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This is our systematic tendency to forgo rational evaluation of our own merits and abilities in favor of unrealistic attitudes that keep our ego properly inflated as to avoid sinking into the depths of despair.
This is our tendency to judge ourselves less harshly than we do others and to see ourselves as unique, special individuals amid a homogenous, dull crowd.
This is our hindsight's inclination to attribute our successes to ability and our failures to luck.
This is a mental construct that deceives us into believing everything will work out in the end even against all odds and statistical data to the contrary. The bias, however, disappears when we observe others.
This leads us to notice more of the information which confirms our beliefs and less of that which contradicts them.
This causes us to retroactively revise our own predictions in the face of new information and claim that we always saw it coming.
This lets us take credit for all the good stuff that happens to us but blame the bad on external circumstances or other people.
This works just as the name suggests — it enhances your view of your self.
I believe it is in this spirit that visiting research fellow, Mickey McManus, wrote "Simulating the Unexpectable (or Lie to Me)." Mickey is making the point that, like biases, should software help build our confidence? Should software complement our natural human tendencies? My answer is no. As a scientist, I reject this notion. The bias in our thought processes underscore the importance of data. In his keynote address at the opening session of Autodesk University 2012 Autodesk CTO, Jeff Kowalski, quoted famous engineer/statistician, Edward Deming, as saying "In God we trust — all others bring data." The data provided by visualization, analysis, and simulation tools should be real, not inspirational. Data that is not real is not science. That type of data is only for motivational speakers who live in vans down by the river.
The search for truth is alive in the lab. | https://labs.blogs.com/its_alive_in_the_lab/2014/09/use-data-to-combat-natural-human-biases.html |
Cognitive bias is distortion in the way we perceive reality. A cognitive bias is a deviation or distortion in information processing, which manifests in a tendency toward processing information in a way that systematically favours particular conclusions. But in order to find out how cognitive bias may aid psychological practise we must first look at the different types of biases to have a better understanding of them. The two common cognitive biases of interest to behaviour consultants are Confirmation bias and self-serving bias.
Confirmation bias is the inclination to seek or make sense of news or facts in a way that validates one’s preconceptions. So, during the decision making process for psychologist they will refer to information that supports their decision more favourably. They will rarely give the obvious negative much consideration and since our beliefs and postulations are definitely prejudiced so the tendency to give more attention and weight to data that support our beliefs than we do to contrary data will subtly but gradually have a harmful effect.
Numerous studies have demonstrated that people generally give an excessive amount of value to confirmatory information, i.e., data which is positive or which supports a position. Thomas Gilovich (1993) speculates that “the most likely reason for the excessive influence of confirmatory information is that it is easier to deal with cognitively.” (Gilovich, pg. 31) It is much easier to see how a piece of data supports a position than it is to see how it might count against the position. Charles Darwin (1876) noted that it is less likely to remember the comments or ideas that reinforced his hypotheses than those that apposed them. He made it a regular tendency of writing a note of disapproving or contradicting facts as when it became clear to him and was in his awareness, and that was his way of protecting himself against his bias. However, a person’s adherent of a potentially useful train of enquiry, as he pointed out, could be deterred from stratospheric and agnosticism.
The bias noted by Darwin is a confirmation bias that has been studied extensively. People tend to search for evidence to confirm their favoured hypotheses, and avoid or ignore potentially disconfirming evidence. So if disconfirmation allows us to abandon the testing of a hypothesis precipitately then we may be losing out on an opportunity for the hypothesis to establish its value. Many ideas that seem out of the ordinary at first sight prove to be successful on closer testing and scrutiny.
Similar to Darwin, people with emotional disorders display biased patterns of cognition, operating to favour the series of emotionally negative information. The firm findings that bias with threatening information is what distinguishes anxiety disorders. Cognitive accounts have implicated this bias in the genesis and maintenance of anxiety pathology. However, it is only recently that clinical researchers have developed training procedures capable of directly modifying cognitive biases and have sought to evaluate the capacity of these procedures to therapeutically ameliorate emotional dysfunction. MacLeod C and Mathews (2011) reviewed the research that has sought to evaluate the causal contributions such biases make to anxiety dysfunction and to therapeutically alleviate anxiety using cognitive-bias modification (CBM) procedures. After taking everything in mind the purpose and nature of CBM methodologies, it was demonstrated that variants designed to alter selective attention (CBM-A) or interpretation (CBM-I) have demonstrated the capability of decreasing anxiety vulnerability and ameliorating dysfunctional anxiety.
Self-serving bias is the common human tendency to attribute one’s positive outcomes or successes to personal factors, and one’s negative outcomes to external factors or factors beyond one’s control. Self-serving biases in thinking can accordingly have a general driving, motivational, function. It can quickly accomplish the thorough analysis of productive ideas that older systems that have led either to exhaustive but incapable testing of old ground or to sterile scepticism. Sceptics are not able to move forward and progress as quick as Enthusiasts with a clear, although not necessarily realistic vision. Some self-serving thinking may be the result that generates the enthusiasm to pursue goals.
The hypothesis that biased thinking may enhance motivation is supported indirectly by studies of the cognitive styles of depressed people. The impairment of the neural mechanism of motivation is what becomes of the depression as well as negatively biased attention and thinking. In Gotlib, McLachlan and Katz studies of visual attention tasks, depressed people scanned their environment more exhaustively. A present study, similar to that employed by MacLeod, Mathews, and Tata (1986) utilised a cognitive paradigm to examine attentional biases in mildly depressed persons. Twelve depressed and 12 non-depressed subjects were given an attentional task to which they had a series of word pairs presented to them through tachistoscope. They were presented with three types of word pairs, each with one word printed above the other: manic-neutral, depressed-neutral and manic-depressed. Selective attention to one member of a word pair was assessed using ac perception task. Based on cognitive models of depression, it was hypothesised that the depressed subjects would attend more to depressed-content words than to manic- or neutral-content words, whereas the non-depressed subjects would not exhibit any attentional biases. In contrast to these predictions, analyses indicated that whereas the depressed subjects attended equally to depressed-, manic-, and neutral-content words, the non-depressed subjects attended more to manic-content than they did to neutral- or depressed-content words. These results add support to the documentation of even-handedness in the cognitive functioning of depressed subjects, and of self-sewing biases in no depressed subjects. Therefore, becoming aware of the concept that a depressed mood may view the world realistically, while normal people use narrow, optimistic and openly self-serving biases. Severe depression may lead to paralyzing sombre that is unsuitably adapted. However, Beck, Rush, Shaw and Emery (1979) stated that psychotherapies, could actually improve some forms of depression. The way psychotherapies work is by teaching problem-solving or making an attempt to change negative to positive thinking. The subtle stress relieving and anxiolytic effects of normal biased thinking may therefore aid adaptive behaviour.
Cognitive biases are heuristics that shape individual preferences, decisions and judgement. Once a person has adopted their opinions, either because it has become very fond of them or because they were already approved of and believed, it gathers everything else to back up and accede with them. And though it may meet a greater number and weight of contrary instances, it will, with great and harmful prejudice, disregard or overlook or eliminate them by familiarising some distinction. In order that the authority of those earlier assumptions may remain intact and protected. Similar to the characteristics of anchoring bias which is the tendency to overly confident or be reliant on certain information or a certain value and then adjust to that value to account for other elements of the circumstance. Often referred to as the common cognitive trap of allowing first impressions to exert undue influence on the diagnostic process. Often, this initial diagnostic impression will prove correct, although in some occasions subsequent development in a patients course will prove inconsistent with first impression.
Whereas illusion of control is the tendency for human beings to believe they can control or at least influence outcomes that they demonstrably have no influence over. Ellen Langer’s (1975) made it aware that people often conduct themselves as if chance events are able to be in their control. In series of experiments, Langer demonstrated first the prevalence of the illusion of control and second, that where skill cues were present, that people are more likely to behave as if they were capable of exercising chance.
When information is learned and then evaluated, and that is best done from an impartial perspective. Bias affects decision-making by tampering with the way information is incorporated into decisions and it can weight information in a way that is inaccurate from an un-biased or neutral perspective. All decision making involves choices of future courses of action. Therefore, these courses of action as well as their outcomes need to be represented in thought and imagination. Although, cognitive bias gives us the self-determination and driven personality that enables us to identify problems. Cognitive bias allows you to stay focused, persistent and optimistic even if the results of your study or predictions are not yet showing in your favour. All these reasons attribute to a persons’ road to accomplishment and achievement. Cummins and Nistico proposed that well-being homeostasis is controlled by positive cognitive biases pertaining to the self. Most particular in this regard are the positive biases in connection to, optimism control and self-esteem. Past controversy’s in relation to this proposition are analysed and resolved in favour of the suggested mechanism. The empirical data to support this hypothesis are discussed in the context of perceived well-being as an adaptive human attribute. So, we may use this in our favour to understand and accept ourselves and our relationship with others or to simply learn new ways to view and manage future challenges in life. | https://savedelicious.com/social-and-cognitive-biases/ |
The study of how we form impressions of and make inferences about other people.
Nonverbal Communication
The way in which people communicate, intentionally or unintentionally, without words; nonverbal cues include facial expressions, tone of voice, gestures, body position and movement, the use of touch, and gaze.
Encode
To express or emit nonverbal behavior, such as smiling or patting someone on the back.
Decode
To interpret the meaning of the nonverbal behavior other people express, such as deciding that a pat on the back was an expression of condescension and not kindness.
Affect Blend
A facial expression in which one part of the face registers one emotion while another part of the face registers a different emotion.
Display Rules
Culturally determined rules about which nonverbal behaviors are appropriate to display.
Emblems
Nonverbal gestures that have well-understood definitions within a given culture; they usually have direct verbal translations such as the "OK" sign.
Implicit Personality Theory
A type of schema people use to group various kinds of personality traits together; for example, many people believe that someone who is kind is generous as well.
Attribution Theory
A description of the way in which people explain the causes of their own and other people's behavior.
Internal Attribution
The inference that a person is behaving in a certain way because of something about the person, such as attitude, character, or personality.
External Attribution
The inference that a person is behaving a certain way because of something about the situation he or she is in; the assumption is that most people would respond the same way in that situation.
Covariation Model
A theory that states that to form an attribution about what caused a person's behavior, we systematically note the pattern between the presence or absence of possible casual factors and whether or not the behavior occurs.
Consensus Information
Information about the extent to which other people behave the same way toward the same stimulus as the actor does.
Distinctiveness Information
Information about the extent to which one particular actor behaves in the same way to different stimuli.
Consistency Information
Information about the extent to which the behavior between one actor and one stimulus is the same across time and circumstances.
Correspondence Bias
The tendency to infer that people's behavior corresponds to (matches) their disposition (personality).
Perceptual Salience
The seeming importance of information that is the focus of people's attention.
The Two-Step Process of Attribution
Analyzing another person's behavior first by making an automatic internal attribution and only then thinking about possible situational reasons for the behavior, after which one may adjust the original internal attribution.
Actor/Observer Difference
The tendency to see other people's behavior as dispositionally caused but focusing more one the role of situational factors when explaining one's own behavior.
Self-Serving Attributions
Explanations for one's successes that credit internal, dispositional factors and explanations for one's failures that blame external, situational factor.
Defensive Attributions
Explanations for behavior that avoid feelings of vulnerability and mortality.
Belief in a Just World
A form of defensive attribution wherein people assume that bad things happen to bad people and that good things happen to good people. | https://freezingblue.com/flashcards/48156/preview/social-psych-ch-4 |
Introduction: Attribution (AT) style theory provides a framework for understanding the causal explanations that individuals give for their own behaviour and the behaviour of others. It has been suggested that patients with persecutory delusions excessively attribute hypothetical positive events to internal causes (self) and hypothetical negative events to external personal causes. Despite this, how AT associates with psychotic symptoms (not only persecutory delusions) and how it changes with the resolution of psychosis has never been investigated. We conducted a cross-sectional study to investigate how AT is associated with psychopathology and a longitudinal study to examine the change of AT during the first 6 weeks of antipsychotic treatment and the relationship with psychopathology improvement.
Methods: 86 patients meeting DSM-IV criteria for schizophrenia and related psychotic disorders were included in the cross-sectional study, and 17 patients in the longitudinal study. The longitudinal group were free of antipsychotic drugs at baseline and followed for 6 weeks after being started on antipsychotic medication by their psychiatrist. We used the Internal, Personal and Situational Attributions Questionnaire (IPSAQ) as a measure of AT.
Results: Patients that tend to internalize (i.e. less self-serving bias), showed greater overall psychopathology, as measured by PANSS-Total (F(2,83)=6.59, p=0.002), with a trend toward significance for PANSS-Positive (F(2,83)=2.62 p=0.07). Longitudinally, having a low self-serving bias was associated with poorer response to antipsychotic treatment. Further, externalizing bias seems to change early on in treatment (F=9.65 df=1,15 p=0.007) and reach ceiling effects thereafter.
Conclusions: AT is related to overall symptom severity, with internalizing style linked to higher global psychopathology. Antipsychotic treatment has little effect on AT, at least within 6 weeks of antipsychotic exposure, and only a modest effect is on EB which plateaus within 2 weeks. Finally, internalizing style appears associated with poorer response to antipsychotic treatment. | https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18632256/ |
For as long as humans have existed on the planet we have been impacting our surrounding environment. We began by chopping down trees to build homes and fires, foraging for plants, and hunting for animals within our landscape for food. We quickly advanced toward manipulating the land to serve our purposes through varying methods of agriculture, travel, and increased urbanization and commercial networks. At this point in Earth’s physical history, our impact on the environment is so substantial that many researchers believe “pristine nature,” or ecosystems untouched by human intervention, no longer exist. This era of human dominance has been coined the ‘Anthropocene Era’ by some scientists, who argue that Earth is being overwhelmingly defined by the actions of humans above natural processes. But how can we truly understand in what way and even if humans can impact nature in such a manner that creates irreversible changes, as nature, itself, is a resilient system?
The Importance of Island Ecosystems
To examine this question, an international team of researchers turned to our most remote oceanic islands. These islands were colonized within the past 3,000 years; therefore, they provide opportunities to analyze what an ecological transition from prehuman to human dominated ecosystems looked like and the degree in which human impacts can modify an ecological system long-term. Islands are preferred over continents since it’s harder to identify what a prehuman ecosystem may have looked on a continent, not only because humans first settled within these places a much longer time ago, but also that continents heavily vary by region.
The researchers utilized fossil pollen extracted from the sediment layers which was then dated and identified to investigate how the vegetation on 27 islands in different regions around the world have developed over the last 5,000 years. They found that almost everywhere they studied, the arrival of humans has triggered an accelerated rate of change in plant species composition. This change was observed on 24 of 27 islands independently of current and past island area, latitude, isolation, and elevation of the sampling site.
This dynamic was particularly pronounced on islands colonized within the last 1,500 years. In islands that were settled more recently, like the Poor Knights archipelago in New Zealand (13th century) and the Galápagos Islands (16th century), there was a steeper increase in the rate of change than on islands where humans arrived >1500 years ago, such as New Caledonia and Fiji. Researchers suggested that this most likely because introduced species, land use practices, and technology deployed by later settlers was more elaborate/transformative than those of earlier settlers.
Time Can Help Ecosystems Heal Somewhat
Additionally, they found that the ecological legacies of human arrival on islands may persist for centuries and are often irreversible. For example, the Tawhiti Rahi island within the Poor Knights archipelago is currently uninhabited. After initial arrival by Polynesians in the 13th century, the island’s forest cover was cleared by fire for human habitation and gardens. In 1820 the islands were declared protected, and humans were no longer permitted to settle there. The island became totally reforested within 150 years, but its current composition is completely different from that of the prehuman period.
These findings indicate that these human-affected ecosystems are neither similar to nor likely to return to the dynamic baselines observed before human arrival. Even though ecosystem change can also be driven by a number of natural factors such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, extreme weather and changing sea levels, this study shows that disturbance caused by humans surpasses all of these events and are long-lasting components of these systems. These disturbances are distinctive and produce different effects on the surrounding ecosystem than natural disturbances in the prehuman period, when island ecosystems often recovered rapidly to pre-disturbance states.
In our goals to protect and conserve biodiversity within our ecosystems and mitigate the risks posed by climate change, this study provides great insight on how to move forward. The researchers advise that conservation strategies must account for the long-term impact of humans and the degree to which ecological changes today differ from prehuman times. Our ecosystems are resilient, but with the current increased pressure we are putting on these systems, more ambitious changes to ensure the protection of ecosystem services and biodiversity is needed. These goals are still within reach, only if we can act on them before more irreversible harm is done.
article by Tatiana Eaves
Additional Reading
Preventing Biodiversity Loss: Radical Solutions and New Targets — Earth.org
What is the Anthropocene and why does it matter? — The Natural History Museum, London
Photo credit: | https://ricochetscience.com/humans-and-our-impact-on-biodiversity/?shared=email&msg=fail |
What questions do Population ecologists ask?
Population ecologists study the changes in numbers and location of organisms growing in the same area at the same time. A population ecologist studying dandelions might ask questions such as: How many dandelions are there? Is the number of dandelions increasing or decreasing? Where are they found?
What are population ecologists primarily interested in?
Population ecologists are primarily interested in: a. studying interactions among populations of organisms that inhabit the same area.
What is something a population ecologist would study?
Population ecology is a sub-field of ecology that deals with the dynamics of species populations and how these populations interact with the environment, such as birth and death rates, and by immigration and emigration.
What are some ecology questions?
The Big Questions in Ecology and Evolution
- Why does life exist at all?
- What makes life different from non-life?
- Why do some individuals die and some live?
- How to do living things survive?
- How random is nature?
- Why don’t we live forever?
- Why do life forms look the way they do?
- Why are there diverse organisms?
Why would an ecologist study the population dispersion?
To make more sense of the different possible ways populations may be distributed within a given area, an ecologist can focus on the dispersion of the population, or the pattern of spacing among individuals within the boundaries of a population.
What does ecology deal with?
Ecology is the study of organisms and how they interact with the environment around them. An ecologist studies the relationship between living things and their habitats.
What are population ecologists primarily interested in quizlet?
Population Ecologists are primarily interested in? … the overall vitality of a population of organisms. understanding how biotic and abiotic factors influence the density, distribution, size, and age structure of populations.
Which concept Would a community ecologist be most likely to study?
An ecosystem ecologist is most likely to study how the plants and animals in a certain area relate to one another and to the physical environment….
Why do populations grow more slowly as they approach their carrying capacity group of answer choices?
As the population nears the carrying capacity, population growth slows significantly. The logistic growth model reflects the natural tension between reproduction, which increases a population’s size, and resource availability, which limits a population’s size.
How are the ideas and knowledge about population ecology relevant to people?
As climate change continues to impact natural populations, the use of population biology models becomes more important. The many facets of population ecology help scientists better understand how organisms interact, and aid in strategies for species management, conservation and protection.
What did you learn about population ecology?
The study of population ecology includes understanding, explaining, and predicting species distributions. Why do species inhabit particular areas, and how are they prevented from establishing beyond their range limits?
How does population affect ecology?
Population growth set to significantly affect ecosystem services. Changing land use can have a significant impact on a region’s vital ecosystem services, a recent research study has revealed. Large increases in urbanisation can lead to more concrete and asphalt reducing an area’s flood mitigation services.
What is a question you have about community ecology?
How does the depth of a lake influence the complexity of the community living within it? Why do some places contain more species than others? Is there competition in nature? Community ecology seeks to answer these and other questions about communities.
What fundamental question is addressed by ecologists?
The same applies to measures of production for all the plants in an ecosystem or for different trophic levels of an ecosystem. A basic question in ecosystem ecology is how much production there is and what the factors are that affect it.
What do you mean by population ecology?
population ecology, study of the processes that affect the distribution and abundance of animal and plant populations. … For example, plants or animals occupying islands have a geographic range defined by the perimeter of the island. | https://lcconcernedcitizens.org/ecologist/frequent-question-what-question-would-a-population-ecologist-be-interested-in-answering.html |
The forests of urbanised areas provide multiple ecosystem services and are highly dynamic. Determining the trends in species composition changes can help to predict their future capacity to fulfil ecological and resource-maintaining functions. We examined the direction of forest successions in the Northeast Moscow region under the canopy of different tree species. Field data were obtained from 78 permanent test plots monitored for more than a 15-year period; field studies were complemented by archival data. The cluster analysis made it possible to divide all plots into five groups by current species composition and structure and into eight groups by the importance of broadleaved species in the undergrowth. Gradual evolution (cohort dynamics) was found to be typical for middle-aged secondary forests; patch dynamics was described in mature stands of late succession species after non-critical natural disturbances; drastic changes were observed in spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) stands after pest attacks. Two main trends were revealed in species composition shift: restoration of mixed spruce-broadleaved forests and development of lime-dominated broad-leaved forests, the latter being the prevailing one in the stands of composite forest types. Intensive development of oak-associated species is probably related to the climate conditions in the Moscow megacity.
The content of this article may be of interest for researchers studying natural forest dynamics and can be used for prospective planning of target species composition in the forestries of the Moscow region. | https://content.sciendo.com/search?f_0=author&q_0=Vera+Kiseleva |
Repeated disturbances alter landscape structure and can lead to ecosystem deterioration when disturbance regime is outside the natural range (Johnston & Gutsell, 1994). In Mediterranean ecosystems, landscape patterns proved to affect ecological processes including spread of disturbances, particularly fire (Alloza & Vallejo, 2006). In north-western Mediterranean region, forests are currently facing an increasing risk of wildfires due to inappropriate management, policies violations and agriculture abandonment.
It is widely admitted that vegetation has developed different mechanisms to recover its structure and composition rapidly after forest fires in Mediterranean ecosystems (Buhk et al., 2005). However, plants are not adapted to fire per se, but to fire regimes (Pausas & Keeley, 2009), and many current fire regimes in the Mediterranean Basin are outside the natural (historic) ranges. Fires, by concentrating in specific places, and by becoming more frequent in already burned areas could increase fire disturbance modifying the landscape. At least in Spain, increasing forest fire tendencies in terms of numbers and burned areas during last decades lead to a shift in the nature of burned areas where forests are replaced by non-wooded shrublands (Moreno et al., 1998).
These facts are leading ecologists to establish a better understanding of ecosystem functioning at the regional scale and of changes in fire regime as key steps towards an enhanced characterization of post-fire ecosystem resilience ability in the Mediterranean landscape (Oliveira & Fernandes, 2009). Though they possess some limitations, Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and satellite remote sensing (SRS) techniques are a potential instrument for ecologists in their ecosystem analysis and monitoring (Chuvieco et al., 2006) especially over large geographical extents. Using these techniques, recent research suggests that fire occurrence in the Mediterranean has increased both in frequency and intensity leading to negative impact on plant communities’ resilience (Abdel Malak & Pausas, 2006). Furthermore, a number of limitations in the ecosystem recovering abilities are highlighted at the population and the landscape levels depending on fire frequency, intensity, severity and on topo-climatic conditions have also been highlighted (Moretti et al., 2010; Rodrigo et al., 2004).
This study bases on these outcomes and takes research further by asking whether fire recurrence is the only driving force affecting vegetation, or whether other ecological parameters need to be taken into consideration when planning post-fire management interventions. It aims at understanding long term effects of intensive forest fires and topo-climatic characteristics on large western Mediterranean ecosystems characterised by their complex geography through multi-temporal and spatial analysis.
We research whether different wildland fire intensities affect the landscape in an equal mode, and whether topo-climatic variables have a consequent effect. Our hypothesis is that, in an ecosystem subjected to recurrent fires, the Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI) measured vegetation regeneration success would depend on time (time after fire and inter-fire interval) and on biophysical conditions (topography, land cover, soil, and precipitation).
We build on these outcomes to test our hypothesis making use of EVI temporal variability in areas with different fire histories, and we relate EVI variability to emphasize vegetation dependability with topo-climatic variables. Through this analysis, we demonstrate that, at large scales, and using adequate assessment techniques, GIS and SRS are valid tools that can help resource managers and the scientific community in the Mediterranean region to plan, monitor and manage their ecosystems after fire disturbances. | https://www.igi-global.com/chapter/fire-recurrence-and-the-dynamics-of-the-enhanced-vegetation-index-in-a-mediterranean-ecosystem/222968 |
Emily Taylor (B.S. 2016) studies urban streams. Specifically, she examines how urbanization is impacting ecosystem metabolism and nutrient cycling. Ecosystem metabolism describes the coupled processes of primary production and ecosystem respiration. Primary production is the fixation of inorganic carbon into organic material, resulting in the storage of energy and the creation of oxygen. That stored organic material is the food source for the next step in the food chain. Ecosystem respiration refers to the use of oxygen to break down organic material to generate energy, releasing carbon dioxide as a by-product of that reaction. Primary production is an important source of energy in aquatic ecosystems while respiration marks the use and transfer of energy through the system. Several factors regulate these processes. They are light availability, temperature, hydrology, nutrient availability, and the composition of organic material. Urbanization introduces a variety of stressors that influence these regulators of ecosystem metabolism which can ultimately affect how energy is generated, stored, and transferred through the ecosystem.
Research Questions
How are humans changing and impacting urban streams’ ecosystem metabolism?
How are nutrients cycling through an urban stream based on that human impact?
“There are definitely certain sources you can point to in an urban environment that impact urban streams,” Emily Taylor said. “Run-off of fertilizer from residential lawns and even little patches of grass on commercial properties is one. Another is human waste products coming from septic systems and leaky sewer lines.”
Yard waste, such as grass clippings and leaves, and animal waste are also contributing to what ecologists call urban stream syndrome. Another factor is the physical properties of the stream. Naturally occurring, they tend to be wide, shallow, and are able to meander. That is not the case when surrounded by man-made infrastructure in a city. Then a stream will narrow and deepen. Oftentimes streams will be straightened and lined with a hard surface such as concrete.
“We are good at moving water off of the landscape and out of the way,” Taylor explained. “So, you just have this large volume of water rushing through the stream. This can lead to large amounts of erosion which can scour the stream bed of important habitat and microorganisms while deepening the banks of the stream channel.”
Research
To assess the human impacts on streams, Taylor worked with her advisor, Dr. AJ Reisinger, UF/IFAS School of Natural Resources and Environment affiliate faculty member and assistant professor of urban soil and water quality, to identify seven sites in Gainesville for measurements. Those range from a mostly residential neighborhood to a natural conservation area to a heavily commercial section of the city.
“We chose these sites to represent the range of different activities commonly found in urban landscapes,” Reisinger explained. “The range of sites will allow us to identify how a range of urban land uses affect in-stream processes.”
Every other week, Taylor and one of her lab mates visited each site to download data. She collected measurements for nutrients, dissolved organic material, conductivity, turbidity, and pH as well as dissolved oxygen. Dissolved oxygen allows Taylor to indirectly measure an aquatic ecosystem’s carbon dioxide use or production. During the day, many organisms, such as algae, aquatic plants, and cyanobacteria, undergo photosynthesis. This uses carbon dioxide and creates oxygen. Throughout the entire day, every organism in the stream is performing respiration, which uses oxygen to create energy and releases carbon dioxide. The sensors will show these changes in concentration at five-minute intervals.
Data Analysis
Taylor will have three years of data which will allow her dynamics of the streams across sites but also over seasonal and annual time scales.
“The nutrient data and some of the other parameters I’m collecting, like dissolved organic material, there is a lot of information and so it will help us fine-tune our understanding and see maybe more nuanced changes throughout the year,” she said.
Taylor is learning how to code all the data so she can run various modeling scenarios. Her goal is to do as much of the statistical analysis for the project as she can.
“People before me have learned how to model metabolism in-stream, so I will be using their model for that. The other measurement data I have – I’m taking several stats classes to manage that data,” Taylor said. “I’m excited. I’m enjoying it, but it’s a new challenge for sure.”
Implications
While Taylor will analyze two-to-three years of information from the streams, the data gathering will continue after she completes her degree. Reisinger hopes to monitor the seven stream sites for decades. The goal is to see how streams in a subtropical environment behave compared to streams elsewhere.
“Scientists have done a lot of research in more temperate climates on urban and non-urban stream metabolism and nutrient cycling, but we have a unique karst topography, so the limestone characteristics present different questions and challenges,” Taylor explained.
The weather pattern is another difference. Many parts of the United States, have snowmelt and significant rainfall in the spring. In Florida, the rainy season is in the middle of the summer, which is when streams elsewhere are most productive. | https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/snre/2021/06/21/environmental-science-alumna-studying-urban-streams/ |
tropical forest ecology tropical forestryDownload Book Tropical Forest Ecology Tropical Forestry in PDF format. You can Read Online Tropical Forest Ecology Tropical Forestry here in PDF, EPUB, Mobi or Docx formats.
Tropical Forest EcologyAuthor : Florencia Montagnini
ISBN : 3540237976
Genre : Nature
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Importance pf tropical forests; characteristics of tropical forests; classification of tropical forests; deforestation in the tropics; management of tropical forests; plantatios and agroforestry systems; approaches for implementing sustainable management techniques.
Tropical Rain Forest Ecology Diversity And ConservationAuthor : Jaboury Ghazoul
ISBN : 019928587X
Genre : Language Arts & Disciplines
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Rain forests represent the world's richest repository of terrestrial biodiversity, and play a major role in regulating the global climate. They support the livelihoods of a substantial proportion of the world's population and are the source of many internationally traded commodities. They remain (despite decades of conservation attention) increasingly vulnerable to degradation and clearance, with profound though often uncertain future costs to global society. Understanding the ecology of these diverse biomes, and peoples' dependencies on them, is fundamental to their future management and conservation. Tropical Rain Forest Ecology, Diversity, and Conservation introduces and explores what rain forests are, how they arose, what they contain, how they function, and how humans use and impact them. The book starts by introducing the variety of rain forest plants, fungi, microorganisms, and animals, emphasising the spectacular diversity that is the motivation for their conservation. The central chapters describe the origins of rain forest communities, the variety of rain forest formations, and their ecology and dynamics. The challenge of explaining the species richness of rain forest communities lies at the heart of ecological theory, and forms a common theme throughout. The book's final section considers historical and current interactions of humans and rain forests. It explores biodiversity conservation as well as livelihood security for the many communities that are dependent on rain forests - inextricable issues that represent urgent priorities for scientists, conservationists, and policy makers.
Seasonally Dry Tropical ForestsAuthor : Rodolfo Dirzo
ISBN : 9781610910217
Genre : Science
File Size : 73. 55 MB
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Though seasonally dry tropical forests are equally as important to global biodiversity as tropical rainforests, and are one of the most representative and highly endangered ecosystems in Latin America, knowledge about them remains limited because of the relative paucity of attention paid to them by scientists and researchers and a lack of published information on the subject. Seasonally Dry Tropical Forests seeks to address this shortcoming by bringing together a range of experts in diverse fields including biology, ecology, biogeography, and biogeochemistry, to review, synthesize, and explain the current state of our collective knowledge on the ecology and conservation of seasonally dry tropical forests. The book offers a synthetic and cross-disciplinary review of recent work with an expansive scope, including sections on distribution, diversity, ecosystem function, and human impacts. Throughout, contributors emphasize conservation issues, particularly emerging threats and promising solutions, with key chapters on climate change, fragmentation, restoration, ecosystem services, and sustainable use. Seasonally dry tropical forests are extremely rich in biodiversity, and are seriously threatened. They represent scientific terrain that is poorly explored, and there is an urgent need for increased understanding of the system's basic ecology. Seasonally Dry Tropical Forests represents an important step in bringing together the most current scientific information about this vital ecosystem and disseminating it to the scientific and conservation communities.
The Ecology Of Trees In The Tropical Rain ForestAuthor : I. M. Turner
ISBN : 113942887X
Genre : Science
File Size : 46. 10 MB
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Our knowledge of the ecology of tropical rain-forest trees is limited, with detailed information available for perhaps only a few hundred of the many thousand of species that occur. Yet a good understanding of the trees is essential to unravelling the workings of the forest itself. This book aims to summarise contemporary understanding of the ecology of tropical rain-forest trees. The emphasis is on comparative ecology, an approach that can help to identify possible adaptive trends and evolutionary constraints and which may also lead to a workable ecological classification for tree species, conceptually simplifying the rain-forest community and making it more amenable to analysis.
Tropical Forest Community EcologyAuthor : Walter Carson
ISBN : 9781444356267
Genre : Science
File Size : 79. 49 MB
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Historically, tropical ecology has been a science often content with descriptive and demographic approaches, which is understandable given the difficulty of studying these ecosystems and the need for basic demographic information. Nonetheless, over the last several years, tropical ecologists have begun to test more sophisticated ecological theory and are now beginning to address a broad array of questions that are of particular importance to tropical systems, and ecology in general. Why are there are so many species in tropical forests and what mechanisms are responsible for the maintenance of that vast species diversity? What factors control species coexistence? Are there common patterns of species abundance and distribution across broad geographic scales? What is the role of trophic interactions in these complex ecosystems? How can these fragile ecosystems be conserved? Containing contributions from some of the world’s leading tropical ecologists, Tropical Forest Community Ecology provides a summary of the key issues in the discipline of tropical ecology: Includes contributions from some of the world’s leading tropical ecologists Covers patterns of species distribution, the maintenance of species diversity, the community ecology of tropical animals, forest regeneration and conservation of tropical ecosystems
Tropical Rain Forest EcosystemsAuthor : H. Lieth
ISBN : 9780444596499
Genre : Science
File Size : 79. 66 MB
Format : PDF, ePub
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After publication of the first volume of the Tropical Rain Forest, the International Journal of Mycology and Lichenology commented ``This is a welcome addition to the literature on the ecology of tropical rain forests. The book provides a wealth of data and stimulating discussions and is of great interest to ecologists interested in tropical areas.'' Whereas the first volume dealt with system-ecological aspects such as community organization and processes, the present volume concentrates on biogeographical aspects such as species composition, diversity, and geographical variation. Recent ecological research in the tropical rain forest has greatly extended our understanding of biogeographical patterns of variation in the various groups of organisms, and has revealed many of the ecological and evolutionary forces that led to the present patterns of variation. Many important systems of co-evolution between the tropical rain forest ecosystems have also come to light, and the loss of species and related damage is better understood in quantitative terms. This volume presents a comprehensive review of these and other features of the rain forest ecosystem structure, and the ecological processes operating that system. General chapters on abiotic and biotic factors are followed by specific chapters on all major groups of organisms. Prospects for the future are discussed and research needs clearly stated. Also the human exploitation of the system, its effects and its limits are discussed. The book is extensively illustrated by photographs, graphs, and tables, and comprehensive bibliographies follow each chapter. Author, systematic and subject indices complete the book. It is a must for all ecologists, agriculturists, foresters, agronomists, hydrologists, soil scientists, entomologists, human ecologists, nature conservationists, and planners dealing with tropical areas. Biologists and environmentalists will also find the volume of great interest.
Tropical EcologyAuthor : John Kricher
ISBN : 1400838959
Genre : Science
File Size : 24. 30 MB
Format : PDF, Mobi
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This full-color illustrated textbook offers the first comprehensive introduction to all major aspects of tropical ecology. It explains why the world's tropical rain forests are so universally rich in species, what factors may contribute to high species richness, how nutrient cycles affect rain forest ecology, and how ecologists investigate the complex interrelationships among flora and fauna. It covers tropical montane ecology, riverine ecosystems, savanna, dry forest--and more. Tropical Ecology begins with a historical overview followed by a sweeping discussion of biogeography and evolution, and then introduces students to the unique and complex structure of tropical rain forests. Other topics include the processes that influence everything from species richness to rates of photosynthesis: how global climate change may affect rain forest characteristics and function; how fragmentation of ecosystems affects species richness and ecological processes; human ecology in the tropics; biodiversity; and conservation of tropical ecosystems and species. Drawing on real-world examples taken from actual research, Tropical Ecology is the best textbook on the subject for advanced undergraduates and graduate students. Offers the first comprehensive introduction to tropical ecology Describes all the major kinds of tropical terrestrial ecosystems Explains species diversity, evolutionary processes, and coevolutionary interactions Features numerous color illustrations and examples from actual research Covers global warming, deforestation, reforestation, fragmentation, and conservation The essential textbook for advanced undergraduates and graduate students Suitable for courses with a field component Leading universities that have adopted this book include: Biola University Bucknell University California State University, Fullerton Colorado State University - Fort Collins Francis Marion University Michigan State University Middlebury College Northern Kentucky University Ohio Wesleyan University St. Mary's College of Maryland Syracuse University Tulane University University of California, Santa Cruz University of Central Florida University of Cincinnati University of Florida University of Missouri University of New Mexico University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill University of the West Indies Some images inside the book are unavailable due to digital copyright restrictions.
Emerging Threats To Tropical ForestsAuthor : William F. Laurance
ISBN : 9780226470221
Genre : Science
File Size : 77. 2 MB
Format : PDF, ePub, Docs
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Emerging Threats to Tropical Forests reveals the remarkably diverse panoply of perils to tropical forests and their biota, with particular emphasis on recent dangers. William F. Laurance and Carlos A. Peres identify four categories of emerging threats: those that have only recently appeared, such as the virulent chytrid fungus that is decimating rainforest amphibians throughout the tropical world; those that are growing rapidly in importance, like destructive surface fires; those that are poorly understood, namely global warming and other climatic and atmospheric changes; and environmental synergisms, whereby two or more simultaneous threats—such as habitat fragmentation and wildfires, or logging and hunting—can dramatically increase local extinction of tropical species. In addition to documenting the vulnerability of tropical rainforests, the volume focuses on strategies for mitigating and combating emerging threats. A timely and compelling book intended for researchers, students, and conservation practitioners, Emerging Threats to Tropical Forests will interest anyone concerned about the fate of the world’s most threatened tropical ecosystems.
Tropical Forests In TransitionAuthor : J. Goldammer
ISBN : 9783034872560
Genre : Science
File Size : 43. 8 MB
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In evolutionary time scales natural disturbances have affected the vegetation on Earth. During the Quaternary the forest biomes of the tropics were subjected to manifold disturbances. Climate changes and climate oscillations were associated with changing precipitation and drought regimes, flooding, siltation, landslides, etc. The prehistorical forest was also influenced by the effects of large wildlife populations. Large-scale catastrophies in the forest biomes were mainly caused by abiotic environmental alterations, the small-scale disturbances were and still are related to both biotic and abiotic processes. Both the large-and the small-scale disturbances have played a significant role in shaping distribution, dynamics, structure and composition of the paleoforest. After the expansion of hominids and early humans, and later, by modern humans, the anthropogenic influences on the tropical forest began to overlap natural disturbances. Today's anthropogenic impacts on the tropical forests differ qualitatively and quanitatively from the natural disturbances. The speed of tropical deforestation and savannization is dramatically increasing. The physical and chemical impacts of forest conversion and biomass burning add to other anthropogenic influences on the atmosphere and climate. The expected anthropogenic climate change will also have considerable impacts on the tropical flora and fauna. The book on "Tropical Forests in Transition" synthesizes information on changing environmental conditions and human impacts on the tropical forest by looking back to the paleoecology, analyzing the impact of modern human populations and modeling the future of the tropical forest in a changing environment. The aim of the book is to strengthen multidisciplinary thinking in disturbance ecology.
Tropical Forest EcologyAuthor : Egbert Giles Leigh Jr.
ISBN : 0195357264
Genre : Science
File Size : 90. 52 MB
Format : PDF, Kindle
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In Tropical Forest Ecology, Egbert G. Leigh, Jr., one of the world's foremost tropical ecologists, introduces readers to the tropical forest and describes the intricate web of interdependence among the great diversity of tropical plants and animals. Focusing on the tropical forest of Barro Colorado Island, Panama, Leigh shows what Barro Colorado can tell us about other tropical forests--and what tropical forests can tell us about Barro Colorado. This book considers three essential questions for understanding the ecological organization of tropical forests. How do they stay green with their abundance of herbivores? Why do they have such a diversity of plants and animals? And what role does mutualism play in the ecology of tropical forests? Beautifully written and abundantly illustrated, Tropical Forest Ecology will certainly appeal to a wide variety of scientists in the fields of evolution, tropical biology, botany, zoology, and natural history. | http://journalistesdebout.com/pdf/tropical-forest-ecology-tropical-forestry-/ |
Climate warming plays a larger role than plant genes in influencing the number and identity of fungal species on oak leaves, especially in autumn. Recently published in the journal New Phytologist, this research by ecologists sheds light on how warming and tree genes affect the dynamics of fungal communities across the season.
“One of our major findings was that elevated temperature decreased the number of fungal species and changed their community composition, especially in the late season,” says Maria Faticov, a researcher at the Department of Ecology, Environment and Plant Sciences (DEEP) at Stockholm University.
Plants host thousands of microscopic organisms and leaves are no exception. Leaves harbor a large diversity of microorganisms including fungi, bacteria, and, less frequently, archaea. Fungi are among the most diverse groups of microorganisms living on leaves. Some of these microscopic fungi cause disease, others can promote plant growth and defend leaves against biotic and abiotic stresses, and still, others play an important role in leaf senescence and decomposition.
Climate is one of the main factors influencing fungal development, either directly or indirectly, by triggering plant defenses.
“From earlier studies, we know that the number of fungal species and their abundance change as leaves age and the season progresses from spring to autumn. What we do not know is what role climate warming and plant genetic variation play in shaping fungal communities across the growing season” says Ayco Tack, associate professor at the Department of Ecology, Environment and Plant Sciences, Stockholm University.
To answer this question, researchers took on a challenging project – they built 6 identical cages in a field to the north of Stockholm, each cage the size of a small living room. Scientists put 132 young oak trees into the cages that represented 5 different genotypes. Half of the cages were heated from May to October using ceramic heaters. The remaining ones were left as control and did not have heaters in them. The temperature in the heated cages was increased by ca 2°C to mimic the global temperature increase predicted by scientists to occur by the end of the century. Researchers collected leaves in the early, middle, and late growing season and used DNA sequencing to find out which fungi had colonized the leaves. This way they could compare the changes in fungal community structure between the control and warming treatment and also among oak genotypes.
“We observed that fungal community composition drastically changed from spring to autumn, with yeasts increasing in relative abundance and fungal pathogens decreasing. Interestingly, while experimental warming had a major impact on the fungal community, oak genotype explained only a minor part of the variation in the number of fungal species and their composition” says Maria Faticov.
These findings suggest that warming is one of the most important environmental factors shaping fungal community development during the growing season and emphasizes how profound the effects of ongoing climate change may be to plant health and ecosystem functioning.
Researchers did not link the observed change in fungal community structure under warming with plant health and ecosystem functioning. More detailed long-term experiments are needed to predict how changes in the fungal community under climate warming will influence the plants they live on and their surrounding environment.
“In future studies, it will be interesting to investigate how these changes in the number of fungal species and their abundances under warmer climate impact such important processes as plant health, leaf senescence, and litter decomposition,” says Maria Faticov. | https://ritzherald.com/climate-warming-can-influence-fungal-communities-on-oak-leaves-across-the-growing-season/ |
Novel ecosystems - where biotic and/or abiotic changes have led to systems that have no analog in the present or past - are a worldwide phenomenon. Myriad interacting environmental changes and thresholds to restoration prevent return to some historical state. What should restoration ecologists do when confronted by such systems? One answer may be to restore function to degraded systems.
In this talk, Dr. Perring will introduce the concept of novel ecosystems and show their global importance in the 21st Century. He will argue that they are a necessary consideration for restoration ecology. He will then introduce the Ridgefield Multiple Ecosystem Services Experiment, which shows a potential path for restoration management in novel ecosystems while also testing ecological theory. Ridgefield, in the highly fragmented agricultural landscape of south-west Western Australia, investigates how species composition and diversity (through variation in the plant traits within the system) influence the provision of multiple valued ecosystem functions including carbon sequestration, nutrient cycling and resistance to non-native invaders. He will share some early results from this recently planted long-term experiment, showing how differences in survival may affect the long-term provision of, and trade-offs among, ecosystem services. Finally, he will discuss his aims in his collaboration with Erle Ellis and SESYNC, and would welcome feedback on the ideas being presented. | http://sesync.org/sesync-seminar-novel-ecosystems-their-global-importance-and-management-in-the-21st-century |
Is the number of individuals per unit area?
Population density is the number of individuals per unit area. 3.
What are two general methods at estimating population size?
There are two types of estimation techniques: inter-census and post-census. An inter-census estimation is for a date between two census takings and usually takes the results of the two censuses into account.
How many Quadrat samples should be taken?
10 quadrat samples
What are the materials needed for Quadrat sampling?
You will be using a quadrat sample to obtain quantitative information about small organisms, such as mini- beasts, grasses, lichens and mosses, and other small plants. Material required: 4.5 metre lenght of string, tape measure, four pegs, paper sign with your group number.
What do ecologists study quizlet?
-Ecology is the study of living organisms and their homes (environments). -Ecologists study interactions between organisms and their environments.
How many organisms are born per unit of time is called what?
In demographic studies, fecundity is calculated in age-specific birth rates, which may be expressed as the number of births per unit of time, the number of births per female per unit of time, or the number of births per 1,000 individuals per unit of time.
How do you calculate a Quadrat?
Quadrat sampling involves counting all individuals within a known area (or volume). Since density (D) and population size (N) are related, as N = D x area, we can estimate the density for the sample and from this compute the total population. This assumes that the area the population occupies is finite and known.
Why are top level predators lions Eagles humans so rare in a community?
Why are top-level predators like lions and eagles so rare in a community? Only a small amount of the energy is passed from one trophic level to the next.
What are the 5 primary levels that ecologists study?
Within the discipline of ecology, researchers work at five broad levels, sometimes discretely and sometimes with overlap: organism, population, community, ecosystem, and biosphere.
Is Quadrat sampling accurate?
The quadrat method, first introduced into ecological studies by Pound and Clements in i898, has been adopted by both foresters and ecologists as one of the most accurate means of studying the occurrence, distribution, and development of vegetation (Clements, ’05; Weaver, ‘i8).
Which best describes the link between survivorship curves and opportunistic species?
Equilibrium species are limited by density-dependent factors and have few offspring. Which best describes the link between survivorship curves and opportunistic species? Opportunistic species are limited by density-independent factors and have many offspring.
What do ecologists do?
Ecologists are specialist scientists who survey ecosystems and assess the diversity, profusion and behaviour of the different organisms within them. Part of your role might also involve educating local communities about environmental issues and ecosystems in their area.
What specifically does ecosystem ecology study?
Ecosystem ecology studies all organismal, population, and community components of an area, as well as the non-living counterparts.
What is the difference between Quadrat and transect?
In transect surveys, students stretch a string across a piece of ground, stake each end, and count the living things that are either underneath the string or within arm’s length of it. In quadrat surveys, students map out a square piece of ground and survey the living things lying within the square.
What are the pros and cons of Quadrat sampling?
Compared to other sampling methods, quadrats are relatively simple to use. Quadrat plots are uniform in size and shape and distributed randomly throughout the sample area, which makes the study design straightforward. They are also one of the most affordable techniques because they require very few materials.
What is the most common type of distribution?
Clumped distribution is the most common type of dispersion found in nature. In clumped distribution, the distance between neighboring individuals is minimized.
How do you do Quadrat sampling?
How to set up and use a quadrat
- In a sample area chosen by your supervisor, place your quadrat at random.
- Count the number of plants present for the nominated plant species and record these numbers on the recording sheet.
- Repeat the above process until you have covered ten areas using your quadrat.
What are the two sampling techniques?
There are two types of sampling methods:
- Probability sampling involves random selection, allowing you to make strong statistical inferences about the whole group.
- Non-probability sampling involves non-random selection based on convenience or other criteria, allowing you to easily collect data.
What subjects are studied in ecology?
Ecology can also be classified on the basis of:
- the primary kinds of organism under study, e.g. animal ecology, plant ecology, insect ecology;
- the biomes principally studied, e.g. forest ecology, grassland ecology, desert ecology, benthic ecology, marine ecology, urban ecology;
Does a transect have to be a straight line?
Transects may show features that are along the actual line selected (line transect) or, more commonly, may show what is on either side of the line (belt transect). Depending on the kinds of features being observed, transects can be a single straight line, straight line segments, or curved lines.
How do you calculate animal population?
For organisms that move around, such as mammals, birds, or fish, a technique called the mark-recapture method is often used to determine population size. This method involves capturing a sample of animals and marking them in some way—for instance, using tags, bands, paint, or other body markings, as shown below.
Why have growth rates increased the most in developing countries in the past 50 years quizlet?
Death rates have fallen faster than birth rates. Why have human growth rates increased the most in developing countries in the past 50 years? The overall human population growth rate is steadily increasing each year. density-dependent limit.
