connecting learning objectives (textile&fashion, design, art&craft) to the travel experience
To offer unique opportunities to participate to engaging workshops during the trip, up-skilling their competences also in new emerging technologies such as 3D printing
Ultimately to show all the tourism value chain how sustainability is a relevant key in terms of sustaining and diversifying tourism throughout the year, in a responsible manner as well as fair in practices
Project Partners
X23 is an Italian SME and self-sustaining private Research Center. In the last 15 years we built a solid, consistent reputation, both at national and international level as reliable partner in the field of Research, Business Innovation, Dissemination and Communication of innovation results. Our philosophy is driven by the sense and the will to cooperate together with staff and key partners who share clear values with us such as transparency, equality, trust in relationships and quality of the service. In the EUMillennialsTOUR project, we play the role of Lead Partner and Project Manager, coordinating and supervising the activities of the Consortium Partner. We are also in charge of WP6 leadership, dealing with data gathering, analysis and evaluation of the results achieved.
The World Youth Student and Educational (WYSE) Travel Confederation is a global not-for-profit membership organisation dedicated to promoting and developing opportunities for young travellers and the youth, student and educational travel industry that serves them. WYSE Travel Confederation is committed to understanding the ever-changing characteristics, motivations and needs of young travellers.In its role as Market Research Manager of the EUMillennialsTOUR project, WYSE Travel Confederation will coordinate activities related to gathering stakeholders, best practices and market intelligence to support and evaluate the project’s pilot actions.
STA Travel is the world's largest travel company for teachers, students and young people. With over 35 years of experience STA Travel Education organises safe, secure and exciting tailor-made trips for Schools, Colleges and Universities. We tailor make trips that can be perfectly aligned to your curriculum objectives as well as creating unique Sport Tours and Adventure Trips all over the world. With exclusive and flexible student & academic airfares, and globally negotiated prices on leading tours, accommodation, transfers and guides well always give you the best price. Within the EUMillennialsTOUR project, STA Travel will play the role of Product Manager and leader of WP4 activities, aiming at designing the tourism product.
E-FAITH, the European Federation of Associations of Industrial and Technical Heritage, is a platform promoting contacts and co-operation between volunteers and non-profit volunteer associations in Europe. It is the place where these can meet, exchange experiences, learn from each other and support each other’s activities and campaigns.
Ever since the establishment of the industrial heritage movement, volunteers and independent voluntary organisations and associations have been the seeds and the fertile grounds from which new and innovative ideas and initiatives have sprung up around the values, the conservation and the use of our industrial and technical heritage. Without their voluntary efforts, the landscape of industrial and technical heritage would be less rich, less varied and less informed, and many industrial sites, artefacts and archives would have been lost. Within the EUMillennialsTOUR project, E-FAITH takes the role of Deputy Product Manager.
CTS - Student Tourism Centre was established in 1974 with the aim of promoting the knowledge of the world through the journey, intended to the discovery of places and cultures, in respecting the environment and traditions of different peoples with whom you come into exchange. After 40 years of existence, CTS plays an even stronger role in questions of the environment in the context of traveling and in the construction of personal identity and its experience, the privileged of traveling as an instrument for individual growth, socialization based on human contact, sharing and conveying of values, principles and behaviors based on respect. CTS calls for participation, direct and active, especially among the younger generation, for to build a society that knows how to promote social inclusion and dialogue between different cultures, traditions and generations. This approach to the role of each individual in society will stimulate a model for the growth of market by competitiveness and innovation, as well as the protection and promotion of natural and cultural capital. Within the EUMillennialsTOUR project, CTS takes the role of Exploitation Manager.
Lisburn & Castlereagh City Council (L&CCC) is one of the most prestigious areas within Northern Ireland in which to live, work and visit. We have a locality, which consists of an urban and rural mix and will retain designation as a City area. We are already recognised as a premier business location within Northern Ireland and with a raft of new Powers and a significant population and land increase we see opportunities to grow and develop the local and regional economy. The Council will use the corporate planning process to begin community consultation and the development of a sense of place for the new Council area. Within the EUMillennialsTOUR project, L&CCC plays the role of Deputy Exploitation Manager.
The M2C Institute is an interdisciplinary research institute in Bremen, Germany. M2C consults cultural organizations in strategic development, creative development, education, audience development and digital media for more than 10 years. The institute works on European level. A key area is the combination of ICT with fields of culture, art, creativity, education and tourism. We also implement workshops, conferences as well as participation events and digital art festivals. The M2C Institute is your partner in Germany for the EUMillennialsTOUR project where it adopts the role of the Educational Manager. Please feel free to contact us for any practical activities around education, tourism development and new media within Germany. | http://www.eumillennials-tour.eu/ |
Along the dreamy shores of Belle Mare, amongst lush tropical gardens and alongside a golden stretch of beach lies the unbelievable four-star adults-only retreat, Ambre. Carefully designed to enhance natural light and offer the ultimate in luxury, this open-plan resort is a sublime tropical idyll and makes for the ultimate home away from home while on holiday in Mauritius.
October 18 2019
Tourist attractions are considered visitor hotspots for a reason - they have an incredible allure and can range from beautiful vistas and stunning powder-white beaches to phenomenal historical monuments or sites. But one way to really experience a destination, and to get a deeper sense of it, is to partake in one of the cultural or religious celebrations.
October 07 2019
The dazzling five-star, plantation-style paradise of Sugar Beach is fabled among discerning travellers for a plethora of reasons. From exquisite rooms (some of which are newly renovated), world-class dining options and culinary experiences, to a wealth of outdoor activities offered and a unique array of Timeless Memories offerings—it’s a spectacular hotel, that, quite literally, has something for everyone. | https://www.sunresortshotels.com/en/newsroom?field_category_target_id=All&combine=&page=9 |
U.S. Cultural & Heritage Council Virtual Town Hall
October 1, 2020 | 1 - 2:30 p.m.
Join the U.S. Cultural & Heritage Council's Virtual Town Hall to hear from guest speakers as they share unique views into the diversity of our national cultural & heritage related tourism experiences - from a visitor perspective - and also from the local community vantage point. We will also delve into the viewpoints of cultural experiences closer-to-home and the positive impacts afforded to communities, businesses and residents alike. The importance of providing access to diverse cultural & heritage experiences for visitors and communities alike has been amplified in an entirely new light - with unique national & international perspectives.
The conversation around the importance of cultural & heritage experiences will include: arts organizations, museums, craft makers, festivals, musicians, culinary partners, historic & heritage areas - and local cultural events. Shared insights will include:
- Providing the platform for timely discussions for forward planning.
- Framing & strengthening the focus to curate inclusive & diverse programs.
- Sharing cultural & heritage program & marketing ideas - local/regional/national.
- Educational connections: From school programs and beyond. | https://industry.exploregeorgia.org/article/us-cultural-heritage-council-virtual-town-hall |
Our cooking classes in Park Slope offer a unique opportunity to explore new culinary worlds and meet new people, or remember those savory dinners at Grandma's with a group of family or friends. All classes are taught by professional chefs who can show you how to prepare beautiful food in your own home. Neighborhood food tours and team building events are also available, helping you to explore the area or bond with your colleagues.
Safety During Covid-19: Look for the following indicators of what precautions your host will take for your experience. You can book most in-person experiences as private events for a small additional fee. Or check out our new fully interactive Online Experiences! | https://www.cozymeal.com/park-slope |
I first visited Oaxaca on my very first long-haul trip way back in 2004. It was one of my favourite cities in Mexico and I’d hoped to take Andy there and write about it when we were in Mexico again earlier this year but we ran out of time. Luckily Kristen from Yonderlust Ramblings offered to share her experience of getting off the beaten path in Oaxaca.
As a local Texan, Mexico has always boasted the appeal of an easily accessible international destination. However, I was hesitant to visit the common “go tos” of Cozumel, Cancun, or Puerto Vallarta, and become yet another tourist awash in a sea of other tourists, fighting for a square foot of space on the beach. For this reason, I veered off the beaten path and headed further south to the state of Oaxaca, Mexico.
The state of Oaxaca is located in Southwestern Mexico, bordered by a stunning coastline to its south. This region holds a rich history of indigenous peoples and cultures, spanning back to the days when Oaxaca was inhabited by the Zapotec Indians. The ruins of Monte Alban were previously one of the largest inhabited centers of early Mexico and an integral part of the Zapotec civilization.
Oaxaca is up and coming in the tourism world, due to its authentic cultural experiences and secluded beaches. This region is famous for its traditional delicacies of mole sauces, mezcal, and fried grasshoppers, as well as its history of intricate woodworking and handicrafts, stemming from the roots of its indigenous peoples.
Oaxaca has something to offer outdoor enthusiasts, culinary experts, beach bathers, and history buffs.
For history lovers, Oaxaca is sprinkled with architecturally rich buildings, like the golden Templo de Santo Domingo, the stark white Basilica de la Soledad, or the ancient ruins at Monte Alban. Or you can check out a few fascinating museums such as the Museum of Pre-Hispanic Art or the Museum of Culture.
For those chasing culinary experiences, check out the Benito Juarez Market, or the fried grasshoppers and traditional moles at the town square of Huatulco.
Looking for a place to stretch your legs and get your heart pumping in Oaxaca? Pueblos Mancomunados offers pristine hiking opportunities, while the Ethnobotanical Garden allows visitors to experience some of the indigenous fauna of the region. Or you can head to the coast for some excursions waterfront and a chance to play in the surf!
Get Your Guide offer some great tours and activities in and around Oaxaca.
When it comes to my personal favourite, you can’t beat the ocean bordering gem of Huatulco. Only a short jaunt from Bahias de Huatulco Airport, this town boasts intimate beachfront resorts, nestled snuggly between lush jungle slopes, as well as truly unique dining, shopping, and cultural experiences in its main town square!
In my opinion, the main highlight in Huatulco is its authenticity! Inside the town square, there is a historical church which is open to the public for viewing, as well as a quaint park-like setting in the plaza, in which you can find a shady spot to people watch. There are plenty of local food options, and I would urge anyone to bravely try the fried grasshoppers, as well as traditional mole sauces, which the region is famous for.
There are a variety of vendors in Huatulco, including jewelry, carvings, woodworking, pottery, or any of the local cuisine samplings. Huatulco is on the rise as a popular cruise ship destination, and as so, sometimes the vendors tend to treat you as such. It may feel a bit overwhelming to shop on a non-cruise day, as the vendors will flock to you and swarm around you, for lack of other customers. It takes a little getting used to, but stating expectations up front and standing firm goes a long way.
As well as just exploring the town take a look at Get Your Guide for ideas of other tours and activities you could do.
Oaxaca State has accommodation to suit all budgets and tastes. AirBnB and Booking[.]com are both good options to start your search.
Flights into Oaxaca International Airport may not occur as frequently throughout the day as other Mexican hot spots, and will probably require a layover.
If you are targeting the area of Huatulco specifically, consider Bahias de Huatulco International Airport. From there, it is a short cab ride over to resorts lining the Pacific.
Oaxaca has a simple charm that I have not previously experienced elsewhere in Mexico. It is authentic enough to allow for new and unique experiences, yet humble enough to grant its visitors a dose of seclusion. Oaxaca is still a largely undiscovered gem, but it is on the rise, so now is the time to go!
Kristen is an experience-seeker, adventure lover, road-tripper, “run-cationer“, hiker, backpacker, “high-pointer”, and goal-setter. She loves passing on her passion for exploring the world, and hopes to inspire others as well! She believes that the best form of travel is the natural kind, where you let your own two feet do the work! She’s a big proponent of “run-cations”, “hike-cations”, “cycle-cations”, or any kind of goal-inspired active travel! She shares her experiences on her blog Yonderlust Ramblings!
Have you been to Oaxaca in Mexico? What was your favourite thing to see or do there?
I’ve been to Mexico but I missed Oaxaca. Definitely need to add this to my bucket list! Thanks for the inspiration!
I’d love to go back after reading this guest post – I went a long time ago but definitely missed some stuff!
This is a great post! I have been to Puerto Escondido and want to check out Oaxaca City for the culinary scene, but now I’m adding Huatulco to my wish list too!
How was Puerto Escondido, we were due to go there on our last trip but had to unfortunately fly home early!
Oaxaca looks beautiful! After two recent trips, I’m excited to explore more of Mexico!
Yes it is, I’ve been to Mexico twice now too and would love to return at some point to explore the rest of it.
Wow, Oaxaca looks like a really interesting place to visit. I haven’t been to Mexico yet but would love to go once. Thanks for the awesome tips!
Yes it really is, can’t wait to visit again sometime!
I love off-the-beaten-path recommendations. Oaxaca looks really pretty even though it’s not large but most importantly, I love the history of it.
Yes from my memory of my distant trip it is lovely, hopefully I’ll visit again at some point with my husband.
I love off-the-beaten-path places. They keep authenticity and bring back the original meaning of the word “travel” from the times when tourist traps haven’t existed. Thank you, Tanya, for another tip. Adding it to my “Americas” list. We finally decided that it would be enough Asia for us after July 2019. Guess what, we are going to Mexico after that!
I only visited Oaxaca city, including Monte Alban, but loved it! Huatulco is on our must-visit places though, so we will be back in the state, hopefully soon.
Yes I missed it when I went all those years back too! Hopefully, I’ll get to go back someday too! | https://www.cantravelwilltravel.com/off-beaten-path-oaxaca-mexico/?fbclid=IwAR2UQnYlOzmQsHu43_2-z-r1S_wJQJGz7yK_QpIg2TuUKE0BBwpic2HLr6A |
Toronto, the capital of the province of Ontario, is a major Canadian city along Lake Ontario’s northwestern shore. It's a dynamic metropolis with a core of soaring skyscrapers, all dwarfed by the iconic, free-standing CN Tower. Toronto also has many green spaces, from the orderly oval of Queen’s Park to 400-acre High Park and its trails, sports facilities and zoo. Discover 15 fabulous experiences in Toronto (click on the links for more details):
With a collection of more than 90000 works of art, the Art Gallery of Ontario is among the most distinguished art museums in North America. The museum is located in the Grange Park neighbourhood of downtown Toronto, on Dundas Street West between McCaul and Beverley Streets.
2. CASA LOMA
Casa Loma is a Gothic Revival style mansion and garden in midtown Toronto, that is now a historic house museum and landmark. It was constructed from 1911 to 1914 as a residence for financier Sir Henry Pellatt. The architect was E. J. Lennox, who designed several other city landmarks.
3. CHINATOWN
Energetic Chinatown hosts a variety of Chinese, Vietnamese, Thai and Japanese restaurants that range from dim sum and pho to modern fusion. The animated Asian open-air markets and shops along Spadina Avenue offer fresh fruits and vegetables, along with herbal medicine and souvenirs.
4. CN TOWER
The CN Tower is a 553.3 m-high concrete communications and observation tower located in Downtown Toronto. Built on the former Railway Lands, it was completed in 1976. Its name "CN" originally referred to Canadian National, the railway company that built the tower.
The pedestrian-only Distillery District, set in quaint 19th century buildings that once housed a large whiskey distillery, draws crowds to its cobblestone streets lined with hip indie restaurants, bars and boutiques. Art lovers come for the galleries, outdoor sculptures and dance, music and stage performances at the area's several theatres. In December, the annual Toronto Christmas Market takes over the streets.
The iconic building at 49 Wellington Street East, commonly known the Gooderham Building or the Flatiron Building, is situated on a triangular parcel of land in Toronto's St. Lawrence Market District. The five-storey building assumes a wedge-like shape and was constructed in 1891 to the designs of architect David Roberts Jr.
The Harbourfront Centre is a year-round facility featuring concerts, dance performances, author readings, films and kids' shows every weekend and many weeknights throughout the year. Harbourfront Centre has several major venues for music, dance and cultural events, in and around two major multi-use buildings. The Queens Quay Terminal houses a wide variety of shops and services. The York Quay Centre houses an art gallery, installations, the Lakeside Terrace, a patio and an information booth.
The Hockey Hall of Fame is an ice hockey museum located dedicated to the history of ice hockey and a hall of fame. It holds exhibits about players, teams, National Hockey League records, memorabilia and NHL trophies, including the Stanley Cup.
Kensington Market is a walkable bohemian neighbourhood that draws artists and tourists to its indie shops, vintage boutiques and arts spaces. The Market is also home to a wide array of specialty grocers, bakeries and cheese shops. Hipsters frequent trendy bars, cafes and international restaurants that range from casual to fine dining. Students and families populate Victorian houses along tree-lined streets.
Nathan Phillips Square is a vibrant, active space in the heart of the City. Every year, over 1.5 million visitors attend a variety of community and special events hosted at the Square, such as the Cavalcade of Lights, New Year’s Celebrations, Remembrance Day Celebrations, concerts and more.
Queen Street West, between Barthurst and Dufferin, is considered by many to be the coolest street in Toronto. It is located in a neighbourhood filled with local designer boutiques, third wave coffee shops, art galleries and museums.
The Royal Ontario Museum is a museum of art, world culture and natural history. It is one of the largest museums in North America and the largest in Canada. It attracts more than one million visitors every year, making the ROM the most-visited museum in Canada.
Since 1803, the St. Lawrence Market has been the community’s beating heart and culinary focal point of the city of Toronto. It’s the living symbol and anchor of the neighbourhood and for the families who live there. It’s a place to connect, to share stories and of course, to taste and to discover great food.
The Toronto City Hall, or New City Hall, is the seat of the municipal government of Toronto, Ontario, Canada, and one of the city's most distinctive landmarks. Designed by Finnish architect Viljo Revell and landscape architect Richard Strong, and engineered by Hannskarl Bandel, the building opened in 1965.
Yonge-Dundas Square is a unique focal point of the downtown Toronto community. The Square is designated for use as a public open space and as an event venue that can accommodate events of various sizes. You'll discover a wide range of activities on the Square: community celebrations, theatrical events, concerts, receptions, promotions – events that appeal to residents and tourists alike and provide a showcase for local businesses.
B. NIAGARA FALLS (128 KM/ 1 ¼ HOURS FROM TORONTO)
Niagara Falls is a group of three waterfalls at the southern end of Niagara Gorge, spanning the border between the US state of New York and the Canadian province of Ontario. The largest of the three is Horseshoe Falls, also known as Canadian Falls, which straddles the international border between Canada and the United States. The smaller American Falls and Bridal Veil Falls lie entirely within the United States.
Located on the Niagara River, which drains Lake Erie into Lake Ontario, the combined falls have the highest flow rate of any waterfall in North America that has a vertical drop of more than 50 metres (160 ft). During peak daytime tourist hours, more than 168,000 m3 (six million cubic feet) of water goes over the crest of the falls every minute. Horseshoe Falls is the most powerful waterfall in North America, as measured by flow rate.
VISAS: Canadian tourist visa processing takes anywhere from 2 days to 4 weeks.
TIME TO VISIT: The fall months, from September through November, is a great time to visit Canada. The weather has cooled down but is still comfortable, the summer crowds have left, prices drop, and changing fall foliage provides a beautiful backdrop for a vacation.
CURRENCY: Canadian dollar
LANGUAGE: According to the 2016 census, English and French are the mother tongues of 56.0% and 21.4% of Canadians respectively. In total 86.2% of Canadians have working knowledge of English while 29.8% have a working knowledge of French.
SLEEP AT LE GERMAIN HOTEL TORONTO MAPLE LEAF SQUARE
At the heart of the city centre, Le Germain Hotel Toronto Maple Leaf Square is an oasis of tranquility and calm where everything is designed for your utmost comfort. Located in downtown Toronto at the crossroads of the sports, entertainment and business districts, Le Germain Hotel Maple Leaf Square is a refuge steeped in authenticity.
SLEEP AT LE GERMAIN HOTEL TORONTO MERCER
Located in downtown Toronto and in close proximity to Billy Bishop Toronto City Airport, Le Germain Hotel Toronto Mercer is at the heart of the entertainment district. A veritable urban oasis, you’ll enjoy a most comfortable and relaxing stay.
PLAY AT BIKES & BITES TOURS
Bikes & Bites Tours was created to give travelers the local, off the beaten path experience by bike. Experience the Toronto's eclectic charms and hidden gems on their signature Bikes & Bites Toronto Bike Tour.
PLAY AT BREAK OUT WINE TOURS
This is your first step to a wonderful adventure in beautiful Niagara Wine Country. Break Out Wine Tours is run and owned by wine lovers. Take the time to customize your tour, or have their professional Sommelier suggest the most desirable vineyards in the region. Break Out Wine Tours offers a boutique-style experience you will never forget.
PLAY AT CHOPSTICKS + FORKS
Chopsticks + Forks are passionate about Toronto, Food & Culinary Adventure and love telling the unique stories of their global community. Bite into a one-of-a-kind tasting experience that are led by their expert guides to uncover Toronto’s rich culinary diversity. Let them save you time planning your trip by letting their local experts take you to the best eats their city has to offer.
PLAY AT PEDAL TORONTO
Discover Toronto and it's diverse neighbourhoods with Pedal Toronto. Pedal Toronto have been busy cycling around Toronto with family, friends and visitors and their tours have been developed in response in what they have learned on these early rides.
PLAY AT QUEEN TOURS NIAGARA FALLS
Daily small-group tours of Niagara Falls from Toronto, Mississauga and Pearson Airport. This is one of Toronto’s highest rated tours on every major review site. Depart early in the morning to avoid wasting time in traffic. Arrive in Niagara Falls before the huge crowds and return to Toronto early to enjoy an entire evening in the city.
PLAY AT SEE SIGHT TOURS
Founded in Niagara Falls, Canada in 2006, See Sight Tours offers a wealth of experience delivering uniquely intimate and immersive tour experiences. Their tour guides take pride in their personal expertise in showcasing the hidden beauty of the local areas where they operate and are determined to create lasting impressions on their guests from around the world.
PLAY AT TRAVELLING CHICKEN
Travelling Chicken is a small group tour company based in Toronto. Travelling Chicken organize group tours and private tours in Ontario and French Canada for solo travellers, families, group of friends or family visiting Toronto. Travelling Chicken organize all year around activities such as dog sledding, snowshoeing snow tubing, skiing, hiking, canoeing, camping tours.
PLAY AT WINERY GUYS TOURS
Winery Guys Tours are a family-owned and operated business that have been servicing the Niagara Region for the last 33 years. Their #1 goal is to give you the best and safest wine tour experience possible. They are dedicated to ethical business practices and giving back to the community as much as they can! | https://twisht.com/blog/experience-toronto-the-niagara-falls |
Visit Oakland and Airbnb Partner to Promote Diverse Small Businesses and Tourism
With more than 3.8 million travelers choosing to travel to Oakland every year, Visit Oakland and Airbnb are partnering to promote minority-owned small businesses and highlight Oakland’s rich cultural and ethnic diversity. In early October, they hosted a diverse panel of Airbnb Experience hosts who offer unique tours and activities throughout the city for locals and travelers. The goal of the event—in partnership with the Oakland African American Chamber of Commerce, the Oakland Chinatown Chamber of Commerce, the Oakland Latino Chamber of Commerce and the Oakland Vietnamese Chamber of Commerce—was to encourage members of the community to create experiences that showcase the city’s diversity and provide travelers with authentic experiences when they visit Oakland.
Airbnb Experiences are activities designed and led by inspiring hosts. From guiding guests down Temescal Corridor to discovering neighborhood gems via postcards, to inspiring guests to unleash their creativity by crafting vibrant headdresses at a local Mannequin warehouse, these are a few examples of existing Airbnb experiences that invite guests to explore Oakland like a local. | https://www.dmawest.org/news/newsnotes/dmo-news/december-2019/visit-oakland-and-airbnb-partner-promote-diverse-small-businesses-and-tourism/ |
Oranjestad, the capital of Aruba island, is a picturesqe place, with pastel colour buildings of colonial architecture.
Just 30 km long and 10 km wide, Aruba is a sunny island almost all over the year. Here there are the most incredible beaches in the world. It's better to explore Aruba on foot, walking along the streets with palm trees, of the capital Oratzestant.This city is full of life, and has the charm of a Dutch colony, pastel colored houses, the castle and a wonderful market.
Bonaire is a Caribbean island that, administratively, belongs to the Netherlands. Bonaire is a famous tourist destination and is the ideal place for scuba diving, snorkeling and windserfing. At the north side of the island, is located Washington Slagbaai National Park, which is an ecological preserve.
Willemstad is one of the most picturesque cities in Caribbean. Its traditional heritage is visible even from the entrance of the harbor, where colorful buildings with triangular roof of Dutch type are lined along the coast. Visit the wonderful "Curacao Sea Aquarium", that hosts over 400 exotic species of marine life.
Labadee is a paradise island in the Caribbean, a unique destination with beautiful beaches, breathtaking scenery and amazing activities in the water. Try a thrilling ride paraseiling and admire the view from above as it crosses the sky 120 meters above the beautiful peninsula. Not forget to buy handmade local artwork, woodwork and crafts.
World-famous beaches, exceptional nightlife, unique culinary experiences and Latin atmosphere, are all those that make this city so fascinating. Miami Beach is one of the most popular attractions of the city with wide sandy beaches, warm waters and a great variety of water sports. A tour to the famous Art Deco district of the South Beach is also a unique experience.
|Day||City/Port||Arrival||Departure|
|1||Miami, Florida, USA||------||17:00|
|2||Cruising||00:00||00:00|
|3||Labadee, Haiti||08:00||17:00|
|4||Cruising||00:00||00:00|
|5||Oranjestad, Aruba||09:00||21:00|
|6||Kralendijk (Bonaire)||08:00||18:00|
|7||Willemstad, Curacao||08:00||17:00|
|8||Cruising||00:00||00:00|
|9||Cruising||00:00||------|
|10||Miami, Florida, USA||07:00||00:00|
Voyager Class ships offer something for everyone, from a rock-climbing wall and an iceskating rink, to the Royal Promenade, a bustling boulevard of shops, cafés and restaurants.
• 15 decks of activity, entertainment and accommodation
• Ice-skating rink, rock-climbing wall and 9-hole golf course
• Fantastic evening entertainment, including Broadway style shows in our 5-tier theatre, Casino Royale℠, the latest movie screenings and dancing in the mezzanine split level night club
• State-of-the-art Day Spa and Fitness Centre
• Sun deck and adults-only solarium with indoor pool
• Adventure Beach family pool area with water slide†
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Mariner of the Seas® Royal Advantage: Outdoor film screen; various new dining options including Boardwalk Dog House for hot dogs, Giovanni’s Table* Italian trattoria, Starbucks and Cupcake Cupboard; fantastic pool deck and stateroom enhancements.
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Ship's Specifications
|Inaugural Date||2000|
|Gross Tonnage||138,000|
|Length||1,020 ft|
|Max Beam||154.7 ft|
|Draft||29 ft|
|Cruising Speed||23.7 knots|
|Guest Capacity (Double Occupancy)||3,114|
|Staff Size||1,185|
|Decks|
|Last Refurbished||2010|
Message from Adam M. Goldstein, President and CEO
Welcome to Royal Caribbean International – a place where innovation and imagination reign supreme. From its very beginning, our company has been guided by the principles of designing ships and creating itineraries that lead to a cruising experience like no other – principles grounded on delivering the WOW to each and every one of our guests before, during and after sailing with us.
We take great pride in being able to introduce first-at-sea innovations such as the rock climbing wall, zipline and FlowRider® surf simulator to mention a few, as well as offering unparalleled entertainment experiences and to be the only cruise line to offer Tony Award®-winning Broadway shows. All of these onboard amenities offer us the opportunity to see how we can WOW our guests every time they cruise with us.
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As already documented in the previous paragraph, the stator (and rotor) slot openings produce variation in the airgap flux density distribution (Figure 11.3).
In essence, the total flux in a stator and rotor tooth varies with rotor position due to stator and rotor slot openings only in the case where the number of stator and rotor slots are different from each other. This is, however, the case, as Ns ≠ Nr at least to avoid large synchronous parasitic torques at zero speed (as demonstrated in Chapter 10).
The stator tooth flux pulsates due to rotor slot openings with the frequency fPS = N fr (1p−1S) = Nr pf1 , for S = 0 (no-load). The flux variation coefficient Kφ is
Kφ = φmax2φ− φ0 min (11.26)
The coefficient Kφ, as derived when the Carter coefficient was calculated in
γ2g (11.27)
Kφ =
2ts
with γ2 as
bor 2
γ2 = gbor (11.28)
5 +
g
Now, by denoting the average flux density in a stator tooth with Bots, the
|
|
flux density pulsation Bp1 in the stator tooth is
|
|
γ
BPs = Bots 22tgs
|
|
(11.29)
|
|
(11.30)
Bg0–airgap flux density fundamental.
We are now in the classical case of an iron region with an a.c. magnetic flux density BPs, at frequency fPs = Nrf/p1. As Nrf/p1 is a rather high frequency, eddy current losses prevail, so
PPs0 = Cep B1Ps 2 f50Ps 2Gsteeth; Gsteeth −stator teeth weight (11.29)
In (11.31), Cep represents the core losses at 1T and 50Hz. It could have been for 1T and 60 Hz as well.
Intuitively, the magnetic saturation of main flux path places the pulsation flux on a local hysteresis loop with lower (differential) permeability, so saturation is expected to reduce the flux pulsation in the teeth. However, Equation (11.31) proves satisfactory even in the presence of saturation. Similar tooth flux pulsation core losses occur in the rotor due to stator slotting. Similar formulas as above are valid.
PPr0 = Cep B1Pr 2 f50Pr 2 Gteeth ; fpr = Ns pf1 γ1g ; Botr = Bg0 tr −trbor (11.32)
BPr = Botr 2tr
bos 2
γ =1 gbos
5+
g
As expected, Cep – power losses per Kg at 1T and 50 Hz slightly changes when the frequency increases, as it does at Ns pf1 or Nr pf1 . Cep = CeK, with K
= 1.1 – 1.2 as an empirical coefficient.
Example 11.2
For the motor in Example 10.1, let us calculate the tooth flux pulsation losses per Kg of teeth in the stator and rotor.
Solution
In essence, we have to determine the flux density pulsations BPs, BPr, then fPs, fPr and apply Equation (11.31). From (11.26) and (11.32),
Skewing is reducing the cage circulating current reaction which increases the value of Ktk and, consequently, the teeth flux pulsation core losses stay undamped.
Typical values for Kdk–the total damping factor due to cage circulating currents–would be in the range Kdk = 1 to 0.05, depending on rotor number slots, skewing, etc.
A skewing of one stator slot pitch is said to reduce the circulating cage reaction to almost zero (Kdk ≈ 1), so the rotor tooth flux pulsation losses stay high. For straight rotor slots with Kdk ≈ 0.1 – 0.2, the rotor tooth flux pulsation core losses are reduced to small relative values, but still have to be checked.
11.3.3. No-load tooth flux pulsation cage losses
Now that the rotor tooth flux pulsation, as attenuated by the corresponding induced bar currents, is known, we may consider the rotor bar mesh in Figure
11.4.
increased due to skin effect by KRk (fk = Np1s f1 ).
The skin effect in the end ring is much smaller, so the ring resistance may be neglected. If we also neglect the leakage reactance in comparison with rotor bar resistance, the equation of the mesh circuit in Figure 11.4 becomes
Expression (11.46) is valid for straight rotor slots. In a skewed rotor, the rotor tooth flux pulsation is reduced (per stack length) and, thus, the corresponding no-load cage losses are also reduced. They should tend to zero for one stator slot pitch skewing.
Example 11.3. Consider the motor in Example 11.1, 11.2 with the stack length lstack = 0.4 m, rotor bar class section Abar = 250 mm2, (Ns = 48, Nr = 72, 2p1 = 4).
The rotor bar skin effect coefficient for fk Hz is KRk =
15. Let us calculate the cage losses due to rotor tooth flux pulsations if the attenuating factor of Kdk = 0.05.
Solution
With Kdk = 0.05 and Bpr = 0.3189, from Example 11.2 we may calculate ∆φk (from 11.41).
∆φrk = K Bdk prk (tr − bor )lstack = 0.05⋅−0.3189 16⋅( .6−6)⋅10−3 ⋅0.4 =
= 0.067 10⋅ 3 Wb
The d.c. bar resistance Rb is
R b ≈ Alstackbar σ1Al = 250 100.4⋅ −6 3.01⋅107 = 0.533 10⋅ −4 Ω
11.4. LOAD SPACE HARMONICS (STRAY LOAD) LOSSES IN NONSKEWED IMs
Again, slot opening and mmf space harmonics act together to produce space harmonics load (stray load) losses in the presence of larger stator and rotor currents.
In general, the no-load stray losses are augmented by load, component by component. The mmf space harmonics of the stator, for integral-slot windings, is ν = (6c ±1)p1 (11.47)
The slot opening (airgap magnetic conductance) harmonics are
ν =s c N1 s ± p1 (11.48)
As expected, they overlap. The first slot harmonics (c1 = 1) νsmin = Ns ± p1 are most important as their winding factor is the same as for the fundamental.
The mmf harmonic Fν amplitude is
Fν = F1 KKww1ν pν1 (11.49)
where Kw1 and Kwν are the winding factors of the fundamental and of harmonic ν, respectively.
If the number of slots per pole and phase (q) is not very large, the first slot (opening) harmonics Ns ± p1 produce the largest field in the airgap.
Only for full – pitch windings may the phase belt mmf harmonics (ν = 5, 7, 11, 13) produce airgap fields worthy of consideration because their winding factors are not small enough (as they are in chorded coil windings). However, even in such cases, the losses produced by the phase belt mmf harmonics may be neglected by comparison with the first slot opening harmonics Ns ± p1.
Now, for these first slot harmonics, it has been shown in Chapter 10 that their mmf companion harmonics of same order produce an increase for Ns – p1
|
|
and a decrease for Ns + p1,
I0 is the no-load current, In the current under load, and ϕn the power factor angle on load.
From now on using the above amplification factors, we will calculate the correction coefficients for load to multiply the various no-load stray losses and thus find the load stray losses. | http://machineryequipmentonline.com/electric-equipment/no-load-tooth-flux-pulsation-losses/ |
General topics and discussions about the VESC and its development.
As I've said before: with the same termination the KV only depends on the number of turns. Turns times KV is constant.
You quoted but forgot to read "with the same termination".
You are now progressing to valid scientific methods. Good.
Many people do not understand when a formula is applicable. So when I give them that the voltage across red led is 2V at 20mA, and I ask them to calculate the current limiting resistor for a 5V system, they will plug the given numbers into Ohms law and calculate R= 2V/.02A = 100 Ohms. Or 5V/0.02A = 250 Ohms.
What I THINK is happening is that in the article you quoted this guy fell into this trap and confused A cross section of the wire with A cross section of the LOOP that the wire makes.
Case in point, the flux depends on the number of electrons wizzing around. If it is 1A going around 10 times or 10A going around 1 time does not matter. Especially in an air-coil, the magnetic flux spreads out over the available area. So the flux would be inversely proportional to the area enclosed by the loops of the coil.
He still has a good grasp of the material at hand, because when asked to increase the KV he immediately draws the conclusion that the number of turns must be reduced, implying the validity of the proposition that you're trying to disprove.
A 3 tooth wye air core motor with optical sensors has 3 solenoids.
KV testing is performed with a 4.2V DC source, commutation timing is achieved via optical sensors, and effective voltage to motor is 4.2V directly from the DC source with no PWM, revealing a 100kv motor constant.
Each solenoid has 50 turns, a lead to virtual ground point resistance of 0.0415ohm and a solenoid magnetic moment vector area of 0.00064516 m^2, and a solenoid length of 0.01 meters.
Since this is a wye motor and when voltage is applied to any 2 leads, two of the 3 solenoids are wired in series, the lead to lead resistance of this motor measured at stall is 0.0830ohm.
Now we increase the wire cross section to 3 times the original size, while keeping the number of turns identical.
^Tripling the cross section of the wire at the same number of turns has tripled the magnetic moment of the solenoid. Despite the tripling of the magnetic moment of the solenoids with tripled cross section, the magnetic moment of the permanent magnets in the rotor remained constant.
Since the magnetic moment of the permanent magnets is fixed in magnitude, the gyromagnetic ratio of the rotor magnets increases proportionally to rotor angular momentum.
...from the magnetic moment of the permanent magnets, the magnetic properties of nearby stator and windings, the kinetic energy of the rotor and its angular velocity, we can derive the power in watts of the torque times the angular momentum of the rotating magnetic field produced by the spinning rotor magnets which is acting on the mobile charge carriers in the windings.
Since the rotating magnetic field generated by the spinning rotor magnets has a definite "available wattage" to do work on nearby magnetized objects (limited by the kinetic energy of the rotor at a particular rpm), the effect on a current in a winding caused by the spinning magnets is limited to the "available wattage" present in the spinning rotor. (Rotor torque acting on charge carriers in windings proportional to rotor kinetic energy relative to stator, angular momentum, and total magnetic moment of the permanent magnets).
If at a certain rpm the available wattage present in the rotating magnetic field of the rotor magnets' influence on mobile charge carriers in the windings is less than the opposing electrical wattage of those same mobile charge carriers in the same windings, then current present in the nearby wires cannot be reduced all the way to 0 as would be the case at no load rpm for a given applied voltage, since there is not enough available rotor wattage to counteract the winding wattage.
If in Example 1, at a particular rpm, the spinning magnetic field of the rotor has sufficient wattage to completely counteract the electrical wattage in the nearby wires, bringing current to 0 despite the 4.2V closed circuit, then this particular rpm is "no load rpm" and the rpm per applied volt is the KV.
In Example 2, when the winding cross section and electrical wattage found in the windings triples, then at the same rotor rpm which was no load rpm in Example 1, since there is no additional kinetic energy in the rotor at the same rpm as before, there is insufficient additional wattage provided by the rotating magnetic field of the rotor magnets to completely counteract the tripled electrical wattage found in the windings.
Further complicating matters is the fact that while the rotor's magnetic field is rotating, the stator's magnetic field is also rotating due to the commutations.
In example 1, at no load rpm winding current is brought down to 0 as a result of the rotational wattage of the rotating magnetic field of the rotor magnets.
In example 2, at the same rpm as was no load in example 1, the wattage in the windings is 3 times larger in magnitude than the wattage that the rotor's rotating magnetic field is exerting upon the mobile charge carriers in the windings, therefore the rotor's effect on the windings is insufficient to bring winding current to 0. Since the same RPM in example 2 is insufficient to bring current to 0 despite the 4.2V dc applied voltage, it is not no load rpm, and therefore no load RPM in example 1 and 2 must be different. Since no load rpm in example 1 and 2 must be different, and only the cross section of the wire changed, it is implied that a change in cross section of a winding wire must cause a change in KV.
Last edited by devin on 10 Jun 2017, 07:30, edited 7 times in total.
Who is paying me to check your homework?
Your end result is wrong, there must be something wrong with your reasoning.
I still think you're confusing the electrical power that goes into the motor, at stall being 100% losses, with something going on with the magnetic fields. You are throwing with formulas that I am unfamiliar with. I would have to study to get to know them and their limitations. | http://vedder.se/forums/viewtopic.php?p=4654 |
Discussion in 'General Electronics Chat' started by daredavel, Mar 12, 2010.
its my first time using a stepper motor and it has 8pins..can someone help me how to use this? i have provided the pics below..thank you!!
Here is your image in a more managable viewing size. Just click on it to enlarge it.
WOW, that's a BIG image!
Please remove it, as many of our members are on slow connections.
Does the motor have a part number, and hopefully manufacturer name written/stamped on it somewhere?
It's odd that you are reading different resistances between pairs. That might be a challenge to figure out.
A stepper with 8 wires is kind of handy, because it (normally) can be used as either a bipolar or unipolar motor. The same can be said for unipolar motors (6 wires) as they can be used as bipolar motors once you determine which are the center taps.
Bipolar motors generally have just four wires. They are most commonly used in industry, as they are more efficient than unipolar motors. However, their drive requirements are much more complex; you need a complete H-bridge for each winding - so for a single bipolar stepper, you need at least two complete H-bridges.
For a unipolar motor, you simply supply your +V to the center tap(s) of the motor windings, and ground the ends of the motor windings in a sequence to turn the shaft.
If you can find part numbers on the motor, it will help quite a bit to figure it out.
sorry sir! i have removed it.. yup sir! its a..tamagawa stepper motor TS3166N913.. I dont know how to use it sir.. its kinda confusing for me..
At this point, I can only suggest that this motor needs to be operated as a bipolar stepper, pairing up one lower resistance winding with a higher resistance winding properly, as otherwise your steps will be uneven, and the available torque will vary between steps. This may be why the manufacturer has discontinued support for that stepper motor.
It explains various stepper motor types. Yours appears to be a bifilar. I suspect that there were a number of these motors that were not wound correctly.
As I suggested before, you will need to pair up a 2.2 Ohm winding with a 5.2 Ohm winding, wired in series.
The trick here will be figuring out the polarity of the windings, and the correct pair. If you get the pairs mixed up, you will have very poor (if any) performance. If you get the polarity of the windings reversed, you will also get very poor performance.
You will need two H-bridges to control the motor; one for each pair of windings wired in series.
If you really don't care about performance, you might try running it as a unipolar stepper; four of the leads going to +V, and alternately grounding the other four leads. However, you will have to limit the current to the lowest common denominator; that of the 2.2 Ohm leads.
Look at the Vexta diagram #5 for bipolar, and #4 for unipolar. That's as good a place to start as any. | https://forum.allaboutcircuits.com/threads/stepper-motor-question.35482/ |
DC resistance is an important parameter of the motor windings. It is related to the design of the motor winding, the material of the electromagnetic wire used, the ambient temperature and so on. In the inspection test and type test of the motor, the DC winding resistance test is a must-test item; for the motor manufacturer that regulates the production, the DC winding resistance test will be performed before the motor winding core is dipped, so as to avoid the non-compliance. The product enters the follow-up production process.
Measuring DC resistance is also an important part of motor testing. Through the analysis of the measured resistance value, it is possible to preliminarily determine whether the number of turns, the wire diameter, the number of windings, the wiring method and the wiring quality of the tested motor windings meet the requirements, and whether there is a serious short circuit fault between the winding turns. The DC resistance of the winding is involved in the motor loss calculation and temperature rise calculation, which directly affects the performance evaluation of the motor. Therefore, the test of the DC resistance of the winding should be selected with a higher precision test instrument, and the detection data has higher accuracy.
KRI9310 Handheld winding resistance tester is the first portable transformer DC winding resistance tester in the world, it is a full-automatic and digital portable measuring instrument researched and developed by a number of patented technologies. | https://www.kritester.com/new/why-need-to-test-the-winding-resistance-of-the-motor.html |
In practice Amateur design usually has to deal with raising and lowering transformers. At the core of these transformers, make electrical steel, is wound the required number of windings. The number of windings and number of turns they have been selected in order to output the desired voltage.
2
Regardless of the type of the transformer primary is the winding that is energized. Secondary – TA, to which a load is connected. The primary winding is wound first, followed by the isolates. On top of these is wound the secondary winding.
3
In many transformers the findings indicated labels that helps you identify the windings. If no labels, a multimeter (tester) to locate the paired ends of the windings and note the resistance. Please note the withdrawal on top of it – it will almost certainly belong to the secondary winding. If the step-down transformer, the secondary winding resistance is always less than the primary. Compare resistance of windings is found – if the external resistance is less than the internal, this step-down transformer and you have successfully identified the windings.
4
If the transformer is not four, and more, and when checking the tester, you find 3-4 more related insights, you are dealing with a secondary winding having an intermediate conclusions for obtaining different voltages. Network (primary) in this case will be a coil with two terminals and the largest resistance.
5
To help identify the windings can diameter of the wire used – it is thicker than the secondary than the primary. This is due to the fact that the transformation of the voltage is accompanied by an increase in current strength.
6
If you want to know the number of turns in the windings, wrap the last coil on top of another 30-50 turns. Then feed the primary winding of a small voltage, e.g. 12 V. Measure the voltage in the secondary, and additional windings. To calculate the number of turns use the formula: n = Un × Wдоб / Uдоб, where n is the number of windings of the transformer, Un – existing on this winding tension, Wдоб – number of turns in the winding extension, Uдоб – voltage on it. | https://eng.kakprosto.ru/how-105892-how-to-determine-primary-and-secondary-winding |
In this article, I talk about STEP/DIR stepper motor drivers, the advantages of using them, and the STEP/DIR control interface.
Previous lesson List of lessons Next lesson
In previous lessons, to connect stepper motors to the Arduino board, we used simple drivers-switches, which, according to signals from the microcontroller, switched the motor windings. All the logic of the operation was implemented in the microcontroller program.
The advantage of this solution is obvious - simplicity and minimum of hardware. Just four transistor switches for unipolar stepper motors or the L298N chip for bipolar ones are enough to control them. And the phase switching program is not complicated, it does not take up a lot of microcontroller resources. Another way for controlling stepper motors is to use STEP/DIR drivers.
STEP/DIR driver is a hardware stepper motor control module that uses the STEP/DIR protocol to communicate with the microcontroller.
In addition, STEP/DIR drivers provide a wide range of additional functionality:
- stabilization of phase currents;
- micro step mode;
- protection of output swithes from load short circuit;
- complex switching to accelerate the current drop in the windings;
- overheating protection;
- opto-isolation of control signals.
Current stabilization of the phase windings.
The main disadvantage of simple stepper motor drivers is the lack of stabilization of the winding current.
In previous lessons, I have already touched on this topic.
We connected the windings to the power source in the simplest way - through transistor switches.
What are the disadvantages of this scheme?
The direct current through the winding when the switch is closed is determined by the Ohm's law:
Iphase = (Usupply - Uswitch) / Rwinding
The phase current is defined as the ratio of the supply voltage to the active resistance of the winding. You cannot connect any motor at random. It is necessary to select the stepper motor according to the resistance of the windings or change the supply voltage.
In the previous lesson, I used a motor with a winding resistance of 1.65 ohms. If I connected it to a 12 V power supply, the current would be over 7 A. The motor would just burn out. To provide the required phase current of 1 A, the voltage of the power supply must be 1.65 Ohm * 1 A = 1.65 V. I do not know where to get such a power supply. In addition, a voltage drops on the closed swithes comparable to the voltage on the winding, which must also be taken into account in the calculations. And it is not stable and not strictly defined. No acceptable options are visible at this power supply voltage.
To connect such a motor, I used limiting resistors in series with the windings.
The formula for calculating the phase current looks like this:
Iphase = (Usupply - Uswitches) / (Rwinding + Rlimit)
But with such a scheme, significant power can be released on the limiting resistors, often exceeding the power consumed by the motor. On low-power engines, this option is more or less acceptable. As the motor power increases, it becomes questionable. In the circuit from the previous lesson, each limiting resistor dissipated power up to 7.4 watts.
Iphase =( 12 V-2 V ) / (1.65 + 10) = 0.86 A
P = I2 * R = 0,86 * 0,86 * 10 = 7.4 W
And this is for a phase current of 0.86 A and only on one resistor. Even on this engine, practically unacceptable losses.
Simple drivers can be used with a limited number of motor types, or with low-power engines.
The second disadvantage of simple switches-drivers is associated with the rate of current rise in the motor windings. In lessons 28 and 29, I connected the FL57STH76-1006 unipolar motor through transistor switches to a 12V power source. The motor winding resistance is 8.6 Ohm, the inductance is 14 mH.
Let's see what form the phase current will have for a rotation speed of 1 revolution per second. This speed corresponds to a phase switching period of 1 sec / 400 steps per revolution = 2.5 ms.
I simulated the circuit in the SwCAD package.
The diagram shows how the current rise through the winding (blue) is delayed in relation to the voltage across the winding (green). In the previous lesson, I calculated that for this motor, even with zero resistance of the windings, the phase current will reach 1 A in a time:
T = I * L / U = 1 A * 14 mH / 12 V = 1.2 ms.
And all these calculations are for a rotation speed of 1 revolution per second. In practice, I got a maximum speed of 1 revolution per second. Then the motor goes out of synchronicity. Not enough torque.
The way out of the situation is to stabilize the phase current. A current stabilizer is a circuit that changes the voltage on the load, trying to provide a given current. I.e., the voltage on the load depends on its resistance. If the resistance increases, the current stabilizer increases the voltage in order to provide a given current. As the load resistance decreases, the voltage decreases. Naturally, the current stabilizer operates in a limited voltage range. If it is impossible to provide the required current, it forms the maximum possible voltage across the load.
For example, if the current stabilizer is powered from a 12 V source, it is necessary to stabilize the current of 1 A, and the load resistance of 1000 ohms is connected, then the voltage on the load will be 12 V. Although theoretically the current stabilizer should provide a voltage of 1000 V.
For stepper motors, this is the ideal law for controlling the winding currents.
- You can connect a motor with any winding resistance. The current will be limited automatically.
- The maximum possible rate of current rise in the windings is provided. At the beginning of the phase pulse, the current stabilizer will output the maximum voltage on the winding, and as the current increases, it will decrease to the required value.
Of course, we are talking about switching regulators with high efficiency. The power section of the current stabilizers in the motor windings practically consists of switches only. The role of the smoothing filter is performed by the inductance of the winding.
It is quite problematic to implement current stabilization on the control microcontroller. For example, at a speed of 10 revolutions per second, and the number of motor steps per full revolution equal to 400, the duration of the phase switching pulse is 250 μs. During this time, the PWM regulator implemented in the microcontroller program will not have time to perform the current stabilization functions. Approximately every 10 μs, it is necessary to measure the phase current and calculate the new value of the PWM. But it is necessary to implement two separate regulators for different windings. And the rotation speeds can be higher.
Therefore, the current stabilization function is usually implemented on a separate hardware driver. Even in this case, as a rule, not a PWM regulator is used, but a synchronous relay regulator. The relay regulator closes the switches and monitors the current using an analog comparator. When the set value of the current is reached, the switches open. When the current drops below the threshold, they close again. Thus, a current with a given value is created in the winding. The ripple is smoothed out by the winding inductance. The relay regulator is simple to implement and, in contrast to the PWM regulator, has a high speed of response.
In addition, stabilization of the phase current is necessary when implementing a micro-stepping motor control mode. To install the rotor in a certain position between the phase poles of the motor, it is necessary to provide a given proportion of the winding currents. In the article about the TB6560 driver, you can see the diagrams of the phase currents for the micro stepping mode with 16 gradations. The current stabilization accuracy must be high enough.
STEP / DIR interface.
De facto, this is the main interface for controlling stepper motor hardware drivers. Three signals are used to communicate with the microcontroller.
- STEP
- DIR
- ENABLE
STEP - Each impulse initiates one step rotation of the motor. If the driver operates in half stepping or micro-stepping modes, then the rotation takes place not by the physical step of the motor, but by a part of the step determined by the mode. For a half stepping mode, this is half a physical step, for a micro stepping mode, it is a micro step. STEP/DIR drivers react to the front of the control pulse, usually a negative edge.
The pulse frequency of the STEP signal determines the speed of rotation of the motor. There are, of course, limitations on the maximum pulse rate of the STEP signal and on the minimum pulse width. The driver must have time to receive, select and process each pulse. A real motor will add its own speed limits related to mechanical parameters, winding currents, number of poles, mechanical loads, etc.
DIR is a signal that sets the direction of rotation of the motor. Typically, when the signal is high, the motor will rotate clockwise. The DIR signal must be generated before the STEP pulse.
ENABLE - signal for enabling the driver. The inhibiting signal level removes the voltage at the driver output. The logic of the device does not change. The signal is used to stop the motor in no holding current mode. The rotor position is not fixed. The permissive level of the ENABLE signal is low, i.e. no voltage. If the signal is not used, then you can simply not connect it, leave the driver input ”in the air".
As a rule, all STEP / DIR driver signals are galvanically isolated using optoelectronic components. Switching of the motor windings causes significant pulse interference in the power supply circuits and leads to a shift in the voltage levels of the common (ground) wires of all electronic modules of the system. Under these conditions, galvanic isolation of the control signals is absolutely necessary.
Advantages of using STEP/DIR drivers.
I will summarize the positive qualities of STEP / DIR drivers.
- Stabilization of the phase current and as a result:
- Motors with any winding resistance can be connected.
- High rate of rise of current in the windings, which allows to increase the speed of rotation.
- Micro stepping control mode. Allows the implementation of systems with high positioning accuracy using motors with a limited number of physical steps. In the next lesson, I'll turn my 400 steps per revolution motor into a 6400 steps full revolution motor.
- Protection of output switches from load short circuit;
- Optimal switching of output switches to accelerate the drop in currents in the windings. Allows you to increase the rotation speed and reduce vibration.
- Overheat protection.
- Opoisolation of control signals. Provides high noise immunity of the system.
As an example of a STEP / DIR driver, I can give the TB6560-V2 module.
This is one of the most inexpensive STEP / DIR drivers. However, it provides all the functions and modes listed in the article.
In the next lesson, we will connect this driver to the Arduino board. I will introduce the STEP / DIR driver control library. | http://mypractic.com/lesson-34-step-dir-stepper-motor-drivers-basic-concepts-step-dir-protocol/ |
Using a multimeter, check the continuity of motor winding from phase to phase ( U to V, V to W , W to U ). Each phase to phase must have a continuity if winding is OK. If any particular phase fails the continuity test, your motor is probably burnt.
How do I know if my 3 phase motor is bad?
Check all three wires singly T1,T2,T3 (all three phases) to the ground wire. Readings should be infinite. If its zero or reads any continuity at all, then a problem exists with either the motor or cable . If it is go directly to the motor and disconnect from cable and check motor and the cable separately.
How do I know if my induction motor is working?
You should test the windings for a “short to ground” in the circuit and open or shorts in the windings. To test your motor for short to ground, you’ll need to set the multimeter to ohms and disconnect the motor from its power source. Then inspect each wire and look for infinite readings.
How do you test a 3 phase motor inductance?
Or- If you don’t have inductance meter, the inductance of the coil can be measured by the following method.
- Measure the resistance(R) of coils(phase to phase)
- Feed AC voltage (V), 50 Hz to coils and measure the current(I)
- Calculate impedance of the coils Z=V/I.
- Calculate reactance(XL) of the coils by XL=√(Z^2-R^2)
How many ohms should a 3 phase motor read?
The reading should be between 0.3 to 2 ohms. If it is 0, there is a short. If it is over 2 ohms or infinite, there is an open. You can also dry the connector and retest to possibly get more accurate results.
What is the resistance of a 3 phase motor?
Most are between 3 and 2.0 ohms. There are 8ohms. A short between phases exists if you read zero.
Should a 3 phase motor have continuity?
The windings (all three in a three-phase motor) should read low but not zero ohms. The smaller the motor, the higher this reading will be, but it should not be open. It will usually be low enough (under 30 Ω) for the audible continuity indicator to sound.
How do you find the insulation resistance of a 3 phase motor?
Phase Resistance: Take the insulation tester and set it to 500V. Take each end and place it on different permutations of L1, L2 and L3 and record each reading. Phase to Earth Resistance: Take the insulation tester, using the same setting, and check each lead from phase to the frame of the motor.