Why do we use Quadrat sampling?
Quadrat sampling is a classic tool for the study of ecology, especially biodiversity. In general, a series of squares (quadrats) of a set size are placed in a habitat of interest and the species within those quadrats are identified and recorded.
Why it should be calculated in Quadrat studies?
Answer. Answer: Relative species abundance is calculated by dividing the number of species from one group by the total number of species from all groups. Quadrats are useful for studying both the distribution of ant hills within a larger area and ant behavior within the sample area. …
What is a drawback of transects?
Displaying the data collected in line transect diagrams also becomes easier because the horizontal scale can be adjusted to fit smaller sheets of paper. The disadvantage in this case is that many of the species present may be overlooked if the interval selected is too large.
What Is A Quadrat method?
Quadrat sampling is a method by which organisms in a certain proportion (sample) of the. habitat are counted directly. It is used to estimate population abundance (number), density, frequency and. distribution… The quadrat position are chosen randomly or they are placed along a transect.
How many animals are in the world in 2020?
Scientists have recently estimated that there are approximately 8.7 million species on Earth. They believe that 1-2 million of those species are animals. And what do we know about all those species? Not much!
Why use a transect instead of a Quadrat?
Introduction: Transects and quadrats are two ecological tools that allow us to quantify the relative abundance of organisms in an area. To track changes over time, it is important to be able to quantify changes in abundance. A transect line is any line, marked at regular intervals, that is easy to use in the field.
What is the transect method?
The point transect method is a technique based on point sampling to determine cover. Each transect is considered a sample unit, and summarized data from several transects are required for statistical analysis of cover data to compare differences among years or sites. | https://mysqlpreacher.com/is-the-number-of-individuals-per-unit-area/ |
Description : Literary Research and Irish Literature: Strategies & Sources explores primary and secondary research resources relevant to the study of Irish literary authors, works, genres, and history. Sources covered include general literary research guides; union library catalogs; print and online bibliographies; manuscripts and archives; microfilm and digitization projects; scholarly journals; periodicals, newspapers, and reviews; and electronic and Web resources. To ease comparison and evaluation of references, each chapter addresses how to choose and utilize research methods and tools to yield the most relevant information. This guide also examines the strengths and weaknesses of core and specialized electronic and print research tools and standard search techniques and_when appropriate_covers the historical and cultural contexts and usability issues of unique reference sources. This volume, number 5 in the series, raises trenchant issues in Irish literary scholarship, such as the problem of defining what Irish literature is; gaps in criticism and secondary literature devoted to Irish literature; neglected areas of scholarly inquiry, including Irish literature by women and lesser-known writers; and the rewards of interdisciplinary research. It concludes with a brief consideration of a scenario illustrating how a scholar might use strategies and sources covered in the text to solve a research problem. | https://www.e-bookdownload.net/search/literary-research-and-irish-literature |
9781783489237 | Rowman & Littlefield Pub Inc, August 16, 2016, cover price $120.00 | About this edition: In The Value of Literature, Rafe McGregor employs a unique approach – the combination of philosophical work on value theory and critical work on the relationship between form and content – to present a new argument for, and defence of, literary humanism.
9781783489244 | Reprint edition (Rowman & Littlefield Pub Inc, February 16, 2018), cover price $39.95 | About this edition: In The Value of Literature, Rafe McGregor employs a unique approach – the combination of philosophical work on value theory and critical work on the relationship between form and content – to present a new argument for, and defence of, literary humanism.
9781107086173 | Cambridge Univ Pr, October 5, 2016, cover price $99.99 | About this edition: This collection of essays explores laughter, humor, and the comic from a psychoanalytic perspective.
9780810134317 | Northwestern Univ Pr, March 15, 2017, cover price $99.95 | About this edition: Speculative Formalism engages decisively in recent debates in the literary humanities around form and formalism, making the case for a new, nonmimetic and antihistoricist theory of literary reference.
9780810134300 | Reprint edition (Northwestern Univ Pr, March 15, 2017), cover price $34.95 | About this edition: Speculative Formalism engages decisively in recent debates in the literary humanities around form and formalism, making the case for a new, nonmimetic and antihistoricist theory of literary reference.
9781501322853 | Bloomsbury USA Academic, March 9, 2017, cover price $16.95 | About this edition: Object Lessons is a series of short, beautifully designed books about the hidden lives of ordinary things.
9781501317910 | Bloomsbury USA Academic, March 9, 2017, cover price $16.95 | About this edition: Object Lessons is a series of short, beautifully designed books about the hidden lives of ordinary things.
9781501315060 | Bloomsbury USA Academic, March 9, 2017, cover price $16.95 | About this edition: Object Lessons is a series of short, beautifully designed books about the hidden lives of ordinary things.
9780822363033, titled "Everything You Always Wanted to Know About Literature but Were Afraid to Ask Žižek: Sic 10" | Duke Univ Pr, March 3, 2017, cover price $94.95 | About this edition: Challenging the widely-held assumption that Slavoj Žižek's work is far more germane to film and cultural studies than to literary studies, this volume demonstrates the importance of Žižek to literary criticism and theory.
9780822363187, titled "Everything You Always Wanted to Know About Literature but Were Afraid to Ask Žižek: Sic 10" | Duke Univ Pr, March 3, 2017, cover price $26.95 | About this edition: Challenging the widely-held assumption that Slavoj Žižek's work is far more germane to film and cultural studies than to literary studies, this volume demonstrates the importance of Žižek to literary criticism and theory.
9781472592750 | 2 edition (Bloomsbury USA Academic, March 2, 2017), cover price $94.00 | About this edition: Bringing together Mary Klages's bestselling introductory books Literary Theory: A Guide for the Perplexed and Key Terms in Literary Theory into one fully integrated and substantially revised, expanded and updated volume, this is an accessible and authoritative guide for anyone entering the often bewildering world of literary theory for the first time.
9781472592743 | 2 reprint edition (Bloomsbury USA Academic, March 2, 2017), cover price $29.95 | About this edition: Bringing together Mary Klages's bestselling introductory books Literary Theory: A Guide for the Perplexed and Key Terms in Literary Theory into one fully integrated and substantially revised, expanded and updated volume, this is an accessible and authoritative guide for anyone entering the often bewildering world of literary theory for the first time.
9780822362845 | Duke Univ Pr, February 24, 2017, cover price $94.95 | About this edition: Although Haitian revolutionaries were not the intended audience for the Declaration of the Rights of Man, they heeded its call, demanding rights that were not meant for them.
9780822362968 | Reprint edition (Duke Univ Pr, February 24, 2017), cover price $25.95 | About this edition: Although Haitian revolutionaries were not the intended audience for the Declaration of the Rights of Man, they heeded its call, demanding rights that were not meant for them.
9781496810250 | Univ Pr of Mississippi, February 1, 2017, cover price $65.00 | About this edition: Literary scholar Michael A.
9781474240086 | Bloomsbury USA Academic, February 23, 2017, cover price $94.00 | About this edition: Covering a wide range of textual forms and geographical locations, The Bloomsbury Introduction to Postcolonial Writing: New Contexts, New Narratives, New Debates is an advanced introduction to prominent issues in contemporary postcolonial literary studies.
9781474240079 | Reprint edition (Bloomsbury USA Academic, February 23, 2017), cover price $29.95 | About this edition: Covering a wide range of textual forms and geographical locations, The Bloomsbury Introduction to Postcolonial Writing: New Contexts, New Narratives, New Debates is an advanced introduction to prominent issues in contemporary postcolonial literary studies.
9781501302435 | Bloomsbury USA Academic, January 12, 2017, cover price $120.00 | About this edition: In the last half-century Ludwig Wittgenstein's relevance beyond analytic philosophy, to continental philosophy, to cultural studies, and to the arts has been widely acknowledged.
9781501312359 | Bloomsbury USA Academic, January 12, 2017, cover price $120.00 | About this edition: Object fetishism is becoming a more and more pervasive phenomenon.
9781441109637 | Bloomsbury USA Academic, February 9, 2017, cover price $34.95 | About this edition: Utopia and its Discontents traces literary representations of ideal communities from Plato to the 21st century.
9781421420967 | Johns Hopkins Univ Pr, January 2, 2017, cover price $60.00 | About this edition: For many critics, Romanticism is synonymous with nature writing, for representations of the natural world appear during this period with a freshness, concreteness, depth, and intensity that have rarely been equaled.
9781782052241 | Cork Univ Pr, December 31, 2016, cover price $45.00 | About this edition: The intertext is the effective presence of a text in another one.
9780691160627 | Princeton Univ Pr, January 4, 2015, cover price $29.95 | About this edition: Forms offers a powerful new answer to one of the most pressing problems facing literary, critical, and cultural studies today-how to connect form to political, social, and historical context.
9780691173436 | Reprint edition (Princeton Univ Pr, December 27, 2016), cover price $19.95 | About this edition: Forms offers a powerful new answer to one of the most pressing problems facing literary, critical, and cultural studies today―how to connect form to political, social, and historical context.
9781783489848 | Rowman & Littlefield Pub Inc, December 16, 2016, cover price $135.00 | About this edition: Landscapes of Liminality expands upon existing notions of spatial practice and spatial theory, and examines more intricately the contingent notion of âliminalityâ as a space of âin-between-nessâ that avoids either essentialism or stasis.
9781783489855 | Reprint edition (Rowman & Littlefield Pub Inc, December 16, 2016), cover price $44.95 | About this edition: Landscapes of Liminality expands upon existing notions of spatial practice and spatial theory, and examines more intricately the contingent notion of “liminality” as a space of “in-between-ness” that avoids either essentialism or stasis.
9781410330314, titled "Nineteenth Century Literature Criticism: Excerpts from Criticism of the Works of Nineteenth-century Novelists, Poets, Playwrights, Short-story Writers, & Other Creative Writers" | Gale Group, November 11, 2016, cover price $378.00 | also contains Nineteenth-Century Literature Criticism: Excerpts from Criticism of the Works of Nineteenth-Century Novelists, Poets, Playwrights, Short-Story Writers, & Other Creative Writers | About this edition: Nineteenth-Century Literature Criticism assembles critical responses to the works of 19th-century authors of all sortsâ?
9781410330307, titled "Nineteenth Century Literature Criticism: Excerpts from Criticism of the Works of Nineteenth-century Novelists, Poets, Playwrights, Short-story Writers, & Other Creative Writers" | Gale Group, October 28, 2016, cover price $378.00 | also contains Nineteenth-Century Literature Criticism: Excerpts from Criticism of the Works of Nineteenth-Century Novelists, Poets, Playwrights, Short-Story Writers, & Other Creative Writers | About this edition: Nineteenth-Century Literature Criticism assembles critical responses to the works of 19th-century authors of all sortsâ?
9781410330291, titled "Nineteenth Century Literature Criticism: Excerpts from Criticism of the Works of Nineteenth-century Novelists, Poets, Playwrights, Short-story Writers, & Other Creative Writers" | Gale Group, October 7, 2016, cover price $378.00 | also contains Nineteenth-Century Literature Criticism: Excerpts from Criticism of the Works of Nineteenth-Century Novelists, Poets, Playwrights, Short-Story Writers, & Other Creative Writers | About this edition: Nineteenth-Century Literature Criticism assembles critical responses to the works of 19th-century authors of all sortsâ?
9781410330284, titled "Nineteenth Century Literature Criticism: Excerpts from Criticism of the Works of Nineteenth-century Novelists, Poets, Playwrights, Short-story Writers, & Other Creative Writers" | Gale Group, September 16, 2016, cover price $378.00 | also contains Nineteenth-Century Literature Criticism: Excerpts from Criticism of the Works of Nineteenth-Century Novelists, Poets, Playwrights, Short-Story Writers, & Other Creative Writers | About this edition: Nineteenth-Century Literature Criticism assembles critical responses to the works of 19th-century authors of all sortsâ?
9781410330277, titled "Nineteenth Century Literature Criticism: Excerpts from Criticism of the Works of Nineteenth-century Novelists, Poets, Playwrights, Short-story Writers, & Other Creative Writers" | Gale Group, August 26, 2016, cover price $378.00 | also contains Nineteenth-Century Literature Criticism: Excerpts from Criticism of the Works of Nineteenth-Century Novelists, Poets, Playwrights, Short-Story Writers, & Other Creative Writers | About this edition: Nineteenth-Century Literature Criticism assembles critical responses to the works of 19th-century authors of all sortsâ?
9781414451633 | Gale Group, July 1, 2010, cover price $0.04 | About this edition: Here is a convenient source of commentary on the careers and works of acclaimed poets, novelists, short story writers, dramatists and philosophers who died between 1800 and 1899.
9781414451626 | Gale Literary Criticism Online, May 21, 2010, cover price $0.04 | About this edition: Here is a convenient source of commentary on the careers and works of acclaimed poets, novelists, short story writers, dramatists and philosophers who died between 1800 and 1899.
9781421421650 | 20 anv edition (Johns Hopkins Univ Pr, December 15, 2016), cover price $29.95 | About this edition: In Unclaimed Experience, Cathy Caruth proposes that in the widespread and bewildering experience of trauma in our centuryâboth in its occurrence and in our attempt to understand itâwe can recognize the possibility of a history no longer based on simple models of straightforward experience and reference.
9780674971363, titled "Thinking With Kantâs Critique of Judgment" | Harvard Univ Pr, January 2, 2017, cover price $45.00 | About this edition: Why read Kant’s Critique of Judgment today? | https://isbn.nu/sisbn/lit006000 |
This essay has been peer-reviewed by the boundary 2 editorial collective.
“That is not said right,” said the Caterpillar.
“Not quite right, I’m afraid,” said Alice, timidly; “some of the words have got altered.”
“It is wrong from beginning to end,” said the Caterpillar decidedly, and there was silence for some minutes.
—Lewis Carroll, Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland
As a graduate student at Columbia in the early noughties, I attended Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak’s seminar on Poststructuralism. It was an often tense seminar, where once a week my classmates and I would flounder and generally fail to say anything illuminating about the assigned text for that session. One fraught morning, I attempted to answer a question of textual detail in Derrida to which Spivak responded, “Exactly wrong!” Lost in the rabbit hole of French theory and crazed for any crumb of comfort, I vacillated between hope and despair in my reading of Spivak’s “exactly.” Could an interpretation that was “exactly wrong” provide, through the looking glass as it were, a clue to the right reading? Was my answer so wrong that it was partially right? Or did my wrong answer, like a donut hole, merely identify where the good stuff would not be found. I found myself returning to these questions as I read Joseph North’s Literary Criticism: A Concise Political History (2017). North purports to offer a new history of literary studies, a diagnosis of its current malaise, and a prescription for where it should go from here. The book raises a number of important questions: What would a political history of literary criticism look like? What is the relationship (if any) between literary studies and politics? How is neoliberalism reshaping universities generally and literary studies in particular? North’s answers to these questions are wrong. And wrong in ways that are damaging to the discipline and give ammunition to reactionary forces within and beyond it. But my wager is that they are exactly wrong. North’s history of literary criticism—an account that is wrong from beginning to end, to quote the Caterpillar—can point us in the direction of its true history. Even, if it does so, like that donut hole, by identifying the places we need not look.
North frames his history as an overview rather than an exhaustive survey. His stated goal is to “step back from individual figures and movements in order to bring into focus the basic paradigms that have determined the development of Anglo-American literary studies throughout its history, and that therefore seem likely at least to condition its possible lines of development in the future” (2017, ix). In North’s account, two paradigms have dominated the field: the “critical” and the “scholarly.” In one of North’s many formulations, scholars are those who treat the study of literature “as a means by which to analyze culture” while critics treat the study of literature “as an opportunity to intervene in culture” (2). While scholars treat literary texts “chiefly as opportunities for producing knowledge about the cultural contexts in which they were written and read,” critics use literature as a means of enriching culture by “cultivating new ranges of sensibility, new modes of subjectivity” and “new capacities for experience” (6-7). According to North, the changing fortunes of these two paradigms have shaped the broad history of the field.
Hoping to bring the revolutionary potential of criticism into sharper focus and to explain its current institutional occlusion by the most recent scholarly turn he labels “the historicist/contextualist paradigm,” North proposes an alternative history to the “pre- and post-Theory” narrative, which he believes characterizes most accounts of literary studies. Labeling his own version rather grandly as “the new periodization,” North offers an alternative tripartite historical narrative. In the first period, I. A. Richards puts criticism on a disciplinary footing by developing an “incipiently materialist account of the aesthetic” (x). Richards’s characteristic methods of close reading and practical criticism helped readers, “each from their own specific material situations, to use the aesthetic instruments of literature to cultivate their most useful practical capabilities” (15). In the second period, the project of criticism was taken up by Leavisites and the New Critics, who transformed a materialist aesthetic into an idealist one. That is to say, they shifted the function of close reading and practical criticism from the cultivation of a reader’s aesthetic capabilities to the cultivation of aesthetic judgment. In the third period, which began in the late seventies and continues to our present, the project of criticism was rejected for historicism, reducing close reading and practical criticism to a means of producing historical and cultural knowledge about the contexts in which specific literary texts were written and received. According to North, these three periods of literary criticism map onto three moments in the history of capitalism in the twentieth century: an earlier period between the wars, where a crisis in capitalism raised the possibility of a radical break with the liberal consensus; a period of relative stability, where criticism and scholarship served “real superstructural functions within Keynesianism” (17); and lastly our own present, in which the establishment of a neoliberal order following the crisis of Keynesianism, has resulted in the “complete dominance of the ‘scholar’ model in the form of the historicist/contextualist paradigm” (17).
Perhaps the quickest way to trouble the neat binary between the critical and scholarly paradigm which this historical schema presupposes is to think about the role of close reading in so-called historicist/contextualist scholarship. North claims that historicists treat “literary texts chiefly as opportunities for producing knowledge about the cultural contexts in which they were written and read” (7). Under this paradigm, close reading entails “a focus on small units of the text for the purposes of understanding what the text has to teach us about histories and cultures” (105). In other words, historicists use literary texts as “diagnostic tools for the analysis of historical and cultural phenomena” (106). But is this actually the case? As a British Romanticist whose period interest dictates a deep engagement with historicist scholarship, I have found historically-oriented scholars do not tend to instrumentalize literary texts in order to produce knowledge about the cultural contexts in which texts were written and read. Rather, most historicist research is in the service of close reading: scholars restore the cultural archive that the work assumes, activates, challenges, and subverts. They do this out of necessity and as a matter of course. Imagine a study of American television comedy two hundred years from now. What kind of historical research would be required before future scholars could offer a “close reading” of an episode of The Simpsons or Seinfeld worthy of that name? Without reconstructing this cultural archive (always, in part, an act of imagination), we miss a text’s rich intertextuality. Historical scholarship here is not using a literary text as a diagnostic instrument to understand a historical and cultural moment; rather, it is using historical knowledge in an endeavor to make the full complexity of the text available to be read. Of course, North knows this because his entire argument is built on the premise that unless we understand the real history of literary studies, we are unable to read it correctly: “to understand the character of the neoliberal order that established within literary studies,” he notes, “we need to reconsider the history from the ground up” (14). In other words, we need to put an object of analysis in its historical context to understand it properly. North laments that the “literary disciplines’ sense of their own history is still stuck in the older two-period mode, and as a result fails to capture the quality of our present moment” (13). In short, bad historical research leads to poor reading. North’s historical corrective is a classic example of the “historicist/contextualist” paradigm in action.
And there is nothing wrong with that. Unfortunately, the revisionary history he proceeds to tell is wrong. It is wrong in its facts and in its method. One example can stand synecdochically for a series of unpersuasive historical claims and moves. According to North, during the eighties and nineties, neoliberal forces within the university systematically favored the scholarly over the critical model of literary studies. In this “professionalized and scientized context, the scholarly model of intellectual inquiry—intellectual work as knowledge production” became the central task of literary study (100). It’s a compelling story. And it’s completely inaccurate. Literary Studies has benefited enormously from the disciplinary histories of Gerald Graff, Louis Menand, Chris Baldick, Bill Readings and many others. Indeed, it is a sobering fact that the accretive crisis in literary studies has stimulated brilliant scholarship in this area. North references many of these scholars. But, having read them, he should know that the disciplinary commitment to professionalism and the scientific model of knowledge production in literary studies predates neoliberalism. It stretches back to the origin of English as a discipline. At the turn of the twentieth century, the first English Departments were composed of scholars—philologists and literary historians—who emphasized the utilitarian and scientific value of their research and pedagogy. Indeed, in the fifties, the new critics successfully lobbied the MLA to add the category of criticism to the association’s mission statement arguing that close reading was a method that produced new knowledge. No matter. Let’s return to North’s convenient morality play. In the late seventies or early eighties, according to North, literary studies opted for a form of professional scholarship, one predicated on “technological expertise, much along the lines of the social sciences” (11). Here the problems with North’s historical methodology kick in. Bracketing for a moment the inaccuracy of such claims, this account begs some questions. Who enacted this shift? Was it a voluntary choice within the discipline, one that occurred outside of broader institutional concerns? Or was it a result of institutional pressure? Did it come from university administrators as a vanguard of neoliberalism? Why would the mandarins of neoliberalism within the academy view disciplinary work as valid only to the degree that it resembled the scientific production of new knowledge? North is silent on these questions of historical agency and motivation; or rather, he resurrects a reductive version of the “base/superstructure” model to account for these paradigmatic institutional changes. That is to say, in North’s mind, the discipline has moved from paradigm to paradigm in lockstep with phase shifts in the capitalist economic order. When the mythical economic base shifted to neoliberalism, the disciplines were bound to follow suit. According to this logic, which North describes, in another fit of intellectual nostalgia, as “the historical materialist line,” the future course of the discipline will depend on the nature of the subsequent phase of capital to emerge out of our current crisis (196). To paraphrase the political quietism of Karl Kautsky, we cannot prepare the coming revolution, we can merely prepare ourselves for it.
Such economic determinism, long jettisoned by Marxist cultural theory, can only lead to a very imprecise account of the current political economy of the academy. Whatever we label the new economic model that is transforming third-level education in the United States and beyond—the continued abuse of “neoliberalism” as a buzzword renders its use increasingly problematic—it has shown itself perfectly happy to accommodate both literary criticism and scholarship. As long as these pursuits generate or do not interrupt the flow of revenue, neoliberalism is content neutral. Without fear of censure, North is free to deploy close reading as a means of training the sensibilities of his students. Many of his students, on the other hand, now find themselves in a far more precarious position. While scholars ranging from David Harvey and Wendy Brown to Philip Mirowski and Angus Bergin have debated the defining characteristics of neoliberalism, all share a sense that neoliberalism involves the curtailment of the state as an instrument of social provision (even as the state’s power grows in the areas of surveillance, incarceration, and the maintenance and extension of free markets and private property rights). Accordingly, at the level of third-level education, neoliberalism manifests itself at the level of funding: funding for programs, for students, and for academic labor. As state and federal funding for third-level education have dried up, the focus of university administrations has shifted to cutting costs and generating revenues, favoring those schools and disciplines that can maximize tuition and endowments. Faculty who run programs feel neoliberalism’s effects in the institution of “true cost accounting” as the metric that decides the survival of individual classes and entire programs. For students, federal grants have been replaced by student loans. As a result, future initiates into the sensibility-expanding capacities of close reading will be increasingly burdened by massive student debt. They will already know capitalism isn’t working for them; they won’t need a close analysis of Wordsworth to tell them that. In those programs that are not generating tuition and whose alumni do not contribute to university endowments, neoliberalism is felt in the shrinking of tenure lines and the massive expansion of graduate and adjunct labor. I couldn’t help reflecting that North, like me, was a graduate student at Columbia and that while he was working on Literary Criticism, Columbia’s graduate students (as was the case while I was there) were fighting to gain recognition for their union and collectively bargain with the university. I wondered why this latest union drive had so little impact on North’s thinking about neoliberalism, literary criticism, and the political economy of universities.
North’s decision to make his history a “concise” one results in some serious and troubling exclusions. North states that his history makes “no programmatic attempt to recover the work of thinkers who have been ignored or marginalized because of their subject position” (viii). Viewing this acknowledgement as adequate restitution, North proceeds to ignore these thinkers throughout Literary Criticism, participating in their continued institutional marginalization. This omission seems particularly perverse when scholars of color historically and institutionally, have pioneered, often at considerable risk to their careers, the practice of literary criticism as political intervention. The scholarship of Edward Said, bell hooks, Spivak, Fred Moten, and Hortense Spillers (among many others) is invested in making literary studies and questions of aesthetics count politically in the very manner North demands. The failure to discuss these scholars in any depth seems all the more egregious when North is happy to indulge in a kind of victim blaming when assessing their broader impact on the field. The following swipe at feminism must stand in for a long list of North’s leading questions directed at the legacy of feminist, queer, and postcolonial criticism: “To what extent were second-wave feminist critiques of the welfare state likely to secure basic structural changes, and to what extent were they working to replace a material politics with a mere politics of recognition, thereby serving, albeit often inadvertently, as the hand-maidens of neoliberalism?” (58). In a historical narrative that repeatedly understands literary studies as being reshaped by economic forces outside the academy, feminist scholars are accorded a striking degree of agency here as midwives of the new neoliberal order. North’s choice of hand-maiden to characterize the work of his feminist colleagues is particularly unwelcome. At the same time, North claims their entry into the academy in the sixties and seventies had no institutional or disciplinary effects. We can only assume he believes they were too busy helping deliver neoliberalism. North complacently opines that “actual political struggle—the kind that involve a group, or class ‘forcing’ its way into something—does not take place within the world of scholarship” (88). Here as elsewhere, North’s discussion of the efforts by marginalized groups to challenge the academy’s exclusionary culture is not aided by his clubby tone, which comes off as privileged, tweedy, and smug. North goes on to suggest that “people from marginalized groups who entered the academy and became scholars were, in time, no less ‘trained specialists’ than the gentile white men who had tried to keep them out” (91). Perhaps. But in pursuing careers as ‘trained specialists’ these scholars radically transformed university cultures, helped overhaul admission policies, reshaped disciplinary scholarship, opened up the canon, and diversified campuses. As a matter of fact, their entrance into the academy corresponds with the flight of many of those “gentile white men” from the humanities, which is surely one of the factors in literary studies’ increasing institutional marginalization, the nominal focus of North’s work.
North’s ultimate goal is to recover the lost project of literary criticism and his most original and provocative claim is that the “incipient materialist aesthetic” at the root of Richards’s understanding of close reading can be harnessed as an instrument of radical politics. North sees a lot at stake politically in this project of recovery: “The incipiently materialist account of the aesthetic that lies at the root of the discipline and continues to mark its central practice of ‘close reading,’ is properly understood as part of a longer history of resistance to the economic, political, and cultural systems that prevent us from cultivating deeper modes of life” (x). Accordingly, North identifies one of his book’s desired audiences as the radical left: “the collective, or incipient collective, of those who have found themselves in the difficult and vexed position of trying to articulate and even to live a critique, not merely of the excesses of capitalism in its current form, but of capitalism itself” (ix). This is a curious formulation of the radical left, which smacks more of the romantic anti-capitalism of bohemia than the collective and organized political activism of the historical left. Be that as it may, North cites the proper goal of criticism as “a programmatic commitment to using works of literature for the cultivation of aesthetic sensibility, with the goal of more general cultural and political change” (3). In the wake of Richards, according to North, literary criticism was “an institutional program of aesthetic education—an attempt to enrich the culture directly by cultivating new ranges of sensibility, new modes of subjectivity, new capacities for experience—using works of literature as a means” (6). Once cultivated, this aesthetic sensibility demands ways of being far richer than those that can be offered by capitalism.
Here then is an attempt to articulate a political program for literary studies. Unfortunately, at the precise point where North’s argument needs to get into the details, unsupported pronouncements proliferate. The task of “higher students of literature,” writes North, is the “development of new methods for cultivating subjectivities and collectivities” (20). North never explains why and how literature is a good instrument for such work. Why would it be an effective instrument as opposed to say critical theory, cultural studies, political science, sociology, mindfulness, or yoga? He also struggles to delimit the category of literature. Conceding the sustained difficulty literary scholars have had securing a stable category of “literature,” North can still complacently ask, “Is it too naive, given our investigation of Williams’s cunning critique of the category of the literary, to object that the justification for literary studies surely has to rest, at some stage, on the concept of literature?” (108). The simple, if inconvenient, answer to this question is “yes, it is too naive.” Wanting a stable concept of literature doesn’t make one exist. The discipline has a rich body of work over the course of the twentieth century dedicated to establishing the quality of “literariness” that might distinguish literary and non-literary texts. These various projects were fascinating, but ultimately unsuccessful. Doubling down, however, North declares that “a discipline needs to justify its object of study, not just its method for studying it” (108). If that is the case, literary studies is in trouble. Even North cannot be consistent here and a supplement immediately and necessarily appears in this anxious declaration: “For of course literary and other aesthetic texts are particularly rich training grounds for all sorts of capabilities and sensibilities” (my emphasis, 109). Of course they are. And of course, we won’t ask what these “other aesthetic texts” might be. Finally, it is never made entirely clear in what manner Richards’ aesthetic is “incipiently materialist” (x). If I follow North’s argument, Richards’ aesthetic is materialist because it refuses to set up the aesthetic as “a self-sufficient category insulated from the rest of life” (30). Richards asks us to shift our focus from artworks in themselves to the relationship between artworks and their audience. The experience of art elicits a set of complex cognitive and affective processes deeply imbricated in the reader’s life world. And yet I can imagine an aesthetic theory that provides a rich account of the mental and affective nature of our encounter with art that is not materialist. I found myself wishing that North had more carefully delineated the materialism of Richards’s approach as well as explain what is at stake politically in designating it materialist in the first place.
For those of us working within the discipline who had registered a certain fatigue with the constant hand-wringing, the countless articles and conference panels diagnosing “the crisis in the humanities,” and the elegies on the demise of literary studies, the alacrity with which the London Review of Books, the Los Angeles Review of Books, and n+1 have championed Literary Criticism is reason enough to take notice of North’s book. For the most part, reviewers have joined North in piling on the discipline and its practitioners, endorsing the book’s conclusion that literary studies is truly in a parlous state. Perhaps we literary scholars can take comfort from the fact that if we are worth kicking (even when we’re down), then we still matter. Apart from offering these dubious consolations, however, the book’s critical reception serves as an important barometer: it confirms that recent efforts to revamp the discipline (distance reading, the cognitive turn, digital and public humanities, the ecological turn) have failed to win over a skeptical public, a public that includes state legislators, university administrators, prospective students and their parents. In other words, those stakeholders who will decide whether the discipline has a future. The broad embrace of North’s old-school model of criticism suggests that many outside the discipline remain unconvinced of the value of these latest developments in literary studies. But the need for an engagement with North’s book goes beyond the fact that its reception highlights the discipline’s ongoing public relations problem. If North’s book failed to answer any of the important questions it raises, it did persuade me that our discipline could benefit from a genuine history of materialist aesthetics that might include Richards, but would stretch further back to William Hazlitt and Edmund Burke and would include figures ranging from Herbert Marcuse and Spivak to Paul de Man and Sianne Ngai. One of the goals of such a history would be to bring into sharp focus the political implications of the kinds of aesthetic education we offer our students. Now that is a hole worth filling.
Dermot Ryan is professor of English at Loyola Marymount University. He is the author of Technologies of Empire: Writing, Imagination and the Making of Imperial Networks, 1750-1820 (2013). | https://www.boundary2.org/2018/01/dermot-ryan-review-of-joseph-norths-literary-criticism-a-concise-political-history/ |
Professor Ogede situates Armah’s writing within its cultural, historical, and political contexts and examines Armah’s ability to create new literary forms based on his masterful manipulation of African oral traditions. Armah is presented here as a writer who looks beyond the corruption that would seem to have engulfed Africa and who successfully bridges the concerns of first- and second-generation postcolonial African writers.
Ode Ogede received his Ph.D. from Ahmadu Bello University in Nigeria and is a Professor of English at North Carolina Central University. He is the author of Art, Society, and Performance, and Achebe and the Politics of Representation. More info →
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This book presents a state–of–the–art overview of the relationship between globalization studies and literature and literary studies, and the bearing that they have on each other. It engages with the manner in which globalization is thematized in literary works; examines the relationship between globalization theory and literary theory; and discusses the impact of globalization processes on the production and reception of literary texts. Suman Gupta argues that while literature has registered globalization processes in relevant ways, there has been a missed articulation between globalization studies and literary studies. Some of the ways in which this slippage is now being addressed, a...
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This book examines the status of English Studies in India, aspirations pinned on the subject by students, teachers, policy-makers and society in general, and how these are addressed at the higher education level. It presents analytical background discussions of the history and policy environment, and offers open-ended, multi-faceted and multi-vocal accounts of particular aspects of contemporary Indian English Studies, including curriculum, pedagogy, research, employment, relation to Indian vernaculars and translation studies. Reconsidering English Studies in Indian Higher Education is an invaluable source for anyone interested in: The relevant histories and higher education policies Professi...
This book discusses the political and social presumptions ingrained in the texts of the Harry Potter series and examines the manner in which they have been received in different contexts and media. The 2nd edition also contains extensive new material which comments on the later books and examines the impact of the phenomenon across the world.
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‘Contemporary Literature’ is among the most popular areas of literary study but it can be a difficult one to define. This book equips readers with the necessary tools to take an analytical and systematic approach to contemporary texts. The author provides answers to some of the critical questions in the field: What makes a literary text contemporary? Is it possible to have a canon of contemporary literature? How does a reader’s location affect their understanding? How do print, electronic, and audio-visual media impact upon contemporary literature? Which key concepts and themes are most prevalent? Containing diverse illustrative examples and discussing the topics which define our current sense of the contemporary, this is an ideal starting point for anyone seeking to engage critically with contemporary literature.
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In the run-up to, during and after the invasion of Iraq a large number of literary texts addressing that context were produced, circulated and viewed as taking a position for or against the invasion, or contributing political insights. This book provides an in-depth survey of such texts to examine what they reveal about the condition of literature.
"Globalization in India: Contents and Discontents" reviews the importance of the term globalization through an examination of the social, political, economic and cultural contexts in which globalization exists and influences our everyday lives. With the economics of globalization at the core, the essays chart the contents and discontents of globalization in India." | http://bridgewatercollege.org/suman-gupta.html |
EN228 Seventeenth Century: The First Modern Age of English Literature
This module is running in 2019/20.
Module credits: 30 CATs
Module Outline
This module examines the writing produced during one of the most exciting periods of English history. During the seventeenth century there were two revolutions and huge constitutional changes. It witnessed a significant widening of political and literary classes. On this module we will read a variety of canonical and non-canonical writing from 1603 to 1688 with the aim of finding out how works produced in different historical conditions commented on and intervened in these major ideological and intellectual upheavals.
The module will be organised into four thematic areas that in 2018/19 are Place, Time, Politics, and Difference. Each thematic unit is structured chronologically and we may address topics like: early modern understandings of the relationship between place, memory, and identity; literary representations of different conceptions of time; the writing of revolutionary political change and apocalypticism; and the increase in women's authorship. Each week, we will look at primary texts in light of some contextual further reading from the period (a piece of political theory by Machiavelli, say, or some writing on early modern poetics). There will also be selected secondary readings each week to help you locate your own critical investigations within the exciting field of seventeenth-century studies.
Lecture and Seminar Times (correct for 2018/19)
1 x 1hr lecture (Monday 12-1)
1 x 1hr seminar (Thursdays 9-10, 10-11)
Pathway Information
This module is a Pathway approved Option for the English Pathway and one of the Distributional Requirements options for the Theory, World, and North American Pathways.
Syllabus
Reading List
The module reading list with essential primary sources and recommended secondary sources can be found on Tallis Aspire: https://rl.talis.com/3/warwick/lists/65EEFBEC-9913-CD84-F917-60A7143C8EE2.html.
Assessment
Objectives and outcomes
By the end of this module you should have:
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knowledge of seventeenth-century literature from a variety of genres (e.g. public drama, masque, verse satire, essays).
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knowledge of the different written mediums used by writers in the period and the contexts where their work was seen or read.
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understanding of how and why different seventeenth-century writers engaged with their particular historical (e.g. political, religious and theological, social or literary) contexts.
- developed skills in interpreting literary texts in their historical context.
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understanding of key arguments from secondary criticism that are relevant to the period’s literature. | https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/arts/english/currentstudents/undergraduate/modules/fulllist/second/en228/ |
The contributions to this Hyperrhiz special issue emerged from papers delivered at the first Galway Digital Cultures Initiative conference titled “Other Codes / Cóid Eile: Digital Literatures in Context” in May 2017. The two languages in the title, Irish as well as English, were not included simply for the purpose of local flavor, but were meant to alert prospective speakers and the audience to consider “context” from the first encounter with the title’s own medium, that of literary scholarship itself. The hegemony of English as global academic lingua franca continues to coexist, particularly in the growing field of digital humanities, with the dream of universal language, reflected in our approach to the code of programming languages. It builds on the fantasy that the lack of ambiguity and the algorithmic accuracy of code could translate into better and faster reading and interpretation methods, untainted by human biases and limitations. This issue has been tackled by many, including Jessica Pressman in Digital Modernism. Her opening keynote at the conference was the basis for the first essay in this special issue, and Pressman stresses that her research perspective has profoundly changed since the publication of the much-quoted study, which was a balancing act between traditional literary scholarship in English departments and emerging poetics in the digital domain. Pressman’s take on the history of feminist electronic literature is a radical departure from the approach adopted in her first book. Yet her previous work has continuing relevance in the context of Galway, a gateway to the Irish-speaking Connemara Gaeltacht which is under increasing pressure from the nation’s majority language. The city is thus an appropriate reminder for scholars of digital literature on how their field rests on a still often unacknowledged illusion of finding a position free from the complex realities of literal and figurative losses in translation.
The variety of ways in which the contributions to this volume have approached the idea of “context” appropriately reflects the ethos that informed the initial call for contributions to the conference. The call emphasized a number of questions relating to cultural, but also institutional, historical, and aesthetic frameworks of digital literary production: How do the transnational, technological and aesthetic aspects of digital literature manifest themselves in specific works, at particular historical moments? How do global networks adapt to local circumstances? How do new and experimental forms of literary and artistic expression challenge or accommodate national traditions and canons? What is the relationship between individual talents, literary communities, and institutional frameworks in the new media environments of the twenty-first century? While many interpreted “context” in the perhaps most established sense within literary studies, as cultural, social, ethnic, racial, gender, geographical, or historical contexts, a not insignificant number of contributors also addressed questions of context as the formation of related formal and aesthetic approaches, as the emergence of creative communities across geographical or cultural borders, as networked practices in the transnational digital media environment, or in terms of literary margins and forms of resistance in the peripheries of established forms of cultural production. This special issue is thus a demonstration of how the continuing relevance of alternative sociocultural viewpoints is inseparably entangled with issues of aesthetic ambition and experimentation, and the different forms of literary production that various technological platforms remediate, generate, and question.
II
The selection of papers from the “Other Codes / Cóid Eile” conference gathered in this issue of Hyperrhiz blends three forms of essay writing: short and long theoretical essays, and artists’ statements on their creative practice. The issue is structured as four thematic threads: “Expanding Criticism,” “Moving Texts,” “Networked Communities” and “Interfaces.”
The first thread, “Expanding Criticism: Locating Other Contexts for Digital Literature” presents ways for expanding the critical frameworks operating in the discourse of digital literature with essays by Jessica Pressman, Julian Hanna, and Sam Cutting. This section therefore fittingly opens with Pressman’s reassessment of the history of digital literature criticism by focusing on feminist and queer theory in “Contexts of Digital Literature Criticism: Feminist, Queer, Materialist.” Pressman departs from Rita Felski’s critique of the notion of “context” as a box container in order to let gender and materialist theories permeate and resituate our assumptions. Pressman problematizes the way we tell the story of the field we participate in, to others but also to ourselves, by drawing attention to the pivotal role women always have had in the creative practices and theoretical approaches to digital literary arts in the United States—from the formation of a field to its institutionalization. For most of us, Pressman’s argument will not be Sara Ahmed’s “feminist killjoy,” but it will surely unsettle some. This is why Pressman’s essay couldn’t be timelier. Digital literature needs more diversity and representation—more women, more ethnic diversity, more queer approaches, but also more sociopolitical and class diversity. Are discussions around digital literature and scholarship to remain dominated by white, Western academics? The institutional and cultural background of contributors to this special issue does not break free from such limitations, however the aim is to draw attention to how the contexts and narratives informing them can be made visible—and that to recognize the narratives and positions of others, we need to become aware of our own. Furthermore, independent artists and theorists, those working outside the “ivory tower” of academia, need to be called upon. They must be invited to join forces with an ever-growing community that gravitates around conferences and festivals promoted inside academia, but which the academia can also help by recognizing their position in professional circles that do not hold to the same rights and duties, costs and salaries. Both these communities can broaden their own views to other contexts if they communicate mutually and generatively.
By revisiting the feminist history of digital literature and opening up the space for discussion on the under-representation of women in the field, Pressman’s essay can clear a path for further spaces for discussing under-representation. This can also help direct attention to hitherto neglected genres, such as the manifesto. In “‘Future Shock’: Manifestos in the Digital Age,” Julian Hanna takes a deep dive into the prolific and fragmented history of the manifesto as a cultural and political form. Hanna reflects on the reemergence of the form in the contemporary media landscape by looking at digital manifestos as proponents for revolutionary change. This “return of the manifesto” in digital culture is further explored in a project titled “Words in Freedom” by Hanna, Simone Ashby and Sónia Matos, a generative database “manifesto machine” that aims at creating “tools of change.” A manifesto also prompts the closing essay in this section by Sam Cutting. In “Reading with/through Donna Haraway: Towards a Cyborg Ethics of Reading the Contemporary (Digital) Literary Text,” Cutting reevaluates Haraway’s “A Cyborg Manifesto” to approach the feminist and ethical dimensions of cybernetic organisms applied to reading practices of literary texts. This “cyborg ethics of reading,” Cutting argues, allows for a relocation of literary criticism from a political and ethical viewpoint that encompasses print and digital media. Thus, Cutting offers another way to consider context or “situatedness” by examining the “networks of association and affinity” within which literary texts emerge and circulate.
The second thread, “Moving Texts: Migration and Translation,” assembles a critical essay by Anna Nacher and two artists’ reflections by María Mencía and Judy Malloy. This section addresses how the phenomena of migration and translation as moving texts are situated in and entangled with various literary, socio-political, and technological systems, and how forms of digital storytelling and poetics expand, diminish, or complicate the resonance of human experience. The contributions adopt three different angles as they examine how past and current regimes of oppression force human beings to move in space, and how literature and technology can go beyond testimony in order to reimagine, resituate and rescue narratives, memory, loss, and the experience of exile. In “Migrating Stories: Moving across the Code/Spaces of our Time,” Anna Nacher elaborates on poetic transmedia storytelling at the intersection of fiction and reality. Nacher analyzes creative works that reimagine the documentary form by weaving narrative and poetics with data harvesting mechanisms and visualization. These works reflect on the theme of “migration and movement across borders” and are shaped by various media, data inputs and outputs, which, Nacher argues, “carry narrative potential” based on dynamic fluxes that bring a new life to documentary art as cultural form and practice. Poetic narrative and documentary form are also at the heart of María Mencía’s creative work. In “The Winnipeg: The Poem that Crossed the Atlantic,” Mencía reflects upon the creative process behind the making of her digital artwork. This online, interactive, transatlantic, and multilingual artwork touches upon all the topics of this thread: it is formed by documentary moving texts about refugees fleeing the Spanish Civil War to Chile, including the author’s grandfather, who were forced to migrate and to translate their new lives in space, time, and language. As a polyphonic piece that addresses the translation of codes and textual forms between different platforms, historical moments, and forms of expression, it connects with Judy Malloy’s reflection in her As if the Memory Was a Song: From Ireland with Letters. In “Conveying Diaspora in a Polyphonic Electronic Manuscript,” Malloy guides us through a series of online notebook entries to recreate untold Irish-American histories, including her own family history, with poetry and music. Malloy uses a variety of artistic forms, platforms, and sources to consider how fragments of personal and cultural memory shift, travel, and re-emerge within a digitally mediated literary work that draws on obfuscated stories.
The contributions to the section “Networked Communities: Designing Resistance” adopt yet another viewpoint to the notion of other codes and contexts, and consider how digital literature can not only thematize but also tactically resist and critique frameworks informed by proprietary and corporate technology. In “Literary Forkbombs: Interventionist Conceptual Writing in the Age of Amazon,” Karl Flender provides an in-depth reading of Traumawien’s Ghost Writers project. By exposing the inner workings and purposes of Traumawien’s tactical and creative appropriation of Amazon’s selling platform, Flender muses on intervention, protest, and art as “interface-specific literature” that renders visible the infrastructures of free labor that big tech conglomerates commodify and capitalize on. Jeneen Naji, in “The Art of Machine Use Subversion in Digital Poetry,” focuses on digital poetry as its own “art world.” As a networked and collaborative community, digital poetry’s artistic practice, Naji argues, subverts the common usage and functions of digital platforms and their technological affordances on the Internet. Resistance is addressed through the notions of “machine use subversion” and the repurposing of technology for poetic uses, considered against the backdrop of experimental poetry and interventions with technology as resisting the established frameworks of traditional forms and practices. Designing resistance through manipulations of code and software is also at stake in Odile Farge’s essay “In the Beginning was the Software Tool…” Grounding her arguments in a series of interviews with writers and programmers, Farge explores the importance of not just relying on software as an opaque tool, but more importantly coding as a means for developing expressive digital literary works and expanding the practitioners’ imaginary. For, as Farge points out, reflecting and acting upon the importance of coding as “an act of resistance” can bring humans together, develop communities that are critical of our entanglement with pre-given technologies, and foster an understanding of cultural diversity through the sphere of “digital humanism.”
The fourth and last thread, “Interfaces: Embodiment and Authorship,” looks into other codes in embodied interfaces, language, and the digital domain through three different perspectives. In “Contextualising ‘his voice’: Disrupted Utterance in a Digital Material Interface,” Mark Leahy locates his own sound performance work in the context of embodied notions of utterance through machinic processes and “found material” in social network sites. Leahy does so by contrasting theories in linguistics, music, and technology, while at the same time questioning issues of authorship, identity, body, and voice as they are split and reassembled by machines in the presence of the audience. From another point of view, Caleb Milligan’s “Locked in Translation: ‘Digital’ Literature and the Embodied Frameworks of Language” revisits the polysemic nature of the term “digital” through the lenses of queer and materialist theory. In doing so, Milligan develops a critical framework of the ‘digital’ as an always-embodied and haptic encounter with literary works as he considers interfaces as points of contact and exchange. This angle allows Milligan to navigate and analyze print, film, and computational works by Gertrude Stein, Ezra Pound, Dziga Vertov, Luis Buñuel, Annie Abrahams, and John Cayley. Finally, Siobhan O’Flynn’s “Media Fluid and Media Fluent, E-Literature in the Era of Experience Design” considers the future of digital literature in the context of experience design. O’Flynn problematizes the notion of “text” to show that transmedia works encompass a level of fluidity that is dependent on design, the effect on, and the affect of users. In this realm, disciplinary boundaries do not really reflect the expanded notion of how narrative evolves in works developed with Twine, virtual reality, or 360° video. Therefore, by addressing digital literary studies’ “challenge [in terms of] discipline specific hermeneutics,” O’Flynn offers a concurrent analysis on how embodied interfaces frame digital artworks through the prism of design and mediated storytelling.
We hope that these essays will generate debate, ripostes, and further criticism in the rapidly growing field of digital literary studies and born-digital creative practice.
The conference “Other Codes / Cóid Eile: Digital Literatures in Context” and this special issue were made possible by funding from the Irish Research Council, the Research Council of Norway, the European Commission via Marie Skłodowska-Curie Actions, and the Research Incentivization Scheme of the School of Humanities and the Moore Institute for Research in the Humanities and Social Studies at the National University of Ireland, Galway. This project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement no. 793147, ARTDEL. The editors would also like to acknowledge the support and mentorship of Professor Scott Rettberg in Digital Culture, University of Bergen. | http://hyperrhiz.io/hyperrhiz20/introduction/introduction.html |
How do scholars study the Bible?
Biblical scholars usually try to interpret a particular text within its original historical context and use whatever information is available to reconstruct that setting. Historical criticism aims to determine the provenance, authorship, and process by which ancient texts were composed.
What is a critical text in English?
The textual critic’s ultimate objective is the production of a “critical edition”. This contains the text that the author has determined most closely approximates the original, and is accompanied by an apparatus criticus or critical apparatus.
What is literary criticism?
Literary criticism is the comparison, analysis, interpretation, and/or evaluation of works of literature. Literary criticism is essentially an opinion, supported by evidence, relating to theme, style, setting or historical or political context. Examples of some types of literary criticism are: Biographical.
How do you identify literary criticism?
Databases for literary criticism articles
- MLA International Bibliography with Full Text. Produced by the Modern Language Association (MLA), the electronic version of the bibliography dates back to the 1920s.
- JSTOR.
- Project Muse.
- Gale Literature Criticism Online.
- Humanities Abstracts (H.W. Wilson)
- Gale Literary Databases.
What is the difference between literary and literary criticism?
Literary theory is the body of ideas and methods we use in the practical reading of literature. By literary theory we refer not to the meaning of a work of literature but to the theories that reveal what literature can mean. Literary criticism is the study, analysis, evaluation and interpretation of literature.
What is rhetorical criticism for the Bible?
As a complement to form criticism, historical criticism, and other methods of biblical analysis, rhetorical criticism focuses on the text as we have it and seeks to discover the basis of its powerful appeal and the intent of its authors.
Is textual criticism a science?
Textual criticism is concerned with documents written by hand. It is both a science and an art. As a science, it is involved in the discovery and reading of manuscripts, cataloguing their contents, and, for literary works, collating the readings in them against other copies of the text.
What are critical texts?
The critical text is an eclectic text compiled by a committee that compares readings from a large number of manuscripts in order to determine which reading is most likely to be closest to the original. Since the majority of old manuscripts in existence are minuscules, they are often referred to as the Majority Text.
What tense is literature?
The Basic Rule: You should use the past tense when discussing historical events, and you should use the literary present when discussing fictional events. 1. When commenting on what a writer says, use the present tense. Example: Dunn begins his work with a view into the lives and motivations of the very first settlers.
What is critical reading of the Bible?
Biblical criticism is the use of critical analysis to understand and explain the Bible. The Enlightenment age, and its skepticism of biblical and church authority, ignited questions concerning the historical basis for the human Jesus separately from traditional theological views concerning his divinity.
What is literary rhetoric?
The term rhetoric refers to language that is used to inform, persuade, or motivate audiences. Examples of rhetoric can often be found in literature, politics, and advertising for specific emphasis and effect-incorporating a variety of figurative language techniques depending upon the desired result. | https://birthday-graphics.com/how-do-scholars-study-the-bible/ |
Critical Insights: Henry James
A great starting point for students seeking an introduction to Henry James and the critical discussions surrounding his work.
From the novels The Turn of the Screw and The Portrait of a Lady to his extensive literary criticism, Henry James is recognized today as one of the central novelists and proponents of 19th-century realism. Original essays in this volume analyze the importance of James’ work to his contemporaries, the influence of Nathaniel Hawthorne in his writing, and his failed theatrical career.
There is indeed no shortage of history in the present volume, which includes contributions by two professional historians based in James’s ancestral Scotland: Owen Dudley Edwards, a leading authority on American and Irish history, as well as a soon-to-be published novelist; and Christopher Harvie, a prolific writer on political and economic history as well as on literature, and also a recently published novelist.
This title is divided into four main sections, starting with Career, Life, and Influence. This section discusses James' career and certain themes of his writings in fairly broad terms, along with a biography about the man behind the literature. The rest of the text examines the writings of Henry James and their growing legacy. Critical Contexts contains four essays that discuss James' life and the impact that he made in the nineteenth century. The ten chapters in the Critical Readings section are arranged in order of the date of publication of the James work under scrutiny.
Each Critical Insights Edition is divided into four sections: An Introduction, Critical Contexts, Critical Readings, and Resources. In Critical Contexts, the provided essays aim to provide a background to the title, author, or theme that is historical, cultural, and biographical foundation for the reader. The essays in Critical Readings utilize common critical approaches to further analyze the author's work, or specific works according to the selected theme. Each essay is 2,500 to 5,000 words in length, and all essays conclude with a list of "Works Cited," along with endnotes. Finally, the volume's appendixes offer a section of useful reference resources: | https://salempress.com/Critical-Insights-Henry-James |
Publishing and the Book Part 1 examines London’s literary and publishing culture through a series of historical case studies of famous and significant writers, and charts the development of the publishing industry in London from the 17th century to the post-WWII period. Through the discussion of authors and their works, students will study and research transformations in literary and print culture, in conditions of authorship and copyright, developments in literacy, readership, criticism, marketing and the production of literary material and the book.
The module aims to give students a historical understanding of London’s publishing industry and the opportunity to respond critically and creatively in writing to this, and further to give students an understanding of the historical processes of taking a manuscript from author to publisher, bookseller and reader.
The module is taught through a combination of lecture/seminar, and is assessed by critical essay, or critical and creative portfolio.
Prior learning requirements
Completion and pass (120 credits) of previous level. This module cannot be taken in addition to SJ5017A.
Syllabus
The first half of the module involves a series of historical case studies which examine significant moments in the history of literary publishing in London (LO1/LO2). Authors and topics discussed may include John Gay and the early 18th c. satire boom (LO1/LO2), Samuel Johnson and mid-18th c. periodical and print culture (LO1/LO2), William Blake and radical publishing in the late 18th c. (LO1/LO2), Charles Dickens and mid-19th c. serial publication (LO1/LO2), Virginia and Leonard Woolf and the small press and magazine culture of early 20th c. modernism and experimental writing (LO1/LO2), and post-WWII publishing ventures for feminist, lesbian and gay, and BAME literature (LO1/LO2). Students may respond in critical and/or creative form to the module syllabus (LO3).
Balance of independent study and scheduled teaching activity
Scheduled teaching ensures that independent study is effective and addresses the learning outcomes and assessment tasks. Students are expected to, and have the opportunity to, continue with their studies outside of scheduled classes. There will be a range of learning strategies deployed and individual learning styles will be accommodated. The module’s learning outcomes, its contents and delivery, have been scrutinised and will be regularly reviewed to ensure an inclusive approach to pedagogic practice.
The module and course utilise the University’s blended learning platform to support and reinforce learning, to foster peer-to-peer communication and to facilitate tutorial support for students. Reflective learning is promoted through assessment items and interim formative feedback points that ask students to reflect on their progress, seek help where they identify the opportunity for improvement in learning strategies and outcomes, and make recommendations to themselves for future development. Throughout the module, students build a body of work, including reflections on progress and achievement.
The School’s programme of employability events and embedded work-related learning within the curriculum supports students’ personal development planning. Through these initiatives, students are increasingly able, as they progress from year to year, to understand the professional environment of their disciplines, the various opportunities available to them, and how to shape their learning according to their ambitions.
Learning outcomes
On successful completion of this module students will be able to:
Cognitive intellectual abilities
LO1 articulate to an advanced degree a detailed and sustained understanding of London’s literary and publishing culture from the 17th century to the present day, showing awareness of recent scholarship and research
Knowledge and understanding
LO2 evaluate literary production in terms of wider commercial, material, critical and cultural contexts, and in terms of the qualities of the fictional world itself, showing awareness of recent scholarship and research
Subject specific skills
LO3 produce sustained critical and/or creative responses to the historical and contemporary contexts of literary publishing in London, showing innovative and independent thought
Transferable skills
LO4 synthesise and evaluate complex historical evidence for development in critical or creative written form. | https://intranet.londonmet.ac.uk/module-catalogue/record.cfm?mc=SJ6019A |
What is literature?
We explain what literature is and how this artistic expression arises. Brief historical review. What are the literary genres.
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What is literature?
Literature is considered by the Royal Spanish Academy as an artistic expression that is based on the use of language ; In fact, we could say that it is almost any written document. It is also the science that studies literary works and a subject taught in colleges or universities.
Literature is a discipline that uses language aesthetically. The term literature comes from the Latin word , which refers to the accumulation of knowledge that will guide us to the correct way of writing and reading. There are some definitions that affirm that, in addition to what is written, literature is sung or spoken.
It is also considered as literature the set of books that talk about a specific topic , are of a particular time or a particular genre. What makes a text literary , that is, what forms or converts it into literature, is literature, which is in the use made of language in such texts. This type of language has a particular significance because it is meant to last over time.
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Literature History
We can say that literature began when the printing press was invented (by Johannes Gutenberg) in the fifteenth century and the written word began to spread. Later, in the seventeenth century, literature was called poetry or eloquence . Then any text was understood as poetry, regardless of gender and not necessarily in verse .
Only in the eighteenth century was the word literature used for the first time with the current meaning. Anyway, there is a doubt as to what literature may or may not be considered, since there are types of texts that seem not to be typecast in any genre, for example, an autobiography or news .
In England, in the 18th century, it was questioned what was included in the concept of literature and what was not, basically consideration was given to the writings produced by those who belonged to the literate, educated class. There were letters, essays , philosophical texts and poetry in English literature at that time, but texts such as novels had a bad reputation and therefore did not come into consideration. Terry Eagleton defines that the criteria of that time to label something as literature or were not ideological and were according to the values and tastes of the ruling class.
For Roland Barthes, literature is not a set of works or a category, but rather it is the practice of writing . Wolfgang Kayser planned, in the mid-twentieth century, to make a change in the term literature, using “belle lettres” instead so that the written text can be distinguished from speech.
It would be important to note that writings based on drawings , such as hieroglyphics of the Egyptians, are not considered literature .
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Literary genres
Literature has genres, that is, types in which the sets of books are classified according to the content of the works, these are called literary genres. Each literary genre is characterized by different semantic, formal or phonological aspects.
There are three major classifications and each one has subgenres:
- Lyric genre , developed by writers such as Federico García Lorca. These are texts that are assigned a specific rhythm , thus within which there are, among others, the anthem, the ode , the eclogue, the satire, etc.
- Epic or narrative genre , in which Miguel de Cervantes is located, which aims to tell a non-true story. Within this genre we have the epic , the deeds of the story , the story and the novel.
- Dramatic genre , which is a text that aims to act, can be tragedy , comedy , and so on. A writer of this literary genre is Pedro Calderón de la Barca.
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Universal literature
Universal literature is part of everyone, since the invention of the alphabet history, customs, messages and culture began to be transmitted also in written form (although we must clarify that until the Middle Ages oral culture lasted).
When we talk about universal literature we refer to those writings that belong to a particular region, but that we consider them as of all humanity , or at least it is thought that everyone should have knowledge of them, as happens with the book The Odyssey; of Homer or Don Quixote de la Mancha; from Miguel de Cervantes.
From the hand of the capitalist system , literature has become one of the largest cultural industries , because books are produced in series, and in some ways culture is also produced . This is why the best sellers were born; that is, the best sellers. This title labels the most successful books in terms of sales or criticism received.
Literary criticism is understood as the discipline dedicated to studying and valuing a text, either positively or negatively. The assessment of this critic is disseminated by the media .
Nowadays, literature has been revolutionized with the advent of virtual books , so the situation of the practice is uncertain, because buying electronic books is cheaper and in turn it reads less and less.
Literature has its greatest distinction in the Nobel Prize and the first award of this type was awarded to Sully Prudhomme, poet and essayist of French origin. | https://whatmaster.com/literature/ |
This volume in the Critical Insights series presents a variety of new essays on 19th century Russian writing, traditionally referred to as the Golden Age of Russian literature. For readers who are studying it for the first time, several essays survey the critical conversation regarding this period, explore its cultural and historical contexts and offer close analytical and comparative reading of key texts. Readers seeking a deeper understanding of the Golden Age of Russian literature can then move onto other essays that explore it in depth through a variety of critical and contextual approaches. Works that may be discussed include, among others, Alexander Pushkin's Eugene Onegin, Leo Tolstoy's War & Peace and Anna Karenina, Ivan Turgenev's Fathers & Sons, Gogol's short works and Dead Souls, Fyodor Dostoevsky's Crime and Punishment, and Anton Chekhov's Uncle Vanya. An exploration of the authors and literary works that identify with the Golden Age of Russian literature, this volume examines the prominent themes of the period. Salem's Critical Insights series distils the best of both classic and current literary criticism of the world's most-studied literature.The series focuses on an individual author's entire body of work, on single works of literature or on a literary theme. Edited and written by some of academe's most distinguished literary scholars, Critical Insights provide authoritative, in-depth scholarship suitable for students and teachers alike.
Rachel Stauffer has taught courses on Russian literature and cultural history at the University of Virginia, USA and currently coordinates the Russian program at Ferrum College, USA as Assistant Professor of Russian.
More books by Rachel Stauffer
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Publisher of the Macmillan Collectors Library, Harriet Sanders, celebrates the arrival on tv this Christmas of Little Women
Our knowledgeable Languages Department have put together a great selection of books, to help share the magic of reading in every language. Here are their Dutch, Russian and Polish selections.
As Star Wars: The Last Jedi drops out of hyperspace and into a cinema near you, Matt from our Web Team gives us his selection of the best Last Jedi books. | http://www.foyles.co.uk/witem/reference-research/critical-insights-russias-golden-age,stauffer-rachel-9781619252226 |
Richardson, Brian E.
Papazian, Elizabeth A.
DRUM DOI
doi:10.13016/M2CZ94
MetadataShow full item record
Abstract
This project examines the problem of historical representation in literary fiction, taking as its subject the twentieth-century novel. As a project in comparative literature, it brings together literary works of American and Russian authors of the twentieth century with works of critical theory and philosophy to analyze artistic representations of crisis, understood as moments of social and cultural transition and change, across cultures. Looking at literary works from the USA and the Soviet Union reveals the points of contact between two countries that both presented claims for cultural domination at the beginning of the twentieth century. The representation of crisis in works of literature that have become canonical from both countries allows us to trace the rich cross-cultural exchange between them. One way in which such cultural exchange was realized was through the cultural uses of Leo Tolstoy’s nineteenth-century novel War and Peace (1869). This dissertation argues that Tolstoy’s novel served as a model for twentieth-century writing in both countries. Through the close examination of two American novels, Ernest Hemingway's For Whom the Bell Tolls (1940) and Edith Wharton’s The Age of Innocence (1920), and of two Russian novels, Boris Pasternak’s Doctor Zhivago (1957) and Vasily Grossman’s Life and Fate (1959), this dissertation uncovers the specific Tolstoyan techniques that each of these authors appropriated and readapted for his or her own purposes. The philosophical concept of the I-other relationship as elaborated by Emmanuel Levinas (1906-1995) and the theories of the dialogic representation of reality in the novel by Mikhail Bakhtin (1895-1975) are used as lenses for reading these literary texts. The dissertation argues that applying the Levinasian model of the I-other relationship to the above-mentioned works of fiction allows for a deconstruction of the totalizing vision of history, a feature which comes to define the historical writing in these major literary works in the twentieth century. The novelty of the present work consists in asking the question of what can be learned about literary representations of crisis by looking at intertextual literary contacts between Russian and American literature from the mid-nineteenth to the mid-twentieth century. The Russian and American authors considered in this dissertation all seek to respond to their own historical moment and work out models of historical representation in the context of social change. | https://drum.lib.umd.edu/handle/1903/19481 |
This book analyzes the relation between cultural changes and experimental fiction written during the 1920s and 30s. This era, known in Latin America as the historical avant-garde, was characterized by a wave of literary and artistic innovation. By framing several Central American novels and short stories from this period within the highly dynamic political and intellectual cultures from which they emerge, this study analyzes the way in which novelists Miguel Ángel Asturias, Luis Cardoza y Aragón, Flavio Herrera, Rogelio Sinán, and Max Jiménez employ subversive narrative strategies that undermine previously dominant intellectual paradigms.
This study demonstrates how these writers undermine the conventions of nineteenth-century realism and naturalism through a variety of experimental narrative techniques while simultaneously rejecting the discourse of positivism. This had significant social implications given that positivism—the notion that true knowledge could only be obtained through observable scientific data—was abused by Latin American military dictators during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries as a means of oppressing indigenous groups and working-class citizens under the guise of social progress. This book thus argues that the use of experimental narrative strategies in these novels is not merely for the sake of artistic innovation, but, rather, that these literary works manifest a desire for modernization through social and cultural change. The study concludes by pointing to the undeniable influence that these authors have had on the trajectory of contemporary Central American fiction.
The Central American works analyzed in this study are significant contributions to the Latin American avant-garde, but have been overlooked for two reasons. First, until recently, the main focus of critics of the Latin American avant-garde has been on poetry and manifestos rather than fiction. Second, there has traditionally been a general lack of attention in Latin American literary criticism to the Central American region as a whole. Central American avant-garde fiction is therefore a field that has been dually marginalized by literary critics who have tended to focus on works of other genres by authors from countries with major metropolitan centers and well-established literary circles. Merlon H. Forster and David K. Jackson, authors of Vanguardism in Latin American Literature, have described research on the Central American avant-garde as “sketchy,” noting that “much more careful work is needed.” This book thus responds to a real need within Latin American literary criticism by addressing an area of research that, because of being overlooked, remains only partially understood.
By identifying innovative Central American texts and demonstrating the ways in which they participate in the broader Latin American avant-garde movement, this study contributes to a more complete picture of this continental project of cultural renovation. The author challenges scholars to rethink the concept of the avant-garde as solely a group phenomenon, and establishes a direct link between literary experimentation and the cultural contexts of these Central American countries. This study contributes to recent scholarship that has emphasized the importance of this brief period of radical experimentation in the development of subsequent literary movements in Latin America and contributes to the ongoing dialogue in the humanities about the concept of modernity in relation to various forms of cultural representation.
Central American Avant-Garde Narrative is an important book for all literature, Spanish, and Latin American studies collections.
ISBN
9781604978858
Publisher
Cambria Press
Publication Date
2014
City
Amherst, NY
Comments
This book is in the Cambria Latin American Literatures and Cultures Series headed by Román de la Campa, the Edwin B. and Lenore R. Williams Professor of Romance Languages at the University of Pennsylvania.
Recommended Citation
Kane, Adrian Taylor, "Central American Avant-Garde Narrative: Literary Innovation and Cultural Change (1926-1936)" (2014). Faculty & Staff Authored Books. 395. | https://scholarworks.boisestate.edu/fac_books/395/ |
Social And Political Trends In 19th Century Turkish Literature
- Module Code:
- 15PNMC373
- Status:
- Module Not Running 2019/20
This course covers the impact of western thought on Turkish intellectual life during the Tanzimat period and the emergence of a new social and political order in the Empire, as seen in the writings of the period. Literary works of the era 1860-1920 are read for their linguistic content, social and historical interest and literary merit.
This course shares teaching hours with the BA course in Turkish literature of the Tanzimat and late nineteenth century.
Prerequisites
The prerequisite is an appropriate level of competence in Turkish language.
Objectives and learning outcomes of the module
At the end of the course students will be able to:
- evaluate and analyse the intellectual history surrounding the development of modern Turkish literature from the 1950s onwards
- apply a range of critical and theoretical approaches to the textual analysis and interpretation of specific texts from Turkih literature
- analyse and interpret specific works of Turkish literature against the socio-historical and cultural context of the time in which the works were produced, as well as against present day academic contexts
- evaluate the role of literature in Turkish society and culture
- demonstrate critical insight into the formation of the literary canon both within the nation-state and post-national contexts
Workload
Two hours of teaching are shared with BA students and there is one additional hour of Masters-tailored tuition per week.
Scope and syllabus
The course starts with a survey of the impact of the Tanzimat reforms on Ottoman society and institutions. The impact of newspapers on literary life and individual writers is examined in conjunction with the adaptations of Western style literary genres such as the novel and drama. The transitional nature of the poetry of the time is studied extensively. The emergence of the movement for a simplification of the language is studied through works in both prose and poetry.
Method of assessment
Assessment is by coursework and written examination in May-June.
Suggested reading
Basic bibliography
- Akyüz, K., 1970. Bat∫ Tesirinde Türk SÇiir Antolojisi. Ankara.
- Bailey, F. E., 1942. British Policy and Turkish Reform Mobement: A Study in Anglo-Turkish Relations 1826-1853. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
- Ersoy, Mehmed Ak∫f, 1989. Safahat. (ed. E. Düzda©). Ankara:
- Kültür Bakanl∫©∫ Yay∫nlar∫. Tevfik, Fikret, 1984.
- Bütün Eserleri. 3 vols. (Ed As∫m Bezirci). Istanbul: Can Yay∫nlar∫.
- Finn, R. P., 1984. The Early Turkish Novel: 1872-1900. Istanbul: ısis.
- Heyd, Uriel, 1950. Foundations of Turkish Nationalism: The Life and Teaching of Ziya Gökalp. London:
- Luzac. Kaplan, Mehmet, 1971. Tevfik Fikret: Devir-SÇahsiyet-Eser. Istanbul.
- Kaplan, Mehmet, 1978. SÇiir Tahlileri. Vol. 1. Istanbul: Dergâh Yay∫nlar∫.
- Kudret, C., 1979. Türk Edebiyat∫nda Hikâye ve Roman. Vol. 1. Istanbul: Varl∫k Yay∫nlar∫.
- Kushner, D., 1977. The Rise of Turkish Nationalism: 1876-1908. London:
- Cass. Mardin, SÇerif, 1962. The Genesis of Young Ottoman Thought: A Study in the Modernization of Turkish Political Ideas. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
- Sönmez, E., 1969. Turkish Women in Turkish Literature of the 19th Century. Leiden: Brill.
- Tanp∫nar, A. H., 1982. 19 As∫r Türk Edebiyat∫ Tarihi. Istanbul: CÇa©layan Yay∫nlar∫.
- Ülken, H. Z., 1966. Türkiye'de CÇagdasç Düsçünce Tarihi. | https://www.soas.ac.uk/courseunits/15PNMC373.html |
Nuha Alshaar joined the Institute of Ismaili Studies in 2009 as a Research Associate, where she focuses on ethical concepts in early Qur’an interpretation, and on the relationship between the Qur’an, tafsīr, and classical literary traditions (adab). She also teaches Islamic Intellectual History and Thought, as well as Arabic Literature at the American University of Sharjah. Dr Alshaar has taught at various academic institutions, including the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, and Queens University Canada in the UK. She is also a member of the Arabic-German Young Academy for Science and Humanities (AGYA). Her publications include Ethics in Islam : Friendship in the Political Thought of al-Tawḥīdī and his Contemporaries (Routledge, 2015) and the co-edited volume Sources and Approaches across Near Eastern Disciplines (Peeters, 2013).
Contributeurs
Edited by Nuha Alshaar, Research Associate, The Institute of Ismaili Studies
Nuha Alshaar
Angelika Neuwirth
Ghassan El-Massri
Beatrice Gruendler
Geert Jan van Gelder
Sarah Bin Tyeer
Tahera Qutbuddin
Louise Marlow
Wen-chin Ouyang
Nada Saab
Denis McAuley
Steffen Stelzer
Présentation
Though there have been many studies on the Qur’an’s importance in tafsīr (Qur’anic commentary), there are comparatively few which look at the impact of the Qur’an on other forms of literature. The Qur’an and Adab : The Shaping of Literary Traditions in Classical Islam bridges the gap in the scholarship by placing the Qur’an in its broader cultural and literary contexts. It explores the Qur’an’s relation to classical literary traditions (adab) from pre-Islamic times until the fifteenth century CE, focusing on the various ways in which the classical literati (udabāʼ) engaged with the Qur’anic text, linguistically, conceptually, structurally, and aesthetically, to create works that combined the sacred with the profane, thereby blurring the boundaries between formal tafsīr and adab. Through a detailed introduction and a series of case studies, the volume rethinks the concept of adab and the relation of scripture to humanistic traditions in classical Islam and questions the general classification of adab as belles-lettres. It examines the religious aesthetic found in different types of adab works—poetry, literary criticism, epistles, oratory traditions, anthologies, ’mirrors for princes’, folklore, and mystical/Sufi literature. Featuring contributions by leading scholars, the collection investigate the intertextuality between pre-lslamic poetry and the Qur’an, and the innumerable approaches to the Qur’an by classical authors. It discusses the various citation techniques employed in the udabāʼ’s borrowing of Qur’anic language, concepts, and stories. The chapters explain how the choice of these techniques was determined by the literary conventions of the particular genres and contexts within which the udabāʼ were working, as well as by their authorial intention, theological, and ideological outlooks. They also highlight the link between the functions ascribed to Qur’anic quotations in a specific text and the need to convey a particular message to specific audiences. | http://www.mehdi-azaiez.org/The-Qur-an-and-Adab-The-Shaping-of-Literary-Traditions-in-Classical-Islam-par |
Great Expectations by Charles Dickens, the protagonist Pip says, “I took the opportunity of being alone in the courtyard, to look at my coarse hands and my common boots,”(Dickens, 85)
.
Born from a lower class, Pip had sense of lack inferiority regarding his social class and opportunities for education. Although schools have always been around it wasn’t until the Victorian era that education was improved considerably and available for all children rich and poor. In 1870, a law was passed which made it mandatory for all children aged between
510 in Britain to attend school. Children from wealthy family was taught at home until the age of 10 and was sent to Public schools. The poor were initially introduced to school by the ‘Sunday school’ introduction of Robert Raikes with about 1,250,000 children gaining an education with this method by 1831(Victorian School). Girls on the other hand continued to be educated at home. In Victorian Era, both quality and quantity of education differed between classes, but it started to close up gaps gradually.
Education is what defines people. It sets apart the rich from the poor. Education causes a person to think of thing in a new way. It creates in a person a sense of self worth, and a determination to share their thoughts with the world. Upper class were the top 12% of the population, they were the nobles of the society. The ones with all the opportunities. Many of them looked down on the lower classes, because they viewed them as inferior.
The children of rich parents often either went to a private school or had private tutors that would come to their home and teach them. It would never be an option for a rich parent to send
their child to a public school, because they were for the common people. Sometimes the rich parents didn’t see it as necessary for their child to go to school, since they had enough money to live well off of. | https://www.studymode.com/essays/Victorian-Era-Education-70731124.html |
In the social pyramid of ancient Egypt the pharaoh and those associated with divinity were at the top, and servants and slaves made up the bottom.
What was the lowest class in Egypt?
The lowest class of people in ancient Egypt was slaves. Many slaves were foreign captives. Others were peasants and convicted criminals.
Ancient Egypt Social Pyramid
The two top levels, the Pharaoh and Government Officials, were the most powerful and wealthy. The bottom level, the peasants, were the largest social class and were the workers that were the farmers and construction workers.
Once this division of labor began, social classes began to emerge in Egypt just like they did in Mesopotamia.
- Pharaoh. Since the pharaoh was seen as a god, he was given limitless power. …
- Government Officials. …
- Priests. …
- Scribes. …
- Soldiers. …
- Artisans and Craftspeople. …
- Peasants. …
- Slaves.
Who made up the lowest class in Egypt?
The lower class, the largest class by far, consisted of unskilled labourers. Most of them worked on farms. Prisoners captured in foreign wars became slaves and formed a separate class. Ancient Egypt’s class system was not rigid.
What groups were below the upper class in Egyptian society?
Lower down were the educated professional classes, such as scribes, accountants and doctors. Beneath them were the workers and craftsmen, like soldiers and builders. At the very bottom were the slaves and servants, as well as farmers who worked on land owned by the pharaoh and the social elite.
What did the lower class eat in ancient Egypt?
Lower Class: The lower class ate fresh bread, onions, vegetables, fish, eggs, and beer. People ate their food with their fingers, while lying on mats woven from reeds.
At the bottom of the social pyramid were the peasants. They were the largest social class. Peasants worked the land, providing the Egyptians with a steady food supply. When not farming, peasants worked on the pharaoh’s massive building projects.
Two economic groupings exist in Egypt. One grouping consists of a wealthy elite and a Western-educated upper middle class. The other grouping, which includes the vast majority of all Egyptians, is made up of peasants and the urban lower middle class and working class.
social class, also called class, a group of people within a society who possess the same socioeconomic status. Besides being important in social theory, the concept of class as a collection of individuals sharing similar economic circumstances has been widely used in censuses and in studies of social mobility. | https://destination-malawi.com/traveling-in-africa/what-was-the-lowest-social-class-group-in-ancient-egypt.html |
Nobody writes the literature for a pride, it borns from the character, also it satisfies the needs of nation...
Akhmet Baitursynuly
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William Caxton
(1422-1492) was a printer, diplomat, writer and merchant. He is credited with bringing the first printing presses to English, and becoming one of the first booksellers in English. His translations of Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales and Thomas Mallory’s ‘Le Morte d’Arthur’ were important milestones in English Literature. By mass printing books, Caxton enabled a standardisation of the English language and began a process of literacy to gradually spread across England.
William Caxton was born and educated in Hadlow, Kent around the time of 1415-1422. At the age of 14, he went to London to serve as an apprentice to a wealthy London merchant. After his master, Robert Large died, Caxton inherited a small sum to help him start his own business. He travelled to Bruges, in Belgium and finished in apprenticeship. Working as a merchant he came to Margaret, Duchess of Burgundy (who sister of the English King). He was employed by the Duchess on duties of diplomacy and also trade. He travelled to Cologne where he became aware of the burgeoning printing industry.
Using this new technology, Caxton set up a printing press in Bruges, and later brought back a printing press to England. During this time, he also translated several books into English, such as the Historyes of Troye.
In 1476, when he was in his 50s, Caxton was back in London, and he started printing and selling books. This included very influential books, such as Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales, Le Morte d’Arthur, Sayengis of the Philosophres (Sayings of the Philosophers) and The Book of the Knight in the Tower, published 1484. This included some of the first verses in the Bible to be printed in English.
His books appealed to the upper classes and merchant classes, though some worried that mass printing may lead to the education of the lower classes and social unrest as they sought to fight against their conditions. He died in around 1492. | https://adebiportal.kz/en/authors/view/3412 |
In a first place, it is important to understand the importance of property in that period to maintain elite status: the dowries of young brides often determined whether a woman entered her marriage as a principal wife or as a simple concubine. The new law protected the inheritance rights to daughters under various conditions, they also protect wife’s properties during marriage and after widowhood. Another important factor is the spread of literacy and printing of law books which allied people to got to courts more easily. Some records shows that female of all ages and social classes initiating lawsuits related to property rights during the Song
During the first part of her life, she had defended the cause of women against literary misogyny in a debate known as the Querelle Des Femmes (The Saint Joan Of Arc Center). Despite the odds stacked against her by her gender, she became one of the most distinguished writers of the later middle ages (Castor). More importantly, she led France to a victory in battle against England and won (Castor). Many people were amazed by her victory especially as a woman leading an army that large the first time ever (Castor). Women from Greece, Turkey, and China were all inspired by her story to fight for their country’s freedom (The Saint Joan Of Arc Center).
Before she was even a teenager, Helen had already met eminences such as Mark Twain. According to the Autobiography of Mark Twain, Volume 2, Mark Twain described Helen as “quick and bright.” According to Harvard Magazine, “...Alexander Graham Bell, Mark Twain, and Andrew Carnegie regarded Keller and Sullivan as two of the most remarkable women of their time.” Helen has indeed inspired these famous phenomenas, but also accomplished many extraordinary things throughout her
Members of the upper class tended to look down upon the lower class because of their lack of education and sophistication. Marriage primarily took place within social classes. Those who married outside of the class went against societal norms and were ostracized. Through writing Jane Eyre, Bronte wants the reader to stand up to the rigid gender and social standards to create a society with equality of rights for all. She utilizes a sophisticated narrator, Jane, to create a passionate but also rational tone to challenge the contemporary mindset that women should conform to Victorian society.
Different societies view women in different lights. Therefore, a woman’s position is greatly different from one society to the other. The societies in question do not necessarily have to exist at the same time. Even in the same time frame, two societies could exist, where one treat women as equals to men, and another that treats women differently than men, whether better or worse. The societies in question are: Mesopotamia, Greece, China, Rome & Europe, and this essay aims to study different societies’ viewpoints on women, and to compare and contrast them against each other.
Some important values of the Communist movement were truth, liberation, and discipline. In Chen Zongying’s account, the relationship that she maintained with her husband, Ren Bishi, remained consistent with the Confucian value of relationships concerning spouses. While vital values continued, some traditional values were left out or changed in Communist-led propaganda and behavior. Ma was able to escape her mother-in-law by joining the Communist Army. Running away from obligations and agreed arrangements was generally frowned upon, but exceptions were made based on the ideal of “liberation.”
This passage shows that Alexandra and Atticus agrees with this act. That proves that she is a trustworthy person. This act shows that she has the strength to do something that gives her less time with her husband and son. By showing Calpurnia’s Strong personality, Miss Maudie’s selflessness, and Alexandra’s decision making, Harper Lee forces the reader to question society’s views of women.
Young poor men have similar reasons for entering into fatherhood; they hope to be viewed as responsible and potentially redeem their part of drugs, violence and
However, women should not have the sole responsibility of carrying that responsibility. Opposing Views However, some critics would say Hawthorne’s perception of women’s strength diminishes throughout the Scarlet Letter as the ending suggests a more peaceful and quiet submissiveness to take place for order and prosperity in society to occur. They state the quietness and preservation of Hester demonstrates the strength of women to endure their role in society and thereby create a more peaceful
Tough composed his books on the premise of his own supposition of women. He consequently enables them to act in non-conventional ways, so they are not viewed as perfect Victorian ladies. While in his time most ladies needed to manage without independence of any sort, the ladies in his books endeavor to acquire genuine social uniformity and reject the longstanding conviction that ladies are powerless and need to rely on upon men to make due in this world. In Far from the Madding Crowd Hardy rejects the conventional idea of marriage. He nearly saw the sexual orientation inclination inborn in the Victorian culture and culture.
For example, being a good helper consisted of a woman’s role as a parent and household manager (Zurndorfer). An exception to the normal view of women in Chinese society was Ban Zhao. She was a well-known woman, who belonged to an elite and prominent family. She was an accomplished historian and scholar, and she contributed to many important texts in the Chinese society.
Jackie Kennedy is an inspiration because she successfully served as many roles like First Lady, mother, wife, and fashion icon. Even before her time as First Lady, Jackie was an accomplished and educated woman. She was a strong mother, a faithful wife, and an icon. “She wanted to be beautiful and elegant, but she also didn’t want to tower over diplomats who came from other countries, so she began wearing shorter heels,” Porterfield said. Jackie was smart and thoughtful.
Women should be educated, but refined and submissive and understand that their education was to help them fulfill their roles as mothers and not to seek a role beyond the home. The education of wealthy white women generally focused on academic learning, good manners, and fine arts to suit their class position. They often attended boarding schools or at least private schools. “A well-known southern magazine DeBow’s Review extolled the numerous benefits of women’s education, ‘The effect has been to improve their minds and manners without robbing them of the extreme delicacy and refinement for which they have always been distinguished.’” (McMillen 94).
In this essay "This I Believe", I 'm going to tell you a story of duty about a young girl from China. Her name is Ying Yu. This essay described her unlimited honesty, loyalty, hardworking ethics, respectful to her parents and country. During her life in China, she works very hard to get a great grades all the time because in China less than 85% considered a failure. She moves from China to the United States. | https://www.ipl.org/essay/Roles-Of-Women-In-Confucian-Society-FKYXCCRHESJP6 |
Great Expectations is a novel about a poor boy named Pip, who lives with his cruel sister and her blacksmith husband. After years of helping a wealthy reclusive woman named Miss Havisham, he receives a small fortune from an anonymous benefactor. After learning to live like a gentleman and many attempts to court Miss Havisham's daughter, Estella, Pip learns that his fortune was not from Miss Havisham, as he had assumed, but a convict he had helped save when he was a child.
Charles Dickens, born February 7, 1812, is well known for fictionalizing the misfortunes of his youth in his writing. When he was nine, Dickens' family relocated from the bucolic southeastern coast of England to the bustling city of London. Shortly thereafter, when Dickens was twelve, his father was arrested and sent to prison for accruing severe debts. The family, including Dickens' mother and siblings, moved into the prison as well. Charles, however, was sent out on his own to work as a child laborer at a blacking warehouse. (Blacking was a factory-produced soot used to color various products.) It was Dickens' job to paste labels on bottles, working alongside many other maltreated children. It was a job Dickens despised, and one he most memorably recalled in his semi-autobiographical novel, David Copperfield. Although Dickens worked at the warehouse for only three months, his experience there was highly traumatic. He was miserable in the job, and felt himself superior to such menial labor, and to the other child laborers.
Dickens first became a literary sensation at the age of twenty-five, with the publication of his first novel, The Pickwick Papers. Prior to his first literary success, Dickens worked as a law clerk, and later as a court reporter. His interest and background in the public justice system is evident in Great Expectations. A remarkably prolific author, Dickens continued to publish until his death in 1870.
As in his highly autobiographical novel David Copperfield, Dickens includes many aspects of his own experience in Great Expectations. Like Pip, the novel's young protagonist, Dickens was raised in the English countryside and forced to labor in a job he detests, a job he feels is beneath his capability. Similarly, Dickens, like his character Pip , felt shame for his humble beginnings and aspired to grandiose success, which he experienced early in his life, as a young man in London.
Written in 1860-1861 as a weekly serial for Dickens' magazine, All Year Round, Great Expectations follows a form popular during its time of publication. The novel is a clear example of a bildungsroman, a novel which portrays the growth of its protagonist from youth to maturity through a process of personal experiences and self-realization. Great Expectations depicts Pip's transformation from a rural peasant boy to the urbane young man who is careless with his unexpected fortune. The bildungsroman rose to popularity in nineteenth-century European fiction with the publication of Goethe's classic Wilhelm Meister , and subsequent titles by Dickens' contemporaries, Charlotte Bronte, author of Jane Eyre, and Daniel Defoe, author of Robinson Crusoe.
One of the central themes in Great Expectations is the tension between rich and poor. The novel highlights the vast divisions among the social classes during early Victorian England, the period in which the book is set. Such divisions were complicated by the economic and social changes that were altering the conventions of English society. The Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries allowed entrepreneurs and capitalists entrance into the elite class, formerly accessible only to the progeny of wealthy blue-bloods. An influx of people moved into the city from the country, seeking work, wealth, and opportunity in the new industries springing up throughout London. As a result, London was transformed into a crowded, gloomy city, black with smoke and soot spewed from factory chimneys. Although the Industrial Revolution presented new economic opportunities for the lower classes, divisions among social classes remained. Apparent in Great Expectations are the great differences in socially acceptable behavior among the lower and elite classes. Pip must learn a new set of social mores to associate with and gain acceptance from the educated, genteel nobility of London. | https://www.antistudy.com/study-guide/idsid/445/2261/great-expectations/context |
Abstract: In this paper I shall discuss, against the background of the basic education Romans received, a number of elements that contributed to their further intellectual development and eventually led to their becoming truly learned. Roman booksellers, copiers and bookshops made a huge contribution towards Roman education and further learning; private and public libraries had a large influence on the literary culture of the Empire; public baths with libraries and lecture halls also contributed towards the enlightenment of the Romans; scholarship and continuing studies encouraged intellectual discussion among learned people; and both travelling and relaxation added to and enriched their knowledge and insight. In this discussion it will become apparent that educated Romans had a strong desire to further their education and gain more knowledge and that they made use of their many opportunities to do so.
Key words: Education; learning; social graces; booksellers, copiers and bookshops; private and public libraries; recitations; public thermae; scholarship; relaxation; travelling.
1 Introduction
When one is asked to talk about “Roman education”, the first thing that comes to mind is the formal education Roman children and more advanced students received. There were, however, many other ways, that will also be discussed in this paper, of furthering mental growth. Aulus Gellius, for example, states that the main purpose of his Noctes Atticae was to encourage people to dedicate all their free time to the pursuit of learning. His own life serves as a model: he devoted every spare hour he could steal from his daily business to study, and undertook to do so for the rest of his life. He depicts the activities of an otium litteratum, such as private reading or educated conversation, not only as dignified and worthwhile, but also as an enjoyable means of occupying leisure time. One of the stated objects of his book is to suggest to his readers appropriate spare-time pursuits for gentlemen.
In this paper, I shall discuss a number of topics associated with lifelong learning. I shall refer to the following: Roman booksellers, copiers and bookshops, in whose absence there would have been very little learning. In addition, I shall focus on the places that promoted and disseminated learning, namely private and public libraries and the Roman baths. In addition, I shall discuss scholarship, travelling and relaxation.
2 Roman scribes, books, booksellers and bookshops
The earliest booksellers in Rome were scribes who copied books at the request of purchasers. The same people were simultaneously booksellers and copyists, who could use one skill to supplement another. Soon, however, booksellers employed professional copyists. As time went by and requests for books from private libraries increased, more copiers were needed and it soon became apparent that some were much better than others. Books in private libraries were also of a markedly better quality than those in public bookstores.
The dissemination of works of Latin prose was still in its infancy during Cicero’s time. Most prose works were composed by senatorial writers, who were wealthy and important enough to circulate their work to a select group. However, commercial copying and bookselling were necessary so that manuals such as that by Columella on agriculture, Vegetius on military tactics or Celsus on medicine, were available to members of the public. There were also pirated copies: Quintilian, for example, entrusted his Institutio Oratoria to Trypho for publication since, he says, two pirated copies were already being circulated in his name. The existence of pirated copies suggests that there was profit to be made from such copying, and people who wished to read certain books apparently had no scruples about buying or commissioning pirated copies. In addition, in Tacitus’ Dialogus and Gellius’ accounts of the book trade we learn that there may have been an antiquarian market from which affluent collectors could obtain the books of famous Roman authors. If someone wanted a copy of a literary text, he had two choices: he could search for it in a private or public library, or he could instruct an educated slave to copy it from the original manuscript, since no copyright existed at that time and books could be reproduced without the authors’ permission. This obviously added to the corruption of manuscripts that already existed. In addition, authors probably received no payment for their books, although it seems that they did sometimes sell books personally. A buyer could also commission a bookseller to search for a book and have it copied.
Atticus, Cicero’s friend, had Cicero’s works copied and distributed. He owned Athenian slaves, who were specially trained to copy manuscripts, which ensured that their copies of the Greek classics were accurate. Atticus had books copied and offered to his Roman friends merely as a pastime and for the love of books; but this was undoubtedly much appreciated by his friends, since in those times authors often complained that their books had been inaccurately copied and were full of errors.
By the beginning of the Empire, the publication and sale of books were well established. Highly esteemed booksellers (such as the Sosii) were located close to the Forum, and had shops in or near the Argiletum. The names and prices of available books were inscribed on pillars beside the doors at the shop entrances. By the second century, however, the vicus Sandalarius and the Sigillaria had become renowned for its booksellers. It was situated close to the Horrea Chartaria, paper suppliers, which was convenient for copyists and booksellers. Books came to be regarded as luxury items when the upper classes started collecting them for their private libraries, thus demonstrating that they were educated people with status and money. In Rome, luxury trade was conducted around the centre of the city, and the vicus Tuscus became famous for selling luxury goods, inter alia books. Since booksellers catered to the tastes of a select and specialised group of people, books were initially not readily available to the public.
Some book dealers became specialists in their field and travelled widely, visiting famous bookstores in search of scarce manuscripts for serious collectors and scholars. In this way they, too, contributed to the dissemination of learning. Their business expanded as Roman citizens became more interested in literature. Successful and resourceful publishers had a high standing in society and are mentioned by important authors such as Cicero and Horace, who also refer to the copying of manuscripts by their cultured slaves. Booksellers had to produce each copy of a text individually, and much work was probably done to order. There were, however, often complaints (for example by Cicero) about careless copying and translating and about mistakes. In addition, booksellers also sold books, and by the late first century, they probably concentrated more on selling books than on copying them. Books were often copied and distributed for profit, so that literature spread to every city of the Empire. However, since some of the available books were of poor quality, many people had their own copies made. If they were fortunate enough to have a master copy, they could employ their own scribes to copy new texts.
Interestingly, second-hand books were also traded in Rome. High value seems to have attached to original copies of famous books. For example, Aulus Gellius, who may be described as a bibliophile, relates that Fidus Optatus, a famous grammarian in Rome, showed him an exceptionally old version of the second book of the Aeneid (which may once have belonged to Virgil himself) that he had bought in a bookshop in the Sigillaria. Such books were valued highly, not only because they were old, but also for their literary merit.
As stated earlier, when toward the end of the Republic it became fashionable to have one’s own private library, the book trade flourished. Many Romans, whether scholars, students or others, browsed in bookshops, saw which books were available and bought those they wanted for their private libraries. They also spent much time in bookstores studying and discussing literary matters with friends and other interested parties. These shops gradually became popular meeting places, especially for the cultured elite during the late Republic. We read that Catullus would go ad librarium at dawn, and, searching for Camerius, he would look in all the bookshops (in omnibus libellis).
Not all books were obtained from bookshops: many were circulated privately among a small and interconnected library elite. People who were known to be avid readers received books as gifts, and sometimes friends would lend them books they wished to read so that they might make their own copies. The private availability of books obviously affected the bookselling trade adversely, but modest and highly specialised shops continued to sell expensive items.
Wishing to add to his knowledge, Gellius visited the bookshops of the vicus Sandalarius where he found many books for sale. The number of Greek and Latin books had increased to such an extent that it was no longer possible to read everything, even if copies were available. Because educated Romans were expected to have some literary knowledge, however superficial, summaries and selections from books were welcomed. To them, someone like Aulus Gellius was an invaluable source of knowledge. Although Gellius refers to detailed encyclopaedic compilations such as that of Pliny, his Noctes Atticae does not claim to be exhaustive although it contains selective and concise information and discussions on a wide variety of topics. This type of literature was popular during his time.
Note that not all books were copied: when Varro’s library was plundered during the proscriptions, quite a number (aliquam multos) of the 490 “books” that he had written, disappeared. This suggests that not all authors took the trouble to distribute copies of their books. The most important method of distributing books was not by trade, but through gifts and loans among friends. If, therefore, an author wished to give copies of a book to friends, he had to have them copied in advance, since in Rome an author was expected to give his own work to chosen recipients. Cicero, for example, was very privileged: he could simply commission his friend Atticus to supply copies of his new works, since he was one of the few people in Rome who employed professional scribes and could produce multiple copies of a text for himself or his friends. Crassus, too, had well-trained copyists, mainly for business purposes, but they could also copy Latin manuscripts. Cicero could gain access to Greek and Latin books in various ways: he made use of his friends’ private libraries and his own growing library. He also borrowed and copied texts owned by friends or arranged to have texts copied.
It was common practice for Roman authors seeking to draw attention to their works to arrange a public reading or recitatio. During the imperial age, learned people familiarised themselves with recent literature not only by reading, but also by attending public recitations which became quite fashionable. These were well attended and were popular as a means of publicising literature during the reigns of the Flavian emperors. The recitations could take place either in public, in the great baths or forums, which were open to all, or in private houses to invited audiences.
Asinius Pollio, who built Rome’s first public library, was also, according to the elder Seneca, the first person in Rome to invite the public to recitations of his own work. Since he had funded the library in the Hall of Liberty, he probably held his readings there.
Libraries played an important role in the literary education of both readers and writers, and constituted important venues for both private and public recitations and literary discussions. With the development of formal education and the increase in private libraries, we may assume that there was a reading public drawn from the upper classes during Cicero’s time. Most works dating from this period would therefore have had an instant audience and only afterwards have become available for reading. These recitations therefore constituted a large part of the education of younger Romans as well as the cultural formation of their seniors. Poetry, for example, most likely had three phases, of which the first was recitation, the second the distribution of private copies of the printed work to privileged people, and the third the ensuing publication of the work for a wider reading public. A number of important writers of the second century gave extensive accounts of the cultural milieu of their time, from which it appears that performance continued to be as important a means of disseminating books as reading.
3 Private and public libraries
Rome’s conquests in the East had an enormous influence on its culture, since victorious Roman generals seized libraries in Greece and Asia Minor and took the books home when they returned. These books constituted the first private libraries. A few examples will suffice: Lucius Aemilius Paullus, victor at the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC, took the books of the Macedonian king Perseus as spoils of war, and Lucius Licinius Lucullus collected many books while conquering Asia Minor. The owners then opened these private libraries to everyone who wanted to consult the books which dealt with various topics, mainly relating to philosophy, history and literature, but also to agriculture, the art of war, medicine and engineering.
Since education was highly esteemed in early Rome, books were considered to be of great value, not only for the scientific knowledge they imparted, but also from a cultural point of view. Reading gave much pleasure, and the private libraries of many affluent Romans enhanced their status. These private libraries were usually housed in the owners’ country villas. Although some owners of private libraries merely wished to display their books, not really to read them, a private library was nevertheless a necessity for any educated person who wished to continue his studies during the first century AD.