How do you test a phase sequence with a multimeter?
You can set the Phase Rotation setting on your mutlimeter. Look for terminals labeled L1, L2 and L3 when inspecting the three-phase motor. The jacks that are labeled L1, L2, L3 should be connected to the power wires.
How do you test inductance?
Inductance is usually measured in units called millihenrys or microhenrys. It is commonly measured by using a frequency generator and an oscilloscope or an LCM multimeter. It can also be calculated through a voltage-current slope measuring the change in the electrical current passing through the coil.
What is LCR meter used for?
An LCR meter is a type of electronic test equipment used to measure the inductance (L), capacitance (C), and resistance (R) of an electronic component. | https://northstarchevrolet.com/car-parts/how-do-you-test-a-3-phase-induction-motor.html |
This seems like a googleable question, but I simply cannot come across anything.
I'm working on a 12v system (aluminum boat), trying to supply power to a motor 12ft away from the circuit breaker. Through online sources, I was able to determine that at the 45amp max, 6awg wire could handle it, with a 5% voltage drop.
The confusion enters when I try to calculate the voltage drop with this 6awg wire, plus the potentially 8awg wire that runs 1.5 feet from the battery to the circuit breaker.
How does one correctly calculate the voltage drop over two different gauged pieces of wire?
Each piece of wire is a resistor. Add up the resistance of all the wire that the current to the motor runs thru. Remember to consider both directions.
You find the resistance of each piece of wire by looking in a wire chart to get the resistance per unit length. Multiply that by the actual length of the wire segment to get the resistance of that segment.
Add up all the individual resistances of the individual wire segments. That's the total wire resistance in your installation. Multiply that by the current, and you have the voltage drop caused by the wire.
You can just first calculate the drop over the 6AWG wire: 45A, (assume DC) 12V, 6AWG, 12ft = 11.57 V.
Then for the extra: 45A, (assume DC) 11.57V, 8 AWG, 1.5ft = 11.517 V.
If your load is not DC you can recalculate. | https://electronics.stackexchange.com/questions/392852/how-to-calculate-voltage-drop-across-multiple-wire-gauges |
The construction of single phase induction motor is more or less similar to that of a poly-phase induction motor except that the stator is provided with a single phase winding. An induction motor with a cage rotor and a single phase stator winding is represented schematically in fig. a. Instead of being a concentrated coil, the actual stator winding is distributed in slots in order to give an approximately sinusoidally distributed mmf in space. Such a motor inherently has no starting torque, but if started by some auxiliary means, it no starting torque, but if started by some auxiliary means, it will continue to operate.
Single phase induction motors suffer from the several drawbacks such as low overload capacity, low efficiency, low power factor etc.
Single Phase Induction Motor
Fig. b
The explanation of single phase motor action may be given by any one of the following two theories
(i) Double revolving field theory is based on the idea that pulsating field produced in single phase motors can be resolved into two components of half its amplitude and rotating in opposite directions with synchronous speed.
Starting Methods and Types of single Phase Induction Motors. As already mentioned above the single phase induction motors are not self starting and need some means for starting. Commercial single phase induction motors are classified in accordance with the methods of starting employed. The various methods employed for starting are given below.
Split Phase Method. If two windings connected in parallel across single phase ac supply are displaced 90 electrical degrees in space and somewhat less than 90° in time, which is possible by connecting an impedance (resistor or capacitor) in series with one of the windings, a rotating field, very much like the field of a two phase motor, is produced. This is the principle of phase splitting and the single phase induction motors employing this principle for starting are known as split phase motors. Various types of split phase motors are given below.
(a) Resistance Start Motor. The motors of this type are provided with two windings, known as auxiliary (or starting) winding and main winding, with their axes displaced 90 electrical degrees in fig b The auxiliary winding has a larger resistance and lesser reactance than the main winding and sometimes extra resistance is inserted in series with the auxiliary winding, as shown in fig. b The auxiliary winding is made to have large resistance and low, reactance by winding it from finer were and placing it in the top of the slots. The two windings are so designed the currents in two windings Im and Is are about 20° to 30° out of phase in time.
Fig b
When the motor picks up the speed, 75 or 80% of synchronous speed the starting winding is taken out of circuit by a transfer or centrifugal switch. It is important that this should be done because otherwise it will result in overheating and burning out of auxiliary winding owing to its low current carrying capacity and there inefficient and noisy performance.
The resistance start split phase motor is commonly known as the split phase motor even though there are other forms of split phase motors. | http://www.transtutors.com/homework-help/electrical-engineering/ac-machines/single-phase-induction-motors.aspx |
Divide the motor speed by the required speed and round down to get a starting gear ratio. Then divide the required torque by the gear ratio to find the newly required torque. This will help you narrow the choices down to a few select motors.
How do you select a motor according to load?
A constant or variable torque and horsepower will be required for the industrial motor depending on the type of load the motor is driving. The size of the load, the required speed, and acceleration/deceleration—particularly if it’s fast and/or frequent—will define the torque and horsepower that is required.
How do you determine motor power?
By taking the voltage and multiplying it by the associated current, the power can be determined. A watt (W) is a unit of power defined as one Joule per second. For a DC source the calculation is simply the voltage times the current: W = V x A.
What is sizing a motor?
Motor sizing starts with a first pass estimation of all loading and a simple move profile defining the worst case acceleration and velocity requirements. This process follows Newton’s Laws of Motion. Sizing Steps. Define/calculate the key aspects of the motion profile required.
What does motor size mean?
What does engine size mean? Engine size may also be referred to as ‘engine capacity’ or ‘engine displacement’ and is the measurement of the total volume of the cylinders in the engine. The bigger the engine size, the more space there is for air and fuel inside it.
How do I choose the right motor?
10 Steps to Choosing the Right Motors for Your Robotic Project
- Step 1: Determine the total weight and traction requirements. …
- Step 2: Calculate the traction wheel rotation speed. …
- Step 3: Calculate the traction motor power/torque. …
- Step 4: Calculate the lifter motor rotation speed.
How do I choose a KV motor?
The KV value can be determined by the number of copper wire windings on the stator. Generally the higher number of winds decreases the KV of the motor, while lower number of winds increases the KV. The magnetic strength of the magnets can also affect the KV value, stronger magnets will increase KV.
How do you calculate motor load capacity?
When calculating motor loads, you need to know how to convert a motor’s current rating (given in amps) to a VA rating. To do this, multiply the motor’s nameplate amperage by the supply voltage.
What is the difference between reluctance motor and induction motor?
Induction motors develop torque because of a slip between the speed of the rotor and the speed of the magnetic flux rotating around the stator winding. … In the switched-reluctance design, however, the magnetic field in the rotor is time varying.
How much torque does my motor need?
To calculate load torque, multiply the force (F) by the distance away from the rotational axis, which is the radius of the pulley (r). If the mass of the load (blue box) is 20 Newtons, and the radius of the pulley is 5 cm away, then the required torque for the application is 20 N x 0.05 m = 1 Nm. | https://mccaffertyhyundai.com/auto-repair/question-how-do-i-know-what-size-electric-motor-i-need.html |
Impedance is the current limiting characteristic of a transformer and is expressed in percentage. It is used for determining the interrupting capacity of a circuit breaker or fuse employed to protect the primary winding of a transformer. The impedance (or resistance to current flow) is important and used to calculate the maximum short circuit current which is needed for sizing, circuit breakers and fuses. This percentage represents the amount of normal rated primary voltage which must be applied to the transformer to produce full rated load current when the secondary winding is short circuited. The maximum short circuit current that can be obtained from the output of the transformer is limited by the impedance of the transformer and is determined by multiplying the reciprocal of the impedance times the full load current.
High and Low Impedance Transformers:
High impedance transformers have a lower fault or short circuit current and have no need for high AIC rated breakers. However, they will have a higher voltage drop or regulation.
Low Impedance transformers on the other hand have a lower voltage drop or regulation but have a higher fault or short circuit current and will need higher AIC rated breakers.
Why is impedance given in a percentage?
The percentage impedance of a transformer (Z%) is the voltage drop on full load due to the winding resistance and leakage reactance expressed as a percentage of the rated voltage.
Electrical impedance of the load is expressed in ohms, and the relationship between the current and the voltage in the circuit is controlled by the impedance in the circuit. In general, impedance has a complex value, which means that loads generally have a resistance to the source that is in phase with a sinusoidal source signal and reactance that is out of phase with a sinusoidal source signal. The total impedance is the vector sum of the resistance and the reactance. The impedance is measured by shorting the low voltage terminals. With low voltage windings shorted, a voltage at the rated frequency is applied to the high voltage windings until full load current is circulated in low voltage windings. The ratio of voltage applied to circulate full load current to the primary voltage is the percentage impedance of the transformer.
The percentage impedance of the transformer is calculated as: Z%= (Impedance Voltage/Rated Voltage)*100
Thus a transformer with a primary rating of 110V which requires a voltage of 10V to circulate the rated current in the short-circuited secondary would have an impedance of 9%. | https://www.mgmtransformer.com/faqs/why-is-impedance-important/ |
This presentation will discuss a case study comparing the design of an in-hub permanent magnet motor in a mobility cart used to move supplies from one location to another. This case study will compare using both an inner rotation and outer rotation permanent magnet brushless motors that are mounted inside a wheel that has an 8 inch maximum diameter. This cart will be a four wheel cart with the motors in each wheel. The maximum load of the cart will be 1000 pounds and the maximum climb angle will be 5 degrees. The cart will have a maximum speed of 5 MPH. The motors will need to accelerate up to the 5 mph in less than a 5 second acceleration time. This case study will compare the magnet materials used in the designs and compare the construction differences of the two designs keeping the iron flux densities at 14 KG and varying the iron thicknesses as the airgap flux densities change. . The three motors in this case study will be an inner rotation brushless motor using sintered Neodymium magnets and two outer rotation motors using bonded Neodymium magnets and Ferrite magnets.
This application is for a self-propelled cart using 4 wheels with an in-hub motor in each wheel. This will allow each motor to supply one fourth of the total load. Since this cart is self-propelled, it could be operated either autonomously or by someone operating the cart. The cart was designed to be a platform with the drive, controller and batteries in the base of the cart. The platform could have any type of shelving or equipment mounted on it making it a very universal type or cart. This cart was originally designed to move medical supplies and equipment but it could also be used in several other types of applications such as retail stores, warehouses or in factories. If the cart is used autonomously, it would need some kind of guidance system but these systems are readily available and would not be a problem for the cart. Most of the operation of the cart would be on a flat surface but it needs to be capable of climbing up a ramp to move from one level surface to another. This would include starting on the incline and accelerating to the rated speed on the incline. There are several ways to limit this peak load condition in the controller for the motors to limit the motor temperature to prevent overheating. In the case of this cart, the continuous torque rating of the motors will be rated at one fifth of the peak torque condition needed to start and accelerate on a 5 degree ramp. This case study will use a 24 volt battery system for the power source. The goal will be to keep the peak current under 25 amps.
This application will use a permanent magnet brushless motor. This type of motor will work very well in this application because the brushless motor is very easy to control by using feedback from the system. The speed and torque of the motor will be instantaneously monitored to operate smoothly under changing load conditions. This will allow the cart to be operated autonomously with systems to monitor the close environment of the cart to react to changes such as a person walking in the path of the unit. Other ways to operate the unit would be with someone walking alongside the unit with a hand held control. The Permanent magnet brushless motor will make these control options very easy to maintain. This application will have direct drive motors internal to the wheels. This will eliminate the need for gearing and eliminate the losses associated with gearing. With an 8 inch wheel outer diameter at a maximum cart speed of 5 MPH, the wheel speed will be a maximum of 250 RPM. This low RPM will allow the motor to have a large number of poles without raising the magnetic switching frequency in the iron to a large frequency that would raise the iron losses. The large number of poles will also reduce the length of the copper wire crossovers in the motor end turns. These two factors will reduce the motor losses and improve the system efficiency.
Since this motor will be operating off battery power in a low voltage type application, the resistance of the motor will be critical. The resistance will cause an IR drop that will reduce the voltage available to the motor to obtain the speed needed. A minimum resistance value can be calculated from the application parameters. This value can be compared to resistance values in the range from the minimum and maximum Ke and Kt values that the motor can achieve for this application. The motor speed of the direct drive wheel is very low so the voltage will not be a large problem and a battery power source will work well. The low speed will require a high Ke and Kt value at battery voltages so the current levels for the torque needed can be low. This low current will reduce the I2R losses and improve the efficiency of the system. Another factor to look at will be the number of poles and slots of the motor. If we use a slot pitch of one, we will minimize the resistance lost in the crossovers of the winding. Going to a large pole count will also allow us to pick a pole and slot combination that will give a high winding factor.
There are 3 types of permanent magnet brushless motors to consider for this application. One choice is an internal rotor motor with a separate wheel mounted to the shaft of the motor. The second choice would be an outer rotating rotor with the wheel mounted to the outer rotating rotor. The third choice would be an axial flux motor which would have the rotating part of the motor serving as the motor spokes of the wheel. The most conventional one would be the inner rotation type of permanent magnet brushless motor with the magnets mounted inside the airgap on a rotating rotor. Since the magnets are located inside the airgap in this design, this would have a low magnet volume and would allow a higher cost magnet material to be used. This higher cost magnet would also have a higher energy and could be a thinner material. This will also help keep the volume down and the magnet cost down. The outer rotation motor has the magnets located outside the airgap and would have a large magnet volume. This would require a lower cost material and this material would tend to have a lower energy material which also will need a thicker magnet. This will make the volume higher and require a lower cost magnet material. The third type of permanent magnet brushless motor would be the axial flux motor. This motor design has the airgap as a disk in the center of the motor with a disc of magnets on one side of the airgap and a disc of windings on the other side of the airgap. The winding of this style of motor would not contain any iron so the winding would also be considered part of the air gap. This will require a thick magnet to drive the magnetic flux thru the large airgap. The large airgap will also reduce the flux density in the airgap giving the need for a lot of turns in the winding. This would tend to make the resistance of this motor high and since the motor is running on battery power the resistance will need to be kept low. There are ways to add the iron to the winding which would lower the resistance but this would not be to lower the resistance to the value needed. This style of motor was eliminated first in consideration for this application due to the high resistance.
The motors chosen for this case study were 20 pole 18 slot motors. This was done to be able to wind the coils around a tooth to keep the end turns as short as possible. This combination also will give a winding constant of 94% so the motor efficiency will not suffer too much from the fractional winding. The inner rotation motor will have the rubber wheel is mounted to a wheel that is attached directly to the shaft. The winding will be on the outside of the airgap making the airgap radius about half the motor diameter. The average air gap radius chosen is 1.75 inches. The windings will be in a slot with a depth of 1 inch to keep the resistance low. Since the winding area is outside of the airgap, there will be a large slot area allowing heavy wire to be used keeping the resistance low. The magnet used will be a sintered Neodymium magnet grade of 48H.This will give a high air gap flux density keeping the number of turns low and the stator resistance low. The outer rotation motors will have the rubber portion of the wheel mounted directly to the outer rotor. This allows the motor to have a larger diameter and since the winding is inside the airgap, the airgap diameter was increased to 5.5 inches. This larger diameter will reduce the tangential force needed. This factor would either reduce the number of turns or reduce the amount of airgap flux density needed. In this case study, lower energy magnets with a lower residue flux density were used to try to reduce the cost of the higher volume of magnet material needed.
Figure 1 shows a basic inner rotation motor. The inner rotation motor in this case study is using N48H Sintered Neodymium magnets. The airgap diameter is 1.75 inches. The high energy magnets will help the number of turns low and having the winding outside the airgap which gives a large area for the winding and also a good thermal path for heat out of the motor. The large winding area will help to keep the resistance low. This design will have the wheel outside the outer diameter of the motor so the maximum diameter of the motor will need to fit inside the inner diameter of the wheel. This does give and advantage in that the clearance between the outer diameter of the rubber wheel and the housing of the motor will be large enough to clear most obstructions on the floor. Another advantage of the inner rotation motor is that the winding is connected to the outer diameter of the motor giving a larger area and a good transfer path for heat to exit the motor. The disadvantage of this design style is that the motor diameter will need to be smaller to fit inside the inside diameter of the wheel. Figure 2 shows a typical outer rotation motor. Two different designs of this motor were investigated. One used BN12H bonded Neodymium magnets and the other used M8H ferrite magnets. The outer rotation motor can have a larger diameter for the motor since the rubber portion of the wheel can be mounted directly to the outer diameter of the rotor. One disadvantage of this is that the rubber wheel will be wider or have small clearance between the outer diameter of the rubber and the outer diameter of the rotor. The outer rotation motor will have just the magnets and back iron outside of the airgap so the radius to the airgap will be larger than in an inner rotation motor. This larger radius will allow the tangential force to be smaller and allows the lower energy magnet material to be used. The airgap diameter used for the bonded neodymium magnet was 5.55 inches with a 0.2 thick magnet. The ferrite magnet needed to be thicker at 0.3 inches thick giving a 5.35 air gap diameter. The mechanical differences allowed the bonded neodymium magnet motor to have the same stator length as the inner rotation motor making the overall wheel size the same and still have a similar Torque constant and motor resistance. The ferrite motor has the same basic magnetic circuit as the bonded neodymium magnet but the stack length was increased until the motor had similar resistance with the same torque constant as the other two motors.
Table 1 shows the magnetic properties of the three designs investigated. The design with the SN48H is an inner rotation motor using sintered Neodymium grade N48H magnets. Since this design is an inner rotation design, the winding will be outside the airgap and the magnets will be inside the airgap. Also the magnet material will be a high energy material so the magnet thickness can be kept small. The magnets used here were 0.10 inch and were in motor with a 1.75 airgap diameter and a 2 inch stack length. This gave a magnet weight of 0.46 lbs. The next design using the Bonded Neodymium magnets was on outer rotation motor with the magnets located outside the airgap and the windings located inside the airgap. This gave a larger radius for the airgap which will reduce the tangential force required to get the torque needed. This reduced tangential force will allow a lower flux density at the airgap and will allow a lower energy and lower cost magnet to be used. The bonded neodymium magnet material was used because it would give a similar performance to the sintered neodymium magnet motor in the same length stack and the basic motor size. The air gap diameter grew from the 1.75 for the inner rotation motor to 5.55 inches for the outer rotation motor. Also the lower energy magnet material needed a thicker magnet to be used. In this example the thickness was increased to 0.20 inches thick. These changes increased the magnet volume but the magnet material has a lower density so the total magnet weight for this design is 1.53 pounds. The third case was to use Ferrite magnets in the outer rotation motor. These magnets have a lot lower cost but also have a lot less energy. The stack length had to be changed to 3.5 inches to get similar performance out of the motor. Also the magnet had to be thickened to 0.30 inches for this design. This gives an airgap diameter of 5.35 and increases the volume to 17.2 inches cubed. The ferrite magnet also has a lower density so the total magnet weight will be 3.5 pounds. This is a lot higher weight than the Neodymium based magnet but it also has a lot less cost so the motor would be attractive if the larger motor length is not a problem.
Table 2 gives a performance comparison of the three designs. The direct drive of the motors incorporated in the wheels will give a low speed of the motors and require a high value for the Ke and Kt. The high value of the Kt will keep the current levels low. The Ke value picked was between 80 and 85 volts per KRPM. The input power can be a 24 volt battery source with a capability of a 25 amp trapezoidal drive. The resistances of the three motors were kept very similar and vary from 0.13 to 0.18 ohms with the ferrite magnet motor having the highest resistance. The inductances of the three motors were also very close and a value above 1 mH so the current ripple will not be a problem. The peak currents are all below the 25 amp maximum so the cart will be able to start and accelerate up the 5 degree incline. This table shows that all of the designs will work in this application and the only differences are in the construction of the motors and in the weight of the magnet materials. The two motor designs using the Neodymium based magnets are very similar in size but the Ferrite magnet motor will be a lot longer. The motor performance parameters are all very close as shown in Table 2. The main difference will be in the cost of the magnets for the motors. The outer rotation motor using bonded Neodymium magnets will have 3 times the magnet weight of the inner rotation motor using Sintered Neodymium magnets. The outer rotation motor using the Ferrite magnets will have 7 times the magnet weight of the inner rotation motor using the Sintered Neodymium magnets.
Three permanent magnet motors were designed to meet a specification for a self-propelled cart using an in-hub direct drive permanent magnet servo motor. These designs used different permanent magnet materials and compared the motor size and performance of a sintered Neodymium, a bonded Neodymium and a ferrite magnet material. This case study showed that the equivalent motors could be made from the 3 magnet materials. The performance of the motors was essentially the same but the motor designs and weight were different. The inner rotation would be the most conventional design and the easiest to fit into the cart wheels. The separate wheel can be the same length as the rubber surface used for the wheel and does not have clearance problems for items on the floor surface. The outer rotation motors would have the rubber portion of the wheel attached directly to the rotating outer rotor but this will give a longer rotor portion of the wheel and create problems with the clearance between the rotor and the floor if the rubber portion does not cover the entire rotor. The ferrite magnet version was longer and makes this clearance issue a bigger problem. The other problem would be in the magnet costs. The weight difference of the inner rotation Sintered Neo magnet motor to the outer rotation magnet motor gives three times the magnet weight which would keep the magnet costs similar. The Ferrite magnet outer rotation motor was longer in length and had about 7 times the magnet weight but the magnet material is significantly less cost and would be the cheaper motor to build. The easiest motor to fit into the wheel would be the inner rotation motor using the sintered Neodymium magnet. This motor would still be the recommended design unless the lower cost of the ferrite motor would override the problem of the heavier motor with the small clearance between the motor rotor and the floor surface. | http://trutechmotors.com/white-paper/the-design-of-an-in-hub-permanent-magnet-brushless-motor-for-a-four-wheel-transport-cart/ |
The electric motor is a device that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy and is widely used in various industries. As the power part of the industrial air compressor, it is highly valued by the air compressor manufacturer, because the quality of the motor is directly related to the stability of the air compressor performance. Therefore, our company is responsible for the attitude of the majority of users, it is necessary to inform the user of some knowledge of the air compressor often supporting the motor.
1. Winding disconnection check: Distribute the power cable in the motor terminal box. The megger, multimeter or check lamp is connected in series at the end and center line of the running winding or starting winding. Check between. The meter is not connected, the resistance is large or the light is not bright, indicating that the winding has an open circuit. 2, winding short-circuit check: You can check the insulation between any two-phase windings with a megger or multimeter. If the insulation resistance is very low, short circuit between the windings. Short circuit of the motor winding includes phase-to-phase short circuit, short circuit between windings, and short circuit between winding turns and turns. 3, winding leakage check: motor winding due to moisture, insulation aging may also cause damage to the enameled wire insulation caused by the collision of the motor winding and the casing due to transportation, moving and other factors. Then, because the motor is used in harsh environments, such as high ambient temperature and poor heat dissipation, the overload protection of the relay causes the motor winding to overheat and damage the insulation. All of these factors may cause leakage faults. The motor is degraded due to moisture, and should be dried. If it is a closed compressor, the whole machine can be baked in the box at a temperature of 110 ° C for 6 to 8 hours. The motor windings with leakage faults such as insulation damage can only be re-wound.
2. Remove the winding and scrape the original insulation layer in the stator slot and re-inser the insulation material. Generally, 120 g of kraft paper and plastic film are used for stator insulation.
3. Rewind the winding according to the number of turns of the original winding and measure its resistance. 4, each winding is inserted into the original groove in the direction of the original winding to prevent the wires from crossing.
4. The method of rewinding the winding of the motor winding: Determined 1. After the motor is faulty, all the windings are removed. Before the disassembly, the wire diameter and the number of turns of the wire should be recorded.
5, the windings are fastened with cotton rope, loaded into the rotor, power-on test, after starting normal, the motor is placed in a dry box with a temperature of 100 ° C to dry, 4 to 6 hours can be used. Our company's motor has a long service life, so you can use it according to the instructions. | https://air-compressor.net/screw-screw-air-compressor-parts-of-the-motor-screw-air-compressor-common-problems/ |
Recognizing motor winding problems
It’s always important to identify the real cause of burned windings and not just to replace the electric motor. Motor windings have a different appearance in all these failure situations: single-phase burnout, overload, unbalanced voltage, and voltage spikes. Voltage spike damage occurs more often in motors controlled by variable frequency drives.
These problems are all caused by in-plant faults that require correction. A replacement motor can fail sometimes immediately if the in-plant problem isn’t corrected.
It’s very important to accurately identify problems that require a motor’s removal and replacement. Winding problems that are identified should be documented. A history of the plant’s motor problems (on computer software) will point out problem areas that ran be improved, or even eliminated.
These winding problems may be found in a three-phase motor:
- Shorted turns
- Ground (winding shorted to frame)
- Phase-to-phase short
- Open winding
- Burned windings from operating on single phase
- Submerged motor
- Assorted rotor problems:
These problems require replacing or rewinding the motor.
1. Shorted Turns
A short is a common winding breakdown, and it requires rewinding or replacing the motor. Shorted turns are caused by nicked coil wire, high-voltage spikes, conductive contaminants, overheated winding, aged insulation, and loose, vibrating coil wires.
The most of the resistance to current flow in an AC motor is furnished by inductive reactance. The resistance of the wire in a complete phase is a very small percentage of the motor’s total impedance (resistance plus inductive reactance). Inductive reactance makes each turn very significant in the motor’s ampere demand. Each turn supplies much more inductive reactance than resistance.
A high circulating current is transformed into the loop (Figure 1a).
Power consumed by the circulating current increases the amperes of the faulty phase, making it easy to identify the problem. Circulating current in the closed loop often melts the circuit open. When this happens, the circulating current and the turns within the closed loop are eliminated.
See Figure 1(b).
Only the resistance of the wire (turns) within the closed loop is now eliminated from the phase winding. Without the ampere demand of the circulating current, the difference lessens between the amperes of the faulty phase and those of the normal phases.
A very small difference in resistance is all that is needed to identify the faulty phase. Please note that the rotor should be turned during this test to eliminate its effect. Shorted turns in any AC winding are usually visible. They become charred quickly from the high circulating current that is transformed into them (Figure 2).
2. Ground (winding shorted to frame)
When a motor is “grounded“, the winding is shorted either to the laminated core or to the motor’s frame. The problem is usually found in a slot, where the slot insulation has broken down. Water is the most common cause of a grounded winding. A solid ground requires rewinding or replacing the motor.
Some causes of slot insulation breakdowns are overheating, conducting contaminants, lightning, age, pressure of a tight coil fit, hot spots caused by lamination damage (from a previous winding failure), and excessive coil movement.
Excessive coil movement is often caused by thermal growth and/ or coil twisting torque, brought on by reversing (plugging) or a momentary power interruption.
3. Phase-to-Phase Short
A phase-to-phase short is caused by insulation breakdown at the coil ends or in the slots. This type of fault requires rewinding or replacing the motor. Voltage between phases can be very high. When a short occurs, a large amount of winding is bypassed. Both phase windings are usually melted open, so the problem is easily detected.
Among the causes of interphase breakdown are contaminants, tight fit (in the slot), age, mechanical damage, and high-voltage spikes. Coils that form the poles for each phase are placed on top of each other in all three-phase motors.
Figure 3 is a concentric-type winding. The coils don’t share the slots with other poles in some concentric-type windings.
Figure 4 is the lap-winding type. The ends of the coils are nested within each other and have phase insulation between the poles. The coils usually share the slots with other poles. Insulation also separates the coils of each phase in the slots. Some motors (up to 5 horsepower) are wound with no insulation separating the phases.
Phase-to-phase insulation is important because there is a line voltage potential between phases regardless of a motor’s horsepower.
Figure 5 is an end coil phase-to-phase short. A phase-to-phase short occurs in the slot more often than at the coil ends. When a breakdown occurs in the slot, copper usually melts and fuses to the slot laminations.
This copper has to be ground out and removed before the motor is rewound, or it becomes a hot spot and deteriorates the new insulation.
4. Open Winding
A common cause of an open winding is undersized lead lugs. Charred connections in the motor’s connection (terminal) box are a sure indication of this problem. Open windings are also caused by shorted turns, phase-to-phase shorts, ground-to-frame shorts, faulty internal coil-to-coil connections, severe overloads, and physically damaged coils.
These faults require rewinding or replacing the motor. An open winding will show several different symptoms (depending on the motor’s internal connection).
A microhmmeter is used to identify this problem. A motor with a high number of parallel circuits, that is, four and eight wye, will show less power loss when one circuit is open. Multiparallel circuit connections are used in motors above 5 horsepower. The windings of a severely overloaded motor (operating on 250 volts) usually become completely charred before an open winding occurs.
An overloaded motor operating on 490 volts, however, often will have no sign of burned wires before its windings melt open. In either case, the overload protection isn’t working, and the motor should be rewound or replaced.
Motor lead connecting lugs should be thick enough (throughout the connection) to represent the circular mil area (size) of the motor’s lead wire. If any part of the lug is too small, it becomes a resistor in series with the motor, and current will be restricted when the motor needs it the most – to start the load.
Figure 7 shows lugs that aren’t made for electric motors. Lug (a) is a piece of copper tubing, which has been partially flattened and has a hole
punched in it for the connecting bolt. Its ferrule will hold wire that has a much greater circular mil area than that of the bolted part of the lug.
Lug (b) is clearly not a motor duty lug.
5. Burned Windings from Operating on Single Phase
When one line of a three-phase power supply opens, the power becomes single phase. If this happens while the motor is running, its power output is cut approximately in half. It will continue to run, but it can no longer start by itself. Like a single-phase motor without its start winding energized, it has no rotating magnetic field to get it started.
5.1 Single-Phase Damage to a Wye-Connected Nine-Lead Motor
Figure 8 shows the current path through the wye connection. Two phases of the windings are energized; the third phase has no current flow. If the motor’s protection device doesn’t function, the two phases that carry current will overheat and char The phase without current flow will look normal.
Figure 9 is a picture of a single-phase-mused burnout in a four-pole winding.
Single-Phase Damage to a Delta-Connected Nine-Lead Motor
Figure 10 shows the current path through the delta connection, with an open phase. The A phase has extremely high current flowing through it. The other two phases have about half as much. The phase with high current will overheat and char if the motor’s protection device doesn’t disconnect it.
The phases that carry less current will look normal.
Figure 11 is a picture of a single-phase-mused burnout in a four-pole winding.
6. Submerged Motor
If a three-phase motor has been submerged in water but not energized, there’s a good chance it won’t need rewinding or replacing. Cleaning and baking the windings may be all that’s needed.
What should you do?
The motor should be disassembled as soon as possible. If the motor has ball bearings, they should be replaced. If it has sleeve bearings, the oil wicking material will pit or rust the shaft area located in the bearing window. Replace the oil wick material immediately. If the motor has an oil reservoir and oil ring, the reservoir should be thoroughly cleaned. The windings should be first tested with an ohmmeter.
The baking temperature shouldn’t exceed 93°C. The ohmmeter test should read infinity after baking. After the windings have been cleaned, dried, and tested, they will need a coat of air-drying varnish. When water soaks the slot insulation, the copper windings and the core become a form of battery. A small voltage can be read (with a millivoltmeter) between the winding and the frame when the slot insulation is wet.
A zero reading indicates the motor has been baked long enough. A megohmmeter, hi-pot, or surge tester can be used when an ohmmeter test shows infinity.
Further reading: Recommended maintenance practice for electric motors and generators
Recommended maintenance practice for electric motors and generators
7. Most Common Rotor Problems
This is a review of the rotor problems found in Chapter 3, with more detailed information:
- Open rotor bars
- Open end rings
- Misaligned rotor/stator iron
- Rotor dragging on the stator
- Rotor loose on shaft
7.1 Open Rotor Bars
Open rotor bars or end rings usually necessitate replacing the motor. They can be repaired, recast, or rebarred (if it’s economical). It’s important that any replaced metal be the same as the original. See Figure 12.
Open rotor bars are usually caused by:
- Overload burnout,
- Arcing in the slot from a shorted winding,
- Loose bar vibration,
- Thermal growth stress (from starting),
- Flaws in bar material (casting flaw), and
- Poor connections with end rings.
Open rotor bars cause loss of power. If too many rotor bars are open, a loaded motor will draw amperes high enough to open its protection device. With no load, the amperes will be very low. Slow starting and lower-than-rated RPM are a sign of broken rotor bars.
7.2 Open End Rings
Open end rings muse uneven torque and some power loss. A ring with one open spot will soon develop more open spots. Each time the open spot crosses a 90° spot between poles, the current will double in the ring area between the next two poles. See Figure 13 below.
Causes of open end rings and/or cracked end rings include the following:
- Flawed casting;
- Motor burned out from overload;
- Motor redesigned for a higher speed (without increased size of end ring);
- Ring material drilled away for balancing; thermal growth stress; and
- Mechanical damage.
A bubble or void in an end ring can cause an electrical vibration. This type of vibration can’t be corrected by balancing. It can be detected by cutting the power and allowing the motor to coast. Electrically mused vibrations will always cease as soon as the power is shut off.
7.3 Misaligned Rotor/Stator Iron
A motor with a misaligned rotor will draw high amperes and will lose power. The magnetic path becomes distorted, causing the magnetizing amperes to increase. The stator windings will char and resemble an overload burnout.
Possible causes of a misaligned rotor include:
- Wrong bearing shim placement
- Bearings not installed correctly on the shaft (extended race on wrong side)
- Wrong bearing width
- Captive bearing not held as originally placed
- End bells interchanged
- Stator core shifted on its shell
- A rotor shifted on its shaft
- A rotor replaced with a shorter rotor. A rotor with the same diameter but longer than the original will work, but some efficiency is lost.
7.4 Rotor Dragging on the Stator
If the rotor drags on the stator and the bearings aren’t worn, it’s common practice to “skim” the rotor on a lathe. The process increases the air gap, which increases the no-load amperes. The increased amperes are similar to a misaligned rotor and stator iron. The magnetic circuit is degraded, so it takes more amperes to magnetize the motor’s iron.
The motor will run hotter than normal, because the motor is drawing more magnetizing amperes. If the load is at maximum or there are any adverse conditions (such as low voltage or frequent starts), the motor should be replaced. There will be some permanent power and efficiency loss.
7.5 Rotor Loose on Shaft
A loose rotor on a shaft makes a rumbling or vibrating sound. The sound will cease after the power is turned off (while the motor is coasting). If the motor has operated this way for very long, a red dust will form between the shaft and rotor iron. This dust is oxidized iron, caused by the rubbing action between the shaft and the rotor iron. The same thing happens when a pulley or bearing is loose on a shaft.
The decision to repair a loose rotor depends on the price of a replacement motor and the importance of the motor in the plant operation.
There are options for this problem:
- The rotor (and shaft) can be replaced;
- The rotor can be bored out and a new shaft fitted to it; or
- A thin metal wedge can be driven between the shaft and rotor to secure it.
Wedging the rotor may offset it enough to make it drag on the stator. It would then be necessary to skim the rotor-on a lathe-to keep it from dragging. The rotor should be bored and fitted with a new shaft. In most cases, it is more economical to replace the motor.
Sources: | https://electrical-engineering-portal.com/troubleshooting-winding-problems-three-phase-electric-motors?replytocom=92342 |
To check the stator and rotor for an interturn circuit with a multimeter, it does not take much time. It will take longer to disassemble the engine. Angle grinder, drill, puncher. Each tool can be repaired by determining a malfunction. It is better to break the check into several main stages, and sequentially take steps slowly.
Dismantling angle grinder
To check the short circuit on the stator and rotor, you need to disassemble the engine of a household tool. Consider performing this operation to troubleshoot an angle grinder.
-
Remove the protective cover by unscrewing one screw on the clamp;
- Unscrew the 4 screws and disconnect the gear with the engine from the handle of the angle grinder;
- Then on the gearbox side, unscrew 4 bolts and disconnect the gearbox, together with the motor rotor;
- The stator in our case remained connected to the power and power button.
Having disassembled and disconnected the parts necessary for verification, we proceed to their external inspection by checking for inter-turn closure.
Visual inspection
A malfunction can be detected by uneven heating of the tool body. Touching your hand, you feel the temperature difference in different places of the case. In this case, the tool must be disassembled and tested with a tester and other methods.
In the event of a short circuit of the stator turns and troubleshooting, first of all, we conduct an inspection of the turns and conclusions. As a rule, when closing, the current flowing through the windings increases, and their overheating occurs.
There is a greater closure of the turns in the stator windings and the insulation layer is damaged. Therefore, we begin the determination of malfunctions by conducting a visual inspection. If burn-through and damaged insulation are not found, then proceed to the next step.
Perhaps the cause of the breakdown is a malfunction of the voltage regulator that occurs when the excitation currents increase. To detect a problem, the brushes are checked, they must be sharpened evenly and not have chips and damage. Then check with a light bulb and 2 batteries.
Multimeter application
Now we need to check the possibility of breaking the stator windings. On the multimeter scale, set the switch to the resistance measurement sector. Not knowing the measurement value, set the maximum value for your device. We check the performance of the tester.
Touch probes of each other. The arrow of the device should show 0. We carry out the work, touching the conclusions of the windings. When an infinite value is shown on the multimeter scale, the winding is faulty and the stator should be rewound.
We check the possibility of a short circuit to the case. Such a malfunction will cause a decrease in power of the angle grinder, the possibility of electric shock and an increase in temperature during operation. The work is carried out according to the same scheme. We include resistance measurement on the scale.
We place the red probe on the output of the winding, and attach the black probe to the stator housing. If the winding is shorted to the housing on the tester scale, the resistance value will be less than on a healthy one. This malfunction requires rewinding of the stator windings.
It is time to take measurements and check if there is an interturn circuit of the stator winding. For this, the resistance value on each winding is measured. We determine the zero point of the windings by measuring the resistance for each of them. If the device shows the least resistance of the winding, it should be changed.
Custom check
The most accurate way is to check the stator using a metal ball and a step-down current transformer. The stator is connected to the terminals of the three phases from the transformer. After checking the correct connection, we turn on our low-voltage circuit in the network.
We throw a ball inside the stator and observe its behavior. If it “stuck” to one of the windings. This means that an interturn circuit occurred on it. The ball spins in a circle. The stator is working. A rather unscientific, but effective method for detecting interturn circuit on a stator.
Rotor malfunctions
In the case of optimal use, the rotor does not wear out. Routine maintenance is carried out with the replacement of the brushes when they are worn. But over time, under heavy loads, the stator heats up and carbon deposits form. The most common mechanical failure is wear or misalignment of the bearings.
The angle grinder will work, but at the same time, the plates quickly wear out, and over time the engine breaks. To avoid damage, it is necessary to check the tool and maintain normal conditions of service. Moisture in contact with metal causes the formation of rust. The frictional force increases, the current strength is required more to work. Significant heating of contact groups occurs, solder, a strong spark appears.
Checking motor windings
The electronic rotor tester is a standard digital multimeter. Before proceeding to test the circuit, you should check the multimeter and its readiness for work. The switch is set to measure the resistance and touch the probes with each other. The device should show zeros. Set the maximum value of the measurement and check:
- First check the rotor for an open circuit. Touching the black probe to the slip ring, the windings should ring red. The arrow of the device is off scale, which means that the winding has an open circuit of turns. The rotor should be rewound;
- Measure the resistance to determine the possibility of a short circuit to the housing. We fix the black probe on the contact ring, the red rotor should ring to close the rotor case. In the case of a low reading of the resistance value and the sound signal, such an anchor must be given for repair;
- Conducting ringing on the inter-turn circuit of the turns of the rotor. We reinforce the probes on the contact rings of the anchor. With a value on the scale of the device, from 1.5 Ohms to 6 Ohms, we tested a working device. All other values on the scale indicate a malfunction of the multimeter.
This completes the verification of the rotor. Once again, the main steps in determining the malfunction should be recalled. Before checking, the angle grinder or any other device should be de-energized. Before taking measurements, you should visually inspect the housing, insulation and lack of deposits on the stator and rotor.
It is necessary to clean the contact surfaces from blockages with dust and dirt. Pollution leads to an increase in current during loss of motor power.
When disassembling the tool for the first time, record all your steps. This will allow you to have a hint the next time, to avoid the appearance of unnecessary parts during assembly. When the brush leaves the edge of the brush holder less than 5 mm, such brushes should be replaced. You can check the inter-turn circuit with an electronic tester, that is, a multimeter.
How to correctly determine the malfunction of the stator rotor of a Makita rotary hammer drill and pick up brushes
Any power tools begin to fail over time. Faults are divided into mechanical and electrical. Of electrical malfunctions, malfunctions associated with the failure of the brushes work are most often encountered. In second place: failure of the armature bearings. Failures associated with failure of the stator or rotor are less common. And how to determine the malfunction of the stator, rotor of the Makita 2450 and 2070 rotary hammer, replace the brushes? And here we will be helped by the circuit diagram of the Makita 2450, 2470 punch.
How to repair or replace Makita 2450 and 2470 rotary hammer drills
Replacement of the rotary hammer brushes is indicated by increased sparking in the area of the rotor manifold, burning odor, heating of the brush holders. For a new or repaired rotary hammer, the spark under the brushes is even, constant in length and there is no separation of the spark in a circle. Bearing wear, rotor insulation damage or stator unambiguously indicates a spark throughout the circle of the collector. The appearance of this kind of spark indicates the burnout of the collector plates, the failure of the rotor or stator.
How to remove the electric brush punch Makita
As a rule, it is recommended to change the brushes after 70. 120 operation of the power tool.
To replace the carbon brushes pos.65, they must be reached. The back cover must be removed from the punch; it is fastened with three self-tapping bolts.
Remove the cover
Disconnect lead wires. Using a screwdriver, remove the latches on the brushes and release them.
Remember! During prolonged use of the tool, it is not allowed to reduce the length of the working part of the brushes from the nominal by 1/3 (about 8 mm).When one brush is worn, both must be replaced.
Real and fake brushes
By the way, a fake can also work well if made from the right material and strictly according to the drawings.
How to make brushes yourself?
The cheapest way to pick up electric brushes is from other models of electric tools by grinding them to the right size with a regular file. This is economical but they will last less than the original ones. It is possible as an option to adjust the carbon rod of the battery or other elements.
Various batteries
It is necessary to take the battery and remove the central carbon electrode from it. It is necessary to grind the electrode with the help of files to the required dimensions of the old electric brush. (This is informational information and is not essential for the application)
It is worth noting that the quality of graphite directly affects the life and sparking.
Homemade carbon rod brushes
After making sure that the brushes are worn, select analogues.
Brush installation
Before you insert the brushes into place, it is necessary to clean the brush holders from soot. This is done with rags soaked in a solvent. It is preferable to remove carbon deposits in the form of particles obtained by intense sparking with a small file. The cleaned brush holders are put in place, brushes are inserted into them and clamped on top with latches.
Brush installed in brush holder
How to determine the integrity of the stator without disassembling the punch
To determine the integrity of the stator, it is necessary to ring its windings, measure the resistance of the winding and the insulation resistance.
Stator and rotor continuity diagram
To measure the resistance of the winding of a Makita puncher, one end of the tester must be connected to the freed brush holder, and the other at one end of the plug. If the appliance does not show anything, replace the other end of the plug. If the resistance is infinity, the stator is open and requires replacement or repair. Do not forget, you can not do without the circuit diagram of the Makita 2450.2470 rotary hammer.
Simple wiring for a commutator motor
If some resistance is shown, it is important to measure its exact value. As a rule, the stator winding resistance of a Makita-2450 rotary hammer at a temperature of 20 ° C lies within 25 Ohms.
To understand in more detail why sparking of the collector of the anchor occurs and which brushes are better? It will help to understand the, at the end of the review important tips for choosing brushes
Video: how to pierce an anchor and pick up brushes
How to remove the stator of a Makita 2450 and 2470 hammer drill for accurate diagnosis and repair
To remove the stator pos. 59, it is necessary to remove the brushes, unscrew the four screws that secure the cover of the mechanical unit. They twist at the end of the lid. Pulling the black housing and the green in different directions, you will release the housing with a stator. The stator is fixed in a green case.
To remove it, you need to remove the plastic gasket pos. 58 and knock on the end of the case with a wooden mallet or bar. The stator will stick itself out, it will remain to pull it out, blow it and check it completely.
And here is the stator
If you have a short circuit tester, you can immediately check the stator for a short circuit. The device is called IK-32. The procedure for checking the stator windings For an accurate test, disconnect the two stator windings from each other in an electrical circuit. Check the resistance of each winding, they must be exactly the same. With a difference of resistances, a winding with a lower resistance most likely has an interturn circuit.
Do-it-yourself check of the stator of the Makita 2470 and 2450 puncher Diagnostics of the anchor, stator with a KZ device and homemade
Video: Diagnostics of the anchor and stator Short Circuit Indicator. Checking the anchor. Checking the stator.
How to check the suitability of a Makita rotary hammer rotor
The validation of the rotor in a Makita puncher begins with its dismantling from the housing. But first, you need to conduct external research. If the spark from the brushes on the collector in the rotor covers the collector’s weight, if the hammer does not develop revolutions during operation and its power drops, this is the first sign of a rotor malfunction.
How to get the rotor out of the casing To get the rotor out of the casing, it is necessary to separate the black and green casing as in the case of the stator dismantling.
Pull out the rotor
Having disconnected the stator housing, take the gear housing (black) in the right hand, and the rotor in the left and pull it in different directions until they are completely disconnected. The rotor is held in the gearbox due to the friction of helical gears.
Carefully inspect the rotor manifold. It should not be scratched by brushes. Collector lamellas must be clean.
Clean collector
To check the integrity of the collector, you must use a short circuit detection device. It is easiest to make a chain ring according to the circuit diagram of a Makita 2470.2450 rotary hammer. By the way, you can make such a device yourself if you know how to communicate with a soldering iron.
Short circuit probe circuit
If you are convinced of a rotor malfunction, you can install a new one, or you can try to recover a failed one.
Installation and assembly of a new rotor
Rotor replacement does not require special knowledge and can be performed by any user.
The rotor is inserted into the mechanical block with a helical gear to a snug fit.
Remember! It is very important to correctly install the bearing pos.56 and the rubber ring 10 pos.77. In the Makita 2450 rotary hammer on the rotor, the bearing 607LLB pos.56 or domestic analogue 80017 is used on the rotor side of the manifold, and the bearing 609LLU pos.51 or 609LLU is installed on the impeller side analog 80019.
Properly installed rubber ring 19
After installing the rotor, closing it with the casing, put the electrobrushes in place and check the performance of the punch.
Video: how to check the anchor, stator
Video: The hammer rotates and does not twist. How to fix it? Do not forget to read the description of the!
Video: Lubricating sealed ball bearings, trick
Video: how to disassemble the makita HR2450 puncher in 5 minutes to the smallest detail
All! You have accomplished a difficult task. The hammer drill works.
How to check the motor anchor at home?
An electric motor anchor refers to the rotating part on which dirt is collected, soot is formed. In case of malfunctions, you can carry out diagnostics at home visually and with a multimeter. On rubbing surfaces there should not be chips, scratches and cracks. If any are found, measures are taken to eliminate them.
Typical malfunctions
The motor armature is not subject to wear during normal operation. Only brushes are replaced, measuring the permissible length. But with prolonged loads, the stator windings begin to heat up, which leads to the formation of soot.
Due to mechanical stresses, the motor armature can be skewed if the bearing assemblies are damaged. The engine will work, but the gradual wear of the lamellas or plates will lead to its final failure. But to save expensive equipment, it is often enough to carry out preventive repairs and the device can be used for a long time.
Negative factors affecting the motor armature include moisture on metal surfaces. Critical is the prolonged exposure to moisture and the appearance of rust. Due to red clusters and dirt, an increase in friction occurs, this increases the current load. The contact parts are heated, the solder can exfoliate, creating a periodic spark.
A service center can help, but it will require certain costs. You can deal with the breakdown yourself, having familiarized yourself with the question: how to check the motor armature at home. For diagnostics, you need a device that measures resistance and tools.
How is the malfunction diagnosed?
Checking the motor armature begins with the determination of the fault itself. A complete failure of this assembly occurs due to the scattered collector brushes, destruction of the dielectric layer between the plates, and also due to a short circuit in the electrical circuit. In case of sparking inside the device, it is concluded that the current collectors are worn or damaged.
Sparking of brushes begins due to the appearance of a gap at the point of contact with the collector. This is preceded by a fall of the device, a high load on the shaft during jamming, as well as a violation of the integrity of the solder at the terminals of the windings.
A malfunction on a running electric motor is manifested by typical conditions:
- Sparking is the main symptom of a malfunction.
- Hum and friction during rotation of the anchor.
- Sensible vibration during operation.
- Change of direction of rotation when the anchor traces less than a turn.
- The smell of melting plastic or strong heating of the body.
What to do when the listed deviations in the work appear?
The frequency of rotation of the motor armature is kept constant. At idle, the malfunction may not occur. Under load, friction is compensated by an increase in the current flowing through the windings. If deviations in the work of the angle grinder, drill, starter become noticeable, then you need to remove the voltage supply.
Further use of the equipment may result in a fire or electric shock. First of all, it is recommended to inspect the product body, evaluate the wiring for integrity, the absence of fused parts and damage to the insulation. The temperature of all parts of the device is checked by touch. They try to rotate the anchor by hand, it should move easily, without jamming. If the mechanical parts are intact and there are no contaminants, they proceed to disassembly.
Diagnostics of the internal parts
The winding of the motor armature should not have soot, dark spots, similar to the effects of overheating. The surface of the contact parts and the gap area must not be clogged. Fine particles reduce motor power and increase current. It is not necessary to disassemble devices with a plug plugged into the network for the safety of work.
It is recommended to take pictures of the disassembly process to eliminate difficulties in the reverse process. Or you can write on a piece of paper every step of their actions. Some wear of brushes, lamellas is allowed. But if scratches are found, the cause of their origin should be found out. Perhaps this was facilitated by a crack in the body, which can be seen only under load.
Work with an ohmmeter
Sincere could happen due to the loss of electrical contact in one of the lamellas. To measure the resistance, it is recommended to place the probes on the side of the current collectors. Rotating the motor shaft, watch the dial. There should be zero values on the screen. If the numbers slip even a few ohms, then this indicates a burnt. When an infinite value appears, an open circuit is judged.
Regardless of the results, you should then check the resistance between each adjacent lamellas. It should be the same for each measurement. In case of deviations, it is necessary to inspect all the coil connections and the contact surface of the brushes. The brushes themselves should have uniform wear. With chips and cracks, they must be replaced.
Coils are connected to the core by wiring that could peel off. Solder often does not withstand impacts from falls. At the starter, the current through the contacts can reach 50A, which leads to the burning of poor-quality connections. External inspection determine the location of damage. If there is no malfunction, then measure the resistance between the lamella and the coil itself.
If there is no ohmmeter?
In the absence of a multimeter, a 12 Volt power supply and a bulb for the corresponding voltage will be required. Any motorist with this set will not have problems. The positive and negative terminals are connected to the plug of the electrical appliance. An incandescent lamp is placed in the gap. The result is observed visually.
The armature shaft is rotated by hand, the lamp burns without surges in brightness. If attenuation is observed, a faulty engine is judged. Most likely, there was an interturn closure. Complete disappearance of the glow indicates a break in the chain. The reasons may be non-contact of the brushes, a break in the winding or lack of resistance in one of the lamellas.
How to “revive” a faulty device?
Repair of the motor armature begins only after full confidence in the failure of the node. Scratches and chips on the lamellae are cleaned with a circular groove of the surface. Soot and soot can be removed with cleaning products for contact electrical connections. Broken bearings are repressed and replaced with new ones. It is important to keep the shaft balanced during assembly.
The rotation should be easy and without noise. Damaged insulation is restored, you can use ordinary electrical tape. Suspicious connections are best soldered again. For problems with the coils of the anchor, it is recommended to resort to rewinding, which can be done independently.
Coil Recovery
You can rewind the motor anchor in a garage, only you need to be careful when applying each turn. Copper wiring is selected similarly wound. The section can not be changed, this will lead to a violation of the high-speed modes of the engine. Dielectric paper is required to separate the windings. Coils at the end are varnished.
You will need a soldering iron and skills to use it. The joints are treated with acid, rosin is used to apply tin-lead solder. When dismantling the old winding, the number of turns is counted and the same amount of new winding is applied.
The case must be cleaned of old varnish and other inclusions. A file, sandpaper or burner is suitable for this. Sleeves are made for the anchor, the material is electrotechnical cardboard. The resulting blanks are laid in grooves. Wound coils should be done in right turns. Conclusions from the side of the collector are rewound with kapron thread.
Each wire is soldered to the corresponding lamella. The assembly should end with the next measurements of the resistance of the contact joints. If everything is normal and there are no short circuits, you can check the operation of the electric motor under voltage.
Check the rotor angle grinder
Breakdowns in the failure of the electrical part of the angle grinder can be divided into only two categories:
- Mechanical rupture of current conductors, which can be detected in the lead wires, power buttons and contact points of the working windings. To determine the absence of breaks, the electrician “multimeter” is used in the resistance measurement mode or an ohmmeter. All electrical sections are checked separately: supply to the electric motor, connections on the contacts of the stator and rotor windings.
- Electrical breakdown of working coils, which can be detected by darkening of conductors, or can be visually hidden. In any case, the tester will have to check the anchor and stator for an angle grinder for the absence of short-circuited turns, which may not always be effective, and a specialized device will be needed for accurate diagnosis.
Checking the performance of the stator
How to check the stator angle grinder with improvised means:
- The stator can have two main failures. A break in the conductor or the occurrence of short-circuited turns. At the same time, testing by a tester in the resistance measurement mode of up to 200 Ohms is able to show only the absence of breaks with average resistance indices, which should not differ between phase windings.
- The absence of breaks in the stator windings can be determined by any low-voltage probe: a pair of wires, a battery, a light bulb. But there is no way to detect the presence of a short circuit in the circuit in this way, therefore, experienced electricians test it experimentally: voltage is applied to the phase coils, and a metal ball is placed in the center between the poles of the windings, which, under normal windings, will “search” for the point of electromagnetic balance. The rotation of the ball indicates the absence of short circuit in the coils, the offset from the center is a short circuit in the conductors on the opposite side.
Attention. This method is unsafe due to the use of high voltage and unpredictable movement of the metal ball.
- It is safe and accurate to check the stator angle grinder only with a professional tool.
Checking the performance of the anchor angle grinder
An anchor angle grinder is stronger than the rest of the nodes subjected to various electromagnetic, mechanical and thermal influences, therefore it is precisely the rotor that most often causes the tool to fail.
How to check the anchor for an angle grinder with improvised tools:
- An anchor breakdown involves two types of faults: a break in the conductors on the lamella contacts, a short inter-turn short circuit in one or several windings. An electric tester in the resistance measurement mode up to 200 Ohm makes it possible to detect breaks and complete shorting of the winding (it will show an immensely low resistance), and in the resistance measurement mode of about 1 MΩ, the reliability of the electrical insulation of the windings of the working coils to the metal rotor case is checked.