Although the first private libraries were not designed and built specifically for books, provision was made for their storage and for seating. However, since they saw books as a source of ongoing education and knowledge, their owners started to build special rooms in their houses to serve as libraries. These libraries were also embellished so that the owners and their friends who visited and used the libraries would be edified by their surroundings. By the middle of the first century, private libraries had become so common that Seneca declared a library to be a necessity in a home. This induced Vitruvius to start designing libraries for private homes.
Lucius Lucullus, a learned man who contributed large sums of money to the arts and sciences, conquered Armenia and over time built up an impressive collection of books that were famous for the quality of their texts. He returned from the wars in the east with a vast treasure: booty he had captured during his wars in the East. He then built libraries, cloisters and study-rooms on his estate in Tusculum. It was probably the most important and best private Roman libraries, highly rated for the number of its books and their quality. He opened his library to all interested scholars and philosophers. This evoked praise from Plutarch, who said that Lucullus had collected many well-written books, which were being put to good use by Lucullus himself, who spent much time in the library, and by many others. Cicero, for example, made use of this collection. Once when he went to Lucullus’ library in search of some Notebooks of Aristotle to read during his holiday, he met Cato who enquired why Cicero had come to Lucullus’ library when he himself had such a good private library.
The Hellenistic kings set a laudable example when they founded the illustrious public libraries of Alexandria and Pergamon, an example the Romans followed only much later. Julius Caesar first conceived of the idea of building public libraries in Rome. Having seen such libraries in important literary centres in Asia Minor, Egypt and Greece, he envisaged the benefits they could bring to his own people and planned two libraries − one Greek and one Latin − and asked M. Terentius Varro to build them. However, nothing came of this, and Caesar’s dream was eventually only realised by Augustus.
Augustus valued literature and culture highly and soon started fulfilling Caesar’s dreams of building public libraries. This became quite a common imperial habit. Augustus supported and inspired C. Asinius Pollio who, at some time after 39 B.C., had inaugurated the first library in Rome to be dedicated to the interests of the public. Booty obtained during the Parthian War was used and then, for the first time, scholarly writings became public property. Greek and Latin libraries were created in the magnificent atrium that was constructed from the spoils of war. Busts of various writers, including Varro, were also placed in the atrium. Thus Asinius Pollio became the first Roman to decorate a library, which started a new fashion of using various types of art, such as statues, busts and inscriptions, for decoration. The Romans approved this fashion and so, together with the books, these items became standard in public libraries.
In 28 B.C., Augustus founded his famous Palatine library that housed Greek and Latin books separately. The library consisted of two buildings attached to the Temple of Apollo. Many of the books came from the East, constituting part of the booty taken in the wars. C. Julius Hyginus, a freedman of Augustus and a learned scholar, was appointed librarian of the Palatine library (praepositus bibliothecae).
After Augustus’ death Livia, Tiberius and Caligula erected a temple in honour of Augustus, which also contained a public library. More public libraries were later founded by other emperors. By the middle of the first century both private and public libraries had become so numerous that Seneca sharply criticised the pretentious hoarding of books which, he said, were collected not for learning but for display.
In A.D. 75, Vespasian built the Bibliotheca Pacis, and later the Bibliotheca Ulpia, adjoining the Forum of Trajan, was opened. This library was famous for its collection of historical archives. Another library was that of Trajan on the Forum Trajanus. The library was apparently housed in an impressive building, and Ammianius Marcellinus describes emperor Constantius’s admiration for it when he first entered it. It was in this very same library that the edict of the ancient praetors one day “just happened to fall” into the hands of Aulus Gellius. From Gellius we obtain a picture of a “library lifestyle” that made legal books available to interested readers, and which set learned and curious people apart from the rest.
Very little survived of all these libraries, but note that all imperial public libraries were built not only to impress visitors, but also to afford them an attractive and comfortable place in which to study and work.
In many towns in Italy and the provinces wealthy citizens followed the admirable example set by the emperors and started building public libraries. Pliny the Younger built a library at a cost of 1,000,000 sesterces for his native town of Comum and bequeathed 400,000 for its maintenance. Another example is that of Ti. Julius Aquila Polemaeanus who, after having built a library, left an amount of 25,000 dinarii to the city to provide for the library’s maintenance and for the addition of books to the collection.
There is evidence of seven public libraries in Italy, six in Greece, and five in Asia Minor. These libraries were given to the cities by wealthy inhabitants, or were built by the municipalities. Large amounts of money were required for their construction, and a trust fund or other financial support needed for their subsequent upkeep, for the purchase of new books, and for salaries and repairs.
That Roman citizens raised public buildings and especially libraries, partly or entirely at their own expense, demonstrates their generosity. Inscriptions on these memorials indicate various reasons for all this giving. The benefactors were motivated not so much by philanthropy, a desire to benefit their fellow citizens, as by a wish to preserve their names for posterity in the form of some conspicuous and imperishable monument.
Books could be taken out of these libraries and people visited them to look at these books at their leisure, or because they were seeking a particular book. The librarian would occasionally take new books to a well-known reader, such as Aulus Gellius; and sometimes regular visitors would find a valuable and unexpected book in a library: as we have seen, Aulus Gellius, for example, found a book containing the praetors’ edicts in Trajan’s library.
Ancient libraries were not silent: the visitors read aloud to themselves, and besides, nobody really expected them to be quiet. Thus Gellius reports that when he and a friend went to a library, they had an animated conversation about certain books they had read.
There was a close relationship between books and art: “everywhere many books, many statues, many portraits, which he not only possessed, but even hallowed – Virgil’s, in preference to all others”. It is interesting to note that private libraries followed this trend and in large measure duplicated the features of the public library.
The content of libraries is concerned was determined by the needs of the public. For example, a great variety of books was to be found in the library of the Atrium Libertatis, as well as huge collections of documents and poetry. In addition, both old and newly published works by many authors were continually added to the existing books. According to Juvenal, works on civil law as well as on general culture were available in the Palatine library. In this library, the Sibylline Books, deposited for safekeeping, were stored under the pedestal of the statue of Apollo. The fact that they were consulted at appropriate intervals only by the Committee of Quindecemviri is indeed evidence of their value and of their importance to the library.
On the subject of the management of libraries, we are indebted to many inscriptions, both Greek and Latin, for information on what seems to have been a well-organised system of administration of public libraries: the officials employed, the rank accorded them, the duties performed and other details.
One may well ask what motivated the emperors and citizens of Rome to expand their knowledge and literary culture during the Principate. Why did they build and maintain public libraries? At the end of the Republic there was a noticeable intellectual revival in Rome. The Romans seem to have been inspired by the amazing libraries in Alexandria and Pergamum, which gave eminent scholars the opportunity to further their erudition and scholarship. After all the wars, the Romans could now devote themselves to intellectual affairs.
Why was it necessary to have libraries in Rome? Various reasons were cited, such as (1) the preservation of books and records; (2) public education; and (3) the exercise of cultural influences. Caesar planned his libraries very enthusiastically, stating that he wanted people (1) to use libraries as reading rooms; (2) to do research in them and use them as places of reference; and (3) to take out books to read at home. Students interested in various subjects, such as literature, grammar and history benefited from working in these libraries. In addition, libraries had a beneficial cultural influence on people reading the books and other documents, since the beautiful and calming surroundings had a civilising influence on them.
It was common practice for Roman authors seeking to publicise their books to arrange a public reading or recitatio. During the imperial age, learned people familiarised themselves with recent literature not only by reading but also by attending public recitations that consequently became quite fashionable. During the reign of the Flavian emperors these well-attended events were a popular means of obtaining publicity.
Asinius Pollio who built Rome’s first public library was also, according to the elder Seneca, the first man in Rome to invite the public to recitations of his own work. Since he had funded the library in the Hall of Liberty, and since literary gatherings were held in libraries, one may assume that he gave his readings in that library.
Thus libraries were an important element in the literary education of readers and writers, and accommodated both public and private recitations and literary discussions. The development of formal education and the increasing number of private libraries ensured that a reading public had emerged in the upper classes during Cicero’s time. Most works dating from this period would therefore have had an immediate audience, so that it was only at a later stage that they were available to the public. These recitations formed an important part of the education of young Romans and of the culture of older people. Poetry, for example, probably experienced three phases. Firstly, it was recited, then private copies of the printed work were distributed to privileged people, and finally the books were published for a wider reading public. A number of important writers of the second century gave extensive accounts of the cultural milieu of their time, showing that performance remained as important as reading in the promotion of books.
4 Roman baths
During the first two centuries A.D., the emperors did all they could to make life convenient and agreeable for the inhabitants of the city. Augustus established a reputation for munificence on an imperial scale, not only in Rome but also in Italy and the provinces. He was among the emperors and magistrates who erected public buildings including large public thermae or baths in Roman cities and towns, a favourite gift to the people that provided citizens with “recreation in the full and best sense of the word”.
Roman baths were a very characteristic and widely distributed type of building in the Roman world. By the first century A.D., public baths were a normal feature of Roman cities. The thermae of ancient Rome thus fostered both intellectual life and recreation. As we have seen, libraries were sometimes on the same premises as public baths. Vopiscus, for example, speaks of consulting books in the Ulpian library, which in his time had been removed to the thermae Diocletianae. In addition, recent discoveries in Rome revealed, among the excavated ruins of the thermae of Caracalla, an apartment clearly used as a library. Niches in the walls gave clear evidence of the use of shelves and reading desks.
Trajan’s baths in Rome were magnificent complexes, comprising gardens, lecture halls, libraries and other cultural facilities. “Bathing” consequently formed an important part of everyday social life. Friends would meet at the baths, where they could talk, attend lectures and read. The facilities provided were sufficiently impressive to attract educated and learned people, but also provided cultural opportunities to the lower classes. The baths included art galleries and various assembly rooms in which people could, for example, attend recitals.
5 Scholarship
Various people helped to place literary scholarship on a firm footing. According to Suetonius, the first Romans to become renowned scholars were Lucius Aelius and Servius Clodius (Roman knights and wealthy men of leisure). Fields of scholarship included antiquarian research and linguistic enquiries. Julius Caesar wrote about grammatical analogy and the morphological regularity of language while campaigning in Gaul. Senator Nigidius Figulus wrote on grammar, science and technology and Atticus composed a chronological summary of the history of Rome and the “world” in general. Varro wrote widely on almost everything, such as the literal arts, divine and human antiquities, and the Latin language; Verrius Flaccus compiled a voluminous dictionary, and Messala Corvinus, a prominent military man, public figure and literary patron, wrote a monograph on the letter “s”. The emperor Tiberius, of a later generation, enjoyed the company of scholars and liked to test them by asking them particularly challenging questions. Claudius took matters further: besides writing a monograph on the need for additional letters in the alphabet, he used his influence to see that the letters were actually used in imperial documents and inscriptions.
This kind of scholarship was highly esteemed and made a large contribution to Roman civilisation and erudition. Although many of these works are lost to us, extracts from them have fortunately been included in the works of authors writing at a later time. Aulus Gellius usually stresses the edifying function of these writings. Earlier works of scholarship, consulted by Gellius and his contemporaries, probably also expressed similar ideas. Works of Roman scholarship generally seem to reflect the belief that readers would benefit from them, which confidence seems to have been appropriate.
Interestingly we learn from Suetonius’ Lives that many teachers and scholars were slaves who had originally come from the eastern Mediterranean, Gaul, Spain, Illyria and even parts of Italy. Although some had been educated before being enslaved and others after enslavement, their learning always benefited their masters. During the first century B.C., scholarship and devotion to learning promoted social exchanges among the upper classes, with the ready availability of books playing an important role here. An excellent example was Lucius Lucullus who opened his impressive library to his friends and anyone else who wished to make use of it. This library attracted intellectuals and continued to do so even after Lucullus’ death. Cicero’s active acquisition and construction of libraries demonstrates the same connection between scholarly and social relationships.
Scholarship and learning also came to feature in everyday discussions and letters. For example, the Emperor Tiberius’ dinnertime conversation, which attested to his erudition, forced some of his dinner companions to try to find out what he had read recently so as to prepare for intellectual discussions with him. Later on, in the time of Aulus Gellius, such learned conversations had become commonplace not only at dinner, but also while people were out walking across the Field of Agrippa near the Campus Martius, or when they happened to meet people on the way to the palace. Such encounters, and many others, often led to highly intellectual discussions.
In the meantime, not only the upper classes but also freedmen added to their general knowledge through education. A fairly high level of literary education thus became the norm, and throughout the Empire the Roman elite came to be known for their literary learning. Although the Roman Empire encompassed a large part of the known world, a fairly homogenous culture had arisen, since the same texts were usually read in all parts of the Roman Empire to which Latin scholarship extended. This was probably thanks to the classical education that Roman children received in schools.
By now, the upper classes were learned, and the nouveau riche generally well educated. During this period, attention was focussed on collect existing texts rather than acquiring new knowledge. Original research gave way to the writing of textbooks that would help members of the upper classes impress their friends on social occasions. The Noctes Atticae by Aulus Gellius is an excellent example: it did not claim to be complete or original, but contained many interesting facts and also discussions of a number of topics that would appeal to readers. Gellius had read widely, and carefully chose those topics that would enable his readers to acquire some honourable erudition (honestae eruditionis) and not appear ignorant. Gellius believed that it was important for men of good social standing to know something about the law, anatomy, and chronology. In the Noctes Atticae Gellius discusses a variety of topics (grammar, mathematics, rhetoric, philosophy and law) with the apparent aim of showing his readers why education is worth having, namely that it is enjoyable, social, useful and moral.
Early in the Principate there was such intense pressure on people to demonstrate familiarity with literature that even poorly educated men attempted to conform to the trend. It was expected of an educated adult to continue to read and to attend recitals by important Greek and Roman poets, so that he could acquire the social grace of quoting literary texts, which would add to his status. Seneca recounts the story of Calvisius Sabinus who longed to be educated, but unfortunately had a poor memory. He tried to solve the problem by buying learned slaves who could recite Greek poetry by heart. When he attended dinner parties, they had to assist him, prodding him when he wanted to quote Homer or Hesiod, for example. Another well-known story about ignorance was the one about Trimalchius who bought libraries in bulk.
Pliny was a famous Roman scholar, who was intensely interested in scholarship: not necessarily original information, since he preferred leaving a huge legacy of invaluable work rather than merely providing enjoyment to his readers. During his lifetime he collected basic information and details on “Hellenistic and Roman knowledge of cosmology, astronomy, anthropology, zoology, botany, medicine, and metallurgy, not to mention a history of human culture and inventions … and the fullest surviving account of Greek and Roman art and artists known or represented at Rome in the first century”. He was an unassuming man, and spent much time at home in his Laurentine villa studying, reading, writing, consulting his books and cultivating his mind.
Suetonius, too, was a learned man. Early in his life, he dedicated himself to scholarship, as is evidenced by his many literary works. Later, however, he gave up his private studies to become an imperial official. This post hereafter his official duties claimed much of his time. He was probably appointed in recognition of his scholarly work and as an encouragement to continue it.
6 Relaxation
Educated men everywhere generally found reading to be pleasurable and relaxing. A desire always to know or learn more, characteristic of an educated mind, was evident in the scholarly society of the late Republic and the educated world of the Empire. Learned conversations, according to Gellius, could take place almost everywhere: at dinners, in public libraries and bookshops, at the bedside of an ill friend, on board ship, in classrooms and theatres or simply on leisurely walks. Busy people had many opportunities to engage in intellectual discussions. In their free time they could enjoy the pleasure of short, learned conversations and at the same time fulfil their social duties. This recalls Gellius’ description of his acquiring knowledge per omnia semper negotiorum intervalla, in quibus furari otium potui. He believed that intellectual pursuits were the only admissible ones for a learned man’s free time. Gellius was often to be found at work in a library or browsing through libraries, or in a bookshop. Grammar and geometry, he stated, were the basics of an education, while philosophy and law constituted the higher classical education of wealthy Romans.
Cicero, however, held his dialogues during times of otium, for example on public holidays, whilst the younger Pliny and Fronto dedicated much of their free time to reading, writing and learned conversation.
7 Travelling
Travelling, one of the ways in which a learned man could add to his knowledge, will now be discussed briefly.
Amongst the upper social classes, travel was considered part of a young man’s education. A Roman youth seeking to pursue his studies or complete them would attend highly respected universities in other parts of the Empire. This was costly, but considered worthwhile since in this way students learned much. We read that Aulus Gellius and a few other Roman students in Athens had dinner together on the Saturnalia, and one may assume that studying in Athens would also have provided many opportunities of visiting other Greek lands.
Upper-class young Romans could also extend their education by either accompanying their fathers as they travelled through the Roman Empire, or by holding administrative posts as comites in the provinces. Learned and civilised Romans were fond of travelling, since they were familiar with Roman history and wished to extend their knowledge. An excellent example of a “famous” traveller was Germanicus, who was sent to the East at the end of AD 17. His journey may have been regarded partly as a pleasure tour, but he undoubtedly also learned much from it: on his way to Syria he visited Nicopolis, the site of the battle of Actium; Athens; a number of Greek islands; the Bosphorus; the site of Troy; and Colophonon. During the next winter he went to Egypt from Syria to see its famous monuments (“cognoscendae antiquitatis”). There he visited Alexandria; sailed up the Nile; and saw Memphis and the pyramids.
8 Conclusion
From the above discussion a number of conclusions may be drawn. The first is that, as from the time of the late Republic, educated Romans very much wished to further their education and gain more knowledge. They could do so in various ways and at various places that constituted influential elements in the intellectual life of Rome. In this paper, the following elements were discussed: books, booksellers and book copiers; private and public libraries as well as literary recitals; Roman baths; scholarship; relaxation; and travelling.
Books, scribes and booksellers made a huge contribution to Roman education and continued learning. Roman authors, for example historians and poets, wrote in Latin, while learned Greek slaves copied Greek books. Booksellers gradually gained in importance, having their own scribes. They eventually had bookshops in the centre of Rome, books by then being regarded as luxury items. Clearly, since every book had to be copied by hand, books would have been costly. As scholarship developed and private libraries increased in number, the demand for books grew. In time, some booksellers started specialising in specific fields, travelling widely in search of rare manuscripts, and thus added to the spread of learning. By the end of the Republic, bookshops were flourishing; some had their own professional copiers and often made books to order. These shops became popular meeting places where bibliophiles spent much time, studying and discussing literary matters with other interested parties.
Their education gave the Romans a lifelong interest in literature. As keen students, they retained their literary and scholarly interests long after they had left school.
Did the rise of private and public libraries throughout the Roman Empire have any effect on the education and culture of Roman citizens? Yes, they undoubtedly had a huge influence on the literary culture of the Empire. Public libraries, in particular, made an enormous contribution by promoting literature in the Empire and providing material for cultural upliftment and research.
What inspired emperors and magistrates to undertake such large building projects as public baths? Vitruvius, addressing Augustus, may give us some guidance in this regard: “Furthermore, with respect to the future, you have such regard to public and private buildings, that they will correspond to the grandeur of our history, and will be a memorial to future ages.” From Vitruvius’ remarks one may deduce that emperors built grandiose buildings not only to fulfil existing public needs, but also to enhance the glory of the Empire and their own status, and because they wished to be remembered by future generations. It should be added that in building public baths containing libraries and lecture halls, emperors, magistrates and private individuals made a large contribution to the growth of literary culture and to intellectual development in the Roman Empire.
From fairly early on, Roman literary scholarship was placed on a firm footing by people from different classes and backgrounds: emperors, upper classes, slaves and freed slaves. The fact that slaves and freedmen were also educated, contributed to a rather high general level of literary learning. Although much was written on a large variety of difficult subjects, thus furthering Roman civilization and erudition, very little of this writing has survived. Fortunately, extracts do appear in the works of later authors. During the first century, intellectual conversations formed part of social life among learned people, and the availability of books played a large part in this phenomenon. Learned exchanges became the norm for everyday discussions, writing and intellectual conversations, for example, when people were out walking in the fields or accidentally met friends on the way somewhere. Characteristic of this later period is that scholars were more interested in collecting existing learned works than in doing original research. Aulus Gellius’s Noctes Atticae, discussing a large variety of subjects, serves as an excellent example of such scholarship of the second/third century A.D. Another famous Roman scholar was Pliny, who left an enormous legacy of invaluable works on a wide variety of topics.
Educated and learned Romans found reading a perfect way to relax. However, from Gellius we learn that education could be furthered in many other ways too: by attending recitals in various places, such as libraries and at the baths; by having a learned discussion while visiting an ill friend; or while having a relaxing walk. Intellectual activities, wherever and of whatever kind, were considered an acceptable form of occupation for the free time of a learned man.
Travelling was considered to be an inherent part of a learned man’s education. Whether it was formal education at a foreign university; holding administrative posts in the provinces; or merely travelling to various Greek lands to add to one’s geographical and historical knowledge, travelling was never regarded as time wasted. It broadened knowledge and insight, and enriched scholars.
In conclusion: generally Romans of the upper classes, and also others who were climbing the social ladder, were anxious to extend their knowledge. For educated Romans, there were many opportunities to do so, to become learned, and to be regarded as scholars. Everything was available: books, libraries, educated friends, recitals, opportunities for travelling and relaxation. From this paper, one may deduce that the Romans often made enthusiastic use of all such opportunities. They valued literature and were willing to try hard to know more of it. It was a period in history when people went out of their way to become learned, and made a conscious effort to add to the knowledge and skills they had through experience and education. They made full use of their opportunities to do so.
* Professor, Department of Jurisprudence, School of Law, University of South Africa; [email protected] . This article is based on research financially supported by the National Research Foundation (NRF) of South Africa. I would like to thank Professor Lesbury van Zyl for editing the article.
Noctes Atticae pr. 12. See, also, Amiel Vardi “Genre, Conventions, and Cultural Programme in Gellius’ Noctes Atticae” in Leofranc Holford Strevens & Amiel Vardi (eds.) The Worlds of Aulus Gellius (Oxford, 2004) at 182.
Gellius pr. 12.
Gellius pr. 23.
Cicero compiled lists of various professions from which, interestingly, it may be deduced that shopkeepers did not enjoy high status, although one may assume that bookshop owners were educated people. See, however, J.P.V.D. Balsdon Life and Leisure in Ancient Rome (London, 1969) who states, at 135, that “shopkeepers of every kind” are amongst the few occupations not proudly recorded in existing epitaphs.
A librarius, according to C.T. Lewis & C. Short (A Latin Dictionary, Oxford, 1966 at 1061) was either (1) a transcriber of books, a copyist, a scribe (cf. Cicero Att. 12.40.1; Seneca Contr. 1.7.18; or (2) a bookseller (cf. Seneca Ben. 7.6.1; Gellius 5.4.2 and 18.4.1). Bibliopola is the common name for the retail trader (cf. Plinius Ep 1,2 fin; 9.11.2; Martialis 4.72).
E. Fantham Roman Literary Culture from Cicero to Apuleius (Baltimore, 1996) at 14.
Fantham (n. 6) at 15.
Fantham (n. 6 ) at 15.
Fantham (n. 6) at 15.
See Fantham (n. 6) at 15, 37; C. Holleran Shopping in Ancient Rome. The Retail Trade in the Late Republic and the Principate (Oxford, 2012) at 48.
H.S. Stuart Jones Companion to Roman History (Oxford, 1912) at 337.
Fantham (n. 6) at 15.
Stuart Jones (n. 11) at 337.
Holleran (n. 10) at 246.
See Martialis 4.72.2; 13.3.4; Pliny Ep. 1.2.6. See, also, Frederic G. Kenyon Books and Readers in Ancient Greece and Rome 2 ed. (Folcroft Library Editions, 1971) at 84.
Holleran (n. 10) at 55. See Suetonius Aug. 57.1; Gellius 18.4.1; CIL VI 448; 761; CIL X 3981.
Holleran (n. 10) at 246.
See, eg., Cicero’s friend Atticus (Att. 12.6); the Sosii brothers, well-known through Horace (ArsP. 345, 346) and Ovid; and Dorus, referred to by Seneca (Ben. 7.6).
See, eg., Pliny Ep. 4.7; Martial Ep. 2.8.
See Cicero Q.Fr. 3.4.5 and 3.5.6; Strabo, who mentions poor quality copying by Apellicon of Teos (13.1.54); and Seneca Ira 2.26.2.
William V. Harris Ancient Literacy (London, 1989) at 224.
See Gellius 2.3.5; 5.4.1; 18.9.5.
Librarius has a dual meaning: bibliopola, however, only denotes bookseller, while librarius can mean either a copyist or a bookseller.
Cf. Catullus 55.3-4.
Cf. Holleran (n. 10) at 248.
See Cicero Phil. 2.21on tabernae literariae. Cf., too, Horatius Sat. 1.4.71; Martialis 1.3.1 and 1.117.10.
Gellius 18.4: variam et miscellam et quasi confusaneam doctrinam. Cf., too, Gellius pr. 5-9.
Cf. Quintilianus 1.8.18-21; Seneca Ep. 88.37.
See Leofranc Holford-Strevens Aulus Gellius (London, 1988) at 21.
Gellius 3.10.17.
Harris (n. 21) at 225.
Cf. Fantham (n. 6) at 36.
Fantham (n. 6) at 37.
Kenyon (n. 15) at 85.
See Gellius 18.5.11. Cf., too, Kenyon (n. 15) at 85; Fantham (n. 6) at 71.
Fantham (n. 6) at 14.
Fantham (n. 6) at 8.
Fantham (n. 6) at 16. During the second century, some of the important authors provided a good description of their cultural milieu, and it is clear that reading was as important as oral performances were.
The term “culture”, used in a narrow sense, indicates the fields of learning, education, habits and taste: see Averil Cameron The Later Roman Empire AD 284 - 430 (London, 1993) at 151.
Fantham (n. 6) at 34.
Frederic Kenyon Libraries and Museums (London, 1930) at 11-12.
See Plutarch Luc. 42. Cf. Kenyon (n. 15) at 81.
See Plutarch Luc. 42.
Plutarch Luc. 41.1.
See Cicero Fin. 3.2.7.
See Suetonius Caes. 44: “To open to the public the greatest possible libraries of Greek and Latin books.”
Stuart Jones (n. 11) at 138.
Clarence Eugene Boyd Public Libraries and Literary Culture in Ancient Rome (Chicago, Illinois, 1915) at 1.
Boyd (n. 48) 2.
See Pliny HN. 35.2.9.
See Pliny HN. 35.2. 9; Suetonius Aug. 29.
See, further, Boyd (n. 48) at 24.
Pliny HN. 35.2.9.
See Stuart Jones (n. 11) at 139; Pierre Grimal The Civilization of Rome (London, 1963) at 274. Cf., too, Dio Cassius 53.1; Suetonius Aug. 29; Ovid Tristia 3.1.59-72.
See Suetonius Gram. 20. His writings, covering an impressively wide field of scholarship, have been lost. He wrote a treatise on agriculture, a commentary on Virgil, and historical, archaeological and (possibly) religious works. He was a teacher and apparently had time for research and teaching. See, also, Donald Dudley Roman Society (Harmondsworth, 1970) at 171-172.
Kenyon (n. 15) at 82. Many owners of private libraries collected thousands of books that were never read. Such libraries served only as adornments to the owners’ houses: see Seneca De Tranquilitate animi c. 9.
Stuart Jones (n. 11) at 139.
Grimal (n. 54) at 273.
Ammianus Res Gestae 16.10.15-16.
Joseph A. Howly “Why Read the Jurists? Aulus Gellius on Reading Across Disciplines” in Paul J. du Plessis (ed.) New Frontiers. Law and Society in the Roman World (Edinburgh, 2013) at 28-29.
Stuart Jones (n. 11) at 139.
Stuart Jones (n. 11) at 141.
Balsdon (n. 4) at 148-149.
F.F. Abbott The Common People of Ancient Rome. Studies of Roman Life and Literature (New York, 1965) at 180-181.
See Cicero Fin. 3.2.7-10.
Balsdon (n. 4) at 149.
Gellius 5.21.9; 11.17.1f; 13.20.1; 16.8.1f.
See Pliny Ep. 1.16.8 (to Silius Italicus).
Cf. Juvenal Sat. 2.4-7.
See Ovid Tristia 1.59-72.
Satira 1.128.
See Suetonius Aug. 31. Cf., too, Ammianus 23.3.3.
Tacitus Ann. 6.12.
See Boyd (n. 48) at 41-51.
See Cicero Pro Archia 5.
When the library of Pergamum came into the hands of the Romans Antony thereupon presented it to Cleopatra: 200,000 volumes!
See Boyd (n. 48) at 53. At 54-57 he also gives a complete list of all the categories of books etc. to be found in the libraries.
See Ovid Tr. 3.1.63-64; Gellius 13.20.17.
Boyd (n. 48) at 57-58. See, further, Cicero Fin. 3.2.7-10.
See Horace Epist. 1.3.16-17; Gellius 16.8.2.
Kenyon (n. 15) at 85.
Fantham (n. 6) at 16.
M. Rostovtzeff, Rome (London, 1967) at 251.
Rostovtzeff (n. 84) at 250.
J. Carcopino Daily Life in Ancient Rome. The People and the City at the Height of the Empire (London, 1967) at 277. See, also, A.R. Hands Charities and Social Aid in Greece and Rome (London, 1968) at 141, 143; Balsdon (n. 4) at 27-28. Further SHA Severus Alexander 39.3-4.
Boyd (n. 48) at 63.
Vopiscus Probus 2.1.
Janet DeLaine “Baths” in The Oxford Classical Dictionary 4th ed Simon Hornblower, Antony Spawforth & Esther Eidinow (eds.) (Oxford, 2012) at 226. See, also Balsdon J.P.V.D. (ed.) The Romans (London, 1965) at 276
Martialis 3.44.12.
See Robert A. Kaster “Scholarship” in Alessandro Barchiesi & Walter Scheidel (eds) The Oxford Handbook of Roman Studies (Oxford, 2010) at 492 according to whom “scholarship” may be described as “writings meant to preserve or elucidate Roman cultural memory in non-narrative, non-mimetic form with a commitment to the truth”.
Kaster (n. 90) at 494.
See Suetonius Tib. 70.3.
See Suetonius Claud. 41.3; Tacitus Ann. 11.13.3 and 11.14.5.
Kaster (n. 90) at 497.
Kaster (n. 90) at 497. See, also, Gellius pr. 12.
For example, without Atticus’ Liber Annalis supplying many missing chronological details, Cicero’s Brutus would not have achieved such a synthesis of Roman oratorical history.
Kaster (n. 90) at 498-499.
Plutarch Luc. 42.1-2.
In 60 B.C., through the good offices of his friend Papirius Paetus, Cicero acquired the library of one of Paetus’ relatives who happened to be the Servius Clodius whom Suetonius considers to be one of the two founders of literary scholarship. Cicero brought the library safely to Rome from Greece with the help of another friend, Atticus. See Cicero Att. 1.20.7; 2.1.12.
Kaster (n. 90) at 499.
See Suetonius Tib. 56.
Gellius 2.22.
Gellius 14.5.
Gellius 19.13.
Kaster (n. 90) at 501.
Kaster (n. 90) at 501.
Vergil and Terence dominated poetry and Sallust and Cicero prose.
Holford Strevens (n. 29) at 21. This corresponded with the tastes of the times as is shown by the miscellanies of Plutarch, Aelian and Athenaeus.
Holford Strevens (n. 29) at 27.
Gellius 20.10.6.
Gellius 18.10.8.
Teresa Morgan “Educational values” in Holford Strevens & Vardi (n. 1) at 191.
Fantham (n.6) at 143-144.
Fantham (n. 6) at 144-145.
Pliny HN. pr. 12-16.
Fantham (n. 6) at 188.
Cf. Pliny HN. 1.9.
He was, at different times, the emperor’s director of research (a studiis) and of libraries (a bibliothecis) under Trajan.
Fantham (n. 6) at 190
Balsdon (n. 4) at 148.
Amiel Vardi “Genre, Conventions, Cultural Programme in Gellius’ Noctes Atticae in Vardi & Holford Strevens (n. 1) at 182.
Gellius pr. 12.
Vardi (n. 122) at 183.
See Gellius 7.17; 9.14.3; 11.17; 13.20; 16.8.2; 19.5.4. For bookshops see Gellius 5.4; 13.31; 18.4.
Gellius pr. 13. See, further, Teresa Morgan (n. 112) at 190.
Balsdon (n. 4) at 233.
Balsdon (n. 4) at 234-235.
See Cicero Att. 1.4.3; Att. 1.20.1; 2.1.11.
Balsdon (n. 4) at 235.
Boyd (n. 48) at 69.
Vitruvius De Architectura vol. 1 pr. 3. The translation is by Frank Granger in the Loeb edition (my emphasis).
See W.W. Fowler Rome (London, 1967) at 98. In Rome, there was another relevant factor: in terms of Roman culture, possessing wealth may have created a sense of obligation. This was undoubtedly also one of the original motives for men to make donations, since the spirit of devotion to the state and the community was a characteristic of Romans in the Republican period. Even during the Empire it was still possible, in the municipalities, “to depend upon the deeply ingrained republican feeling that a gentleman’s business was public service, and that the greatest rewards of life came from public esteem”.
Among the upper classes, nouveaux riches and slaves. | http://arhiva-studia.law.ubbcluj.ro/articol/707 |
Capable school graduates sometimes choose low-ranking universities which do not match their abilities. According to the findings of HSE researchers, up to one-quarter of school graduates in Moscow enrol in low-quality universities despite scoring highly on their USE (Unified State Exam, the final school exam and a standard university admission mechanism in Russia). This academic mismatch limits their life opportunities and often stems from unequal starting conditions in the family and at school. Parents without a university education are not always aware of the difference in quality among universities and therefore cannot give useful advice to their children. Non-elite secondary schools do not normally provide vocational guidance or discuss university admission options with students. As a result, many top academic performers from less privileged families and schools do not even attempt to enrol in high-ranking universities.
Generally, the USE system lives up to its promise of expanding access to higher education. However, inequality persists due to students’ family and school backgrounds. Limiting attitudes projected by their parents and teachers often prevent school graduates from making the right decision: those who could boost their upward social mobility by entering a prestigious university often do not even consider this option.
Having monitored enrolment in Moscow universities for the correlation between students' academic ability and the ranking of universities they choose, researchers found a significant mismatch: up to 28% of students chose a university below the level that they deserved based on their USE score. This finding is striking, given that students in Moscow enjoy 'the widest range of options for entering Moscow-based universities; unlike aspiring students from the provinces, Muscovites do not need to relocate to attend the university of their choice', says the study co-author Ilya Prakhov.
In the regions, the rate of mismatch between the academic potential of students and the quality of universities they choose may be even higher. Not many aspiring students take the risk of applying to a university in another city. Educational migration is constrained by what the student's family can afford; local living standards also play a role, as regions with growing economies and good job opportunities are more likely to retain young people.
This new research is based on a sample of 718 observations from the HSE's Trajectories in Education and Careers longitudinal study (Moscow panel). The researchers compared individual students’ USE scores in the school subjects required for university admission against the quality of enrolment for their chosen university, i.e. the average USE score of all students admitted to subsidised slots in this university. A positive difference between a student's USE score and the average USE score of all students attending their university indicates an undermatch, i.e. a choice of university below the student's ability.
Suppose your son scored 75 in Russian, 85 in Mathematics and 80 in Physics, giving an average USE score of 80. Suppose further that the average USE score of students attending his university ranges between 65 and 75, averaging 70. By subtracting the university average from your son's USE score, you can see that he has undermatched by 10 points (80-70=10) and could have entered a higher-quality university where the students' average USE score is 80.
While undermatching, according to Prakhov, 'only affects one-quarter of school graduates, inequality in access to higher education can occur at earlier stages in secondary school, because USE scores often depend on family and school characteristics'.
A key factor in undermatching is family influence. It was proven more than half a century ago that family background has a powerful impact on children's education.
Parents’ socioeconomic status (SES) — their level of education, income and cultural involvement — tends to 'program' their child's path in life. The family largely determines a youngster's achievements in school and their desire or reluctance to graduate from high school and pursue higher education.
Parents can underestimate their children's abilities and discourage attempts to pursue higher education – or suggest less prestigious universities which are easier to enter. This often happens to students from poorer and less educated families. Not having first-hand experience of studying at a university, parents may not have enough information on preparation and enrolment to provide proper guidance to children. This situation hinders intergenerational mobility and causes children to follow the path of their parents and fail to improve their socioeconomic status.
Termed parentocracy by social scientists, this creates a system where parents, voluntarily or otherwise, determine the future of their offspring based on the family's socioeconomic background and attitudes rather than the child's individual abilities and achievements.
In addition to this, according to Prakhov, a student's family can affect their USE results, since 'a lack of parental investment in the child's human capital (knowledge and skills) tends to limit the latter's academic achievement'.
In contrast, young people from high-status families are at an advantage and far less likely to undermatch. This finding is confirmed by other studies stating that children from families with high professional and educational status are twice as likely to enter a prestigious university as their peers from low-resource families.
Researchers explain this through three family-related factors: strong family attitudes towards a good education, parental investment in their children’s studies and the child’s high academic performance associated with it. Awareness of available higher education options also makes a difference: it has been found that more informed students are less likely to attend low-quality educational institutions.
Parents with high socioeconomic status are prepared to hire private tutors and pay for university preparation courses for their child. By contributing to students' academic performance and confidence, this additional learning helps them score better on the USE, understand their options and avoid undermatching. According to Prakhov and Sergienko, high-priced 'intensive' courses and high-quality tutors ensure an almost perfect match between student and university.
A family's culture is often measured by the number of books in the home library. 'Books are an essential resource for investment in human capital', the researchers comment. 'In a home with lots of books, a curious child is far more likely to take one from the shelf and read it'. Students who read many books are less likely to enter a low-quality university. Indeed, as far as family factors are concerned, inequality in access to education begins long before university, with the bookshelf in one’s parental home.
Not only family, but school also contributes to inequalities in students' choice of educational path and resulting prospects in life. Quite often, the educational path is decided from the first grade, with more affluent families choosing prestigious lyceums and gymnasiums for their children, and families with limited means choosing schools near their home. Both choices can determine the child’s future, especially given that Russian students rarely switch schools, and many stay in the same school until graduation.
Tracking, or selecting a particular academic track and perhaps switching to a certain type of school (e.g. one with a focus on mathematics or foreign languages, etc.), normally occurs in high school and is often linked to families' socioeconomic status, with less resourced families choosing ordinary rather than elite schools. In a few countries, tracking takes place earlier: Germany and Austria assign children to specific tracks at age 10, and Russia is the world leader for pre-tracking, with educational paths determined at the age of six or seven.
Public education effectively perpetuates existing social inequalities, where children of wealthier parents benefit from the best school and university education. According to Prakhov and his co-author Denis Sergienko, graduates of the 300 top-ranking secondary schools in Moscow are less likely than others to undermatch with their chosen university. 'Attending an elite rather than ordinary school contributes significantly to the student's USE score and reduces the risk of undermatching', the researchers emphasise.
Also important is the quality of teaching. Good teachers know how to support their students' motivation and confidence. It has been found that teachers who hold their students to high standards help them develop higher self-esteem.
What then needs to be done to help all aspiring undergraduates make the most of their academic ability and performance? According to experts, schools and families should work together to change the attitudes and improve the knowledge of low-SES parents. Steps need to be taken to minimise the limiting influence of parental background on the choice of educational path for their children.
The attitudes of some schools which tend to be biased against children from low-SES families should also be addressed. It has been shown that teachers and school administrators sometimes perceive parents’ low level of education as a signal that their children's educational aspirations are also low, and such students are not given sufficient attention. According to Prakhov and Sergienko, improving teacher performance in non-elite schools could increase the chances of success for their students.
Schools could also offer elective classes focusing specifically on preparation for the USE, for the benefit of low-income students. And finally, students need to be informed and updated on available options of university enrolment and the overall situation in the educational market. | https://iq.hse.ru/en/news/367603738.html |
How is ICT worsening the inequality in education?
Technology is making lives better for everyone in many ways, but it is also responsible for worsening existing inequalities, for example, between rich and poor, men and women, and rural and urban people. In a 2020 UN report, relentless, exponential technological progress of our times has been identified as one of the four critical factors in widening the economic inequality in recent decades and in future, especially in developed countries. Now, COVID-19 has ruthlessly laid bare the uncomfortable reality of technology-induced inequality in developing countries like Bangladesh as well. Education during the pandemic is a disquieting case in point.
Of all types of technologies, information and communication technology (ICT) is playing the most transformative role in the world. Many view it as the 'touch stone' for curing all our ills. ICT has indeed opened a wide window of opportunity in education. For anyone with basic education, a cheap smartphone and a decent internet connection offer an unlimited opportunity to learn anything under the sun. At least, ideally. Blessed by internet, students can take classes offered by the best teachers who are based anywhere, and even earn degrees from most respected international universities through platforms like Edx.org, mostly for free or at a miniscule fraction of the costs in the traditional system. This seems to be great news for young people in poorer families, who cannot afford quality education in the traditional institution-based system; the educational institutes that poorer students attend also tend to be of lower quality. Indeed, many young people are using the internet to educate themselves and transforming their lives, despite their challenging circumstances. But unfortunately, they are an exception, not the norm.
To be able to use ICT for educational and productive purposes, certain other conditions need to be met. The most obvious one is the access to technology. Not surprisingly, ICT access is closely related to the income and wealth of a household, even though the cost of ICT has come down substantially in recent years. Still, even in developed countries like the USA, school closure during COVID-19 created a public outcry because many low-income families did not have reliable access to computer and internet that their children could use to attend online classes. A study conducted by BIGD among more than 4,000 school children in rural and slum areas in Bangladesh found that almost 40% children did not have access to a television, even in a neighbor's house, and 70% did not have access to the internet.
Right after school closure due to COVID-19, the government of Bangladesh decided to broadcast classes for primary and high-school students on the national television. Keeping aside the question of the quality of these television classes, at least 40% children from disadvantaged communities, who still comprise the majority of our population, were automatically excluded because they did not have access. On the other hand, most elite schools offered online classes and students in these schools come from well-off families with adequate ICT access. The situation was quite similar in case of higher education. Many college and university students coming from lower income brackets and remote areas could not afford the required technology for taking online classes. On the other hand, students from higher income brackets could not only attend online classes, but also use the internet to learn more. To make matters worse, often a single device is shared by multiple members of a low-income family or even by multiple families, which further limits the effective access to a device for students in these families.
When they have access, most young people organically develop ICT skills. Thus, ICT exposure in early years has a deep impact on their confidence and skills of using ICT to their advantage in their adult life. Children with disadvantaged backgrounds are already performing worse in education than the children with better socioeconomic backgrounds for many reasons. Inequality in access to ICT is only going to make it worse.
But, even if poorer children have access to technology, can they use it as effectively as the richer children? Most likely not. Eminent Harvard Professor of Public Policy, Robert Putnam, describes "Compared to their poorer counterparts, young people from upper-class backgrounds are more likely to use the Internet for jobs, education, political and social engagement, health and news gathering, and less likely for entertainment and recreation." The reverse is true for poorer children. It is not because the poor are lazy and stupid, it is because in wealthier households, parents are more likely to be educated are better aware of the pros and cons of letting a child have a smartphone or a computer; they know what is available online and are more invested to make sure that their children use it well. Poorer parents are also likely to have lower education and be less aware of the power of technology. BIGD research found that Thirty percent of the rural mobile phone users in Bangladesh cannot even read a message on their phone, let alone do any other activity; and this rate goes up with increasing level of poverty. It must be true in cities as well, even if to a lesser degree. How can we expect these parents to use technology for their children's education?
During the height of the pandemic, most of the parents of wealthier children worked from home. Consequently, these children were more likely to be exposed to all types of educational and cognitive development contents online by their parents, on top of attending the distant classes offered by the government or schools. On the other hand, many poorer children were simply deprived of their regular classes because they did not have access to television or internet. Even when had an access, they probably remained clueless about how to harness its power to learn and grow because their parents could not afford to stay home, had other pressing worries, or did not know how to guide the children. This is a general pattern—even during normal times, richer children have a better chance of using technology for education because of parental awareness and better guidance. COVID-19 has only revealed this sad reality in its starkest form.
For sure, COVID-19 is disrupting the learning for all children. But, powered by technology, the richer children can at least hope to close in. And, the poorer children are drifting further apart, partly because of all the reasons why they are poor, but also because of the technological inequality, the new reality of their generation. | https://www.tbsnews.net/first-anniversary/how-ict-worsening-inequality-education-190705 |
Some people may think that choosing to tax the assets of the wealthy is as random as choosing to tax water but surely there is some logic to it. One of the more interesting aspects of what has been said about the very wealthy and the institutions that they run is that they have had a disproportionate impact on the kinds of policies and currents of thinking operating in political life. Although it sounds rather like old school Marxist theories of knowledge the argument is essentially that there has been a capturing of agendas, decisions and frameworks for policymaking by financial institutions, the wealthy and the powerful intermediaries that work across these spaces. On the one hand this has meant politicians have felt the financial services sector is so important that all other decisions are secondary to the need to ensure their vitality. In short, this has lead to bailouts for banks and the collective paying-down of debt as a result. Not only has this been a slowly unfolding social disaster over the past six years or so but even more perversely we inhabit a media and political culture that has very successfully made discussion of taxation and progressive resourcing of the public realm an apparent mad house that no one should bear to entertain.
Not long ago I was invited to give a presentation at a meeting organised by the York People’s Assembly on whether Britain seems fair. I took this as a rather rhetorical opening for a debate about why Britain is broken, broke or both and this is a kind of summary of the things I tried to get across in that session.
The best social research on crime, education, jobs, housing and so on is that these remain problems, that access to opportunity is a key issue and that it is the familiar groups and places that are faring badly.
We need to decide whether the arrangements and social structures we see around us are justified, due to chance, to hard work or because we live in a rigged system that will continue to produce and reproduce low paid, sick, poorly educated, under-employed and groups deemed to be deviant and workshy by a media system looking for cheap stories or, worse, under the editorial control of uncritical or partisan news media empires (and the BBC increasingly appears to be acting in such ways too).
In Herbert Gans’ essay The Positive Functions of Poverty he pokes fun at the establishment by saying that we NEED poverty, it provides jobs for social workers and other state professionals, it gives us something to wring our hands over and ponder the morality of others and it provides energy for the politics of the left. As a community we certainly seem to enjoy moralising and pointing at the broken social wrecks of our economy and policy decisions – Benefits Street is one of several examples of the kind of voyeurism and social spitefulness that has become embedded in our culture today.
On politics – the mindset of contemporary social life is co-opted to the rhythms of indebtedness (including that generated by homeownership), resistance and protest are unthinkable, it is also often seen as futile and increasingly severely repressed, the shiny baubles of the information age distract us and reduce our energy or attention to social problems (ipads, videogames, pornography).
The position of many is to adopt what Fromm called the marketing personality, we sell ourselves and calculate our worth or failure in our successes or failures in work – keep your head down, play by the rules and hope your number isn’t called.
Implicit in the choices of many is what Iain Angell positively describes as a kind of new barbarianism – we make decisions based on personal gain, made to feel we are on our own by government (commodification of state assurances) driven by commercial imperatives. We see this culture all around us – a robbing of the social commons by political and corporate elites to take what they can before someone else does so. You better get educated, get a ticket to the right job in an increasingly precarious labour market, move to a gated community and insure yourself by investing in your health, taking those common goods that help you (good schools and public health systems) while arguing for low taxes and the dismantling of inefficient welfare systems. Just hope you don’t end up on the wrong side of the fence because then it really will be game over.
Piketty gives us the startling overview and Harvey the mechanisms underlying much of what is going on. Their apparent radicalism is to propose, in Piketty’s case, that no one can win in a system so rigged towards the favouring of those who already own so much. Countries like the US, France and UK are all similar in this. The interesting thing here is that Piketty is on the inside – he sees a core value in capitalism but he would like to be more just and, as Harvey once said in questions at a lecture, social deomocracy would be a start. In Harvey’s case the analysis focuses on the points of weakness (the contradictions) for those who argue that a system so unequal, so destructive to nature and prone to continuous and costly disaster is the only game in town. In Piketty’s case he has been picked up by the financial press and globally by those who see his incredible data and analysis, and a route map for dealing with the worst excesses, but he is no apologist, citing his own up-bringing in the communist era as a kind of education against alternatives. Harvey’s popularity lies in his dogged exposition of Marxist analysis of the system and his ‘translation’ of Marx via a chapter by chapter analysis of lectures freely placed online (to say nothing of his standing as a critical geography for more than forty years). Moreover David Harvey is gauging that theft, extortion, organised crime, financial usury and the rigged financial system is part of how the system now works and money is concentrated and reproduced in a neoliberal class. So the project of neoliberalism was an attempt to regain the returns and position of the elite that it had occupied in the early part of the century and as Piketty’s data now shows – they have got it back, and more!
For the criminologist John Lea, crime has become part of the engine as well as the exhaust of the system – well, we might also say that unfairness and inequality are also part of the engine and the exhaust of the machine – we need them to make the gains accrue to capital, even worse is that the middle classes or increasingly pervasive and can see that they have a common interest with the low and no-paid against rampant contracting-out, crony capitalism, privatisation and asset stripping. In all of this we need to remember that there is a political economy to wealth and housing – politicians continue to work towards sustaining the contradictions, offering more subsidies for the weakest buyers (instead of reducing inequalities, taxing property wealth, or programming towards a long term flattening of house prices). Do you want your house value to go up or to see other people housed? Interestingly perhaps the continued dipping of owner occupation among younger households may mean that this dynamic shifts in their favour and away from the expansion of private renting fiefdoms by those who have already done very well.
Increasing polarisation and anti sociological posturing, immigrants, benefits street style treatments, lack of recognition of money poverty and conditions – scape goating, distractions
Some suggestions
Stop focusing on the poor, turn the heat and light upwards!
Role of the universities – Orientation to policy is for the most-part a falsehood – policymakers and politicians look for justifications, rather than evidence, they may remain elite insitituions but as spaces for free thinking and for investigating our social and economic condition they remain unrivalled.
In the past the argument for reform and social investment of the kind seen in Piketty’s analysis in the post war period was that these were necessary to stifle dissent, were based on the need for principles of social investment and democracy and that ultimately we all paid the price for opting out of taxes in the kind of degraded public realm that all could see. Now the good (or bad) news is that we can retreat from the negative externalities of the system (disorder, bored youth, crime, poor public services) to private estates, gated communities and to private education and health services.
The social construction of policy-maker realities – The political elite is in many ways divorced from witnessing social difference and the effects of their own policy programmes. They are wealthy and schooled in leafy areas away from zones that had already seen massive social losses of all kinds. The danger of a socially insulated executive is the possibility not only of ideologically charged assaults on the poor, but a callous and indignant approach to inequality more generally. To go back to the beginning, the very wealthy are served by the quite wealthy and almost unconsciously collude in each other’s needs.
Raise taxes fairly on income, land and property to progressively pay down debts where and if needed. Piketty’s proposals for massive taxes on private wealth should be debated far and wide. Public housing, the NHS and other collectively funded forms of social insurance and provision that make us safer, healthier, better educated need protecting from an assault by the logic of the market that will deliver new forms of inequality just as it generates new dividends to the corporations waiting in the wings. | https://alphacity.blog/category/area-effects/ |
Why Grammar Schools? Why Social Mobility?
The controversy about increasing admissions to Britain’s surviving grammar schools has re-opened old, half-forgotten, lines of political controversy. The result is that some issues, such as the negative impact of selective schools on others in their areas, attract considerable attention, while many do not. Among the latter are the questions of why, and when, selection in secondary education can be justified, and of the plausibility of the justification actually deployed by Theresa May’s government.
One defence of selective schooling is that a country’s pool of educated people is too small to sustain its future economy and state administration. Indeed, this was at the centre of the National Efficiency movement’s support for a major expansion in grammar schools (which began in 1907). The pool was then too small because many pupils in private schools were not well educated, and had little interest in training for careers where a high level of skill was required. This was a system in which personal connections were crucial to job recruitment, for the middle class as much as the working class, and many of the skills eventually needed were acquired during employment. National Efficiency advocates wanted to broaden access to secondary education to social classes beyond the more affluent middle class so as to fill this “skills” gap.
A century later nearly all private schools have to demonstrate to parents that their pupils obtain high academic credentials, because their children’s success in the labour market now depends on it. This massive transformation in the operation of private education since the mid-20th century has meant that, nationally, more than enough adolescents are educated to a sufficiently high standard to fill the most skilled jobs. Indeed, five years after they complete their degrees more than one third of current graduates are still not in jobs designated as requiring graduate entry. Thus, with the important exception of some specific sectors, there is no shortage of highly qualified entrants to the workforce. Moreover, while it is possible that these exceptions might conceivably be rectified by the creation of very specialized selective schools, increasing the overall number of grammar school places could not do so. The May justification for her policy is different therefore, being couched in terms of increasied social mobility. This is an implausible rationale that has attracted surprisingly little comment, despite its underpinning assumptions being largely spurious.
First, the scale of the proposed increase in grammar school places is so small that any impact on British social structure overall will be tiny. It is akin to claiming that economic inequality nationally can be reduced by the government establishing a lottery fund from which a few poorer people each month will be set up as millionaires.
Secondly, even if that expansion were much larger, disadvantaged primary school children would have to be the beneficiaries of positive discrimination in selection processes for most to compete successfully for places, given the family and school advantages many middle-class children would have had beforehand. While May wants schools to ensure that some places do go to the disadvantaged, the whole history of selection in those areas (notably Kent and Buckinghamshire) where comprehensivization was not introduced 40 years ago has been of a strong association with social class. Obviously what middle class voters in those areas do not want is for their grammar schools to be given over primarily to the children of the disadvantaged; their aim is to reduce stress for themselves and their children in relation to the 11+ examination, by having more places available to them. They will surely get their way, and the class bias in grammar school selections will largely continue.
Thirdly, there is a widely held, but false, myth that for any position, providing you devise the right sort of selection procedures, you can always determine an approximate rank order among candidates, thereby ensuring the “best” are selected. In fact, even with adults, with vast amounts of information about them available, and with extensive testing, selection is imperfect. While it is relatively easy to determine competence – who does, and who does not, have the skills to be proficient in a particular activity – rank-ordering the competent is subject to considerable inaccuracy in all cases. That is, assessments of relative potential for future performance are always, and necessarily, highly imprecise. That situation is far worse when information is limited and when it is children being ranked for rationed places (at grammar schools). Among those children who do demonstrate competence, it is luck that will primarily determine which of them gets admitted and which rejected.
Finally, like most politicians, May invokes social mobility as if it were always a desirable social goal. It is not. Obviously, few today would advocate a society in which social advancement was impossible, and most argue that mobility during the last century has been socially beneficial. However, the expansion of the middle class then was the result primarily of changes in the labour market, with proportionately fewer non-skilled jobs and more skilled ones. Some of those born into working class families thus became middle class. Relative social peace was possible because there was much less downward mobility than upward mobility. If this earlier shift in the labour market does not continue this century, and there is strong evidence that it will not, then any upward mobility will be associated with corresponding downward movement. Too much of the latter can be at least as politically destabilizing as too little of the former, as Poujadism in 1950s France demonstrated.
For a leader portraying herself and her party as agents for political stability, May’s invocation of social mobility as a core objective is somewhat ironic therefore. While some mobility is always valuable, too much would almost certainly not be promoted by anyone supposedly intent on preserving the polity’s stability during the present century. While St Augustine supposedly exclaimed “Make me good, God, but not yet”, May is surely committed to the view: “Give me social mobility, but not too much”.
You can read Alan Ware’s article ‘Grammar Schools, a Policy of Social Mobility and Selection – Why’ here. | https://politicalquarterly.blog/2017/05/26/why-grammar-schools-why-social-mobility/ |
India has for many years had a caste system in their society that was discriminative. It grouped the Indian society into high and lower castes. There were four major varnas in the social system. These include the Brahmins (Priestly Class), Ksatriya (Military and Ruling Class), Sudra (Labourers) and Vaisya (Merchants and Traders). The lowest caste was the Dalits who were considered to be unclean and hence Indians from other castes were not allowed to have any form of social interactions. However, as time passes the new generation of educated urban middle class Indians has diminished the importance of this caste system in India. They have been educated and have adopted western ideas of liberal thinking. They no longer emphasize on the issue of class in their social set up as they see each other as equals. The educated class has also been enlightened on the negative implications and they have decided to deviate from the old generation form of thinking. They are more focused on creating equal opportunities for all in India in order to fast track economic development in their country.
The government has tried to impose mandatory employment quotas on Private companies in India. This is in a bid to resolve historic inequalities created by the Caste system. However, the private companies seem reluctant to employ lower caste individuals through the quota system as they believe it would affect their competitiveness. They are of the perception that such guarantee of employment to Dalits would hinder them from recruiting the best candidates and politicians would misuse the quota system to gain political mileage by appeasing wide popular public sentiment.
Modern India has a vibrant economy especially in the Information Technology Sector which is considered among the best internationally. There are huge technological companies in India such as Infosys and Wipro. This clearly manifests rapid economic development in the country. This will therefore require the country to tap more on human resource potential. Despite this economic growth the caste system is still deeply rooted especially in rural India. Almost 91% of the lower caste individuals earn less than $100 in a day. This should not be the case industries should strive to create training programs that facilitate hiring graduates from lower caste systems. They are also bright just as the other classes and can contribute their skills and talents in the economy of the country hence creating opportunities for them would not have any negative implications.
Major reforms have happened in India in order to promote equality in the society rather than adhering to the discriminative caste system. However, these reforms have not been taken seriously and as a result the status quo of historical inequalities still remains to date. An affirmative action plan initiative was launched in 2007 by the Confederation of industry in India with an aim of ensuring that private companies would commit themselves to providing vocational training, education scholarships and increase procurements from lower caste entrepreneurs. Currently this affirmative initiative has 729 companies as signatories but the implementation process seems to be taken lightly. An important provision to appoint ombudsmen to investigate complaints of discrimination by private companies has never been effected to date. The initiative appears to be just a public relations stunt.
Brazil and India have common practices and also different cultural practices. In Brazil Catholicism is a religion of almost 80% of the population just as Hinduism is the majority religion in India. Brazil is mostly concentrated on social-economic classes where there is a huge difference between the rich and poor while India has a social structure with a caste system. Brazilian culture is also more family oriented in contrast to personal Indian culture.
Works Cited
Ambedkar, B R. Annihilation of Caste: The Annotated Critical Edition. Brooklyn, New York: Verso Books, 2014.
Bellman, Eric. "Reversal of Fortune Isolates India's Brahmins." The Wall Street Journal (2007): 4. | https://www.wepapers.com/samples/breaking-indias-caste-system-essays-example/ |
The Victorian society was divided into nobility Upper Class, Middle Class, and the Working Class. The Victorian Upper Class consisted of the Aristocrats, Nobles, Dukes, other wealthy families working in the Victorian courts. The Upper Class was in a powerful position giving them authority, better living conditions, and other facilities Cooper: A Victorian Working Class Writer, the few working-class writers in England in the second half of the nineteenth century who managed to support himself and his family successfully from the sale of the products of his mind and pen.4 He is a remarkable but elusive character. The first volume of Frost's autobiography, Forty Years Recollections, Literary and Political (1880), is.
The Working Class Of The Victorian Era Positives - The children in the working class received a basic form of education - Sunday school. - They had a range of recreational activities available to them and some even contributes to their income - trading at pawn shops, produce shows. - They were allowed to choose who they married. - Although they didn't have the most pleasant jobs, most factory workers were still able to provide the basic amenities such as food The Victorian era society was divided into three class's upper, middle, and working class. The upper class was made of aristocrats, noble's dukes, and other wealthy families that worked in the court system. They held the most powerful positions that gave them authority, better living conditions, and other facilities
The middle class population was the people who did the clean work and were paid monthly or annually. The upper class did not need to work; their income came from the inherited lands and investments (Victorian England). The middle class people made about three hundred to eight hundred pounds annually In Victorian England, literacy increased due to heavier emphasis put on education, especially among working class children. There was a heavier emphasis put on education because of industrialization. Once industrialization began in England during the early 18th century, working-class people were drawn to factories, seeking employment in them. Child employment also began to increase. As a. Working-class women often had occupations to make ends meet, and to ensure family income in the event that a husband became sick, injured, or died. There was no workers' compensation until late in the Victorian era, and a husband too ill or injured to work often meant an inability to pay the rent and a stay at the dreaded Victorian workhouse The Hidden World of the Victorian Working Classes; Working-Class Attitudes: Stoicism and Acceptance; Working Class Literature, a Bibliography; Child Labor (sitemap) From Labor to Value: Marx, Ruskin, and the Critique of Capitalism Extraordinarily Lop-sided in its effects — Mechanization & Victorian Work; The Lack of Social Security in Victorian England; Bankruptcy in Victorian England. Victorian working class and perhaps a significant counter-voice to the dominant middle-class discourse of Victorian England. Yet scholars who write on Victorian dialect poetry often seem disappointed, their commen-taries ranging in tone from apologetic to overtly critical. Brian Maidment, for instance, characterizes Victorian homely rhyming as predominantly conciliatory and conservative,2.
A bank clerk, a shopkeeper or a street-seller would be doing well to bring home a pound a week. Some indication of the level of wages in the latter years of Victoria's reign can be garnered from A. L. Bowley, Wages in the United Kingdom in the Nineteenth Century (1900). It might be worth digressing here for just a moment. Although the UK today uses decimal currency, this is a relatively recent phenomenon. Until February of 1971, the currency was based on pounds (£), shillings (s) and pence. Working class Victorians had to rely upon local, seasonal, fresh food which was plentiful and cheap, but perhaps a little boring. The cheapest vegetable was the onion. It was half a penny for 12 onions and so was eaten with everything. Onions were roasted, fried, cooked in soups and stews and made into onion gravy. Leeks were available in the spring Elizabeth Roberts' fine oral history of the everyday lives of ordinary working class women in Lancashire between 1890 and 1940 has provided a detailed study of these themes since its first publication in 1985. The reprint is welcome. Through Roberts' analysis of the transcripts of the 160 respondents from Barrow, Preston and Lancaster we know more now about the hidden lives of mothers and grandmothers of those of us born mid-century in Britain. The story is a bleak one. Women's lives were.
Discover more about Victorian clothes and find out about Victorian Britain with DK Find Out for kids. Working-class women often had to travel a long distance to work, so many of them wore one or more woollen shawls to keep them warm. Hat. Many working-class women wore a soft hat called a mob-cap, which was often made of cotton. Middle-class girl's outfit › Girls at this time were. Take, for example, these Victorian era facts about death: Nearly 60 percent of children born to working-class families died before their fifth birthday. In the decade that Victoria became queen, the life expectancy for tradesmen was 25 years, and for laborers it was 22 years. Queen Victoria hersel Victorian child labor consisted of very long working hours. The normal work week would be Monday thru Saturday from 6 A.M. to 8 P.M. Children would be beaten or fined for falling asleep, making a mistake or being late. The Society for the prevention of cruelty to animals was created in 1824 The earnest middle-class Victorians have been much written about. The earnest working-class Victorians included all those serious-minded artisans who attended chapel, temperance meetings and evening lectures, and became the backbone of the Co-operative movement and the Trades Unions. It was a commonplace amongst the Victorians themselves that th Social class had a significant effect on mortality rates: the upper classes had a lower rate of premature death early in the nineteenth century than poorer classes did. In the Victorian era, fertility rates increased in every decade until 1901, when the rates started evening out. There were several reasons for this. One is biological: with.
Victorian era lesson plans and worksheets from thousands of teacher-reviewed resources to help you inspire students learning. The distinctive attire of royalty, working class, and peasants of the Victorian era conveys much about the conditions of the time. Learn more about why people dressed as they did, and how their fashion changed during the 64-year reign of... Get Free Access See. . As one can imagine, life within families differed significantly between the classes. In the working class home, mothers gave birth to their children at home with a mid-wife rather than a doctor. The homes were typically small, difficult to keep clean and had minimal furniture. Despite the attention given to the child, life expectancy was low and in the poorer. The middle-class family followed the Victorian domestic ideal of a loving and hard-working father, a nurturing mother and dutiful sons and daughters. Unlike the upper classes who had nannies and governesses to take care of childcare, or the lower classes who sent children to work from an early age, middle-class children had more of a relationship with their parents
Original characterful Victorian CDV (Carte de Visite) souvenir photograph of a working class family with mother in law on holiday at the seaside resort of Skegness, Lincolnshire, England, U.K. circa 1888. The child holding a bucket and spade is wearing a curious mix of a girl's dress and boy's cap and, given the Victorian habit of dressing boys in girls clothing, is probably a boy. He doesn't look very happy and is apparently having his photo taken under duress Working-class women in Victorian England had many different obstacles to overcome. Not only were they living in a repressive society, but they were marginalized by class issues as well as gender issues. Because of their low status, many women were forced into prostitution, and oftentimes women who had children found themselves so desperate that they resorted to infanticide, abortion, or baby farming. However, by the turn of the century, some progress was being made in the effort to bring the. Mar 19, 2016 - Explore Bec Banham's board Victorian Working Class/Lower Class Clothing 1840-1860, followed by 168 people on Pinterest. See more ideas about historical clothing, vintage outfits, historical fashion In Victorian England, the upper class had absolute political and economic power. Since the right to vote in the 19th century was dependent on owning property, members of the upper class were.
Lump Hotel: Work House Lurk: (1) A place of resorting to or concealment in. (2) A scheme or method Lurker: A criminal of all work, esp. a begger, or someone who uses a beggar's disguise. Lush: An alcoholic drink. Lushery: A place where a lush may be had. A low public house or drinking den. Lushing Ken: See Lushery Lushington: A drunkar The Victorian era is famous for the Victorian standards of personal morality. Historians generally agree that the middle classes held high personal moral standards (and usually followed them), but have debated whether the working classes followed suit. Moralists in the late 19th century such a The price of new books—often only available as a set of three—was out of reach for most working class people, so they borrowed from circulating libraries such as Mudie's (founded 1842), which dispatched books all over Britain for a modest subscription fee. For the wealthier classes who could afford first editions, reading from their own collection would be an everyday occurrence. In the.
For working-class women, however, it was often necessary for them to earn a wage and contribute to the running of the household. The type of work they were eligible for was restricted, and they would generally undertake manual work such as domestic service, laundry, needlework, factory work or agriculture. Needless to say, they could expect to receive less money than men, even if they were. Victorians knew their standing, and observed it by, for example, boarding the correct class of train car -- first, second, or third. Stuck somewhere between the elite aristocratic class and the working poor, the middle class faced its own unique pressures, since this group represented the essence of morality, stability and comfort, writes Mitchell Victorian class system is reflected in The Picture of Dorian Gray, through the concept of duality and duplicity. Oscar Wilde expresses the separation of the aristocrats from the middle class during the Victorian Era through the use of three key elements, settings, structure of the novel and characters Dating in the Victorian era in America and in Britain meant navigating through a fog of modesty, prudence, ritual, corsets, top hats, calling cards, and your..
sphere in the Victorian era. Accounts of working-class women's lives have uncovered the extent of their involvement in waged labour and in working-class politics, whatever the prevailing ideology. There have also been a number of modifications to the standard image of the bourgeois woman immured in the home. Studies of middle-class women have revealed how many of them battled to enter the. Victorian Society, What made Victorians Victorian, The Victorian age was not one, not single, simple, or unified; Victoria's reign lasted so long that it comprised several periods. Above all, it was an age of paradox and power. Victorian History, Fashion, Sports, Culture and Social History of the Victorian Era 1837-1901 Victorian fashion consists of the various fashions and trends in British culture that emerged and developed in the United Kingdom and the British Empire throughout the Victorian era, roughly from the 1830s through the 1890s.The period saw many changes in fashion, including changes in styles, fashion technology and the methods of distribution. Various movement in architecture, literature, and. The Working Classes in Victorian Fiction. London: Routledge, 1971. With this the foundational study of the literary representation of the working classes, Keating ranges from the condition of England fiction of the 1840s to the end of the period. But his particular strengths and interests lie in analyzing works of the 1880s and 1890s, chiefly those of George Gissing, Arthur Morrison, and.
working class victorian era provides a comprehensive and comprehensive pathway for students to see progress after the end of each module. With a team of extremely dedicated and quality lecturers, working class victorian era will not only be a place to share knowledge but also to help students get inspired to explore and discover many creative ideas from themselves. Clear and detailed training. . Another problem that was faced by the lower class was immigration. Other people were migrating to England and creating less job opportunities for all the people living in the lower class. This affected the wages that the lower class people received and the people could barely support themselves. Their lack of money in turn. Although the Victorian era was a period of extreme social inequality, industrialisation brought about rapid changes in everyday life that affected all classes. Family life, epitomised by the young Queen Victoria, Prince Albert and their nine children, was enthusiastically idealised. The billiard room at Down House, Kent, the home of Charles Darwin THE MIDDLE CLASSES. The tremendous expansion. Notably, 80 to 90 per cent of the population did not reside in slums, and many working-class families, especially in the later Victorian period, did not live in overcrowded conditions. And what seriously needs reassessing is the assumption of dirt. By contemporary standards, slum-dwellers were not all very dirty - or, at least, they didn't choose to be. Evidence lurks in depictions of slum.
Social class and values in the Victorian Era 1. THE VICTORIAN ERAvalues and social class system 2. Queen Victoria 3. • 1838: crowned Queen when eighteen years old• succeeded William IV• but until birth of first daughter in 1840 Ernest August I of Hannover was king 4 The life of an upper-class child during the Victorian era, was as one may put it, stuffy, conventional and routine, not to mention quite lonely at certain times. Yet others argue Victorian children should have been quite content, given the fact that they were treated to only the best of toys, clothes and education and it was absurd to even consider the child being neglected
Victorian society did not recognize that there was a lower class. 'The Poor' were invisible. Those members of England who worked as chimney sweeps, ratcatchers, or spent their days in factories had no place in the echelon of the upper class, although their services would be needed from time to time . It is another great paradox of the Victorian era that women struggled to gain an identity within society whilst it was in fact a woman which reigned and whose name. Women in Victorian England. Men's and women's roles became more sharply defined during the Victorian period than arguably at any time in history. In earlier centuries it was usual for women to work alongside husbands and brothers in the family business, but as the nineteenth century progressed, middle-class men increasingly commuted to their place of work - the factory, shop or office.
Different social classes can be (and were by the classes themselves) distinguished by inequalities in such areas as power, authority, wealth, working and living conditions, life-styles, life-span, education, religion, and culture(Victorian Web). The upper-class in England consisted of nobles and wealthy business owners. They usually did not work and had many servants who worked for them. England, London, contemporary attitudes, prostitution, working-class women, Victorian period, 1830s - 1880s. ABSTRACT This dissertation aims at presenting the different attitudes that some Victorians could have towards the issue of prostitution among working-class women in Victorian London. Indeed
The Working Class Members of the working class are not very visible in most Victorian fiction or in popular conceptions of Victorian life, but ironically, three out of four people did manual labor. The majority of these workers were agricultural laborers, domestic servants, and factory hands. The remaining percentage of people had unskilled, semiskilled, and skilled jobs in mining, fishing. While history books and romantic novels from England's Victorian Era depict people as being very uptight, there were actually more brothels than there were schools. It is estimated that roughly 80,000 women were working as prostitutes in London alone, which reveals how sex-obsessed the culture truly was Working class families less privatised for they often housed lodgers within the home and extended family relationships were important for mutual support in times of dislocation and crisis. Companionate Marriage . Companionate marriage was norm with participants exercising free choice based on mutual love, subject only to parental veto. Choice of marriage partners narrowed in 1835 by Lord.
The Victorian era saw many instances of poverty, inequality and disparity among the working class of England. A period of dramatic change and broad industrialization that valued middle- and upper-class members, the nineteenth century provided ample breeding ground for the inadequate conditions experienced by the subordinate class. Contradicting the prosperity reported by most of the propertied. Florida Water advertisement, 1881. When it came to purchasing perfumes, Victorian women had a wide variety of choices. In her 2014 book, Fragrance and Well-Being, author Jennifer Rhind states that, at the beginning of the Victorian era, there were approximately 40 perfumers working in London alone—the same amount as in Paris at that time Davidoff delineates how Munby collected lower class girls and women: interviewing, photographing, drawing, and writing poems about them. His voluminous diaries and letters leave us with an unparalleled middle class view of the army of working poor and working class women in Victorian England
In Victorian England, the pub was an establishment that was forbidden to decent women, despite its being the center of Victorian social life (Finnegan, 2006). This just goes to show that prostitution was the only means for working and lower-class Victorian-era women to attain economic and social independence. As girls, they were pulled. The Victorian fashion era began with Queen Victoria's reign in 1837 and ended in 1901, upon her death. It marked a pivotal time in Britain's history and around the world. In fashion, the Victorian era is an elaborate display of class, wealth, beauty, and purpose for women and men. The layers of dress and suiting required for poor and rich alike were impractical, sometimes even. Children in the Victorian Era did not have the best of working lives. They lived during a time when the Industrial Revolution was in full swing and many had to work to survive. Unfortunately, there was no protective, humane, or occupational societies to look out for a child's health or welfare. This meant children were sometimes inadequately housed, fed, or clothed, or sometimes they were. A lot of working-class men were also expected to hold down difficult and draining jobs - heavy labour with long hours. Many jobs like mining were dangerous, and even scary. Several men reported turning to drink because it gave them courage, and alcohol was a very significant problem in the Victorian era. It was cheaper to get a mug of alcohol. Across the United Kingdom, Victorian era society had three main classes: the population was divided into the upper class, the middle class, and the working class. After the tumultuous Industrial Revolution, the gap between the upper and middle class narrowed. As a sign of the changing times, many middle-class households were now considered wealthy. Wikimedia Commons. 14. Not a Good Time to Get.
Not every woman during the Victorian Era was the same. Many low class women - mostly girls, young women, and unmarried older women - had to work as servants. With more and more middle class appeared in that time, the demand of domestic servants increased. Domestic service was considered to be the largest source of employment for women. Not all the middle-class families were the same. Victorian Ladies at Work: Middle-Class Working Women in England and Wales 1850-1914. Hamden: Archon, 1973. Keep, Christopher. The Cultural Work of the Type-Writer Girl, Victorian Studies 40:3 (1997): 401-26. —. The Introduction of the Sholes & Glidden Type-Writer, 1874. BRANCH: Britain, Representation and Nineteenth-Century. Combine these new social norms with the ideal of feminine status displayed by immobility and you have the basis for fashions of the Late Victorian era. Elite women did not work. A stiff, rigid posture underscored the lack of movement that separated the upper class from the working class Prostitution in Victorian England was a part of everyday life for people from every class, ethnicity, and gender. Prostitution became a major concern and a focal point for social reformers in th During the Victorian era, Biblical names probably saw the most prevalent and common use, both for boys and girls, to include the familiar names from the New Testaments, and also the tongue-tanglers from the Old. However, their child-naming practices also borrowed heavily from prominent sources including national and political leaders, notable religious leaders, and celebrated military heroes.
In Victorian society, rich and poor could find themselves living very close together, sometimes just streets apart. During the 19th century more people moved into the towns and cities to find work in factories. Cities filled to overflowing and London was particularly bad. At the start of the 19th. In the Victorian Era, there was a big difference between classes. There were 3 classes: the upper class, the middle class and the lower class. The upper class barely had to work, because in many cases their families and ancestors had earned enough money for them. Their children were able to get tutors, who belonged to a developing middle class. Other people from the middle class owned. Middle Class During the Victorian period the middle class grew in size and importance. It made up about fifteen percent of the population. The middle class was a diverse group that included everyone between the working class and the elite class. The middle class included sucessful industrialists and wealthy bankers. It also included poor clerks that normally earned only half as much as skilled. Four artists were employed to work on the different illustrations at significant cost, including the famous Hubert von Herkomer, whom the other three artists trained under. References Eric de Maré,The Victorian Wood-Block Illustrators (London: G. Fraser, 1980) p. 7 The Victorian era was a period of wide extremes - characterized by industrial reforms, cultural transformations, scientific progress, gracious living and grinding poverty and wars. The Victorian era lasted from 1837 to 1901, when Queen Victoria reigned, although many historians believe that the Reform act of 1832 signifies the inception of the Victorian era
This clearly showcases how during the Victorian era there was a huge amount of impoverished people living in squalor conditions that were causing a vast economic and social divide in the capital. As a result of Whitechapel being very poor, it blatantly meant that no middle class Londoners would reside in the area, especially to a large degree. The working class citizens in this East End. Victorian society had all sorts of quirks, especially the upper class. The Victorian upper-crust liked to pretend they were royalty, and made up all sorts of social rules and became obsessed with subjects you would never expect, mostly because they had nothing better to do with their time. Here's seven amusing facts about how weird the Victorian Era truly was In the Victorian era, this work was mainly performed by teenage girls who worked in terrible conditions, often for between 12 and 16 hours a day with few breaks Hard Times, a social protest novel of nineteenth-century England, is aptly titled.Not only does the working class, known as the Hands, have a hard time in this novel; so do the other classes as well. Dickens divided the novel into three separate books, two of which, Sowing and Reaping, exemplify the biblical concept of whatsoever a man soweth, that shall he also reap (Galatians 6:7) If you're planning to creep around as Saucy Jack this Halloween, then you may want to familiarize yourself with what sort of attire may have been worn by the Whitechapel menace. This article will give you an idea as to how a man of his day would have dressed in Victorian Era London. (Also see: Victorian Era Women's Fashion) Whitechapel Threads: Men's Fashion in 1880's London Different articles. | https://barcastannatalalkoztunk.com/advice/morality/an-overview-of-victorian-morality/-zrz0e4108jek0x1 |
I want more! The revolution in reading in the eighteenth centuryPrint
More people than ever before could and did read. The intensive and repeated reading of a limited number of books was replaced by more extensive reading habits, with a large number of books being devoured just once.
In the first issue (1703) of the newspaper Wiennerisches Diarium the purpose of the publication is defined.
For the improved comfort and satisfaction of the gentle and willing reader … at any time a brief report and extract will be presented, as a core of the most curious, truest and newest things happening in the world from time to time, as they come in, whether in handwritten or printed form, without the trappings of the orator and the poet, also without prejudice, in accordance with the bare truth of such reports as we receive.
Until well into the seventeenth century, people read only a small number of texts such as the Bible or devotional books, but these would be read over and over again. Middle-class intellectuals started to practise a new, extensive form of reading that was fostered in particular by the newssheets. Education was a desirable acquisition, and they had the money for books and time to read them. In the eighteenth century small, unbound books were also affordable for lower social classes.
Towards the end of the century a decisive change took place in publishing and among the cultivated book-reading public. Fashions such as reading al fresco or the ‘Werther fever’ (after Johann Wolfgang von Goethe’s novel Die Leiden des jungen Werthers published in 1774) gripped Vienna. Women in particular changed their reading habits: in edifying weeklies and almanacs they were given access to literature and developed a flourishing culture of correspondence. Innovations such as smaller book formats or modern reading furniture facilitated reading.
The proportion of specialized religious, legal and medical literature diminished. Instead, the numbers of publications in the fields of philosophy, pedagogy, natural sciences and economics rose as a result of interest from trade and commerce and from the diversification of scientific disciplines and institutions and the book production associated with this.
Novels were the favourite reading matter of the late eighteenth century. The new reading public consisted predominantly of members of the propertied and educated middle classes but also included labourers and artisans. The hunger for reading material was satisfied in particular by lending libraries. The Cabinet littéraire de Vienne owned by Thomas von Trattner carried more than 2,000 works in French. However, all lending libraries were banned in Austria between 1799 and 1811. Nonetheless, in coffee houses and even in some beer taverns pamphlets and newspapers were readily available.
Towards the end of the eighteenth century an independent literary tradition established itself in the Habsburg Monarchy, in isolation from the literature of the rest of the German-speaking countries. There was an east-west and urban-rural divide in the ability to read: in the Patrimonial Lands and in Bohemia many people could read and write while in Hungary the proportion was far lower. | https://www.habsburger.net/en/chapter/i-want-more-revolution-reading-eighteenth-century |
This advice-column-style blog for SLPs was authored by Pam Marshalla from 2006 to 2015, the archives of which can be explored here. Use the extensive keywords list found in the right-hand column (on mobile: at the bottom of the page) to browse specific topics, or use the search feature to locate specific words or phrases throughout the entire blog.
Articulation Therapy In the Public Schools
By Pam Marshalla
This opinion paper was originally posted as a downloadable PDF on my website, authored in September, 2010. Download the original PDF here.
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Articulation Therapy In the Public Schools
Some of today’s public schools are trying to eliminate articulation therapy for mild cases from their school programs because it is believed that these errors do not impact education. However, throughout the history of western civilization, there have been three ways to measure ones level of intelligence and success in education. These have been the ability to read, to write, and to speak clearly. In former decades, before the onset of political correctness, speech-language pathologists had no difficulty talking about the role of good speech in education and society. In fact, the way speech reflected one’s level of education was the very reason speech-language pathologists began to work in the public schools in the first place. The following quotes are among those that I show in my live seminars to demonstrate this. They are arranged chronologically to illustrate the unfolding idea that good speech is an integral part of a good education.
1759
The cry to help students speak better began in the mid 18th century. Thomas Sheridan was an important advocate of this:
“There is not the smallest branch of [education] which can be well executed without skill in speaking … A wise nation will therefore, above all things, apply themselves to advance the powers of elocution [speech], to as high a degree as possible.”
Thomas Sheridan (1759) Elocution and the English Language.. Miller: London, p4-17.
1833
Speech classes could be taken privately in the 19th century. These teachers of elocution stated unequivocally that good speech was a reflection of one’s level of education:
“A cultivated taste is always perceptible in pronunciation, as in every other expression of mind; and errors in pronouncing are unavoidably associated with a deficiency in the rudiments of good education”
William Russell (1833) Lessons In Enunciation. Boston: Carter Hendee, p53.
1856
Charles Dickens is known for his novels about the poorer classes and the abuse of children in the mid-19th century (Oliver Twist, Great Expectations, A Christmas Carol). He lamented the fact that only the wealthy could afford speech correction for their children. He wrote on this subject in a magazine called Household Words. Here is Dickens’ original quote and a modern translation. Like others of that century, Dickens uses the term “stammering” to mean any and all problems in speech production [Recorded in Eldridge, Eldridge, M. (1968) A History of the Treatment of Speech Disorders. Edinburgh: Livingstone, p39-40]:
Quote: “Although the houses of married physicians will be found hereafter to afford most excellent asylums for children among the upper classes, such a recourse cannot be calculated on, for obvious reasons, for the middle and lower classes … stammering then rises as a barrier by which the sufferer feels that the world is separated from the world within him.”
Translation: “Although the wealthy can afford speech correction for their children, it is not affordable to the middle and lower classes. A speech deficit can become a barrier that causes children to suffer and feel alienated from the rest of the educated world.”
1919
Smiley Blanton was ASHA president in 1933 and 1934. He and his wife wrote one of the first speech books for children in the United States:
“It is one of the anomalies of the educational world that speech, the highest development within the possibilities of man, has been relatively ignored … Training for correct speech during the formative years would do more to break down social barriers and eliminate false ideas of class than would any one field of endeavor … In a democratic nation, therefore, our present neglect of speech training becomes almost antisocial. It is a remnant of autocracy whereby we say that the child has only a right to that which he inherits”
Margaret and Smiley Blanton, (1919) Speech Training for Children: The Hygiene of Speech. New York: The Century Company, p10-11.
1939
Charles Van Riper is known as the Father of Articulation Therapy in the United States, and he won ASHA’s Award of the Association in 1957. In the very first edition of his classic book, Van Riper wrote that teaching children to speak correctly was just as important as teaching them to read and to write. He saw a day when speech correction would be done in the public schools:
“We have this vast number of speech-handicapped individuals in our society. They need help and they need it immediately. Some agency must take the responsibility for giving it to them … Much information can be disseminated through the universities, college, and extension speech clinics. However, the real responsibility must fall upon the public schools.”
Charles Van Riper (1939) Speech Correction: Principles and Methods. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, p8-9.
1958
By the mid-20th century, speech correction was taking place in most public schools. Textbooks published during this time reflected the philosophy that good speech was an integral part of a good education:
“We live in a social order in which there are levels of linguistic usage. Each level has distinguishing characteristics that may be identified immediately as those of the educated, the less well educated, or the uneducated. The cultivated speaker will be judged in part by his speech and voice.”
Johnny Akin (1958) And So We Speak: Voice and Articulation. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, p4-9.
1960
James Carrell was ASHA president in 1956, and won ASHA Honors of the Association in 1974. This book on phonetics was one of the best of its time:
“Good speech is not, then, a cloak for superficiality. It is, instead, the rightful and natural mark of the educated, cultured, and intellectually vigorous person”
James Carrell and William Tiffany (1960) Phonetics: Theory and Application to Speech Improvement. New York: McGraw-Hill, p.1.
1963
By the 1960s, speech therapy took place in virtually every public school in America. Jon Eisenson was ASHA president in 1958, and won the Honors of the Association in 1967:
“The classroom teacher is no longer likely to be called upon to do remedial speech work with children … Speech correctionists may have one of several titles in our schools … speech correctionists … speech therapists … speech clinicians … speech consultants … teacher of speech improvement. Whatever the title, the individuals we are talking about are professionally educated and trained in the diagnosis and treatment of persons with communicative impairment.”
Jon Eisenson and Mardel Ogilvie (1963) Speech Correction in the Schools. New York: MacMillan. p. v-vi.
0 thoughts on “Articulation Therapy In the Public Schools”
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This was fascinating – thanks for sharing and for all the great articles and tips. I feel fairly isolated in a rural community and these newsletters are great to use for discussion and sharing. | https://pammarshalla.com/articulation-therapy-in-the-public-schools/ |
Free education has brought out wider egalitarian impact in Sinhala society, but this has not eliminated the caste inequality altogether. Rather caste has been made an underground phenomenon rarely discussed in public, but remained bottled up within the individuals and local communities only to be rekindled from time to time in the caste inspired political loyalties during the time of elections, social conflicts and social uprisings (Jiggins 1979, Chandraprema 1991).
This caste alignment did not emerge out of the blue. There had been a long history of Kara-Govi rivalry in diverse quarters and at various social levels from the 1860s if not earlier. Let me detail some facets without claiming that this brief review is comprehensive.
The grand war time alliance of Sinhala Buddhist interests appears to have unravelled. I attribute the bad blood between the Rajapakse and Fonseka camps to vendetta and revenge. This is largely a personal feud born of a sense of betrayal. However, I wonder whether the legacy of caste has had a tangential role in the matter after all. Rajapakse is the scion** of an old southern Govigama family while Fonseka was a Karave general also from the south.
Let us explore the issue in some detail. Professor K.M. de Silva in his `History of Sri Lanka`, refers to the MIGRATION OF THE KARAWE, SALAGAMA AND DURAWE CASTES FROM SOUTHERN INDIA TO SRI LANKA BETWEEN THE 14TH AND 17TH CENTURIES AD. The Karawe, a maritime caste, appear to have had a disproportionate influence in the Sinhala military in medieval times. M.D. Raghavan`s publication, `The Karave of Ceylon: Society and Culture` illustrates the cultural history in some depth. Michael Roberts also documents Karawe elite formation in his seminal publication `Caste Conflict and Elite Formation, the Rise of the Karave elite in Sri Lanka: 1500-1931`.
Caste divisions are not unknown in Sinhala Buddhist history. The Govigama-Karave competition intermittently resurfaces in our history. The Govigama are the farmer caste akin to the Tamil Vellalar. The Govigama are perhaps 50% of the Sinhala population while the Karave are likely 10%. The Govigama unfairly dismiss the Karave as a fishing caste.
King Vijayabahu in the 11th century DENIED ACCESS TO THE SO-CALLED LOWER CASTES to venerate the Buddha`s footprint at the summit of Sri Pada or Adam`s Peak. These castes were confined to a lower terrace further down. This led to an immediate counter when a 12th century rock inscription of King Nissanka Malla warned that the Govigama caste could never aspire to high office.
The 13th century Sinhala literary work, the Pujavaliya went on to assert that a Buddha would never be born in the Govigama caste The Govigama reaction was swift. Kandyan Buddhist civil law as later documented in the Niti Nighanduwa, placed the Govigama at the top of an elaborately ordered caste hierarchy.
The Kandyan Buddhist clergy - the Siam Nikaya - DENIED ENTRY into the Buddhist monkhood to the non-Govigama. They EXCLUDED THE KARAVE. This led wealthy Karave merchants in the maritime districts to finance the journey of Ambagahapitiya Gnanawimala Thera to Amarapura in Burma for the ordination into the Buddhist monkhood in 1800 AD. While the newly founded Amarapura nikaya had 21 sub-sects defined on caste lines (i.e. Karave, Salagama and Durave), it nonetheless offered a rare opportunity for the Karave to join the Buddhist religious order.
Other Karave ABANDONED BUDDHISM ALTOGETHER AND CONVERTED TO ROMAN CATHOLICISM to seek caste emancipation. 50% of the Karave caste might well be Christian today. At present, Karave Christian youth have the best education outcomes in Sinhala society.
Many of us were thankful that these caste divisions in Sinhala Buddhist society had ebbed. However, recent events indicate that this may not entirely be so. In the late 1800s, Charles Henry de Soysa, the foremost Karave philantrophist, had hosted a banquet to the Duke of Edinburgh in Colombo, an event boycotted by the Govigama political elite led by Solomon Bandaranaike. Dr. Marcus Fernando, a Karave leader of no mean accomplishment, ran for the Educated Ceylonese seat at the 1911 elections. The Govigama elite, led by the Senanayakes, successfully defeated him and ensured the victory of Sir Ponnambalam Ramanathan, a Tamil candidate, instead. The Govigama preferred Tamil leadership to that of the Karave Sinhalese. That was treachery on the part of the Govigama.
We now witness a situation where Rajapakse has LITERALLY CRUSHED FONSEKA. Let us not forget that all Sri Lankan heads of state, with just one exception, have been Govigama. Non-Govigama representation in Sri Lanka`s legislature has declined since independence. And all three revolts against the post-independence Sri Lankan state were led by the Sinhala Karave or Tamil Karaiyar.
The feud between the President and the erstwhile General, while personal in nature, has now developed caste over tones. The President`s camp was uncertain of victory in the run-up to the polls. Reports suggest that it deftly and subtly played the caste card within the military to deny Fonseka the military vote. The President succeeded. In the ensuing post-poll purge of the military, the Karave have disproportionately been targeted. Other KARAVA GENERALS have been SACKED from the armed forces. KARAVE BUDDHIST MONKS had been arrested. Much to my chagrin, caste may still be alive in Sinhala Buddhist society, albeit as an undercurrent. | http://dalitwatch.com/sri-lanka/news-details.php?id=13 |
Limiting life chances, creating poverty and resentment will inevitably drain the finances of the National Budget as it looks to socially support these individuals later in life.
The year of 2017 will long be remembered for its proposed policies sparking a revolution amongst the youth of today. Most notably, Labour’s plan to immediately scrap Tuition Fee’s caused a considerable amount of debate and apprehension from some who saw it as a financial burden.
Hence, the call for a separation between ideological and evidence based policies put forth by politicians. Aside from the moral stance of whether or not you deem higher education to be a privilege for those that can afford to pay, there is now an unprecedented amount of pressure to justify its value economically.
Traditionally this is done by assessing the initial monetary cost to the National Budget and the British tax payer, which understandably heightens feelings of resentment from those who are making significant contributions to the “system”.
However, the initial cost is just one piece of a much larger puzzle if we are looking to determine Higher Education’s true value to society. Thus, it’s paramount to scrutinize the potential social return via Market and Non-Market benefits that are associated with attaining higher levels of education.
Education has long been recognized as a substantial factor in regards to economic prosperity and social well-being. Equally, inequalities among educational opportunities has been evidenced to contribute to the disparities among wealth in society.
The JRC science and policy report published in 2014 outline education has two forms of social returns; Market benefits such as increased Tax & National Insurance revenue, Non-Market benefits such as a reduction on public spending in particular healthcare, policing and imprisonment. The report attributed these factors to an upturn in social capital coupled with increased individual achievement leading to greater economic value per citizen.
Additionally, a report commissioned in 2016 by the OECD looked to quantify the economic benefits of Higher Education, concluding that those with a bachelor’s or equivalent degree earn 48% more than those who had left their studies at school.
The economic benefits reported are often not fully considered in context, yes there is a 48% increase but this is not a singular occurrence. In fact, it’s the complete opposite. All too often political parties apply the cost and benefit analysis on a short term basis constructed upon the amount time left in parliament. As a result education has come to be a pawn in a political game of chess, were the goal is to manipulate public finances to evidences financial prosperity. Each year the Chancellor of the Exchequer will announce the budget statement to the House of Commons addressing the current state of the economy and any government proposals for changes to taxation.
However, if we are to assess Higher Educations true value to the economy we must evaluate contributions made over the average working life. Meaning, the 48% increase should be multiplied 47 times which is the average working lifespan according to a study by AAT. As a result we see a momentous increase of 2,256% of “taxable” earnings over the life duration of someone holding a bachelor’s or equivalent degree. Damming as that may seem the figures still aren’t really in context, that’s the potential Market returns of ‘one’ citizen. Imagine the economic possibilities if we were to inspire a whole generation that the key to economic prosperity was to attain the highest level of education possible.
If those economic possibilities weren’t enough to convince you then maybe the social repercussions will be. While higher educational attainment can play a significant role in shaping employment opportunities, it can also increase the capacity for better decision making in respects to many lifestyle choices.
The level of attainment is increasingly being recognized as an important social determinant of health. This phenomenon is further exacerbated during prolonged periods of austerity and economic uncertainty which has resulted in record numbers of citizens who fall into the household’s below average income.
The centers for disease control and prevention annual report in 2011 concluded that those with higher levels of education have lower rates of several chronic diseases such as obesity and diabetes. With living costs continuing to rise in the UK it would appear that the basic principles of capitalism and free-market choice are nothing but an illusion to many. In fact, those who fall below the poverty line in the UK often exercise no choice at all, lifestyle choices are determined based upon financial cost and not health implications.
Aristotle once said “poverty is the parent of revolution and crime” this is somewhat symbolic of the current conditions created by the absurd price placed upon the aspirational pursuit in an effort to better one’s life. The relationship between poverty and crime has been documented for centuries and is due to a deterioration in economic conditions increasing the incentive to resort to crime as a source of income.
Hence the chances of not going to jail are heavily stacked in your favor should you have the opportunity to increase your salary by means of academic achievement. Whilst this may all sound logical in thinking and somewhat utopian the statistics speak volumes 83% of prisoners in 2015 were below level 2 education in numeracy alone.
Again, if we are to reflect accurately on the None-market benefits it has to consider the direct and indirect consequences they pose to society. The possibility of a healthier more informed society would directly reduce the amount of public spending on healthcare and prolonged the average working life resulting in greater amounts paid into the system.
The notion that education can serve as a liberating process, lifting those from the most impoverished conditions provides a justification alone if we are to continue to strive for social justice. However, for the economist’s among us, again there is a clear argument for the financial rewards of a highly educated society.
Based upon the notion that poverty breads criminality, there would be significant reductions in the amount spent on policing and imprisoning citizens. The term “career criminals” could become a thing of the past, as the economic need to commit crime would be significantly diminished.
Yet, tuition fees were introduced across the UK in 1998 under the Labour government somewhat debunking the proposition of its ideological rationale. The justification at the time was accredited to the number of young people in full time higher education increasing from 13% to 34% since 1980 resulting in the amount of funding available per student being halved.
Statistics published by the Department for Education in 2012 show that it had significant ramifications for the upturn of people who was obtaining a degree. There was a reduction on increase of UK graduates by 180% between 2000-2010 in comparison to the previous decade. Evidently the introduction of cost had been a contributing factor in discouraging potential students who may have not been best financially positioned to further their education.
The implications demonstrate a reemergence of perceived social classes were inequality is rife as is the disparities in wealth is further intensified through the availability of educational opportunities.
The effect of limiting the availability of attaining higher levels of education is in fact sacrilege to the UK economy over the lifespan of any generation. Limiting life chances, creating poverty and resentment will inevitably drain the finances of the National Budget as it looks to socially support these individuals later in life.
The evidence in damming education has the power to ensure the stability and resilience of a society and its economy notably in times of uncertainty through the access of knowledge leading to better informed decisions and greater social returns.
The Labour Party’s message throughout the general election was that they would be a government which would act solely in the national interest. That message was clearly evident in their approach to scrapping Tuition Fees, putting aside short term political economic gain, for the long term national benefits a higher educated society would reap.