- The absence of a pronounced short circuit in the armature windings does not completely disable the tool, but there is an increased heating of the engine, a decrease in its speed, which will eventually lead to a complete engine failure. Therefore, for any repair of the tool, it is absolutely necessary to ring the anchor of the angle grinder not only with a tester, but also check with a specialized device that detects even minor short circuits.
Repair or replacement of electrical components angle grinder
When repairing a power tool, it is necessary to clearly understand how to correctly check the anchor and stator of an angle grinder:
- The tester allows you to measure the resistance of the windings and detect breakages in the conductors, therefore, even compliance with the table readings of the measurements does not guarantee the operability of the device, but only indicates severe mechanical breakdowns.
- Checking the short-circuited turns in the coils is carried out by professional or home-made devices that measure the changes in the inductance of each working winding, because Short circuit reduces the level of EMF.
- When repairing a tool, it is often found that externally all the windings are intact, but they have short circuits. The operation of such a tool is unsafe, so the question arises of the need to rewind the stator, rotor or replace the “punched” unit.
- Practice shows that recovery measures (rewinding) even in a repair shop does not guarantee long-term reliable operation of the device, therefore it is recommended not to risk it, but immediately install spare parts from the manufacturer. | https://chaika.net/how-to-ring-a-stator-on-an-angle-grinder/ |
shorted portion of the winding is lost. This,
in turn, places more load on the active
winding, causing the motor to draw higher
voltage and amperage with a concurrent
increase in winding temperature. In this
condition the motor either fails to start, or it
starts and continues to run, finally causing the
overload protector to open. The fuses may
also blow. The result is likely to be a burnout
where the insulating varnish deteriorates from
excessive heat. Ultimately a ground or short
occurs.
An
ohmmeter
can be used to check
windings for shorts. For most applications a
low-range meter with a scale graduated in
tenths of ohms between 0 and 2 ohms is best.
However, to check motors throughout the
sizes normally encountered in hermetic
motor-
compressor
units, a range of 0 to 25
ohms is necessary. The meter is used to
measure resistance of the windings. The
r e a d i n g s a r e c o m p a r e d w i t h d e s i gn
resistances. A short is shown when measured
resistance is less than design resistance. The
ohmmeter connections are the same as those
shown in figure 14-30.
Often manufacturers data is not available
and the design resistances are not known.
Table 14-1 lists the approximate resistances
for fractional
horsepower
single-phase motors.
The following guidelines may also be helpful:
1. The starting winding of low-starting
torque
motors usually has a resistance of
about seven to eight times that of the running
winding.
2. The starting winding resistance of
high- starting
torque
motors is usually three
to four times that of the running winding.
GROUNDED WINDINGS
A ground is the result of an electrical
conductor in contact, either directly or
indirectly, with the motor frame or the metal
Table 14-1.Approximate Resistances for Fractional
shell of the unit. Either the starting winding,
the running winding, or both can be affected.
The ground is either one of low
resistance
or
one of high resistance. A low-resistance
g r o u n d i s i n d i c a t e d w h e n f u s e s b l ow
repeatedly and the motor fails to start. A
high-resistance ground is shown by an
occasional blown fuse, but more often, by the
opening of the overload protector.
Three methods of testing windings for
grounds are the
ohmmeter
continuity test, the
test lamp
continuity
check, and the
resistance
measurement with a
megohmmeter
. The
procedure to follow in making each of these
tests is provided below.
Ohmmeter Continuity Test
(Low-Resistance) Procedure
To perform an ohmmeter continuity test,
proceed as follows:
Disconnect the power and remove the
wires from the motor terminals.
Scrape off paint and clean a spot on
the motor-
compressor
shell for testing.
Figure 14-33.Testing windings for
ground with an ohmmeter.
14-20
Privacy Statement
Press Release
Contact
© Copyright Integrated Publishing, Inc.. All Rights Reserved. Design by
Strategico
. | http://constructionmanuals.tpub.com/14259/css/Grounded-Windings-306.htm |
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Welcome to electronics2electrical.com here you can ask questions related to electrical, electronics, mechanical, telecommunication, instrumentation, computer, mathematics, physics etc.Be respectful to all the members. Do not copy and paste the answers from other websites which have copyright content. While asking question give full details about it. | https://electronics2electrical.com/5290/ |
All Westport assault in the third-degree arrests are very circumstantial and are usually very unique to the facts of each individual case, especially in domestic violence third-degree assault cases. The prosecution is tasked with proving Westport assault in the third-degree. The prosecution has to prove two elements: they have to prove intent to cause physical injury to another person as well as proving that the injury actually occurred. An experienced assault in the third-degree attorney could devote the time and resources necessary to disprove the prosecution’s argument. If an individual has been accused of assault in the third-degree they should speak with a determined lawyer that can fight for them.
The general procedure for investigating a third-degree assault case is that an officer will speak to all parties involved and then determine whether or not enough probable cause exists to make an arrest. Alternatively, they could issue the person a criminal summons, which would look like a ticket but is technically an arrest. The criminal summons would have a date on which the person is required to appear in court.
When proving Westport assault in the third-degree, the prosecution may use evidence such as photographs of the injury, witness statements, statements from the accuser, any medical records, and the testimony of witnesses that they put on the stand.
If there are physical injuries, it makes it easier for the prosecution to prove that the injury did occur as a result of the defendant’s actions. If there were no physical injury, that would make it harder for the prosecution to prove that the defendant intended to cause physical injury and that they did actually cause physical injury.
Self-defense is defined under Connecticut General Statute 53a-19 and is a potential defense that the defense team can use. The statute says that physical force in a person’s own defense or in the defense of a third party is justified in very limited circumstances. People can defend themselves or another person from what they reasonably believe is the use of imminent physical force.
In certain instances, self-defense can be misconstrued if the situation does not look like they were acting in self-defense or if there seems to be no imminent danger. A defense attorney could help prove to the prosecutor and to the court that the other party was the initial attacker and was using physical force at that time, and the defendant felt it was necessary to defend themselves from that imminent danger.
There are some benefits to prosecutors putting an alleged victim on the stand when proving Westport assault in the third-degree. Often times, complainants will be very emotional and are able to appeal to the jury, but during cross-examination, there could be a lot of inconsistencies in the alleged victim’s statement that the defense attorney will be able to use to show to a jury that they may not actually be telling the truth.
If both the accused person and the accuser developed some level of credibility with the court, the court will take both of them into consideration and that will be viewed more favorably in the eyes of the prosecution and the judge when negotiating the best possible deal.
Just as there are benefits and challenges to putting the complainant on the stand, there are also positive and negative aspects of putting the accused on the stand. It is the defendant’s constitutional right to decide whether or not they want to take the stand. Some of the benefits include being able to tell their own story and possibly appealing to the jury, but some of the challenges stem from the fact that the defendant is opening themselves up to cross-examination and any past misdeeds of theirs can be used against them.
There are ways to establish the accused’s credibility in the eyes of the court. They can engage in anger management treatment or some other type of therapy on their own accord to show the court that they are not a threat. They can do some community service or, if the arrest is related to substance abuse, they can seek substance abuse evaluation and treatment on their own accord.
When faced with assault in the third-degree charges, it is important to work with a lawyer that has experience defending against assault charges. It is also important for individuals to work with attorneys that they trust. Any discussions between an attorney and the defendant are completely confidential, which allows the defendant to be completely truthful and forthcoming with their attorneys so that the attorney is privy to all the details of the case and can effectively negotiate with the prosecutor. The prosecution fights diligently when proving Westport assault in the third-degree, which is why individuals need to work with attorneys that are just as determined, and willing to fight for them. If an individual has been charged with an assault in the third-degree offense, they could devote the time and resources necessary to achieve a positive outcome for them. | https://www.ctdomesticviolencehelp.com/westport/assault-lawyer/third-degree/proving/ |
In early March 2017, Janel Boer, 43, from Scotts, Michigan was arraigned on open murder and felony firearm charges for the alleged shooting death of her husband Gregory Boer. The shooting happened, and Gregory Boer died, on Valentine’s Day.
Very little else is known about this case. Janel Boer had called to report the shooting, deputies responded, and Gregory Boer was found dead at the scene. Janel also had an apparent gunshot wound. She became a suspect and was arrested on March 1.
Boer’s attorney has declined to speak about her injuries. He has told the press that her relationship with her husband was volatile. In addition, he believes she will be vindicated when evidence is presented in court. Bond was denied to Boer at her arraignment.
We can’t know if Boer’s attorney will argue a self-defense motive because we don’t know all of the details of the case. Generally, courts recognize a person’s right to protect him or herself from harm under threatening circumstances – even if what you do to protect yourself with otherwise be seen as a crime.
Each state, and also our federal government, allows a defendant to claim self-defense when charged with a violent crime. The specific rules vary according to the jurisdiction.
Self-Defense and Imminent Threat
The law says violence in self-defense is justifiable only in response to an immediate threat.
For example, if someone pulls a gun on you and you have the means to shoot that person in self-defense. This would be justifiable homicide self-defense.
What if someone merely says, “I’m going to kill you?”. Would you be justified in shooting that person if you had the means to do so? It’s possible. The threat can be verbal. However, it has to put the intended victim in fear of immediate harm.
In other words, you would have to prove you feared for your life immediately.
Another example is if you were the victim of an assault. You could use a self-defense motive if you fought back with corresponding violence in the midst of that assault. However, if you used violence later – after the threat of injury had passed – the likelihood of a self-defense motive working for you in court would go down. That action looks more retaliatory than defensive.
Imperfect Self-Defense
An argument for imperfect self-defense has sometimes been used in court by defendants who either unreasonably feared harm or who provoked the argument which led to the violence that made him or her need to use self-defense.
A defendant like Janel Boer could claim she was afraid for her life. She could claim she acted violently when no imminent threat was apparent – although her injuries seem to suggest otherwise.
Or she could claim that, although she started the argument, the confrontation became violent and, since she was the weaker party, she felt her life was in danger if she didn’t use lethal force.
We don’t know Janel Boer’s story. However, if she were in a state that accepted imperfect self-defense and this was her story, she would most likely not be acquitted. However, it would reduce the severity of her sentence.
The Michigan Supreme Court does not recognize imperfect self-defense as an “independent theory that automatically mitigates criminal liability for homicide from murder to voluntary manslaughter.” It does recognize that that argument is true for some circumstances, however.
Take Away
In situations where you feel you need to defend yourself – right or not – you are most likely afraid and not taking the time to think through every implication of what you’re doing. In Janel Boer’s case, her attorney will use every piece of evidence he can to show she acted in a way any reasonable person would in her situation.
If you are facing murder charges and you know you acted in self-defense, call us right away. Having an experienced defense attorney is critical. | https://www.novilaw.com/2017/03/self-defense/ |
If an individual is in the middle of a crime and the police show up. They may choose to grab another person to keep them hostage and use them as a human shield to avoid arrest. Thus increasing the risk of harm to the other person. This action is defined as illegal under the California Penal Code Section 210.5 PC.
The exact language of the statute states:
Every person who commits the offense of false imprisonment, as defined in Section 236, against a person for purposes of protection from arrest, which substantially increases the risk of harm to the victim, or for purposes of using the person as a shield.
Thus according to this statute, if a person detains, restrains, or confines another person without their consent to avoid arrest, increase the chances of the hostages facing danger will be in violation of the Penal Code 210.5 PC statute.
PC 210.5 – Sentencing
If you are convicted under the California Penal Code 210.5 PC statute, the crime will be labeled a felony.
The penalties for this crime include:
- Three, five, or eight years, incarceration
The defendant may also have to face additional penalties if sentenced under this statute:
- Great Bodily Injury Enhancement – Penal Code 12022.7 PC
- Battery – Penal Code 242 PC
- Kidnapping – Penal Code 209 PC
This statute sentences the defendant to an additional six years in prison to their sentence for the false imprisonment charge if the hostage suffered physical harm.
The accused would be in violation of this statute at any time during the false imprisonment of a hostage, they used force or violence on the victim.
To face penalties under this statute for false imprisonment of a hostage. The defendant must have moved the victim a substantial distance against their will.
Crimes Related to the False Imprisonment Of A Hostage
- Kidnapping – California Penal Code Section 207 PC
- Robbery – California Penal Code Section 211 PC
- False Imprisonment – California Penal Code Section 236 PC
- Battery – California Penal Code Section 242, 243
- Holding a Hostage – California Penal Code section 4503
PC 210.5 – Prosecuting
For the prosecutor to prove the defendant is guilty under Penal Code 210.5 PC, they must provide irrefutable of the following elements:
- The defendant faced a threat or risk of imminent arrest.
- The accused restrained, confined, or detained another using force or threatening to use force.
- The defendant intended to protect themselves from immediate arrest by detaining the other person.
- The defendant made the hostage stay or go somewhere against the hostage’s will.
- The accused actions either significantly increased the risk of physical or psychological danger to the victim or
- They intended to use the victim as a human shield.
Kindly note the prosecutor has to prove the defendant committed these acts against the hostage without their consent. For consent to be given, an individual must act freely and voluntarily and should know the specific nature of what they are consenting to.
PC 210.5 – Defenses
There are several defense strategies that a criminal defense lawyer can use to confidently argue your case:
No Imminent Threat Of Arrest
Seeing as the immediate threat of arrest is a key element needed to prove the defendant violated Penal Code 210.5 PC. If the defendant did not face this threat. They can use this to argue their case.
Victim Gave Consent
If the victim inexplicably gave consent for the accused to restrain, confine or detain them. This should not count as false imprisonment of a hostage. Hence, the accused can use it to defend their case in court.
No Increased Risk Of Harm
If the hostage is under no increased risk of danger. Then the defendant is not in violation of Penal Code 210.5 PC. If the defendant can prove they had no intention or means to harm the victim. They can escape being charged under this statute.
False Imprisonment of A Hostage – Hire Us?
Being charged for the false imprisonment of a hostage is a severe crime. This is why it is important to hire a criminal defense attorney as soon as possible. The Esfandi law has over 20 years of experience handling criminal cases in California. This means they have the right experience and knowledge of California courts, judges, and prosecutors to aggressively argue your case, and get your Penal Code 210.5 PC charges dropped, dismissed, or reduced.
Need a Criminal Defense Attorney? CALL NOW: 310-274-6529
Seppi Esfandi is an Expert Criminal Defense Attorney who has over 21 years of practice defending a variety of criminal cases.
How to Win Your Case
We cannot stress enough that you read, understand and follow these 10 basic rules if you are criminally charged or under investigation:
- Don’t ever talk to the police
- Do not discuss your case with anyone
- Everything you tell your lawyer is confidential
- Tell police you need to contact your attorney
- Never consent to any search by the police
- If the police knock on your door, don't answer! | https://esfandilawfirm.com/crimes/pc-210-5-false-imprisonment-of-hostage/ |
What are the 4 elements of self defense?
An individual does not have to die for the force to be deemed deadly. Four elements are required for self – defense : (1) an unprovoked attack, (2) which threatens imminent injury or death, and (3) an objectively reasonable degree of force, used in response to ( 4 ) an objectively reasonable fear of injury or death.
When can you legally defend yourself?
If you ‘re defending yourself or someone else, you can use deadly force if you reasonably believe it’s necessary to prevent: Imminent death or great bodily harm to yourself or another person, or. A forcible felony (e.g. sexual assault , battery, murder, robbery , arson).
Why is self defense legal?
As a general rule, self – defense only justifies the use of force when it is used in response to an immediate threat. The threat can be verbal, as long as it puts the intended victim in an immediate fear of physical harm.
Can you go to jail for killing someone in self defense?
Death by Self – Defense Self – defense killings are not charged as crimes. If you are forced to kill another person in self – defense , you can avoid criminal charges as long as your actions were justified. The identity and history of the aggressor can also play an important role in a self – defense killing case.
What are the 5 elements of self defense?
There are five inter-related elements necessary to justify use of deadly force in self-defense: Innocence, imminence , proportionality, avoidance and reasonableness. They are well illustrated here. Of these five elements, the overriding one here and in most cases is reasonableness.
Can you legally hit a woman in self defense?
You can hit a woman or man in self defense or in defense of another. Issue is always whether the defense was reasonably necessary given the particular circumstances.
Can you get fired for self defense at work?
Typically, when an employee has been fired because that employee acted in self – defense in response to lethal imminent danger, such right of self – defense constitutes such a violation of public policy, and is an exception to the at-will employment doctrine.
Can you hit someone if they touch you?
We took the question to Micah Schwartzbach, a California criminal defense lawyer and editor at Nolo. In short, the answer is “yes” — but the punch has to be made in self-defense. Second, you can only punch someone if they ‘ve already taken a swing at you or if you believe you ‘re about to be hit .
Can you legally defend yourself against a cop?
Other cases citing Plummer likewise noted that while a person may defend himself against an officer’s unlawful use of force, they may not resist an unlawful arrest being made peaceably and without excessive force.
Should you fight back if attacked?
If the attacker is after money, throw your purse/wallet towards them and run in the opposite direction. Fight back if you have to. If the attacker is trying to cause you harm and you are unable to escape or get help, then self defence could be your best option.
What is not considered self defense?
A criminal defendant may not use deadly force to respond to a threat that was not itself deadly. Thus, for example, if a defendant is faced with the threat of being punched in the face during an argument, he cannot respond by stabbing the other individual. This would not constitute self – defense .
What is excessive self Defence?
of excessive self – defence is available] is that a man actually defending. himself from the real or apprehended violence of the deceased has. used more force than was justified by the occasion and that death has. ensued from the use of excessive force.
Is killing in self defense morally right?
By this principle, an action – such as killing an attacker – is permissible even though it causes foreseeable harm to another, if the intent of the action is morally good and can’t be achieved in any other way. “By this principle, the action is not intentionally to cause harm, but harm can be foreseen,” says Kaufrman.
Is it legal to kill a criminal?
Unlike South Australian law, s420 of the NSW Crimes Act explicitly states that self-defence is not available as a defence to murder if death is inflicted to prevent criminal trespass.
How long is jail sentence for manslaughter?
The maximum sentence a judge can impose for manslaughter is imprisonment for life . The judge may impose other sentences, including a prison sentence to be served immediately, suspended imprisonment or a community sentence. | https://battlebornkravmagalv.com/self-defense/self-defense-at-work.html |
White collar crimes, like fraud and conspiracy, typically do not involve bodily harm but they are nonetheless staunchly prosecuted. As with any other criminal offense, the prosecution bears the burden of proving each element of a white crime beyond a reasonable doubt, and if it cannot, the defendant should be found not guilty. Recently, a Florida court discussed what constitutes sufficient evidence to sustain a guilty verdict in a white collar crime case, in a matter in which the defendant appealed her conviction. If you are charged with a white collar crime it is advisable to contact a Sarasota criminal defense attorney to discuss your potential defenses.
The Facts of the Case
It is alleged that the defendant was charged with multiple white collar crimes, including theft of government funds, identity theft, and wire fraud. The charges arose out of her filing false claims for relief funds that were intended to help farmers struggling with drought and fire. Following a jury trial, she was convicted as charged and sentenced to 28 months in prison. She appealed, arguing, among other things, that the evidence presented at trial was insufficient to support the guilty verdict entered against her and, therefore, she should be granted a new trial.
Evidence Establishing Guilt in White Collar Crime Cases
Pursuant to the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure, if the defendant so moves, a court may vacate any guilty verdict and grant a new trial if it is required in the interest of justice. In doing so, the court must evaluate the evidence and weigh the credibility of the witnesses. The Rules do not grant the courts leeway to reevaluate evidence and set aside verdicts simply because they believe some other result would be more appropriate, however.
Rather, to necessitate a new trial, the evidence must weigh so heavily against the verdict that it would constitute a miscarriage of justice to uphold the verdict. The court noted that new trials are rarely granted; it only happens in cases in which the evidence of guilt, while legally adequate, is marred by discrepancies and uncertainties.
In the subject case, the defendant sought a new trial because the government’s primary witness offered conflicting testimony and contradicting statements and was compromised by his potential sentence, and the evidence against her was thin. The court was not persuaded by either argument, noting other evidence corroborated the witness’s testimony. As such, it affirmed the defendant’s convictions.
Confer with an Assertive Sarasota Criminal Defense Attorney
White collar crimes can be challenging to defend, and the precise defenses available vary depending on the facts of the case. If you are charged with a white collar crime, it is critical to retain a skilled attorney who will argue aggressively on your behalf. The assertive Sarasota criminal defense lawyers of Hanlon Law have ample experience helping people charged with white collar crimes fight to protect their interests, and we can help you seek a successful outcome. You can reach Hanlon Law through the online form or by calling 941-462-1789 to set up a meeting. | https://www.sarasotacriminalattorneyblog.com/florida-court-discusses-evidence-of-guilt-in-white-collar-crime-cases/ |
A lawsuit for damages is a legal tool used when a person is injured by other individuals,
businesses, or defective products. In order for a person to be guilty of the injuries, they must
be responsible for having caused the damage.
It is recommended that lawsuits not be ignored, on the contrary, if you are accused of
causing injury to another you should consult an attorney and start your process to defend
yourself.
Almost always plaintiffs who bring a settlement funding for damages and injuries base their
allegation on the negligence of the defendant. Therefore, the plaintiff (injured person) must
show that the defendant (responsible person) was negligent and therefore at fault for
causing the injuries.
Personal injury attorneys for the injured party must prove all the elements of a typical
negligence case in order to obtain compensation . And your defense attorney, for his part,
must develop a strategy to refute the evidence and justify that you are not responsible.
If the defendant is found to have acted negligently, but the plaintiff was not injured, then they
will not be able to claim compensation. And if the defendant caused the injury, but
negligence is not proven, the damage cannot be repaired either.
Defense in a negligence case
In a negligence case, juries must compare the facts, testimony and evidence considering
the following elements to reach a verdict:
Duty of care: Some negligence lawsuit cases hinge on whether or not the defendant owes
a duty of care to the plaintiff. For this duty to exist, the law recognizes a relationship between
the defendant and the plaintiff, in which the defendant is obliged to act in a certain way
towards the plaintiff. In a trial it will be the judge, and not a jury, who will determine if there
was a duty of care.
Breach of duty of care: A defendant breaches the duty of care if he fails to employ conduct
expected of a reasonable person in carrying out his action. The determination of whether the
defendant breached a duty of care is up to the jury.
Cause of Damage: In personal injury cases due to someone else’s negligence, a plaintiff
must show that the defendant’s actions actually caused the plaintiff’s injuries. Had it not been
for the defendant’s actions, the plaintiff’s harm would not have occurred.
Proximate cause: Refers to the extent of the defendant’s liability. That is, he is only liable
for damages that he could have foreseen through his conduct. But he is not responsible for
damages that are beyond his scope of risk that he could not have prevented. When it is,
then the plaintiff cannot show that the defendant’s actions were the proximate cause of the
damages he suffered.
Damages: In a negligence case, the plaintiff must show legally recognized damages.
Usually in the form of physical injury to a person or property. It is not enough that the
defendant failed to exercise reasonable care, but that fact must result in actual harm to the
person to whom the defendant owes a duty of care.
Defense by assumption of risk
A personal injury attorney can help you find the most appropriate strategies to defend
yourself against a lawsuit. Defendants can often defend themselves under the assumption of
risk doctrine . This legal tool can prevent an injured person from suing another for injuries or
damages, if certain conditions are met.
Under the assumption of risk the defendant can defend himself if he shows that:
● The plaintiff knew of the risk associated with the activity
● The plaintiff voluntarily consented to said risk.
If the defendant proves that the plaintiff knowingly exposed himself to risk, then he will not be
able to sue or recover compensation for the injuries he suffered. You should also keep in
mind that personal injury laws depend on the state where the accident occurred. So your
best defense is to consult an attorney if you are at risk of being charged for damages. | https://www.fabulaes.com/how-to-defend-yourself-against-a-personal-injury-lawsuit/ |
A defense attorney is needed if an individual is dealing with a prosecution on either a civil case or criminal case. They are responsible for protecting their clients. When corporations or certain individuals are summoned by the court, there is a high risk of getting a negative judgment towards them. It is the attorney’s job to be the one representing civil defendants or criminals in court as the defendant’s lawyer.
Defense attorneys also develop relationships with their clients as they provide them with advice about the case they are facing, they help them in understanding other legal options, and represent them for their legal needs in court.
What skills should a client look for in an attorney?
There are some skills that defense lawyers need in order for them to effectively defend their clients. These skills include:
- They should be able to have the ability to work by themselves or with a team of lawyers to develop different case strategies.
- They should have excellent verbal communication skills as well as written skills.
- They should also have strong public speaking skills and research skills.
- They should be able to adapt to certain cases and also be able to pay attention to small details of the case.
- Lastly, they should have excellent problem-solving skills as well as decision-making skills.
What are the different responsibilities and roles of a defense lawyer?
These are the list of the responsibilities and the roles of a defense lawyer:
- They are the ones who draft and prepare the legal documents. It includes the appeals as well as the legal briefs. A legal brief is a type of written document that is used in different legal systems that will be presented to the court. The legal brief argues why one party should be the one to prevail in that particular case.
- They interpret the laws for their clients to help them understand the different legal options that they can use.
- It is their role to resolve the cases as quickly and favorably as possible.
- It is the defense lawyers’ responsibility to conduct different sets of research regarding the case. They should also analyze the case for them to determine a possible outcome while thinking of an effective strategy to be able to defend their clients in court.
- The defense lawyers are the ones who represent their clients not just in court, but also the different hearings as well as arraignments.
- It is also their responsibility to look for evidence regarding the case to present it to the judge as well as the jury inside the court.
- They also negotiate the punishments, the plea deals, and the settlements.
Creating a defense strategy
One of the best defense strategies happens when the defense lawyer and the defendant present a story to the judge that is mostly based on the evidence. The main goal is to show the defendant in the best light possible. Presenting this type of story to the judge will help the defense lawyer to a plea bargain, the defendant being convicted on a lesser charge, or even getting a “not guilty” sentence from the judge.
In terms of creating a possible story, the defense lawyer and the prosecutor can both use the evidence and the facts related to the case but come up with two different types of scenarios. It is up to the defendant and the lawyer to come up with the best possible scenario for the situation of the defendant. These are the characteristics that a defendant story should have:
- It should be based on a truthful foundation that was taken from the evidence as well as the facts that were presented in the case.
- It should also have the ability to gain the sympathy of the jury as well as the judge. If possible, include in your story that the defendant tried to quit the crime before it was committed.
- The defense lawyer should prove and explain why the scenarios that happened in the defendant’s story were the actual event that took place.
Coming up with a type of defense strategy is not as simple as telling the exact truth where it shows that the defendant is innocent or has the legal violations being lessened. It also involves weighing the evidence and witnesses’ credibility. The defense attorney should also figure out the reputation between the police and the defendant. Work with a law firm that specializes in defense like Benari Law. All of this should be taken into consideration while making the “theory of the case” that will be based on the story of the defendant as well as the evidence and the facts found while researching the case. | https://www.forbesz.com/defense-attorney-responsibilities-tasks-and-defendants-mitigation/ |
The PEOPLE of the State of Colorado, Plaintiff-Appellee, v. John Joseph BECKER, Defendant-Appellant.
No. 26126.
Supreme Court of Colorado, En Banc.
February 3, 1975.
*387 John P. Moore, Atty. Gen., John E. Bush, Deputy Atty. Gen., Patricia W. Robb, Asst. Atty. Gen., Denver, for plaintiff-appellee.
Sandhouse, Sandhouse & Wilson, Max A. Wilson, Sterling, for defendant-appellant.
PRINGLE, Chief Justice.
John Joseph Becker, the defendant, was convicted of second-degree burglary in violation of 1967 Perm.Supp., C.R.S.1963, 40-3-5(2). He was charged with feloniously breaking into and entering Sterling High School on May 25, 1972, with the intent then and there to commit the crime of theft. Becker admitted that he took some stereo equipment from the high school, but he contended that he took the equipment as a graduation prank and that he did not intend to permanently deprive the school of the equipment.
Defense witnesses testified that Becker brought the stereo equipment to the home of another student on May 25, 1972, and other students saw and heard it there that day. They testified that the defendant told them at that time that he intended to return the equipment. Charles Pressler, an acquaintance of the defendant, testified that on June 1, 1972 he and the defendant drove to an abandoned house, picked up the equipment, took it to a store to play it while they worked, and then brought the *388 equipment back to the empty house. Later, Pressler and another acquaintance returned to the empty house and took the equipment, apparently to play a trick on the defendant. The equipment was recovered from KTVS studio, where Pressler's acquaintance had taken it, on June 2, 1972.
The defendant contends that his conviction must be reversed for the following reasons: (1) the prosecutor failed to prove that the defendant had the requisite intent to commit a felony after entering Sterling High School on May 25, 1972; (2) the trial judge should have given the defendant's tendered instruction on the crime of theft rather than reading the complete definition of theft from the Colorado statutes; (3) his written inculpatory statement should have been suppressed; and (4) the district attorney's remarks during the trial in questioning witnesses and in closing argument deprived him of a fair trial. We disagree with the defendant and affirm the conviction.I.
Becker claims that even though he admits breaking into and entering Sterling High School, there is insufficient evidence in the record that he did so with the intent to commit the crime of theft. The defendant contends that an element necessary to convict him of burglary, namely, an intent to permanently deprive another of the use or benefit of a thing of value, has not been proven in this case. According to the defendant, the only evidence in this case is that he took the stereo equipment as a prank and intended to return it to the school.
We have previously dealt with similar arguments and have determined that intent does not have to be proven by direct, substantive evidence but can be inferred from the defendant's "conduct and the reasonable inferences which may be drawn from the circumstances of the case." Garcia v. People, 172 Colo. 329, 331, 473 P.2d 169, 170. See also Lamb v. People, 181 Colo. 446, 509 P.2d 1267; Goddard v. People, 172 Colo. 498, 474 P.2d 210. The defendant presented testimony that indicated he did not intend to permanently deprive the school of its stereo equipment. The jury, however, did not have to accept this explanation. Lamb, supra. The jury could inferfrom the breaking into and entering of the building, the carrying away of the stereo equipment, the storing of the equipment in the abandoned house for several days, and the failure of the defendant to attempt to return the equipmentthat when Becker entered the high school, he had the intent then and there to commit the crime of theft by permanently depriving the school of its equipment.II.
The trial judge instructed the jury on the crime of theft by reading all of 1967 Perm.Supp., C.R.S.1963, 40-5-2(1), and the defendant claims that the reading of the irrelevant portions of the theft statute improperly allowed the jury to consider possibilities not supported by the evidence. We held in People v. Trujillo, Colo., 527 P.2d 52, 55, however, that even though "we cannot see any reason for including irrelevant portions of the [theft] statute in the instruction, neither can we perceive any prejudice to the defendant by their inclusion."III.
Becker contends that his written statement of June 6, 1972 should not have been admitted into evidence because it was given as a result of inducement or coercion. The trial judge held an in camera hearing to determine the voluntariness of the statement pursuant to the requirements of Jackson v. Denno, 378 U.S. 368, 84 S. Ct. 1774, 12 L. Ed. 2d 908.
At the in camera hearing, the only evidence presented was that of the interrogating officer, Detective Rice. Detective Rice testified that he told the defendant that, in his personal opinion, the defendant was probably a good prospect for probation. Detective Rice, however, specifically *389 denied making any promises of leniency to the defendant or telling the defendant that certain charges would or would not be filed. There was no testimony by the defendant that promises had been made to him or that he considered the statements of the officer to be promises.
On the basis of this record, the trial judge made the following finding in admitting the statement:"* * * the statement was voluntarily given after and knowingly and intelligently waiver of his constitutional rights. That he wasn't threatened or coerced or that the statement was not given as a result of undue promises of leniency. I believe the evidence shows that the officer made it clear that he couldn't make any binding promises as to probation."
Since the trial court's finding on the voluntariness of the statement was supported by adequate evidence, the finding must be upheld on review. People v. Medina, Colo., 501 P.2d 1332; Gould v. People, 167 Colo. 113, 445 P.2d 580.IV.
Defendant's final contention is that he was denied a fair trial because of certain remarks of the district attorney made during the questioning of witnesses and in closing argument. The district attorney referred to the incident at Sterling High School as a "burglary" and asked a witness whether he helped the defendant "burglarize" the high school. However, when defense counsel objected to these remarks, the trial judge instructed the jury to disregard the use of these words and directed the district attorney to refer to the matter as an incident or occasion or transaction. The judge denied the motion for a mistrial because he felt that his cautionary instruction to the jury was sufficient.
The granting or denial of a motion for mistrial is within the sound discretion of the trial judge because he is in the best position to evaluate the effect of an irregularity on the jury. People v. Elliston, 181 Colo. 118, 508 P.2d 379; Falgout v. People, 170 Colo. 32, 459 P.2d 572. We find no abuse of the trial judge's discretion in this case.
During rebuttal argument, the district attorney commented that about 80% of crimes in this country were burglaries and about 80% of these were committed by teen-agers. In rebuttal argument, the prosecutor also told the jury to acquit the defendant if it wished the district attorney's staff not to prosecute break-ins when the suspect, when caught, then indicated an intention to give the property back. The district attorney's remarks, however, were in response to the defense attorney's comments that he could vouch for the defendant's honesty, that it was not his fault that the defendant was charged with burglary, that specific intent in a burglary case must be proven to "prevent our police and prosecutors from becoming a `Gestapo,'" and that the prosecution was a zealous one. No objection was made to the district attorney's remarks at trial. In view of the defense attorney's remarks and the lack of a contemporaneous objection, we do not find the prosecutor's comments so prejudicial as to deny the defendant a fair trial. The trial judge did instruct the jury that the comments of counsel were not evidence and should not be considered as such. In the absence of a showing to the contrary, it is presumed that the jury understood the instructions and heeded them. People v. Motley, 179 Colo. 77, 498 P.2d 339.
The judgment is affirmed.
ERICKSON, J., dissents.
ERICKSON, Justice (dissenting):
I respectfully dissent. Prosecutorial misconduct, whether retaliatory or the product of overzealous advocacy, should not be permitted. In this case, the prosecutor went beyond the record and threatened to abandon the prosecution of teenagers who committed burglaries if the jury acquitted the defendant. His comments were highly improper and cannot be justified on the basis of the reckless and unjustified *390 comments of defense counsel. The search for truth under our adversary system is unfairly tested when the prosecutor and defense counsel overlook their professional obligations. Counsel should not attempt to influence the jury by expressing their opinion as to guilt or innocence in the closing argument. ABA Standards Relating to The Prosecution Function § 5.8, Argument to the Jury; ABA Standards Relating to The Defense Function § 7.8, Argument to the Jury. See People v. Wright, Colo., 511 P.2d 460 (1973); People v. Elliston, Colo., 508 P.2d 379 (1973); People v. Walker, 180 Colo. 184, 504 P.2d 1098 (1972).
In my view, both the prosecutor and defense counsel breached the obligations which are cast upon them by the Standards and deprived the defendant of a fair trial. Two wrongs do not make a right.
Accordingly, I would grant the defendant a new trial. Society benefits not only when the guilty are convicted, but also when criminal trials are fair. | https://law.justia.com/cases/colorado/supreme-court/1975/26126.html |
presented over nearly six weeks.
U.S. District Judge Anna Brown instructed the jury they are to apply the law to their verdict, whether or not they agree with the law.
“You have to decide the case solely on the evidence presented at trial,” she said.
She reminded the jury charges are not evidence and that each defendant is presumed not guilty unless the government proves otherwise, beyond a reasonable doubt.
Ammon and Ryan Bundy, Shawna Cox, Neil Wampler, David Fry, Jeff Banta and Ken Medenbach are charged with conspiring to prevent federal employees from doing their jobs at the refuge. Some of the defendants have also been accused of stealing government property and carrying firearms at the refuge.
Brown told the jury that defendants facing gun charges cannot be found guilty on those counts unless they are also found guilty on the conspiracy charge.
Prosecutors presented their closing argument first. Assistant U.S. Attorney Ethan Knight attempted to show defendants intended to prevent federal employees from going to work.
“At the end of the day, there is an element of common sense that demonstrates the guilt of these defendants,” Knight said.
Knight also said no formal agreement was needed to constitute a conspiracy. Quoting Ammon Bundy’s testimony, Knight said occupiers “‘were all there for a unified purpose.’” For the defense’s part, Bundy’s attorney Marcus Mumford said in closing that that “unified purpose” was to defend ranchers Dwight and Steven Hammond.
Knight argued that soon after an occupier arrived at the refuge, he or she learned people worked at the refuge and that occupiers’ presence prevented them from performing their duties.
The prosecution rattled off the names of people who worked at the refuge and their responsibilities there. Knight tried to show the defendants did not value the work done at Malheur.
Also disrupted, Knight argued, were the lives of everyday citizens in Burns, Oregon. The prosecution played the clip of Ammon Bundy in Burns, encouraging protesters to take a “hard stand” at the refuge.
The prosecution also praised Harney County Sheriff David Ward and other law enforcement. Knight lauded what the government sees as officers’ de-escalation efforts and reluctance to engage.
He also spoke specifically to the shooting of Robert “LaVoy” Finicum, saying law enforcement “reacted and did the best they could.” Jeanette Finicum, LaVoy’s wife, shook her head in the gallery.
Ammon Bundy’s attorney, Marcus Mumford, led off closing arguments for the defense. The other six attorneys — including defendants representing themselves — will follow.
Mumford’s closing argument painted Bundy as another victim in a long line of federal overreach. He said Bundy tried other methods before the occupation to raise concerns with government officials. Mumford pointed to the original protest in Burns, Bundy’s correspondence with Sheriff David Ward, and even the 2014 standoff in Bunkerville, Nevada, as means Bundy pursued to garner attention.
Mumford said it was an “honor” to represent Bundy and that his client has been wrongly accused of conspiracy.
Bundy’s attorney put the onus on the jury to put an end to what defendants see as outsized federal authority.
Mumford also raised issue with the government’s use of confidential informants, something the defense discussed Monday in court. The defense has argued that whether or not those informants were all at the refuge matters because it speaks to the credibility of what the informants saw.
“There were more confidential informants at the refuge than defendants are here in the courtroom,” Mumford said.
Mumford has said he may take as long as four hours to make his final arguments to jurors. He was explicitly informed by the judge not to exceed four hours.
Throughout the trial, Mumford has tried to tell his client’s larger life story. He said in court he wants to give the jury context for why Ammon Bundy did the things he did in Harney County.
At this point, it’s likely the 12 deliberating jurors will get the case Wednesday. From there it’s anyone’s guess how long it will take for them to review the evidence and make decisions.
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Share your thoughts on the trial with us on Facebook and Twitter, or by emailing us directly at [email protected]. | https://www.opb.org/news/series/burns-oregon-standoff-bundy-militia-news-updates/oregon-standoff-malheur-trial-bundy-closing-arguments/ |
STATE of Missouri, Respondent, v. Wendell WILLIAMS, Appellant.
No. 52484.
Supreme Court of Missouri, Division No. 2.
October 9, 1967.
*50 J. Whitfield Moody, and J. Arnot Hill, Kansas City, for appellant.
Norman H. Anderson, Atty. Gen., Jefferson City, Charles C. Hatley Asst. Atty. Gen., New Madrid, for respondent.
STOCKARD, Commissioner.
Wendell Williams was found guilty by a jury of assault with a deadly weapon with intent to kill and sentenced to imprisonment for a term of twenty-five years. He has appealed from the ensuing judgment. At the trial and on this appeal defendant was represented by representatives of the Legal Aid and Defender Society of Greater Kansas City.
Defendant does not specifically attack the sufficiency of the evidence. The jury reasonably could find the occurrence of the following events. About 11:45 o'clock of the evening of November 13, 1965, Ruby Peltier was waiting at 37th Street and Prospect Avenue for a bus. A Plymouth automobile stopped, and defendant pointed a gun at her and told her to get into the automobile. She did so and the automobile moved on. Defendant then told Ruby he needed a lot of money, and she told him that she had only $35.00. Ruby noticed a police car was following and she began pounding on the rear window to attract attention, and when she did this defendant shot her twice in the stomach. The officer in the police car knew defendant and recognized him as the man in the rear seat of the automobile in front of him. The officer turned on his red light and siren and pursued the Plymouth. It collided with a utility pole and defendant jumped from the automobile, landing in "a prone position, spread-eagle, on the street," and after leaving his hat he ran away. The driver of the automobile, Richard Lee Warren, was arrested, and defendant was arrested about four hours later at his home. A few days later, when in jail, defendant obtained medical attention for an injured knee.
Defendant testified that about 8:00 o'clock that evening he had loaned his automobile to Richard Lee Warren. He admitted that the hat found at the scene was his, but he said he had left it in the automobile when he gave it to Warren. He also testified that at 11:00 o'clock that evening he met his wife and they ate at Mim's restaurant. He left the restaurant about one o'clock and went home. His sister was there watching television, and shortly thereafter he went to a service station and bought some cigarettes and then returned home. Defendant's witnesses supported his alibi, but with some rather material inconsistencies in their testimony.
Defendant's brief contains nine points, but in his reply brief he states that "after re-examination" of his and the State's *51 briefs he "abandons Points IV, V, VI, and VIII."
Defendant's first point is that "it was error for the State to argue that if the defendant were released a repetition of the offense would transpire." The record shows that in the closing argument the prosecuting attorney said this: "And what are we going to do? What should be done? Should we put him in jail for two years and put him back out to kill somebody?" Counsel for defendant objected and asked that the jury be instructed to disregard the statement. The court sustained the objection and instructed the jury as requested. Counsel then asked that the jury be discharged, and the trial court denied that request. The assignment of error in the motion for new trial, and the point in defendant's brief, does not present as error the refusal of the trial court to discharge the jury. However, the argument is to that effect.
Defendant cites State v. Groves, Mo., 295 S.W.2d 169; State v. Renfro, Mo., 408 S.W.2d 57; and State v. Satterfield, Mo., 336 S.W.2d 509. In the Groves case an objection to argument and a request that the jury be instructed to disregard the argument were both overruled. That case does not rule the situation we have here where the objection was sustained and the jury was instructed to disregard the argument. In the Renfro case the court impliedly sustained the objection to argument somewhat similar to that in this case, and it was stated on appeal that no further relief was requested. However, noting that there was but "an instance of a single breach" where the trial court's ruling served to divert the speaker, it was stated that "we do not believe the argument complained of was prejudicially erroneous." The Satterfield case pertains to argument alleged to have been based on excluded evidence. It does not rule the issue of defendant's contention here.
The control of arguments of counsel is largely within the discretion of the trial court, State v. Benjamin, Mo., 309 S.W.2d 602, 606, and the granting or refusal of a mistrial for improper argument lies largely within the discretion of the trial court. State v. King, Mo., 334 S.W.2d 34, 40; State v. Hardy, 365 Mo. 107, 276 S.W.2d 90, 95. There was no abuse of discretion in this case in view of the corrective action taken by the trial court.
Defendant's next point is that it was error to permit the introduction of testimony of an oral statement by him to the police because it was "not proved to be voluntary." As subsequently demonstrated, the record disproves this contention.
The statement of defendant referred to was made to Officer Swan after his arrest. The statement was not a confession of the offense charged nor was it a declaration against interest. It was offered in rebuttal by the State apparently on the ground that it conflicted with defendant's testimony at trial as to where he was at the time of the commission of the robbery. Assuming, but not deciding, that the rule announced in Jackson v. Denno, 378 U.S. 368, 84 S. Ct. 1774, 12 L.E.2d 908, requires a preliminary determination by the trial court that the above statement of defendant was voluntarily made, that requirement was met. After Officer Swan testified that he had talked to defendant, the trial court conducted a hearing out of the presence of the jury on the issue of the voluntariness of defendant's oral statement. At this hearing the police officer testified that before defendant made the statement he had advised defendant that he did not have to make a statement, that if he did it could be used against him in court, and that he could call a lawyer. In this hearing out of the presence of the jury the defendant then testified, and we shall set forth his entire testimony."Q. [By defense counsel] You have heard Detective Swan's testimony, have you not? "A. Yes. *52 "Q. Now, tell His Honor whether or not you were advised that you did not have to make a statement, if you did it could be used in court, and you could call a lawyer, by Detective Swan, before you told him anything, whether or not he told you these things. "A. He did not tell me those things. I already knew them, because I had been in jail several times before that, and I don't never say nothing, I always call my lawyer because I had. "Q. Did you call your lawyer? "A. Yes."
The trial court specifically found that the statement of defendant to Officer Swan was voluntarily made. On this appeal defendant presents nothing which indicates that the finding was wrong, and the record clearly establishes that the finding was correct.
Defendant's third point is that it was error "to permit testimony of his previous arrest unrelated to the offense for which he was being tried." The police officer who arrested defendant testified about the arrest and was cross-examined extensively. On redirect examination he was asked "How did you happen to know where he lived?" The officer answered as follows: "I arrestedhe had been arrested once before at 1604 East 11th." Defense counsel objected to "the question and response" and asked that the answer "be stricken" and that the jury be discharged. The trial court sustained the objection and instructed the jury to disregard the answer, but it denied the request to discharge the jury. As was true in connection with defendant's first point, the assignment of error in the motion for new trial and the point in defendant's brief pertaining to this incident does not present as error the refusal of the trial court to discharge the jury, but the argument includes this contention.
Defendant cites various cases which hold that as a general rule separate and distinct crimes by the defendant cannot be shown, with certain exceptions, and proof of conduct not related to the offense charged which subjects defendant to ill repute cannot be shown. See State v. Anderson, Mo., 384 S.W.2d 591; State v. Slaten, Mo., 252 S.W.2d 330. In view of the cross-examination of the arresting officer, the reason the officer knew where defendant lived was not totally irrelevant. However, assuming that even under these circumstances the reference to the previous arrest was improper, the trial court did not, as asserted in the point, "permit testimony of his previous arrest." The testimony was stricken out by the court and the jury was instructed to disregard it. Also, whether a mistrial should be declared in a circumstance such as this is a matter which rests largely within the discretion of the trial court. State v. Hadley, Mo., 249 S.W.2d 857; State v. Baker, Mo., 293 S.W.2d 900; State v. Ruyle, Mo., 318 S.W.2d 218. In view of the corrective action taken by the trial court, if any such action was required, we find no abuse of discretion.
Defendant's seventh point is that "it was error to characterize the appellant as `Whizzo' as there was no proof of such appellation."
In his opening statement to the jury the prosecuting attorney referred to defendant as "Wendell Williams, also known as `Whizzo' Williams." The defendant interrupted and said, "My name is Wendell." On cross-examination, after asking defendant if he was Wendell Williams, the prosecuting attorney asked this: "You are also known by your friends as `Whizzo' Williams, is that not correct?" Defendant answered, "That is not correct." In oral argument by the prosecution, reference was made to "Wendell `Whizzo' Williams." No objection was made at any time, and no action was requested from the trial court.
*53 The name "Whizzo" is not necessarily derogatory. As noted, no objection was made, and no action by the trial court was requested. The alleged error was not presented to the trial court for corrective action, and since this obviously does not constitute plain error within the meaning of Supreme Court Rule 27.20(c), V.A.M.R. there is nothing before this court preserved for appellate review. State v. Carter, Mo., 399 S.W.2d 74; State v. Eaton, Mo., 394 S.W.2d 402.
Defendant's last point is that the trial court erred "in refusing [his] request that other counsel be appointed to defend him, thereby denying him rights guaranteed by the Sixth Amendment of the Constitution of the United States." This contention was not presented in the motion for new trial, but it is presented in the brief in "Anticipation of it being made hereafter in a motion to set aside his sentence under Supreme Court Rule 27.26." Denial of a constitutional right of counsel would constitute plain error affecting substantial rights within the meaning of Supreme Court Rule 27.20(c). Therefore, we shall rule this issue on this appeal.
On March 16, 1966, counsel for defendant, apparently privately employed and of defendant's selection was permitted to withdraw upon request, and "J. W. Moody and Associates," which constitutes The Legal Aid and Defender Society of Greater Kansas City, were appointed as counsel. Trial started on May 17, 1966, after the parties announced ready for trial, and defendant was represented by Mr. James H. Harrington, an associate of J. W. Moody, who was an experienced trial lawyer in criminal cases.
At the noon recess after four witnesses had testified, and apparently after the State had put on all the evidence it had then contemplated to offer, defendant told the court that he wanted "to have some witnesses in this case that don't seem to be subpoenaed. For instance, the arresting officer, Cecil Stockdale, * * *." The court advised defendant he could use the power of subpoena, and the prosecuting attorney advised defendant that he would bring Officer Stockdale and call him as a witness if the defendant would agree that he could be indorsed on the information. Defense counsel said that he would agree "if this is what Mr. Williams feels is in his best interest," but he added that he had discussed this matter with defendant and that it was his "opinion it would not be in his best interest." After further discussion defense counsel stated that he would "defer to his [defendant's] view." Defendant then stated that "There were some more witnesses that wasn't on my sheet that I didn't subpoena because I didn't think they were involved in this, but I see since the time they brought out, there are about 10 or 15 witnesses." The court told defendant to talk to his attorney about that. After the recess, Officer Stockdale was called as a witness for the State. He testified only as to the circumstances of the arrest. At the conclusion of his direct testimony defense counsel advised the court, out of the hearing of the jury, that "the defendant has just advised me I cannot defend him against his will, and unless he gets a recess and an opportunity to tell the court he doesn't want to continue with the trial." Counsel added that he was "ready, willing and able to continue." The defendant then told the court that he "would like to get a recess because I haven't talked to my lawyer since he has been assigned to my case but one hour, and I hardly think that is enough time for him to try this case, and there is a lot he don't know about this case. And I would like to get a continuance until he knows more, until we can come to a conclusion on how the case is to be tried." Defense counsel then related that a staff member of The Legal Aid and Defender Society had conferred with defendant, names of prospective witnesses had been obtained and some had been subpoenaed, a comprehensive report had been prepared, and he had discussed the case with defendant and was ready to proceed with the *54 trial. When the court asked defendant how much time he wanted to talk to his counsel, he stated he wanted a continuance for a week. Defendant also mentioned that he wanted a witness by the name of Newton, but an investigator for The Legal Aid and Defender Society stated that he had not located this person to serve a subpoena on him, and defense counsel stated that he did not believe this witness's testimony "would be to his best interest." It also developed that two other witnesses that defendant stated at trial he wanted to substantiate his alibi had been interviewed and both stated that they did not know defendant. Defendant then told the court: "I don't want this man to defend me unless we have more conferences together." The court said that it was its "view that this request of the defendant is frivolous" and that it was made "for the purpose of either delaying the trial or causing a mistrial," and directed that the trial proceed. Defendant then asked: "You mean you [are] going to make him defend me against my will and my right to have a choice of attorney? If I don't think he is defending me fully and properly you mean you are going to make him defend me against my will?" The trial court stated that counsel had been appointed by the court, and "He is to defend you."
The point in defendant's brief is that the court erred in refusing to appoint other counsel, but from what we have above set out it is apparent that at about halfway through the trial defendant became dissatisfied with his lawyer, or perhaps with the course of the trial, and requested a continuance so he could confer with the counsel he had. However, he advanced nothing to indicate the need of additional conferences, and the trial court indicated that reasonable time would be granted, but not one week.
The constitutional right to counsel does not mean that an accused is entitled to any particular attorney, or that during trial he can arbitrarily discharge his attorney without reason or justification. Staff members of The Legal Aid and Defender Society of Greater Kansas City had investigated defendant's case, and a file and report had been made to his experienced and highly qualified trial attorney who had interviewed defendant and the witnesses. In his professional judgment, defense counsel considered himself ready for trial, and when he announced ready at the call of the case, as far as is shown by the record, defendant made no protest. Supreme Court Rule 4.22 admonishes that the conduct of a lawyer before the court should be characterized by candor and fairness. "Thus, while a prisoner, indigent or otherwise, is entitled to his lawyer's best efforts, the lawyer is not required to surrender his integrity and self-respect and make claims known to be untenable or wholly false." State v. Ball, Mo., 408 S.W.2d 17, 19. Defense counsel in this case was faced with a difficult situation. Witnesses suggested by defendant to establish his alibi denied knowing him. We have not set out the testimony, but the defense witnesses used testified inconsistently, and defendant affirmatively admitted from the witness stand that he had lied to police officers as to his whereabouts on the night of the robbery, and that in his testimony he had lied before the jury. Our examination of the record discloses a most commendable performance by counsel for the defense. The contention that defendant was denied his constitutional right of counsel is completely without merit.
We have examined those parts of the record as required by Supreme Court Rule 28.02, V.A.M.R., and find no error.
The judgment is affirmed.
BARRETT and PRITCHARD, CC., concur.
PER CURIAM:
The foregoing opinion by STOCKARD, C., is adopted as the opinion of the Court.
All of the Judges concur. | https://law.justia.com/cases/missouri/supreme-court/1967/52484-0.html |
Spousal abuse is harmful behavior that occurs between married partners. It can be an isolated incident, or it can recur over the course of a marriage. Patterns of spousal abuse can be extremely physically and emotionally damaging, and a victim may commit criminal acts against an abuser. In this article, readers will learn about battered spouse syndrome, which is a condition suffered by those who have endured prolonged spousal abuse.
Are Battered Spouse Syndrome and Domestic Violence the Same?
Other behaviors may constitute domestic violence, such as making one question their sanity, sexuality or intelligence. There are many ways for an abuser to harm their partner, and almost all can result in battered spouse syndrome.
Can a Defendant Claim Battered Spouse Syndrome as a Legal Defense?
The syndrome can be used by Criminal Defense Attorneys in Kankakee to demonstrate mitigating circumstances when one faces charges for a serious crime such as murder. Mitigating factors are ways for defendants to reduce possible criminal penalties, and they can be used to validate criminal behavior. For instance, a battered spouse may have struck back at their abuser in self-defense.
The battered spouse defense is proven via court testimony, which is presented to prove that the defendant was in imminent danger and had to protect themselves from physical harm by the alleged victim. Those in abusive relationships that end in serious injury or death should check out this site to consult Criminal Defense Attorneys in Kankakee for help in using the battered spouse defense.
Does a Defendant Need an Attorney to Use the Battered Spouse Defense?
Although battered spouse syndrome is considered a usable defense, it can be exceedingly difficult to prove. It is best for a client to consult a criminal defense attorney to learn more about using this syndrome as a possible defense to criminal activity. | https://www.articlelegal.com/criminal-defense-attorneys-in-kankakee-can-help-battered-spouses/ |
COMMONWEALTH vs. LISA BECKER GRIMSHAW.
In a murder case, the several statements in the prosecutor's closing argument that the defendant contended on appeal were improper constituted proper comments on or reasonable inferences from the evidence, and an improper reference to excluded evidence was harmless error in the circumstances. [506-511] LIACOS, C.J., concurring.
INDICTMENT found and returned in the Superior Court Department on June 19, 1985.
Ariane D. Vuono, Special Assistant District Attorney, for the Commonwealth.
Court affirmed the defendant's conviction. 31 Mass. App. Ct. 917 , 918 (1991). We granted the defendant's application for further appellate review. The defendant makes three arguments on appeal: (1) the trial judge erred in refusing to grant a mistrial or to give specific curative instructions as a result of several alleged improprieties in the prosecutor's closing argument; (2) the judge's refusal to grant immunity to a prospective witness violated the defendant's right to due process under the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution and art. 12 of the Declaration of Rights of the Massachusetts Constitution, as well as her right to compulsory process under the Federal and State Constitutions; and (3) the sentence imposed by the judge violated the Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution and art. 26 of the Massachusetts Declaration of Rights. We affirm.
prejudicial and not cured by the judge's general instructions. [Note 2] These statements include: the prosecutor's alleged mischaracterization of the defense; the prosecutor's reference to excluded testimony; and the prosecutor's alleged misstatements concerning evidence. Additionally, although not objected to at trial, the defendant also argues on appeal that another alleged misstatement by the prosecutor and his description of the defendant's expert witness created a substantial risk of a miscarriage of justice. We discuss each alleged impropriety below.
a. Mischaracterization of the defense. In his closing argument, the prosecutor characterized the defense as follows: "[K]eep in mind what they are saying to you. I have the right to be acquitted totally because it's legitimate self-defense, but if you don't buy that, I was intoxicated. But if you don't buy that, then I entered only into the joint venture to the extent of hurting [the victim], not killing him. What is it? Which one is it, A, B, C, D? They wanted [you] to take any of them, A, B, C or D, as long as you don't take the truth, as long as you don't take the truth they will be satisfied." The defendant contends that this statement mischaracterized the defense, and that the prosecutor's comparison of this alleged defense with "the truth" implied that the prosecutor knew the truth and improperly injected his personal belief into his closing argument.
the jury could infer that the defendant was intoxicated at that time. The defendant also stated on more than one occasion in her testimony that she only wanted to hurt the victim. In these circumstances, the prosecutor's suggestion that the defendant presented alternate theories justifying her innocence is supported by the record, and there was no error.
Regarding the prosecutor's use of "the truth" in comparison with the various defense theories, the prosecutor interjected no extraneous material or belief, and, at most, he expressed his view of the strength of the evidence. This argument was proper. See Commonwealth v. Smith, 387 Mass. 900 , 906-907 (1983). Cf. Commonwealth v. De Christoforo, 360 Mass. 531 , 537 (1971) ("I quite frankly think that they hope that you find him guilty of something a little less than first-degree murder").
b. The reference to excluded evidence. Although the judge sustained the defendant's objections to the prosecutor's attempts to inquire into the defendant's possible sexual relationship with one particular witness, Roland Tetreault, the prosecutor argued as follows in his closing argument: "He [Roland Tetreault] told you about that incident in November, didn't deny [the victim] broke in. Use your common sense to draw the inference. He indicated the two of them were on the couch, what that fight must have been about. Use your common sense." These statements by the prosecutor were improper. A prosecutor is barred from referring in closing argument to matter that has been excluded from evidence, Commonwealth v. Burke, 373 Mass. 569 , 575 (1977), and a prosecutor should also refrain from inviting an inference from the jury about the same excluded subject matter.
Mass. 539, 549 (1990). There was already evidence introduced from which the jury could have inferred a relationship between the defendant and Tetreault. [Note 3] There was also evidence that the defendant had had sexual relationships with two other men around the time of the murder. [Note 4] In the circumstances of this case, there is no risk that the prosecutor's statements had an effect on the jury or contributed to their verdict.
c. Misstatements of testimony. There are three instances where the defendant contends that the prosecutor misstated testimony in his closing argument. We conclude that there was no error in any of these statements.
with them. There was also evidence that the defendant and the youths drank alcohol at the defendant's home frequently, including the night of the murder. In these circumstances, the prosecutor's statement was a reasonable inference from the evidence.
The second alleged misstatement involved the prosecutor's argument suggesting to the jury that they infer that the defendant had given a photograph of the victim to one of the assailants, Michael Bruyette, before the night of the murder as part of her preparations for the murder. "In closing argument, counsel may argue the evidence and the fair inferences which can be drawn from the evidence." Commonwealth v. Hoffer, 375 Mass. 369 , 378 (1978). "Counsel may also attempt to assist the jury in their task of analyzing, evaluating, and applying evidence. Such assistance includes suggestions by counsel as to what conclusion the jury should draw from the evidence." Commonwealth v. Ferreira, 381 Mass. 306 , 316 (1980). The defendant argues that the evidence does not support the prosecutor's inference, but we believe that the inference is a fair one.
While in police custody on June 6, 1985, Bruyette turned over to the police a photograph that had been cut and altered to depict only the victim's likeness. The original photograph had included the defendant's likeness as well. Bruyette probably received the picture from either the defendant or the victim, but Bruyette did not know the victim. The defendant argues that Bruyette could have obtained the photograph from the victim's wallet which Bruyette took from the victim on the night of the murder. There was evidence at trial, however, that Bruyette disposed of the contents of the victim's wallet in a trash dumpster shortly after the murder. In these circumstances, it was proper for the prosecutor to suggest to the jury that they infer that the defendant gave Bruyette a photograph of the victim prior to the night of the murder.
The final alleged misstatement, not objected to at trial, involves this statement by the prosecutor: "Roland Tetreault says, you know, she made a statement to me that I'm thinking about doing something crazy towards [the victim]."
While the defendant denied making this statement to Tetreault, and Tetreault himself, at one point in his testimony, characterized the defendant's statement as "thinking about doing something about" her relationship with the victim, Tetreault later testified that he had previously told a detective that the defendant had stated to him, "I'm thinking about doing something crazy about [the victim]." Consequently, there was no misstatement by the prosecutor.
d. The description of the expert witness. The defendant argues that the following description of the defendant's expert witness was improper: "[S]he's a professional witness, you got the dough, I got the testimony, she's a classic example of a hired gun." This court specifically addressed the use of "hired gun" to describe an expert witness in Commonwealth v. O'Brien, 377 Mass. 772 (1979).
The fact that the expert witness was retained by the defense would have been an appropriate subject of argument to the jury. See id. at 778. Additionally, though defense counsel specifically objected in O'Brien, no objection was raised in this case. See id. at 777. While we disapprove of this argument, there is no substantial risk of a miscarriage of justice. See id.
2. Immunity for a prospective defense witness. The defendant next contends that she should have been able to obtain a grant of use immunity for a prospective witness, her mother, Shirley Becker. The defendant argues that Becker's testimony was essential because Becker would have testified that she, not the defendant, discussed the victim's insurance policy with the two youths who killed the victim. According to the defendant, this could have undermined the Commonwealth's theory that the defendant hired two assassins whom she promised to pay with the proceeds of a lapsed insurance policy. Additionally, the defendant had stated on several occasions prior to trial that she had discussed the insurance policy with the youths, but at trial she testified that she made those prior statements only to protect her mother. The defendant contends that Becker's testimony would have corroborated that aspect of the defendant's testimony.
The judge denied the defendant's pretrial motion and her motion during trial concerning immunity for Becker. On appeal, the defendant makes two arguments: that there is no public interest in preserving the prosecutor's discretion to prosecute Becker, and that the novel circumstances of the case constituted "unique circumstances" that required a grant of immunity. By her first argument, the defendant would shift the onus of proof onto the Commonwealth in witness immunity questions. This court has already held that, barring unique circumstances, "any inquiry into the question of immunity is foreclosed if the prospective witness is an actual or potential target of prosecution." Commonwealth v. Doherty, 394 Mass. 341 , 345 (1985). The prosecutor's motive in opposing immunity revolved around the potential prosecution of Becker, if and when reliable or corroborative evidence implicating her in the conspiracy became available, and the judge found no suggestion by the defendant of any prosecutorial misconduct or any ulterior motive in the prosecutor's opposition to immunity. There is no merit in the defendant's first argument.
Similarly, there is no merit in the defendant's argument concerning the unique circumstances of this case. Although this court has stated that "in some unique circumstances . . . due process may require the granting by a judge of a limited form of immunity," Commonwealth v. Curtis, 388 Mass. 637 , 646 (1983), we have never defined what those "unique circumstances" may entail. That this case involved a battered woman syndrome defense, which the jury probably accepted in the light of their verdict of manslaughter, does not create a unique circumstance of the sort that existed in Government of the V.I. v. Smith, 615 F.2d 964 (3d Cir. 1980), where the United States Attorney, who lacked jurisdiction to prosecute the witness, refused to consent to immunity. Id. at 967, 969. See Commonwealth v. Curtis, supra at 644-645. Consequently, there was no error in the judge's denial of the defendant's request for immunity for Becker.
cruel or unusual punishment. The defendant appealed from her sentence to the Appellate Division of the Superior Court which, in accordance with G. L. c. 278, Section 28B (1990 ed.), has final authority for review of sentences, and, pursuant to that authority, dismissed her appeal. While this court should review sentences for errors of law or constitutional violations, we should not do so merely for matters concerning alleged disparities in sentencing, which is the major thrust of the defendant's argument. See Commonwealth v. Longval, 378 Mass. 246 , 252-253 (1979). The sentence imposed was within the maximum authorized by the Legislature, see G. L. c. 265, Section 13 (1990 ed.), and we find no argument of constitutional dimension within the defendant's claim that the judge acted with undue severity.
conform to the testimony at trial. Contrary to the prosecutor's statement to the jury, Tetreault's testimony does not indicate in any way that the defendant or Tetreault was "on the couch." Tetreault's testimony reveals only that the defendant and Tetreault were in the defendant's apartment at the time of the attack. [Note Concur-1] The prosecutor's unfounded reference to a traditionally compromising situation served only to encourage the jury to draw an inference of sexual activity that was not warranted by the evidence presented at trial.
It is clear that the prosecutor's statements invited the jury to infer that the victim's November 21, 1984, attack was caused not by the victim's abusive nature toward his wife but by the defendant's extramarital sexual activity with Roland Tetreault. In my view, such an argument creates a dangerous risk of insinuating to jurors that they properly can conclude that the victim was justified in beating his wife for her infidelity. In order to avoid this risk, this type of evidence should be admitted rarely and only in limited circumstances, (e.g., pertaining to the defendant's state of mind), and only when accompanied by stringent limiting instructions from the trial judge. Unfortunately, the prosecutor's improper introduction of this issue during his closing argument to the jury effectively prevented the trial judge from exercising these controls.
prosecutor's statements extends beyond the defendant's history of extramarital sexual activity.
A central pillar of the defendant's case was that at the time of the homicide she suffered from battered woman syndrome, a posttraumatic stress disorder allegedly caused by the victim's constant and habitual abuse. Evidence of the victim's attack on November 21, 1984, played a crucial role in the defendant's attempts to establish that the victim regularly abused her, thereby causing her to suffer from battered woman syndrome. In the words of the defendant's expert witness on battered woman syndrome, this attack was "the significant incident, one of the worse [sic] incidents that occurred in November of 1984 that pushed [the defendant's relationship with the victim] over the danger level" (emphasis added).
The prosecutor's improper and unfounded statements allowed the jury to infer that the November 21 attack was not an example of the victim's ongoing abuse, as was suggested by the defendant, but was merely an isolated incident caused by the victim's rage at witnessing his wife's infidelity. Such an inference certainly would have harmed the defendant's attempts to establish that she suffered from battered woman syndrome due to chronic abuse. Accordingly, the potential impact of this inference should have been considered by the court in assessing the harm caused by the prosecutor's error. In the circumstances of the present case, however, it appears that the error was rendered harmless because the jury's verdict of manslaughter suggests that the jury accepted the defendant's claim that she suffered from battered woman syndrome at the time of the homicide. In short, the good sense of the jurors saved a prosecutor from the consequences of his own folly. Accordingly, I concur.
[Note 1] The issue whether the judge properly allowed the admission of expert testimony on the battered woman syndrome is not before this court. Whether such evidence is admissible in Massachusetts has yet to be decided. See Commonwealth v. Lazarovich, 410 Mass. 466 , 473 (1991); Commonwealth v. Moore, 25 Mass. App. Ct. 63 , 66 (1987). Therefore, we take no position on the matter at this time.
[Note 2] The judge instructed the jury that "[t]he closing arguments you heard here this morning are not evidence."
[Note 3] The defendant and Tetreault lived together for several months during 1984 and 1985.
[Note 4] These two men were Michael Bruyette, one of the youths who murdered the victim, and Darryl Fredette, the father of the defendant's first child and one of her alleged batterers.
[Note Concur-1] Similarly, the defendant's testimony regarding the November 21, 1984, attack does not describe either herself or Tetreault as being "on the couch." | http://masscases.com/cases/sjc/412/412mass505.html |
Underground city is a sequence of linked subterranean space which could provide a defensive refuge, working or shopping, a place for living and much more. The term could also be related to a network of tunnels which could connect buildings below the street level that could house office blocks, metro stations, theatres and other attractions.
Dr Heinrich Kusch, a German archaeologist, in his book - `Secrets of the Underground Door to an Ancient World’ relates that tunnels were dug under exactly hundreds of Neolithic settlements all over Europe and from the many tunnels which have survived 12,000 years indicate that the original network could have been quite massive. Kusch states that in Bavaria, Germany, alone around 7000 metres of these underground tunnel networks have been discovered.
In Styria, Austria around 350 meters long. Across Europe, there are thousands of them from the north in Scotland down to the Mediterranean. The tunnels seems to be quite small and measure only 70cm in width, which could be adequate for a person to creep through while in some areas, there are small rooms, storage chambers as well as seating places.
Purpose of Tunnels – Full of Speculation
Though several are of the belief that Stone Age humans were considered to be primitive, unbelievable discoveries like the 12,000 year old temple known as Gobekli Tepe in Turkey and Stonehenge in England that exhibit advanced astronomical knowledge portray that they were not primitive as many believe it to be. Discovery of the vast network of tunnels recommends that Stone Age humans were not just spending their days gathering and hunting.
The actual purpose of the tunnels is full of speculation where some experts are of the belief that they were ways to protect man from predator while others were of the opinion that they were for the purpose to travel safely, a means of shelter from harsh weather conditions or it could also be safe from wars and violence. But the scientists, at this stage are only presuming since the tunnels have not yet revealed their secrets of the past.
Some Perceived Catastrophe
However, the question is why should such network be constructed in the first place and the answer to it could be some catastrophe or perceived catastrophe. It could possibly be the ancient man’s underground `continuity of government’ or `continuity of culture’ network.
Based on this, one could probably speculate that such networks gives some insight to some ancient breakaway civilization network of installations which could be similar with regards to our own civilization’s underground bunkers, cities and research facilities, but the size of the ancient structures in most cases is dwarfed by the modern.
In any case, the presences of these networks in Europe and South America could recommend that whatever could be the system that it was created for; they could have been in response to a global situation, the first manifestation of the underground bunker.
No one had any indication as to why man made subterranean systems like the Erdstall was built but at least 700 of them exist in the German state of Bavaria alone with many more still hidden across Europe, from Hungary to Spain. | https://www.elixirofknowledge.com/2015/07/ancient-underground-tunnels-of-germany.html?m=0 |
Mittelbau Overview Click here to view map of the Mittelwerk. The name Mittelbau refers to a complex of factories, storage depots, facilities and prisoner camps, some underground, that were used from August, 1943 until April, 1945 to manufacture and test the V-2 rocket near Nordhausen in central Germany.
United States Underground Cities, Bases and Tunnels Systems GOVERNMENT MAP OF UNDERGROUND TUNNELS These areas were found off a government map showing just some of the underground bases in the United States.
Welcome to Underground Ozarks, a site all about urban exploration in the Ozarks area. You'll find information and pictures of abandoned places, sewers and drains, ghost towns, and more.
Thousands of old copies of the Koran are buried in tunnels beneath a mountain in western Pakistan.
Tunnels under the USA. So the elite are keeping silent about Planet X coming but have been busy building underground cities and interconnected tunnels - hmmmmmm?
The underground "tunnels" of the McMartin Preschool. Sponsored link. This essay is based primarily on an article by John Earl called "The Dark Truth About the 'Dark Tunnels of McMartin'."
During the First World War, the underground tunnels of Arras called "Boves" were extended by tunnellers from New Zealand to create a tactical advantage for Allied forces.
Archaeologists at the world-renowned Maya site of Palenque in Mexico have made a surprising discovery beneath the Temple of Inscriptions, the impressive funerary monument built for Maya ruler Pakal – underground water tunnels that appears to have been created as a symbolic path to guide Pakal to the afterlife.
Each shelter consisted of two parallel tunnels that were 16ft 6in (approx. 4.9m) in diameter and were 1400ft (approx. 427m) in length. Two pairs of shafts were sunk for each shelter, with the pairs being sited a distance from each other in case a bomb struck, blocking a shaft.
Each week, we publish a gallery of readers' pictures on a set theme. This week it is "underground".
The Gaza Strip smuggling tunnels are passages that have been dug under the Philadelphi Corridor, a narrow strip of land, 14 km (8.699 miles) in length, situated along the border between Gaza Strip and Egypt.
The first section of this page was written by Phil Schneider:. Photo of United States Air Force tunnel boring machine at Little Skull Mountain, Nevada, USA, December 1982.
The Trümmelbach Falls are the world's only glacier waterfalls that are accessible underground by lift, galleries, tunnels, paths and platforms.
Building the rail tunnels. A network of new rail tunnels have been built by eight giant tunnel boring machines, to carry Crossrail's trains eastbound and westbound.
A brief of history of lines. While many of central London's Underground stations have tunnels, foot tunnels and passageways that are no longer in use for various reasons, Euston's Underground station has more such tunnels than most, some that even contain features that are unique to the network. | http://www.archiclub.co.in/rock/pictures-of-underground-tunnels.html |
The recently discovered temple complex in south-eastern Turkey dates back to the end of the last ice age (12,000 years ago) and it�s considered the most important archaeological discovery of modern times. It is unknown who created this site or why, but it is still intriguing how could the first civilization build such sophisticated structures without the necessary technology.
There are many stories and theories about Egypt as there are many books and studies related to the understanding of the Egyptian phenomena. Now we know that the Great Pyramid�s construction was meant for something more than the simple housing of a king�s remains. However, the sudden rise of the Egyptian Civilization in the 3rd millennium BC has led many experts to believe that theirs were a legacy of an earlier forgotten civilization.
The archaeological site of Baalbek in Lebanon has some of the most well-preserved Roman ruins in the world. It raises a lot of questions because it a vivid example of something beyond the construction capabilities of any accepted ancient or modern-day builders.
As in the case of Pumapunku, Koricancha, Ollantaytambo , Yuroc Rumi and in ancient Egypt, metal clams were used in the construction of several unexplainable structures. Evidence proves that melted metal was poured into the carved stone blocks in order to create handlers and more resistant structures. As we know, such metal needs to be melted under extreme temperatures, something impossible for the time�s given situation.
PumaPunku is one of four structural arrangements in the ancient Pre-Inca city of Tiwanaku in South America. The intriguing thing is that they are older than the pyramids, with claims of up to 15, 000 years. Even the Incas didn�t know its history. The massive stones used in the construction bear no chisel marks and were finely cut to interlock with the others. A lot of the stones were cut so precisely that the builders clearly had an extremely sophisticated knowledge of stone-cutting, engineering and geometry. The city also had a functioning irrigation system, waterproof sewage lines and hydraulic mechanisms. With no record of its inhabitants or their methods, the technologies and processes used during its construction remains an enigma to experts.
Archaeologists have discovered evidence of an extensive network of underground tunnels from Scotland to Turkey, underneath Neolithic settlements. The fact that these tunnels survived for 12, 000 years is a testimony to the skill of the builders and of the sheer size the original network must have been.
The ancient city of Nan Madol lies off the island of Pohnpei in Micronesia. Built on a coral reef exclusively from colossal basalt rocks, the city is intercrossed by a multitude of canals and connected via submerged tunnels. It has been often compared with the Great Wall in what regards its scale. The real mystery is that nobody knows who built the city, when was it built or for what reason. Moreover, human bones uncovered by archeologists seem to be larger than the local Micronesians of the area today.
These caves are considered by the Chinese as the �Ninth wonder of the ancient world�. The origin of the 24 caves is yet unknown keeping up a strong scent of mystery. These locations present intriguing details such as the lack of historical record regarding the work involved to excavate the almost million cubic meters of stone or the stone carvings which carry a similar pattern with the one found on pottery dated between 500 and 800 BC.
India�s ancient history was largely preserved thus making it possible for us to discover the cities of Harappa and Mohenjo Daro in the Indus Valley. This discovery was amazing because the cities were so sophisticated and well-planned that they are thought to be conceived as a whole before construction on the begun. Even the Harappa culture remains an enigma since its origins and deterioration are hidden, the dialect unknown and the writing is completely indecipherable.
Ancient knowledge and science was far more developed and refined than we have been taught. A wide diversity of gadgets have been excavated and found. From batteries to planispheres, ancient civilizations did well in inventing some of the most efficient and practical devices. | http://factsiknow.com/10-proofs-of-forgotten-advanced-civilizations.html |
Digging tunnels during a war is as old as war itself and often represents an act of recklessness on the part of a weaker opponent. In modern warfare, tunnels are becoming an asymmetric means of denying ground and aerial technology and the advantages of firepower. The state of Israel is engaged in a continuous and merciless fight against terrorists who lay underground tunnels.
During the Vietnam War, the Americans and their allies faced similar problems and, having no better solution, simply sent groups of "tunnel rats" under the ground to search for and destroy the enemy. In South Korea, along the thin demilitarized zone, Korean and American forces have for several decades been confronted by a huge North Korean army, which has in its arsenal the most complicated network of tunnels for conducting attacks under this zone. More recently, in Afghanistan and Iraq, coalition troops fought in a tunnel with an elusive adversary. Today it becomes clear that underground operations are returning to the tactics of military operations, especially in urban space, and the army, ignoring the tunnel battle, ignores it at its peril.
The Israelis understand this very well. The main problems are created by terrorists from the tiny Gaza Strip with a length of just 41 km and a width of 6-12 km. From there begins a complex network of military tunnels dug by the Sunni fundamentalist organization Hamas, which has ruled there since 2007. Israel and Hamas are in a state of permanent war, interspersed with rocket attacks, invasion of tunnels and full-scale hostilities. Hamas, founded in 1987, is the brainchild of the Muslim Brotherhood. Its military wing, the so-called Al-Qassam Brigade, sometimes operating independently of the Hamas government, has launched attacks on Israel since its inception. In response, Israel periodically conducts military operations in the Gaza Strip, among the last major conflicts are the operation Cast Lead (December 2008-January 2009) and Operation Enduring Rock (July-August 2014).
The natural response of the Israelis to threats from Gaza was the construction of a wall along the entire border with this formation. The wall, in which five checkpoints are organized, has become a relatively effective means of deterring the bulk of Palestinian terrorist attacks. To overcome this barrier, terrorists began digging tunnels deep underground. The scale of the tunnel war in Israel is staggering.
Israel claims that Hamas spends millions of dollars on 100 a year and hires Palestinians to 1500, paying them from 250 to 400 dollars a month to dig tunnels into Israel. It is reported that Hamas confiscates up to 95% of cement produced in Gaza to strengthen these tunnels. Hamas has gained vast experience in building tunnels under Israeli fortifications. According to the lieutenant colonel of the Israeli army Peter Lerner, many of the tunnels “are equipped with electricity, communications, air filters and rails for transportation, they are quite spacious, they can easily stand an adult with small weapons, RPG and other equipment.
The elite unit of the Israeli army corps, which is charged with neutralizing underground threats, is called Yahalom (Hebrew diamond), its official name is “Special Forces Engineering Division”. In the journal of the Israeli army, Yahal is described as follows: “Although the task of the entire unit is to combat the tunnel threat, it is divided into specialized companies. The company "Yael" is engaged in engineering intelligence. Saifan has been trained to combat the threats of non-conventional weapons (weapons of mass destruction). Two more units are engaged in the disposal of explosive objects, and “Samur” specializes in tunnel warfare. ”
Based on 50’s experience of Operation Enduring Rock, which included the discovery and destruction of Hamas’s extensive tunnel network, the army doubled the number of officers and soldiers assigned to Yahal and added new military technologies to its arsenal. These technologies include: a specially adapted protective kit for each soldier; radio systems for working inside the tunnel; the latest night vision equipment; use of small robots; new secret technologies for detecting activity in the tunnel; and training systems for practicing tactics, methods and methods of warfare. We will focus on the last three: robots for work in tunnels, technology for detecting tunnels and, most importantly, advanced combat training.
The Israeli army employs many advanced technologies in the fight against the tunnel threat, including its small assistants - four-wheeled mobile robots
Robots for underground combat
The Israeli army is armed with a whole arsenal of robots, adapted for action in the tunnels. The most common are Eye Drive, EyeBall, TALON and ANDROS WOLVERINE. The Mistral Group ODF Optronics has developed two hand-cast, abandoned reconnaissance robots: the caterpillar EyeDrive and its smaller brother, the EyeBall, with a size and shape similar to a softball ball. The day / night cameras of these small robots provide an overview of the 360 °, video and audio information is transmitted wirelessly; they are transported, deployed and serviced by a single operator. The army also has larger devices, for example, the TALON IV robot was adopted by Yakhalom in the 2013 year for reconnaissance and neutralization of explosive objects. The ANDROS WOLVERINE system, developed by Northrop Grumman REMOTEC, also entered service with the Israeli army. This heavy universal robot weighing 73 kg can be used to neutralize improvised explosive devices. In addition, it is possible to install various weapons on it; in the dark tunnel he will move ahead, saving the soldiers from danger.
Hamas fighter from Al-Qassam brigade in a tunnel in Gaza. The tunnels of this group represent a strategic problem for Israel.
Tunnel Detection Technology
Detecting enemy tunnels through layers of soil and stones is a huge problem. The Hamas organization views its tunnel activity as a strategic weapon against Israel, actively digging tunnel systems at depths of 20-35 meters. In response, the Israeli army began to carry out what it calls "permanent underground security tasks." In order to conduct continuous underground activities effectively, the necessary means to improve the level of ownership of the situation in the underground space. In recent years, seismic technology has gone far ahead. Since the beginning of 2000, the Israeli army has tested several tunnel detection systems, but none of these systems have been able to penetrate the ground deep enough and therefore could not become a practical means of detecting the laying of the tunnel by the enemy.
Last year, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu announced that Israeli scientists had made a breakthrough in tunnel detection technology. “In recent days, the state of Israel has achieved a breakthrough in its work on the localization of tunnels, which no country has achieved. We checked the whole world on this. ”
This tunnel detection system was created with US financial support and was developed by a consortium of companies led by Elbit Systems and Rafael Advanced Defense Systems. It is reported to consist of hundreds of seismic sensors located underground and connected to an advanced computer system for monitoring tunnel activity. This technology can determine the length and location of tunnels with very high accuracy.
The Israeli anti-tunneling system is classified, but Israeli newspapers write that it will soon be deployed along the entire Gaza border with Israel. At the same time, Israeli engineering troops are digging a wide anti-tunneling barrier along the Gaza border, which will be laid deep under the ground in order to provide physical and technological protection against the construction of new tunnels. The search for a technology to solve the tunnel problem was difficult, but the Chief of the General Staff of the Israeli army said about this: "We did everything possible to find a technical solution to the problem."
An Israeli soldier peers into the black hole of a tunnel dug by Hamas militants into Israeli territory. Asymmetrical enemy uses tunnels for protection and shelter, as well as a safe means of attack
Enhanced preparation for tunnel combat
The slogan "Train as if you are fighting" lives the Israeli army. She recognized the need to prepare for a tunnel war and is building a new high-tech combined arms training base on the Golan Heights to prepare for combat operations in human settlements, which also includes an underground war preparation site. The Snir Training Center (named after the tributary of the Jordan River) will allow for the conduct of combat training of all Israeli units and the development of combined-arms operations both on land and underground. Similarly, the concept of the National Training Center of the American Army, the Israeli military will be able to conduct comprehensive training in the entire spectrum of hostilities, from labyrinths of tunnels to bilateral exercises and live firing underground.
The tunnel system under the Snir base will allow Yahal and other Israeli units to gain experience in real tunnel systems based on Hamas tunnels that were discovered and destroyed by Israelis in the 2014 war of the year. For training with combat shooting, there are "smart targets" representing both combatants and civilians. A special conditional enemy unit, or a “red group,” will be organized in the center of Snir, which will conduct training battles with the “blue” units of the Israeli army. For this purpose, the MILES (Multiple Integrated Laser Engagement System) multipurpose integrated laser target destruction system will be used to simulate the use of weapons. The Israeli military will train in the center's tunnels, learn how to discover tunnels, enter them, orient, mark their path, in general, improve their tactics for victory in an underground battle. The center will provide modern material and technical base for the training of elite, regular and reserve Israeli units. Underground training center Snir is currently working and will be fully ready by the end of 2017.
In its report on the performance of combat missions in the war in Gaza in 2014, the Israeli army acknowledged that it was not ready to fight in the tunnels. Preparing the army to detect, enter and neutralize a huge network of tunnels is a difficult task that the Israelis still have to solve. Since 2014, Hamas has announced that it is rebuilding and expanding its network of tunnels. This statement was a signal to Israel and forced the army to focus its efforts on fighting in the tunnels.
The technologies of underground war are a growing market with a multi-billion dollar turnover; more than 23 large companies are developing tunnel combat technologies. These technologies include robots, detection systems, communication systems, training systems, etc. The report of the National Security Research Corporation, published this year, said: “Future technologies of underground war will be based on: multimodal, multi-touch systems with the fusion of data for detecting secret tunnels and underground structures; conducting proactive underground warfare, in which the guided underground robots of the “discovered-killed” type will search, locate and destroy enemy's tunnels and underground structures. These promising developments will open a new era of the “Underground War”, in which the armed forces and law enforcement agencies will apply many constantly changing technologies and tactics. ”
Today, the Israeli army is facing ever-changing tactical challenges, responding to them with new technologies and in-depth combat training. She intends to show her adversaries that the cost-benefit ratio from further tunnel attacks will not be in their favor. Whether it will achieve this is not yet clear, but at the interim stage its activities will allow the military of other countries to pass on valuable experience that will help reduce their own losses and win a merciless underground war.
On the materials of the sites: | https://en.topwar.ru/127228-besposchadnyy-podzemnyy-boy-izrail-gotovitsya-k-tunnelnoy-voyne.html |
A series of interconnected tunnels winds under the ground. The murky fog inside makes it hard to see anything but red and green lights, and every so often a hissing noise comes forth from deep within. Sounds like the dungeons of an old enchanted castle, right? Wrong! It turns out that this fantastical system of tunnels lies right under our feet, creating the mystical Berkeley steam tunnels.
The steam system was built in the early 1900s to generate power for the campus. The high pressure steam, generated in the heating plant just northwest of Haas Pavilion, travels through a network of pipes to other areas of campus. The steam tunnels also house some network and phone cables, despite intense heat and humidity.
The tunnel itself is rather narrow and poses an alarming number of hazardous threats. Hot steam, probable presence of asbestos, heat exhaustion and exposure to radon gas are just some of the risks involved when you enter this underground network.
Yet despite their dangerous environment, the steam tunnels were once seen as a tourist attraction and escape route. As recently as the 1980s, students living in residence halls would explore the steam tunnels as a recreational activity, although these activities were not endorsed by the campus. According to this online forum, the underground tunnels also have a much more dramatic, Berkeley-esque history associated with them. According to legend referenced in the forums, in the 1960s, students chained the doors of the chancellor’s door handles together in protest of one of the chancellor’s policies regarding the Vietnam War. Having no other way to get out of the building, the chancellor escaped via the steam tunnels.
Running from the edge of Hearst Memorial Mining Building to Stern Hall, there is also an old mining tunnel called the Lawson adit (not connected to the steam tunnels), which was used in the early 1900s for a very different purpose — to teach students practical mining methods. It’s locked now, but it’s an interesting relic of how UC Berkeley students used to learn.
Mention of these steam tunnels in the last few years has dwindled to almost nothing, and they have been fitted with an advanced locking mechanism which prevents entry from the outside. Officials may say that such a dangerous environment must be closed off, but we have other ideas about what’s down there now. Could it be a three-headed dog named Fluffy? Has Gollum relocated? | https://www.dailycal.org/2014/02/25/steam-tunnels-forbidden-underworld-berkeley |
The war over the tunnels is at its peak. During the ground maneuvers of Operation Protective Edge, IDF forces have succeeded in significantly damaging Hamas’ tunnel network. “We have destroyed about half of their tunnel abilities. We have damaged the underground network, and as the operation progresses, we realize how much they invested in this network and how strategic it is for them,” says an Operations Branch engineering officer of the Southern Command, Major Sagi. “Our objective is to thoroughly cleanse all the tunnels in the Gaza Strip, both internal ones and tunnels that infiltrate into Israel, and that is a very realistic goal. We need to be given enough time to be able to achieve this fundamental, comprehensive strike, while maintaining the security of the soldiers carrying out the operations.”
At this point, the IDF has discovered more than 60 tunnel openings and 33 tunnels. Fifteen of them have been completely destroyed by specialized forces. Now, the IDF forces are working along a “thorough cleaning” method. Every inch of ground they have covered is combed and mapped and that is where most of the tunnel network was found. Later, the tunnels are destroyed using various methods.
During this operation, the understanding has penetrated the IDF ranks that the underground infrastructure is used to target Israel. “There is no piece of ground that is not a path towards the interior of the country. Today we understand how many resources Hamas has invested in infiltration. The project is huge in the quantities of cement, infrastructure and time that was invested — all in an effort to carry out “quality” attacks on the Israeli home front,” says Major Sagi. “Each tunnel branches out several times. Some were meant to enable terrorists to infiltrate into Israel, while others are rigged with explosives. We found hundreds of kilograms of explosives under Israeli territory,” he revealed.
The tunnel openings are scattered all over the Gaza Strip — deep in built-up areas, on the outskirts of cities, in fields, and even in private homes. “We work with the assumption that overall, the openings are booby trapped, miraculously, not a single soldier has been injured in the tunnel exposure and destruction operations — a fact that is not something to be taken for granted.” Major Sagi emphasized that “the tunnel openings are camouflaged very well and most are explosives-rigged. Special engineering teams operate heavy equipment to prevent harm to those working in the area, and do as best they can to reduce the risks.”
Every tunnel that was located so far contained on average of four to 10 barrels of explosives, and several explosive devices. In addition, cables and sedatives were found , apparently intended to be used during a kidnapping of an Israeli civilian or soldier — which is a considered a “high quality” attack that yields a bargaining chip.
Over the last year, extensive intelligence work was conducted in an effort to locate these tunnels, which brought about the discovery of four terror tunnels in the year preceding Operation Protective Edge. | https://hamodia.com/2014/07/28/hamas-hiding-underground-terror-nests/ |
Iran Tests Missiles, Funds Terror Tunnels to Israel
Two events from this week underscore Iran’s aggressive policy toward Israel and other nations in the region.
First, a massive underground attack tunnel penetrating Israeli territory from Lebanon was discovered in northern Israel. The discovery is the first tunnel located as part of Operation Northern Shield, a mission two years in the making, whose objective is to detect and neutralize a network of sophisticated secret tunnels created by Hezbollah in order to invade Israeli territory.
Also, United States Secretary of State Mike Pompeo accused the Iranian regime of recently testing a medium-range ballistic missile capable of “carrying multiple warheads” and able to strike “anywhere” in the Middle East and even parts of Europe. Pompeo’s December 1 press statement did not say when the test occurred, only that it had “just” happened. | https://www.thetrumpet.com/18020-iran-tests-missiles-funds-terror-tunnels-to-israel |
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A large-scale system of ancient tunnels, which archaeologists have been able to discover, covers almost the whole of Europe and stretches from Scotland to the Mediterranean
Archaeologists have discovered a developed network of ancient hidden tunnels, many of which extend throughout Europe. Individual passages that go deep into the bowels of the earth turned out to be so long that they stretch for kilometers.
It is reported that the age of some of the tunnels found by scientists reaches five thousand years. Initially, researchers believed that such passages were used for siege or as secret manholes from the enemy. But later tunnels were discovered, the length of which is comparable to a full-fledged pedestrian subway. They turned out to be so wide that a horse with a cart could fit in them freely.
It is noteworthy that only those of the tunnels that were found first turned out to be ancient. Moreover, many of them were created before the founding of the Roman Empire. Who and why created these passages is not clear. Most likely, it will be possible to solve this mystery only if material is found in the moves that will determine the DNA of the builders. Scientists hope that these remains are most likely awaiting discovery somewhere under a layer of stone.
Scientists add that the discovered tunnels are not mentioned in historical chronicles, which is very strange, since their scale is truly huge. The study of ancient underground passages continues. | https://www.soulask.com/archaeologists-have-found-a-network-of-hidden-tunnels-that-run-across-europe/ |
Medieval Underground Structures
Underground tunnels are situated northeast of St. Wenceslas´ Church. No written records about these underground tunnels and their original purpose have been found so far. The last surveys including raugh geodetical location and probably cleaning up the underground tunnels were done during World War II in 1944. Later the underground tunnels were visited only by inquisitive boys from Světlá and – unfortunatelly – used as a dump by local citizens.
A group of members of National History Association of the Region of Světlá with understanding and help of the Municipal office of Světlá started to clear up underground tunnels. Apart from decontamination and safety work in places where threatened the danger of injury of unauthorized persons, the lights and an entrance hall with a little exhibition were installed.
After cleaning up all the underground structures in 1999-2002 was found out that the total length of the underground tunnels including blind alleys is almost 200m, all of them ending in hard rock. No connection to other underground spaces has been found, failing to confirm the folk myths about the connection between the underground tunnels and the cellars of local medieval houses or the stories about passages and tunnels erected under the river Sázava heading to the chateau or even to Lipnice castle. Neverthelles the tunnels are an exquisitive example of medieval construction skills although their purpose can be only suggested from similar systems in other towns. The oldest parts of the system are in a rock outcrop above the river Sázava as was proved by character of the works and their proceedings. These were two cellars attached to today non-existing buildings. During the time underground structures expanded and interconnected, transforming into a relatively unified structure with tunnel width ranging from 160 to 240 cm and tunnel height of 170 to 210 cm. Tunnel walls and ceilings make wanderful arches with traces left after the hand tools used to hew them out.
The age of the underground tunnels is not certain. The oldest entrances are situated near expressive tectonic structures and therefore it is probable that first surveys were done by prospectors at the end of 13th century as in neighbouring towns Havlíčkův Brod, Ledeč nad Sázavou, Jihlava and others. Most probably the tunnels developed step by step and together with the owners the underground structures changed their usage. However,the quality of tunneling work reveals that the most characteristic features of the underground date back to the 15th century AD as can be seen by the quality of the works. Nevertheless, later cuts and adjusting of the surface is also possible.
The oldest findings of chips and pottery are from 15th century. It is probable that underground was a subject to occasional thorough cleaning especially when used as a storage space for food. The only coin found dates to the year 1800.
Todays united underground structures were originally led from two different places owned by different landlords. South entrance was connected to the cellar of the house n. 15. The house used to be jewish or czech-brothers chapelry (today destroyed). South entrance had been built earlier than the house n. 15. The second originally individual entrance was situated in the same rock outcrop 17 m in northern direction against the river flow. This oldest descent of todays structures was ony 5 to 6 m deep and it is a subgrade part of the underground structures today. New building of the tunnels developed as the town was growing bigger. It seems that originally individual cellars were built for needs of individual families and later created common system.
Approximatelly in the central section of the underground systems workers accidentally drove to an old well with an area of 1 sq.m., depth of 9.8 meters and with a bottom situated 3.25 meters under the floor level. The level is of circular average and was hewn into a paragneiss and exhibited low-volume inflow, therefore serving mainly as auxiliary ventilation. The main ventilation system consisted of perpendicular boreholes with 10 cm diameter and 4 to 6 meters length. | https://www.kyticesvetla.cz/en/2012/05/25/stredoveke-podzemi/ |
Structure of the termite mound
The mounds of macrotermitine termites have stereotypical architectures, yet are highly variable in structure.
All species locate their colonies underground, where they cultivate fungi that aid in cellulose digestion. The mounds enclose a ramifying network of tunnels that forms a respiratory gas exchange system for the nest. Some species may build open chimneys or vent holes into their mounds, while others build completely enclosed mounds that exchange gas through porous thin-walled tunnels (like the Macrotermes mound to the right). Even within populations, the variation of mound structure is prodigious.
External structure of the Macrotermes michaelseni mound
Macrotermes mound showing
elements of
external mound structure
A mound that has grown up around a Boscia tree.
Outwardly, the mound consists of three parts:
- a columnar spire atop a conical base. The spire reaches on average about 3 meters high, but it can reach as high as 9 meters.
- a conical base, roughly 4-5 meters in diameter and roughly 1.5 meters tall
- a broad outwash pediment, roughly 10-20 meters in diameter, consisting of soil eroded from the mound.
A distinctive feature of these mounds is the northward tilt of the spire. At our study site in northern Namibia, this tilt is about 19 degrees on average, which corresponds to the average zenith angle of the sun (and to the latitude). The spire's northward tilt is probably due to termites building more avidly on the warmer north-facing surface of the mound (remember that Namibia is in the southern hemisphere). You can read more about this, including a video of how it happens, here.
Mounds are also often built around trees, as shown here. This may be due to a shelter effect: a foundling colony's chance of survival to maturity may be enhanced when the founding king and queen land in the shelter of a tree, rather than in the harsher environments between trees. The tree is not harmed by this - indeed it thrives. A curious feature of this association is that termites are often found in association with the tree species that is rarest in this savanna: the Shepherd's tree, Boscia albitrunca. You can read more about this here. TOP
Surface architecture
Patch of new building on mound surface
Underside of patch of new building revealing egress complex (above) and entrance hole to surface conduit (below).
The mound surface appears to be solid and impermeable, but it is actually quite porous. The porosity arises from the method that termites employ to grow the mound.
The mound grows by termites transporting soil onto the mound surface and depositing it there (three videos below of a mound building in the rainy season illustrates this). To get to the surface, termites dig numerous egress tunnels from the surface conduits to the mound surface.
Notice how the deposition of soil to the surface is episodic. This typically occurs following rainfall events. This is an important clue to why the termites actually build a mound.
Deposition of new soil onto the surface is evident as patches of moist or rough deposits of soil (right). These new deposits are quite friable and air moves through them with relative ease. These patches of newly deposited soil open directly into the egress tunnels, which is revealed when a patch is removed.
The mound therefore has a dynamic surface. As soil is eroded from the actions of wind and rain, it is replaced by the action of termites depositing fresh soil. This makes the mound structure malleable, which allows it to be modeled to local conditions.
The turnover of soil in the mound is seasonal, occuring solely during the rainy season. It is also quite prodigious, amounting to about 250 kg dry mass of soil annually. It is for this reason that these mounds have been likened to slow-motion "soil fountains."
Internal architecture
The relatively simple external architecture masks one of the most sophisticated animal-built structures on the planet. Inside themound is an extensive reticulum of tunnels and conduits, which reveals its function: the mound is an organ of physiology for the termite colony superorganism, which is centered on the underground nest. The nest itself is a spheroidal structure consisting of numerous gallery chambers, each of which contains a fungus comb, where raw forage, such as grass and wood, is digested by the symbiotic fungi (Termitomyces) that the termites cultivate within their nest.
This network of tunnels is most easily made visible by casting them in plaster and then washing away the soil. The first to do this was the Belgian entomologist Jean Ruelle (below), who cast the tunnel network of a Macrotermes natalensis mound in concrete.
More recently Rupert Soar (of Loughborough University) and I have cast the internal tunnel network of Macrotermes michaelseni. You can see more about this on the Endocasting page. As in Ruelle's cast, the tunnel network of the M michaelseni mound consists of an elaborate reticulum of surface conduits (middle) overlying a more extensive reticulum of large-calibre deep tunnels.
- the egress complexes underlie sites of active building at the mound surface, and emerge from the vertically oriented surface conduits. At sites of active building, these can be extensive and tortuous. Egress complexes can be found over the entire surface of the mound.
- the surface conduits run vertically underneath the mound's outer surface. Egress complexes spout from the surface conduits all along the conduit's length.
- The surface conduits also extend below ground to form the paraoecie. This structure envelops the nest, and offers egress from the peripheral chambers of the nest. The paraoecie also merges with the network of foraging tunnels that radiates as far as 70 meters from the nest. The subterranean conduits also connect peripherally with the air spaces of the nest.
- An amorphous large internal air space, the chimney, extends nearly the vertical length of the mound. The image one conjures is of a large pipe extending from the nest up through the mound. In fact, it ramifies and branches, so that it blends seamlessly into the large network of the mound's tunnels. Below, it penetrates into the center of the nest, and connects to the nest's central air spaces, through tiny holes. The chimney is excavated from abandoned fungus galleries.
- the reticulum is an interweaving network of tunnels that spans the chimney and surface conduits. | https://www.esf.edu/efb/turner/termitePages/termiteStruct.html |
Table of Contents
What is the purpose of the Tunnel?
What is the well-known tunnel design Software?
What are the methods of Tunneling?
Shaft Method of Tunnel Construction
What are the different types of tunnels?
Underground construction and tunnel engineering are genuinely interdisciplinary processes, requiring knowledge and skills from civil engineering, geological engineering, and mining engineering, as well as mechanical engineering, geophysics, electrical engineering, geology, etc.
Students must learn to design, build, rehabilitate, and maintain structures peculiar to the underground space, and the use of tunnels for commercial, transportation, water, wastewater, and utility, etc in addition to typical construction procedures.
Tunnels are passages beneath the ground that are utilized for transportation. They might be used to transport freight and passengers, as well as water and sewage. Beyond a certain depth, tunnels are more cost-effective than open cuttings. During the construction stage, tunnels normally undisturbed the surface activities like live traffic, open recreational activities, etc.
Tunnels are considered to be less expensive than bridges or open steep earthwork cuttings for highway projects or transporting public utility services such as water and wastewater or gas line. The inability of these structures to be built out of natural resources such as rock and soil leads to their failure.
Geological factors are expected to play a significant effect on their long-term stability. Aspects that are extremely important are such as ground and sub-ground conditions, construction sequencing, construction period, construction cost, etc. All these factors play a very important role in determining the feasibility of a tunnel project.
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Accepting the inherent ambiguity linked with subterranean conditions that can be defined but never really known is a prerequisite for the tunnel design and construction process.
A typical tunnel project starts from the exploration of suitable ground conditions and then testing the engineering parameters, then moves to the selection process of tunnel excavation methods, then moves to the development of liner design parameters, and estimating surface settlements, and finally covers their effects on adjacent structures.
It uses various case studies of successfully executed completed projects to frame out the risks and mitigation strategies, lesson learned activities for the proposed project.
Shallow tunnels are often built using the cut and cover method of tunnel construction. This approach involves excavating a trench in the ground and covering it with support capable of supporting the load. There are two methods for the cut and cover method. One is the bottom-up method, in which a tunnel is excavated beneath the surface and supported by the ground.
Another way is the top-down method, in which the side support walls are built first, either via slurry walling or contiguous bored piling. The roof is then installed on top of the walls, and excavation is completed. Finally, the base slab is built. The majority of underground metro rail stations are built utilizing the cut-and-cover approach.
The method of using a bored tunnel is cutting-edge expertise. Tunnel boring machines are used for this method, which works automatically and makes the entire tunnelling procedure easier. It is also a more efficient and effective way of tunnel construction in urban, heavy trafficked locations where traffic diversion, and traffic management during construction is a highly difficult and expensive task.
Tunnel boring machines (TBMs) come in a variety of shapes and sizes to meet various ground conditions. These machines can work in challenging environments, such as below the water table. TBM can work in below-water-table circumstances because of a specific pressurized container.
This procedure is utilized when there is a lot of clay in the soil. This is a traditional approach that is still used for little jobs such as installing sewage pipes. In this procedure, a hole is dug into the earth, and then a depth tunnel is constructed by the clay kicker, which is mounted on a plank at a 450 angle. Under the clay kicker foot, there is a digging tool.
This is well-known since it was the method employed by Englishmen during World War I to bury mines.
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In this method, the tunnel is constructed at a greater depth from the ground surface. The shaft is placed to a depth where the tunnel is required. The shaft is a long-term construction that works well with concrete walls. TBMs are deployed to excavate tunnels to the appropriate depth.
Tunnels have shafts at both ends. If the tunnel is excessively long, intermediate shafts are constructed. These shafts can be utilized for ventilation purposes and for emergency exits once the construction of the tunnel is completed.
The pipe jacking method is recommended to build tunnels beneath existing facilities such as roads and railways. Hydraulic jacks are deployed to drive specifically designed pipes into the ground. Tunnels can have a maximum diameter of 3.2 meters.
Tunnels can be grouped into three main categories based on their intended use:
Tunnels are constructed to transfer traffic load from surface to subsurface channels for a brief period of time in order to facilitate congestion-free traffic movements. Traffic tunnels are structures that allow traffic to move at a chosen pace, with optimum ease, and at a minimal cost.
There are three types of traffic tunnels:
These tunnels are constructed for hydropower generating, as the name suggests. They are hammered into rocks, allowing gravity to convey the water.
These tunnels are constructed for a specific function, such as the disposal of municipal trash, the transportation of pipelines, cables, and oil supplies, as well as water. In today's heavily populated cosmopolitan cities, they are also constructed for underground parking and storage.
Tunnel Engineering online courses Being a unique engineering discipline, Tunnel Engineering courses are expensive and are very few available in the market. Following are some well-known courses in Tunnel Engineering:
Gcelab.com also offers a unique Tunnel Engineering online course. The course covers various key aspects of Tunnel Engineering and assists the student to learn Tunnel Engineering and move forward in the right direction to make Tunnel engineering an aspiring career option.
I hope this blog offers you adequate information about Tunnel Engineering and Tunnel Design.
Please feel free to like, share and comment about it.
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Protecting your servers involves more than housing them in a proper server room, these pieces of equipment are highly sensitive to temperature and humidity changes. They also happen to generate a significant amount of heat and noise. Ensuring the continuity and longevity of your server operations requires putting up the best environment possible for such equipment. Let's start with air conditioning. The air conditioning capacity of your server room will depend on the size of the room, number of people operating in the room, lighting, pieces of electrical equipment operating in the room and the subsequent heat given off by each piece of equipment. The amount of heat generated by these factors is called heat gain or heat load, and this is measured in either British Thermal Units (BTU) or Kilowatts (KW). 1KW is equivalent to 3412BTUs.
Calculating Your Server Room's Heat Output
To calculate the heat load for the dimensions of your server room, use the following formula: Room Area BTU = Length (m) x Width (m) x 337. To calculate the heat load for the number of people that may be working inside the server room for extended periods, use the following formula: Total Occupant BTU = Number of occupants x 400. However, if your server room is practically empty most of the time, you can do away with this calculation. The most significant amount of heat that can be generated inside your server room will come from your equipment. Add up all the wattages for routers, switches, and servers and multiply their sum by 3.5, the formula is Equipment BTU = Total wattage for all equipment x 3.5. Next add up the total wattage of all lights used in the server room and multiply by 4.25, the formula being Lighting BTU = Total wattage for all lighting x 4.25. Sum up all the BTUs to get the total heat load: Total Heat Load = Room Area BTU + Windows BTU + Total Occupant BTU + Equipment BTU + Lighting BTU.
Server Room Air Conditioning Options
If you have a larger data center, you might want to consider air conditioning options other than duct distribution. An under floor air distribution system is a good option and look for chilled water-based air conditioning. It is also vital for your room to have an independent air conditioning system that is not connected to the main cooling system. An independent air conditioning system gives your server room an independent thermostat that accurately adjusts cooling and humidity depending on the ambient temperature of the room. The recommended temperature for your server room is 72°F (±2°F) with relative humidity measured at 45% (±5%). Give a minimum clearance of at least 4 feet between the air conditioning unit and your server racks, this will minimize damage from water leaks should they occur and adequate access for maintenance. Another important consideration is redundancy. If your budget allows for it, get a backup cooling system and put up procedures for systems shutdown for any change in the environmental conditions in your server room.
Another important consideration is the air flow for your server racks. Open frame racks such as the 41U Kendall Howard Server Rack Frame offered by Global 1 Resources allows for easy installation and maximizes air flow. Global 1 Resources also offers vented server shelves that allow your equipment to breathe and stay cool while keeping them organized.
Next: Racks & Mounting Options
Previous: Size & Space Requirements
Source: http://www.openxtra.co.uk/articles/calculating-heat-load
There are no products listed under this category. | https://www.global1resources.com/server-room-climate-control/ |
Bane Welker Equipment LLC is a limited liability company (LLC) located at 33 E 700 S in Ladoga, Indiana that received a Coronavirus-related PPP loan from the SBA of $2,766,200.00 in April, 2020.
$ PPP Loan Information
Loan Size:
Jobs Retained:231
Loan Approved:2020-04-13
Lender:1ST SOURCE BANK
Bane Welker Equipment LLC received a Paycheck Protection Loan of $2.77M through 1ST SOURCE BANK, which was approved in April, 2020.
Based on standard PPP eligibility rules, Bane Welker Equipment LLC's total 2019 payroll expenses were approximately $13.28M in order to qualify for the PPP loan amount received.
Based on their reported 231 jobs retained, this equals an estimated average yearly compensation of $57,479 per employee1.
Business Information - Bane Welker Equipment LLC in Ladoga, IN
33 E 700 S
Ladoga, IN 47954
Business Industry
Farm and Garden Machinery and Equipment Merchant Wholesalers (NAICS code 423820)
Business Owner Demographics
Race / Ethnicity: Unreported
Gender: Unreported
Veteran Status: UnreportedCongressional District: IN-04
Industry PPP Comparison Statistics
Nationwide, 2,270 businesses in the "Farm and Garden Machinery and Equipment Merchant Wholesalers" industry received a total of $573,983,487.00 in PPP loans. These businesses account for 0% of total PPP applications submitted, and received 0% of the total PPP funding allocated.
PPP recipients in this industry report an average of 19 employees, 92% lower than Bane Welker Equipment LLC's reported 231 employees, and received an average PPP loan of $252,856, 91% lower than this company's loan of $2.77M.
FederalPay's PPP Information Policy
Paycheck Protection Loan data has been made public by the Small Business Administration (SBA) for all private companies that received a PPP loan.
All information displayed on this page is publicly available information under PPP loan guidelines, in compliance with 5 U.S.C. § 552 (Freedom of Information Act) and 5 U.S.C. § 552a (the Privacy Act) and is published unmodified, as provided by the SBA.