When the snap election was called on the 18th of April few had envisioned Jeremy Corbyn surviving as the leader of the party let alone leading a revolution. His empathetic nature together with his inspiring policies lead to one of the biggest youth turnouts the country has seen in decades. The revolution has prompted many to predict that he has undoubtedly transformed the trajectory of politics within the UK and future political battles will be between the left and center. | https://www.youngfabians.org.uk/can_we_afford_not_to_pay_for_your_child_s_education |
Flashcards in B2 3 Enzymes Deck (19)
Loading flashcards...
0
What are protein molecules made up of?
They are made up of long chains of amino acids.
1
What do proteins act as?
Proteins act as:
• Structural components such as muscles or tendons.
• Hormones such as insulin.
• Antibodies, which destroy pathogens.
• Catalysts in the form of enzymes.
2
What do catalysts do?
Catalysts increase the rate of chemical reactions without changing themselves. Enzymes are biological catalysts.
3
What are enzymes involved in?
Enzymes are involved in:
• Building larger molecules from smaller ones. (anabolic reactions).
• Changing one molecule into another.
• Breaking down lager molecules into smaller ones (catabolic reactions).
4
What is a substrate?
The reactant of the reaction.
5
How do enzymes work?
The substrate fits into the active site of the enzyme, once it is in place- the enzyme and the substrate bind together. The reaction takes place rapidly and the products are released from the surface of the enzyme.
6
What is enzyme activity affected by?
Enzyme activity is affected by pH and temperature.
7
What do high temperatures do to enzymes?
High temperatures can denature the enzyme's active site, the long amino acid chains begin to unravel.
8
Digesting carbohydrates
Enzymes that break down carbohydrates are called carbohydrases. The break down of carbohydrates (in particular starch) occurs in the mouth where the salivary amylase breaks down the starch. Amylase is also made in the pancreas and the small intestine.
9
Digesting proteins
The breakdown of proteins is catalysed by protease enzymes. Protease enzymes are produced by the stomach, the pancreas and the small intestine. The breakdown of proteins into amino acids occurs in the stomach and small intestine.
10
Digesting fats
The lipids (fats and oils) are broken down into fatty acids and glycerol in the small intestine. The reaction is catalysed by lipase enzymes. These enzymes are made in the pancreas and the small intestine. The enzymes made in the pancreas are passed into the small intestine.
Once the food molecules have been completely digested, they leave your small intestine and they pass into your bloodstream to be carried around the body.
11
Does digestion occur in the pancreas?
NO
The enzymes made in the pancreas flow to the places they are required.
12
Changing pH in the gut
After food leaves the stomach to go into the small intestine, alkaline conditions are required for digestion. The acidic liquid coming from the stomach needs to be neutralised. The liver makes a greenish-yellow substance called bile which is squirted onto the contents coming from the stomach. This neutralises the contents and makes them suitable for the ideal conditions needed in the small intestine.
13
Altering surface area
Another important function of bile is that bile emulsifies fats in food. The fats we eat do not mix with the watery liquids in the gut. Bile physically breaks down the large droplets of fat into smaller droplets. This provides a larger surface area for the lipase enzymes to act on. The large surface area helps the lipase enzymes chemically break down the fats more quickly into glycerol and fatty acids.
14
Enzymes at home
Biological detergents are used to remove stains such as grass, sweat and food from clothes. The powders contain proteases and lipases. These detergents work better at lower temperatures as they become denatured if used at high temperatures.
15
Enzymes in industry
Proteases are used to make baby foods. The proteases 'predigest' some of the protein in the food so the baby's digestive system can cope with the digestion of proteins. This makes it easier for the baby to get its amino acids.
Carbohydrases are used to convert starch into sugar (glucose) syrup. This is a cheap source of sweetness for manufacturers.
Slimming products, isomerase is used to convert glucose syrup into fructose syrup. Fructose contains fewer calories and is much sweeter than glucose so it is needed in smaller quantities for the same sweetness effect.
16
What do most enzyme names end in?
-ASE.
17
Advantages and disadvantages of using enzymes:
Advantages:
• Can be used at lower temperatures
• Speed up reactions
• Can be used again
Disadvantages: | https://www.brainscape.com/flashcards/b2-3-enzymes-2364209/packs/4081819 |
Flashcards in Lecture 11 Deck (32):
1
Adult fat intake
Adult fat intake varies from 25g/day (12% of calories) in riceHbased diets to as much as 140H160 g/day (40% of calories) when some meat and dairy produce are readily available such as in the NZ diet.
2
What are the lipids of our diet?
triacylglycerol (TAG)
phospholipid
cholesterol and cholesterol esters
fat soluble vitamins
3
Fat digestion and milk
Fat digestion is also important in milk dependent neonates, when fat provides some 40% of the calories (fat is 3H4% w/v in milk), and the milk fat composition is different from plant or meat fats
4
What are the Key concepts of Fats
• Major energy store and fuel source. (largest energy per/gram out of all macronutrients-alcohol, protein, carb. More calories)
• Required for transporting fat soluble vitamins (A, D , E , K, in dietary fat, tranporting and stroging vitamins)
• Provide Essential Fatty acids Linoleic and alpha linolenic acid (cannot manufacture in our body. important for production of cell membranes, CNS and brain development)
• Important for insulating and protecting the body (below certain body fat % more likely to die/damage vital organs)
5
What is fat?
The chemical structure of fat (lipids) is diverse.
Triglycerides (fats and oils-Fatty acids) are the most common type of lipid found in the body and in food (dietary fats) Methyl end + acid end
Each triglyceride molecule consists of 3x fatty acids bonded to glycerol.
Phospholipids and sterols (including cholesterol) are also classified as lipids but their structures can be quite different.
6
Fatty Acids
Dependant on chain length + position of double bonds (give them their properties)
Fatty acids are found in the main form of lipids – triglycerides.
• Long chain fatty acids are found primarily in meat, fish and vegetable oils.
• Medium and short chain fatty acids are found in dairy products.
7
Chemistry and State of Fatty Acis
The chemistry of a fatty acid – whether it is short or long, saturated or unsaturated and location of
double bond – influences the characteristics of foods and the health of the body.
• Polyunsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature.
• Shorter fatty acid chains are softer at room temperature than longer chains.
• Monounsaturated fat is slightly less susceptible to spoilage.
• Polyunsaturated fat spoils most readily.
8
Saturated fats
-no double bonds makes them solid at room temp
-more resistant to oxidation (longer shelf life + more useful to keep/store (at room temperature))
Coconut Oil
Butter
Beef Tallow
Palm Oil
Lard (meat fats)
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Monosaturated Fatty acids
Olive Oil
Canola Oil
Peanut Oil
-liquids at room temperature
-slightly less susceptible to spoil
-hydrogenation (double bonds unstable at high heats and H's add) -protects against oxidation (more saturated fats like/trans) (therefore prolonging shelf life) + alters texture
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Polyunsaturated fatty acids
Safflower oil
Flaxseed oil
Walnut oil
Sunflower oil
Corn oil
Soybean oil
Cottonseed oil
-liquids at room temperature
-spoils most readily
-predominantly contains omega 6>omega 3
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Sterols
Multiple ring structure + some other fatty acids
A well known sterol is cholesterol.
Found in plant and animal foods.
Cholesterol is found in animal foods only – meat, eggs, fish, poultry and dairy products (exogenous). (make more
Plant based sterols can interfere with cholesterol absorption.
Material for bile acids and hormones (steroid hormones (vit D- essential for health))
- Examples include Logicol and Flora Proactiv.
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Role of Sterols
• Starting material for bile acids(digestion), sex hormones, adrenal hormones and vitamin D.
• Structural component of cell membranes.
• Liver produces 800 to 1500 mg cholesterol per day (endogenous).
• Atherosclerosis is a disease that causes heart attacks. It occurs when cholesterol forms
deposits in the artery wall.
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Fat Digestion
In the stomach some TAG digestion occurs in gastric juice due mainly to the gastric lipase.
The fatty acids (FAs) released partly control gastric emptying.
In the small intestine, the pulses of chyme from the stomach are immediately neutralised in the duodenum by bicarbonate from the pancreatic juice and bile.
The food fat is further emulsified (droplet size decreased and surface area increased).
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Major Emulsifying agents
major emulsifying agents are the 1. bile salts (from liver by way of gallbladder storage),
2. lecithin (phospholipid present in bile and in food membranes) and
3. monoacylglycerol (2HMAG; breakdown product from TAG).
15
Catalysation of Lipid digestion
Lipid digestion in the adult small intestine is catalysed by three enzymes
1. Pancreatic lipase digests triglycerides (triacylglycerols or TAGs) to glycerol and free FAs, and requires an additional protein colipase from the pancreas (activated from proHcolipase) to become active.
2. Pancreatic non-specific esterase (cholesterolesterase) removes FAs from cholesterol esters, 2HMAGs, TAGs containing short and medium chain fatty acids, and fat soluble vitamin esters (Vit A, D3, E).
3. Phospholipase A2 removes an FA from the 2 position of phospholipids (eg. lecithin is degraded to lysolecithin).
-In addition, there is a lipase in human milk called human milk lipase (not present in ruminant milk) which is important in breast fed human neonate nutrition. This lipase from the mother’s milk is stable during passage through the acidic conditions of a baby’s stomach, and it only becomes active in the small intestine, as this activity is bile saltHdependent.
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Lipase in milk
there is a lipase in human milk called human milk lipase (not present in ruminant milk) which is important in breast fed human neonate nutrition. This lipase from the mother’s milk is stable during passage through the acidic conditions of a baby’s stomach, and it only becomes active in the small intestine, as this activity is bile salt dependent.
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Stearic acid
18 carbon
Saturated fatty acid
-found in meat
-no double bonds as all are saturated
18
Oleic acid
18 carbon
monounsaturated fatty acid
-found in olive oil
-1x double bond
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Linoleic acid
18 carbon
polyunsaturated fatty acid
-an essential fatty acid
multiple double bonds
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Plant oils
the polyunsaturated fats are heated to high levels/
hydrogenation occurs and H's are added to the double bonds
become more saturated/trans fat like in out body
-not good for health
-but good for shelf life
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Coconut Oil
Highest content of saturated fat
-but not all saturated fats are equal
22
Dairy product fat
Saturated fats from dairy products/whole milk doesnt have a lipid profile with that high of a risk of CDV
vs palm oil etc
-where controversy lies
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Flaxseed oil
Largest proportion of Polyunsaturated fats
different to most Poly-uns-fats as has larger omega 3>6
-best oil sources of omega 3
-oily fish + slamon
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Cholestrol
20% from food we eat. Foods contianing cholestrol are MEat, Eggs, FIsh, poultyr, dairy products
but 80% is Endogenous cholesterol, far more is made/manufactured in the liver/body (than eaten exo)
-plant based sterols- similar to cholesterol. interfere with cholesterol absorption. about 300mg daily.
-more plant matter = more plant based sterols consumed
-block bile acid reabsorption in bowel = intrahepatic circulation of bile acids = cholesterol not taken up by liver = liver has to produce its own cholestrol
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Digestion of Fat in the mouth
Some hard fats begin to melt as they reach body temperature
the sublingual salivary gland in the base of the tongue secretes lingual lipase
+ some enzymes are released
26
Digestion of fat in the stomach
The acid-stable lingual lipase initiates lipid digestion by hydrolyzing one bond of triglycerides to produce diglycerides and fatty acids.
The degree of hydrolysis by lingual lipase is slight for most fats but may be appreciable for milk fats
The stomach's churning action mixes fat with water and acid
A gastric lipase accesses and hydrolyses (only a very small amount of )fat
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Digestion of fat in the Small intestine
Bile flows from gall bladder (via common bile duct)
Fat -Bile--> Emulsified fat
Pancreatic lipase flows in from the pancreas (via pancreatic duct)
Emulsified fat (triglycerides) ---Pancreatic(and intestinal) lipase --> Monoglycerides, glycerol, fatty acids (absorbed)
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Digestion of fat in the Large intestine
Some fat and cholesterol, trapped in fiber, exit in feces
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Bile
very difficult to digest fat w/o bile (people w/o gallbladder prescribed low fat diets)
"washing liquid"
surfactant/detergent
-breaks down fat into smaller particles.
-now more able to be picked up and acted on by enzymes (to be further broken down)
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Action of Bile
Helps emulsify fat
once enzyme begins to attack, helps for into drops lefts and become hydrophobic.
-by being hydrophobic repels one another, stops attracting eachother, keeps them into individual small droplets
-also ensures that droplets become smaller, | https://www.brainscape.com/flashcards/lecture-11-5104854/packs/7517371 |
Digestion is a complex process that requires the release of enzymes not only from the cells directly lining the alimentary canal, but also from the pancreas, liver, and gallbladder. Collectively, these organs—which all originate as outgrowths of endoderm from the gut tube during development—are called accessory organs of digestion.
PANCREAS
The pancreas serves two quite different roles in the body, reflecting its exocrine and endocrine functions. As discussed in Chapter 5 of MCAT Biology Review, the endocrine functions of the pancreas include the release of insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin—peptide hormones necessary for the maintenance of proper blood sugar levels. The hormonal function of the pancreas is limited to cells residing in islets of Langerhans scattered throughout the organ. The bulk of the pancreas, however, is made of exocrine cells called acinar cells that produce pancreatic juices. As mentioned earlier, pancreatic juices are bicarbonate-rich alkaline secretions containing many digestive enzymes that work on all three classes of biomolecules. Pancreatic amylase breaks down large polysaccharides into small disaccharides and is therefore responsible for carbohydrate digestion. The pancreatic peptidases (trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, and carboxypeptidases A and B) are released in their zymogen form, but once activated are responsible for protein digestion. Enteropeptidase, produced by the duodenum, is the master switch. It activates trypsinogen to trypsin, which can then activate the other zymogens, and also activates procarboxypeptidases A and B to their active forms. Finally, the pancreas secretes pancreatic lipase, which is capable of breaking down fats into free fatty acids and glycerol.
Pancreatic juices are transferred to the duodenum via a duct system that runs along the middle of the pancreas, as shown in Figure 9.4. Like all exocrine cells, acinar cells secrete their products into ducts. These ducts then empty into the duodenum through the major and minor duodenal papillae.
Figure 9.4. Anatomy of the Pancreas
REAL WORLD
Pancreatitis, or inflammation of the pancreas, is usually caused by gallstones or excessive consumption of alcohol. Regardless of the cause, pancreatitis results from premature activation of pancreatic enzymes and autodigestion of the pancreatic tissue. This is a very painful condition that may result in a long hospital stay and long-term consequences such as diabetes and the reduced digestion of proteins and fats.
LIVER
The liver is located in the upper right quadrant of the abdomen and contains two unique structures for communicating with the digestive system. First, bile ducts connect the liver with both the gallbladder and small intestine. Bile is produced in the liver and travels down these bile ducts where it may be stored in the gallbladder or secreted into the duodenum. The liver also receives all blood draining from the abdominal portion of the digestive tract through the hepatic portal vein. This nutrient-rich blood can be processed by the liver before draining into the inferior vena cava on its way to the right side of the heart. For example, the liver takes up excess sugar to create glycogen, the storage form of glucose, and stores fats as triacylglycerols. The liver can also reverse these processes, producing glucose for the rest of the body through glycogenolysis andgluconeogenesis and mobilizing fats in lipoproteins. The liver detoxifies both endogenous compounds (those made in the body) and exogenous compounds (those brought in from the environment). For example, the liver modifies ammonia, a toxic waste product of amino acid metabolism, to urea, which can be excreted by the kidneys. The liver also detoxifies and metabolizes alcohol and medications. Some drugs actually require activation by the enzymes of the liver. In addition, some drugs cannot be taken orally because modification of these drugs by the liver renders the drugs inactive.
KEY CONCEPT
The functions of the liver include processing of nutrients (glycogenesis and glycogenolysis, storage and mobilization of fats, gluconeogenesis), production of urea, detoxification of chemicals, production of bile, and synthesis of albumin and clotting factors.
Bile production is one of the most significant jobs of the liver vis-à-vis the digestive system. As mentioned earlier, bile is composed of bile salts, pigments, and cholesterol. Bile salts are amphipathic molecules that can emulsify fat in the digestive system. The major pigment in bile isbilirubin, which is a byproduct of the breakdown of hemoglobin. Bilirubin travels to the liver, where it is conjugated (attached to a protein) and secreted into the bile for excretion. If the liver is unable to process or excrete bilirubin (from liver damage, excessive red blood cell destruction, or blockage of the bile ducts), jaundice or yellowing of the skin may occur.
KEY CONCEPT
The major components of bile are bile salts, which emulsify fats; pigments (especially bilirubin, from the breakdown of hemoglobin); and cholesterol.
In addition to bile production, processing of nutrients, and detoxification and drug metabolism, the liver also synthesizes certain proteins necessary for proper body function. These proteins include albumin, a protein that maintains plasma oncotic pressure and also serves as a carrier for many drugs and hormones, as well as clotting factors used during blood coagulation.
REAL WORLD
Cirrhosis of the liver can occur from many different processes, including chronic alcohol consumption, hepatitis C infection, autoimmune hepatitis, and fatty liver disease. However, the outcome is the same. Cirrhosis is scarring of the liver, and this scar tissue builds up, creating increased resistance within the portal vein, resulting in portal hypertension. This causes a backup of fluid within the portal system, resulting in swollen veins in the digestive system, especially the esophagus, which may rupture and cause life-threatening bleeding. This often manifests as hematemesis, or vomiting of blood. Cirrhosis also causes bleeding disorders because production of clotting factors is disrupted. The inability to properly dispose of ammonia results in increased ammonia in the blood, which affects mentation. Finally, cirrhosis may also cause hepatocellular carcinoma, or cancer of the liver.
GALLBLADDER
The gallbladder is located just beneath the liver and both stores and concentrates bile. Upon release of CCK, the gallbladder contracts and pushes bile out into the biliary tree. The bile duct system merges with the pancreatic duct, as shown in Figure 9.3 earlier, before emptying into the duodenum.
The gallbladder is a common site of cholesterol or bilirubin stone formation. This painful condition causes inflammation of the gallbladder. The stones may also travel into the bile ducts and may get stuck in the biliary tree. In some cases, stones can get caught just before entering the duodenum, resulting in blockage of not only the biliary tree, but the pancreatic duct as well, causing pancreatitis.
BRIDGE
Stone formation is nothing more than precipitation of a solid once its concentration has reached the Ksp of the compound. This is particularly common in the gallbladder because bile is concentrated there. Solubility and Ksp are discussed in Chapter 9 of MCAT General Chemistry Review.
The functions of the various digestive enzymes (and bile) are summarized in Table 9.1.
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Nutrient
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Enzyme
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Site of Production
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Site of Function
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Function
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*Note: Bile is not an enzyme, but is involved in mechanical digestion of fats.
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Carbohydrates
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Salivary amylase (ptyalin)
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Salivary glands
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Mouth
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Hydrolyzes starch to maltose and dextrins
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Pancreatic amylase
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Pancreas (acinar cells)
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Duodenum
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Hydrolyzes starch to maltose and dextrins
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Maltase
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Intestinal glands
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Duodenum
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Hydrolyzes maltose to two glucose molecules
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Isomaltase
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Intestinal glands
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Duodenum
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Hydrolyzes isomaltose to two glucose molecules
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Sucrase
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Intestinal glands
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Duodenum
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Hydrolyzes sucrose to glucose and fructose
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Lactase
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Intestinal glands
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Duodenum
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Hydrolyzes lactose to glucose and galactose
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Proteins
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Pepsin(ogen)
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Gastric glands (chief cells)
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Stomach
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Hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds; activated by HCl
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Trypsin(ogen)
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Pancreas (acinar cells)
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Duodenum
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Hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds; converts chymotrypsinogen to chymotrypsin; activated by enteropeptidase
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Chymotrypsin (ogen)
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Pancreas (acinar cells)
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Duodenum
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Hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds; activated by trypsin
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(Pro)carboxy peptidases A and B
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Pancreas (acinar cells)
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Duodenum
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Hydrolyzes terminal peptide bond at carboxy end; activated by enteropeptidase
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Aminopeptidase
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Intestinal glands
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Duodenum
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Hydrolyzes terminal peptide bond at amino end
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Dipeptidases
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Intestinal glands
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Duodenum
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Hydrolyzes pairs of amino acids
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Enteropeptidase
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Intestinal glands
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Duodenum
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Converts trypsinogen to trypsin and procarboxypeptidases A and B to carboxypeptidases A and B
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Lipids
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Bile*
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Liver (stored in gallbladder)
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Duodenum
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Emulsifies fat
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Lipase
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Pancreas (acinar cells)
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Duodenum
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Hydrolyzes lipids
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Table 9.1. Digestive Enzymes
A summary of the digestion of each major class of biomolecules is provided in Figure 9.5.
Figure 9.5. Summary of Digestive Processes
MCAT Concept Check 9.3:
Before you move on, assess your understanding of the material with these questions.
1. List at least one pancreatic enzyme that digests each of the three major classes of biomolecules:
· Carbohydrates:
· Proteins:
· Fats:
2. What are the main components of bile?
3. Where is bile synthesized? Where is bile stored? Where does bile carry out its digestive function?
· Synthesized:
· Stored:
· Carries out function:
4. List at least four functions of the liver:
·
·
·
·
5. The accessory organs of digestion originate from which primary germ layer? | https://schoolbag.info/biology/mcat/45.html |
Lipases are enzymes that hydrolyze glycerol esters of long-chain fatty acids and produce fatty acids and 2-acylglycerol. Bile salts and a cofactor, colipase, are required for full catalytic activity and greatest specificity. The pancreas is the primary source of serum lipase. Both lipase and colipase are synthesized in the pancreatic acinar cells and secreted by the pancreas in roughly equimolar amounts. Lipase is filtered and reabsorbed by the kidneys. Pancreatic injury results in increased serum lipase levels.
13-60 U/L
In pancreatitis, lipase becomes elevated at about the same time as amylase (4-8 hours). But lipase may rise to a greater extent and remain elevated much longer (7-10 days) than amylase.
Elevations 2 to 50 times the upper reference have been reported. The increase in serum lipase is not necessarily proportional to the severity of the attack. Normalization is not necessarily a sign of resolution.
In acute pancreatitis, normoamylasemia may occur in up to 20% of such patients. Likewise, the existence of hyperlipemia may cause a spurious normoamylasemia. For these reasons, it is suggested that the 2 assays complement and not exclude each other, and that both enzymes should be assayed.
Certain drugs such as cholinergics and opiates may elevate serum lipase.
Renal disease may elevate the serum lipase. | https://www.mayocliniclabs.com/test-catalog/Clinical+and+Interpretive/8328 |
Pancreatic Disease - Testing
What is the pancreas?
The pancreas is a glandular organ located close to the liver, the stomach and the small intestine.
The pancreas has two separate and distinct functions, which are its endocrine functions (functions associated with hormone production) and its exocrine functions (functions associated with enzyme production). As an endocrine organ, the pancreas controls blood sugar levels through the secretion of insulin and glucagon hormones. As an exocrine organ, it aids in digestion through the secretion of lipase and amylase enzymes.
"The pancreas has two separate and distinct functions..."
What types of pancreatic disease may occur?
Functionally, pancreatic diseases are broadly classified into diseases related to the exocrine portion of the pancreas (that is, diseases related to the digestive functions of the pancreas), and diseases related to the endocrine portion of the pancreas (that is, diseases related to the control of blood glucose).
Pancreatitis is generalized inflammation of the pancreas. Depending upon the degree of inflammation, there may be long-term effects with respect to either the exocrine or the endocrine pancreatic functions. The underlying cause of pancreatitis is often not known but it may be related to the recent consumption of a fatty meal, the administration of corticosteroids, or direct trauma to the pancreas.
Rarely, tumors of the pancreas may occur. These tumors usually involve the pancreatic beta cells (these cells manufacture insulin) but other tumors of the pancreas may also occur.
How is exocrine pancreatic disease diagnosed?
The clinical signs that a pet exhibits give us the first 'clues' that exocrine pancreatic disease might be present. Disease of the exocrine portion of the pancreas results in insufficient production of the enzymes required for proper digestion of fats, carbohydrates, and proteins.
This condition is termed exocrine pancreatic insufficiency. The patient with this problem usually produces large quantities of fatty feces and shows gradual weight loss despite a good appetite. This condition can occur in dogs because of previous episodes of pancreatitis, or it may be a congenital or inherited condition. Certain breeds of dogs seem to be predisposed to developing this problem.
The most sensitive and specific test for diagnosing exocrine pancreatic insufficiency is determination of the trypsin-like immunoreactivity (TLI) in a serum sample. This involves taking a single, fasting blood sample that is then sent to a veterinary referral laboratory for TLI determination.
Trypsinogen is a proenzyme (a non-activated enzyme) that is secreted by the pancreas into the small intestine, along with other pancreatic digestive enzymes. Upon reaching the small intestine, trypsinogen is converted to trypsin, an enzyme that is involved in the digestion of proteins. A small amount of trypsinogen escapes from the pancreas into the blood circulation, and can be measured in a blood sample as trypsin-like immunoreactivity. Dogs with exocrine pancreatic insufficiency have less trypsinogen being produced because of reduced functional pancreatic tissue, and therefore less trypsinogen escapes into the circulation. Therefore, the trypsin-like immunoreactivity in serum from a dog with exocrine pancreatic insufficiency is quite low.
Do all dogs with pancreatic insufficiency have decreased trypsin-like immunoreactivity blood values?
"The pet must be fasted prior to testing."
Typically, by the time that clinical signs of exocrine pancreatic insufficiency are apparent, most dogs will have significantly reduced concentrations of trypsin-like immunoreactivity. However, if a dog has concurrent pancreatitis or if a sample is taken shortly after a meal, the amount of trypsin-like immunoreactivity may be temporarily increased into the normal range. This is the reason why the pet must be fasted prior to testing.
Are there any other tests that may be used to diagnose exocrine pancreatic insufficiency?
Yes, but these tests have been largely replaced by the trypsin-like immunoreactivity test.
Determination of B12 (cobalamin) and folate concentrations in a serum sample may provide supportive evidence of exocrine pancreatic insufficiency.
Both B12 and folate are vitamins that are readily available in most commercial diets, so dietary deficiency is unlikely. Because pancreatic digestive enzymes are required for the proper absorption of B12 from the digestive tract, exocrine pancreatic insufficiency may result in decreased serum concentrations of B12. Folate concentrations may be increased in serum samples from dogs with exocrine pancreatic insufficiency because intestinal bacterial overgrowth accompanying the insufficiency results in increased bacterial production of folate.
How is endocrine pancreatic disease diagnosed?
The endocrine portion of the pancreas is involved in the regulation of blood sugar. This is accomplished primarily through the effects of the hormones insulin and glucagon. A deficiency in insulin results in diabetes mellitus (sugar diabetes). Testing for diabetes mellitus is discussing in the handouts entitled "Diabetes in Dogs - Testing and Monitoring" and "Diabetes in Cats - Testing and Monitoring".
How is pancreatitis diagnosed?
Inflammation of the pancreas (pancreatitis) may occur due to many factors. In addition to clinical signs that may include vomiting, fever, and abdominal pain, certain characteristic laboratory changes support a diagnosis of pancreatitis.
The CBC (complete blood count) may reveal an increase in the number of white blood cells due to the inflammation within the gland. In addition, the PCV (packed cell volume), which is an indication of the total mass that the red blood cells are occupying in circulation, may be increased because of dehydration.
The serum biochemistry profile may reveal increases in the pancreatic enzymes amylase and lipase. Amylase and lipase are enzymes involved in the digestion of starches and fats, respectively. Normally these enzymes are not active until they are secreted into the digestive tract, but with pancreatitis, they become prematurely activated and cause damage to the gland itself. This premature enzyme activation and leakage also results in increased amylase and lipase concentrations in the serum. Although the increases in amylase and lipase can be variable, they are often quite dramatic.
Are these tests definitive for pancreatitis?
No. Any inflammatory condition may cause white blood cell numbers to become increased. Similarly, any condition resulting in dehydration can cause an increase in the PCV. Conditions that have been shown to cause mild increases in amylase and lipase include kidney disease, neoplasia (cancer), gastrointestinal disease, and liver disease.
"Any inflammatory condition may cause white blood cell numbers to become increased."
The remainder of the serum biochemistry panel provides additional information in regards to the function of these other organs, helping to determine the specific cause of increases in amylase and lipase.
Despite having strong clinical evidence of pancreatitis, some animals, especially cats, will not have significant increases in lipase or amylase enzymes in a serum sample.
Are there any other tests that may be used for the diagnosis of pancreatitis?
Recently, serum tests that appear to be more specific for lipase originating from the pancreas have been developed for the dog and cat. These tests quantify the amount of canine pancreatic specific lipase immunoreactivity (cPLI) or feline pancreatic specific lipase immunoreactivity (fPLI) within a serum sample, and may be helpful in distinguishing increases in serum lipase values due to pancreatitis from increases due to other causes. For further information, please see the articles entitled "Pancreatitis in Dogs - Pancreas-Specific Lipase" and "Pancreatitis in Cats- Pancreas-Specific Lipase".
Occasionally other procedures such as X-rays or ultrasound evaluation of the abdomen are helpful in the diagnosis of pancreatitis when laboratory testing fails to provide a definitive answer.
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© Copyright 2009 Lifelearn Inc. Used and/or modified with permission under license. | https://vcahospitals.com/know-your-pet/pancreatic-disease-testing |
George Walker gives Boncourt's approximate age in many places: 'some seventy years of age' (Bell's Life in London, 19 July 1835); 'seventy years of age' (Bell's Life in London, 22 Apr. 1838); 'some three-score and ten years of age' (Bell's Life in London, 19 Aug. 1838; 'Seventy years and more have passed over him' (The Café de la Régence, 1840); 'Boncourt was past 70 years of age' (Bell's Life in London, 3 May 1840, p.4). These remarks put his birth sometime in the mid-1860's. I am guessing at a birth year of 1865, but this could be in error by a few years. Diggle (quoted by Winter) gives his year of death as 1840, and the query by W.G. Povarov quoted by Winter says that Boncourt played Kieseritzky in Jan. 1840. Some games against Kieseritzky are given in the 4th number of the 1839 volume of Le Palamède (pp.115-116, where Kieseritzky's name is given in error as 'Zekeriski') and they are mentioned in the 3rd number (p.88). Furthermore, Boncourt's death is announced in the 3rd number of this volume (p.91). However, these last issues of Le Palamède were behind in their publication dates (the 3 Nov. 1839 issue of Bell's Life in London says that the first number 'has come to hand'), and Kieseritzky gives a date for one of the games as 20 Feb. 1840 in his 1846 book 'Cinquante Parties...'. Boncourt's death is announced in the 3 May 1840 isssue of Bell's Life in London (p.4). Finally, Dominique Thimognier has found Boncourt's exact date of death (23 Mar. 1840) and his full name. | http://www.edochess.ca/players/p49.html |
Adolf Anderssen was one of the strongest players of his time, and many consider him to have been the world’s strongest player after his victory in the London 1851 chess tournament. Lionel Kieseritzky lived in France much of his life, where he gave chess lessons, and played games for five francs an hour at the Café de la Régence in Paris. His strength was shown most favourably when giving great odds to weak players; against masters, he was less convincing.
Here, I’m inserting my short tag [chess game="2" tpl="5"]. The game ID I choose has ID 2. You can find game ids easily from the game editor(inside blue bubble). A game can be displayed different ways. Here I'm choosing the fifth template(tpl="5"). The tpl attribute is optional. Default is 1.
Played between the two great players at the Simpson's-in-the-Strand Divan in London, the Immortal Game was an informal one, played during a break in a formal tournament. Kieseritzky was very impressed when the game was over, and telegraphed the moves of the game to his Parisian chess club. The French chess magazine La Régence published the game in July 1851. This game was nicknamed "The Immortal Game" in 1855 by the Austrian Ernst Falkbeer.
This game is acclaimed as an excellent demonstration of the romantic style of chess play in the 19th century, where rapid development and attack were considered the most effective way to win, where many gambits and counter-gambits were offered (and not accepting them would be considered slightly ungentlemanly), and where material was often held in contempt. These games, with their rapid attacks and counter-attacks, are often entertaining to review, even if some of the moves would no longer be considered the best by today's standards.
In this game, Anderssen wins despite sacrificing a bishop (on move 11), both rooks (starting on move 18), and the queen (on move 22) to produce checkmate against Kieseritzky who only lost three pawns. He offered both rooks to show that two active pieces are worth a dozen inactive pieces. Anderssen later demonstrated the same kind of approach in the Evergreen Game. | https://wordpresschess.com/the-immortal-game/ |
Chris Stychinsky and John Wright faced each other in the second round. I talked about their game one encounter already. In this post we are taking a closer look at their second game.
Chris seems to have moved on from his swashbuckling opening repertoire and played the Ruy Lopez against John’s 1 … e5. I can only recommend to follow in Chris’ footsteps. Playing complex openings such as the Ruy Lopez exposes us to a variety of pawn structures and strategic ideas. In the long run this will make us better chess players.
John countered Chris’ Ruy with the Zaitsev variation—the battle ground of Karpov and Kasparov in the 80s. The positions arising from this opening are often wild, black players seek their fortune of the queenside and white players try to deliver a quick checkmate. However, before launching queenside operations black puts pressure on e4 to slow down white’s queen’s knight attempt to join kingside operation.
The knight manoeuvre I’m referring to was introduced by Steinitz and is commonly used in Ruy Lopez and Gioucco Piano positions.
The best square for the knight on b1 would be f5. It gets there via d2, f1, and g3 and there is very little black can do in this particular situation. Also note, white only advanced the d-pawn to d3 and e4 is under firm control here.
We are now ready to have a look at the game:
Now would be a good time for a black strategy reset. The accidental pawn sacrifice offered white some hope to seize the initiative. Black’s main priority should be to thwart all of white’s active attempts. White enjoys some open diagonals and lines thanks to dropping a pawn. The white bishops are in good positions and both knights are already on the kingside and ready to move to more active squares. Thanks to white’s unfortunate pawn loss black already won the battle on the queenside. There is not much left to fight for.
Stay tuned for part two of the knight move series. I will talk about my game with Randy. Here is a little preview:
Why didn’t Randy take the rook on h2? | https://sgvchess.club/knight-moves-haunt-the-top-boards-part-i/ |
Colle System Has anyone had much success with the Colle system? I find I need to have a few tricks up my sleeve if my opponent does not follow the opening line or transpose his/her pieces to get to the position described.
1. d4 d5 2. Nf3 .... 3. e3.... 4. c3.... 5. Bd3... 6. Nbd2... 7. Bd3... 8. O-O... 8. Re1 9. e5.
The idea being to set your white pieces at the positions described, then play e5. I find if my opponent has not also castled kingside by the time I play e5, I will run into trouble. Any suggestions?
well first of all, in the colle, you usually only play c3 if black has played c5. In the colle you don't necessarily have to play e4. Sometimes you can post your knight at e5 and move f4 and get into a pretty closed position with more positional considerations.
Remember though that the whole idea of the colle is to safely set up a dominant center. The idea is to play e4 and get the classical two pawn center where black cannot undermine it with openings like sicilian. If black has not castled, you generally should have advantage. You don't always have to go for the bishop sacrifice on h7. You can setup your pawn center, develop all your pieces to central positions and then come up with some sort of winning plan. To play the colle successfully, you have to learn how to plan. That was probably my biggest problem when I used to play it. I may just start looking into playing it again more now. You have to be able manage positional considerations. Although the colle is often an attacking line, it can take a very strategical nature in how you procede. There is no single type of pawn structure in the colle, you have to know how to handle several different kinds of pawn structures, so you may look into getting a good book on pawn structure. There are many good ones, but I'm not sure which would be the best for you. It depends on your understanding of chess. Any general middlegame book with good reviews should be good as the colle often prolongs the battle to the middlegame with an attack somewhere along the lines. An attacking book may also be a good investment.
There is one thing you have to carefull for. Watch out for the hypermodern style defenses. When you are establishing your center, take heed to black's ability to tear it down with fianchettoed bishops and such. Also look out for the stonewall defense. I would recommend Purdy's "Action Chess" which proposes an opening repetoire but more importantly for you, effectively teaches the concepts of the colle system. Purdy is a good teacher, you will benefit from this book if you study it.
It always annoyed me when black played ...Bf5 early, as that made putting a bishop on d3 much less fun for white.
I've also heard, but without fully investigating or understanding for myself, that the Colle System isn't so great against a KID setup by black.
I think you can play 1. d4 2. Nf3 and use that time to decide how black is going to get set-up. Then, you can either play 3. c4 and get a classical queen's pawn opening, or play 3. e3 if it still looks good.
I can't remember what it was, but Purdy dealt with the KID against the colle in his book "Action Chess". As far as I remember, the KID was not the best answer to the colle. I'll try to look it up as soon as I can. Purdy dealt with a lot of answers to the colle in his book. After reading the book all that is needed is practice and going over annotated games (something that I didn't do enough of). I have "Colle plays the Colle System". I should work through those games too.
french plans vs colle I recently looked at some games where black plays a french set up against the colle...playing pawns to d5 and e6 and c5.. He is also playing an early b6 trying to exchange the bad bishop via Ba6. If white plays Qe2 the bishop goes to b7 supporting the center. Black waits for whites attempt to play e4 before exchanging on d4. For this reason white usually takes on c5 and then plays e4 leading to a few exchanges. Sometimes white wins with a kingside attack but often black has more than enough counterplay in the center and on the queenside to achieve equality. I think I may give it a try the next time I face the colle.
pawn push to control center is it more effective to push pawns to control center immediately or delay your push in order to undermine your opponents center?
© 2019 Spinartrecords Inc. All rights reserved. | http://spinartrecords.com/chess-notation |
Chess openings refer to the first several moves made in any given chess game, and take it from an international master — those moves matter. I recently had the pleasure of co-hosting Chess TV’s Amateur Hour with IM Danny Rensch, during which Danny provided me with a mind-blowing explanation that clarified the fundamentals behind chess opening moves.
In this article, I’ll use the information I got from Danny to explain what every good opening has in common and the top keys principles that make a good position in chess so you can start to win more games.
This article is written by an amateur, but the content inside comes directly from an international master. If you’re an amateur like me, I hope this article is more helpful than the others you’ll read, because it’s written by someone who’s learning these concepts for the very first time. None of the information inside this article is my opinion — it’s solid, fundamental knowledge taught to me by IM Danny Rensch.
We’ll Focus On Why These Chess Opening Moves Are Played — Not Just Memorization
Lots of amateurs, myself included, have memorized the first few most popular opening moves in chess (e4 or d4 for white, e5 or c5 for black), but we don’t know why we play them. It’s OK if you haven’t memorized any moves at all!
Almost every other article focuses on what opening moves to make, but memorizing moves wasn’t helping me to improve my chess game because I didn’t understand the underlying concepts.
This article will focus on the strategies that apply to all good chess opening moves. Whether you’re playing a game with a friend or analyzing one of Magnus Carlsen’s games (the current world champion), you’ll begin to understand why they’re playing the opening moves they are — not just how to copy them.
The Basic Chess Opening Strategy I Never Learned
Danny said, “Even when top players play an opening you don’t know, they do things you were taught to do in the beginning of chess.” (I had never been taught these things.)
Here are key things that masters often do in openings:
- They bring out their pieces to fight for control over the middle of the board. Regardless of the opening that’s played, that’s a theme that almost never changes.
- The method, or the way they want to control the center is what changes.
- Tip: If someone starts to play a series of weird moves to start a game, you should just grab control over the middle of the board and “own everything.”
Chess Opening Moves Are Counterblows
When you’re thinking about chess openings, think of each move as a counterblow. Let’s walk through an example.
Why Black Plays c5 (The Sicilian Defense) After White Plays e4
- Someone plays e4, the most common opening move in chess.
- Black plays c5 in response. (Known as the Sicilian defense.)
- c5 is played because black is trying to attack the dark squares.
- That’s a logical thing to do, because white has overextended on the light squares, and that makes d4 weak.
- That’s why black responds with c5 or e5 after e4: to challenge an area of the board that is currently unchallenged.
There’s No Substitute For This One Thing
There’s no away around this: You have to learn some basic opening moves that are recommended by statistics and by what people have done previously.
How Do I Learn Basic Opening Moves?
A great way to do this is using the Opening Explorer on Chess.com! That way, you start building those “opening move muscles.” Danny said that if you do this, first you’ll realize you messed up in the first few moves, but before long it will be move 5, and then move 10.
In other words, learning basic opening moves helps you to make progress.
The Basic Core Concepts Of Every Chess Opening
- Whenever someone makes a move, you are gaining control and losing control over certain critical areas of the board.
- As a beginner, you want to begin to understand cause and effect in chess. It’s the chess version of the principle, “To every action is an equal and opposite reaction.”
- Every move should take advantage of either:
- Something that is vulnerable for the taking or less guarded than it should be
- Moving to where your pieces might have a chance to work together
Tools To Learn Better Openings
My favorite online tool for learning chess openings is Chess.com’s opening explorer, which is included with a premium membership to Chess.com.
I’d recommend reading my article about the right way to use Chess.com’s opening explorer before you dive in. To be honest, it confused the heck out of me at first. When I told IM Danny Rensch about how I had been using it, he said I had been thinking about it “exactly wrong.”
The advice he gave me on the air made things a lot clearer for me, and that’s why I decided to write an article about how to use it.
Good Openings Lead To Good Positions
If you haven’t already, read my follow-up article called 3 Keys To Getting Good Positions In Chess: How To Win For Beginners! to accelerate your learning process and start winning more games.
Closing Out This Article About Chess Openings
My goal as an amateur and aspiring chess student is to be able to clarify some fundamental concepts that should help anyone to improve their chess game. Keep these strategies about how to play solid chess opening moves in the forefront of your mind, and you’re sure to begin to improve your chess game. Feel free to challenge me to a game on Chess.com — my username is payetteforward, and share this article with your friends! | https://www.payetteforward.com/chess-opening-moves-masters-top-3-strategies-for-beginners/ |
more...
]
Sep-05-07
Anderssen vs Kieseritzky, 1851
saillsha
: Chess games don't get much better than this.
Sep-05-07
A Medina Garcia vs Tal, 1966
saillsha
: This one was pretty easy imho.
Aug-28-07
F Riemann vs Anderssen, 1876
saillsha
: I'm surprised Riemann played it out to the finish.
Aug-27-07
C T Goering vs Anderssen, 1877
saillsha
: It should have a '#' sign at the end since it's a checkmate... Also, Anderssen should have played 34...Nxe7
Aug-26-07
L Ogaard vs J D Tisdall, 1987
saillsha
: how is anyone supposed to see that... o.O
Aug-18-07
R Cifuentes vs G Ligterink, 1988
saillsha
: I was playing this position out against the computer, and the computer plays 18...f5 instead of fxg3. Can anyone tell me what's the winning continuation from there?
Aug-17-07
A McLennan vs W S Roach, 1979
saillsha
: It seemed white had an attacking position until Move 20. Then the black bishops took control of the game. Just goes to show you how easily the tempo of the game can change.
Aug-17-07
I Madl vs Chiburdanidze, 2000
saillsha
: man, I was assuming white would take the queen.
Aug-13-07
Yusupov vs P Scheeren, 1983
saillsha
: man, that bishop on b2 is so powerful.
Aug-13-07
Barnett vs Eastwood, 1949
saillsha
: what a n00b, not seeing bishop pin.
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F.A.Q. | https://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessuser?uname=saillsha |
2.c4 strengthens White's control of the center, particularly the important d5 square. It also allows White's queenside knight to develop to the active c3 square without blocking the c-pawn.
Black has a number of possibilities at this point:
- 2...e6 – This move is solid and flexible. Depending on how white plays, black will end up in a Queen's Indian, Nimzo-Indian, Bogo-Indian, Queen's Gambit Declined, Benoni, or a Catalan.
- 2...g6 – This tends to be more aggressive (and riskier), though still solid if one knows the important strategic points. Black has the choice to move into a King's Indian Defence (KID) (regardless of white's play) or possibly a Grünfeld if white plays 3. Nc3 and black wishes.
- 2...c5 – This will likely end up being a Benoni (often aggressive, risky), Benko-gambit (positional pawn sacrifice by black on queenside), a symmetrical English (a bit quieter, but active pieces), or even a Tarrasch QGD (active for both sides).
- 2...d6 – This is the so-called "Old Indian," and it can either transpose into a KID or follow less popular lines with a strategy similar to the KID.
- 2...e5 – The Budapest Gambit. It has a unique character and often allows black active play. White usually gives the pawn back eventually, and usually gets a slightly better position, but black can do well against the ignorant white player.
- 2...d5 – The Marshall Defence. This is not the best idea, though not an absolute trap. Several opening encyclopedias give this a clear advantage to white if played right.
Theory table[edit | edit source]
For explanation of theory tables see theory table and for notation see algebraic notation.
1.d4 Nf6 2.c4
|2||3||4||5||6|
|King's Indian Defence||c4
|
g6
|Nc3
|
Bg7
|e4
|
d6
|Nf3
|
O-O
|Be2
|
e5
|=|
|Grunfeld Defence||...
|
...
|...
|
d5
|cxd5
|
Nxd5
|e4
|
Nxc3
|bxc3
|
Bg7
|=|
|Benoni Defence||...
|
c5
|d5
|
e6
|Nc3
|
exd5
|cxd5
|
d6
|e4
|
g6
|+/=|
|Queen's Indian Defence||...
|
e6
|Nf3
|
b6
|a3
|
Bb7
|Nc3
|
d5
|cxd5
|
Nxd5
|+/=|
|Bogo-Indian Defence||...
|
...
|...
|
Bb4+
|Bd2
|
Qe7
|g3
|
Nc6
|Nc3
|
Bxc3
|+/=|
|Nimzo-Indian Defence||...
|
...
|Nc3
|
Bb4
|e3
|
O-O
|Bd3
|
d5
|Nf3
|
c5
|=|
|Catalan Opening||...
|
...
|g3
|
d5
|Bg2
|
dxc4
|Nf3
|
Be7
|O-O
|
O-O
|=|
|Black Knights' Tango||...
|
Nc6
|Nf3
|
e6
|a3
|
d6
|Nc3
|
g6
|e4
|
Bg7
|+/=|
|Budapest Gambit||...
|
e5
|dxe5
|
Ng4
|Bf4
|
Nc6
|Nf3
|
Bb4+
|Nbd2
|
Qe7
|+=|
|Old Indian Defence||...
|
d6
|Nc3
|
e5
|Nf3
|
Nbd7
|e4
|
Be7
|+/=|
|Marshall Defence||...
|
d5
|cxd5
|
Nxd5
|Nf3
|
Bf5
|Qb3||+/=|
When contributing to this Wikibook, please follow the Conventions for organization.
References[edit | edit source]
- Batsford Chess Openings 2 (1989, 1994). Garry Kasparov, Raymond Keene. ISBN 0-8050-3409-9. | https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Chess_Opening_Theory/1._d4/1...Nf6/2._c4 |
When I was just starting out in chess, I was barely able to beat people rated 900 on this chess site. 900! Thats very very low. But slowly, and with much practice, after about 1000 games of chess with little opening/defense knowledge, I was able to reach the mid 1200's quite easily. To make the new transition over to the 1300's, I had to try even harder to remember openings and tactics. The self training took me months, and plenty of hours out of my spare time, but I learned enough opening knowledge and pawn tricks to improve way over 1300.
Currently I am about to surpass 1600, and looking back now, I wondered what the best types of openings and defences would have helped me the most along the way. Well, after careful analysis, I have concluded that 5 different openings were the best for me to use during my "beginner" days. Be aware that ALL of the openings below have been used and tested by many GM's, and are in use in today's most serious of tournaments. Below are the openings, and the reasons why beginners should use them =]
B00: King's Pawn
Kings Pawn Opening is the most widely used opening in chess, because of the feature to open up both the light square bishop and the queen at the same time. Also, the pawn grabs for the center, causing tension for black. After moving e4, just develop your minor pieces and you should do fine.
A45: Indian Game
When playing as black, if white should make their first move d4 (queen's pawn) then you should try to use this move fairly often. In most games, the knight moving to Nf6 is inevitable most times, so doing it first will save you time in the long run. Don't try this when white plays e4, because that would transition to the Alekhine defense, a much more advanced defense ;)
C60: Ruy Lopez
Considered one of the strongest chess openings for white, black now has to face multiple challenges to defend against white's onslaught of powerful moves. White now has the power to castle, and already has a fairly strong control on the board. If you play white and your game goes "e4,e5,Nf3,Nc6" then I recommend bringing that bishop out and doing the bold Ruy Lopez.
B20: Sicilian Defense
As black, you will have the disadvantage of moving second, but the Sicilian Defense tries to turn that into an advantage. For black, using the Sicilian is a perfect way to throw white off guard. I always hated seeing it whenever I played white, because it always made me ponder ways on how to actually beat it! This is the most used defence when dealing with white's e4 move, and even in Grandmaster games. Do not be afraid to use the Sicilian, it's a very versatile and flexible defence for black.
A00: Hungarian Opening / A07: King's Indian Attack
Considered an unorthodox move by some, this opening has a very impressive win rate for white. Almost as powerful as the King's Pawn opening itself, if your opponent is not careful, they can wind up in a world of pain. The next obvious move is to fianchetto the light squared bishop to g2, and then perhaps developing the g1 knight to f3 so you can castle. This opening is also good whenever trying to take down much higher rated opponents, since most are quite unready to deal with the setup. You can easily change the order in which you play this setup. or instance, move Nf3 as your first move, followed by the pawn moving to g2. Or the other way around. It's however you want the game to progress.
Hope you guys enjoyed this segment. Please be aware, this is only a recommended read for those under 1200 in rating, and basically only just starting out in chess. Of course, those above 1200 can read this and learn something new, but those of you above 1200 should seek Intermediate opening guides that are recommended for those between 1250-1400. | https://www.chess.com/forum/view/chess-openings/5-solid-openingsdefenses-for-beginners |
It is fiercely debated which opening variation leads to success most efficiently. Basically, three different playing styles are distinguished.
The Open Game
The duel is opened with the combination of 1. e4 e5.Risky variation that leads to sacrifice when mistakes are being made.Examples: Italian, Spanish
The Half-Open Game
Opening move is again 1. e4, which Black follows with a move other than e5.Calm playing style.Examples: Sicilian, French
Closed Game
All openings that do not include e4 as the first move.
Few tactical elements, playing with few losses.
Examples: Queen’s Gambit, Larsen-System
Players should always be aware of their personal strengths and weaknesses when it comes to finding the proper opening strategy for their chess duels. It may be helpful to analyze previous games and to ask for external feedback. Hereby, they should always ask themselves whether the own strength is related to situational and precise calculation or to the long-term planning (tactician or strategist?). Does one prefer the offensive, risk-seeking, and aggressive style or the main emphasis of the game the defending and minimizing risk? Are the particularities of the chessmen played out at its best or does the handling of pawns turn out optimal?
Regardless of the player-specific characteristics, there are a few tips and tricks that all chess players should consider, as they can be used for any opening variations.
1. Minimize the number of moves until full development
A positioning is only fully developed when the King has been castled and there is no figure left between the two Rooks.
2. Move the central pawns first (covering King or Queen)
Therefore you will be able to proceed with your Bishop later on.
3. Develop your minor pieces first
Ideal order is always Knight before Bishop. Pay respect to the Knight that are often in unfavorable positions at the edge of the board.
4. Control the center
The cetral squares d4 / e7 / d5 / e5 (not necessarily pawns) are to be taken, as they grant benefits from better overall positioning.
5. Activate all your chess pieces
Enables you to take advantage of your opponent’s weaknesses and increases your chances t checkmate the opposite King in many ways.
6. Protect your King
As the central pawns usually move foward, it is important for you to protect your King through castling.
7. Hamper your competitor
The opponent is supposed to have a hard time developing the positions of his or her figures (hinder castling for example).
8. Know your goals
Think about the most auspicious square on the board for each your chessmen and try reaching them in one move.
9. Limit yourself to few pawn moves
One to three pawns are ideal in the opening stage.
10. Keep a trump up your sleeve
Keep an eye on holding back your Queen for a while. Don’t bring this particular figure into the game too early. | http://blog.chessimo.com/10-tips-for-a-successful-chess-opening-2/ |
Magnus Carlsen retains the Title!
The World Championship match has been labeled as boring, uneventful, played by two computers-era guys who know way too much their preparation, and a lot of other derogatory names. People got upset when in game 12, with the players still tied, they decided to go for a 40-minute draw, without even trying to make it less obvious. The match actually was not boring at all. There has been a precise theme through almost every game: Magnus - the stronger player - trying to attack Karjakin or, at least, to get a tiny advantage in the middle game to then strangle his opponent with his proverbial endgame technique, and Karjakin doing what he does better: defending like a champion. The psychological aspects played an important role, obviously. A match is a confrontation of preparation, talent and resilience. Anyway, the war was still going on when they sat in front of each other for the tiebreaks. Four rapid games with time control of 25 minutes plus a 10-second increment. The first game was a relatively quite draw, and the comments on the socials were of course on the lines "they'll get to Armageddon!". But in the second game, Carlsen went for the kill, only missing the victory by a move. Probably that was the moment which triggered something in Magnus' head. In Game 3, with black, the Champion played aggressively, and Karjakin used all his time to resist. At the end, Karjakin could not oppose his proverbial defending skills to the storming attack and blundered in time trouble. Magnus had white in the fourth and decisive game. e4 again, as almost always in this match. Karjakin decided to try the Sicilian for the first time.
Magnus went for it, and played solid chess, but without frantically seeking for a draw.
What a way to celebrate his 26th birthday!
Congratulations to Magnus Carlsen for winning the match and thanks to Sergey Karjakin for putting up such an amazing defense.
The Super contest to win a LIFETIME membership has been won by ICC member zedudu.
We had TWO members predicting the exact final result of the Match: zedudu and slowbishop. zedudu won the draw and the LIFETIME membership. Congratulations!
Here is Game 4 of the Rapid playoffs, the decisive win by Carlsen.
The New in Chess magazine has sponsored our GOTD videos, offering a 1-year subscription to its digital magazine to a lucky ICC member for each game of the World Championship! | https://www.chessclub.com/article/magnus-carlsen-retains-the-title |
Theme Song Background Music:
To help describe your opponents.
What is the Sicilian Defence?
The Sicilian Defence is a line played as black against 1.e4 (King Pawn Opening).
Take a journey with me into the Sicilian Defence.
The starting position of the Sicilian Defence begins at move 1.
ECO code B20-99 Sicilian Defence General
Lets talk about the starting position.
Move 1.e4 - White claims the center directly by occupying it with a pawn.
Move 1...c5 - The idea behind the move c5 is to take control of the d4 square.
To fully understand how this differs from Classical chess (1...e5)
I will have you do a small comparision.
The idea behind the move 1...c5 is to target the d4 square to prevent white from having 2 center pawns.
In Classical chess the move 1...e5 also targets the d4 square to prevent white from having 2 center pawns.
One may wonder well if both moves target the d4 square what is the difference?
The difference is the pawn's themselves!
The e5 pawn is a center pawn and the c5 pawn is a flank pawn.
This small difference changes the nature of the whole game.
In the above diagram you can see how the pawn move e5 allows black the chance to have a symmetrical position.
When you look at the position you can see it is bascially very similar.
Black has his pawn 4 ranks up and so does white.
Black has 4 ranks of center space and so does white.
Black's bishop + queen have some scope and white's bishop + queen have some scope
Everything is fairly similar.
Now look at the 1...c5 position.
Notice the difference in the above diagram!
Do you see the differences?
One thing which is very easy to see is the fact black does not have equal center space!
Now does this mean black will never have center space? No
All it means is in the begining positions black is a little cramped.
In some Sicilian lines black stays cramped for a while!
In other Sicilian lines black fights back and gets center space!
Another thing which is easy to see is the development!
The c5 pawn only develops the queen but not the bishop.
Which is to say black has to be careful that he doesn't get over run.
Now I believe these 2 things are very nice key idea's to keep in mind from this starting position.
There are more differences; however, I will not tell them right yet simply because I think it will be more beneficial to you to see them when we start going over a variation.
Now it is white's second move.
Guess what!
White has played 24 different moves at move 2!
I have a feeling we will not go over all 24 moves.
Simply because we would probably be here the rest of our life lol.
If you feel like looking at the 24 different moves click on the below game explorer.
On this article I will go over the most popular move's.
However, I will make a deal with you!
If you have a line suggestion in the Sicilian for me.
You can put it in the comment section of this article!
Move 2.Nf3 - The idea behind Nf3 is to help develop a piece and support a d4 pawn push!
Move 2...d6 - The idea behind the move d6 is actually very very interesting.
The reason why is because the d6 move does alot of different little functions!
The first thing the move d6 does is help defend the c5 pawn.
The second thing the move d6 does is active the light square bishop.
The last thing the move d6 does is help take control of the key e5 square.
Black wants to play Nf6;however, if he plays Nf6 white could play the move e5 kicking the knight away with tempo.
Black does not want white to do that.
Thus, The sneaky move d6 helps prevent that simply because if white plays e5 with his pawn black will take it!
As you can see this move is a powerful little move which is the most popular.
It isn't the only move in this position; however, it does serve a function!
Move 3.d4 - Why does white play d4?
Isn't white trading a center pawn for a flank pawn?
Well the truth is yes.
White is trading a center pawn for a flank pawn; however, he is doing it for a reason.
White idea in this position is simple.
White bascially agrues go ahead and take my center pawn for your flank pawn because once you take it with your C pawn.
I will be able to recapture and end up with a nice centralized piece on d4 for some time.
Furthermore, the removal of the D pawn will allow white the chance to have open lines.
Both white bishops will have no pawn blocking them.
White can later on put a rook on the D file were it will be on a Semi-Open file.
Rooks love Open files and Semi-open files.
Because white has alot of Open lines.
This position is considered to be the Starting position of the Open Sicilian!
In the Open Sicilian white believes they have compensation in this flank pawn vs center pawn exchange.
Move 3...cxd4 - We know why white plays d4 and the compensation they feel they have from playing such a move.
So now lets talk about what black gets from taking the d4 pawn.
Why does black take d4?
Well the reason black takes the d4 pawn is because they seek to agrue the center pawn vs flank pawn exchange benefits them and not white!
They believe white doesn't have enough compensation as he thinks he does!
For the exchange of pawns black gets a Semi-Open C file for his rook.
Black also retains his 2 center pawns.
Black has a 2 to 1 advantage so to speak.
White only has the e pawn left and black still has both the d and e pawns.
Black says I am ok with your open lines and your centralized pieces because soon enough! I am going to push them all backwards with my powerful center pawns!
I am going to show you center pawn power buddy!
Which funny enough is how the fight escalates!
Each side fighting tooth and nail to prove their imbalance is better than their opponent.
Move 4.Nxd4 - Very logical move.
White doesn't want to be down a pawn. So they recapture with the knight to have a very nice central knight.
I have seen the move 4.Qxd4 as a side variation.
However, if you are interested in that you can leave me a message in the comments.
The most popular move and most logical move is taking with the knight.
Move 4...Nf6 - This move is a very nice move by black.
Basically the move Nf6 hits the undefended e4 pawn!
You simply ask white what are you going to do?
I am hitting your e4 pawn. If you do nothing I am going to take it with my knight!
You see guys/gals chess can be easy!
You develop a piece and hit a undefended pawn!
Defend it or I am taking it!
Move 5.Nc3 - Black hit the undefended e4 pawn.
White countered by playing Nc3 which defends the e4 pawn!
Isn't that wonderful!
It is completely logical.
White develops a piece and defends his pawn.
Now we reach the critical position!
At this point black choices which variation they are planning to play.
I will stop the article here.
Simply because we can pick it up again in a specific variation.
I will show the different moves black plays in this position.
In future articles we can talk about them etc.
Black's 5th move
5...a6 is known as the Sicilian Najdorf
5...Nc6 is known as the Sicilian Classical
5...e6 is known as the Sicilian Scheveningen
5...g6 is known as the Sicilian Dragon
Hopefully this brief tour into the Sicilian Defence will give you insight on some of the key features of the Sicilian Defence.
The Sicilian Defence is a special line to so many chess players around the world.
As always thank you very much for reading.
Hope you enjoyed yourself. | https://www.chess.com/blog/X_PLAYER_J_X/sicilian-defence2 |
If you play e4 then you must know the Pirc defense trap. Here are 6 Pirc defense traps, you must watch these traps if you want to win quickly against Pirc defense.
This defense is played against e4 where black allows white to establish a strong center and after that black tries to crush the center. The Question is whether white gets development advantage or black break through the in the center.
Let’s watch Pirc Defense traps so we should get some ideas from these games and then apply these ideas into our own game.
Pirc Defense Trap:1
Pirc Defense Trap:2
Pirc Defense Trap:3
Please flip the board to black side for better view.
Pirc Defense Trap:4
Pirc Defense Trap:5
Pirc Defense Trap:6
Conclusion:
So I hope you learned some traps in Pirc defense, and you will apply in your games. Thanks.
Helping Links on Pirc Defense: | https://chessonly.com/pirc-defense-trap/ |
City boss gives verdict on Foxes defeatNORWICH City didn't keep the ball effectively enough and that proved decisive in their 2-1 defeat to Leicester City, says manager Alex Neil.
The Canaries have had success this season with their possession-based approach, but their opponents' counter-attacking style helped them to three points at Carrow Road on Saturday.
Dieumerci Mbokani scored his first goal for the Club, but the damage had already been done after Jeff Schlupp added to Jamie Vardy's penalty for the visitors.
"In the first half we set up to try to move the ball and keep the ball and dominate the game, but unfortunately for us our use of the ball and how quickly we moved it wasn't quite there," Neil told Norwich City TV.
"The way Leicester are set up to counter-attack that, if you don't move the ball well enough then that's going to play into their hands because you keep conceding possession.
"These games are difficult to get to the bottom of because Leicester didn't control the game at any point, but we know what their strengths are."
Neil says his side's performance wasn't down to a lack of preparation, affirming that his team had worked on counteracting Leicester's threat.
"It was something we worked on all week. If our game isn't at its maximum though, then they're set-up to punish that," he added.
"We went to West Ham, who are a great counter-attacking side, and our use of the ball was excellent. We were slick, we were quick and played at the top of their level.
"I felt sorry for the players, they didn't do themselves justice in that first 45 minutes today. Things were a bit predictable and too slow. They're better than that." | https://www.canaries.co.uk/News/2015/october/alex-neil-we-werent-on-our-game/ |
COVID-19 has caused the recent pandemic of respiratory infection, which threatened global health. The severity of the symptoms varies among affected individuals, from asymptotic or mild signs to severe or critical illness. Genetic predisposition explains the variation in disease severity among patients who suffer from severe symptoms without any known background risk factors. The present study was performed to show the association between APOE genotype and the severity of COVID-19 disease. The APOE genotype of 201 COVID-19 patients (101 patients with asymptomatic to mild form of the disease as the control group and 100 patients with severe to critical illness without any known background risk factors as the case group) were detected via multiplex tetra-primer ARMS-PCR method. Results showed that the e4 allele increased the risk of the COVID-19 infection severity more than five times and the e4/e4 genotype showed a 17-fold increase in the risk of severe disease. In conclusion, since our study design was based on the exclusion of patients with underlying diseases predisposing to severe form of COVID-19 and diseases related to the APOE gene in the study population, our results showed that the e4 genotype is independently associated with the severity of COVID-19 disease. However, further studies are needed to confirm these findings in other nations and to demonstrate the mechanisms behind the role of these alleles in disease severity.
Introduction
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) is responsible for the recent outbreak of pneumonia that began in early December 2019 in Wuhan, Hubei Province, China1. As has been shown so far, patients with COVID-19 show phenotypic variability. Even within a family, affected individuals may show a spectrum of disease presentations: asymptomatic, mild, severe symptoms (leading to hospitalization) and critical condition (requiring intensive care unit and ventilator respiration, and even death)2,3. Although there are some known background risk factors for severe form of COVID-19 (such as ages above 65 years, chronic respiratory diseases, diabetes), the reason for disease severity in a subgroup of patients without any known underlying risk factors has not yet been fully understood. Genetic predisposition and the influence of genomic background on the severity of clinical presentation of COVID-19 symptoms are under investigation. Accordingly, many recent studies are looking for genes and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) that lead to differences in susceptibility to COVID-19 disease4,5,6. One of the effective proteins on the infectivity of the virus was apolipoprotein E (APOE) (OMIM number 107741, 19q13.2), according to the UK Biobank study7. APOE protein plays a vital role in cholesterol transport, and this protein is the main regulator of plasma lipid levels8. Human APOE has three isoforms: e2, e3, and e4. APOE3 (the main form) is associated with normal plasma lipid levels. APOE2 is different from APOE3 by replacing the Arginine158 with Cysteine (rs7412). APOE4 differs from APOE3 by replacing the amino acid Cystein112 with Arginine (rs429358). Based on e2/e3/e4 polymorphisms of the APOE gene, there are six different genotypes in human populations9. APOE also regulates fat transport and cholesterol homeostasis in the brain10, and several studies have shown the association between APOE polymorphisms and diseases such as Alzheimer's disease11, cardiovascular disease12, type 2 diabetes (T2DM)13 and brain vascular pathologies14, which are comorbidities related to SARS-CoV-2 severity. Based on the biological function of APOE protein and the effect of its variants, it has been suggested that the e4 allele and subsequently the e4/e4 genotype can play an essential role in the severity of Covid-1915,16. was The present study aimed to investigate the association between APOE genotype and the severity of Covid-19 disease in Iranian patients.
Result
A total of 101 COVID-19 infected patients with mild symptoms (mean age: 39.90 ± 12.32) participated in this study as the control group. The case group consisted of 100 patients with severe to critical forms of COVID-19 infection (mean age: 46.35 ± 10.24) 12.32). Thirty-four percent of the patients in the control group and forty-five percent in the case group were women.
APOE gene has 6 genotypes based on e2/e3/e4 alleles (e3/e3, e3/e4, e3/e2, e4/e4, e4/e2, and e2/e2). The frequency of genotypes (Table 1) and alleles (Table 2) in the control and case groups were determined. The distribution of genotypes between these two groups is shown graphically in Fig. 1.
The statistical analysis of the results showed a significant difference (P-value = 1 × 10–4) between the distribution of APOE genotype between the control and case groups. All of the six expected genotypes were found in the case group. The e4/e4 genotype did not exist in the control group. The frequency of e3/e3 in the case group compared to the control group showed a significant decrease (P-value = 9 × 10–4). Also, the e4/e4 genotype frequency in the case group showed a significant (P-value = 1 × 10–4). The frequency of e3/e4, e3/e2, e4/e2, and e2/e2 genotypes did not show much difference between the case and control groups. Regarding the frequency of alleles, the frequency of the e3 allele (P-value = 1 × 10–2) decreased in the case group and the e4 allele (P-value = 2 × 10–6) showed a significant increase in the case group. The e2 allele (P-value = 1) showed no difference between the two groups.
Discussion
Many studies have been conducted to find the causes of differences in the clinical manifestations of COVID-19 and its severity17,18,19. Epidemiological studies have identified several risk factors for the severe form of this viral disease20,21. The response to SARS-CoV-2 infection is likely influenced by many host, virus, and environmental factors. Recent studies have focused on host genetic factors to identify possible genetic variants which may be associated with differences in the severity of COVID-19 symptoms22,23,24.
APOE is a multifaceted protein, with three isoforms (e2/e3/e4), associated with several diseases and exhibits isoform-dependent effects. It has been shown that homozygous e4 carriers are particularly vulnerable to medical problems such as cardiovascular disorders, hypercholesterolemia, stroke, Alzheimer's disease, and viral infection11,12,13. Several studies have been performed to find a possible link between APOE polymorphism and the severity of COVID-19 symptoms7,15,25, and it has recently joined the network of APOE e4-related diseases26. Interestingly a recent study involving European ancestry subjects (UK Biobank), found that even by eliminating the role of comorbidities such as type 2 diabetes, dementia, and cardiovascular disease (CAD), the e4 allele can predict the severity of COVID-19 illness7. Other studies using UK biobank data have shown that after normalizing the effects of comorbidities such as Alzheimer's disease and CAD, the role of the e4 allele becomes weaker, indicating that these comorbidities add to the role of the e4 allele27. An in vitro study examining the association between the e4 allele and the severity of COVID-19 showed that neurons and astrocytes expressing the e4 allele were more susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 infection than those expressing the e3 allele28. Another in vitro study found that cells loaded with cholesterol using APOE (cholesterol transport protein) increased endocytic entry of SARS-CoV-229. Therefore, these studies predicted the predisposing role of the e4 allele in COVID-19 clinical outcomes. In the present study, we investigated the association between the APOE gene polymorphisms and COVID-19 disease severity in the absence of known APOE-related comorbidities in the case group which were risk factors for severe COVID-19. Interestingly, in our study population, the frequency of the e4 allele in the case group was more than 4.5 times higher than in the control group, and this difference was statistically significant (P-value: 2 × 10–6). Also, our findings showed that the presence of the e4 allele as a risk allele could increase the risk of the disease severity by five times (Table 2). Regarding other APOE alleles, the frequency of e2 (P-value = 1, OR = 1) was almost constant between the case and control groups and the frequency of e3 (P-value = 1 × 10–2, OR = 0.6) decreased in the case group. According to these results, the role of e3 and e2 alleles cannot be readily determined, and studies with more samples are needed to determine the role of these two alleles in Covid-19 disease symptoms.
In the present study APOE genotype analysis showed that the e4/e4 genotype frequency was significantly different between the case and control groups (P-value = 2 × 10–4). The odds ratio for the e4/e4 genotype showed that patients with this genotype have a 17-fold increased risk of developing severe COVID-19 disease (Table 1). These findings are consistent with an investigation which showed that the e4 isoform directly induces inflammatory cytokines while the e3 allele regulates these cytokines30. Also, it has been shown that having one or two copies of the e4 allele versus two copies of the e3 was associated with an enhanced innate immune response15. Thus, the observed genetic association between APOE alleles and disease severity is in line with in vitro findings and reiterate that APOE e4 allele has a crucial role in COVID-19 severity in patients.
Although our findings about e4 as a risk allele for COVID-19 severity are in concordance with several association studies7,27,31, an investigation in a Spanish cohort could not find any association between the e4 allele and COVID-19 severity in patients32. It seems that the lower frequency of e4 allele in their studied population along with limited cases with severe form of infection (only 17 patients), can explain part of differences in outcome. Exploring risk alleles in different ethnic groups requires more investigations with a larger sample size.
Finally, for a newly emerging infectious disease such as COVID-19, clarifying host genetic factors for susceptibility to severe form of infection, can be beneficial for designing personalized preventive programs and vaccination. The discovery of genetic susceptibility factors may open up new avenues for developing therapeutic strategies in the future based on the molecular processes related to the clinical consequences of COVID-19 infection.
In conclusion, this study showed an association between the e4 allele and the severity of COVID-19 infection. The e4 allele and e4/e4 genotype can increase the risk of severe COVID-19 by five and seventeen times, respectively. However, studies with a larger sample size in various populations are needed to confirm these findings.
Methods
Study population
From September to December 2020, two hundred and one patients with COVID-19 disease participated voluntarily in this study with a positive PCR test from their nasopharyngeal swab samples in Farmanfarmayan Health center (Tehran, Iran). After signing informed consent by each participant, peripheral blood samples were taken from patients in EDTA tubes as anticoagulant. This study has been approved by the ethics committee of the school of medicine of Tehran University of Medical Sciences (Ethics code: IR.TUMS.MEDICINE.REC.1399.785) and has been performed under the Declaration of Helsinki. All experiments and techniques have been performed fallowing relevant guidelines and regulations.
The 101 patients with asymptomatic form or mild symptoms were classified as the control group without age limitation. The 100 patients with severe to critical symptoms (such as a respiratory rate of more than 30 beats per minute, oxygen saturation level (SPO2) less than 90%, lung infiltration more than 50%, and organ failure), who need hospitalization were classified as the case group. All patients with known risk factors for sever form of COVID-19 disease (such as age above 65 years, diabetes, hypertension, heart failure, stroke, cancer chemotherapy or immunodeficiency) were excluded from case group.
DNA extraction
Total genome DNA was extracted from whole blood samples using the previously described standard salting-out method33. The quality and quantity of the purified DNA samples were evaluated by a Nano-Drop 2000™ spectrophotometer (Thermo Fisher Scientific, USA). The extracted genomic DNA samples were stored at – 20 °C until genotyping.
APOE genotyping
Using the multiplex tetra-primer amplification refractory mutation system polymerase chain reaction (Multiplex T-ARMS-PCR) method, the target regions in the APOE gene were amplified. In the Multiplex T-ARMS method, two allele-specific primers were used for each SNP, one for the mutant allele (FI-1, RI-2) and the other for the wild-type allele (FI-2, RI-1) and as well as two control primers (RO, FO) was used that amplify the whole fragment. One multiplex PCR reaction was needed for each DNA sample. In multiplex T-ARMS PCR, all six primers (FO, RO, FI-1, RI-1, FI-2, and RI-2) were used in a single reaction tube. Primer sequences have been shown in Table 3. A total volume of 20 µl of the reaction mixture was prepared for each PCR reaction as follows: 10 µl of TEMPase Hot Start 2 × Master Mix A BLUE (Amplicon, Denmark), 0.8 µl genomic DNA sample, 1.6 µl (8%) DMSO (SinaClon BioScience, Iran), 0.5 µl (10 pmol/ µl) of each control primers (RO, FO), 1 µl (10 pmol/ µl) of each allele-specific primer and 2.6 µl distilled water. No template control was performed for each experiment by adding 0.8 µl of water instead of sample DNA. The amplification reaction was performed in ABI Veriti thermal cycler machine (Thermo Fisher Scientific, USA). The PCR program was carried out with an enzyme activation step at 95 °C for 10 min, followed by 30 amplification cycles (30 s at 95 °C, 30 s at 67 °C, and 30 s at 72 °C) and a final extension at 72 °C for 7 min. The amplification products were separated by electrophoresis on 2% agarose gels (SinaClon BioScience, Iran), containing 0.5 mg/L DNA gel stain (SinaClon BioScience, Iran) and the image of bands visualized under the UV light and captured by gel documentation system (Syngene, UK).
The amplification of 115 and 307 base pairs (bp) PCR products indicated the e3/e3 genotype. The presence of 253 bp amplicon showed a variant (C T) which indicated the e2 allele, and the presence of 444 bp amplicon indicated the e4 region variant (TC). The amplification of 514 bp amplicon in each PCR reaction was used as internal control amplicon to demonstrate successful PCR reaction by control primers (Supplementary File)34.
Statistical analysis
Allele and genotype frequencies between case and control groups were compared for, significance using χ2 (Fisher’s exact test). Odds ratio (OR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI) were used to describe the strength of association. SPSS software (version 25) was used for statistical analysis. All P-values were considered statistically significant for P < 0.05.
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Acknowledgements
This study was a part of a M.Sc. thesis supported by Tehran University of Medical Sciences (Tehran, Iran; Grant No.: 49588). We would like to thank Ms. Masoumeh Amini for her technical assistance.
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Cite this article
Safdari Lord, J., Soltani Rezaiezadeh, J., Yekaninejad, M.S. et al. The association of APOE genotype with COVID-19 disease severity. Sci Rep 12, 13483 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-17262-4
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-17262-4
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I am from Maryland in the USA. I consider myself an average club player with a USCF rating of roughly 1800. My favorite chess players include Keres, Spassky, Nakamura, Morozevich, and Adams. I enjoy Chessgames.com and I applaud its creators and administrators. You all provide a great service.
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Aug-22-21
Lautier vs Vaganian, 2004
transpose
: There were so many enticing candidate moves to choose from on move 17 for black. I initially thought Rf3 but eventually landed on Bh2+. I should have spent more time on my initial candidate move. Extremely tangled variation tree on this one.
Jul-18-21
Rozentalis vs P Nikolic, 1994
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: I found this puzzle rather difficult. Knowing it is a Saturday, I immediately thought of N/gxe6 or only after Rxd7. I decided that N/gxe6 was the way to go and proceeded not to consider any other candidate moves. I felt silly seeing Qh4, which of course might be what I would play ...
May-23-21
Averbakh vs Spassky, 1956
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: This game, and this move by Spassy, is why chess will always fascinating.
May-20-21
P Girinath vs Ganguly, 2000
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: Kind of obvious once I saw the answer but I honestly was looking for a more violent approach because these puzzles usually always focus on such moves. Great puzzle for this reason alone
Apr-17-21
Khalifman vs Dreev, 1998
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: In a tournament situation would I have played this? Probably so, as the first three moves appear best and otherwise black has no problems. But would I have found all the best moves as white did here? Not a chance. Impressive display by Khalifman.
Mar-24-21
D Reinderman vs S Strating, 2009
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: White's 25th move would make a great puzzle. Just sayin....
Mar-06-21
R Edouard vs Adams, 2020
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: I don't think 41...Rd7 holds. Black goes into a queenless endgame when the b pawn will cause white fits. only two results are possible and black can squeeze forever hoping white will make an error or end up in zugzwang
Mar-06-21
Flear vs Adams, 2021
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: i suppose in the final position white cannot take on e4 or black plays Rf2 and white must lose his bishop and it seems tough to prevent the black rooks from both landing on the second rank and wreaking havoc
Mar-06-21
Lautier vs Adams, 1991
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: I am struck by white's errant knight on h7, which allows Black to seize more space and get his pawns going in the center
Jan-02-21
Teimour Radjabov
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: I like Radjabov's chess--he played extremely sharp openings when he first entered the world scene--he has since adopted more solid openings but quite capable of defeating anyone on any given day. His performance in the Airthings Masters (rapid) is world class. His ability to ...
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The successful integration into a community at any level is crucial for mental health of everyone. For the kids with PTSD, relationships are matters that are fraught with difficulties. The development of techniques to establish significant connections with others, at all levels takes place in early childhood. The different types of relationships are established in a sequential order. That is from the exclusive attachment to their mother up to the affiliation with peers.
The most powerful adult relationship is that to an intimate other. Part of fulfilling the evolutionary demand to reproduce in our society is most often with a significant partner. The power of this type of relationship is made obvious by the initial intensity of the establishment of a loving relationship and the emotional pain when that love ends. This is the last type of connection developed in our species and it is a strong echo of the first intimate relationship with the significant care-giver at birth.
The structure of this intimate connection is first established at birth when the child attaches to the parent. At this time the child is totally reliant on their carer(s) for all their needs, their very survival depends on an adult taking care of them. Attachment theory is a major field of psychology and beyond the scope of this essay but it gives a great illustration of this process. Secure attachment occurs when the care-givers meet the needs of the infant. Not only are the physical needs met so are the social and emotional ones satisfied.
Within the description of the course of development there is a consistent correlation between early childhood abuse and neglect and disordered attachment. And the children with severe behaviours are invariably those with insecure attachment.
It is obvious that if you leave a child alone to fend for themselves, they will die. So, the dysfunctional children who have made it to your classroom have had some support in these early years but not enough. The example of an extreme form of neglect is illustrated with children who were in the found in the orphanages of the Eastern European countries at the end of the Cold War, particularly one in Romania. At one level they were fed and clothed but had little, or no emotional/social bonding or mental stimulation. They just lay in their cots all day. The outcomes are horrific.
The kids causing trouble in our schools may not be so damaged however there are plenty of individual kids have suffered a range of abuse. These kids will not have a secure attachment to their primary parent and as this early failure is the template for future relationships. The difficulty continues throughout development.
When they get to school they should be on the way to developing the next level of relationships and that is the ability to affiliate with other children. In an ideal situation this occurs in preschools or supervised play where the carer givers teach skills like sharing and cooperation.
As said, kids who are unable to form primary attachments are already at a disadvantage when it comes to establishing these affiliations and they are very likely to have parents who do not teach them how to appropriately respond to the inevitable conflict between kids or they don’t even provide the opportunity to learn.
To address this relational deficit in a classroom is an enormous challenge for the teacher but one that must be faced. The outcome we want for these kids is to be a valued part of their community so the task is to make them a valued part of your class.
The first skill is for them to recognise the social norms of mainstream society that should be reflected in the classroom. Initially this is achieved by teaching social skills through classroom discussions on topics about sharing and relationships that have struggled. Stories about fictional kids who are experiencing difficulties in their life, say the break-up of their parent’s marriage are a great class discussion.
Providing negative consequences to the students when they break the social expectations is an appropriate response but only if there is an accompanying explanation about why the actions were inappropriate. Early on this might seem to be a waste of time. As pointed out before, these kids will have little empathy in the first instance but by teaching them not only what is not appropriate but also why it is inappropriate you are front-loading the brain with connections that may bear fruit in the future.
As the development of the child’s sense of self is enhanced through smart cooperative learning and volunteering class activities these programs work well in developing the ability to form healthy attachments. | https://frewconsultantsgroup.com.au/blog/view/279/relatedness |
RESOURCES TO SUPPORT HOME LEARNING, (click on resource to download):
Phonics words card - phases 2,3,4,5
Please click here to download the 'Welcome to Reception' workshop slides 2021.
All seven areas of the curriculum are used by our Reception teachers to plan learning activities suited to each child’s individual needs. In Reception, children learn through playing, exploring and being active, and much of the learning in the EYFS is child initiated. All children have access to a range of learning activities both inside and outside the classroom that support their own progress. Reception staff make regular detailed assessments of all children to ensure that good progress is made by all children. These observations are recorded in each child's 'Learning Journey' which records a detailed synopsis of each child's progress and achievement in their Reception year.
Our curriculum is planned half termly. The learning for each half term can be found below. (Click to download)
Autumn 2 2021 - Julia Donaldson
Spring 1 2020 - Traditional Tales
Spring 2 2020 - Down to the Farm
(These are subject to change according to children's interests)
During their time in Reception, all children have free access to the indoor and outdoor learning environments. A wide variety of learning opportunities are available daily, taken from the interests of the children. Children are encouraged to work both independently when making their own learning choices and also to work collaboratively with others. We promote our own ‘Superskills’ for learning to ensure that all children are able to confidently access our Early Years curriculum.
Our Reception classes follow the national Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS) Framework, which has seven main areas of development. Through developmentally appropriate play, including both adult and child initiated learning activities, we offer learning experiences that will enable all children to develop the knowledge, skills and understanding to progress towards their early learning goals and to be ready for the next stage of life and learning.
The Early Years framework is divided into seven areas. Three ‘prime’ areas are crucial for igniting children’s curiosity and enthusiasm for learning, and for building their capacity to learn, form relationships and thrive. Children start to focus on these prime areas between the ages of three and four and they are the most essential for your child’s healthy development and future learning.
For further information, please click here to download the Early Years Framework.
PRIME AREAS :
COMMUNICATION AND LANGUAGE (Listening, Attention and Understanding, and Speaking) - The development of children’s spoken language underpins all seven areas of learning and development. Children’s back-and-forth interactions from an early age form the foundations for language and cognitive development. The number and quality of the conversations they have with adults and peers throughout the day in a language-rich environment is crucial. By commenting on what children are interested in or doing, and echoing back what they say with new vocabulary added, practitioners will build children's language effectively. Reading frequently to children, and engaging them actively in stories, non-fiction, rhymes and poems, and then providing them with extensive opportunities to use and embed new words in a range of contexts, will give children the opportunity to thrive. Through conversation, story-telling and role play, where children share their ideas with support and modelling from their teacher, and sensitive questioning that invites them to elaborate, children become comfortable using a rich range of vocabulary and language structures.
PERSONAL, SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT (Self-regulation, Managing Self and Building relationships) – Children’s personal, social and emotional development (PSED) is crucial for children to lead healthy and happy lives, and is fundamental to their cognitive development. Underpinning their personal development are the important attachments that shape their social world. Strong, warm and supportive relationships with adults enable children to learn how to understand their own feelings and those of others. Children should be supported to manage emotions, develop a positive sense of self, set themselves simple goals, have confidence in their own abilities, to persist and wait for what they want and direct attention as necessary. Through adult modelling and guidance, they will learn how to look after their bodies, including healthy eating, and manage personal needs independently. Through supported interaction with other children, they learn how to make good friendships, co-operate and resolve conflicts peaceably. These attributes will provide a secure platform from which children can achieve at school and in later life.
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT (Gross Motor Skills and Fine Motor Skills) – Physical activity is vital in children’s all-round development, enabling them to pursue happy, healthy and active lives7. Gross and fine motor experiences develop incrementally throughout early childhood, starting with sensory explorations and the development of a child’s strength, co-ordination and positional awareness through tummy time, crawling and play movement with both objects and adults. By creating games and providing opportunities for play both indoors and outdoors, adults can support children to develop their core strength, stability, balance, spatial awareness, co-ordination and agility. Gross motor skills provide the foundation for developing healthy bodies and social and emotional well-being. Fine motor control and precision helps with hand-eye co-ordination, which is later linked to early literacy. Repeated and varied opportunities to explore and play with small world activities, puzzles, arts and crafts and the practice of using small tools, with feedback and support from adults, allow children to develop proficiency, control and confidence.
As children grow, the prime areas are strengthened and these will help them to develop skills in the four specific areas. These are:-
SPECIFIC AREAS:
LITERACY (Comprehension, Word Reading, Writing) - It is crucial for children to develop a life-long love of reading. Reading consists of two dimensions: language comprehension and word reading. Language comprehension (necessary for both reading and writing) starts from birth. It only develops when adults talk with children about the world around them and the books (stories and non-fiction) they read with them, and enjoy rhymes, poems and songs together. Skilled word reading, taught later, involves both the speedy working out of the pronunciation of unfamiliar printed words (decoding) and the speedy recognition of familiar printed words. Writing involves transcription (spelling and handwriting) and composition (articulating ideas and structuring them in speech, before writing).
MATHEMATICS (Number, Numerical patterns) - Developing a strong grounding in number is essential so that all children develop the necessary building blocks to excel mathematically. Children should be able to count confidently, develop a deep understanding of the numbers to 10, the relationships between them and the patterns within those numbers. By providing frequent and varied opportunities to build and apply this understanding - such as using manipulatives, including small pebbles and tens frames for organising counting - children will develop a secure base of knowledge and vocabulary from which mastery of mathematics is built. In addition, it is important that the curriculum includes rich opportunities for children to develop their spatial reasoning skills across all areas of mathematics including shape, space and measures. It is important that children develop positive attitudes and interests in mathematics, look for patterns and relationships, spot connections, ‘have a go’, talk to adults and peers about what they notice and not be afraid to make mistakes.
KIRFs are quick recall facts that are important for your child's maths knowledge and application. Please practise them at home to further enhance your child's maths learning.
UNDERSTANDING THE WORLD (Past and Present, People, Culture and Communities, The Natural World) - Understanding the world involves guiding children to make sense of their physical world and their community. The frequency and range of children’s personal experiences increases their knowledge and sense of the world around them – from visiting parks, libraries and museums to meeting important members of society such as police officers, nurses and firefighters. In addition, listening to a broad selection of stories, non-fiction, rhymes and poems will foster their understanding of our culturally, socially, technologically and ecologically diverse world. As well as building important knowledge, this extends their familiarity with words that support understanding across domains. Enriching and widening children’s vocabulary will support later reading comprehension.
EXPRESSIVE ARTS AND DESIGN (Creating with Materials and Being Imaginative and Expressive) - The development of children’s artistic and cultural awareness supports their imagination and creativity. It is important that children have regular opportunities to engage with the arts, enabling them to explore and play with a wide range of media and materials. The quality and variety of what children see, hear and participate in is crucial for developing their understanding, self-expression, vocabulary and ability to communicate through the arts. The frequency, repetition and depth of their experiences are fundamental to their progress in interpreting and appreciating what they hear, respond to and observe. | https://www.parkhillinfants.co.uk/curriculum/reception/ |
Erik Erikson (1902-1994) emigrated from Germany to American and set up practice as a child analyst in Boston, MA in 1933.
As an ego psychologist, Erikson emphasized the role of culture and society, and the conflicts that take place within the ego.
Erikson was influenced by Freud, focusing on the ego where Freud's focus was on the ID.
Erik Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development
By: Samantha Lee
Erik extended Sigmund's thoughts and focused on the adaptive and creative characteristics of the ego through the entire lifespan.
By expanding Freud's stages from infancy to adulthood, Erikson believes there is a great amount of room for growth and development.
Erikson emphasized the adolescent period...
feeling it is a crucial stage for developing a person's identity.
Freud focused on the sexual development...
Erikson was interested in how children socialize and the affects on their sense of self.
The psychological needs that conflict with the needs of society...
are crises of a psychosocial nature that occurs at each stage of development.
Successful completion of each phase can lead to a healthy personailty and the knowledge of basic virtues.
Failure to successfully complete a stage leads to a reduced ability to complete next stages and beyond, in addition to a more unhealthy personality and sense of self.
These stages can be resolved at a later time.
STAGE 1- INFANCY
Newborn
To
1 Year Old
Trust vs Mistrust
Trust is developed on dependability and quality of the caregiver, if developed successfully, the child will feel safe and secure with the world.
Inconsistent caregivers, results in fear and belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable.
Successful balance of both trust and mistrust the child will acquire Hope.
STAGE 2- EARLY CHILDHOOD
Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt
1 Year Old
3 Years Old
To
Autonomy can be developed by allowing the child to gain independance and personal control.
Completing this stage successfully, will leave the child feeling secure and confident
Failure can lead to a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt.
Achieving balance can lead to Will, where the child can act with intentions within reasons and limits.
Stage 3- Preschool Age
3 Years Old
To
5 Years Old
Initiative vs Guilt
Children learn to assert power and control through play and social interactions
Success at this stage leads to the feeling of being capable and able to lead others.
Failure leaves the child with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and the lack of initiative.
An ideal balance of initiave and the willingness to work with others is where the quality of Purpose comes to life.
STAGE 4- SCHOOL AGE
5 Years Old
To
11 Years Old
Industry vs Inferiority
The development of sense and pride in a child's abilities and accomplishments are founded through social interactions.
Encouragement from teachers and parents develops a feeling of competence and belief in their skills
Little to no encouragement leads to doubt in abilities and less successful.
With successful balance in this stage leads to competence and the belief in abilities to handle task
STAGE 5- ADOLESCENCE
Identity vs Role Confusion
Exploration of independence and a sense of self is developed
12 Years Old To
18 Years Old
Adolescense that receive proper encouragement and reinforcement will emerge with a strong sense of self and the feeling of independence and control.
If there is failure, the adolescent will remain unsure of their beliefs and desires, leading them to feel insecure and confused in the future.
When this stage is completed, Fidelity is found, the adolescent will have the ability to live by society's standards and expectations
STAGE 6- YOUNG ADULTHOOD
19 Years Old
To
40 Years Old
Intimacy vs Isolation
Developing close, committed relationships with others, will form secure relationships with success during this stage.
With a strong sense of identity that has been learned from previous stages, it is important to develop intimate relationships
Those that have a poor sense of self, tend to have less committed relationships, in addition to suffering from emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression
Success in this stage leads to the virtue of Love, along with the ability to form lasting, meaningful relationships.
STAGE 7- MIDDLE ADULTHOOD
Generativity vs Stagnation
40 Years Old
To
65 Years Old
Continued growth in building lives, focusing on careers and family.
Success during this stage, allows the adult to feel like the are contributing to the world by being active at home and in the community
If failure happens during this stage, the adult does not obtain the skills needed and will feel uninvolved and unproductive in the world.
If balanced successfully, Care is the virtue that is obtained. Being proud of accomplishments, watching children grow up, and developing a sense of unity are important to accomplish.
STAGE 8- MATURITY
Ego Integrity vs Despair
65 Years Old and Up
Focused on reflection back at life
Integrity comes to those who feel proud of their accomplishments. Looking back on life with few regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction. The have attained wisdom, even when confronting death.
Failure through this stage, leads to the individual feel as if they have wasted their life, have many regrets, feel bitterness and despair.
THANK YOU
Nevaeh, Niece
(birth to present)
Jose,
Nephew
Aubrianna,
Goddaughter
Olivia,
Sister
Jessica,
Cousin
Donald, Dexter,
Father Uncle
Kim, Greg,
Mother Uncle
Donald Sr,
Grandfather
(passed 1994)
Irene,
Grandmother
(1924-2013)
Music- Southern Comfort Zone by Brad Paisley
Rachel, | http://focusky.com/senk/idfj |
If I wish you a happy birthday, how would that make you feel? Think about your initial reaction to reading the words “happy birthday.” Chances are, you experienced an immediate emotional response that has been ingrained within you for many years. Joy? Guilt? Loss? Rejection? Happiness? A pervasive sense of hollowness, irritability, and dread? Birthdays are a distinctive experience for every one of us, especially if you are an adoptee.
We cannot choose our birth, the day we are born, our birth parents, or our birthplace. These are conditions entirely out of our control. Each one of us owes our existence to the connection between two individuals. This bonding moment produced your life: you are a product of profound attachment.
The organic bond that attaches mother and child is powerful. It defines how we interact with others and influences our establishment of identity. This instinctual bond, while unobservable, is felt to the core of our self. This feeling, experienced as a lifelong yearning for connection to the birth mother, will transcend our relationships throughout our lifetime. This is why the beginning is so crucial as it will impact our development of healthy relationships. Once an attachment becomes avoidant, anxious, or fearful, our ability to trust, express, and experience intimacy and relate to others often takes a significant time to repair.
Attachment is a fragile thing.
Our lives are fundamentally rooted in a betweenness – there is never just an I – there is always another person. In effect, attachment is at the very core of our survival. The absence of healthy attachments—meaningful connections to others, self, society – creates anxiety, despair, silence, identity dissolution, and death. The ramifications of damaged attachment are many, including issues related to identity, self-esteem, and self-worth. Uncertainty in relationships, feelings of abandonment, and rejection fears also stem from disruptions in our beginning of life attachment experiences.
It is incredibly challenging to navigate the world through the confusion and mistrust and construct a clear, secure sense of belongingness. While many of us may experience damage to our early attachment, an adopted child’s experience is magnified to a severe degree. Individuals who are adopted may experience adoption-related trauma, difficulty connecting with others, and express not feeling loved enough. Their situations can become even more complicated if they are a transracial adoptee.
We heal through relationships with others, through forming a meaningful sense of relatedness to another human being. I facilitate a group, “Attachment After Adoption,” at Mindfulpath. This group provides a safe place to grieve the loss of attachment, explore how we relate to others through damaged childhood attachment experiences, and create more room for choice in relationships with the self and others. If you have been adopted or have adopted a child, please reach out if you’re interested in joining our group.
424.291.0038
Resources on adoptions: | https://www.mindfulpath.com/post/november-is-national-adoption-awareness-month-mindfulpath-diana-beck |
together, we are building a culture of children’s wellbeing.
Our Change Leaders are co-creating bottom-up solutions for caring for children and families
our goal is to make wellbeing accessible to every child.
We work with communities, not for communities, to shift norms and transform existing systems
Who are we
The Children’s Wellbeing Initiative (CWI) is a collaborative effort driven by a diverse network of change leaders—innovators, social entrepreneurs, practitioners, and community leaders—who support children and young people through education, healthcare, community development, and child and family services.
History
Fueled by change leaders, incubated by Ashoka, and supported by the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, CWI began in 2014 as a learning project to explore how cross-sector collaboration could drive systems-change for children.
What we have Done
Over the last two years, CWI has galvanized a network of 200+ organizations and 20+ change leaders to identify barriers to advancing children’s wellbeing at individual, community, and systems levels. Through this network, CWI has crowdsourced a framework for children’s wellbeing that includes three proven approaches and identified specific strategies for systems change.
Our Future
Currently, CWI is in an emergent and strategic planning phase. Our focus for 2018 will be on leadership development, network-building, data collection and story-telling. We are currently seeking funder who want to be part of an intriguing new effort to advance children’s wellbeing through an equity lens.
What is children’s wellbeing
To Us, wellbeing for children means that every child is equipped with a strong sense of self, belonging and purpose
Self
Children are self-aware and confident in their identities and ability to influence outcomes
Belonging
Children feel valued by society and are surrounded by relationships of trust
Purpose
Children are encouraged to dream and
play a role in shaping society
Self, belonging, and purpose are interdependent. Therefore, nurturing wellbeing within children requires a holistic approach.
Our Approach to Children’s wellbeing
Our approach is sourced from the insights and experiences of a diverse network of change leaders
Inner Development
We work to enable all children with tools for self-awareness, self-reflection and emotional regulation to achieve positive relationships.
Co-creation
We make sure to include the voices, insights and participation of those most impacted by the issues we are trying to solve.