Footnotes & Information
1. Payroll and salary estimates assume the borrower used the standard PPP calculation of 2.5 x average 2019 monthly payroll costs to determine PPP loan eligibility. Calculation methods vary based on entity type. Please read the latest official SBA PPP calculation rules for a full explanation of PPP loan amount calculation methods.
2. If a company's reported number of employees divided by the maximum PPP range amount per the SBA is greater than $100,000, the estimated maximum PPP loan received by the company can be adjusted down to assume no more than $100,000 yearly salary per employee was used in the PPP application. While employees at the company may earn more, $100k / employee is the maximum amount that can be used in PPP eligibility calculations.
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Additional info for Pure Mathematics: 1
Sample text
The gradient of a line In two dimensions, the co-ordinates of points are often marked on paper and joined up to form lines or curves. A number of words are used to describe this process. P1 2 Draw means that you are to use a level of accuracy appropriate to the circumstances, and this could be anything between a rough sketch and a very accurately plotted graph. The gradient of a line In everyday English, the word line is used to mean a straight line or a curve. In mathematics, it is usually understood to mean a straight line.
7 (2, 1) 1 2 3 4 x P1 1 Rewrite the expression with the constant term moved to the right x 2 − 4x + 5. Add this to the left-hand part and compensate by subtracting it from the constant term on the right x 2 – 4x + 4 This is the completed square form. + 5 – 4. This can now be written as (x − 2)2 + 1. The minimum value is 1, so the vertex is (2, 1). The line of symmetry is x – 2 = 0 or x = 2. 31 The graphs of quadratic functions Take the coefficient of x: −4 Divide it by 2: −2 Square the answer: +4 Write x 2 + 5x + 4 in completed square form.
I) (ii) 9 A quadrilateral has vertices A(0, 0), B(0, 3), C(6, 6) and D(12, 6). Draw the quadrilateral. (ii) Show by calculation that it is a trapezium. (iii) Find the co-ordinates of E when EBCD is a parallelogram. (i) 10 Three points A, B and C have co-ordinates (1, 3), (3, 5) and (−1, y). Find the values of y when: AB = AC (ii) AC = BC (iii) AB is perpendicular to BC (iv) A, B and C are collinear. (i) 11 he diagonals of a rhombus bisect each other at 90°, and conversely, when T two lines bisect each other at 90°, the quadrilateral formed by joining the end points of the lines is a rhombus. | http://12dakot.com/books/pure-mathematics-1 |
Long operating times do not necessarily mean high productivity. The value of Overall Equipment Effectiveness (OEE) is used to determine how productive a production facility is in relation to the respective operating time. This describes the effectiveness of a production line as a percentage. A value of 0% is the minimum and 100 % the maximum.
What does the term Overall Equipment Effectiveness mean?
Overall Equipment Effectiveness is a key figure for the performance potential of a production process. It is used in the context of lean production or in controlling in order to be able to act in the most resource-saving way possible. For this purpose, OEE refers to the most frequent sources of productivity reduction in a production or manufacturing process. The aim is to achieve continuous optimization of production and conservation of resources in the interests of sustainability. Possible types of resource waste are:
- Movements due to transports and materials
- Work process errors
- Excessive scrap and rework defects
- Too long ways
The Overall Equipment Effectiveness measurement tool shows the areas in which there is particular potential for optimization. In this way, targeted decisions can be made on which adjustment screw needs to be turned in order to become more efficient.
This is how Overall Equipment Effectiveness is composed
The three factors that determine the Overall Equipment Effectiveness determined are availability, performance and quality.
The availability factor
One formula component for determining OEE is the availability factor. It is calculated as follows:
Availability factor V = Operating time/available time x 100 = %
The availability factor depends on the time periods in which the equipment is active but no production takes place. The machine running time is therefore described. In this way, the extent of losses or failures can be measured; these can occur, for example, due to a lack of personnel or technical defects. A possible event that could have a negative impact on the performance factor would be a plant failure that leads to the temporary cessation of production.
The quality factor
The quality factor evaluates the output of a production and its quality. This means: how many products are defective and must be deducted from the total number of finished products manufactured. To determine the quality factor, the formula applies:
Quality factor Q = number of good parts / (number of good parts + number of defective parts)
Common reasons for a poor quality factor are errors in the process that lead to misproduction.
The power factor
Another component of the calculation is the power factor. To determine this, the formula applies:
Power factor L = actual power [pieces/time] / target power [pieces/time] x 100 = %
A low value can have many causes. For example, old plant components can cause a low production rate, and interruptions in production can also have a negative effect. But also idle times and downtimes can produce a low production volume.
The OEE: A calculation by formula
In order to make data-based decisions, data collection of high quality and quantity is required. For the calculation of Overall Equipment Effectiveness, it is essential to have implemented intensive data collection in advance. When an OEE result is to be classified as positive varies individually and is determined by the respective company.
The formula
The following formula is used to determine the Overall Equipment Effectiveness: OEE = V x L x Q
Legend
V = Availability factor
L = power factor
Q = Quality factor
This is how an evaluation of the calculation results works
In order for the result of the calculation to be meaningful, various things must be taken into account. On the one hand, it is important to set the operating times in relation to the individual operating time of the machine. If a production line is in motion six days a week, this must be taken into account when calculating the OEE. In addition, the OEE provides concrete information about the respective plant area in which there is potential for optimization. If you add up the OEE values of the respective machines and form the arithmetic mean, you get distorted information. It is better to calculate the OEE using the harmonic mean.
Benefiting from the calculation of Overall Equipment Effectiveness
Since OEE makes concrete statements about various factors, problems in production can be easily identified and appropriate measures can be initiated. Overall Equipment Effectiveness thus offers companies a good approach to checking their own production for productivity and optimizing it if necessary.
In addition to overall equipment effectiveness, there is also overall operating effectiveness (OOE) and effective overall equipment performance (TEEP). Considered together with OEE, these three values differ only in their calculation of the maximum time, which is always defined differently. The formula of OEE takes into account the maximum time that is possible as production time, without including the unplanned time. The value of OOE is calculated by a formula that takes as maximum time the total operating time, taking into account the unplanned time. The formula of TEEP considers the maximum time as an indication of the total time available in the year, i.e. 24 hours, 365 days a year.
FAQ
We explain the most important terms related to Overall Equipment Effectiveness here:
Overall equipment effectiveness is a measure of the performance potential attributed to the production process.
Overall Equipment Effectiveness is calculated using three factors. These are the Availability factor, the Power factor and the Quality factor. The formula is: OEE = Availability factor (%) x Performance factor (%) x Quality factor (%). | https://www.wsw.de/en/glossary/overall-equipment-effectiveness/ |
Stillwater Designs & Autio, In is a corporation located at 3100 N Husband St in Stillwater, Oklahoma that received a Coronavirus-related PPP loan from the SBA of $2,468,200.00 in April, 2020.
$ PPP Loan Information
Loan Size:
Jobs Retained:192
Loan Approved:2020-04-06
Lender:BANCFIRST
Stillwater Designs & Autio, In received a Paycheck Protection Loan of $2.47M through BANCFIRST, which was approved in April, 2020.
Based on standard PPP eligibility rules, Stillwater Designs & Autio, In's total 2019 payroll expenses were approximately $11.85M in order to qualify for the PPP loan amount received.
Based on their reported 192 jobs retained, this equals an estimated average yearly compensation of $61,705 per employee1.
Business Information - Stillwater Designs & Autio, In in Stillwater, OK
3100 N Husband St
Stillwater, OK 74075
Business Industry
Electrical Apparatus and Equipment, Wiring Supplies, and Related Equipment Merchant Wholesalers (NAICS code 423610)
Business Owner Demographics
Race / Ethnicity: Unreported
Gender: Unreported
Veteran Status: NON-VETERANCongressional District: OK-03
Industry PPP Comparison Statistics
Nationwide, 4,322 businesses in the "Electrical Apparatus and Equipment, Wiring Supplies, and Related Equipment Merchant Wholesalers" industry received a total of $994,969,830.00 in PPP loans. These businesses account for 0% of total PPP applications submitted, and received 0% of the total PPP funding allocated.
PPP recipients in this industry report an average of 15 employees, 92% lower than Stillwater Designs & Autio, In's reported 192 employees, and received an average PPP loan of $230,211, 91% lower than this company's loan of $2.47M.
FederalPay's PPP Information Policy
Paycheck Protection Loan data has been made public by the Small Business Administration (SBA) for all private companies that received a PPP loan.
All information displayed on this page is publicly available information under PPP loan guidelines, in compliance with 5 U.S.C. § 552 (Freedom of Information Act) and 5 U.S.C. § 552a (the Privacy Act) and is published unmodified, as provided by the SBA.
Footnotes & Information
1. Payroll and salary estimates assume the borrower used the standard PPP calculation of 2.5 x average 2019 monthly payroll costs to determine PPP loan eligibility. Calculation methods vary based on entity type. Please read the latest official SBA PPP calculation rules for a full explanation of PPP loan amount calculation methods.
2. If a company's reported number of employees divided by the maximum PPP range amount per the SBA is greater than $100,000, the estimated maximum PPP loan received by the company can be adjusted down to assume no more than $100,000 yearly salary per employee was used in the PPP application. While employees at the company may earn more, $100k / employee is the maximum amount that can be used in PPP eligibility calculations.
Have FederalPay.org's open data tools been valuable? Consider donating! | https://www.federalpay.org/paycheck-protection-program/stillwater-designs-and-autio-in-stillwater-ok |
In order to provide a general overview of the potential health hazards resulting from exposure to whole-body and hand-arm vibration, the exposure ranges for numerous types of equipment and vehicles stored in the VIBEX database maintained at the BG Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (BGIA) were to be evaluated and compiled in a table.
The items of equipment and machinery generating vibration were grouped representatively according to their frequency of use. Typical field values for the exposure impact upon the human body were compiled from the VIBEX database. The axes of vibration x (back-chest), y (shoulder-shoulder) and z (spinal column) were considered for whole-body vibration. For hand-arm vibrations, the total vibration value relevant to prevention considerations is formed in accordance with the requirements of the standard from the values in the three axes x, y and z. The identified areas of exposure were presented in fields reflecting the possible scale of exposure.
For whole-body vibration impact, the ranges of the frequency-weighted acceleration values and for the weighted vibration values commonly used in the past are shown in a graph for the measurement points on the seat mounting and seat surface in the vertical and the two horizontal axes of vibration for 45 groups of vehicles and mobile machines. The number of individual vehicles/machines in each group is also indicated. The groups are indicated by pictograms. The mean seat transmission factors are indicated in tables. For hand-arm vibration exposure, a graph shows the range of the total vibration value for 78 groups of hand-held and manually guided devices, together with the number of representative devices from each group and the associated pictogram.
Further informations:
-cross sectoral-Type of hazard:
Arbeitsbedingte Gesundheitsgefahren, Lärm/VibrationenCatchwords:
Belastung, Gefährdungsbeurteilung, VibrationDescription, key words: | https://www.dguv.de/ifa;/forschung/projektverzeichnis/bgia_4116-2.jsp |
The 2019-built RSV Xue Long 2 icebreaker (aka Xuelong 2, translated "Snow Dragon 2") is China's newest icebreaking vessel that follows China's first icebreaker - Xue Long (1993-built). "RSV" stands for "research and supply vessel". The ship is owned by China's Polar Research Institute/PRI which currently manages 5x Chinese polar research stations (4x Antarctic, 1x Arctic), as well as both icebreakers (Xue Long 1, Xue Long 2).
The vessel (IMO number 9829241) is China-flagged (MMSI 413381260) and homeported and registered in Shanghai.
The shipowner/Polar Research Institute China-managed polar bases include Great Wall Station (1985-founded on King George Island/Antarctica), Zhongshan Station (1989-founded on Larsemann Hills, Prydz Bay/Antarctica), Kunlun Station (2009-founded on Dome Argus, King Haakon VII Plateau/Antarctica), Taishan Station (2014-founded on Princess Elizabeth Land/Antarctica) and Yellow River Station (2004-founded in Ny-Alesund, Spitsbergen Island, Svalbard Norway/Arctic).
Xue Long 2 vessel (construction, history, specs)
The icebreaking vessel is "Polar Class 3"/PC3 (with the same ice-class are the icebreakers Kronprins Haakon and Nuyina), design draft 7,9 m (26 ft), max draft/at full load 8,3 m (27 ft), displacement tonnage 14300 tonnes, depth 11,8 m (39 ft).
The powerplant is based on all four Wartsila marine diesel engines/electricity generators (two model 12V32/12-cylinder/total 19,6 MW, and two model 8L32/8-cylinder, total 1 MW) with combined power output 20,6 MW. The propulsion system is diesel-electric, based on two "Azipod 6" units (ABB bow thrusters, each 7,5 MW, or combined output 15 MW). Along with the Azipods, ABB also supplied A100-M turbochargers (designed for medium-speed marine engines) to enhance the engine's load response.
Xue Long 2 can navigate at max-speed 15 knots (28 kph / 17 mph) in open water (with 2 engines running) and has icebreaking capacity 1,5 m (5 ft) at speed 3 knots (6 kph / 3,5 mph), range 20000 NM (37000 km / 23000 mi), lowest operational temperature -45C (-49F). The economic speed is 12 knots (22 kph / 14 mph).
The hull design allows two-way icebreaking - while moving both forward and backward/astern.
The ship provides accommodation (2-bed and 4-bed cabins) for a total of 90 people (~30 crew plus ~60 mission personnel and scientists).
Signature features are the Helideck (aft-positioned helicopter-landing platform), hangar (for 2x aircraft), and Cargo Hold (fore-located storage for bulk cargoes, served by a heavy crane), two large-capacity lifeboats (positioned portside and starboard). Onboard scientific equipment includes laboratories (wet labs and dry labs), Seminar Room (capacity 80 seats), Scientific Control Room, underwater/hull bottom-mounted instruments, Working Deck (aft, fitted with A-Frame, several cranes and winches), Moon Pool (midship, for diving support and deployment of instruments), USBL (ultra-short baseline tracking system), 12x total underwater equipment, including 2x ADCP (acoustic doppler current profilers), 2x EA600 (single-beam hydrographic echo sounders), 2x Wartsila ELAC Nautik SeaBeam (deepwater multibeam system), 2x Kongsberg EM710 (multibeam echo sounders), 4x Kongsberg Simrad EK60 (scientific echo sounders). Radio communications are facilitated by two satellite dishes (L/S, K/U) and one AWS antenna (Amazon Web Services).
In 2012, for EUR 5 million was contracted Aker Arctic Technology Oy (2004-founded Finnish engineering company) to design the vessel. The hull model was ice-tested at Aker Arctic's facility in Helsinki Finland. However, the design project was largely developed by the Shanghai-based MARIC (Marine Design and Research Institute of China (1950-founded).
For developing the technical solutions (including deck handling equipment), in 2011 was contracted MacGregor (specializing in engineering solutions) which is part/subsidiary of Cargotec Corporation/Cargotec Oyj (2005-founded Finnish company specializing in cargo-handling machinery for ships, ports, terminals).
MacGregor provided the ship's 3x offshore cranes, Working Deck's handling systems (research equipment and machinery), oceanographic winches) and Cargo Hold's hatch covers, as well as spare parts and service support.
Construction works on the newbuild started in December 2016, at China State Shipbuilding Corporation's/CSSC's Jiangnan Shipyard.
The vessel (yard/hull number H2650) was launched/floated out from drydock on September 10, 2018, and delivered and commissioned on July 11, 2019. Sea trials were conducted in May-June 2019. Later the ship departed from Shanghai en route to Antarctica (via Hobart Tasmania Australia). The 3,5-hour icebreaking sea trials in Antarctica (near Zhongshan Station) were successfully conducted on November 26, 2019.
The ship's Maiden Voyage was part of China's 36th Antarctic Expedition for transporting supplies (fuel and provisions) to the Great Wall Station and loading the base's waste (for disposal in China). XueLong 2 returned to Shanghai on April 23rd. This was China's first polar expedition with the two icebreakers traveling in tandem - Xuelong 1 and Xuelong 2. During the 198-day voyage, both vessels covered a distance of 70000+ NM (~130000 km / 80500 mi) and carried a total of 413 personnel (support staff, scientists, researchers). | https://www.cruisemapper.com/ships/Xue-Long-2-icebreaker-1705 |
How do we calculate the utilization of equipment? How are a company’s assets and liabilities calculated, for example. Equipment is a type of asset that can be used to increase output in manufacturing processes or generate revenue from services rendered
Equipment utilization can be calculated by dividing the number of hours in a day, and multiplying it by the machine’s capacity.
The second method for calculating the utilization rate is to divide the number of billable hours by a specified number of weekly hours. In a set 40-hour week, for example, if 32 hours of billable time are documented, the utilization rate is 32 / 40 = 80%.
What exactly is equipment usage in this context?
Equipment utilization, also known as asset utilization, is a measurement of the usage and performance of site gear that helps organizations increase worksite productivity while lowering equipment rental costs and project delays.
How do you figure out how many people are on your team? The most straightforward formula is:
- Busy time / Available time equals resource utilization.
- Planned working hours (bookings) / Available hours = resource usage.
- Resource utilization is calculated as the ratio of recorded working hours to available hours.
Also, how do you figure out how much space you have?
Utilization is usually conceived of in two ways:
- Actual room time spent during a case(s) divided by total free time for a specific room is room usage.
- Block usage is the ratio of actual room time utilized during a case(s) to the total amount of time allotted to a surgeon.
What exactly is the OEE formula?
OEE = Availability Performance Quality is how it’s determined. When the preceding equations for availability, performance, and quality are replaced and simplified to their simplest form, the conclusion is OEE = (Good Count Ideal Cycle Time) / Planned Production Time.
Answers to Related Questions
What exactly is TEEP?
TEEP (Total Effective Equipment Performance) is a performance statistic that reveals your manufacturing operation’s full capabilities. It accounts for both equipment and schedule losses (as assessed by OEE) (as measured by Utilization).
What does the term “equipment utilization ratio” mean?
The utilization factor, also known as the usage factor, is the ratio of the time spent using a piece of equipment to the total time it may be used. In the definition, it is often averaged over time such that the ratio is equal to the quantity of energy used divided by the maximum amount of energy that may be utilized.
What does it mean to have a high capacity utilization rate?
For most businesses, a rate of 85 percent is regarded optimum. Companies that generate physical things rather than services employ the capacity utilization rate because commodities are simpler to measure than services.
What does a good OEE score look like?
An OEE score of 100 percent indicates ideal production: only excellent components are manufactured as quickly as possible, with no downtime. For discrete manufacturers, an OEE score of 85 percent is considered world class. It is an appropriate long-term objective for many businesses.
What exactly do you mean when you say “utilization”?
Simply put, the phrase relates to the efficient utilization of something or the act of doing so. In the business world, utilization may also refer to the proportion of a machine’s, device’s, or employee’s available time that they are actively working. We may also use the phrase to refer to a portion of a system’s operational period.
How can you figure out how much of a plant you’re using?
To determine a factory’s utilization rate, multiply the plant’s actual monthly or annual output by 100 and divide by the plant’s maximum monthly or annual production. Assume a plant’s actual output is 500 units per month, despite the fact that it has the capacity to generate 1,000 units per month.
What is the capability of the equipment?
Equipment Capacity. the amount of output (work) generated by a particular piece of equipment per unit of time, as determined by the equipment’s design qualities and technical attributes, as well as the operators’ production abilities.
What does the utilization formula entail?
(Total talk time + Total Hold Time + Total Wrap + Available Hours) / Paid Hours = utilization (percentage of time an agent is busy with any productive or billable activity). According to COPC, this is the sole formula that is allowed.
What is the formula for calculating the labor utilization rate?
The average labor utilization is calculated by dividing the entire labor content by the sum of the labor content and total idle time. The average labor utilization is 30 / 40 = 0,75 = 75 percent if the total labor content is 30 minutes and the total idle time is 10 minutes.
What does the term “utilization rate” imply?
The proportion of time a person spends completing billable work is referred to as the utilization rate. The billing rate is not the usage rate. The number of billable hours is the number of hours you may charge your customer, whereas the utilization rate is the proportion of total billable hours.
What is the definition of project utilization?
In project management, resource utilization refers to how much time team members spend on specific activities. Rather than implying that resources are being used more efficiently and effectively, it might indicate that the project is understaffed – or even in danger.
What constitutes a high usage rate?
A decent credit usage percentage is less than 30% in most cases. That indicates you’re only utilizing around a third of your whole credit limit. It may seem obvious, but you should maintain your balances below 30% of your credit limit to attain 30 percent credit usage. | https://fintechasia.net/2022/02/04/how-is-equipment-utilization-calculated/ |
He made the remark and said, “in tandem with importing some required oil equipment, the company is after encouraging domestic manufacturers for the production of similar foreign ones inside the country.”
Concurrent with importing some required oil equipment from foreign manufacturing companies, domestic manufacturers are encouraged to make huge investment for producing these products in the country, he maintained.
Domestic manufacturers of oil equipment have been proposed for manufacturing relevant valves, he said, adding, “it is supposed that domestic manufacturers should conduct feasibility studies on importing foreign prototypes.”
Increasing the number domestic manufacturers in the list of companies with high capability of manufacturing required products is one of the main approaches of the company and for this purpose, several expert-level sessions have been held with some prestigious companies, he observed.
Elsewhere in his remarks, Zamani said, “after the implementation of Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA), the official title of nuclear deal, giant steps were taken in the field of importing required oil equipment into the country.”
Given the salient achievements of the company, it received many orders from both domestic and foreign companies in the field of manufacturing oil equipment and parts, he said, adding, “Of total 141 cases ordered, 74 and 51 of which have been ordered by domestic and foreign companies respectively.”
Before sanctions period, the company had to order repairing oil turbines to the foreign companies but after the implementation of JCPOA, restrictions were turned into opportunities, so that the company managed to repair all equipment inside the country by itself, he stressed.
He put the number of orders requested by the domestic companies since the beginning of the past Iranian calendar year in 1395 (started March 20, 2016) up to Iranian month of Azar (ended Dec. 22) at 11, valued at 45 billion rials, and said, “manufacturing oil equipment in the country has saved $2 million and also 70 million rials.
However, effective steps have been taken in this regard especially in post-sanctions period, IOPTC manager concluded. | https://en.mehrnews.com/news/130816/Reduced-oil-equipment-import-into-country-to-save-13m-Official |
State and local govs keep using Chinese telecom products despite federal ban, report finds
Nearly 1,700 state and local government agencies and education institutions have since 2015 purchased telecommunications products manufactured by Chinese firms banned from doing business with the federal government, according to research published Wednesday by a Georgetown University think tank.
According to the report, from Georgetown’s Center for Security and Emergency Technology, 1,681 state and local governments nationwide spent about $45 million on equipment made by five firms — Huawei, ZTE, Hikvision, Dahua and Hytera — even as the U.S. has since 2018 banned federal agencies from doing so, citing those companies’ potential as conduits for espionage.
But the Federal Communications Commission’s “Covered List” — which was expanded earlier this year to include the Russian cybersecurity firm Kaspersky — does not apply to state and local entities. The Georgetown researchers found that state, local and educational organizations have continued to buy the otherwise-barred equipment, including smartphones and networking devices, because it’s often cheaper than competing, non-Chinese products.
The report’s authors wrote that security risks surrounding companies on the blacklist should outweigh any cost savings.
“Each piece of covered equipment represents a potential entry point into users’ networks, regardless of its cost,” the report reads. “The fact that untrustworthy technology was integrated into the networks of nearly 1,700 state and local government entities is far more relevant to national security than the total transaction value.”
In total, CSET researchers collected procurement information from 938 public schools, 482 local agencies, 161 public universities and 49 state governments, plus smaller numbers of public utilities, health agencies, transit systems and judiciaries.
Nearly 1,500 of the organizations studied made fewer than five purchases over the years, though some orders stood out. A midsize public university in Michigan spent $15.1 million on Huawei networking equipment, while two school districts in Arkansas each spent about $1 million on surveillance systems made by Hikivision.
The overall number of transactions with the banned companies has declined since the Covered List went into effect, dropping from nearly 1,200 in 2018 to slightly more than 600 last year. Still, few states have crafted policies mimicking the federal approach.
Just five — Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas and Vermont — have adopted laws or executive orders restricting the Chinese companies. But even with those policies, CSET’s researchers found loopholes. A Texas law adopted last year bans direct purchases from the banned manufacturers, but allows agencies to buy them from third-party distributors, noting a Texas school district that spent $550,000 on two-way radios made by Hytera.
“If the goal of a procurement ban is to keep compromised equipment and services out of government networks, it must target the product, not the seller,” the report reads.
The authors recommend that the Commerce Department use authority created by the Secure Technology Act, a 2018 federal law aimed at reducing supply-chain risks, to ban the listed companies from the entire U.S. market. The report also recommended the federal government support “rip-and-replace” programs to swap out prohibited devices for alternatives made by more trusted manufacturers.
Axios reported earlier this month that the FCC plans to ban all new U.S. sales of certain products made by Huawei, ZTE and the other listed companies. | https://statescoop.com/state-local-government-china-telecom-equipment-huawei-zte/ |
American company AM General was awarded a $356 million USD contract to manufacture 1,673 High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicles – also known as Humvees – for the U.S government which will pass them on to the Afghan National Army and Afghan National Police.
The U.S company said in a statement that it will deliver 1,259 M1151 Humvees plus 414 M1152 models. The Humvees are scheduled to be ready by end July next year.
Meanwhile, the Associated Press reports that the United States has spent more than $17 billion USD to provide weapons, ammunition, and other military equipment to Afghanistan’s defense forces. It has spent $13 billion USD to arm the ANA and a further $4.2 billion USD on weapons for the Afghan National Police, according to figures from the Special Inspector General for Afghanistan Reconstruction.
AP reported that the combined strength of the Afghan National Defense and Security Forces stood at 319,595 as of April 2016. This was a significant decline from February 2014 when the force strength was 338,108, according to figures published by SIGAR.
In total, as of June 30, 2016, “the United States had obligated $40.1 billion and disbursed $39.0 billion of [security] funds to build, train, equip, and sustain” the Afghan National Army, according to the report.
Yet the number of Afghans serving continues to decrease, the report found.
As of May 20, 2016, the Afghan army’s force strength totaled 171,428 – an overall decrease of 8,083 personnel from January of this year.
The force lacks basic supplies, such as footwear, despite vast funding from the United State, stated the report.
“Afghan security forces have had a shortage of adequate footwear,” according to the report. “Moreover, 23 percent of the boots ordered for the ANA and 29 percent of the boots ordered for the ANP during 2014 and 2015 were not delivered until early 2016.”
The boot shortage resulted from “the Afghan decision to buy short-lasting, poor-quality boots from local or Chinese sources” as well as “a system that tracked quantities of boots procured but not their sizes, which led to a surplus of boots too large for most Afghans,” according to SIGAR.
Billions spent on weapons and equipment also have seen diminishing returns, according to SIGAR.
While “there are over 54,000 vehicles in the ANA inventory,” U.S. Defense Department “estimates of the number of operational vehicles are far lower.”
The Afghan National Police force also has shrunk. The total force number was 148,167 as of April 2016, marking “an increase of 1,863 ANP personnel since last quarter, but 7,015 below the May 2015 assigned end strength that was reported at 155,182,” according to the report.
“Since last quarter, the total cost of equipment procured for the ANP increased by over $94.4 million USD, primarily within the vehicle category, but also for weapons, transportation services, and counter-improvised-explosive devices,” the report said.
The Defense Department “reported there is a continued requirement to replace battle losses and equipment that is not economical to repair,” according to SIGAR. | http://afghanspirit.com/u-s-orders-humvees-for-afghanistan/ |
As customers are more exposed to different types of restaurant settings, they developed a complex set of attributes for selecting a restaurant for their excellent dining experience. The first competition, customers’ changing lifestyles and growing desires are features that shape restaurant marketplace. Thus, restaurant managers should be prepared to meet these challenges. One approach in gaining competitive advantages and ensuring sustainable business performance is to focus on service quality.
The main purpose of this study is to empirically investigate service quality in Croatian city restaurant settings. The main goals are to assess restaurant customers’ expectations and perceptions and to identify main dimensions of perceived and expected city restaurant service quality.
The data were collected using self-administered questionnaire. The questionnaire was designed in accordance with Stevens et al. (1995) and Andaleeb and Conway’s (2006) research. It contained seven aspects of restaurant service, namely tangibles, reliability, responsiveness, assurance, empathy, price and satisfaction. The empirical research was conducted in March and April of 2010. Questionnaires were distributed in 31 restaurant settings in city of Rijeka. In order to meet study goals, descriptive, bivariate (t-test) and multivariate (exploratory factor analysis and reliability analysis) statistical analyses were conducted.
The sample contained both domestic and international restaurant customers. The findings imply that for the majority of service attributes customers’ expectations scores are higher than their perceptions scores. The study also identified five factors that best explained expected service quality and eight factors that best explained perceived service quality in the city restaurants. | https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2165742 |
New critic revels in dining out
My childhood in Texas is full of memories of food: fresh tomatoes and cucumbers from my grandmother's garden, juicy Gulf shrimp hauled in by my grandfather and countless homemade meals from Mom.
But it wasn't until my first stint living in Rome that I began to fully appreciate the immense pleasures of food. The day I arrived, a friend and I stopped at a couple of neighborhood markets, where he grabbed a basket of fresh, local ingredients. The pasta all'amatriciana he made that day — rich and savory with a sweet little kick of spice — gave me an immediate sense of the city and its people. And the insalata caprese was a revelation: thickly sliced tomatoes blanketed with creamy mozzarella, topped with bright basil, dusted with salt and pepper and drizzled with olive oil. Both dishes represent what I love about food: a few simple ingredients (preferably local and sustainable) that offer fresh, clean flavors.
I don't pretend to know everything about cooking methods or the provenance of certain preparations. Could you or your foodie friend best me in a blind taste-test of obscure ingredients? Quite possibly. But I do know what tastes good to me, and I know when a dish has been executed well. And I eat out. A lot. I have tremendous respect for the skill of chefs and appreciate every aspect of a restaurant's staff, from front of house to back. I believe everyone should work in a restaurant at some point in their lives. I have in the past and would again.
Dining offers one of life's most basic and universal pleasures. It satisfies all of the senses, gives us an awareness of place and culture and often serves as a robust communal experience.
My reviews will obviously focus on the food, but I will also give weight to service, ambiance, value and the overall dining experience. The final rating will be a number between 1 and 10, including half points. All restaurants will be graded on the same scale, with a distinction of "fine" or "casual." Restaurants will be reviewed relative to their ambitions and other restaurants serving similar cuisine. If you don't know the difference between a 9.5 at Tam Deli and a 9.5 at Congress, I don't know what to tell you. The end of each review will also include my "Bottom Line," a one-sentence encapsulation of the restaurant.
As for the idea of "restaurant critic as shadowy, anonymous figure," that is a luxury I do not have. I will never make my presence known at a restaurant, but I will also eschew disguises, despite my desire to amass a sweet wig collection. But, to all restaurateurs, chefs and servers, please keep in mind that I eat out very often, so if you see me in your establishment, I am as likely to be there for pleasure as for business.
Enough with all that, then. Let's eat. | https://www.austin360.com/story/lifestyle/food/2011/08/17/new-critic-revels-in-dining/6659863007/ |
Introduction: Restaurant Design
A restaurant consists of a kitchen, bar and seating area for the serving food and Beverages. An FBO must have a comprehensive design plan for his new restaurant. The design of the kitchen and the bar should be at the core of the restaurant design before planning for designs of interiors and decorations. The other components of a restaurant design could be the accessories required for serving the food like tableware, tables and chairs. People involved in the Design of a restaurant should also try to ensure that the food operations could be seen and understood by the incoming patrons. The design team must be in constant communication with the other professionals involved in the project such as architects, engineers, decorators, builders, managers and owners.
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The following points should be kept in mind while designing a restaurant:
- An FBO should have a detailed concept with an Operational Plan wherein the details of exactly what owner wants in his restaurant, the expected customer experience, the location of the wash rooms, rest rooms and staff rooms must be clearly drawn out.
- An FBO need to have more space in the kitchens and/or bars. He is required to follow the following aspects for a restaurant design:
- Flexibility and modularity
- Simplicity
- Efficient flow of personnel and materials
- Facility of cleaning
- Easy supervision
- Efficient use of spaces
- An FBO has to identify future problems that may affect the operation of the kitchen. The kitchen is the engine of the ship, it must be well designed from thepoint of view of energy, space and functionality, and it should be properly organized and efficient, with the right equipment and accessories It must allow a good visual and electronic connection between those involved and apartof all this should be a pleasant work environment.
- An FBO will have to identify the process flows within the 7 prominent areas of the new restaurant. These are:
- Reception
- Department stores
- Food Preparation
- Coction
- Servido
- Washed Dishware and Household
- Waste Treatment
- An FBO should develop a program that indicates what the space needs. He should take notes and ask smart questionsto be able to fully understand the concept that we will allow him a sound basis for a good design.
- An FBO needs to be realistic with the true dimensions as all designs look good until the plans are made with scale equipment. He should work with scales and real measures, take into account the rules, laws, security codes and hygiene, distances, door measurements, among others.
- An FBO may visualize his design in 3D as working in 3D gives us a clearer vision of the design and we can decide what to put on the restaurant walls.
- He should consider visual blocks. Not all the kitchen should be displayed as we have to present the best, use visual records, block noises, unpleasant smellsand lights.
- He should always try to design and improve until he feels comfortable with all the pieces. He have to consider that a restaurant design is a process of teamwork andcollaboration.
- An FBO need to make sure that his restaurant scores high on sustainability as there is no alternative to sustainable development. To survive in a competitive environment, companies and individuals should consider sustainability as a goal and those who act first develop competences that are very difficult to match for therivals: He should consider following points:
- Comply with the Rules. The first step of sustainability is compliance with current regulations. If an FBO focuses on compliances before they are mandatory, he has more time toexperiment with materials, technologies and processes.
- Value chain, once companies have learned to follow the regulation step, they become more proactive in the issues of environment. Initially the objective may be to create a better image, but most end up reducing costs and creating new businesses.
- Sustainable Design. If an FBO thinks that his food products are not friendly to the environment, he should workto reverse this situation.
- New Model, we must think of novel ways that help the sustentation.
- Everything Starts in Management, two initiatives in the field of company help companies become sustainable:
- When a senior management team decides to focus on the problem, the change is generated quickly
- It is important to recruit and retain the right people
LLP Registration
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This portion of the site is for informational purposes only. The content is not legal advice. The statements and opinions are the expression of author, not corpseed, and have not been evaluated by corpseed for accuracy, completeness, or changes in the law.
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Get help from an experienced legal adviser. Schedule your consultation at a time that works for you and it's absolutely FREE. | https://www.corpseed.com/knowledge-centre/principles-of-restaurant-design |
Luo Xiu looked around him for a container to hold the sea water in. Luckily this is the seaside, and there is often rubbish scattered about here. After scouring the area, he finally found a broken ceramic utensil.
This ceramic utensil resembles an urn.
It is about the size of Luo Xiu’s head.
Luo Xiu washed the urn in the sea water, half-filled it, then carried the ‘small urn’ and make his way back to his home.
Nine Gates restaurant is located in Snow Moon City’s downtown. This street is ideal for any type of business due to the large volume of traffic, and Nine Gates restaurant has a prime location on this street.
The second floor of the restaurant offers a stunning view of the pristine beach.
In Luo Xiu’s past life, such a big restaurant with a beautiful sea view would be… Nah… why am I reminiscing about the past again? Let’s focus on the problems facing the restaurant now. Right now, the restaurant is a commoners’ restaurant. The Country of Fine Cuisine has very strict laws about operating a restaurant. Every 5 years if the chef in the restaurant could not pass a qualifying examination, the restaurant will be degraded or face the prospectus of closing down.
As the commoners’ restaurant is the lowest possible grade in this qualifying examination. Therefore, if Luo Xiu fails this qualifying examination, he would have to close shop or sell the shop to another chef. There is no other way out for Luo Xiu.
In their opinion, a restaurant without a qualified chef is not qualified to set up shop in the Country of Fine Cuisine.
“There appears to nothing wrong with this regulation….”
Luo Xiu smiled. In his personal opinion, this type of enactment is good for raising Chefs’ skills and inspired the enthusiasm of the chefs.
In Snow Moon City, restaurants are ranked by the grade of their chefs. Currently, the best restaurant is named “Inkfusion”. Then the, e are a few more restaurants ranked slightly below Inkfusion. Finally, there are the lowest ranked commoners’ restaurants.
Commoners’ restaurant has a very simple requirement. All it is needs is a trainee chef to man the kitchen.
The next grade is a Fine restaurant. It requires at least one qualified chef; As for Great restaurant, it requires at least one great Chef. This grading and chef requirements are more or less similar to highly ranked restaurants that appear in Michelin star guide, but the quality and taste of food offered by the Chefs in each grade of restaurant are as different as Heaven and Earth.
On planet Earth, regardless of the food or the price of each dish, there is no way to tell the difference in taste without first trying the food.
But here, there is a hierarchy of points being awarded for each dish. The dishes here are ranked by points it has achieved, and given a title.
“Common Dish, Fine Food, Delicious Food, Spiritual Food etc. There are so many titles for dishes that have reached a certain number of points.”
Luo Xiu shook his head at the confusing system adopted by this world. As he walked on, finally his home and restaurant come into view.
Nine Gates Restaurant can be considered a landmark in Snow Moon City. It may not be as tall as imposing as other buildings, but in this Country of Fine Cuisine where chefs are revered, having a restaurant has great significance.
“Has my little sister signed any agreements or documents to hand over the restaurants to others yet?”
Luo Xiu has a little sister. This girl is his adoptive father’s daughter, and is named Ye Weilian.
It is also his only surviving relative in this world.
5 years ago, before Luo Xiu’s adoptive father passed away, he entrusted the 10 years old Ye Weilian to Luo Xiu.
Worried that his sister may have been coerced to sell off the restaurant, Luo Xiu’s picked up his pace. He quickly made his way to the entrance of Nine Gates Restaurant.
“Oh…. This restaurant is really grand and imposing!”
Two large wooden signboards are erected in front of the gate. On these boards, a Chinese couplet is engraved.
The first line of the couplet reads: “The tastiness of the food attracts guests from all over.”
The second line of the couplet reads: “The fragrance of the food lured immortals to dine here.”
At the top of the door is a huge signboard that proudly states the shop name, “Nine Gates Restaurant”. The style of the words, quality of the signboard, together with the couplets made the restaurant look very impressive.
The entrance is the face of the restaurant. This couplet plus the signboard creates a very awe-inspiring feel of a traditional Chinese restaurant. Even in the modern times, there are very few restaurants that can match this restaurant in terms of entrance décor and style.
The old wooden columns and objects that make up the restaurant’s décor created an authenticate feel of a top quality traditional Chinese restaurant. In Luo Xiu’s opinion, even restaurants in the modern world that deliberately tried to create an antique atmosphere to dine in are far inferior to the vibe that this place gives off.
“I cannot sign this! I must wait until my brother come back before I can sign it!”
A slightly lacklustre sound seemed to ring out from the restaurant.
Luo Xiu suddenly recalled what he was supposed to. He did not continue to appreciate the scenery before him, and immediately stepped into the restaurant, roaring, “What are you guys doing!”
“Eh?”
This sudden loud and confident voice gave everyone a fright.
“Brother….”
The only teenage woman in the room was glad to see Luo Xiu and immediately cried out.
But upon seeing the blood on Luo Xiu’s clothes as well as the urn on his shoulders, she immediately panics, “Brother, what happened to you?”
“Nothing, was harassed by a few crooks!”
Luo Xiu stared at the 3 men who were in the room while he exclaimed this.
From their facial expression, they seemed shocked and surprised.
“Did I disappoint you? Go back and report this to your master.”
“All grudges should be settled. Doesn’t he want this restaurant? Then let him come, together with Templars. Just say, it is time for us to settle our grudge once and for all. “
The Templars are the mechanism in which Snow Moon City evaluate chefs and restaurants.
Whether a restaurant is promoted or demoted is based on the decisions of these Templars. As well, the acknowledgement of the rank of Chef is also based on their evaluation.
In some ways, they are similar to that of government agencies in regulating food and restaurants.
The three men looked at one another, and have no idea what they should do next. The sudden appearance of Luo Xiu had derailed their plans to take over the restaurant.
“Let’s go!”
The leader of these three men used his eyes to communicate to one another, and the three men beat a hasty retreat.
“Brother, you….. how did you get injured?”
After the 3 men had left, Ye Weilian then heaved a sigh of relief, but her face was full of concern for Luo Xiu.
Luo Xiu waved his eyes, and sighed, “This is done by Li Yuan. I almost died.”
“Arh?” Ye Weilian was so shocked that she cupped her hands over her mouth.
Li Yuan is a qualified Chef.
2 years ago, after he was promoted to a qualified Chef status, he had the rights to open a restaurant of his own.
After evaluating various places in Snow Moon City, he finally set his sights on taking over the Nine Gates Restaurants.
The reasons are very simple. This is a restaurant and needs very little investment. The location is also superb. The most important reason is…. this two-story shop is only ranked as a commoner’s restaurant. There are no chefs in this restaurant and its business is falling.
It is a prime piece of meat, ripe for the taking!
Because of the situation, it is extremely likely that the current owners, Luo Xiu and his sister, is likely to be to forced to sell their restaurant or close it down.
As the commoners’ restaurant is the lowest possible grade to operate a restaurant. If they fail the evaluation, they are required by law to sell the restaurant to other Chef.
Luo Xiu did not become a chef for his personal reasons. As for Ye Weilian, she did not inherit her dad’s skills in cooking. The dishes she cooked are inedible and are so bad that words failed to describe the dishes.
It is not that they have not tried to hire a Chef. The problem is that no self-respecting Chefs are willing to work for them.
In this world, chefs are the most highly respected vocation.
“Then…. Then what should we do?”
Ye Weilian frowned, on her face colour face paired with rosy cheeks displayed a look of helplessness.
Usually, Ye Weilian is a bright young woman who can come up with solutions to any problem. But this time, she did not have any flashes of inspirations to solve the problem that is before them.
Even her brother almost lost his life. It seemed that it is no longer possible to protect and kept the restaurant that her father left for her.
“Why are you so worried? Just relax, you still have me.”
Luo Xiu smiled. Just then he heard the sounds of a stomach growling. As he turned around, he saw the cute face of his sister turning red with embarrassment.
Her brother was missing for a night, and Ye Weilian did not eat anything for half a day.
“Let’s go! Take me to the kitchen. I will cook some dishes for you to try!”
Hearing Luo Xiu’s words, Ye Weilian eyes suddenly widen as she exclaimed: “Ha? You …. Cook?”
“Brother, please, I am begging you. I still wish to live for a few more years. Really!”
Ye Weilian shook her head furiously as she held on to her brother’s hand with all her might and refused to let him into the kitchen. It was like she was begging him not to cook.
“Is the food I cooked that scary?” Luo Xiu was stunned and do not know if he should laugh or cry.
But the most surprising thing is Ye Weilian’s reply. She immediately nodded her head, saying, “The food you cook cannot be merely described as scary. The food I cook may taste horrible, but at least it can be eaten. As for the dishes you made…. Just say that after the last time you fed Little Black, now Little Black will run away as fast as it can when it sees you.”
Little Black is the huge black mastiff belonging to their neighbour. It got a big appetite and would eat anything, er.. make that almost anything.
“This time, it will definitely be different, I promise!”
Ye Weilian was almost in tears, “Brother, please spare me! You cannot taste any food, neither can you smell any food, how can you cook?” Ye Weilian has absolutely zero confidence in her brother.
“Who said that… if you cannot smell or taste food, you cannot cook?”
At this moment in time, Luo Xiu suddenly has the air of a world-class chef.
What a joke! If even the world’s best Chinese chef cannot cook, then who else can cook?
^_^
This novel is translated by Admin from prosperousfood dot com.
Rehosted by Gumihou at kitchennovel dot com
For anyone who wants to chat with me, do come over to discord ! | https://www.kitchennovel.com/2019/06/08/kitchen-xiuzhen-chapter-002/ |
A Tastemaker with Southern Sensibility
Leading a group of chefs changing the country’s perception of Southern cuisine is Chris Hastings, chef/owner of Hot and Hot Fish Club in Birmingham (one of the best restaurants in the South, if not the whole country). Chris and his wife Idie have been serving modern Southern/French cuisine that celebrates Alabama’s farmers and fishermen since they opened their restaurant in 1995. Last year, Chris not only won a James Beard award, but he also beat chef Bobby Flay at his own game: battle sausage on Iron Chef America. We talk with Chris about his favorite local ingredients, Birmingham’s food scene and Southern chefs to keep an eye on.
AndrewZimmern.com: What inspired you to become a chef?
Chris Hastings: I was fortunate enough to grow up with a mother that cooked, with a garden out back and a family that ate dinner together. Food was a part of our daily life. I did a lot of hunting and fishing too. How I became a chef was accidental really. My mother died when I was young, 18 years old. I took a year off after high school to stay at the restaurant I was working in because I liked the people, the work and the solace it gave me. I moved from the front of the house to the back where a new chef, a graduate of Johnson & Wales, took me under his wing and taught me a lot daily. At the end of that year I wasn’t feeling four years of traditional college. I liked the realness of the chef business and got it instinctively. That chef wrote a letter for me to Johnson & Wales. I didn’t think I was going to be a chef; I just knew I was going to culinary school.
AZ.com: You were ahead of the farm-to-table craze when you opened your restaurant in 1995, what are your favorite local ingredients to work with?
CH: That depends on the season. Heirloom tomatoes, wild foraged ingredients, Gulf seafood, heritage pigs, fresh eggs, local dairy product, persimmons, field peas, okra.
AZ.com: How has Birmingham’s food scene changed since you opened the restaurant?
CH: When we first opened in ‘95 there were very few local organic farms. Over the years, local purveyors have really become more prevalent, providing everything from heritage animals, grains of all types, citrus and dairy products. It has been a amazing revolution and one we are fortunate to have.
AZ.com: You and your wife, Idie, are business partners. What’s the dynamic like? Best part of working with your significant other?
CH: Make no mistake after 17 years of working together everyday we have had some trying times. All of those times both good and otherwise have forged us into better owners, life partners, restaurateurs. She is my best friend and toughest critic. The work she does with our staff and managing me is at the heart of our success.
AZ.com: Has winning a James Beard award affected your business or your goals for the next 10 years?
CH: Absolutely. Business is as good as it has ever been. We are very fortunate. We have worked all of our life for that great honor. It is inevitable for an award of that stature to get you thinking about the next 10 years and how your business can and should evolve. We are in the process of doing that right now.
AZ.com: You’re an advocate for the Alabama Seafood Commission. How has the state’s seafood industry fared since the oil spill?
CH: Fortunately for the seafood industry, despite the magnitude of such an enormous spill, testing and research has shown that water conditions are safe and there are no traces of oil or chemicals associated with the oil in the gulf seafood. We will continue to work hard to make sure everyone knows they can get healthy delicious safe seafood from our Alabama seafood fishing community.
AZ.com: As Southern restaurants become more and more popular, any up-and-coming chefs to keep an eye on?
CH: Yes, Rob McDaniel with SpringHouse on Lake Martin is doing tremendous work. Keep your eye on Chris Newsome with Ollie Irene here in Mountain Brook Village. Also, Craig Deihl with Cypress in Charleston is a great talent and deserves to be the next Best Chef in the Southeast James Beard winner. And Andrew Michael and Kelly English in Memphis. Jeff McInnis at Yardbird, a new restaurant in Miami. Killer!
AZ.com: What’s in your fridge?
CH: Not much! We usually have yogurt, black raspberry jelly for my late night PBJ with Wright’s Dairy milk. Fresh fruits and veggies and cold Back Forty Naked Pig Pale Ale beer. Moonshine in the freezer… Lots of water cause we believe in drinking LOTS of water.
Check out Chris’ recipe for Alabama Bouillabaisse.
Chris Hastings first discovered his appreciation for food during family vacations in the Lowcountry of South Carolina. These explorations through taste and travel stayed with him, and post high school Hastings deferred his college acceptance to work in the kitchen at Silver Cricket in Charlotte, NC. There, Executive Chef recognized his skill and suggested applying to culinary school in lieu of a traditional college education. Heeding this advice, Hastings enrolled in Johnson & Wales in Providence, Rhode Island.
After graduation, Hastings returned to the South, accepting a position at the Ritz Carlton in Atlanta where he first learned to apply European influences to southern cuisine. But, it was on a weekend trip to Birmingham that Hastings met Chef Frank Stitt of the acclaimed Highlands Bar and Grill. The two stayed in touch and it wasn’t long before Hastings relocated to Birmingham to work for Stitt as chef de cuisine, where he also helped to open Bottega, Stitt’s Mediterranean restaurant.
During his time with Stitt, Hastings traveled to California where he met his future mentor, Chef Bradley Ogden. In 1989, he relocated to San Francisco, to work alongside Ogden while he opened the Lark Creek Inn. During his tenure in California, Hastings witnessed the rise of the farm‐to‐table movement first‐hand and could regularly be found visiting farmer’s markets to source the freshest, local ingredients.
But, once again, the South beckoned and in 1991 Hastings returned to Birmingham with the goal of opening a new restaurant alongside his wife, Idie. They opened the Hot and Hot Fish Club in 1995, offering contemporary American cuisine with Southern influences and supporting the work of local artisans in both the kitchen and front of house.
In subsequent years, Hastings released his first cookbook: The Hot and Hot Fish Club Cookbook, A Celebration of Food, Family and Traditions (Running Press, October 2009) and began a side project consulting with other chefs, restaurateurs, and real estate developers on food service operations that benefit their surrounding communities though serving local, memorable, and authentic cuisine. Hastings has also become an active member and fervent advocate for the Alabama Seafood Commission as well as a consultant and culinary advisor to restaurants across the country and the Director of the Bocuse d’Or USA Foundation’s Culinary Council.
In February of 2012, Hastings competed in the Food Network’s Iron Chef: America challenge and triumphed over Chef Bobby Flay in Battle: Sausage. And just a few months later, was recognized by the James Beard Foundation award as the 2012 Best Chef: South. He lives in Birmingham with Idie and their two sons, Zeb and Vincent. | https://andrewzimmern.com/5-questions-chris-hastings/ |
Pontevedra is a province of Spain along the country's Atlantic coast in southwestern Europe. The province forms the southwestern part of the autonomous community of Galicia. It is bordered by the provinces of A Coruña, Lugo, and Ourense, the country of Portugal and the Atlantic Ocean. The official languages of the Pontevedra province are Spanish and Galician. There is a public institution called the Diputación Provincial of Pontevedra (Provincial Council), whose head office is in Pontevedra city, that provides direct services to citizens such as technical, financial and technological support to the councils of the 62 municipalities of the province of Pontevedra.
Things to do in Province of Pontevedra
4.5 based on 578 reviews
What sets this restaurant apart from so many other seafood restaurants is that it not only knows how to prepare high quality seafood but also has mastered ambiance, service and presentation. So far the best restaurant experience we have had in Galicia. We didn't have the special rice dishes made with seafood, lobster, etc which several other guests had and that we're a feast (in a real sense) for the eyes. Instead we had multiple small courses served individually to try the variety of fresh seafood on the menu. Mussels, croquetas de bogavante, grilled razor clams, pulpo came one after another. Too much food but we ate it all plus a shared fish fish expertly plated. And we made the right decision to share a dessert. A rolled crepe filled with a coffee and rum mousse with carmel, shaved almonds and a finely shaped oval of helado. If any doubt about the freshness of the crustaceans, they are in a tank and your selection may be brought to the table to view before cooking. An the most amazing part was the bill. A great value for a priceless meal!
4.5 based on 526 reviews
A colleague recommended this place, and we were not disappointed. The tasting menu offered a seemingly never ending array of small beautifully presented and very tasteful dishes. We loved how the kitchen each time managed to bring out the crispness and freshness of the ingredients. Service was in the beginning a bit stroppy, but got friendly as we progressed in our dinner. Interesting was that we were given a timeframe for our lunch (2hrs15mins for the tasting menu) which was kept, even though we didn't ask for it. The setting is somewhat formal, but the views are great. A pleasant surprise was the final bill, where "extras" such as the bottled water and glasses of wine were charged at very decent prices. We had the pleasure to meet the chef after dinner, who explained us the philosophy of his cooking and especially also the sourcing of the ingredients, from local small producers that apply the rules of biodynamic farming. We'd love to come back!
4.5 based on 523 reviews
Of course the place is great, one of the Michelin star restaurants that I enjoyed! Food was superb, especially starter and desert. Main course was good but not great, their wine selection was also decent. But what I liked most in the restaurant were staff- all of them so friendly and helpful! The only reason I did not give 5* is main course, which in my view was not top quality.
5 based on 110 reviews
5 based on 167 reviews
We had lunch at the OPote and it was very nice we shared a starter of croquettes followed by two huge sirloin steaks which we struggled to finish so no hope of dessert but we had a nice wine and coffees, it was a very nice experience.
4.5 based on 1 reviews
Marco is one of the best Chefs in the Vigo area.
Creative excellent cuisine with top quality products. Great choice of interesting appetizers and main courses. Extensive wine list.
Probably the best price value relationship of similar restaurants in this area.
The Tuna and Beef Carpaccio are exceptional.
Attentive and friendly service.
Need to make Reservations to assure a table.
José Campo, CHA.
4.5 based on 250 reviews
We decided to stop for lunch in Tui, but the restaurant we headed to, was closed, so I looked for an alternative in the area, and came across this place. I could not be more pleased with the outcome. The place was beautiful, the staff...MoreThank you very much for your visit, opinion, comments and recommendation. We hope to have you with us. Greetings.
4.5 based on 320 reviews
It makes a real difference when you go to a restaurant and the treatment is good. The food was great, but even if it was not as great as it really was, the treatment experience was worth to remember. I would just say that it is the first time in my life that I requested the a la Carta and they convinced me to get the more affordable menu, which was delicious and very complete. A+++
4.5 based on 193 reviews
Chef Marcus prepares the best Bacalao al horno In this area. Small menu choice but excellent quality, and outstanding Boquerones marinados. The house white wine from Portugal is excellent. Personal attention from Dona Elsa. Good value for money. José Campo, CHA.
5 based on 178 reviews
We visited as a family group at late notice for a celebratory birthday meal. The welcome was wonderful, as was the food. For starters we had Salmon, Clams in sauce together with an excellent local wine. The proprietors are extremely friendly and kind. For main course we had the beef and veal, as well as a Salmon main - all beautifully cooked and presented. If you are in the area then it is well worth a detour - we were luck as it was only a few minuted where we were staying in Galicia. Desserts were delicious and cannot really fault anything.
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Chef Gareth Fulford comes from a family of butchers and has been working as a chef since his 16th birthday in numerous kitchens across the UK and going on to become one of Cheltenham’s top chefs at Purslane restaurant.
Coming from a butcher background, it is perhaps unusual that Purslane focuses on British seafood with Cotswold produce.Yet he believes his love of fish comes from the fact that seafood was a rare luxury at a butcher’s dinner table.
Before settling in the Cotswolds, Gareth spent five years working at prestigious events cooking for royalty and various A-list celebrities. He moved to the Cotswolds to work at a top-quality gastropub before realising his dream of opening his own restaurant in 2012.
Gareth opened Purslane restaurant in 2012 with business partner Stephanie and wife Helena. He sources seasonal produce from smallholders in Cheltenham and the surrounding area, finding out exactly where all of the ingredients come from and how they are grown, reared or caught.
Gareth has won a host of awards over the last five years including: Good Food Guide score of 6 in 2016; Best Chef at the Taste of Gloucestershire Awards 2015. He and Purslane were shortlisted for Best Chef and Best Restaurant at the Cotswold Life Food and Drink Awards in 2014, and The Good Food Guide ranked Purslane as the 69th best restaurant in the UK.
Stylish, neighbourhood restaurant serving a creative menu focused on sustainably caught seafood.
For the mackerel, boil brine ingredients until sugar and salt has dissolved and then leave it to cool. Place the mackerel fillets in brine for 10 minutes then wash off and pat the mackerel dry.
Next, boil beetroots in separate pans until tender. Wash under cold water and then peel. Keep them separate to prevent the colour running between them. Use a parisienne scoop to pearl the beetroots. Keep the trim from the beetroots and puree in a liquidiser with a splash of good quality red wine vinegar and season.
Wash the rhubarb and cut it into 5 centimetre batons. Boil the pickle ingredients and pour hot onto rhubarb, then leave to cool.
For the panna cotta, blanch the alexander leaves in boiling salted water then refresh in iced water and drain when cold. Blitz with the milk and pass through a fine sieve. Warm the cream to a simmer.
Soak the gelatine leaves in cold water for 10 minutes to soften then add the drained gelatine to the cream and dissolve off the heat. Add salt to taste. Add the Alexander milk to the cream mixture, stir to combine and set in a plastic container.
To serve, place the beetroot puree artistically on the plate. Dress the beetroot pearls with some extra virgin rapeseed oil and season with salt and pepper then arrange them on the plate. Lightly oil and season the skin side of the mackerel. Place on a tray under a hot grill and cook until the skin is golden and crispy and the flesh is just cooked through. Squeeze some lemon over it and place on the plate. Add a spoon of the Alexander panna cotta.
Drain the pickled rhubarb batons and plate them. Finish the dish with Alexander leaves.
This recipe is featured in our book Signature Chefs South West & Channel Islands. Click here for more information.
Click here for more information about Chef Gareth Fulford. | https://www.signaturechefs.co.uk/portfolio/items/gareth-fulford/ |
The film opens in Mumbai, where the Kadam family runs a prosperous restaurant. The second oldest son Hassan (Manish Dayal) is being groomed to take over from his mother (Juhi Chawla) as the restaurant's main cook. He accompanies his mother to the market to shop for sea-food and can smell to find out the best quality one. Following an election dispute, a mob attacks and firebombs the restaurant. Abbu Kadam (Om Puri) get the guests out, but Hassan's mother dies in the fire and the family flees, seeking asylum in Europe- first in London, then onto mainland Europe, searching for the best place to rebuild their restaurant.
The brakes on their van fail in the south of France, near the village of Saint-Antonin-Noble-Val. Marguerite (Charlotte LeBon) a sous chef at the upscale French restaurant in the village passes by and helps the Kadams find an auto repair shop and puts them up in a guest house. She brings them food for the night and the Kadams are amazed at the quality and availability of the food in the village and when Abbu finds that there's a restaurant for sale just one hundred feet from the fancy, Michelin-starred restaurant in the village named "Le Saule Pleurer" that's run by Madame Mallory (Helen Mirren).
Being one hundred feet apart a rivalry springs up between the two restaurants with Madame Mallory doing things like buying all the ingredients the Kadams need in the market and Abbu playing Indian music as loudly as he can to create a festive atmosphere eventually it all escalates to one of Mallory's chefs, Jean-Pierre (Clement Sibony) and a few of his friends trying to burn down the new restaurant and spray painting "France for the French" on the outer wall. Hassan manages to put the fire out, but gets burns on his hands. Mallory fires Jean-Pierre and then goes to clean off the graffiti herself.
Hassan heads from Marguerite that Mallory hires potential chefs my asking them to cook her an omlette- and he asks her-- but with his injured hands, she has to do it under his directions. She loves it and recognizes his potential- and admits that his pigeon dish was good and eventually even Abbu relents and allows Hassan to go work for Mallory. Eventually, his cooking involves into a fusion of Indian and French cuisine and lands Mallory's restaurant it's second Michelin star-- and after that, the offers come in. Abbu and Mallory make amends and begin a romance of sorts, while whatever budding romance tha Hassan was trying to brew with Marguerite seems to sour.
A year later and Hassan is receiving critical acclaim for his cooking and people are thinking he might go for a third Michelin Star for the Paris Restaurant he's working at, but instead he decides that he misses his family- and Marguerite. So, he returns home and invites Marguerite to join him in a business venture- namely a stake in Mallory's restaurant so they can earn it a third Michelin star. | https://www.litcityblues.com/2021/01/netflix-chill-90-hundred-foot-journey.html |
1. Group Assignment – Porter 5 Forces.
Read the article ??Competitive Advantage or Flexibility’ also called ??The End of Competitive Advantage’.
Briefly describe the Theory of ??sustainable competitive advantage’.
Briefly describe the environment in which this theory would be effective.
Why does Rita Gunther McGrath believe that ??Companies are successful, McGrath wrote, because they are “exploiting temporary competitive advantages, not sustainable ones”’.
Briefly describe the environment in ??exploiting temporary competitive advantages, not sustainable ones’ would be effective.
How does the shortening of the ??strategy life cycle’ and the shortening of the ??product life cycle’ contribute to the change described by Rita Gunther McGrath.
Identify a company that has been successful by ??exploiting temporary competitive advantages’. Discuss the key factors contributing to this success. What strategy recommendations would you make for this company.
Answer;
Sustainable competitive advantage refers to the act when an organization acquires the attribute or combination of characteristics that allow it to perform better than the competitors do. The characteristics could include highly trained or skilled workforce, availability of resources and proper exploitation of technology. Michael Porter proposed the sustainable competitive advantage theory in 1985. National strategies focus on productivity as the main idea for a business that needs to remain to be competitive. For instance, competitive advantage tries to correct low wage economies due to unfavorable terms of trade by maximizing the production scale of goods and services. It is a key determinant for companies that want to achieve the set goals and objectives.
Sustainable competitive advantage is experienced in all business organizations and mostly in the competitive environment. It is important in periods of hyperactive competition with short product cycles to enhance continuous improvement. Therefore, it is a theory that is aimed at dealing with the tough times in business. Michael E, Porter identified a model that identifies and analyzes five competitive forces that shape every business entity. It also helps in determining the strengths and weaknesses of a company. The competitive forces include competition in the industry, power of customers, potential of new entrants into the industry, competition in the industry, threat of substitute products and power of suppliers. These factors combined affect a company in its ability to serve customers making gains and this normally requires a business enterprise to re-assess the market due to changes in information relating to businesses.
Rita Gunther McGrath believes that companies are successful when they exploit competitive advantage rather than the sustainable ones. One of the merits is getting a better understanding of the competitors. A business entity must learn the emergence of new competitors and be informed on their strengths. It is also vital to evaluate the weaknesses and the opportunities created in the firm to utilize the gaps left. Another issue is identifying a company’s competitive advantages, which includes performing detailed evaluation of the company’s own weaknesses, strengths, and assets. A company should consider both the internal and external factors an align those that are advantageous in meeting in meeting the customers’ needs in the competitive market. Another temporary advantage is setting up a strategy. Managers determine the companies’ strategies that they intend to pursue and eliminate those that seem irrelevant (Rumelt, 2011). Exploiting the temporary competitive advantage helps businesses to adopt easily even in cases of stiff competition.
Temporary competitive advantages are commonly experienced in environments with emergence of new competitors. The firm’s owners and directors need to be very careful with competitors to avoid being overshadowed by new industries. Shortening of the strategy life cycle is important, as the industry is able to focus on the current trends around the business. By doing this, entrepreneurs establish exactly what should be done to overcome competition of new entrants. Product lifecycle on the other hand refers to the stages that a product goes through from the time of establishment to the time of removal from the market. Shortening of a product’s lifecycle reduces the costs of a long supply chain making the firm cope with rising competition.
The Fuji Photo Film company has successfully exploited the temporary competitive advantage to establish itself. The introduction of the Sony digital camera through the adoption of proper technology made the company to prepare extensively in the competition with other photography businesses. By developing quality products, qualified management and establishment of well-recognized brands has made Fuji Photo Film company to remain competitive globally. The company should continue advancing their products in order to remain competitive. This is only possible if the company is able to evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of both new and established competitors in the market (Teece, 2010).
In conclusion, completion in the modern world is increasing due to the emergence of new firms and innovation of new products. Rita McGrath suggests that stability, not change, is the most dangerous state that affects dynamic environments. This means that the competitive advantage has changed the manner in which people run their organizations. The main aim of a company is to remain competitive, make profits, and finally achieve its goals. | https://assignmentonline.net/description-of-the-theory-of-sustainable-competitive-advantage/ |
Chef Josh turned in his application and within 24-hours got a call back from David, the restaurant owner. The two sat across from one another in the unlit, hollow dining room as the morning sun flooded the windows. In a few hours everything could be different, if this interview works out, thought Josh.
The owner glanced at the cook’s resume and began asking the predictable questions Josh was accustomed to being asked over the years and had already practiced answers to. He knew what the owner wanted to hear and focused on appearing enthusiastic. Yes,I would consider myself a team player; yes, you can count on me to show up on time; and the three words I’d use to describe myself are reliable, talented, hardworking.
Across the table David diverted his attention from the other tasks competing for his time. The ice machine was on the fritz, payroll was due, and he just got a text from a server who wouldn’t show for tonight’s shift. You need this chef or you’re cooking and working another 20-hour day. In a few hours everything could be different, if this interview works out, he thought.
In fifteen minutes, chef Josh got the job and started immediately. Owner David got the chef he needed to cover the previous chef who walked out, and both breathed a sigh of relief. Unfortunately, both tacitly suspected this moment wouldn’t last. In fact, statistics show these honeymoons usually last only a few months, often only a few weeks. Rarely does such an interview yield a lasting relationship which serves both parties for more than two years. The scenario repeats itself in restaurants across the country with alarming frequency: Cook needs work, Owner needs a body with a pulse in the kitchen. They both agree to give it a shot.
Their relationship lasted fewer than six weeks.
It would be wildly refreshing and honest if the situation were transparent and realistic.
Imagine the owner-operator asking ‘Are you willing to work every waking hour in my kitchen, for little more than a living wage? Can you take over and make me money without my giving you clear direction and then take the blame when it doesn’t work out? Will you navigate chronic conflict amongst a revolving door of crew until one day, mentally and physically exhausted you’ve had it ‘up to here’ and quit without giving any notice?’
Imagine the chef asking ‘Will you give me a paycheck for every hour I work and get out of the way while I take control of the kitchen and run it the best I can? Can I have creative control without being held accountable for business-y things like controlling food costs, waste, labor, or budgets? When one day, mentally and physically exhausted I’ve had it ‘up to here’ and you blame me for being the root of your financial problems, will you fire me and leave me searching for another kitchen to work in?’
Sadly, both deeply want it to work out, and neither of them knows how to go about it. That’s why it’s so important to ditch the tired, routine, valueless questions so chefs and restaurant owners can consider what they mean to one another and how they can each get what they really want.
In this column, The Business of Chefs, we examine the relationship between a chef and restaurant owner. Like it or not, one can’t succeed without the other. The great news is each gets the chance to elect a healthy or unhealthy version of this codependent relationship. It is possible to create a relationship together that lasts (and is profitable and rewarding for both parties). Creating it requires the cook and the owner to examine a few questions from the very start.
3 Questions the Chef Should Ask About A Restaurant and Its Owner-Operator
- The chef should ask: Will I be able to succeed in this kitchen?
Success depends on how it’s defined. The chef may want to make a mark, move up the ranks, repair and rebuild an operation, make a name for him/herself. It’s critical to understand the chef’s path, not just the job or its paycheck, to see where the job fits into the arc of the cook’s career. Additionally, examine if the environment is one that could wreck a chef emotionally and physically because it lacks structure and clearly defined responsibilities. It’s as important to evaluate the menu and the cuisine the chef will cook as it is to identify whether every member of the team knows exactly what their job is, when it needs to be done and to what measure of quality it should be completed. Accepting a job before assessing this practically guarantees misery or an early departure.
- The chef should consider: Does the restaurant and kitchen demonstrate the presence of real, quality leadership?
When chaos or calamity are a daily occurrence, the phrase ‘the inmates are running the asylum’ comes to mind. This refers to an organization run by those who are the least capable of doing so. While this appears to degenerate culinary staff, it is in fact more a reflection of the owner-operator’s lack of leadership (or abdication of it). Working as a chef in a kitchen where you have some creative input is important, but it’s difficult to work well in a place that lacks the framework required to manage and direct the team toward a common, measurable goal.
- The chef should evaluate: Are there opportunities to grow here, or will I have to leave to advance my career?
Everyone understands chefs need a paycheck, but it’s only part of the reason chefs work for an establishment. Consider what comes after the initial training period; after the chef is familiar with operations and can crank out covers with eyes closed. Then what? The amount of time a chef will stay and do one thing without change, without a break or without the hope of advancement and growth is limited. That’s why it’s important to know what comes next.
The questions a restaurant owner-operator should ask are equally important.
Questions an Owner-Operation Should Ask About Its Chef
- The restaurant owner should ask: Do I fill job openings with bodies or hire people to fill roles on my team?
Everyone knows a cook’s job is to cook. But a chef’s job is quite different. According to David Scott Peters, author of Restaurant Prosperity Formula (What Successful Restaurateurs Do), “The chef sets and achieves the highest standards in the overall operation of the restaurant. In particular, a majority of the chef’s time is spent supervising and directing the operations and workforce, making staffing decisions, ensuring customer satisfaction and product quality, managing the restaurant’s financial performance, and marketing the restaurant. This sounds like the magic formula every owner-operator seeks but few have clearly outlined. It’s not reasonable to expect anyone to walk in off the street and create this scenario for you. Plain and simple: it is the job of the owner-operator to create this role and hire the person who will fulfill it.
- The owner-operator should consider: Do my FOH and BOH staff have a reason to stay with me?
While it’s true a segment of restaurant workers are en route to other careers, creating an environment which retains staff instead of being resigned to them hopping from place to place is ideal for both the worker and owner. It isn’t just that it costs approximately $5,000 to onboard and train each staff member; the alarming fact is this: at a 5% profit margin, a restaurant needs to bring in $100,000 of gross revenue to make up for every $5,000 turn of its restaurant’s revolving door. Creating a reason for staff to stay for their brief career in food and beverage, or for the length of a particular stage in their career is paramount to a restaurant’s bottom line.
- The restaurateur should evaluate: Do I take responsibility for leading or abdicating my operation?
We tend to make assumptions when it comes to basic communication. Owner David assumed since Josh knew how to cook and possessed experience, he’d know what to do in his kitchen. Chef Josh assumed if he showed up and cooked, David should be pleased with his work. Running a restaurant is just common sense, right? Wrong. The problem is, chef Josh didn’t have clear direction because owner David failed to lead. Failing to properly control or abdicating control of a business means bankrolling workers who have no clear instructions about what needs to be done, by whom, when, and at what quality level. The results are almost always unilaterally disastrous.
Thankfully, it is possible for chefs and restaurant owners to work together, profitably, and cooperatively when the owner clearly leads and sets measurable expectations. To achieve this harmony owners and chefs need to level up their leadership, management, and business skills. This isn’t babysitting or towing the line. To discern which opportunities are a match made in heaven and which will lead to inevitable heartbreak consider the questions each should examine in the initial interview.
In the next article we’ll look at the most successful methods to interview. These practices result in chefs and restaurant owners who are well-matched to take on income generating activities which not only develop the chef’s talent and business acumen but increase team loyalty and improve profits that extend the brand beyond the walls of the restaurant.
Columnist Holly Powers-Verbeck, founded and continues to operate Lake Tahoe’s premiere culinary staffing company HeyChef! since 1997. In 2018 she formed MakeYourBusinessCook! to help chefs launch private chef businesses and guide owner-operators who want to add private chef services to create revenue beyond their restaurant walls. For more information contact [email protected]. | https://www.fb101.com/the-three-questions-every-chef-and-every-restaurant-owner-should-ask/ |
Authors:
Claudia-Elena Tuclea, Georgica Gheorghe, Daniel Bulin, Maria Darabant
Abstract
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Number of views: 282
The present study aims at identifying the interest of Romanian tourists for film-induced tourism. For this purpose, an online research was carried out between 5 October and 4 November 2017. The data was collected from 463 participants through a self-administrated questionnaire. In a word, our research has highlighted that 82% of respondents are interested in practicing this type of tourism and the natural landscapes presented in movies seem to be the main reason (44%). Most respondents (83%) believe that such a vacation should last between 3 and 6 days. The interest for practicing film-induced tourism is primarily influenced by the geographic region where respondents are living and by their place of residence (urban/rural). The main limitation of this study is that the sample was not representative at national level, but nevertheless, some interesting results were obtained. These results could be used, for example, to promote domestic tourism.
15-22
Perception of the Ambiance – Component of the Tourist Experience in the Hospitality Industry
Authors:
Oana-Diana Crismariu, Gabriela Tigu
Abstract
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Number of views: 462
The ambiance in the hospitality industry is represented by the material, social or moral environment, where customers can enjoy the facilities. The correct perception of this has a very important role in creating a truthful experience. In the actual context, the customers are not willing to compromise anymore, accepting some services of bad quality. Because they have a various scale of restaurants and hotels, they are looking for good experiences, which means serving excellent food, sleeping in great places, living unforgettable moments in an agreeable surrounding, this way benefiting by the best services. The present paper is made of four components synthetically presented. The first one, named "Outlooks of client experience in the hospitality industry" contains the main aspects about what experience means in hotels and restaurants, the second one ”Hotel and restaurant ambiance – a tool used to outline the client experience” explains what ambiance is in the hospitality industry. The third part contains “Main components of hotel and restaurant ambiance”. In the last part named "The impact of hotel and restaurant ambiance over Romanian tourists" the results of two quantitative investigations are presented, applied to find out what characteristics related to the restaurant and hotel surroundings are influencing the creation of a positive experience. The aim of this investigation is to discover the importance of the perception of a restaurant and hotel’s surroundings has in creating the experience of customers. The success in this meaning can come from a professional landing regarding a succession of surroundings factors, which can determine the improvement of the restaurants’ and hotels’ services
23-30
Young Europeans – A Tourism Opportunity for the Capital City
Authors:
Ana-Maria Nica
Abstract
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Number of views: 272
Tourism has experienced a spectacular boom in recent years, with over one billion people spending at least one vacation in a country other than home. This is mainly due to the increase of the standard of living in more and more countries, the increase of the duration of the leave and of the leisure time in general, but also the decreasing tariffs of the tourist services and the easier access to the tourist resources. With the development of tourism, a form of it has become widespread, namely urban tourism. This is mainly due to people's growing interest in culture and knowledge of new places. The cities also offer a full range of attractions and leisure opportunities. Cities and tourism in these are very well promoted by the ministries and tourist offices in Europe, while Romania does not promote among the potential tourists the urban destinations of our country. The present article is aimed at filling the gap related to the expectations of foreign tourists regarding Romania. The study is focused on young people, aged 25-35 years, active on the labor market, and interested in short, intense, city-break type of travelling. The results of the research are presented in the second part of the article.
31-37
Restaurant Innovation: What Do Customers Want?
Authors:
Andreea Fortuna Schiopu, Daniela Georgiana Zloteanu
Abstract
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Number of views: 227
This article takes a customers’ perspective approach to reflect on the importance of innovation in the restaurant industry. Innovation in restaurants is vital for the business to remain distinct, to attract new customers, and to differentiate themselves from competitors. The aim was to identify the main characteristics and habits of restaurants’ customers, to find out what customers value in a restaurant offer, and to identify the perspective of customers on new and innovative dishes from restaurants’ menus. The focus was on the innovations that the customers expect from restaurants. The authors conducted a survey which reveled that most people dine out for dinner and lunch and have a varied diet. Image is a significant feature in choosing a dish; the combination of ingredients is the most prominent innovative aspect of a dish. In terms of dishes that people want but could not find in restaurant menus, a special mention goes to desserts such as semolina/rice pudding, or plum dumplings, followed by vegetarian options such as cashew cheese and vegan broths. Modern dishes are associated with exotic ingredients such as avocado, Chia seeds, Matcha powder, or vegetable noodles. People seem to be ready to try new things and ready to take in new offers from operators. The likelihood of picking a new dish f
38-44
Religion – Travel – Youth: An Approach Based on an Empirical Study
Authors:
Mădălina-Lavinia Tala, Anastasie-Gabriel Barica
Abstract
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Number of views: 254
This paper approaches the topic of religious tourism among young people, starting from theoretical aspects in the literature and continuing with the presentation of the main results of an empirical study conducted among young people in Bucharest, Romania, aged between 15 and 19. Religious travel is one of the oldest types of tourism in the world (some authors even state it is the oldest). This has been a means for people to try and discover themselves and divinity as well as to validate their faith. Given that it has stood the test of time, religious travel has taken on a much more complex role within tourism, including other aspects such as, for instance, curiosity and the desire to learn about elements belonging to other cultures. The research is based upon the completion of a questionnaire in the period March-April 2019, whose findings were centralised and used with the aim of fulfilling three objectives: O1 - Establishing the youth’s perception of cultural and religious development and the role of religious travel; O2 - Identifying the respondents’ level of interest in cultural and religious sights; O3 - Obtaining information regarding the requirements for organizing and undertaking a cultural and religious journey. The findings confirm the fact that religion and its resources are sufficiently appealing to the majority of young people, and form part of the tourism they practice or of their sightseeing intentions.
1
© 2013-2023, Open Academic Journals Index. All rights reserved. | https://oaji.net/journal-archive-stats.html?number=2340&year=&issue=16326 |
In the beautiful Dutch province of Zeeland, in an area which is surrounded by water, you can find the small town of Bruinisse. Most activities here are related to fishing or farming. It is in this inspiring environment that in March 2018 chef Michael van der Kroft and his team opened Bij Petit Kitchen & Bar. With half a year of hard work, they churned the bar that had the same name for the past 50 years and which is owned by the father of the chef’s right hand, Jeroen Hoep, into a contemporary restaurant.
The story of van der Kroft is quite interesting. Opening this restaurant is a second career for him. He has been a professional BMX rider in The Netherlands for many years. Because it was difficult to make a living in that business, he started combining his sports activities with work in the kitchen, and that has triggered his passion for food and for a life behind the stove. He has worked at Tosca in Rotterdam, a restaurant that at that time was known for refined Italian food. After about two years, he was appointed chef of Tosca in August 2016. In the meanwhile, the kitchen had evolved significantly and the style was more Dutch then Italian. However, when at a certain point of time the restaurant chose to bring back Italian influences, van der Kroft decided to move on. After Tosca, he became chef de partie in Meliefste. His cooking style was very much aligned with what Thijs Meliefste serves in his restaurant. However, Michael missed the recognition of being a chef himself. That was the moment that he realized that he was ready for his own restaurant. When he was contacted by Jeroen with the idea to open Bij Petit together, things went very fast.
Bij Petit has a very strong focus on the products that they use to create their dishes. The goal is to source all the products in The Netherlands. The fish they use, comes straight from the boats in Zeeland. They buy it directly from the fishermen. Vegetables come from their own farm, which is in walking distance of the restaurant, or from farmers in the neighbourhood. The rather introvert plating style of van der Kroft, makes the taste sensation of his creations even more surprising. The chef does not shy away from using unusual ingredients or unexpected food pairings, but he succeeds in making it work dish after dish. Starting a dinner with an amuse bouche made of pork blood might be strange to some guests, but the combination with the foie was very convincing. The pear and tomato dish was unique and we think the chef should keep it on his menu as a signature dish of Bij Petit.
The interior design is rather casual but classy and the presence of wood and leather creates a special atmosphere. From most tables in the restaurant, you can see the open kitchen, where Michael and Jeroen are cooking. Service is in the capable hands of Emy Koster. She is the girlfriend of Chef Michael and also has a history behind the stove. Even though in Bij Petit she works in front of the house, she keeps the connection with the kitchen by actively participating in the mise en place.The service is attentive and correct. The team of Bij Petit aims at giving guests the feeling that they have been out of their normal environment for a while. By serving the snacks very fast after you arrive in the restaurant, they want to make sure that you immediately forget the stress of work. The wine list consists of about fifty labels of which the majority originates from the new world. On the wine menu, the wines come with a clear description and are listed based on the taste profile they have.
Bij Petit is still new but already now they succeed in treating their guests to a unique dining experience. You can expect surprising contemporary dishes with the best ingredients that can be found in The Netherlands, served in a friendly and casual manner. We are looking forward to seeing how Bij Petit will further evolve. Chef van der Kroft will need to make sure that he can keep creating new dishes that maintain the same level of creativity and quality, but in the meanwhile, we can only recommend you to visit the beautiful province of Zeeland and enjoy a surprising lunch or dinner in Bij Petit.
Gastronomy
Exterior/interior
The Team
Written by Johan
Our videos about this restaurant
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Please note that this location is permanently closed. | https://www.wbpstars.com/restaurant/bij-petit/ |
The Differences Between a Restaurant and a Cafe
There are several differences between a restaurant and a cafe. For starters, a cafe is a place where you can sit and order your food, while a restaurant is where you place your order at a table and an attendant takes care of serving the food and billing. A cafe is typically smaller and has a more casual atmosphere.
Differences between restaurants and cafes
The differences between restaurants and cafes are as varied as the types of food they offer. While a restaurant is often more formal and offers a more extensive menu, a cafe usually serves lighter food and beverages. The atmosphere in both types of venues can greatly differ, and both types of food and beverage establishments require a different approach.
The difference between a cafe and a restaurant is in the staff. A cafe will typically have a small crew of employees who clean tables, pull pints, and make coffee. While there are few employees at a cafe, a restaurant has a large staff that handles every aspect of the food preparation process, from cutting fish to slicing tomatoes for salads. A restaurant may have as many as three or four cooks.
The types of food that are served at a cafe will be less expensive than those at a restaurant. In addition, a cafe will have a more relaxed atmosphere. Most people will spend more time in a cafe than they will in a restaurant. A cafe also has more outdoor seating, while a restaurant will typically have indoor seating only.
Read for more information: restaurant or cafe
While the menu at a cafe is generally limited to coffee and light meals, a restaurant’s food menu may include a full menu of hot meals. Many restaurants also offer delivery services. Historically, restaurants have been around for centuries. A 512 AD Egyptian record describes a public eating establishment where people ate cereal, wildfowl, and onions. In ancient India, there is evidence of establishments selling prepared food.
Despite the similarities, the difference between a cafe and a restaurant is crucial. While a cafe is not as formal as a restaurant, it is still a place where people can sit and relax with a good cup of coffee or other beverage. Generally, a cafe is smaller and has a more relaxed atmosphere, with chairs and tables. A cafe is also less formal than a restaurant and will typically close much earlier.
restaurant or cafe: Origins
The term’restaurant’ first appeared in the 18th century in France. It was used to describe a place to buy a reinvigorating soup to nourish the body after a hard day’s work. After the French Revolution, restaurants became more formalized, but the practice of eating out of the home has been around for thousands of years. The first French restaurants took advantage of the growing Enlightenment sensibility among the merchant class.
Before the 18th century, public eateries were known as taverns and inns. These were often simple structures that served simple food and served a purpose. Later, restaurants began to appear in major cities in Europe and Asia and offered more elaborate dishes. By the end of the eighteenth century, restaurants had become a major culinary destination. In Paris, the first restaurant opened in 1765, and it was followed by several other establishments. Eventually, the word’restaurant’ was synonymous with any type of food establishment.
Restaurants first began serving small snacks and coffee, and they became places for socializing. They also became places where artists could discuss their work, philosophy, and politics. Some governments banned cafes during times of unrest, but this did not prevent the establishments from becoming popular places for socializing. Later, cafes were founded in Cairo, Damascus, and Istanbul.
The word “restaurant” is derived from the French word “restoratives,” which refers to restaurateurs who sought to improve the quality of local inns. However, the history of restaurants goes back much further. Ancient Greece had cafes known as “thermopolia” that served hot food and drinks. They were also a commercial and meeting place.
Price
The price of your restaurant or cafe can affect its profitability, so determining the right price is crucial to your business’ success. Your pricing strategy should consider the style of your cafe and your target audience. For example, you can charge more for table service than for counter service and for specialized or premium items. You can also charge more if your establishment is in a high-end neighborhood or provides services like Internet cafes.
Consider the cost of electricity and natural gas for your restaurant or cafe. While large businesses tend to pay more for electricity, small cafes can be more cost-effective. If you are unsure of the cost of these utilities, talk to your peers in the industry to get an idea of what they pay each year.
You also need to decide what the break-even prices are for your menu items. You can raise the price of certain items if the income is not enough to cover overhead. However, keep in mind that many suppliers require upfront payment for new cafes. If you are able to raise prices on individual items regularly, this will help you achieve break-even profitability.
Cafe vs Restaurant: Ambience
Ambience in a restaurant or cafe can be affected by several factors. One important factor is service. For example, if your servers are shouting and ringing bells, it can be difficult for your customers to focus on their food. You should try to keep your staff professional at all times. Don’t make them look frustrated; if they act like they’re having a difficult time, they’re not doing their job right.
One of the best ways to attract more customers to your restaurant or cafe is by providing a pleasant, relaxing atmosphere. Customers who feel comfortable in a restaurant or cafe will be more likely to return for repeat visits, which will help your profits. In addition, customers who are satisfied with their dining experience are likely to be more likely to recommend it to others, which will ultimately increase your customer base and profits.
Ambiance in a restaurant or cafe can be improved by incorporating decorations, lighting, and other aspects of the restaurant. While many of these elements are decorative, many are also functional. When deciding how to decorate your restaurant, try to keep them consistent with the overall ambiance. A good place to start is online reviews. It’s also a good idea to talk to the bartenders and waitstaff of a restaurant to learn more about their environment. Many guests don’t write online reviews, but they’ll tell you if a place has a good ambiance or not.
The best way to create an inviting atmosphere is to hire a friendly and hardworking staff. Make sure that everyone knows how to communicate with customers. Providing good service will greatly contribute to the ambiance in a restaurant or cafe.
Cafe vs Restaurant: Menu
Menus for restaurants and cafes vary in style. Some feature only text, while others are decorated with illustrations, photographs, and cultural references. For example, a Lebanese kebab restaurant might use photos of the country’s mountains or beaches to adorn its menu. Other menus provide ancillary information such as health warnings for undercooked and raw meat.
For example, during the 1970s economic crisis, many restaurants were forced to reprint their menus, an expense that can add up to a large amount of money. Economists noted this and called it “menu cost.” This cost is incurred by many businesses, not just restaurants. Catalog companies may also have to reprint product price lists during inflation.
Some menus are seasonal or cycled, meaning that the items change daily, depending on what is available. Soups, for instance, may be du jour, which means “soup of the day.” “Du jour” is a French term that literally means “of the day.”
The type of menu you choose depends on the nature of your establishment and your resources. The right menu design can boost your business’s profitability. You do not need to invest a large amount of money to create a good menu. You can even upload your menu to your restaurant’s website to make it accessible to your customers. In any case, your menu must be easy to read and adaptable. It should also take into account any food allergies that may be present. | https://www.webzinebusiness.com/2022/08/25/the-differences-between-a-restaurant-and-a-cafe/ |
CLOSED FOR SUMMER VACATION JULY 2ND - JULY 31ST. REOPENING FOR DINNER AUGUST 1ST.
In September 2016 Michael Stollenwerk, “One of Philly’s most visible seafood chefs,” according to Philadelphia Magazine, and winner of Bon Appètite’s Third Best Restaurant in the Country (for his restaurant, Little Fish) along with his girlfriend Felice Leibowitz opened Two Fish to rave reviews.
Chef Stollenwerk creates an ever-changing menu that focuses on highlighting the natural flavors of the food while placing an importance on using local and sustainably sourced ingredients at their peak. The intimately casual, seafood-centric, 26 seat setting are just a few of the features that are quickly making Two Fish one of New Jersey’s favorite restaurants. | https://twofishbyob.com/who-we-are |
Hello:
This is my first post, despite having lurked in CH forums for years. I am helping a close friend compose his solo coffee+food trip during his layover in Toronto. His flight arrives at 8pm on a Friday and the next flight leaves at 4:45pm on Saturday. He is not Canadian and has no Nexus status, and thus he has to join the long line for aliens in entering Canada. He is non-Asian American, does not speak or read Chinese, but knows what authentic Chinese food tastes like. He is determined to have some awesome Chinese food + seafood in Toronto, because what we have at home is mediocre. He doesn't want General Tso, Broccoli Beef, Walnut Prawns...etc. He is not afraid of bones (except fish bones) and innards.
He is big on 3rd wave coffee. I mapped out some good cafes for him, but saw that they are located near the coast/islands in Old Toronto, South York, Corktown, West Queen West neighborhoods. I have not been to Toronto for 20+ years and thus am relying on Google Maps to identify these areas. From my research here, it seems that the vast majority of good Chinese restaurants are in Scarborough and Markham (far from the airport?). He will stay at the Westin by the airport and will use Uber to travel around.
1. On his first night, he wants to have non-dimsum Chinese food for dinner. I don't know when he will check-in at the hotel, and just wonder what places are open? What about delivered Chinese food from authentic restaurants--do Chinese customers consider it OK? What are the good options for him that are not too far from the airport?
2. On his second day, he would like to have dimsum for breakfast and visit at least one 3rd wave coffee shop. I am not expecting these two locations to be close to each other but he doesn't want to be stuck in insane traffic and eventually miss his flight.
What are some good dimsum places that (a) clearly indicate the prices of each dish on the bilingual menu, (2) cook their food on-site (no reheating of imported frozen junk), (3) have Chinese chefs (many in the US don't!), and (4) are hygienic? Ambiance and decor aren't important, as we understand that Chinese eateries aren't strong in these two departments.
3. Alternatively, a great seafood restaurant with a seasonal menu would be a substitute for his dinner on the first night. From a basic search using Google Maps, it seems like Honest Weight fits the bill, but it closes at 10pm. He is not a fan of oysters, crabs, or lobsters, but likes other kinds of shellfish, shrimps, and cold-water fish. Special mentions include razor clams (navajas in Spanish) and geoduck, which I believe are Canadian/NE or NW USA specialty seafood species? He doesn’t want the typical American-style, fast-cooked seafood, such as fried battered fish, frozen anything, fish nuggets (yikes!)...etc. For the seafood restaurant option, he will not consider delivery.
Would appreciate your wisdom and be eternally grateful!
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The desire to align buildings and recreate the cosmic order in the works of humans is not confined to the past. The desire is universal across the Earth and can be seen within our current societies. It is possible to analyze our present-day civilization much as we have considered earlier civilizations. We find that our civilization, like others before us, responds strongly to the power of the stars, with structures and cities aligned with the Sun and stars. The surprising survival of astrology, and other astronomical symbols within Our twenty-first century civilization aslo, makes archaeoastronomy (ancient astronomy) something we can study in the present day. In this chapter, we examine the ways in which our modern civilization practices ancient astronomy even in the twenty-first century. | https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4419-6803-6_8 |
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Description : Exploring the cosmology of the Vedas. Vedic knowledge is understood to have been captured by meditators in deep states of contemplation during the dawn of human civilization. Neuroscientists acknowledge today that a brain in a meditative state is uniquely different state from its waking, sleep and dream counterparts. Did ancient Rishis gain mastery over this state to infer from it scientific concepts about the structure of the Cosmos? Ancient Skies and Astronomy Now collates extracted information from Sanskrit texts to offer readers 27 in-depth instances of astounding similarities in deep sky observation with present day cosmology and twenty first century astronomy. The book includes: Astronomical basis for the division of the sky into 27 equal segments and the methods by which the Vedic calendar systems have been periodically corrected Charts showing boundaries between the 27 divisions of the sky on modern astronomical sky maps and coordinates of deep-sky objects associated with each division Explanations of the 4.32 billion year Kalpa time cycle found frequently in Sanskrit texts and the names of its sub-periods which convey real geological and paleontological events on Earth Opportunities missed by colonial scholars to verify astronomical knowledge in Sanskrit text and the resulting neglect of research into Vedic astronomy In depth illustrations of mining word-for-word meanings of Vedic mantras, using a neglected technique Deciphered codes related to stellar formation and the structure of the Milky Way galaxy from anthropomorphized descriptions of cosmic energy units (Devatas) Ancient Skies and Astronomy Now features a variety of unique astronomical phenomena and revisits popularly held beliefs about the process of cognition and of mantras. Fragments of poetry and prose from Sanskrit documents are dissected to illuminate little-known wonders that lie off the beaten path of conventional translations. Examples such as the Eridanus Supervoid dominated by dark energy venerating the powers of Yama over the deceased, or the star Betelgeuse leaving turbulence in its wake exemplifying the benevolence of Rudra bring the wonders of an ancient sky to life. Suitable for amateur and avid sky watchers, this is a book for anyone with an interest in ancient cultures and civilizations. It is also an outstanding introduction to deep-sky astronomy for readers familiar with Hindu astrology and native customs of India. Users of the Indian calendar systems or the Panchang will appreciate the book for the scientific knowledge it brings about the Nakshatras. | https://www.e-bookdownload.net/search/astronomy-now |
For centuries, people have marveled at ancient structures such as the pyramids of Giza, Stonehenge, Newgrange, and thousands of other equally impressive sites, pondering how such immense works were undertaken, and awe-struck by the amount of effort and commitment that must have been poured into their construction.
But these sites become even more amazing when the deeper layer is revealed – astronomical alignments, symbolic layouts and representations of cosmic order embedded in the very placement of the stones. Many of these sites are not just simple monuments, but complex constructions that enshrine the remarkable achievements of ancient astronomers. They reflect a vision of mankind’s efforts to integrate culture and religion with the mysteries of the cosmos.
Archaeoastronomy draws upon archaeological evidence and mythological traditions to reveal how ancient humans perceived celestial phenomena, and how their understanding of the skies became intricately woven into their monuments and into the very fabric of their existence and daily life.
It is a ‘new’ field, having only been officially recognized since the 1970s, but in just a few decades, experts have come to learn much about these ancient astronomers and how they connected stars and stones to develop timekeeping, weather prediction, navigation, agriculture and a rich mythology and belief system, which have profoundly marked our world and our own modern understanding of astronomy. | https://shop.ancient-origins.net/collections/ancient-origins-magazine/products/ao-magazine-september-2020 |
Not to be confused with Stellar archaeology or a journal on archaeoastronomy.
The rising Sun illuminates the inner chamber of Newgrange, Ireland, only at the winter solstice.
Archaeoastronomy uses a variety of methods to uncover evidence of past practices including archaeology, anthropology, astronomy, statistics and probability, and history. Because these methods are diverse and use data from such different sources, integrating them into a coherent argument has been a long-term difficulty for archaeoastronomers. Archaeoastronomy fills complementary niches in landscape archaeology and cognitive archaeology. Material evidence and its connection to the sky can reveal how a wider landscape can be integrated into beliefs about the cycles of nature, such as Mayan astronomy and its relationship with agriculture. Other examples which have brought together ideas of cognition and landscape include studies of the cosmic order embedded in the roads of settlements.
Archaeoastronomy can be applied to all cultures and all time periods. The meanings of the sky vary from culture to culture; nevertheless there are scientific methods which can be applied across cultures when examining ancient beliefs. It is perhaps the need to balance the social and scientific aspects of archaeoastronomy which led Clive Ruggles to describe it as: "...[A] field with academic work of high quality at one end but uncontrolled speculation bordering on lunacy at the other".
In his short history of 'Astro-archaeology' John Michell argued that the status of research into ancient astronomy had improved over the past two centuries, going 'from lunacy to heresy to interesting notion and finally to the gates of orthodoxy.' Nearly two decades later, we can still ask the question: Is archaeoastronomy still waiting at the gates of orthodoxy or has it gotten inside the gates?
Two hundred years before Michell wrote the above, there were no archaeoastronomers and there were no professional archaeologists, but there were astronomers and antiquarians. Some of their works are considered precursors of archaeoastronomy; antiquarians interpreted the astronomical orientation of the ruins that dotted the English countryside as William Stukeley did of Stonehenge in 1740, while John Aubrey in 1678 and Henry Chauncy in 1700 sought similar astronomical principles underlying the orientation of churches. Late in the nineteenth century astronomers such as Richard Proctor and Charles Piazzi Smyth investigated the astronomical orientations of the pyramids.
The term archaeoastronomy was first used by Elizabeth Chesley Baity (at the suggestion of Euan MacKie) in 1973, but as a topic of study it may be much older, depending on how archaeoastronomy is defined. Clive Ruggles says that Heinrich Nissen, working in the mid-nineteenth century was arguably the first archaeoastronomer. Rolf Sinclair says that Norman Lockyer, working in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, could be called the 'father of archaeoastronomy'. Euan MacKie would place the origin even later, stating: "...the genesis and modern flowering of archaeoastronomy must surely lie in the work of Alexander Thom in Britain between the 1930s and the 1970s".
Early archaeoastronomers surveyed Megalithic constructs in the British Isles, at sites like Auglish in County Londonderry, in an attempt to find statistical patterns.
In the 1960s the work of the engineer Alexander Thom and that of the astronomer Gerald Hawkins, who proposed that Stonehenge was a Neolithic computer, inspired new interest in the astronomical features of ancient sites. The claims of Hawkins were largely dismissed, but this was not the case for Alexander Thom's work, whose survey results of megalithic sites hypothesized widespread practice of accurate astronomy in the British Isles. Euan MacKie, recognizing that Thom's theories needed to be tested, excavated at the Kintraw standing stone site in Argyllshire in 1970 and 1971 to check whether the latter's prediction of an observation platform on the hill slope above the stone was correct. There was an artificial platform there and this apparent verification of Thom's long alignment hypothesis (Kintraw was diagnosed as an accurate winter solstice site) led him to check Thom's geometrical theories at the Cultoon stone circle in Islay, also with a positive result. MacKie therefore broadly accepted Thom's conclusions and published new prehistories of Britain. In contrast a re-evaluation of Thom's fieldwork by Clive Ruggles argued that Thom's claims of high accuracy astronomy were not fully supported by the evidence. Nevertheless, Thom's legacy remains strong, Krupp wrote in 1979, "Almost singlehandedly he has established the standards for archaeo-astronomical fieldwork and interpretation, and his amazing results have stirred controversy during the last three decades." His influence endures and practice of statistical testing of data remains one of the methods of archaeoastronomy.
It has been proposed that Maya sites such as Uxmal were built in accordance with astronomical alignments.
The approach in the New World, where anthropologists began to consider more fully the role of astronomy in Amerindian civilizations, was markedly different. They had access to sources that the prehistory of Europe lacks such as ethnographies and the historical records of the early colonizers. Following the pioneering example of Anthony Aveni, this allowed New World archaeoastronomers to make claims for motives which in the Old World would have been mere speculation. The concentration on historical data led to some claims of high accuracy that were comparatively weak when compared to the statistically led investigations in Europe.
This came to a head at a meeting sponsored by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) in Oxford in 1981. The methodologies and research questions of the participants were considered so different that the conference proceedings were published as two volumes. Nevertheless, the conference was considered a success in bringing researchers together and Oxford conferences have continued every four or five years at locations around the world. The subsequent conferences have resulted in a move to more interdisciplinary approaches with researchers aiming to combine the contextuality of archaeological research, which broadly describes the state of archaeoastronomy today, rather than merely establishing the existence of ancient astronomies, archaeoastronomers seek to explain why people would have an interest in the night sky.
Archaeoastronomy has long been seen as an interdisciplinary field that uses written and unwritten evidence to study the astronomies of other cultures. As such, it can be seen as connecting other disciplinary approaches for investigating ancient astronomy: astroarchaeology (an obsolete term for studies that draw astronomical information from the alignments of ancient architecture and landscapes), history of astronomy (which deals primarily with the written textual evidence), and ethnoastronomy (which draws on the ethnohistorical record and contemporary ethnographic studies).
Reflecting Archaeoastronomy's development as an interdisciplinary subject, research in the field is conducted by investigators trained in a wide range of disciplines. Authors of recent doctoral dissertations have described their work as concerned with the fields of archaeology and cultural anthropology; with various fields of history including the history of specific regions and periods, the history of science and the history of religion; and with the relation of astronomy to art, literature and religion. Only rarely did they describe their work as astronomical, and then only as a secondary category.
Both practicing archaeoastronomers and observers of the discipline approach it from different perspectives. George Gummerman and Miranda Warburton view archaeoastronomy as part of an archaeology informed by cultural anthropology and aimed at understanding a "group's conception of themselves in relation to the heavens', in a word, its cosmology. Todd Bostwick argued that "archaeoastronomy is anthropology – the study of human behavior in the past and present." Paul Bahn has described archaeoastronomy as an area of cognitive archaeology. Other researchers relate archaeoastronomy to the history of science, either as it relates to a culture's observations of nature and the conceptual framework they devised to impose an order on those observations or as it relates to the political motives which drove particular historical actors to deploy certain astronomical concepts or techniques. Art historian Richard Poss took a more flexible approach, maintaining that the astronomical rock art of the North American Southwest should be read employing "the hermeneutic traditions of western art history and art criticism" Astronomers, however, raise different questions, seeking to provide their students with identifiable precursors of their discipline, and are especially concerned with the important question of how to confirm that specific sites are, indeed, intentionally astronomical.
The reactions of professional archaeologists to archaeoastronomy have been decidedly mixed. Some expressed incomprehension or even hostility, varying from a rejection by the archaeological mainstream of what they saw as an archaeoastronomical fringe to an incomprehension between the cultural focus of archaeologists and the quantitative focus of early archaeoastronomers. Yet archaeologists have increasingly come to incorporate many of the insights from archaeoastronomy into archaeology textbooks and, as mentioned above, some students wrote archaeology dissertations on archaeoastronomical topics.
Since archaeoastronomers disagree so widely on the characterization of the discipline, they even dispute its name. All three major international scholarly associations relate archaeoastronomy to the study of culture, using the term Astronomy in Culture or a translation. Michael Hoskin sees an important part of the discipline as fact-collecting, rather than theorizing, and proposed to label this aspect of the discipline Archaeotopography. Ruggles and Saunders proposed Cultural Astronomy as a unifying term for the various methods of studying folk astronomies. Others have argued that astronomy is an inaccurate term, what are being studied are cosmologies and people who object to the use of logos have suggested adopting the Spanish cosmovisión.
When debates polarise between techniques, the methods are often referred to by a colour code, based on the colours of the bindings of the two volumes from the first Oxford Conference, where the approaches were first distinguished. Green (Old World) archaeoastronomers rely heavily on statistics and are sometimes accused of missing the cultural context of what is a social practice. Brown (New World) archaeoastronomers in contrast have abundant ethnographic and historical evidence and have been described as 'cavalier' on matters of measurement and statistical analysis. Finding a way to integrate various approaches has been a subject of much discussion since the early 1990s.
Green Archaeoastronomy is named after the cover of the book Archaeoastronomy in the Old World. It is based primarily on statistics and is particularly apt for prehistoric sites where the social evidence is relatively scant compared to the historic period. The basic methods were developed by Alexander Thom during his extensive surveys of British megalithic sites.
Thom wished to examine whether or not prehistoric peoples used high-accuracy astronomy. He believed that by using horizon astronomy, observers could make estimates of dates in the year to a specific day. The observation required finding a place where on a specific date the Sun set into a notch on the horizon. A common theme is a mountain which blocked the Sun, but on the right day would allow the tiniest fraction to re-emerge on the other side for a 'double sunset'. The animation below shows two sunsets at a hypothetical site, one the day before the summer solstice and one at the summer solstice, which has a double sunset.
To test this idea he surveyed hundreds of stone rows and circles. Any individual alignment could indicate a direction by chance, but he planned to show that together the distribution of alignments was non-random, showing that there was an astronomical intent to the orientation of at least some of the alignments. His results indicated the existence of eight, sixteen, or perhaps even thirty-two approximately equal divisions of the year. The two solstices, the two equinoxes and four cross-quarter days, days half-way between a solstice and the equinox were associated with the medieval Celtic calendar. While not all these conclusions have been accepted, it has had an enduring influence on archaeoastronomy, especially in Europe.
Euan MacKie has supported Thom's analysis, to which he added an archaeological context by comparing Neolithic Britain to the Mayan civilization to argue for a stratified society in this period. To test his ideas he conducted a couple of excavations at proposed prehistoric observatories in Scotland. Kintraw is a site notable for its four-meter high standing stone. Thom proposed that this was a foresight to a point on the distant horizon between Beinn Shianaidh and Beinn o'Chaolias on Jura. This, Thom argued, was a notch on the horizon where a double sunset would occur at midwinter. However, from ground level, this sunset would be obscured by a ridge in the landscape, and the viewer would need to be raised by two meters: another observation platform was needed. This was identified across a gorge where a platform was formed from small stones. The lack of artifacts caused concern for some archaeologists and the petrofabric analysis was inconclusive, but further research at Maes Howe and on the Bush Barrow Lozenge led MacKie to conclude that while the term 'science' may be anachronistic, Thom was broadly correct upon the subject of high-accuracy alignments.
In contrast Clive Ruggles has argued that there are problems with the selection of data in Thom's surveys. Others have noted that the accuracy of horizon astronomy is limited by variations in refraction near the horizon. A deeper criticism of Green archaeoastronomy is that while it can answer whether there was likely to be an interest in astronomy in past times, its lack of a social element means that it struggles to answer why people would be interested, which makes it of limited use to people asking questions about the society of the past. Keith Kintigh wrote: "To put it bluntly, in many cases it doesn't matter much to the progress of anthropology whether a particular archaeoastronomical claim is right or wrong because the information doesn’t inform the current interpretive questions." Nonetheless the study of alignments remains a staple of archaeoastronomical research, especially in Europe.
In contrast to the largely alignment-oriented statistically led methods of Green archaeoastronomy, Brown archaeoastronomy has been identified as being closer to the history of astronomy or to cultural history, insofar as it draws on historical and ethnographic records to enrich its understanding of early astronomies and their relations to calendars and ritual. The many records of native customs and beliefs made by the Spanish chroniclers means that Brown archaeoastronomy is most often associated with studies of astronomy in the Americas.
One famous site where historical records have been used to interpret sites is Chichen Itza. Rather than analysing the site and seeing which targets appear popular, archaeoastronomers have instead examined the ethnographic records to see what features of the sky were important to the Mayans and then sought archaeological correlates. One example which could have been overlooked without historical records is the Mayan interest in the planet Venus. This interest is attested to by the Dresden codex which contains tables with information about the Venus's appearances in the sky. These cycles would have been of astrological and ritual significance as Venus was associated with Quetzalcoatl or Xolotl. Associations of architectural features with settings of Venus can be found in Chichen Itza, Uxmal, and probably some other Mesoamerican sites.
"El Caracol" a possible observatory temple at Chichen Itza.
The Temple of the Warriors bears iconography depicting feathered serpents associated with Quetzalcoatl or Kukulcan. This means that the building's alignment towards the place on the horizon where Venus first appears in the evening sky (when it coincides with the rainy season) may be meaningful. However, since both the date and the azimuth of this event change continuously, a solar interpretation of this orientation is much more likely.
Aveni claims that another building associated with the planet Venus in the form of Kukulcan, and the rainy season at Chichen Itza is the Caracol. This is a building with circular tower and doors facing the cardinal directions. The base faces the most northerly setting of Venus. Additionally the pillars of a stylobate on the building's upper platform were painted black and red. These are colours associated with Venus as an evening and morning star. However the windows in the tower seem to have been little more than slots, making them poor at letting light in, but providing a suitable place to view out.
Aveni states that one of the strengths of the Brown methodology is that it can explore astronomies invisible to statistical analysis and offers the astronomy of the Incas as another example. The empire of the Incas was conceptually divided using ceques radial routes emanating from the capital at Cusco. Thus there are alignments in all directions which would suggest there is little of astronomical significance, However, ethnohistorical records show that the various directions do have cosmological and astronomical significance with various points in the landscape being significant at different times of the year. In eastern Asia archaeoastronomy has developed from the History of Astronomy and much archaeoastronomy is searching for material correlates of the historical record. This is due to the rich historical record of astronomical phenomena which, in China, stretches back into the Han dynasty, in the second century BC.
A criticism of this method is that it can be statistically weak. Schaefer in particular has questioned how robust the claimed alignments in the Caracol are. Because of the wide variety of evidence, which can include artefacts as well as sites, there is no one way to practice archaeoastronomy. Despite this it is accepted that archaeoastronomy is not a discipline that sits in isolation. Because archaeoastronomy is an interdisciplinary field, whatever is being investigated should make sense both archaeologically and astronomically. Studies are more likely to be considered sound if they use theoretical tools found in archaeology like analogy and homology and if they can demonstrate an understanding of accuracy and precision found in astronomy. Both quantitative analyses and interpretations based on ethnographic analogies and other contextual evidence have recently been applied in systematic studies of architectural orientations in the Maya area and in other parts of Mesoamerica.
Because archaeoastronomy is about the many and various ways people interacted with the sky, there are a diverse range of sources giving information about astronomical practices.
A common source of data for archaeoastronomy is the study of alignments. This is based on the assumption that the axis of alignment of an archaeological site is meaningfully oriented towards an astronomical target. Brown archaeoastronomers may justify this assumption through reading historical or ethnographic sources, while Green archaeoastronomers tend to prove that alignments are unlikely to be selected by chance, usually by demonstrating common patterns of alignment at multiple sites.
An alignment is calculated by measuring the azimuth, the angle from north, of the structure and the altitude of the horizon it faces The azimuth is usually measured using a theodolite or a compass. A compass is easier to use, though the deviation of the Earth's magnetic field from true north, known as its magnetic declination must be taken into account. Compasses are also unreliable in areas prone to magnetic interference, such as sites being supported by scaffolding. Additionally a compass can only measure the azimuth to a precision of a half a degree.
A theodolite can be considerably more accurate if used correctly, but it is also considerably more difficult to use correctly. There is no inherent way to align a theodolite with North and so the scale has to be calibrated using astronomical observation, usually the position of the Sun. Because the position of celestial bodies changes with the time of day due to the Earth's rotation, the time of these calibration observations must be accurately known, or else there will be a systematic error in the measurements. Horizon altitudes can be measured with a theodolite or a clinometer.
For artifacts such as the Sky Disc of Nebra, alleged to be a Bronze Age artefact depicting the cosmos, the analysis would be similar to typical post-excavation analysis as used in other sub-disciplines in archaeology. An artefact is examined and attempts are made to draw analogies with historical or ethnographical records of other peoples. The more parallels that can be found, the more likely an explanation is to be accepted by other archaeologists.
A more mundane example is the presence of astrological symbols found on some shoes and sandals from the Roman Empire. The use of shoes and sandals is well known, but Carol van Driel-Murray has proposed that astrological symbols etched onto sandals gave the footwear spiritual or medicinal meanings. This is supported through citation of other known uses of astrological symbols and their connection to medical practice and with the historical records of the time.
Another well-known artefact with an astronomical use is the Antikythera mechanism. In this case analysis of the artefact, and reference to the description of similar devices described by Cicero, would indicate a plausible use for the device. The argument is bolstered by the presence of symbols on the mechanism, allowing the disc to be read.
Art and inscriptions may not be confined to artefacts, but also appear painted or inscribed on an archaeological site. Sometimes inscriptions are helpful enough to give instructions to a site's use. For example, a Greek inscription on a stele (from Itanos) has been translated as:"Patron set this up for Zeus Epopsios. Winter solstice. Should anyone wish to know: off ‘the little pig’ and the stele the sun turns." From Mesoamerica come Mayan and Aztec codices. These are folding books made from Amatl, processed tree bark on which are glyphs in Mayan or Aztec script. The Dresden codex contains information regarding the Venus cycle, confirming its importance to the Mayans.
More problematic are those cases where the movement of the Sun at different times and seasons causes light and shadow interactions with petroglyphs. A widely known example is the Sun Dagger of Fajada Butte at which a glint of sunlight passes over a spiral petroglyph. The location of a dagger of light on the petroglyph varies throughout the year. At the summer solstice a dagger can be seen through the heart of the spiral; at the winter solstice two daggers appear to either side of it. It is proposed that this petroglyph was created to mark these events. Recent studies have identified many similar sites in the US Southwest and Northwestern Mexico. It has been argued that the number of solstitial markers at these sites provides statistical evidence that they were intended to mark the solstices. The Sun Dagger site on Fajada Butte in Chaco Canyon, New Mexico, stands out for its explicit light markings that record all the key events of both the solar and lunar cycles: summer solstice, winter solstice, equinox, and the major and minor lunar standstills of the moon's 18.6 year cycle. In addition at two other sites on Fajada Butte, there are five light markings on petroglyphs recording the summer and winter solstices, equinox and solar noon. Numerous buildings and interbuilding alignments of the great houses of Chaco Canyon and outlying areas are oriented to the same solar and lunar directions that are marked at the Sun Dagger site.
If no ethnographic nor historical data are found which can support this assertion then acceptance of the idea relies upon whether or not there are enough petroglyph sites in North America that such a correlation could occur by chance. It is helpful when petroglyphs are associated with existing peoples. This allows ethnoastronomers to question informants as to the meaning of such symbols.
As well as the materials left by peoples themselves, there are also the reports of other who have encountered them. The historical records of the Conquistadores are a rich source of information about the pre-Columbian Americans. Ethnographers also provide material about many other peoples.
Aveni uses the importance of zenith passages as an example of the importance of ethnography. For peoples living between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn there are two days of the year when the noon Sun passes directly overhead and casts no shadow. In parts of Mesoamerica this was considered a significant day as it would herald the arrival of rains, and so play a part in the cycle of agriculture. This knowledge is still considered important amongst Mayan Indians living in Central America today. The ethnographic records suggested to archaeoastronomers that this day may have been important to the ancient Mayans. There are also shafts known as 'zenith tubes' which illuminate subterranean rooms when the Sun passes overhead found at places like Monte Albán and Xochicalco. It is only through the ethnography that we can speculate that the timing of the illumination was considered important in Mayan society. Alignments to the sunrise and sunset on the day of the zenith passage have been claimed to exist at several sites. However, it has been shown that, since there are very few orientations that can be related to these phenomena, they likely have different explanations.
Ethnographies also caution against over-interpretation of sites. At a site in Chaco Canyon can be found a pictograph with a star, crescent and hand. It has been argued by some astronomers that this is a record of the 1054 Supernova. However recent reexaminations of related 'supernova petroglyphs' raises questions about such sites in general and anthropological evidence suggests other inrepretations. The Zuni people, who claim a strong ancestral affiliation with Chaco, marked their sun-watching station with a crescent, star, hand and sundisc, similar to those found at the Chaco site.
Ethnoastronomy is also an important field outside of the Americas. For example, anthropological work with Aboriginal Australians is producing much information about their Indigenous astronomies and about their interaction with the modern world.
...[A]lthough different ways to do science and different scientific results do arise in different cultures, this provides little support for those who would use such differences to question the sciences' ability to provide reliable statements about the world in which we live.
Once the researcher has data to test, it is often necessary to attempt to recreate ancient sky conditions to place the data in its historical environment.
To calculate what astronomical features a structure faced a coordinate system is needed. The stars provide such a system. If you were to go outside on a clear night you would observe the stars spinning around the celestial pole. This point is +90° if you are watching the North Celestial Pole or −90° if you are observing the Southern Celestial Pole. The concentric circles the stars trace out are lines of celestial latitude, known as declination. The arc connecting the points on the horizon due East and due West (if the horizon is flat) and all points midway between the Celestial Poles is the Celestial Equator which has a declination of 0°. The visible declinations vary depending where you are on the globe. Only an observer on the North Pole of Earth would be unable to see any stars from the Southern Celestial Hemisphere at night (see diagram below). Once a declination has been found for the point on the horizon that a building faces it is then possible to say whether a specific body can be seen in that direction.
Diagram of the visible portions of sky at varying latitudes.
While the stars are fixed to their declinations the Sun is not. The rising point of the Sun varies throughout the year. It swings between two limits marked by the solstices a bit like a pendulum, slowing as it reaches the extremes, but passing rapidly through the midpoint. If an archaeoastronomer can calculate from the azimuth and horizon height that a site was built to view a declination of +23.5° then he or she need not wait until 21 June to confirm the site does indeed face the summer solstice. For more information see History of solar observation.
The Moon's appearance is considerably more complex. Its motion, like the Sun, is between two limits — known as lunistices rather than solstices. However, its travel between lunistices is considerably faster. It takes a sidereal month to complete its cycle rather than the year-long trek of the Sun. This is further complicated as the lunistices marking the limits of the Moon's movement move on an 18.6 year cycle. For slightly over nine years the extreme limits of the Moon are outside the range of sunrise. For the remaining half of the cycle the Moon never exceeds the limits of the range of sunrise. However, much lunar observation was concerned with the phase of the Moon. The cycle from one New Moon to the next runs on an entirely different cycle, the Synodic month. Thus when examining sites for lunar significance the data can appear sparse due the extremely variable nature of the moon. See Moon for more details.
Finally there is often a need to correct for the apparent movement of the stars. On the timescale of human civilisation the stars have largely maintained the same position relative to each other. Each night they appear to rotate around the celestial poles due to the Earth's rotation about its axis. However, the Earth spins rather like a spinning top. Not only does the Earth rotate, it wobbles. The Earth's axis takes around 25,800 years to complete one full wobble. The effect to the archaeoastronomer is that stars did not rise over the horizon in the past in the same places as they do today. Nor did the stars rotate around Polaris as they do now. In the case of the Egyptian pyramids, it has been shown they were aligned towards Thuban, a faint star in the constellation of Draco. The effect can be substantial over relatively short lengths of time, historically speaking. For instance a person born on 25 December in Roman times would have been born with the Sun in the constellation Capricorn. In the modern period a person born on the same date would have the Sun in Sagittarius due to the precession of the equinoxes.
Additionally there are often transient phenomena, events which do not happen on an annual cycle. Most predictable are events like eclipses. In the case of solar eclipses these can be used to date events in the past. A solar eclipse mentioned by Herodotus enables us to date a battle between the Medes and the Lydians, which following the eclipse failed to happen, to 28 May, 585 BC. Other easily calculated events are supernovae whose remains are visible to astronomers and therefore their positions and magnitude can be accurately calculated.
Some comets are predictable, most famously Halley's Comet. Yet as a class of object they remain unpredictable and can appear at any time. Some have extremely lengthy orbital periods which means their past appearances and returns cannot be predicted. Others may have only ever passed through the Solar System once and so are inherently unpredictable.
Meteor showers should be predictable, but some meteors are cometary debris and so require calculations of orbits which are currently impossible to complete. Other events noted by ancients include aurorae, sun dogs and rainbows all of which are as impossible to predict as the ancient weather, but nevertheless may have been considered important phenomena.
A common justification for the need for astronomy is the need to develop an accurate calendar for agricultural reasons. Ancient texts like Hesiod's Works and Days, an ancient farming manual, would appear to partially confirm this: astronomical observations are used in combination with ecological signs, such as bird migrations to determine the seasons. Ethnoastronomical studies of the Hopi of the southwestern United States indicate that they carefully observed the rising and setting positions of the Sun to determine the proper times to plant crops. Howerver, ethnoastronomical work with the Mursi of Ethiopia shows that their luni-solar calendar was somewhat haphazard, indicating the limits of astronomical calendars in some societies. All the same, calendars appear to be an almost universal phenomenon in societies as they provide tools for the regulation of communal activities.
An example of a non-agricultural calendar is the Tzolk'in calendar of the Maya civilization of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, which is a cycle of 260 days. This count is based on an earlier calendar and is found throughout Mesoamerica. This formed part of a more comprehensive system of Maya calendars which combined a series of astronomical observations and ritual cycles.
Other peculiar calendars include ancient Greek calendars. These were nominally lunar, starting with the New Moon. In reality the calendar could pause or skip days with confused citizens inscribing dates by both the civic calendar and ton theoi, by the moon. The lack of any universal calendar for ancient Greece suggests that coordination of panhellenic events such as games or rituals could be difficult and that astronomical symbolism may have been used as a politically neutral form of timekeeping. Orientation measurements in Greek temples and Byzantine churches have been associated to deity's name day, festivities, and special events.
The constellation Argo Navis drawn by Johannes Hevelius in 1690.
Another motive for studying the sky is to understand and explain the universe. In these cultures myth was a tool for achieving this and the explanations, while not reflecting the standards of modern science, are cosmologies.
The Incas arranged their empire to demonstrate their cosmology. The capital, Cusco, was at the centre of the empire and connected to it by means of ceques, conceptually straight lines radiating out from the centre. These ceques connected the centre of the empire to the four suyus, which were regions defined by their direction from Cusco. The notion of a quartered cosmos is common across the Andes. Gary Urton, who has conducted fieldwork in the Andean villagers of Misminay, has connected this quartering with the appearance of the Milky Way in the night sky. In one season it will bisect the sky and in another bisect it in a perpendicular fashion.
The importance of observing cosmological factors is also seen on the other side of the world. The Forbidden City in Beijing is laid out to follow cosmic order though rather than observing four directions. The Chinese system was composed of five directions: North, South, East, West and Centre. The Forbidden City occupied the centre of ancient Beijing. One approaches the Emperor from the south, thus placing him in front of the circumpolar stars. This creates the situation of the heavens revolving around the person of the Emperor. The Chinese cosmology is now better known through its export as feng shui.
There is also much information about how the universe was thought to work stored in the mythology of the constellations. The Barasana of the Amazon plan part of their annual cycle based on observation of the stars. When their constellation of the Caterpillar-Jaguar (roughly equivalent to the modern Scorpius) falls they prepare to catch the pupating caterpillars of the forest as they fall from the trees. The caterpillars provide food at a season when other foods are scarce.
A more well-known source of constellation myth are the texts of the Greeks and Romans. The origin of their constellations remains a matter of vigorous and occasionally fractious debate.
The loss of one of the sisters, Merope, in some Greek myths may reflect an astronomical event wherein one of the stars in the Pleiades disappeared from view by the naked eye.
Giorgio de Santillana, professor of the History of Science in the School of Humanities at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, along with Hertha von Dechend believed that the old mythological stories handed down from antiquity were not random fictitious tales but were accurate depictions of celestial cosmology clothed in tales to aid their oral transmission. The chaos, monsters and violence in ancient myths are representative of the forces that shape each age. They believed that ancient myths are the remains of preliterate astronomy that became lost with the rise of the Greco-Roman civilization. Santillana and von Dechend in their book Hamlet's Mill, An Essay on Myth and the Frame of Time (1969) clearly state that ancient myths have no historical or factual basis other than a cosmological one encoding astronomical phenomena, especially the precession of the equinoxes. Santillana and von Dechend's approach is not widely accepted.
The Precinct of Amun-Re was aligned on the midwinter solstice.
By including celestial motifs in clothing it becomes possible for the wearer to make claims the power on Earth is drawn from above. It has been said that the Shield of Achilles described by Homer is also a catalogue of constellations. In North America shields depicted in Comanche petroglyphs appear to include Venus symbolism.
Solsticial alignments also can be seen as displays of power. When viewed from a ceremonial plaza on the Island of the Sun (the mythical origin place of the Sun) in Lake Titicaca, the Sun was seen to rise at the June solstice between two towers on a nearby ridge. The sacred part of the island was separated from the remainder of it by a stone wall and ethnographic records indicate that access to the sacred space was restricted to members of the Inca ruling elite. Ordinary pilgrims stood on a platform outside the ceremonial area to see the solstice Sun rise between the towers.
In Egypt the temple of Amun-Re at Karnak has been the subject of much study. Evaluation of the site, taking into account the change over time of the obliquity of the ecliptic show that the Great Temple was aligned on the rising of the midwinter Sun. The length of the corridor down which sunlight would travel would have limited illumination at other times of the year.
In a later period the Serapeum in Alexandria was also said to have contained a solar alignment so that, on a specific sunrise, a shaft of light would pass across the lips of the statue of Serapis thus symbolising the Sun saluting the god.
Clive Ruggles and Michel Cotte recently edited a book on heritage sites of astronomy and archaeoastronomy that provides a list of the main sites around the world.
At Stonehenge in England and at Carnac in France, in Egypt and Yucatán, across the whole face of the earth, are found mysterious ruins of ancient monuments, monuments with astronomical significance... They mark the same kind of commitment that transported us to the moon and our spacecraft to the surface of Mars.
The sunlight enters the tomb at Newgrange via the roofbox built above the door.
...[F]ew people - archaeologists or astronomers- have doubted that a powerful astronomical symbolism was deliberately incorporated into the monument, demonstrating that a connection between astronomy and funerary ritual, at the very least, merits further investigation.
Since the first modern measurements of the precise cardinal orientations of the pyramids by Flinders Petrie, various astronomical methods have been proposed for the original establishment of these orientations. It was recently proposed that this was done by observing the positions of two stars in the Plough / Big Dipper which was known to Egyptians as the thigh. It is thought that a vertical alignment between these two stars checked with a plumb bob was used to ascertain where north lay. The deviations from true north using this model reflect the accepted dates of construction.
Some have argued that the pyramids were laid out as a map of the three stars in the belt of Orion, although this theory has been criticized by reputable astronomers. The site was instead probably governed by a spectacular hierophany which occurs at the summer solstice, when the Sun, viewed from the Sphinx terrace, forms - together with the two giant pyramids - the symbol Akhet, which was also the name of the Great Pyramid. Further, the south east corners of all the three pyramids align towards the temple of Heliopolis, as first discovered by the Egyptologist Mark Lehner.
The astronomical ceiling of the tomb of Senenmut (c. 1470 BC) contains the Celestial Diagram depicting circumpolar constellations in the form of discs. Each disc is divided into 24 sections suggesting a 24-hour time period. Constellations are portrayed as sacred deities of Egypt. The observation of lunar cycles is also evident.
El Castillo, also known as Kukulcán's Pyramid, is a Mesoamerican step-pyramid built in the centre of Mayan center of Chichen Itza in Mexico. Several architectural features have suggested astronomical elements. Each of the stairways built into the sides of the pyramid has 91 steps. Along with the extra one for the platform at the top, this totals 365 steps, which is possibly one for each day of the year (365.25) or the number of lunar orbits in 10,000 rotations (365.01).
A visually striking effect is seen every March and September as an unusual shadow occurs around the equinoxes. A shadow appears to descend the west balustrade of the northern stairway. The visual effect is of a serpent descending the stairway, with its head at the base in light. Additionally the western face points to sunset around 25 May, traditionally the date of transition from the dry to the rainy season. The intended alignment was, however, likely incorporated in the northern (main) facade of the temple, as it corresponds to sunsets on May 20 and July 24, recorded also by the central axis of Castillo at Tulum. The two dates are separated by 65 and 300 days, and it has been shown that the solar orientations in Mesoamerica regularly correspond to dates separated by calendrically significant intervals (multiples of 13 and 20 days).
The Sun rising over Stonehenge at the 2005 Summer Solstice.
Many astronomical alignments have been claimed for Stonehenge, a complex of megaliths and earthworks in the Salisbury Plain of England. The most famous of these is the midsummer alignment, where the Sun rises over the Heel Stone. However, this interpretation has been challenged by some archaeologists who argue that the midwinter alignment, where the viewer is outside Stonehenge and sees the Sun setting in the henge, is the more significant alignment, and the midsummer alignment may be a coincidence due to local topography.
As well as solar alignments, there are proposed lunar alignments. The four station stones mark out a rectangle. The short sides point towards the midsummer sunrise and midwinter sunset. The long sides if viewed towards the south-east, face the most southerly rising of the Moon. Aveni notes that these lunar alignments have never gained the acceptance that the solar alignments have received. The Heel Stone azimuth is one-seventh of circumference, matching the latitude of Avebury, while summer solstice sunrise azimuth is no longer equal to the construction era direction.
The interior of Maeshowe chambered tomb.
This is an architecturally outstanding Neolithic chambered tomb on the Mainland of Orkney, Scotland – probably dating to the early 3rd millennium BC, and where the setting Sun at midwinter shines down the entrance passage into the central chamber (see Newgrange). In the 1990s further investigations were carried out to discover whether this was an accurate or an approximate solar alignment. Several new aspects of the site were discovered. In the first place the entrance passage faces the hills of the island Hoy, about 10 miles away. Secondly, it consists of two straight lengths, angled at a few degrees to each other. Thirdly, the outer part is aligned towards the midwinter sunset position on a level horizon just to the left of Ward Hill on Hoy. Fourthly the inner part points directly at the Barnhouse standing stone about 400m away and then to the right end of the summit of Ward Hill, just before it dips down to the notch between it at Cuilags to the right. This indicated line points to sunset on the first Sixteenths of the solar year (according to A. Thom) before and after the winter solstice and the notch at the base of the right slope of the Hill is at the same declination. Fourthly a similar 'double sunset' phenomenon is seen at the right end of Cuilags, also on Hoy; here the date is the first Eighth of the year before and after the winter solstice, at the beginning of November and February respectively – the Old Celtic festivals of Samhain and Imbolc. This alignment is not indicated by an artificial structure but gains plausibility from the other two indicated lines. Maeshowe is thus an extremely sophisticated calendar site which must have been positioned carefully in order to use the horizon foresights in the ways described.
The Palace of the Governor at Uxmal.
Uxmal is a Mayan city in the Puuc Hills of Yucatán Peninsula, Mexico. The Governor's Palace at Uxmal is often used as an exemplar of why it is important to combine ethnographic and alignment data. The palace is aligned with an azimuth of 118° on the pyramid of Cehtzuc. This alignment corresponds approximately to the southernmost rising and, with a much greater precision, to the northernmost setting of Venus; both phenomena occur once every eight years. By itself this would not be sufficient to argue for a meaningful connection between the two events. The palace has to be aligned in one direction or another and why should the rising of Venus be any more important than the rising of the Sun, Moon, other planets, Sirius et cetera? The answer given is that not only does the palace point towards significant points of Venus, it is also covered in glyphs which stand for Venus and Mayan zodiacal constellations. Moreover, the great northerly extremes of Venus always occur in late April or early May, coinciding with the onset of the rainy season. The Venus glyphs placed in the cheeks of the Maya rain god Chac, most likely referring to the concomitance of these phenomena, support the west-working orientation scheme.
The Great Kiva at Chaco Canyon.
In Chaco Canyon, the center of the ancient Pueblo culture in the American Southwest, numerous solar and lunar light markings and architectural and road alignments have been documented. These findings date to the 1977 discovery of the Sun Dagger site by Anna Sofaer. Three large stone slabs leaning against a cliff channel light and shadow markings onto two spiral petroglyphs on the cliff wall, marking the solstices, equinoxes and the lunar standstills of the 18.6 year cycle of the moon. Subsequent research by the Solstice Project and others demonstrated that numerous building and interbuilding alignments of the great houses of Chaco Canyon are oriented to solar, lunar and cardinal directions. In addition, research shows that the Great North Road, a thirty-five mile engineered “road”, was constructed not for utilitarian purposes but rather to connect the ceremonial center of Chaco Canyon with the direction north.
According to Rappenglueck, the eyes of the bull, the bird, and the bird-man may represent the three stars Vega, Altair, and Deneb commonly known as the Summer Triangle.
At least now we have all the archaeological facts to go along with the astronomers, the Druids, the Flat Earthers and all the rest.
Archaeoastronomy owes something of this poor reputation among scholars to its occasional misuse to advance a range of pseudo-historical accounts. During the 1930s, Otto S. Reuter compiled a study entitled Germanische Himmelskunde, or "Teutonic Skylore". The astronomical orientations of ancient monuments claimed by Reuter and his followers would place the ancient Germanic peoples ahead of the Ancient Near East in the field of astronomy, demonstrating the intellectual superiority of the "Aryans" (Indo-Europeans) over the Semites.
Since the 19th century, numerous scholars have sought to use archaeoastronomical calculations to demonstrate the antiquity of Ancient Indian Vedic culture, computing the dates of astronomical observations ambiguously described in ancient poetry to as early as 4000 BC. David Pingree, a historian of Indian astronomy, condemned "the scholars who perpetrate wild theories of prehistoric science and call themselves archaeoastronomers."
More recently Gallagher, Pyle, and Fell interpreted inscriptions in West Virginia as a description in Celtic Ogham alphabet of the supposed winter solstitial marker at the site. The controversial translation was supposedly validated by a problematic archaeoastronomical indication in which the winter solstice Sun shone on an inscription of the Sun at the site. Subsequent analyses criticized its cultural inappropriateness, as well as its linguistic and archeaoastronomical claims, to describe it as an example of "cult archaeology".
Archaeoastronomy is sometimes related to the fringe discipline of Archaeocryptography, when its followers attempt to find underlying mathematical orders beneath the proportions, size, and placement of archaeoastronomical sites such as Stonehenge and the Pyramid of Kukulcán at Chichen Itza.
There are currently three academic organisations for scholars of archaeoastronomy. ISAAC—the International Society for Archaeoastronomy and Astronomy in Culture—was founded in 1995 and now sponsors the Oxford conferences and Archaeoastronomy — the Journal of Astronomy in Culture. SEAC— La Société Européenne pour l’Astronomie dans la Culture—is slightly older; it was created in 1992. SEAC holds annual conferences in Europe and publishes refereed conference proceedings on an annual basis. There is also SIAC— La Sociedad Interamericana de Astronomía en la Cultura, primarily a Latin American organisation which was founded in 2003. Two new organisations focused on regional archaeoastronomy were founded in 2013: ASIA - the Australian Society for Indigenous Astronomy in Australia and SMART - the Society of Māori Astronomy Research and Traditions in New Zealand.
Additionally the Journal for the History of Astronomy publishes many archaeoastronomical papers. For twenty-seven volumes (from 1979 to 2002) it published an annual supplement Archaeoastronomy. The Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage (National Astronomical Research Institute of Thailand), Culture & Cosmos (University of Wales, UK) and Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry (University of Aegean, Greece) also publish papers on archaeoastronomy.
Various national archaeoastronomical projects have been undertaken. Among them is the program at the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research named "Archaeo Astronomy in Indian Context" that has made interesting findings in this field.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Archaeoastronomy.
List of archaeoastronomical sites sorted by country Sites where claims for the use of astronomy have been made.
List of artefacts of archaeoastronomical significance Artefacts which have been interpreted as being used for some astronomical purpose.
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Look up archaeoastronomy in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Home page of the free Archaeoastronomy course online at the Politecnico of Milan Giulio Magli's MOOC -Archaeoastronomy. The science of stars and stones.
Traditions of the Sun — NASA and others exploring the world's ancient observatories.
Ancient Observatories: Timeless Knowledge NASA Poster on ancient (and modern) observatories.
ISAAC, The International Society for Archaeoastronomy and Astronomy in Culture.
SEAC La Société Européenne pour l'Astronomie dans la Culture. Site in English.
SIAC La Sociedad Interamericana de Astronomía en la Cultura.
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May 31, 2012 12:51
In Figure 1 Old Russian ring found in the Vladimir region and included in the foundation of the Museum of the ancient civilization of the Academy of Basic Sciences, as an exhibit under the number E-R +08-00058.
Museum experts dated the ring 8 — 9th centuries AD, that is, the period before the so-called Christianity in Russia.
Ring made of copper by casting and subsequent machining.
The image applied to the surface of the shield ring, indicating the development of knowledge of astronomy among the Slavs Rus. Moreover, these astronomical knowledge by the 8th century were systematized and standardized, allowing rusam isolate individual in the sky constellations, the outlines of which have been generally accepted, and to transfer their images on household items, jewelry, etc.
On the surface of the shield shown in Figure ring mechanically holds the image of a star cluster Pleiades. This cluster consists of 6 — 9-bright stars. From the earliest times to the Slavs Rus it is a cult. Slavs in the Pleiades are associated with Halls Slavic goddess of fate Mokos — Cosmic tree (7 points of the letter "M" — 6 extreme points of the three lines, intersecting at the seventh point), and on the face of the Earth — Moscow ("7 — E hills ") [see 3, Ch. VI, § 6.3.6.3.2.].
Such images are known on the Russian Plain, starting from the Paleolithic period (30 — 10 thousand years ago). Some of these images are shown in Figure 2.
Images of the Pleiades constellation on subjects relating to the Paleolithic: 1, 5, 6 and 7 — on the rocks, 3, 4 — on vessels. In color insets — picture of the Pleiades and song thrush nest, where yellow chicks mouths and surprisingly reminiscent of the stars of the Pleiades, and their location. The B & W Box — the names of the individual stars of the Pleiades [3, Fig. 6.3.6.3.1.4.].
This image is made up of 8 stars. According to Slavic mythology, has come down to us, for example, in the traditions of pre-Greek Greece (see [3, Ch. IV, Section 4.7.1.2.]), The Pleiades — the seven sisters of Atlanta (see [3, Ch. III, n . 3.9.2.4.]) and Pleione (eighth star belongs to someone of them, probably, the mother).
Stars on the ring depicts the traditional Russian way — in the form of circles with marked centers. A similar version of the image presented to the Slavic crescent, an exhibit of the same, as this ring, time — the 8th century (E-F +08-00050). Or in Slavonic amulet "hatchet" (10.) — E-R +10-00052.
***
So, can draw the following conclusions:
Ancient Rus 8th century AD had quite comprehensible understanding of astronomy, in particular, knew the outlines of the constellations and star clusters.
Astronomical knowledge of ancient Rus had vernacular value: in particular, the images of some of the constellations were applied to everyday objects and jewelry. Apparently, with a sacred purpose.
The fact that the astronomical knowledge of ancient Rus in part provided by us are the same, with the same knowledge of the current level, suggests that the ancient Rus had correct knowledge about the night sky. And, furthermore, that modern astronomical knowledge in terms of determining the boundaries of the constellations have inherited some old Russian astronomical teaching.
References:
Pleiades (star cluster) / / The Great Soviet Encyclopedia, 30 tons, 1969 — 1978.
Tyunyaev AA Book of Ra. 2007.
Tyunyaev AA The history of world civilization. — M., 2006 — 2007.
Museum of the ancient civilization of the Academy of Basic Sciences, 2008. | https://survincity.com/2012/07/celestial-map-of-old-russia/ |
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Archaeoastronomy in Eastern Liguria
- Megalithism and shamanism on Caprione's promontory: recent studies. Lerici, Italy.
Archaeoastronomy in Gotland
- There are about 3600 known grooves in stones in Gotland. The most important feature of the grooves is alignment. A study of 1256 grooves showed that they are aligned with certain positions of the celestial bodies, apparently the sun or the moon.
Archaeoastronomy, Astrology & Ancient Egypt
- Understand the Khufu pyramid's shaft alignment with the 3 major astronomical indices: the ecleptic, celestial equator and lunar orbital plane. The constellation Orion plays a significant role in Osirian mythos and other mysteries.
Archaeogeodesy, a Key to Prehistory
- Archaeogeodesy encompasses prehistoric and ancient place determination, point positioning, navigation, astronomy, and measure and representation of the earth and geodynamic phenomena.
Center for Archaeoastronomy
- Founded in 1978 at the University of Maryland to advance research, education and public awareness of archaeoastronomy.
Dark Star Theory
- A new theory linking a possible brown dwarf orbiting the Sun with Nibiru, Planet X and the mythical Egyptian Phoenix.
Death of Gods in Ancient Egypt
- Table of Contents, Preface, and Chap.1 of revised edition of Death of Gods in Ancient Egypt, Penguin Books Ltd, 1992. PDF version available. Color illustrations,computer printouts,sky charts.
Dogon Theory of Creation
- The enigma of the Dogon tribe: knowing obscure astronomical facts before we had telescopes capable of learning of it.
Erection of the Holy Cross
- The geometry of the astrophysical transition occurring now in Earth's 26,000 year precessional cycle; catalyzing a paradigm shift in human consciousness.
How the Shaman Stole the Moon
- An archaeoastronomy book by William H. Calvin of the University of Washington. The book, which describes a dozen ways of predicting eclipses, can be purchased or downloaded for personal reading at no charge.
Mythscape
- Ancient planetary catastrophe in myth, history, archaeology, geology and astronomy; origins of doomsday, armageddon, comet fear, and planet gods.
Native American Star Knowledge
- Stone medicine wheels (solar-stellar observatories) were the first (analog) computers. Lakota star maps and names, theology, many links.
Oh My God, They Killed SOHO
- On Wednesday, June 24, 1998, at 7:16 p.m., EDT, the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO), a joint NASA/ESA spacecraft, mysteriously went "off-line".
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Help build the largest human-edited directory on the web. | https://dir.whatuseek.com/Science/Anomalies_and_Alternative_Science/Astroarchaeology |
It turns out that the world’s OLDEST astronomical Observatory Predates Stonehenge and Pyramids. Australian researchers have found that an ancient Aboriginal site in the Victorian bush could be the most ancient astronomical observatory on the surface of the planet, predating Stonehenge and even the Pyramids of Giza. According to experts, the site is around 11,000 years old.
The study of the Wurdi Youang stone arrangement has revealed that this ancient formation could be over 11,000 years old. This provides a lot of useful information as it tells us a lot about how aboriginal developed in Australia. The Wurdi Youang stone arrangement, located some 45km west of Melbourne, was created over 11 thousand years ago, using some 90 blocks of basalt said a custodian, Reg Abrahams. The ancient site clearly identifies the equinox, the winter solstice, and the summer solstice.
Lead researchers in Indigenous Astronomy, Duane Hamacher, has worked closely with Aboriginal elders at the ancient site in order to reconstruct their knowledge about the cosmos.
“Some academics have referred to this stone arrangement here as Australia’s version of Stonehenge,” Dr. Hamacher said.
“I think the question we might have to ask is: is Stonehenge Britain’s version of Wurdi Youang? Because this could be much, much older.”
One of the most important things about the ancient observatory is the fact that it the site is around 11,000 years old, it technically rewrites history and disproves the idea that ancient Australians were nomadic hunter-gatherers.
Through numerous discoveries of ancient sites around the globe, we are beginning to understand that tens of thousands of years ago, people living on Earth were far more sophisticated then we believe.
According to experts, the astronomical observatory in the Victorian bush was created precisely, so the ancients were able to map the movement of the Sun throughout the year.
Another important clue which indicates early Australian’s weren’t hunter-gatherers is the fact that experts have found around the observatory traces of semi-permanent villages which show evidence of early fishing and farming practices, points out Custodian Reg Abrahams.
“If you’re going to have a stone arrangement where you mark off the seasons throughout the year with the solstices and equinoxes, it kind of makes sense if you’re at least most of the year in one specific location to do that,” he said.
“So if that’s the case, it would make sense if you’re near permanent food and water sources.”
Experts say they have found places near the observatory where ‘eel traps’ were once set up and even signs of farming terraces.
“You see a lot of agricultural and aquacultural practices, so evidence of this agriculture may go back tens of thousands of years, pre-dating what anthropologists commonly think of as the dawn of agriculture which is about 11,000 years ago in Mesopotamia,” he said.
All of this has lead Dr. Hamacher to conclude early Australians possessed elaborate knowledge systems.
“They understand very well the motions of the sun, the moon, the planets and the stars throughout the year and over longer periods of time,” he said. | https://www.ancient-code.com/worlds-oldest-astronomical-observatory-predates-stonehenge-and-pyramids/ |
It may be a long, clunky word, but the definition is simple. This combination of the words archaeology and astronomy is the study of astronomical practices, celestial lore, mythologies, religions, and worldviews of all ancient cultures.
The study of archaeoastronomy goes back to the discoveries made at Stonehenge in the 1960s. Since then, it has grown into numerous interdisciplinary fields of study. This includes native calendar systems, concepts of time and space, mathematics, geometry, counting systems, surveying, navigational techniques, and the origins of urban planning.
SOURCE MATERIALS
Archaeoastronomy examines a variety of source materials to give us insight into ancient astronomical worldviews.
ALIGNMENTS
There are numerous examples around the world of structures that were built with remarkably precise astronomical alignments. Some mark the summer or winter solstice, the equinoxes, the rising of Venus, and other cosmic phenomena.
One example is Chankilloin Peru. A notched wall was built on top of a ridge over 2,400 years ago. It served the ancient Casma/Sechin culture as a solar observatory. Every month, the sun rises inside the next notch in the structure. One end marks the Winter Solstice and the other marks the Summer Solstice.
ARTIFACTS
The ancients may not have had telescopes, but that doesn’t mean they lacked tools to aid in their navigation of the sky.
The ancient Greeks created an analog computer over 2,100 years ago called an Antikythera mechanism. The complex clockwork was made with 37 bronze gears. It was able to follow the movements of the Sun and Moon through the zodiac, model the irregular orbit of the Moon, and predict eclipses.
ART AND INSCRIPTIONS
Before there was written language, there were pictographs and petroglyphs to tell stories and pass along information.
Chaco Canyon features a remarkable petroglyph high up on a lonesome butte. It is a large spiral pecked into a cliff face. Three tall slabs of stone were placed by the ancient Pueblo people so that a shaft of light fell across the center of the spiral on the Summer Solstice. Another smaller spiral marked the equinoxes. The large spiral also showed the 18.6-year cycle of the Moon called the Major and Minor Lunar Standstills.
ETHNOGRAPHIES
Ethnographers give us a glimpse into the worldview of other cultures. These writings can help archaeoastronomers understand ancient astronomical thinking.
For example, people who live near the equator experience two days a year when the Sun stands directly overhead and casts no shadow. The Maya Indians of Central America view this as a significant time because it means the rains are coming. The rains always ensure their agricultural survival.
Archaeoastronomers look at the ethnographic record and the reports of today’s cultures and conclude that these days were likely sacred to the ancient Maya, too.
TOPICS OF RESEARCH
Archaeoastronomy touches on many areas of study, but there are three main areas where much research is directed.
CALENDARS
Many ancient cultures created calendars to track planting and harvesting seasons, ritual ceremonies and celebrations, and astronomical cycles.
The V Bar V Ranch Heritage Site near Camp Verde, Arizona is an excellent example. The thousand-year-old calendar was created by the Pueblo over the span of almost 200 years. The enormous rock slab is filled with petroglyphic markings. Two rock outcroppings cast shadowy shafts across the rock face. As the shadows shift throughout the year, it shows the agricultural seasons for corn crops, the equinoxes and solstices, and times of ritual celebration.
MYTH AND COSMOLOGY
Ancient cultures didn’t have a scientific eye when it came to astronomy. Most of them were more concerned about the relationship between the phenomena in the sky and their native myths and cosmologies.
The Inca built their entire empire to reflect their cosmology. The layout of cities near their capital of Cusco resembled what they saw in the night sky. Cusco itself reflects the Inca perception of the night sky as being divided into quarters. They saw the Milky bisecting the night sky in a certain direction in one season, then shifting to a perpendicular position and bisecting it in a different direction. Together, this divides the night sky into quarters. Their streets were built to resemble this cosmological view.
From Machu Picchu’s emphasis on marking the Winter Solstice to the worship of the emperor as the son of the Sun God, Inti, Inca life was centered around the observation of the cosmos.
DEMONSTRATIONS OF POWER
The ancient Egyptians were obsessed with astronomical observances and used it to prove the power of their deities.
One example is the construction of the Temple of Amun-Rein Karnak. It was designed almost 4,000 years ago to align with important celestial events. On the day of the Winter Solstice, the sun rises between the portals of the Great Gate of Nactanebo and bathes the sanctuary of Amun-Re with light.
ARCHAEOASTRONOMY AND THE NIGHT SKY TOURIST
One of the things that make the Night Sky Tourist website unique is that it weaves together such a diverse mix of astrotourism destinations. It introduces you to dark sky places, observatories, planetariums, science centers, and ancient archaeoastronomy sites.
One of the leading figures in the field of archaeoastronomy is Clive Ruggles. He warns that it is misleading to consider it a field of ancient astronomy. Modern astronomy relies on scientific discipline. Archaeoastronomy, on the other hand, looks at the symbolically rich interpretations of phenomena in the night sky by ancient cultures. While these ancient cultures patiently tracked the motion of the sky in extraordinary detail and accuracy, they often used these things in creating the structure for their mythologies.
Archaeoastronomy is still a small sliver of the astrotourism industry, but I believe these places are just as important as the dark sky locations and the educational locations. They connect us to nature and preserve our night sky heritage passed down from ancient generations. They remind us that, although the cosmos is bigger than our tethered lives on earth, it is one thing we share in common with those cultures who diligently tracked the motions of the celestial bodies. We look up at the same stars, the same constellations, the same Sun and Moon. They follow the same patterns today as they did back then, waiting to tell you whatever story you need to hear today. | https://nightskytourist.com/what-is-archaeoastronomy/ |
If New Mexico is the “Land of Enchantment,” then Chaco Culture National Historic Park is indeed magical.
These ruins reveal the stories behind an ancient civilization, giving us a glimpse into how the Chacoans lived and thrived in the high New Mexican desert. Even better, the park offers ranger-led astronomy programs and is one of the only parks in the U.S. with its own deep-space observatory.
Read on to learn more about this historic national park and its fascinating relationship with the cosmos.
Chaco Culture National Historical Park
There’s no doubt that Chaco Culture National Historic Park is special. In addition to its observatory, it’s a UNESCO World Heritage Site and features the well-preserved remnants of an ancient and distinguished culture from over 1,000 years ago.
In fact, the ruins are so impressive, they could be likened to an ancient “capital city” in the region. Archeologists have uncovered many storage spaces, indicating that this was an economically stable community that thrived on trading. Plus, the remaining architecture showcases the skill of the builders, with an uncovered large kiva (ceremonial space), several multi-storied “great houses,” and an intricate network of roads.
Ancient Astronomers
Similar to ancient Puebloan sites, the Chacoans paid special attention to the solar, lunar and cardinal directions when building their structures. Four times a year, the park hosts a special sunrise program to celebrate the spring and fall equinoxes and the summer and winter solstices. As the sun rises in the spring, fall and summer, it aligns with Casa Rinconada, also known as the Great Kiva. In the winter, it aligns with the Great House.
Even more remarkable, the Chacoans built their structures to be precisely aligned with well-known astronomical markers, like the celestial meridian (a line that connects the North and South poles) and the solar and lunar azimuth (paths of the sun and moon.) Presumably, the ancient people used these alignments to track the movement of the night skies.
These astronomical markers also indicate that this site was a gathering place in the region for special ceremonies and traditions, as well as a place to trade knowledge amongst peoples.
Understanding the Cosmos
In an effort to connect the modern-day public to the lifestyle and rituals of the Chacoan people, the park launched a Night Sky Initiative in 1991. Through the Chaco Night Sky Program, the park hosts ranger-led astronomy programs, in addition to events such as “Star Parties” and an annual Astronomy Festival.
Built in the late 1990s, the Chaco Observatory is a community space intended to educate the public about Chaco Canyon’s phenomenal starscape. Visitors to the observatory can learn more about the solar system by participating in astronomy programs, peering through telescopes and viewing a digital imaging system that shows distant galaxies and supernovas.
Most importantly, the Night Sky Program provides a way for visitors to understand the ancient Chacoans connection to the cosmos. By observing the world of stars above them, and connecting to the land seasonally and spiritually, this ancient community was acutely aware of the rhythms of the Earth. Researchers believe it was this awareness and knowledge that allowed them to live and thrive in such a harsh, high-altitude climate.
Why Are Night Skies Important?
Today, light pollution is a problem across the world, as the glow of urban life masks the billions of stars in the sky. In addition to making the sky less beautiful, light pollution threatens nocturnal wildlife and is disruptive to the rhythms of the native plants.
By turning 99% of Chaco National Park into a “natural darkness zone,” the park protects the nocturnal environment and allows visitors to see the night skies in the same way as the ancient peoples. In recognition of this effort, Chaco was named an International Dark Sky Park, which is only designated to areas that offer “an exceptional…quality of starry nights.”
Our love of stargazing may show us that perhaps we’re not so different from the people of these ancient civilizations. We have more technology, and perhaps our science is more advanced — but when we look up in the big, beautiful night sky — we still see the same thing.
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Jersey Griggs is a writer and editor based in Portland, Maine. In addition to writing about national parks, Jersey covers travel, outdoor recreation, and alternative wellness. To learn more, head to Jersey’s website or follow her on Twitter. | https://blog.chimani.com/2021/03/11/the-secrets-of-the-cosmos-at-chaco-culture-national-historic-park/ |
… is the study of beliefs and practices relating to the sky in the past, especially in prehistory, and the uses to which people's know- ledge of the skies was put.
Free software tools
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HORIZON
See the Tools page for more info
Books
Springer Handbook (2014):
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Ocarina Books publishes and distributes books relating to archaeo- and ethnoastronomy
Publications
This list of my books and selected papers and articles contains links and downloadable copies where available.
Clive is Emeritus Professor of Archaeoastronomy in the School of Archaeology and Ancient History at the University of Leicester, UK. He has worked in many parts of the world and published numerous books, papers and articles including the 3-volume Handbook of Archaeoastronomy and Ethnoastronomy (2014), for which he was editor-in-chief. He has ongoing fieldwork and analysis projects in Hawai‘i, Peru and Europe and is a leading figure in the joint initiative by the UNESCO World Heritage Centre and the International Astronomical Union working to recognise, protect, and promote the world's most important astronomical heritage sites. He was awarded the Royal Astronomical Society’s new Agnes Clerke Medal in 2017 for a “lifetime of distinguished work in the overlapping areas of archaeology, astronomy and the history of science”.
Gran Canaria meeting brings together two UNESCO initiatives
An international expert meeting took place in Gran Canaria, Spain, on May 23–24 which brought together the Astronomy and World Heritage Initiative and UNESCO’s thematic initiative on Heritage of Religious Interest. The aim was to identify and reinforce the close linkages that exist across human cultures between religious/sacred traditions and celestial knowledge, and the clear connections between sacred sites and the skyscape.
The meeting issued a set of recommendations (available in English and Spanish) aimed at recognising, respecting and helping to preserve such sites, including through the World Heritage process.
Stonehenge and the A303
The Stonehenge landscape, part of the Stonehenge, Avebury and Associated Sites World Heritage Site, is internationally renowned for its complexes of outstanding prehistoric monuments. The A303 trunk road cuts across this landscape, passing within 200m of Stonehenge itself. Highways England is seeking to improve the road so as to remove a bottleneck where it runs through the World Heritage Site, including the construction of a twin-bored tunnel at least 2.9 km (1.8 miles) long. This would eradicate the road and its traffic from the part of the landscape visible from Stonehenge and mean that major highways no longer obstruct the route of the Avenue.
Initial concerns that the western tunnel entrance would be sited on the winter solstice sunset sightline from Stonehenge have been addressed in the latest scheme, but many issues remain to be addressed. In particular, as argued in consultation feedback from a consortium of Stonehenge experts submitted on April 23, there would still be irreparable damage to the wider Stonehenge landscape by building substantial new tunnel approach roads within the World Heritage Site boundary.
At the request of Highways England, a new Scientific Committee, chaired by Professor Sir Barry Cunliffe, has been set up to provide guidance on design and implementation proposals as they are developed and to monitor their delivery so as to ensure minimum impact on the the historical environment and upon the Outstanding Universal Value (OUV) as recognised by UNESCO. Further information and updates are available on the Committee’s website.
Forthcoming book on Maui temple sites
Heiau, ‘Āina, Lani: the Hawaiian temple system in ancient Kahikinui and Kaupō, Maui, by Patrick V. Kirch and Clive Ruggles is due to be published by the University of Hawai‘i Press, probably early in 2019. The book represents the results of a joint fieldwork project by the two authors, spanning more than 15 years, in the south-eastern coastal area of the island of Maui. There is a remarkably well preserved archaeological landscape here containing pre-conquest house sites, walls and terraces for dryland cultivation, and including scores of temple sites (heiau), many of which are newly discovered and reported in the book for the first time.
Heiau, 'Aina, Lani is a collaborative study of 78 temple sites in the ancient moku (districts) of Kahikinui and Kaupō. The title of the book means "Temples, Land, and Sky" and reflects the integrated approach taken by the authors, combining archaeological and archaeoastronomical evidence (detailed mapping of the structures, precise determination of their orientations, and accurate dating) which allows them to offer some provocative interpretations of the complex relationships between the Hawaiian temple system, and landscape, and the heavens (the “skyscape”). The book repositions the study of heiau at the forefront of Hawaiian archaeology and also demonstrates the successful integration of archaeoastronomy into broader investigations of archaeology and landscape.
The photo shows temple site NAK-30 in its landscape setting, looking eastward along the coast with the southern slopes of the Haleakalā volcano in the distance. | https://www3.cliveruggles.com/ |
The configurations of ancient Maya cities were influenced by a range of factors; principally, a mix of social, economic, environmental, engineering, historical, and ideational determinants (Ashmore and Sabloff 2002: 202). Of ongoing concern in Maya studies, therefore, is establishing the weight that each factor has had on the ordering of buildings and associated architectural features. The book “Archaeoastronomy and the Maya” demonstrates, via a collection of papers, the influence that astronomical surveillance had on the ordering of ancient Maya architecture and, more broadly, its use to posit the world experienced by the ancient Maya within a broader cosmological framework.
The introduction, by Gerardo Aldana y Villalobos, provides a nice summary of the history and growth of Archaeoastronomy in the field of Mesoamerican studies, detailing, in brief, the development of the field by lead protagonists from its inception in the late 19th Century through to its formulation as an important mainstream pursuit in Maya research.
In Chapter 1, Harold Green applies direct observation to explore the possible origins of Maya calendrics at Chocolá in Guatemala during the Preclassic period; specifically, the source of the Tzolk’in 260 Day Count, 365 Day Haab’ and its associated 5 day Wayeb’. Interestingly, Green argues for the importance of Chocolá in the formulation of the Maya calendrical system and its association with tracking the movement of the sun along the eastern horizon at a specific latitude. Like neighbouring Izapa, Green proposes that the intent in the placement of the site of Chocolá was to observe the intersection of the sun and the horizon and associated topographic features; effectively functioning as a precursor to building complexes such as Group E at Uaxactun, where the structures were configured to observe the position of the rising sun during the equinox and the summer and winter solstices.
In Chapter 2, Ivan Sprajc also challenges the genesis of the Mesoamerican calendrics and the course of cultural influence based on the results of an archaeological survey of 11 Maya sites in south-eastern Campeche; a number of which were occupied from the Preclassic period. Sprajc identifies a regional pattern in the alignment of public architecture with ‘sunrise phenomena’ that divides the year into intervals of 260 days and 105 days, which Sprajc proposes may have had significance for the timing of agricultural cycles among the Maya. The early nature of these building alignments in Campeche, in effect supports Sprajc proposal that the “17°-family of orientations” (Aveni 2001: 234), as they appear in the Maya region, predate that of Central Mexico where they are generally believed to have originated, “allowing the use of a complex observational calendar” (Sprajc p52).
Celestial observation resulted in the construction of buildings, and building groups, that were designed to mark the position of the rising sun during specific times of the year. While it is generally acknowledged that celestial and solar observation influenced the distribution and orientation of Maya architecture, in Chapter 3 Mendez et al seeks to demonstrate, by example, the intent of the ancient Maya builder; specifically, to reveal the Cross Group at Palenque as an apparatus to observe the various cycles of solar, lunar and planetary phenomena. With special focus on the Temple of the Sun, Mendez and others argue that the interaction of light with architectural features of the group, as well as the break in symmetry inside of the Temple of the Sun, supports the proposition that these structures were precisely configured to receive sunlight, within the temple interior, during events such as the summer solstice, the equinox, and the zenith and nadir passage of the sun. These direct observations, by the authors themselves, effectively support the view that astronomical observation was an important objective in the design and ordering of architectural features of the Cross Group during the reign of K’inch Kan B’ahlam (AD 684–702).
In Chapter 4, the Dresden Codex Venus Table is the focus of investigation. In this article, Gerardo Aldana y Villalobos seeks to understand the mind of the Maya astronomer and explore the function of the codex as something beyond a series of computations on cycles of Venus; but rather, as a instrument for the production of omens as suggested in the reminder of the document. For Villalobos, understanding the Venus Table as an ‘oracular’ device has the promise of providing a deeper understanding of the relationship between astronomy and other arenas of knowledge and power as arbitrated by Maya rulers themselves.
In conjunction with a study of associated iconography, Alonso Mendez and Carol Karasik (Chapter 5), use planetarium software to interpret the texts of the Cross Group and Temple of Inscriptions at Palenque, placing them within a broader cosmological context; investigating the importance of such things as the zeith and nadir passages of the sun during the reign of K’inich Kan B’ahlam II. By utilising computers and planetarium software, Maya dates (as found on stone monuments, polychrome vessels, and in codices) can be converted to their Julian and/or Gregorian equivalent, and any corresponding celestial occurrences, mentioned in the inscriptions, can be demonstrated.
Similarly, in Chapter 7, Michael Grofe utilises planetarium software; in this instance, to argue that the G and F Glyphs of the Supplementary Series have a lunar function (Grofe p153). Forming a constant 9-day sequence, Grofe identifies an eclipse pattern in the succession of glyphs G1 through to G9. Linked with the ‘Nine Lords of the Night” (see Thompson 1929), G glyphs are usually found in associations with F glyphs, which when combined read something to the effect of “being in office” of the relevant “G-God” (Gronemeyer 2006: 1; Schele and Miller 1983: 90). The cycle of G1 to G9 is argued to have special importance in the Mesoamerican Tzolk’in calendar of 260-days and nights, which comprises essentially 9 lunations of 29 days (Grofe p138). Grofe’s inquiry has the capacity to provide insights into the influence that astronomical phenomena had on elite behaviour, among the Maya, during the Classic Period.
In Chapter 6, Milbrath explores various Venus representations in Mesoamerican and Central Mexican iconography, proposing that the Venus Almanac is a “pan-Mesomerican phenomenon” (p111). In essence, Milbrath’s study asserts that the synodic period of Venus was symbolised by the Mexican Year Sign and quincunx pattern (p112–113). These alternative representations incite Milbrath to reassess the meaning embedded within the Dresden Codex and Codex Borgia and suggest that 260-Day Count, in its associations with periodic cycle of Venus, had agricultural significance (p117); an argument that has broader implications for similar Venus depictions at other Mesoamerican sites dating from Classic to Postclassic Period.
Contributors to the book “Archaeoastronomy and the Maya” successfully demonstrate that solar and celestial observation was integral to the ancient Maya’s perception of the world and their place in it; as evidenced in calendrical correlations with the cycle of the sun, planets and stars (from the perspective of the observer), in epigraphic notation and iconography, and in the ordering of buildings and architectural features. The book effectively supports the view that for the Maya, as with other ancient and contemporary cultures, “star naming, maps, myth and tale, the orientation of buildings… all facilitate the construction and maintenance of spatial patterns of the world in which the individual must live and act” (Hallowell 1977: 133).
Aveni, A F (2001). Skywatchers. Austin: University of Texas Press.
Hallowell, I A (1977). Cultural Factors in Spatial orientation: A reader in the Study of Symbols and Meanings In: Dolgins, J. L., Kemnitzer, D. S. and Schneider, D. M. eds. Symbolic Anthropology. New York: Columbia University Press, pp. 131–150. | https://www.archaeologybulletin.org/articles/10.5334/bha.253/ |
… is the study of beliefs and practices relating to the sky in the past, especially in prehistory, and the uses to which people's know- ledge of the skies was put.
Free software tools
|
|
|
|
HORIZON
See the Tools page for more info
Books
Springer Handbook (2014):
|
|
|
|
Ocarina Books publishes and distributes books relating to archaeo- and ethnoastronomy
Publications
This list of my books and selected papers and articles contains links and downloadable copies where available.
Clive is Emeritus Professor of Archaeoastronomy in the School of Archaeology and Ancient History at the University of Leicester, UK. He has worked in many parts of the world and published numerous books, papers and articles including the 3-volume Handbook of Archaeoastronomy and Ethnoastronomy (2014), for which he was editor-in-chief. He has ongoing fieldwork and analysis projects in Hawai‘i, Peru and Europe and is a leading figure in the joint initiative by the UNESCO World Heritage Centre and the International Astronomical Union working to recognise, protect, and promote the world's most important astronomical heritage sites. He was awarded the Royal Astronomical Society’s new Agnes Clerke Medal in 2017 for a “lifetime of distinguished work in the overlapping areas of archaeology, astronomy and the history of science”.
Two new astronomical World Heritage Sites
Two very different places linked to astronomy have been inscribed on UNESCO’s World Heritage List at the 2019 World Heritage Committee in Azerbaijan. Jodrell Bank Observatory in the UK is the first 20th-century astronomical observatory to become a World Heritage Site, while Risco Caído and the sacred mountains of Gran Canaria is a “cultural landscape” highlighting cultural astronomy operating in a rich historical and social context.
For more information on the two sites see the Portal to the Heritage of Astronomy and for more information on the context of the two successful nominations see the article “Beyond Jodrell Bank: astronomical heritage”.
The picture shows the front covers of the nomination dossiers for the two new World Heritage Sites.
Heiau, ‘Āina, Lani published
Heiau, ‘Āina, Lani: the Hawaiian temple system in ancient Kahikinui and Kaupō, Maui, by Patrick V. Kirch and Clive Ruggles has been published by the University of Hawai‘i Press. The book represents the results of a joint fieldwork project by the two authors, spanning more than 15 years, in the south-eastern coastal area of the island of Maui. There is a remarkably well preserved archaeological landscape here containing pre-conquest house sites, walls and terraces for dryland cultivation, and including scores of temple sites (heiau), many of which are newly discovered and reported in the book for the first time.
Heiau, 'Aina, Lani is a collaborative study of 78 temple sites in the ancient moku (districts) of Kahikinui and Kaupō. The title of the book means "Temples, Land, and Sky" and reflects the integrated approach taken by the authors, combining archaeological and archaeoastronomical evidence (detailed mapping of the structures, precise determination of their orientations, and accurate dating) which allows them to offer some provocative interpretations of the complex relationships between the Hawaiian temple system, and landscape, and the heavens (the “skyscape”). The book repositions the study of heiau at the forefront of Hawaiian archaeology and also demonstrates the successful integration of archaeoastronomy into broader investigations of archaeology and landscape.
The photo shows temple site NAK-30 in its landscape setting, looking eastward along the coast with the southern slopes of the Haleakalā volcano in the distance. | https://www3.cliveruggles.com/ |
Posted on Wednesday, August 02, 2017
Looking at the sky and using the annual and even daily apparent motions of astronomical objects in the sky for practical purposes goes back thousands of years. Although there are still people, who look for guidance for everyday life in the goings-on in space, we mostly now see astronomy in connection to space-telescopes, giant ground-based telescopes and awe-inspiring images of deep space objects, and not so much in what can be seen and learned with the naked eye over a large timespan from one location.
This book deals with archaeoastronomy - an area of research that looks at ancient structures that were aligned in a specific way or used in connection to astronomy for timekeeping or religious festivals etc. The most famous examples of some such structures include Stonehenge, the Great Pyramids and Chichen Itza.
This book provides information on what kind of celestial motions can be followed with the naked eye and what kind of significance they might have had for the people who built these magnificent structures. In addition to the exposition we also get a glimpse of how archaeoastronomy is done and the reader is also provided with some tools and resources together with some exercises using widely available free software or internet resources that enable one to gain a better understanding of the nature of both archaeoastronomy and the historic sites mentioned in the book. | https://www.astromadness.com/2017/08/book-review-archaeoastronomy.html |
Explore Peru’s Fascinating Chankillo Ruins and Discover the Mysterious Backstory
Most kids go through a phase of wanting to be an archaeologist (usually after watching one of the Jurassic Park movies). While the majority of us end up pursuing other careers, that spark of interest in ancient ruins and mysterious artifacts never truly dies. If you’ve found your way to this article, then you’re probably one of those infinitely curious people who never quite grew out of their fascination with the unknown.
You’re certainly in the right place as we’re about to embark on a digital expedition to the crumbling remains of the Chankillo fort. Tucked deep within the Peruvian coastal desert, this UNESCO World Heritage site offers a fascinating link with unusual human practices of the past. Let’s dive in, shall we?
Cosmic construction
The fort comprises thirteen stone towers, a couple of observation platforms, and in true Indiana Jones style, a mysterious temple. As you can see in the picture, it was once a well-guarded fortress with concentric defensive walls designed to ward off intruders.
The archaeological site was heritage-listed in 2021. However, experts have been exploring it and puzzling over it for over 100 years. Was it the site of cult rituals and strange sacrifices? Or did ancient humans possess scientific knowledge to rival our own?
A land before time
Through carbon dating, scientists have confirmed that Chankillo was constructed around 2,300 years ago – long before the common era. Though we don’t know for sure when it was abandoned, we do know that it was rediscovered by the 1800s century (possibly before).
While modern humans have been aware of the site for quite some time, it wasn’t until our time – the 21st century – that anyone was able to uncover its hidden purpose.
Why so mysterious?
Speaking to the BBC in 2007, Emeritus Professor of Archaeoastronomy Clive Ruggles expressed shock at the fact that it took us so long to determine the purpose of Chankillo’s impressive towers.
Ruggles, who teaches at the University of Leicester, said that he was “gobsmacked when I saw them for the first time.” As you explore the pictures beyond, try to imagine yourself in the desert, gazing up at the ancient structures. You’re sure to experience at least a tiny spark of the same wonderment Ruggles felt.
Venturing into the desert
To reach the Chankillo fort, you must travel deep into the Casma Valley, which is part of the coastal desert of Peru. Once there, you’ll be on the lookout for the reptilian ridge you can see in the image below. Once you spot them, you know you’re in the right place.
Count the spikes on the spine of this hill (which looks like a sleeping dragon), and you’ll note that there are 13 of them. Those are the mysterious towers of the Chankillo complex.
Towering in the wilderness
Those who reach the fort get to enjoy the deeply satisfying but ever-so-slightly creepy feeling of being alone in a vast expanse of nothingness. Empty desert stretches all around, but a puzzling mystery and the key to ancient scientific wisdom lie ahead.
The rectangular towers at Chankillo reach into the sky at a height of between 6 and 20 feet. Those height differences are likely due to the effects of time and harsh desert weather. They are, after all, more than two thousand years old.
Top of the tower
Though the towers themselves are impressive, it’s the way they’re arranged that has scientists like Ruggles so intrigued. They run from north to south across the desert ridge, with perfectly even gaps between each one.
That is what creates the serrated appearance and brings to mind the image of a sleeping dragon. It also offers a clue to the fort’s original purpose.
Now, it’s time to climb the path that will lead us closer to the ancient complex.
Secret stairs
Like all good ancient mysteries, the Chaqillo fort comes with lots of fun discoveries, the first of which is the secret staircase. Actually, there are 13 hidden staircases – one for each tower.
The view from the top is certainly stunning. However, pretty vistas did not inspire the creation of this ancient structure. No, the Chankillo complex was built with a far grander purpose in mind. Let’s explore deeper and uncover more hidden elements in this ancient complex.
Rituals and battles?
Literature reveals that Chankillo was rediscovered sometime in the 1800s. Though it could be earlier, that’s when we start to see written records of it. Back then, those who knew about the strange ancient site had endless wild theories about its purpose.
Over the centuries, these theories only got wilder, with people speculating that it was a battleground for ritualistic fights or perhaps some kind of cultish sacrificial locale. The creepy part is that there was some evidence to support such theories.
Protecting something?
As you can see from the picture, the ruins look like they were once designed to protect something. However, as we’re about to learn, looks can be deceiving – especially when you’re dealing with ruins so ancient that much of their detail has long since been consumed by the desert.
Some of the walls surrounding the buildings in the Chankillo complex stand 20 feet high. Coming up, we have pictures of the ringed battlement-style walls, and you’ll see that they are highly suggestive of a defensive structure.
Exploring the battlements
So, the ridges you’ve already seen look like outposts of some kind – a way to keep an eye out for the enemy. However, they are only one part of the greater Chankillo complex. Below, you can see one of the towers and the concentric rings of battlements surrounding it.
With these factors combined, Chankillo begins to look like a well-protected fort designed to keep intruders at bay. But what were they guarding out in the middle of the desert?
When was Chankillo built?
To uncover its secrets, we need to consider the historical period during which Chankillo (also known as Chanquillo) was constructed. That time is known as the Early Horizon period, which spanned 900 – 200 BCE. Chankillo was built sometime around 400 BCE.
While its remains are mostly crumbling rubble, there’s plenty of evidence to suggest that its fortifications were once robust and intelligently designed. It’s reasonable to expect that the people of the past would want to protect themselves, but something about this “fort” just wasn’t adding up for modern scientists.
A fort with fatal flaws
Though Chankillo’s walls seem impressive, even at their prime, they wouldn’t have been sufficient to fend off an invading force. The construction was solid enough, but the design just wasn’t ideal for a fortress.
Archaeologists diligently documented these “design flaws” until they came to the conclusion that they may not have been flaws at all. Perhaps the error lay in their assumption that Chankillo was a fort.
Secret passages and hidden entrances
While the staircases, passages, and entrances to the buildings had long since crumbled, archaeologists were able to reveal many of them. Indeed, Chankillo was a hive of passages and access points, hinting at a far more mysterious past than scientists had initially suspected.
If there was a class called “Fortress Building 101,” the first lesson would be to avoid placing multiple entrances in the walls of your fort. After all, the idea is to keep the enemy out, not give them various ways to get it.
A new understanding of Chankillo
At this point, it’s safe to say we can give up on Chankillo being a fortress. But if it’s not a fort, then what on earth is it? Thankfully, we have experts on hand to make sense of the ancient clues and reveal the secrets of these desert-bound structures.
It was time for a new theory, which meant there was a flurry of debate among archaeologists, each taking a different angle in guessing what the purpose of the complex might be. One of the most interesting suggestions arose from the fact that it seemed a religious level of care had been taken in maintaining the buildings.
More than just a fort
Of course, Chankillo was in ruins, but given its age and the climactic intensity it endured in the desert, the complex was remarkably well-preserved. There were still plenty of clues to be found in its walls, and this fact alone gave scientists a valuable lead.
The site appeared to have been a cherished and perhaps even a holy place. With that, interest in Chankillo grew. By 2001, a new expedition set off to explore the ruins. Their mission was to determine the true purpose of the place.
Was Chankillo a cult temple?
Across times and cultures, one thing is true of humans – we tend to take great care when protecting and preserving our holy sites. Guided by this fact, the scientists on the expedition wondered whether Chankillo may have been a temple or the locale for cult rituals.
This idea didn’t arise out of thin air. The experts on the expedition had been to many ancient cultic sites, and they could see clear connections between these places and the ruins of Chankillo. Of course, that presented a new question – what could this cult have been worshiping?
Who built Chankillo?
If you’re a fan of the BBC show Wonders of the Universe, you may remember its host, Professor Brian Cox, visited Chankillo. Of course, that was nearly a decade ago, so we’ll forgive you if you don’t remember all the details!
In the episode, Cox spoke about the people who lived in the region 2,300 years ago – the people who must have built Chankillo. Unfortunately, he didn’t have much to say apart from revealing the fact that we know very little about this ancient population.
A people lost in time
According to Cox, there’s very little evidence to go on. Historians know as little about the culture as they do about the language spoken in Peru at the time. So, sites like Chankillo are vital links to this heavily shrouded part of human history.
Essential though these ruins are to understanding the past, our lack of knowledge also makes them challenging to interpret. So, scientists have a dilemma on their hands – they need the ruins to learn about the Early Horizon period, but they need to know more about the Early Horizon period to understand the ruins.
The ghosts of Chankillo
Of course, there are no ghosts in the supernatural sense. However, there are ghostly traces of the magnificent structures that once stood on the site. Though they’re crumbling now, the walls contain evidence that they once glowed in the desert sun.
There are also small fragments of decorations that once made Chankillo a sight to behold. Small though these fragments are, they’re enough to give researchers a clear picture of what the ruins looked like in their prime.
Revealing secrets with science
If you dig up the Wonders of the Universe episode on Chankillo, you can hear Professor Cox explain that “if you stand in the right place, you can still experience the true purpose of Chankillo, just as you could the day it was built.”
Professor Cox knew this back in 2013 because, by that time, the expedition we mentioned earlier – the one that left in 2001 – had revealed their remarkable findings. Finally, there was an answer to Chankillo’s mystery that was more than just conjecture.
Dr. Ghezzi and Professor Ruggles
It took around six years for the researchers heading up the expedition – Dr. Ivan Ghezzi and Professor Ruggles (whom we met earlier) – to publish their findings. However, as you’re about to discover, the long wait was well worth it.
If you’re interested, you can find the report published by Dr. Ghezzi and Professor Ruggles in one of the 2007 editions of the Science journal. Dr. Ghezzi was studying fortresses at the time as they were central to his doctoral thesis. With this area of expertise, he was quickly able to spot that Chaquillo was not a fortress.
A new idea
As he explored the site, Dr. Ghezzi became more and more convinced that the place would not help him with his Ph.D. However, that didn’t mean he was ready to give up and go home. On the contrary, he and his colleagues realized they were on the precipice of a momentous discovery.
They got to work on the site, exploring its many structures, recovering artifacts and clues, and piecing together the fragments. Before long, a new theory emerged.
Leveraging a unique opportunity
When we say the theory was “new,” that’s not entirely fair to past researchers. In fact, as far back as the 19th century, there was speculation that Chankillo may have had some connection to the solar system.
The problem was that, as Dr. Ghezzi explained to Yale News in 2007, “no one followed up on it,” The idea seemed sound and supported by the evidence they had gathered thus far. So, despite the fact that it would slow down progress on his Ph.D., Dr. Ghezzi decided to study the place.
Early discoveries
Once the fortress idea was definitively cleared from consideration, the scientists were able to view the evidence in a new and more accurate light. They quickly pieced together the true nature of the Chankillo complex.
Speaking to The New York Times, Dr. Ghezzi confirmed that “in the first hours of measurements, we realized the nature and importance of the towers.” Still, they didn’t rush to publish. Indeed, they took a full six years – plenty of time to test the evidence and back up their theory.
Cosmic connection
At this point, it will help if we take a bird’s-eye view of the site. As you can see, the entire complex is quite spread out. Soon, the scientists deduced that the walled-in towers you can see in the image below were part of an observation station.
This observation deck stands about 750 feet away from the ridge of 13 towers we examined earlier. By measuring the relevant distances and examining the lay of the land, the scientists were able to deduce the true purpose of the place.
Aligned with the sun
This picture gives you an even clearer overview of the entire Chankillo complex. As it turns out, the ridge of 13 towers aligns in precisely the way needed to accurately track the trajectory of the sun across the sky.
By analyzing sunrise and sunset from the observation deck, you could tell with an astonishing degree of accuracy what season it was. The scientists never doubted the ingenuity of ancient humans, but they were still shocked at this remarkable discovery.
Tracking solar movements
As advanced as this ancient technology was, it was also quite simple to use. All you have to do is stand at the observation deck at sunrise, check where the sun emerges in relation to the towers, and you can figure out what season it is.
Of course, you need to be pre-armed with an understanding of cosmic patterns and their impact on our planet’s seasonality. In other words, the people who lived more than 2,000 years ago were pretty well-versed in the movements of our solar system.
Is Chankillo the world’s largest calendar?
This solar tracking device was, in effect, a calendar. Refer to it, and you could tell what time of year it was. Given its remarkable size, it’s quite possible that Chankillo is the largest calendar in the world.
In the modern era, we only have to pull out our smartphones to see the date and get an idea of what the weather will be like later in the day or week. However, in 400 BCE, they had to trek out into the desert to confirm whether it was a good time to plant crops.
A groundbreaking revelation
Using this magnificent time-telling device, the ancient civilization could reveal with absolute precision when the summer and winter solstices were. They could also plot the spring and autumnal equinoxes, meaning they could accurately time their crop planting, harvests, and other seasonal activities.
As you can probably imagine, this was a groundbreaking discovery for the modern team of scientists. They had cracked the ancient code, giving us a window into a previously inaccessible part of human history.
Chankillo – an ancient solar observatory
To date, Chankillo is the oldest solar observatory on record. That means the people of this time were remarkably advanced, making it even more frustrating that we don’t have more relics to analyze.
In addition to being advanced for its time, Chankillo also differs from other ancient astronomical observatories. Perhaps the most significant difference is that it can tell the time, with precision, all throughout the year. In effect, this pushed back the rise of organized civilization in the Americas by a good 500 years.
Older than Maya ruins
Similar solar observatories have been found in Europe and in other parts of South America. However, Chankillo is older than all of them. It beats the oldest Maya observatory by about 500 years, and the Europeans are even further behind.
According to Dr. Ghezzi, Chankillo is around 1,800 years older than the most ancient astronomical observatories in Europe. The wildest part is that this human capability could be even older – we just haven’t yet found any ruins or artifacts to prove the theory.
The significance of Chankillo
We’ve already hinted a little at the grand purpose behind Chankillo. If you’re planting crops, storing food, and otherwise planning for the future, it’s incredibly helpful to know what time of year it is and what weather you can expect over the coming months.
However, it’s likely that the civilization of the time also used their giant calendar to confirm the right time to celebrate seasonal religious festivals. Amazingly, there may have been an even grander purpose for the Chankillo complex.
Guided by the sun
Polytheism and pantheism were common in Peru, with its ancient civilizations experiencing natural phenomena as divine forces. It was common for rulers of the region to be “guided by the sun” when making political decisions and other decrees, as the sun was a deity in Inca culture.
In fact, one Inca king declared himself a direct descendent of the sun god, so it stands to reason that powerful monarchs may have used observatories like Chankillo to seek guidance from this god. In fact, since it outdates other ruins in the region. Chankillo could point to the origin of such ideas.
Controlling the gods
Having direct communication with the gods is pretty impressive in and of itself. However, when you control access to the gods, you control the messages and orders they give. In other words, you own the gods, and by owning them, you control the people.
According to Dr. Ghezzi and Professor Ruggles, the imposing nature of the 13 towers could have been a sign to the people that the person who commanded that mysterious and imposing place had knowledge and power far beyond their comprehension.
A genuine ancient astronomical observatory
Though much of its power has eroded over time, the Chankillo complex still inspires a creeping sense of awe. Picture yourself out in the middle of the desert, far from human civilization, staring up at these mysterious, crumbling structures from another era.
That was precisely what Professor Ruggles found himself doing while working at the site. Though most ancient astronomical observatories end up being a letdown in one way or another, Chankillo exceeded every expectation the scientist had. The craziest part is that we still don’t know all its secrets.
An extraordinary discovery
Speaking to Yale News, Ruggles concluded, “Chankillo is one of the most exciting archaeoastronomical sites I have come across.” He was surprised that no previous researchers had thought that it might be a solar observatory. However, this is an excellent example of “failing to see the forest for the trees.”
Previous researchers saw towers and heavy-duty walls, and they couldn’t get the idea of a fort out of their heads. No suitable theory was arrived at for the contradicting evidence, and Chankillo was left a mystery – until Ruggles and Ghezzi arrived on the scene.
Another secret revealed
The two adventurous scientists made yet another important discovery – one that supports the “controlling the gods” hypothesis raised earlier. The viewing platform was only large enough to fit three people at most. In other words, this was not a place where just anyone was welcome.
Speaking to the BBC, Ruggles explained the importance of this finding. Few people would have been authorized to watch the sunrise from this very special vantage point, ensuring that the wisdom gained from Chankillo was reserved for the elitist of an elite class.
Rituals and ceremonies at Chankillo
The evidence described above also suggests that trips to the Chankillo viewing platform were sacred. In Ruggles’ words, “All the evidence suggests that there was a formal or ceremonial approach to that point and that there were special rituals going on there.”
The time of year – something we can all check with a glance at our smartphones – was secret knowledge reserved for a special class of influential people. Everyone else just had to trust their judgment, wisdom, and relationship with the gods.
Priests with power
Though we have very little evidence to go on, the traces of relics and other elements at the site suggest a temple-like architectural style. So, speaking to the BBC, Professor Ruggles hypothesized that it was probably a priest (or priests) who had special access to the place.
The ruins of some kind of plaza lie within the vicinity of Chankillo, and this is likely where the crowd waited for the verdict. Without access to the right vantage point, the crowds would have seen the sunrise but never from the angle needed to unlock Chankillo’s secrets.
Real-world magic
This brings to mind that famous quote from science-fiction author Arthur C. Clarke – “any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic.” To the people of this time, Chankillo must have been magical. Indeed, it still holds a sense of enchantment to this day.
After all, the Earth is still orbiting around the sun, so the Chankillo structure continues to work perfectly well as a solar observatory. That is good news for those who like wandering in the desert – if you head to Peru’s coastal desert, you’ll always be able to tell what time of year it is. | https://www.trendymatter.com/explore-perus-fascinating-chankillo-ruins-and-discover-the-mysterious-backstory-mn-ad/ |
Ancient Maya civilization, which has the highest pyramid in the Yucatán Peninsula.
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Of the many temples that he currently possessed, the Nohoch Mul pyramid survives, considered the highest in the peninsula.
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Mar 03, 2019
Amazingly made MOOC. Perhaps it feels a bit short in comparison to some of the others, but the material is well presented and the suggested readings give plenty of opportunity for further learning.
Sep 17, 2019
It is a great course. I have enjoyed each of the segments covering many more ancient sites than I have known about in the past and explaining the ones I did know about in much greater depth.
创建者 Jose A C A•
Mar 01, 2020
Fue una experiencia muy grata, aprendí muchas cosas que desconocía, ahora puedo entender mas sobre las grandes cosas oculta que desconocemos acerca de algunos resto arqueológicos.
创建者 Fiona L•
Sep 25, 2019
A really interesting course, both wide-ranging and detailed. I found some of the astronomical data hard to get my head around, but still thoroughly enjoyed the course - thank you!
创建者 daniel e•
Nov 10, 2017
It was a very interesting course, and had addressed the subject matter in an organized manner. It was challenging at times, but maintained my interest throughout the course.
创建者 Heba•
May 23, 2020
The course is easy and full of fun and interesting cultures and the way it describes the events , monuments and the mentality of ancient people is fascinating ... I really hope to have a written copy of this course content ... The only problem that there are many complicated words to be understood ..
However i really have enjoyed learning this course
创建者 Tristan C•
Apr 12, 2020
I absolutely LOVED this course. LOVED !!!!! I am an Environmental Engineer by Trade, and the videos where fantastic!!. This course has made me want to travel to see all the great megalithic structures in the world. I will listen to the videos again and will seek the books you have recommended. Well done Politechnico Milano !!!
创建者 Elizabeth G•
May 16, 2020
This is a fascinating overview of archaeoastronomy. I learned a lot about ancient monuments that were built in accordance with movements of the sun, moon, and stars. It is challenging to understand all the concepts, but worth the effort. I bought Dr Magli's book and look forward to reading it. I want to learn more.
创建者 John F G•
Jun 04, 2020
Very informative course! Learned much about how astronomy is linked to various monuments and ancient civilizations. Particularly enjoyed the architectural alignment of monuments/buildings with stars and movement of our solar system. Thank you for developing and teaching this course!!
创建者 Aitor1979•
May 25, 2020
A very interesting course that open doors and minds on how to look at ancient cultures and archaeology. Even is for beginners, the subjects are demanding and its not just an easy path to the end. You must read, think and understand challenging knowledge. I recommend it.
创建者 Yasi Z•
May 14, 2020
Wonderful course with great insights into the field of archaeoastronomy! Professional explanations of knowledge with a wide range of significant examples, but I guess it's better to have some basic knowledge about astronomy in mind before starting this course.
创建者 Ignacio G R V•
May 20, 2020
El curso es muy útil, ya entrega los lineamiento generales de la Arqueoastronomía y permite conocer datos interesantes sobre un sinnúmero de obras arquitectónicas de todo el mundo. Ideal para quienes quieran complementar sus conocimientos de arqueología.
创建者 Paolo A•
May 05, 2020
A thoroughly interesting insight into ancient monuments and their celestial alignment. I really enjoyed this course, it was packed full of facts and information, as well as dispelling a lot of myths. Will be looking into learning more about this subject.
创建者 Lia C M•
Apr 07, 2020
Ótimo curso! Única sugestão seria colocar a justificativa das respostas do teste, para que a gente consiga aprender com o que nós erramos. Uma pena que estou tendo problemas para fazer o pagamento e adquirir o certificado :(
创建者 Ciarán M•
Jun 02, 2020
A very interesting course. Quite challenging, especially in the more mathematical parts. Be sure to take plenty of notes during the lessons as the quiz at the end of each section is difficult. Well worth the effort!
创建者 Irene R G•
Apr 24, 2020
Un curso de iniciación a la arqueoastronomía muy interesante, me ha aclarado ciertos conceptos y me ha ayudado a comprener mejor la aplicación de la astronomía a los contextos arqueológicos.
创建者 Renzo Z•
Jan 28, 2020
Grazie al professore Magli e a Coursera per portarci una stupenda introduzzione alla archaeoastronomy. Le spiegazioni el modo serio per trattare il tema e una garanzia di qualità.
创建者 Kurt M•
Nov 17, 2018
This course has lots of good information with an interesting instructor. The integration of visual images and stories with the astronomy and archaeology data is well done.
创建者 Sohini B•
Oct 06, 2018
It is a wonderful course. Easy with short videos. You get to know about why the archaeology was created and what stellar or solar phenomenon can we perceive through those.
创建者 Shagil C•
Aug 14, 2017
awesome course, I had a wonderful time and learnt a lot also the material is very good and is of high quality. The course is well designed and it fulfilled all my needs.
创建者 Delicate T•
Feb 18, 2018
Excellent course, with few challenges on how alignments works. So far i have 80 guessed quiz percent on week five. I will be learning more of this course and others.
创建者 Rachel A•
Mar 22, 2017
I loved this course! This content was fascinating and the presentation was excellent, very visual which is wonderfully engaging. I'd love to see more courses perhaps
创建者 Aparna S•
Apr 16, 2020
As a life-long astronomy addict and a qualified architect, this was the perfect combination of both fields. Thanks to Prof. Giulio Magli for the clear instruction.
创建者 mark o•
Jun 04, 2020
I took this course to enhance my learning alongside an Archaeology diploma. It went a bit over my head, but i learnt a great deal of information. Well worth doing
创建者 Luis H V V•
May 13, 2020
Thanks, the course was very interesting and was focused always in the scientific method, I apreciate a lot the content and the effort of the teacher, thanks again
创建者 Pranesh G•
Jun 10, 2019
the course wass good enough for the beginners in field of archeoastronomy . it intrigued me to learn different astronomical event observed by ancient humans.
创建者 Bredelet F•
Jan 17, 2019
A most interesting course where links between history and science are underlying. It made me want to travel and discover these wonders so rare in our world. | https://zh.coursera.org/learn/archaeoastronomy/reviews?page=2 |
Archaeoastronomy (also spelled archeoastronomy) is the study of how people in the past "have understood the phenomena in the sky, how they used these phenomena and what role the sky played in their cultures". Clive Ruggles argues it is misleading to consider archaeoastronomy to be the study of ancient astronomy, as modern astronomy is a scientific discipline, while archaeoastronomy considers symbolically rich cultural interpretations of phenomena in the sky by other cultures. It is often twinned with ethnoastronomy, the anthropological study of skywatching in contemporary societies. Archaeoastronomy is also closely associated with historical astronomy, the use of historical records of heavenly events to answer astronomical problems and the history of astronomy, which uses written records to evaluate past astronomical practice.
A common justification for the need for astronomy is the need to develop an accurate calendar for agricultural reasons. Ancient texts like Hesiod's Works and Days, an ancient farming manual, would appear to contradict this. Instead astronomical observations are used in combination with ecological signs, such as bird migrations to determine the seasons. Ethnoastronomical work with the Mursi of Ethiopia shows that haphazard astronomy continued until recent times in some parts of the world. All the same, calendars appear to be an almost universal phenomenon in societies as they provide tools for the regulation of communal activities.
Some have argued that the pyramids were laid out as a map of the three stars in the belt of Orion, although this theory has been criticized by reputable astronomers. The site was instead probably governed by a spectacular hierophany which occurs at the summer solstice, when the sun, viewed from the Sphinx terrace, forms - together with the two giant pyramids - the symbol Akhet, which was also the name of the Great Pyramid. Further, the south east corners of all the 3 pyramids align towards the temple of Heliopolis, as first discovered by the Egyptologist Mark Lehner.
Since the 19th century, numerous scholars have sought to use archaeoastronomical calculations to demonstrate the antiquity of Ancient Indian Vedic culture, computing the dates of astronomical observations ambiguously described in ancient poetry to as early as 4000 BCE. David Pingree, a historian of Indian astronomy, condemned "the scholars who perpetrate wild theories of prehistoric science and call themselves archaeoastronomers."
↑ Šprajc, Ivan (1996). La estrella de Quetzalcóatl: El planeta Venus en Mesoamérica. Mexico City: Editorial Diana. ISBN 978-968-13-2947-1.
↑ Sánchez Nava, Pedro Francisco; Šprajc, Ivan (2015). Orientaciones astronómicas en la arquitectura maya de las tierras bajas. Mexico City: Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia. ISBN 978-607-484-727-7.
↑ González-García, A. César; Šprajc, Ivan (2016). "Astronomical significance of architectural orientations in the Maya Lowlands: A statistical approach". Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports. 9: 191–202. doi:10.1016/j.jasrep.2016.07.020.
↑ Šprajc, Ivan (2017). "Astronomy, Architecture, and Landscape in Prehispanic Mesoamerica". Journal of Archaeological Research. 26 (2): 197–251. doi:10.1007/s10814-017-9109-z.
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↑ Herodotus. The Histories I.74. Retrieved 2008-03-22.
↑ Predicting the next bright comet, Space.com.
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↑ Giorgio de Santillana & Hertha von Dechend, Hamlet's Mill, David R Godine: Boston, 1977.
↑ Šprajc, Ivan; Sánchez Nava, Pedro Francisco (2013). "Astronomía en la arquitectura de Chichén Itzá: una reevaluación". Estudios de Cultura Maya. XLI: 31–60.
↑ Šprajc, I. (2018). "Astronomy, Architecture, and Landscape in Prehispanic Mesoamerica". Journal of Archaeological Research. 26 (2): 197–251. doi:10.1007/s10814-017-9109-z.
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↑ Sofaer, Marshall and Sinclair, 1989. Cambridge: 112.
↑ Whitehouse, David (9 August 2000). "Ice Age star map discovered". BBC News. Retrieved 30 December 2012.
↑ "Vallée des Merveilles" (in French). Archeociel. Archived from the original on 2010-12-18. Retrieved 1 January 2011.
↑ "Archeociel: Chantal Jègues Wolkiewiez" (in French). Retrieved 1 January 2011.
↑ "The Lascaux cave: a Prehistoric sky-map..." lightmeditation. Retrieved 1 January 2011.
↑ Neyret, F. (2007) - « "Lascaux, le ciel des premiers hommes" ou La scientifique indépendante, le reporter et la chaîne culturelle », novembre 2007, 029, p. 12-16.
↑ Sir Jocelyn Stephens quoted in The Times, 8 July 1994, 8.
↑ Schmeh, Klaus (2012), "The Pathology of Cryptology—A Current Survey", Cryptologia, 36: 14–45, doi:10.1080/01611194.2011.632803, at pp. 19-20. | http://library.kiwix.org/wikipedia_en_computer_novid_2018-10/A/Archaeoastronomy.html |
"Concussion and Dual Task exercise cognitive testing" by Sierra Duran, Sarah A. Massey et al.
BACKGROUND: Athletic concussion testing has mostly recently relied on a sedentary computer neurocognitive test battery called the Immediate Post-Concussion Assessment and Cognitive Testing (ImPACT). Previous tests directly compare baseline with post-concussion analysis of patient in regards to different cognitive aspects including; working memory, processing speed, and response time. No physical tests are included in the ImPACT analysis for return-to-play action. PURPOSE: In previous studies from our lab in these populations we concluded that the combination of a physical neural impediment with cognitive tests (dual-task with balance impairment) created a greater degree of impairment not observed in the sedentary ImPACT test. However, changes in the Post-concussed group were significant but not statistically significant in the participants with 5 or more concussions without a concussion diagnosed in the past month. Thus we hypothesized that increasing the degree of neural impediment with exercise at a moderate workload during treadmill exercise while completing a neurocognitive test (Triple Stroop) would show a higher cognitive impairment in the Post-concussed participants. METHODS: In this test participants were asked to come back to the lab within a week of completing their hour long cognitive battery to assess potential neurocognitive deficits of post concussive symptoms similar to our previous work. During the follow-up visit that participants completed the battery of Triple Dual Task Stroop while on a treadmill. After a brief 4 minute walking warm up, participants were tasked with increasing their speed in one minute speed increases until they reached their age and resting heart rate calculated 60% of heart rate reserve. At that point they were given a random sequence from the 4 possible patterns of the Triple Stroop 120 question cognitive test which asks the shape, color of the work, the word color, and/or the color of the shape. RESULTS: Of those who participated in the study (9 non-concussed and 7 multi-concussed) there is significant differneces in the cognitive deficites between the two groups of control and multi-concussed tested. However, there is a time deficit on average in the multi-concussed group, 108 seconds to complete as opposed to the non-concussed (84 sec) In addition the number of correct per minute was higher in the control than the multi-concussed group.DISCUSSION: These results have shown that it takes multi-concussed participants a greater time to process the cognitive testing while having the distraction of a physical test. The ultimate concern associated with the cognitive and reaction time deficits can be that atheltic trainers and/or coaches are allowing their athletes to participate in the event placing the athlete at a greater risk for additional head injury in sports with higher incidence of concussion including football, basketball, soccer and hockey. In addition to testing non-concussed and multi-concussed athletes, we aim to conduct the procedure on those who are recently diagnosed as post-concussed to determin whether a more appropriate field test like the Triple Stroop would show a more sensitive assessment of cognitive deficit in sports concussion protocols.
Duran, Sierra; Massey, Sarah A.; Gomez, Ariel; and Barlow, Matthew A. 5622543 (2018) "Assessment of Multiple Concussive Athletes with Dual Task Triple Stroop and Aerobic Exercise," International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings: Vol. 2 : Iss. 10 , Article 99. | https://digitalcommons.wku.edu/ijesab/vol2/iss10/99/ |
For this final assignment, you will write a paper in APA 6th edition styling. Your paper should have a title page, running head, references section, as well as a body section that is properly formatted. This paper should be no less than 8 pages long excluding the title page, abstract, and references page.
You will need to conduct a t-test on the data to determine if the sample means are significantly different. After the data from Math Tasks Assignment is compiled, the data will be posted on Canvas.
Think of a test with 100 math problems…There are two types of problems: addition and subtraction. Would you finish the test faster if you completed all of the addition problems first and all of the subtraction problems second? Is it more efficient to complete all of the addition problems first? If you switch back and forth between addition and subtraction, will the mental effort of ‘task-switching’ actually slow you down? Or is simple math so easy that there will be no difference?
The class experiment that we conducted intended to measure just that. We used a math task that could be completed in an organized fashion to minimize task switching (Task A), or a disorganized fashion (Task B) that required a task switch for every problem attempted. If there is no difference between switching tasks repeatedly, and completing the same problems in an organized fashion, then there should be no difference in the mean (average) completion times of our Task A and Task B samples.
T tests are used to determine if the difference between sample means is significantly different or not. Using the class’s pooled data, you will conduct a ttest to compare the sample means of Task A and Task B. Then, you will write a paper that describes the experiment and analyzes the data.
OVERVIEW
The data for the final assignment has been posted to Canvas (see attachment). The critical T value we will use for our data is 1.671. Write the number 1.671 inside the *purple* circle on the t-test tutorial (TtestWorksheet6_.pdf).
1. Access the data in the excel file [DATASET.xlsx] → ANNOUNCEMENTS SECTION 2. You will need to find 3 journal articles that have relevance to our study, and cite information from those articles using in-text citations (articles are provided for you Canvas). You need at least 2 relevant in-text citations for each article. The in-text citations should be bold in the color red. 3. You need to be able to analyze the data using a t test, and analyze patterns by comparing/reporting correlations. 4. Write a paper (APA 6th edition) that is at least 8 pages (10 including title/ref.)
INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH
– PAGE 2 OF 6 –
– –– –– –– –– –– –T T T TE ES ST T– –– –– –– –– –– –
When the data is compiled, you will use the completion times from each condition to complete the t-test worksheet after you print it out [TtestWorksheet6_.pdf]. The worksheet will walk you through a t-test with an alpha of .05 in one tail. This is because the research predicts that the results will occur in one particular direction.
The data file [DATASET.xlsx] has a tab called “T-test Calculation” that saves you the work of performing many computations. Be sure to check out this page before starting your t-test.
In the Results section, please report the results of your t-test in the following way. You can copy and paste the text into your paper, just replace the results of your t-test where the #’s are.
M represents ‘Mean’; SD represents ‘Standard Deviation’. The t-test tutorial [TtestWorksheet6_.pdf] will help you find these values.
RED CIRCLE FROM T‐TEST TUTORIAL O RANGE CIRCLE FROM T‐TEST
INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH
– –– –– –– –– –– –C CO OR RR RE EL LA AT TI IO ON N A AN NA AL LY YS SI IS S– –– –– –– –– –– –
Investigate and discuss patterns that are present in the data by looking at the correlation between our variables. Use the Critical Values of the Correlation Coefficient – Table R [In the back of your book] to find out whether the correlations are significant based on the df (degrees of freedom). Use a two-tailed test with an alpha of .05.
Critical values are based on degrees of freedom. Use the “Correlation Analysis” tab of the data file [DATASET.xlsx] to analyze the correlations.
Check out the following combinations of variables:
Age and completion time (does being older make people faster or slower?) Age and # incorrect Gender and completion time (are males faster than females) Gender and # incorrect
Determine if the patterns present in our data match patterns present in the literature. For example, you may cite Reaction Time Literature Review by Robert J. Kosinski, and make a connection between factors affecting reaction time and whether those factors may have had an effect in our experiment.
Abstract
Create an abstract that concisely summarizes this study in 120 words or less.
Introduction (Literature Review)
Provide a brief background of the task-switching literature relevant to this study by providing 12 in-text citations from the literature (2 citations for each article used). These in-text citations may be 1 sentence long and should be written in the color red (you do not necessarily have to read all of the articles in entirety from start to finish! Pull a relevant citation from each article). Emphasis should be placed on what they did, and their results; a connection should be made to our study in a predictive manner if necessary. Some keywords that may help you find relevant articles are:
Task switching Cognitive Efficiency Multi-tasking Selective Attention Divided Attention
Use the link below to access the journal article databases: http://library.montclair.edu/articlesdatabases/index.php?View=Subject&Subject=Psych ology%2FSociology
Explain the hypothesis of this study. Explain what is expected to occur in this experiment based on the background literature.
Clearly explain what the independent variable is, and what the dependent variable is. Make sure you include all necessary information for a thorough introduction.
Method
Participants In the first paragraph, explain the sampling process and how the entire class provided their own subjects for this experiment. What is the average age of all of the participants for each condition? How many males and females participated in each condition? Were these people randomly selected?
In a second paragraph, describe YOUR subjects age and gender for each condition. Describe the testing environments. In what rooms did the tests take place? What times? Describe any other information you see fit.
Materials and Procedure In one paragraph, describe the materials used for this experiment: pen/pencil, printed addition tasks, etc. Describe Task A and Task B to the reader, explaining the differences between the two, and similarities between the two.
In another paragraph, explain your procedure. Where did you administer Task A and Task B? What time did you administer them? Did everything go smoothly, or did you
have to deviate slightly from the procedure? Did the person interact with you during the test or did they sit quietly and remain focused? Did you stay in the room with the person during the test? Did anything unexpected occur? Did your subjects understand the directions?
In another paragraph, explain 2 experimental controls that we utilized (For example, the same 51 mixed-math problems appear in Task A and Task B; by using the same 51 problems we can eliminate any alternative explanations that differences in the difficulty of the problems are causing a longer completion time).
In yet another paragraph, explain if anything occurred that would threaten the validity of the test? Describe anything that happened that was not ideal and could have had an effect on the results. Why is it important for everyone to follow the same procedure? What would happen if everyone followed their own procedure, how could this affect the results? Results
In one titled paragraph, discuss and compare the sample means for Task A and Task B. Is there a difference; is one higher than the other? Is the difference between means significant? Discuss the results of the t test, and what the conclusion of this study is. What was the critical t value? What was the obtained t value? Are the results significant?
In a second titled paragraph, explain the results of your correlation analysis describing the information from above. Discuss the relationships between the variables and modify the following phrase to report each one:
The variables Age and # Incorrect were [not/strongly] correlated, r(d df f) = .##, p<.05.
Discussion In a final summative paragraph, discuss the implications of these results. Summarize the findings (Task switching had a negative effect on completion time because participants required more time to complete the math problems…etc.). Do you think practice would reduce the effect? Why? Provide a direction for new research, do you think task switching would have an effect on reaction time in any other task?
Explain the background reasoning of why you think there is an effect.
If there was no effect: Discuss reasons why you think there was no effect? What are some things we could change about the experiment to get stronger results? Are there any additional precautions we should take next time? Was the test too easy or too hard? (If there WAS an effect, then omit this section).
Discuss the limitations of the study. Think of alternative explanations, confounding and third variables. Problems of the method/procedure, qualities of the sample, etc.
References
Properly cite all six references; some articles are provided for you online. | https://www.myessaygram.com/introduction-to-psychological-research-statistics/ |
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) affects the memory and cognitive function of approximately 5.7 million Americans. Early detection subsequently allows for earlier treatment and improves outcomes. Currently, there exists a validated 30-min eye-tracking cognitive assessment (VPC-30) for predicting AD risk. However, a shorter assessment would improve user experience and improve scalability. Thus, the purposes were to (1) determine convergent validity between the 5-min web camera-based eye-tracking task (VPC-5) and VPC-30, (2) examine the relationship between VPC-5 and gold-standard cognitive tests, and (3) determine the reliability and stability of VPC-5. This prospective study included two healthy cohorts: older adults (65+ years, n = 20) and younger adults (18–46 years, n = 24). Participants were tested on two separate occasions. Visit 1 included the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA), Digit Symbol Coding test (DSC), NIH Toolbox Cognitive Battery (NIHTB-CB), VPC-30, and VPC-5. Visit 2 occurred at least 14 days later; participants completed the VPC-5, DSC, NIHTB-CB, and dual-task walking assessments (DT). VPC-30 significantly correlated with VPC-5 at the first (p < .001) and second (p = .001) time points. VPC-5 and DSC (p < .01) and Pattern Comparison Processing Speed Test (PSPAC) (p = .01) were also correlated on day 1. Significant associations existed between VPC-5 and DSC (p < .001), Flanker Inhibitory Control Test (p = .05), PSPAC (p < .001), and Picture Sequence Memory Test (p = .02) during day 14 testing session. The test retest reliability of VPC-5 was significant (p < .001). VPC-5 displayed moderate convergent validity with the VPC-30 and gold-standard measures of cognition, while demonstrating strong stability, suggesting it is a valuable assessment for monitoring memory function. | https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11357-019-00092-0 |
A growing body of research has suggested that one way to preserve cognition in later-life is to delay retirement and continue to work into the later years. Irene Mosca and Robert E. Wright test this hypothesis using data for older Irish women. They find that women who have been retired for longer have lower cognition. However, this effect is only small.
Cognitive abilities are the mental skills people need to carry out any task from the most simple to the most complex. These mental skills include functions such as awareness, information handling, memory and reasoning. Cognitive abilities tend to deteriorate in older age. It has been suggested that engaging in mental exercise and maintaining an engaged lifestyle can help preserve cognition and slow down cognitive decline in later-life. Examples of such activities are recreational pastimes (such as crossword puzzles and playing chess), learning a new skill or studying a foreign language (Tucker-Drob and Salthouse 2011).
A growing body of research has suggested that another way to preserve cognition is to delay retirement and continue to work into the later years. The hypothesis is that workers engage in more mental exercise than retirees because work environments provide more cognitively challenging and stimulating environments than do non-work environments such as the home (Rohwedder and Willis 2010). If this hypothesis is correct then there should be a negative relationship between retirement and cognition. Some evidence of such a relationship has been found in European countries and the US. However, most of the existing studies focus on men or do not disaggregate by sex.
Our study (Mosca and Wright 2018) tests the hypothesis that longer retirement duration is associated with lower cognition in later-life among women. We believe that focusing on women is important because the employment histories for men and women are generally different. In most high-income countries, men typically work uninterruptedly from when they complete schooling until retirement, with ill health and unemployment being the main factors causing deviation from this pattern. The pattern for women is typically different because child-bearing and child-rearing frequently result in mothers leaving the labour force, often for considerable periods of time.
Data and findings
We use data for older Irish women collected in the third wave of The Irish Longitudinal Study on Ageing (TILDA). TILDA is a nationally representative sample of community-dwelling individuals aged 50 or older in Ireland. The survey collects detailed information on the economic, health, and social aspects of the respondents’ lives. Respondents also undergo a thorough health assessment with a specially-trained nurse either in a dedicated health assessment centre in Trinity College Dublin or in their own home. Assessing respondents’ cognition is one of the key components of TILDA health assessment.
In our study, we employ four measures of cognition that are collected as part of the nurse-led health assessment. They have been previously unexplored in the retirement/cognition literature and are tests of visual scanning, mental processing speed, task switching and concentration. The first two measures are the paper-based Colour Trail Tasks 1 and 2 in which respondents are asked to draw a line with a pencil connecting numbers in circles. The second two measures are Choice Reaction Time and Variability. These involve a computer-based task in which respondents are required to press the corresponding button after a stimulus appears on-screen. The performance indicator for all four measures is the time taken to successfully complete the test, with shorter completion time indicative of better performance.
Ireland offers a unique setting to investigate the relationship between retirement and cognition among women. Between the 1920s and the 1970s many women were forced to leave employment – in a sense, retire – at marriage. This was due to a policy of legally-binding gender discrimination introduced by the Irish Government, known as the Marriage Bar. As this policy was abolished only in the 1970s, many of the women affected by it are still alive and are among the TILDA respondents. Many of these affected women have been retired for many years as they left the labour market when they were young.
The key finding of our research is that retirement duration and cognition are negatively related. That is, the longer a woman has been retired, or has not worked in the labour market, the lower her cognition in later life, controlling for confounding factors affecting cognition. This key finding is descriptively shown in Figure 1. Women who have been retired for longer are slower at completing the four cognitive tests. However, our formal statistical analysis shows that this effect is small in magnitude. We argue that perhaps this effect is small because the women in our sample substituted work-related activities with non-work activities after withdrawing from the labour market. For example, it could be that the positive effect of child-bearing and child-rearing on cognition outweighs the negative effect of time not working. We do not find strong evidence in favour of this “substitution hypothesis”. However, to investigate this with rigour would require the collection of detailed employment and life histories, which are not currently a feature of the TILDA survey.
We believe that further research based on additional data is needed to further clarify the relationship between not working in the formal labour market and later-life cognition. Distinguishing the relative importance of the work environment and of alternative uses of time during retirement for maintaining levels of cognition in later life should be a priority.
References
Mosca, I. & Wright, R.E. (2018). Effect of Retirement on Cognition: Evidence from the Irish Marriage Bar. Demography, 55(4), 1317–1341.
Rohwedder, S., & Willis, R.J. (2010). Mental retirement. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 24(1), 119–138.
Tucker-Drob, E.M., & Salthouse, T.A. (2011). Individual differences in cognitive aging. In T. Chamorro-Premuzic, S. von Stumm, & A. Furnham (Eds.), The Wiley-Blackwell handbook of individual differences (pp. 242–268). Oxford, UK: John Wiley & Sons. | https://www.niussp.org/individual-and-population-ageing/is-retirement-detrimental-to-later-life-cognitionla-retraite-nuit-elle-aux-fonctions-cognitives-des-seniors/ |
Impact of FDI inflows on the exports of India
The previous article empirically examined the relationship between Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) inflows and the rate of inflation in the Indian economy. The aim of this article is to investigate the impact of FDI inflows on the exports of India. The relationship between FDI and exports has been of great interest to researchers especially after the economic liberalisation in 1991. The FDI boost is crucial in order to grow capital, innovation, administrative know-how, marketing skill with access to global markets (UNCTAD, 2003). The figure below shows the trend of FDI inflows and export growth in India since 1980. The trend indicates that an increase in FDI is associated with the increase in exports post-reform until 2002. There is volatility between the years 2004 to 2013 in FDI inflows. exports also exhibit ups and downs.
Empirical analysis
Data and study period
World Bank website is the source for the annual time series data for FDI inflows and exports, for the period 1980 to 2016. Following are the variables:
- FDI as a percentage of Gross Domestic Product (GDP).
- Exports of goods and services as a percentage of GDP.
Tests applied
Name of the Test
|Objective|
Variables
|Unit Root Test||To check stationarity in the data||FDI, Exports|
|Johansen Cointegration Test||To check the long-run relationship||FDI, Exports|
|Granger Causality Test||To determine the direction of causality||FDI, Exports|
|Time Series Regression||To determine the impact of FDI on exports||FDI, Exports|
Table 1: Tests applied for the Empirical Analysis
Model
For the regression analysis, export is the dependent variable and FDI is the independent variable. Moreover, the basic model to find out the impact of FDI inflows on exports.
Exports = f(FDI)
The aim is to test the null hypothesis that FDI has no impact on exports.
Unit root test
Before estimating the equation it is important to check the stochastic properties of the variables. For this Augmented Dickey-Fuller unit root test is useful. After checking the stationarity, Johansen co-integration helps to estimate the long-run relationship. The results of the ADF unit root test have been given in the table below.
|Series||(ADF) t statistic||ADF at 1% Level||ADF at 5% Level|
|FDI||-1.4197||-3.6267||-2.9458|
|ΔFDI||-6.8668*||-3.6329*||-2.9484*|
|Exports||-0.7980||-3.6267||-2.9458|
|ΔExports||-6.0706||-3.6329*||-2.9484*|
Table 2: Augmented Dickey-Fuller Unit Root Test Statistics
Note: A variable is stationary when the ADF t-statistics is greater than the critical values and non-stationary when t-statistics is less than the critical value.
The results of the unit root test in table 2 confirm that both the variables are non-stationary at the level. The variables become stationary after first differencing. Therefore we can investigate long the -run relationship between them.
Co-integration test
Johansen co-integration test is used between the variables in the empirical model because it takes into consideration the possibility of multiple co-integrating vectors.
Maximum Ranks
Trace Statistic
5% Critical Value
Max Statistic
5% Critical Value
|0||15.4906||15.41||15.0990||14.07|
|1||0.3916*||3.76||0.3916||3.76|
Table 3: Johansen Co-integration Test (Trace and Max Value stat) results
Johansen test is based on maxi the mum likelihood method and is based on two statistics:
- Eigenvalue statistic and
- max statistic.
When the rank is zero, it means there is no co-integration relationship and if the rank is one, it means there is one co-integration equation and so on. The above results of Johansen co-integration are based on lags 2 and the trend is constant. The results of both trace and max statistic suggest that there exists a long-run association between export and FDI, meaning both the variables are moving in the same direction in the long-run.
Granger causality test
This test is to estimate the causality between FDI inflows and exports. The results are presented below.
Null Hypothesis
F-Stat
Prob
|FDI does not Granger cause Exports||9.8773||0.0005*|
|Exports do not Granger cause FDI||4.7919||0.0156*|
Table 4: Granger Causality between FDI and exports
Based on the p-values, both the null hypotheses are rejected at 5% level of significance. It implies bidirectional causality. The reverse causality holds in light of the fact that FDI Granger causes exports and vice versa. The results indicate that if FDI inflow increases, exports will increase and on the other hand it will increase the FDI inflows.
Regression analysis
The linear regression model examines the impact of FDI inflows.
Exports
|Coef||t-value||P-value|
R2
|FDI||6.558429*||10.74||0.000||0.7673|
|Cons||7.759397*||10.10||0.000|
Table 5: Regression Coefficient of FDI
Note: Superscripts “*” denote 1% and 5% significance
The table above gives the regression results between FDI and exports. The results reveal that an increase in FDI will increase and validate FDI-led exports growth hypothesis. The coefficients show that a 1 percent increase in FDI will cause an increase of 6.558 percent in exports. Furthermore, the p-value is statistically significant at 1% level of significance. Therefore the null hypothesis of no impact of FDI on exports can be rejected.
The positive impact of FDI inflows on exports
FDI is instrumental in literature for its potential for creating export-led economic growth. The results of cointegration analysis in this article found that there exists a long-run relationship between FDI inflows and exports. Granger causality tests showed reverse causality relationship between the variables. Further, regression results implied that FDI has a positive and statistically significant impact on exports. FDI enhances the profitability development through different means such as empowering the selection of remote innovations, use of economies of scale and developing stable macroeconomic conditions through expanding employment, work efficiency, capital gains and foreign exchange reserves. To sum up, the government ought to empower more capital oriented FDI inflows to directly affect growth.
References
- UNCTAD (2003) ‘World Investment Report 2002: Transnational Corporations and Export Competitiveness’, United Nations. New York and Geneva, pp. 1–350. doi: 10.1016/S0969-5931(03)00022-2. | https://www.projectguru.in/impact-fdi-inflows-exports-india/ |
Traditionally, neuropsychological testing has assessed processing speed and precision, closely related to the ability to perform high-order cognitive tasks. An individual making a decision under pressure must constantly rebalance one speed to action in order to account for possible errors. A deficit in processing speed appears to be a frequent disorder caused by cerebral damage — but it can be hard to pinpoint the exact cause of the slowdown.
It is important to separate the perceptual-motor component of processing speed from the decision-time component. We present a technique to isolate Reaction Times (RTs): a short digital test to assess the decision-making abilities of individuals by gauging their ability to balance between speed and precision. Our hypothesis is that some subjects will accelerate, and others slow down in the face of the difficulty. This pilot study, conducted on 83 neurotypical adult volunteers, used images stimuli.
The test was designed to measure RTs and correctness. After learning release gesture, the subjects were presented with three tasks:
This pilot study, conducted on 83 neurotypical participants, is based on a presentation of simple and identifiable visual stimuli in all cultures. The MindPulse records the TRs as well as the accuracy of the answers.
After correctly learning the mouse release movement, the participants passed 3 tasks :
- A simple Reaction Time task
- A Go/No-Go
- A complex Go/No-Go with 2 simultaneous Choices
All three tasks have in common a perceptual component and a motor response. By measuring the 3 reference points requiring attentional and executive processing, while progressively increasing the conceptual complexity of the task, we were able to compare the processing times for different tasks — thus calculating the deceleration specific to the reaction time linked to difficulty.
By measuring 3 reference points involving attentional and executive processes with a gradual increase in the complexity of the test, the MindPulse is able to compare the processing times of each of the tasks by calculating the specific deceleration of the TR related to the difficulty. We define the task difficulty coefficient as the ratio of the (group) average of the task minus the base time divided by the (group) average of the unit task minus the base time.
We have highlighted that TRs can be broken down into 3 basic and independent components: Simple Reaction Time (SRT), Executive Speed (ES), and Difficulty Reaction (RD). We believe that DR reflects how the subject adjusts to the difficulty either by accelerating (RD0).
This study offers a first proof of concept for the use of mindPulse to measure the balance between precision and speed inherent in fundamental decision-making in 4 axes: perceptual-motor speed, executive speed, the accuracy of the person and his reaction to the difficulty. | https://itsbrain.mindpulse.net/en/publication-scientifique/ |
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