Care for Caregivers
We design and build support systems for caregivers, whether it be parents, educators, physicians, counselors, or mentors. | https://childrenswellbeing.com/ |
The hunger for love, affirmation, attention, and acceptance is a deep drive that will search for fulfillent until it finds it. A child's first attachment is meant to be with its mother, so lots of loving touches and caresses from her make a difference in the child's future intellect, emotional stability, and sense of well-being. Time and affectionate attention from a father and significant others is crucial as well. However, if a child's need for such attachment is not met in the home, he will need to look for it from his peers or anywhere else he can find it. In order to fit in with those wiling to give him time, the child will tend to adapt his values and morals to whatever is required. At the same time, a child who does not learn to make healthy attachments and maintain healthy relationships in her family may have a hard time developing intimate bonds with anyone else in the future.
As a mother, I have the ability to provide the love, acceptance, and attention my children need to grow up secure and able to develop mature relationships. I also have the opportunity to model mature love, commitment, fogiveness,accountability, grace. and encouragement for my children. The home is an ideal environment in which children can experience the growth of a mature relationship where give-and-take are learned in the context of real life. And this ideally includes an understanding of the true power of God's love. | https://sallyclarkson.com/blog/a-childs-heart |
Learning and development occur through the constant exchange between teachers, children, parents and their environment.
Children’s learning and interaction occurs in the context of the bigger picture- their family, their community, and past experiences.
Each child has a unique background and unique needs and contributions, communication between teachers and parents is crucial for the child’s optimal development.
Parents will feel more connected when they are invited to learn about their child’s activities and interests in the school setting, while teachers will have a deeper understanding and connection to the child if they learn about a child’s interests at home.
Children’s behavior is purposeful and directed at meeting real needs, which are to be valued and respected.
Children need opportunities to learn how to identify and express their own feelings, and also to recognize and respond to the feelings of other children.
Children have a right to personal space, a right to be alone when they need to, and a right to choose what they want to work with and with whom they want to work. Both solitary work as well as collaborative work are necessary for cognitive and social development.
Children who learn to care for their bodies feel self confident, self aware, and enjoy caring for themselves.
Proper hand washing and dental hygiene will prevent illness.
Healthy children attend school more regularly, have better attention spans, and a higher level of happiness.
Teaching children about healthy eating choices and exercise in preschool will set them up for a lifetime of better health.
Children learn better when they are allowed many opportunities for active movement, have access to open outdoor play spaces, and cozy places to rest and sleep.
Children learn through play. A good teacher can observe children’s play, engage children in play, and extend learning through play.
Learning requires interaction, observation, experimentation, and active exploration of real objects and relationships in the environment. When children are able to manipulate their materials and their environment, they build lifetime learning skills.
Children have an essential role in development of an emergent curriculum based on their interests and needs.
Capabilities develop in predictable stages/sequences throughout life and at each developmental stage children will be able to do new things. A classroom that is set up to support and challenge all learners at every stage of their development gives all children an advantage because everyone can learn from each other.
Children should be encouraged to work at their own pace and work on an activity for as long as they choose. Adults must trust in and support a child’s ability to choose what they need to do within the environment at any given time.
Children’s play is their work. Their work is taken seriously and respected by teachers and peers.
Our approach builds an authentic sense of self and lays a foundation for secure relationships, enduring curiosity, and lasting self-confidence. | http://www.childrenscottagepreschool.net/preschool |
Children at the expected level of development will:
ELG: Self-Regulation
Show an understanding of their own feelings and those of others, and begin to regulate their behaviour accordingly;
Set and work towards simple goals, being able to wait for what they want and control their immediate impulses when appropriate;
Give focused attention to what the teacher says, responding appropriately even when engaged in activity, and show an ability to follow instructions involving several ideas or actions.
Managing Self
Be confident to try new activities and show independence, resilience and perseverance in the face of challenge; Explain the reasons for rules, know right from wrong and try to behave accordingly;
Manage their own basic hygiene and personal needs, including dressing, going to the toilet and understanding the importance of healthy food choices.
Building Relationships
Work and play cooperatively and take turns with others;
Form positive attachments to adults and friendships with peers;
Show sensitivity to their own and to others’ needs. | https://www.kingedwardprimary.co.uk/communication-and-language-9/ |
We acknowledge and believe that our philosophy is embedded in the vision and Principles of The Early Years Learning Framework and the principles laid out in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNICEF,1989).
“All children experience learning that is engaging and builds success for life”
- As a community we acknowledge and are responsive to children’s prior knowledge and experiences of their cultural connections and in particular our Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander community groups.
- We acknowledge the Yuin People, Traditional Custodians of the land on which our preschool is built and pay tribute to their unique role they play in the life of this region.
- We recognise that the Framework supports a holistic approach which is consistent with employing a variety of pedagogical and assessment methods and ongoing reflective practice which is documented in a myriad of ways.
- We understand that we are a Community based preschool and appreciate and embrace the valuable and diverse input we receive from all our families and community members.
- We acknowledge that our philosophy is a living document and shared vision that will be continually reviewed.
The following statements embrace and reflect the concepts of Belonging, Being and Becoming and we promote and uphold these as key values and beliefs at Narooma Community Preschool.
Belonging
We believe children;
- belong not only to a family, but a cultural group, local neighbourhoods and the broader community.
- recognise a safe, secure environment that enables them to build secure, trusting relationships with other children and adults.
- are viewed as capable and valued contributors to small and large group learning experiences.
- learn about their worlds and communicate with others using many different languages
- and all families look and feel different, each is unique and each deserves the right to belong and experience a sense of belonging together with families we will make children’s learning experiences inclusive and representative of all family structures within our community.
- and their families should have freedom of access to their own children’s learning journey and accompanying documentation as well as the daily program recognising the rules of confidentiality.
- have the right to inclusive education and opportunity for equitable and effective ways to achieve learning outcomes.
- gain a sense of belonging through a variety of group experiences that provides enjoyable opportunities for shared knowledge, response to ideas and suggestions from others as well as the acquisition of new ways of knowing.
Being
We believe children;
- learn through social interactions and relationships
- interact using verbal and non-verbal gestures with others for a range of purposes
- do not always use words but are able to express ideas and create meaning through expressive arts.
- use images, symbols, letters and words to convey meaning.
- along with educators should feel happy, healthy, safe and connected to others
- are aware of and experience healthy lifestyles, good nutrition, personal hygiene and general wellbeing
- come with prior understanding and knowledge of mathematical and scientific concepts
- use language, imagination and communicative skills in dramatic play that reflect familiar experiences and understandings
- have a strong sense of who they are and their cultural heritage and are able to share and connect with other children and adults
- are positively supported to self regulate, respond appropriately to their feelings and the feelings of others and to communicate effectively to express their needs and to resolve conflicts
- and all persons that attend Brayside have the right to a safe environment and acknowledge that staff and management committee have a responsibility to ensure this is monitored and regulated.
Becoming
We believe children;
- use technologies to explore and investigate diverse perspectives and make sense of their world.
- Should experience continuity in learning that is transferable between settings and helps them to feel secure, confident and connected
- family, community and cultural practices all shape and influence a child’s view of life. Together they help children to make sense of their world. To understand and respect diversity through many ways of interacting and making connections with people, nature, culture, objects and representations.
- work in partnership with families, educators and the broader community to enrich their lives and enhance learning and wellbeing.
- use our natural and created environments as spaces where they can create meaning, develop a sense of place, connect with the natural world and feel empowered to lead healthy and sustainable lives
- need to develop a sense of social responsibility and respect for the environment. This is taught and modeled to children for an awareness of the impact of their lives on the planet and of need to create a sustainable world.
“ If we allow people to shape their own small worlds during childhood they will grow up knowing and feeling they can participate in shaping the big world tomorrow.” (Sobel. 1990 p.12)
- with their families, educators and other professionals can together develop appropriate assessment processes allowing for new understandings to emerge
- benefit from staff implementation of their personal and theoretical beliefs and philosophies which are respected and valued and underpin the daily program.
- should have a documented record of their learning journey complied together with their educators and families.
Play
Through play children develop a positive sense of self and values, knowledge and skills to lay foundations for the next phase of their lives. Fundamentally play provides children with a secure sense of belonging and gives them the freedom and the confidence to be uniquely themselves in the present and shapes who they can become.
Play is the heart of our philosophy. Children’s interests and emerging ideas are the foundation of our play-based learning and its assessment.
- We believe play is a natural and universal process of exploration and investigation for children that develops a sense of agency.
- In play children make connections as they actively engage with nature, each other, adults, objects and representations. We recognize that play is messy and requires children to wear nonrestrictive clothing that allows freedom in play.
- In play children are supported to self regulate, respond appropriately to their feelings and the feelings of others and to communicate effectively to express their needs and to resolve conflicts.
- Play allows for the development of co-constructive learning. As children interact with educators and other children they work together in partnerships and experience the benefits and pleasures of exploration and shared learning.
- Play provides an opportunity for children to develop critical reflective practices surrounding issues of equity and social justice.
- Play is creative and filled with a collage of open-ended experiences that build on children’s existing knowledge, skills and interests to further enhance their learning.
- Play presents children with the opportunity to express ideas, dramatise, listen, collaborate, laugh, wonder, to know freedom, solve problems, negotiate, to feel the exhilaration of reaching a mountain peak and the supreme ability to dream dreams.
- Play supports and promotes the development of self esteem and the ability to feel confident and take risks.
- Play-based learning assist’s children’s ability to accept challenges and develop skills such as persistence and resilience that equip them for life.
- Through play children experience success. Together we seek to remove barriers that limit learning.
- To engage in technology for fun and to make meaning.
- Play provides a platform on which children build on their social experiences to explore other ways of being.
- Through play in individual and group experiences children will try new strategies and transfer knowledge and develop new understandings.
- To promote and encourage dispositions that enhances learning of literacy, language, mathematical and scientific understandings.
- Play and developmentally appropriate resources provide the opportunities for spontaneity and intentional teaching moments which will naturally extend children’s knowledge and skills.
- Natural spaces, loose parts, realistic objects and representations are central to dramatic play and imagination for all children.
- Respect for the environment is incorporated in play children are able to access and care for our natural spaces learning the importance of our part in environmental sustainability.
Statement of Guiding Principles.
The guiding principles underpin practice that is focused on assisting all children to make progress in relation to the EYLF Outcomes while attending Narooma Preschool. They will guide and support families, educators, committee and community members as they participate in all aspects of the program and management of the preschool.
Principles:
- To compliment the care, guidance and education of children by their families encompassing their cultural backgrounds.
- Families are respected and encouraged to work in partnership with educators to achieve learning outcomes.
- To create a climate of respect and acceptance that builds trusting, secure relationships for all stakeholders.
- Empower children and families to become capable, confident valued individuals. We support this understanding through listening, responding and documenting children’s and family voices.
- Foster partnerships to maximise learning potential that comes from our daily routines, current events, home contexts and community.
- All children should have the right to inclusive education and opportunity for equity, expectation and effective ways to achieve learning outcomes in an environment that reinforces their sense of themselves as competent learners.
- The professional educators support and implement a holistic approach by employing a variety of pedagogical and assessment methods and engage in ongoing reflective practices which creates a culture of inquiry.
- Effective leadership will provide a positive context for organisation and will build a professional learning community.
- Management and administrative systems will be adopted to enable effective provision of a quality service at Narooma Pre-School.
- We will establish a preschool culture that will nuture a social consciousness and responsibility for our environment and a sustainable future. | https://naroomapreschool.com.au/our-pre-school/philosophy/ |
Students who are allowed to explore, empathize, question, hypothesize, conceptualize, experiment, and evaluate throughout their own learning become productive community members" (Hummell 5). Allowing children to learn to think critically helps them to solve problems and have a logical argument about something they believe is true. Applying critical thinking into schools gives a child a chance to make a difference. Also, Elizabeth McKinstry agrees with Hummell in challenging the next generation to think for themselves. McKinstry writes about how Common Core education helps children become more interactive in the world and teaches them how to apply the knowledge they have learned in life.
Parent-child interaction can be define as the communication and relation that is form between the parents and their child. Parent-child interaction is important to make them learn social rules and emotional prompts (Haven, Manangan, Sparrow, & Wilson, 2014). Through the years children can form different types of attachment with both or one specific parent. Also, according to attachment theorist, the type of attachment a child has with their parent will shape the way they see and think about themselves and others (Ontai & Thompson, 2008). The behavior of a child is greatly related to the relation and interaction they have with their parents.
Partnership between parents and schools plays a crucial role in a childs development. A positive parent-teacher relationship helps your child feel good about school and be successful in school. It demonstrates to your child that they can trust their teacher, because you do. The partnership between parents/carers and the school needs to be a two way relationship, the parents need information about what and how their child is learning, and the teacher needs important feedback from the parent about the child’s academic and social development. This positive partnership makes a child feel like the important people in his life are working together for the benefit of him/her.
Developmentally Appropriate Practice (DAP)? Illustrate how DAP is child-centered? “Developmentally Appropriate Practice, often shortened to DAP, is an approach to teaching grounded in the research on how young children develop and learn and in what is known about effective early education. Its framework is designed to promote young children’s optimal learning and development.” (National Association for the Education of Young Children, 2009) DAP is a tool that guides teachers in making good decisions for the children, both as individuals and as part of a group, based on their understanding of the child’s development and learning as well as in setting learning goals that are both challenging and realisable for the children. In a developmentally
They are turning around their approach into a focus on creating positive school climate and responsive classroom as part of holistic quality education based on child rights where there is effective teaching and classroom management, thus enhancing students’ learning experiences. The motivational psychology researchers discovered several useful approaches and practices that can be implemented in the classroom for effective learning to take place (Miller, 2012). Teachers are using differentiation to support teaching and learning. Differentiation can vary in pace, activities, resources, teaching and learning styles in an attempt to best meet the needs of individual student. Various teaching strategies such as cooperative learning, active learning, role play and games and pedagogic tools are being integrated in educational theories in meaningful and useful ways to encourage task or learning achievements.
EYE37WB-2.1 Describe areas of learning and development within the current framework which relate to school readiness. Prime areas of learning Specific areas of learning Persona, social and emotional development • The development of the children‘s confidence. • How children manage their feelings. • How children make friends and take turns Physical development • How children move and use fine and motor skills • How children learn about healthy living. • Children’s management of their self – care.
I have gained patience when working with children and I believe it is a skill that is required in order for children to exceed their needs and to help a child during transitions to reach their full potential. Timing is key and with support the children will be able to emotionally adapt to attending school but also embrace new surroundings. Encouragement while children are taking part in activities in school allows children to gain self-esteem and confidence as they are being motivated which can give them a sense of achievement. Being a role model to the children is a personal skill as it gives me pride knowing the children are inspired by me and that they can learn from me by using their own initiative, being helpful to others and allowing the children to give suggestions on what they would like to do can keep them
In 1969, John Bowlby made the connection that formed relationships and attachments to caregivers contributes to future development and growth. The attachment theory focuses on relationship association between caregivers and their children. Children who established a foundation with a caregiver despite their biological relation, gain much needed support. Establishing support, encourages a child’s development. The comfort of safety, allows children to feel secure in taking risks (Groman, 2012).
What is Attachment? 2 Attachment is a connection between a caregiver and a child, a unique bond with two special people that can comfort one another a healthy lifestyle to help maintain and build a strong relationship between an infant and a caregiver. Attachment is characterized by specific behaviors in children, such as seeking proximity with the attachment figure when upset or threatened (Bowlby, 1969). This protects a child from experiencing separation anxiety and depression. Now thinking for a minute, about the importance for parents to have an emotional bond with their children, why and how can they give them the support they need, | https://www.ipl.org/essay/The-Importance-Of-Student-Teacher-Relationship-FKTB5CF74AJFR |
As a family-run company, we are taking our social responsibility serious and are making an active contribution to environmental protection. For this year's customer Christmas campaign and in line with the motto of our 25th anniversary "Shaping The Future Together", 250 trees have been planted in Lüdenscheid in cooperation with PLANT-MY-TREE®.
It is estimated that trees can bind a global average of about 10kg CO² per year. The 250 trees we have planted will, therefore, bind large amounts of CO² in the coming years, play a crucial role for biodiversity and contribute to the ecological footprint.
In regard to our valued customers, business partners and suppliers outstanding partnerships and long-term relationships are always our main focus, hence, with this tree donation, we would like to make a long term contribution to an intact nature and a healthy environment that is worth living in, for all of us and our future generations.
We wish you all a Merry Christmas, good health and a Happy New Year! | https://homepage3.ecs-gmbh.de/en/shownews/investing-in-the-future-every-tree-counts.html |
Children’s personal, social, and emotional development (PSED) is crucial for children to lead healthy and happy lives and is fundamental to their cognitive development. Underpinning their personal development are the important attachments that shape their social world.
At Horsted Keynes Preschool we follow the Early Years Foundation Stage Curriculum. Personal Social and Emotional Development is about the following at Horsted Keynes preschool:
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Having confidence, self-respect, and positive self esteem
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Promoting and developing independence
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Developing collaborative skills
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Developing the ability to concentrate
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Fostering perseverance
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Developing an understanding of right and wrong
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Respecting and valuing others
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Managing personal needs independently
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Helping children settle well into preschool
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Forming effective social relationships with other children and adults and to learn who they are and how they fit in
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Understanding cultures and beliefs and those of others
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Resolving conflict peaceably through negotiation
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Expressing our feelings
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Making decisions
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Look after our bodies, including healthy eating and emotional wellbeing
If you have any questions, please contact Clare Humphreys, our manager. Please refer to our Personal, Emotional and Social development policy for more details. | https://www.horstedkeynespreschool.org.uk/copy-of-communication-and-language |
Self-esteem relates to your appreciative and realistic opinion of yourself. When we go too far in either direction on the continuum of self-esteem we move towards either self-defeating shame or self-defeating pride. A healthy sense of self-esteem requires a balance between these two poles.
You may identify with times in life when you have felt an overwhelming sense of pride over an accomplishment as well as times when you have felt an incredible sense of shame. Both of these emotions can be overpowering and cannot be sustained in the long-term. This is why it is so important to works towards cultivating a realistic and balanced appreciation of the self. This is a state of being that can be maintained over time and leads to a calm sense of peace and contentment.
Self-Esteem Concepts
The Self-Esteem Workbook (Shiraldi, 2001) offers insight into 7 basic concepts related to self-esteem:
(1) Identity
Your sense of identity can be found through asking the question, “Who am I?” Some people may respond to this question with words such as: mother, husband, writer, student, or son. These are all labels that we affix to ourselves as being parts of who we are. These labels provide us with a sense of who we are across different contexts and in different situations.
Sometimes we identify more with different parts of ourselves depending upon which group of friends we’re with or whether we’re in a professional or social context. This is normal and healthy. Labels that we affix to our identity may become problematic when we overly identify with any one role (e.g., student) and then we when no longer are a student, we feel a sense of emptiness or lack of a coherent self. The solution to this potential problem is to make sure that we have a diverse set of interests and relationships, so that we see ourselves as “more than” any one part of ourselves.
(2) Appreciation
This relates to our ability to value, enjoy, and express gratitude for what we have: personal strengths, accomplishments, and relationships. It is important to remember that part of appreciation as it relates to a healthy sense of self-esteem involves accurately estimating the quality/worth of someone/something.
When we idealize someone/something, we falsely attribute positive qualities to the person/thing that it does not truly have. On the other hand, when we devalue someone/something, we falsely attribute negative qualities to the person/thing that it does not in fact have. Practicing mindfulness encourages us to step into the role of observer, which can strengthen the ability to see things as they truly are.
(3) Acceptance
This involves one’s ability to receive things from others in a favorable way. Many people have great difficulty receiving things from others – compliments, favors, love, gratitude, etc. If this is this case, it can be helpful to reflect on when you learned that you were undeserving or uncomfortable with receiving from others. It is in our nature to enjoy receiving love and appreciation from others, and when this is stunted or painful, it is worth considering where these false beliefs have come from.
Self-acceptance involves the ability to believe in and receive yourself in a favorable light. This can be difficult when there are parts of the self that we are fundamentally opposed to or feel intense shame towards. In order to build healthy self-esteem, it is crucial to work towards an ability to honestly acknowledge all parts of the self and accept all of these disparate parts. When there are parts of the self that seem unforgivable or unacceptable in some way, it is time to begin the process of forgiveness. Once we forgive the self, we can then choose how we would like to be different moving forward.
(4) Self-Confidence
This refers to a general belief in your own abilities and is related to competence and self-efficacy. As we become more competent in different areas of life, the result is a natural rise in confidence. The trick is that in order to become more competent, we have to be willing to take the risk involved in trying new things and persisting in the face of defeat or adversity.
Someone with a strong sense of self-confidence might have a deep-seated belief that given the time, practice, and experience, anyone can accomplish just about anything. While success rarely comes quickly or completely, the decision to persevere and continue to move in the direction of one’s goals is the beginning of developing self-confidence. It’s not about speed, but about continued movement in the direction of your goals.
(5) Pride
There are two types of pride: self-defeating pride and healthy pride. When a person is immersed in self-defeating pride, they have a sense of superiority or greater value than other people. These people typically come off to others as grandiose or obnoxious and are often tragically unaware of their own hubris. This unhealthy type of pride is usually rooted in fear and insecurity as well as an excessive need to be admired by others.
On the opposite end of the spectrum is healthy pride, which is a realistic sense of one’s own worth or dignity. An individual with a healthy sense of pride has self-respect and feels both gratitude and delight in his/her personal accomplishments, talents, or service. Healthy pride is cultivated by allowing yourself to feel proud of your accomplishments and hard work without the need to embellish the facts. These individuals are aware of both their strengths and their weaknesses and are comfortable with praise from themselves and others.
(6) Humility
As with pride, there are two types of humility: self-defeating humility and healthy humility. Self-defeating humility involves a total lack of self-respect – the sense that oneself is worthless, spineless, or contemptible. Sometimes people choose to ruminate excessively, which can lead to a sense of self-defeating humility. Dwelling on painful events from the past or unpleasant truths about the self rarely solves anything.
(7) Selfishness
Some people confuse self-esteem with being selfish. The true purpose of self-esteem is to transcend the self, not to excessively focus on the self. It is not “selfish” to feel proud of yourself when do something great, nor is it “selfish” to feel that you deserve love or respect. Recall from the previous basic concepts of self-esteem that these constructs exist on a continuum.
The point is to remember that balance is an intrinsic aspect of healthy self-esteem. Too much selfishness leads to arrogance, entitlement, and lack of compassion for others. Too little selfishness leads to allows oneself to be used by others, acting against one’s own best interest, and missing out on deserved opportunities.
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Schiraldi, G.R. (2001). The self-esteem workbook. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications, Inc.
Featured image: Self-Esteem Storage – 49/365 by Jamiesrabbits / CC BY 2.0
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I know my Twitter followers interested in helping young people would be interested in this one. I really enjoyed it. | https://www.mindfulnessmuse.com/positive-psychology/identify-7-basic-self-esteem-concepts |
Even defined benefit plans are coming under strain today. In addition, retirement income should be planned in reverse without attempting to make forward predictions. Many people believe retirement planning is the act of saving in a k, IRA or Roth. That is how you accumulate retirement resources. In truth, retirement planning is more about how to live on those retirement resources without outliving them. Here is research that explains how to do that without products, but with indexing.
Also note that these papers address the investment portfolio measurement and monitoring aspects.
It becomes a habit. Development of the value of FRP, like saving in general, is in part based on a person's ability to delay gratification for a long term goal or dream. On the other hand, this pattern of continuity is not immutable. At least three types of influences could lead to changes in FPR: normative age-related influences, normative history-related influences, and non-normative life events.
Based on normative age-related influences, workers around 55 years old become more interested in financial planning than younger workers. In Europe, history-related influences could be exemplified by the pension system reform, which increased the population's awareness of the sustainability of future pensions. Finally, non-normative life events, such as major health problems, could interfere with FPR. Elimination of mandatory retirement age in various countries has changed a key benchmark of retirement.
The development of a portfolio of part-time jobs and choosing which jobs need to be financially compensated opens new possibilities to reframe the concept of retirement. With lengthening of the years of quality and active living, people are searching for meaning and purpose beyond subsistence in the latter stages of life. The empirical evidence supporting this model still is fragmentary and insufficient. Despite the fact that there is more than a decade's worth of empirical works that have examined partial aspects of the model e.
The evolution of one's life can be interpreted through the intentionality shown about adaptation, learning, and change. In this theory and the longitudinal research over the last 50 years about it and its components, explains that the first key discovery on the path to sustained, desired change is articulating a personal vision, or dream. This is not a set of goals, but something bigger and with a longer term framework. Other key elements in ICT are the resonant, trusting relationships that enable a person to explore and refresh in an iterative manner their dream and progress toward it.
Despite the fact that Hershey's model provides responses to a wide range of present questions about FPR, various untouched topics offer opportunities for moving forward in this domain.
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We will briefly discuss them, following the dimensions of the model. Related to capacity, additional variables should be considered See Figure 1. First, the Need for Cognitive Closure refers to the individual's desire to obtain clear and definitive responses to a problem Webster and Kruglanski, Empirical research reports significant differences between people with high and low need for cognitive closure regarding the quantity of information they process, the intensity of that information, the use of decision rules, and the level of self-confidence in their decisions.
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Accordingly, people with a high Need for Cognitive Closure are more likely to focus on information that is easy to process, reject complex or incomplete information, decide faster, have an urgent desire to achieve closure and retain it permanently. Its influence has been shown in a broad array of decision-making processes Dolinski et al. Due to the complexity and uncertainty entailed by FPR, as it implies the processing of complex information and the anticipation of needs with a high degree of uncertainty, we contend that Need for Cognitive Closure offers an interesting avenue to develop Hershey's model, as some empirical study has proposed Topa et al.
Figure 1. Expanded Model for FPR. Secondly, FPR is a complex task that is often accompanied by worries. Thus, metacognition refers to beliefs about one's own cognitive system, the influences that affect it, attention and evaluation of the meaning of one's thoughts Wells and Cartwright-Hatton, Due to the complexity of FPR and the worries associated with it, exploring the role of metacognitions is promising, as a recent empirical study showed Kiso and Hershey, In particular, positive and negative beliefs about one's own worries, as well as cognitive trust and the self-attention, could play important roles in the relationships between capacity to plan and FPR.
There is empirical evidence that supports the joint influence of metacognitions and worry in the development of anxiety in other contexts Ryum et al. The findings would help to understand why people consider it important to plan but do not carry out specific behaviors of saving and financial management. As it relates to capacity, the development of one's retirement identity and financial self-efficacy is important in FPR. For past generations, FPR primarily focused on evaluating the adequacy of an individual's income and cash flow sources over a 5—10 year retirement lifespan.
Improvements in lifestyle and medical technology have increased life expectancy and provided a 20—30 year increase in human longevity. In a related vein, Donaldson and colleagues showed that a higher personal sense of mastery, a variable near to self-efficacy, significantly mediated the relationships between pre-retirement planning and adjustment Donaldson et al. FPR now requires careful evaluations and planning around an individual's future social emotional as well as economic needs. Although workers may be old enough to fully retire in their 60's, they may not be ready to fully disengage from the workforce.
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For many, work provides value above and beyond economic gain. Such value includes a regular set of activities that provide time structure, status, identity, a sense of participation in a collective effort, and the opportunity to socialize with co-workers Price et al. One's ability to form a view of their ideal self in retirement is a beneficial part of the retirement planning process Lunceford, Ideal self begins as a personal vision, or an image of what kind of person someone wishes to be Boyatzis and Akrivou, In the context of retirement, ideal self can be what a person would like to accomplish after they choose to physically or psychologically reduce their commitment to their primary career.
This may take the form of paid work or volunteer work on a part-time or full-time basis; it may include work in the same profession, development of a new skillset or vocation, or complete exit from the workforce to a life of leisure. Ideal self is the driver of intentional change in one's behavior, emotions, perceptions, and attitudes Boyatzis and Akrivou, It must also be an image of the kind of person they want to be in their later years.
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The Ideal Self involves a sense of hope about the future. Hope becomes an emotional tone for the future, instead of regret for a life not lived, fear of diminishing resources, or fear of death and the end game of life. The development of the ideal self in the retirement planning process puts an image of the desired future at the center of the FRP, not merely financial analysis.
It may be instrumental in addressing stress related to the alteration of career identity and finances in retirement. The formation of ideal self has a relationship to understanding an individual's intent to engage in bridge work Lunceford, In addition, it positively influences well-being in the pre-retirement process Lunceford, Measurement of the ideal self may be done with recent evaluation tools developed by Boyatzis et al.
The development of financial self-efficacy is also critical in the FPR process. Financial self-efficacy is a belief that one can be successful financially in certain situations. Self-efficacy is related to self-confidence, motivation, optimism, and the belief that one can cope with a variety of life's challenges Bandura, People with high levels of self-efficacy believe they can perform well at specified tasks Lown, In recent pre-retirement studies, financial self-efficacy was show to have a positive influence on career decision making, the formation of retirement confidence and well-being Lunceford, They believe a desired future is somewhat in their control.
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In a related vein, the individual experience of aging could influence retirement planning in general and, specifically, FPR. As Heraty and McCarthy suggested, self-perceptions of aging could influence FPR among older workers, and also post-retirement employment options Fasbender et al.
Related to willingness, various affective aspects and personality traits expand future research, based on complex relationships between emotions and decision-making Hariharan et al. On the one hand, we should not forget that retirement marks the end of obligatory work and serves as a reminder of aging, failing health and, eventually, death. Unsurprisingly, then retirement can provoke unease, gloom and dread, and would be associated with fear of death, complex emotional phenomenon, which include apprehension both for oneself and for loved ones.
A growing body of empirical evidence shows that fear of death impinges on most spheres of life, and specifically on financial decisions.
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Despite this fact, only recent studies begin to consider the role of fear of death in explaining FPR Topa et al. Specifically, this study showed that fear of death acts as a moderator in the relationship between financial goals and retirement savings adequacy, mediated by financial behavior among clients of financial advisory firms. These results thus represent one step forward in the investigation of the influence of fear of death on people with strong anti-consumer attitudes, which are more likely to exercise tight control over their finances.
Related to the job attitudes-FPR relationships, previous studies indicate that retirement planning in general has negatively been predicted by job satisfaction and work involvement Topa et al. As retirement is a crucial event in the life trajectory, work-related factors would be very relevant as antecedents of quitting one's job. On the one hand are positive attitudes toward the job, as strong engagement and high satisfaction would act as pull factors, influencing the individual decision to delay FPR i. On the other, some studies note that work dissatisfaction influenced the decision to exit the organization but not the labor market, so there would no direct effect on FPR Perera et al.
On the other hand, personal character traits also could influence FPR, even though little empirical research exists in this area Rahimi et al.
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Procrastination consists of deliberately putting off or delaying an action which the subject nevertheless intends to take, especially where delay is likely to have adverse effects. This personality trait would affect FPR and outcomes, specifically due to the fact that many retirement-related goals are linked to a specific time horizon.
This means that retirement goals seem to be imposed by the passage of the time and may have a specific time frame. Initial evidence in this direction has been recently provided by Topa and Herrador-Alcaide , but only limited to a sample of workers between ages 45 and 63 employed by small- and medium-sized firms in Spain.
Some present findings have been summarized in Table 1. Table 1. Summary of recent studies with further extensions of the Hershey's Model. Additionally, emotional intelligence has been widely researched over the past years due to its moderator role on the relationships between contextual antecedents and desirable personal outcomes.
While the first conceptualization of emotional intelligence included appraisal and regulation of emotions, recent research has examined its incremental contribution, beyond personality features' contribution, to different indices of adaptation. As future planning and decision-making should be conceptualized as and adaptive process, also including a specific financial component, people who possess greater abilities in understanding and controlling their emotions could be also better in managing their FPR. Concerning the opportunity dimension, a great amount of studies have relied on social support Topa et al.
First, a healthy organization that provides older workers with motivational task design and generates an environment where successful aging is possible could positively influence not only employees' pre-retirement well-being Guglielmi et al. In a very basic sense, due to the fact that stress is resource consuming, healthier organizations seem to encourage their members to concentrate their efforts on future planning. Despite this promissory avenue, at present, no empirical research on these relationships was found. Second, aging stereotypes widely spread both in organizational and in societal environments could undermine FPR.
Despite the fact that direct relationships are difficult to conceive, links between negative stereotypes and FPR should be explored both through their negative effects on retirement self-efficacy Valero and Topa, —which includes a financial dimension—or through their undermining future career prospects for older workers Lytle et al. Moreover, while it would be expected that FPR would significantly increase among older workers, different exit pathways could be observed. Hence, the specific role of career transitions and bridge employment on FPR also deserves further exploration, as recent revision stated Earl et al.
Few studies examine factors, especially non-financial, that lead to the intent to work in retirement Kerr and Armstrong-Stassen, whether for pay or not, full time or part time or a portfolio of part time jobs. The recent study published by Cahill and colleagues with a large national-representative sample of older Americans, showed that bridge employment seems to be driven by other reasons than financial insecurity, both for those with little or medium financial assets. But, the same study found that those with less wealth seem to be more oriented to full time and wage and salary employment Cahill et al.
Additional studies could be beneficial to workers and employees. | https://riatasorandast.ml/3082-financial-planning-research.php |
At Falcons Primary School, we aim to teach children how to grow into positive, compassionate, resilient people, who can work and co-operate with others whilst developing knowledge and skills. Thus, they can achieve their true potential and be happy and fulfilled in themselves: in other words, to ‘be the best they can be’.
We believe that Sikh values are relevant to all our pupils and, when taught in a child-centred way, can help them to become responsible citizens, upholding British Values in the wider world.
Curriculum Intent
At Falcons, our curriculum is driven by the need for our children to develop as lifelong learners. We offer a diverse curriculum which is ambitious for all learners, while developing the essential knowledge, skills and understanding which are the building blocks for later life. Our curriculum encompasses not only the formal requirements of the National Curriculum, but goes beyond these to ensure that our children are exposed to the richest and most varied opportunities that we can provide. It is designed to give all our pupils:
- the knowledge and skills that prepare them for the next stage of their education (KS1, KS2 or secondary school).
- a ‘go-for-it’ attitude towards learning so that all children enjoy coming to school and embrace new challenges and possibilities, pushing their own boundaries.
- a wide range of experiences, including the arts, sports and science, that broaden their horizons beyond their immediate circumstances.
- self-belief in their own uniqueness and ambition for their future.
- the confidence to appreciate and explore their own faith, spirituality and culture as well as respecting and valuing diversity.
- an understanding of the importance of British Values.
- the ability to question and learn from the past, live confidently and honestly in the present and the belief that they can influence the future.
- experience of success and resilience to learn from their mistakes.
- motivation and knowledge to live a healthy lifestyle, both physically and mentally.
- a sense of wonder towards nature, knowledge of the world around them and the curiosity to question and explore it.
- the necessary tools to keep themselves safe in both the real and online worlds.
- the skills to develop positive, healthy relationships and to treat others with kindness.
Curriculum Implementation
Children are expected to work hard and demonstrate positive learning behaviours, to maximise their individual learning potential and to contribute to the school and wider community. We have high expectations of attendance, academic achievement and pupil behaviour. We are committed to working in partnership with parents as we believe that when home and school work closely together we get the best outcomes for our pupils. Our pupils have access to a wide range of opportunities which promote personal safety and a strong sense of self, with all children being actively involved in whole school decision making through the Pupil Learning Council and many positions of responsibility. Our curriculum recognises the importance of pupils’ spiritual, physical and mental well-being in shaping their long term life-style choices. We believe that one of our key tasks is to teach our children to speak clearly and articulately and to read and write effectively. We want pupils to develop a love of reading during their time at Falcons and be exposed to a range literature. In order to raise aspirations and equip children with a real belief that they can achieve anything if they are prepared to work hard, it is important that we prioritise experiential learning within our curriculum. Visitors are invited into school, educational visits are carefully chosen to deepen understanding and we make the most of our outdoor learning environment to enhance hands-on learning experiences.
Children have access to a wide range of extra-curricular activities in both sport, music and the creative and performing arts. Continuing Professional Development for all staff is a priority to ensure they have the necessary skills and knowledge to deliver the highest standards across the entire curriculum.
Subject Leaders will be developed to have the necessary expertise to play a pivotal role in both the design and delivery of their subject area; ensuring a clear progression of both skills and knowledge across all year groups, underpinned by a robust assessment system. They can confidently articulate how learning is planned and developed in each year group, to ensure a real depth of learning right across the school.
Impact
- Our pupils will demonstrate confidence, independence, resilience and an enjoyment of learning.
- Form meaningful relationships based upon mutual respect and trust, recognising and celebrating difference, not only within the school community, but in the wider world as well.
- Have access to a wide and varied curriculum, allowing each of them to excel as individuals and be the best they can be.
- Achieve at least the expected standard across the curriculum by the end of Key Stage Two.
- Are well prepared to access the challenges of the secondary school curriculum.
- Our children will have aspirations for the future and know that these can be realised with hard work and determination.
- Grow up being able to make a positive contribution to the world in which they live. | https://www.falconsprimary.org/Curriculum/Curriculum-Intent/ |
The belief that recovery is real provides the essential and motivating message of a better future – that people can and do overcome the internal and external challenges that confront them. Hope is internalized and can be fostered by peers, families, providers, allies, and others. Hope is the catalyst of the recovery process.
Self-determination and self-direction are the foundations for recovery as individuals set their own life goals and design their unique path(s) toward those goals. Autonomy and independence are optimized by leading, controlling, and exercising choice over the services and supports that assist in their recovery and resilience. In so doing, they are empowered and provided the resources to make informed decisions, initiate recovery, build on their strengths, and gain or regain control over their lives.
Individuals are unique with distinct needs, strengths, preferences, goals, culture, and backgrounds that affect and determine their pathway to recovery. Recovery paths are highly individualized and may include professional clinical treatment, medication, support from families and in schools, faith-based communities, and others. Setbacks can occur at any part of the process and need to be met with resilience.
Recovery encompasses a person’s whole life, including mind, body, spirit, and community. This includes addressing: self-care practices, family, housing, employment, transportation, education, clinical treatment for mental disorders, services and support, primary healthcare, dental care, spirituality, social networks, and community participation. The array of services and supports available should be integrated and coordinated.
Mutual support and aid groups play an invaluable role in recovery. Peers encourage and engage other peers while providing them with a vital sense of belonging, supportive relationships, valued roles, and community. Through helping others and giving back to the community, one helps one’s self. Peer supports for families are very important for children with behavioral health problems and can also play a supportive role for youth in recovery.
An important factor in the recovery process is the presence of people who believe in the person’s ability to recover; who offer hope, support, and encouragement; and who also suggest strategies and resources for change. Through these relationships, people leave unhealthy and/or unfulfilling life roles behind and engage in new roles that lead to a greater sense of belonging.
Culture and cultural background in all of its diverse representations – including values, traditions, and beliefs – are keys in determining a person’s journey to recovery. Services should be culturally grounded as well as personalized to meet each individual’s needs.
The experience of trauma (such as physical or sexual abuse, domestic violence, war, disaster, and others) is often a precursor to or associated with alcohol and drug use, mental health problems, and related issues. Services and support systems should be trauma-informed to foster safety and trust while promoting choice, empowerment, and collaboration.
Individuals, families, and communities have strengths and resources that serve as a foundation for recovery. In addition, individuals have a personal responsibility for their own self-care and journeys of recovery. Individuals should be supported in speaking for themselves. Families and significant others have responsibilities to support their loved ones, especially for children and youth in recovery. Communities need to provide opportunities and resources to address discrimination and to promote social inclusion and recovery.
Community, systems, and societal acceptance and appreciation for people affected by mental health and substance use problems are crucial in achieving recovery. Steps taken toward recovery require great courage and need to be acknowledged. Self-acceptance, developing a positive and meaningful sense of identity, and regaining belief in one’s self are particularly important. | http://www.thekimfoundation.org/recovery.html |
A recent study revealed that the self esteem of a child develops before he or she reaches the age of five. This study claims that even kindergarten children do have a sense of self-esteem which can be measured.
Researchers used a unique test in order to arrive at this conclusion. Nearly 200 kids were examined as a part of this research. Till now, scientists were in the opinion that preschoolers are too young to own a sense of self-esteem.
Researchers were not able to detect self-esteem in kids may be because there were no sensitive measurement tools. But the latest tools or tests helped researchers find how positively kids tend to feel about themselves.
Researchers made children identify objects and label them under two categories namely, me and not me. As kids could successfully identify them, researchers could understand that kids do have self-esteem.
The results showed no difference between girls and boys. In fact, self-esteem in children plays a very important role in how they form social identities as they grow up.
In fact, parents can now take more care about making the children develop a healthy sense of identity. We all know that genetics and childhood conditions do play a very important role in shaping the minds of any person.
As kids develop sense of self-esteem at such a young age, positive parenting may help in developing healthy mindsets in kids. | https://www.boldsky.com/pregnancy-parenting/kids/2015/self-esteem-of-children-develops-before-five-095166.html |
Rowden House School in Herefordshire provides individualised care and education programmes for children and young people aged 11 to 19 years, with severe learning disabilities, autism and challenging behaviour.
Welcome to Rowden House School
Severe learning difficulties and challenging behaviour.
Day and 38 to 52 week residential Age: Mixed 11-19
Our Aims
Engage in learning and access lifelong learningOpen
Engage in learning and access lifelong learning
- Across site there is a clear structure and rhythm to the day to provide ASD students with boundaries to engage in learning, develop self-care skills and reducing anxiety surrounding transition
- The individual needs and preferences of young people are incorporated into their daily activity planners/timetables to promote a positive and adapted curriculum
- Rowden House follows a waking hour curriculum programme which ensures a consistency of approach within both school and care settings to manage behaviours related to anxiety and transition difficulties.
- The curriculum aims for all students to enjoy learning, make progress and achieve. To become confident individuals living safe, healthy and fulfilling lives who make a positive contribution to society.
- The curriculum aims to prepare students for an adult life in which they will have the greatest possible degree of autonomy and ability to form relationships with others
- Planned activities and class trips encourage students to be active members of their community; increasing their understanding and awareness of their community and the wider world.
- The skills learnt are transferable, with appropriate planning and support, into the home, the local community and future placements
Communication skillsOpen
Communication skills
- Individualised communication protocols are developed following detailed SALT input to enable young people to express their views, needs and preferences
- The curriculum enables students to be self-determining by promoting their ability to express preferences, communicate needs, make decisions and be either self-advocating and/or able to make use of an advocate.
- A total communication system to enable learners to become effective communicators with activities and experiences to express sense of self, own needs and understanding of others
Self-manage behaviourOpen
Self-manage behaviour
- Rowden House has a strong behaviour management approach which underpins a student’s self-esteem and ability to engage in Society, work with peers and engage with their Community.
- Students provided with boundaries which enables them to engage in learning and manage their own behaviours without becoming isolated from their peers.
- Rowden House is skilled in dealing with young people with challenging behavioural needs who have similar needs/anxieties. The School is effective at managing these needs and allowing students to engage in learning and activities
Form positive relationshipsOpen
Form positive relationships
- Rowden House is experienced in developing behaviour strategies to promote positive interactions with both adults and peers
- Detailed impact assessments take place to ensure the welfare needs and best interests of all young people are acknowledged
- Young people are encouraged to be involved in the planning of day to day activities, improving choice making skills and opportunities to interact with peers in a safe environment
- Life skills and transition planning is a key aspect of the School’s work and will be central to providing the student’s education pathway into adulthood
- Providing experiences which help to develop a positive sense of self, forming relationships learning, living and working alongside others.
- The curriculum aims to prepare students for an adult life in which they will have the greatest possible degree of autonomy and ability to form relationships with others
Coronavirus:
We are closely monitoring the situation and following guidance from Public Health England (PHE) and the National Health Service (NHS). If you have any concerns please call us.
Please help us to protect yourself and others by practising basic personal hygiene:
- • Washing your hands with soap and water, or use a sanitiser gel, regularly throughout the day.
- • Catch your cough or sneeze in a tissue, bin it, and wash your hands. | https://senadgroup.com/rowden/ |
LEVITTOWN, Pa. >> When Sherwood “Woody” Summers was growing up in the 1950s and ’60s – shuffled between three foster homes and two Catholic orphanages – all he wanted was a normal family like other kids had.
He wanted a sober, hard-working dad, a sane mother, and brothers and sisters under one roof.
When he became an adult, he got it. He went to work, got married and had two kids – a boy and a girl. It was the normal family he always dreamed of.
But it wasn’t working. He and his wife weren’t happy, so they divorced.
It was the late 1970s, and Summers’ traditional family wasn’t the only one that was breaking up. Couples across the country were getting divorced.
Pope John Paul II stopped in Philadelphia during his first apostolic journey to the United States, in 1979; the families that lined the Benjamin Franklin Parkway to see him were changing. It was the beginning of a big shift in the way Americans viewed marriage and family.
The nuclear family – mom, dad and kids – is still the ideal for the Catholic Church, which will hold its World Meeting of Families in Philadelphia Sept. 22-25. But when Pope Francis visits the U.S. this week – and concludes his trip in Philadelphia next weekend – he’ll see many different kinds of families than his predecessor did 36 years ago.
“This is a pretty distinctive period. It’s a period in which marriage is less central to family life and alternate ways of forming families are acceptable,” said Andrew Cherlin, a professor of public policy and sociology at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore. “It’s also a period where the middle of America has disappeared. . The people who can make a go of it economically still choose marriage and are able to make a go of it better than their parents could.”
Cherlin, the author of “The Marriage-Go-Round: The State of Marriage and the Family in America Today,” said there is now “a diversity in family forms that we haven’t seen before.”
The way we were – for awhileWhen many people think of family, they think of the traditional family depicted in Norman Rockwell paintings. They think of 1950s sitcoms like “Leave it to Beaver” and “Father Knows Best.” They think of pretty little houses with white picket fences, inhabited by a hardworking father, a pretty mother who stays home and cooks and cleans all day, and two or three kids who occasionally get into some good, wholesome – and certainly never criminal – trouble.
And that’s what many families were – for about a decade.
“The 1950s was kind of the heyday of married families with children,” said Valarie King, a professor of sociology, demography, human development and family studies at Pennsylvania State University. “The 1950s was kind of unusual. I don’t think people realize how unusual that was.”
Americans had finally recovered from the Great Depression. World War II was over. The Cold War and the Space Race began. Companies developed new technologies. Business boomed.
With men home from the war and with their wallets full of cash for the first time in decades, Cherlin said, “We had a cultural turn toward marriage. In the 1950s, it didn’t matter what you believed or how much money you had, you simply had to be married.”
And if you were married, you might as well have two or three children.
By 1960, 72 percent of American adults were married and only 5 percent were divorced or separated, according to data from the Pew Research Center. Approximately 73 percent of children in the U.S. lived with their two married, heterosexual, biological parents who were in their first marriage, Pew data indicates. Fourteen percent of children lived with two married, heterosexual parents, one or both of whom was in their second or third marriage. Nine percent of children lived with only one parent.
Men married at a median age of 22 (half were older and half were younger) and women married at a median age of 20. Only 2 percent of marriages were between people of different races or ethnic groups, Pew found.
The structure shiftsIn the 1960s and ’70s, society changed.
The Civil Rights Act was passed in 1964 and the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission was established. More black people and women went to college and more joined the workforce. And more people waited longer to get married. The Immigration and Nationality Act was passed in 1965. It allowed more people from Asia, Africa, the Middle East and Latin America to move to the U.S.
With all those changes, attitudes toward the old structures changed.
“Marriage went from an economic arrangement to one where it’s based on the choice of the partners and love and companionship,” King said. “That’s less stable. If you fall out of love, maybe you don’t stick together as much.”
From 1965 to 1975, the divorce rate doubled.
Reta Paul’s marriage was ending in the late 1970s.
The Quakertown woman, who’s now 64, had spent much of her life pretending to be straight – for the sake of her husband and children and the rest of her family. She said she drank and used drugs to cope. Then, she reached a point when she couldn’t do it anymore, so she divorced her husband.
She was not alone in seeking a divorce.
By 1980, 62 percent of adults in the U.S. were married, and 9 percent were separated or divorced, according to Pew Research Center data.
Approximately 61 percent of U.S. children lived with two married, heterosexual, biological parents who were in their first marriage, Pew Research Center data indicates. Sixteen percent of children lived with two married, heterosexual parents, one or both of whom was in their second or third marriage. Nineteen percent of children lived with only one parent.
“If you had asked me in 1979 about the high divorce rates, I would have said it’s going to continue,” Cherlin said.
As the U.S. became more diverse, who married whom also was changing. In 1980, 7 percent of marriages were between people of different races or ethnic groups, Pew found.
The way we are nowThese days, young, white, heterosexual men and women still marry their high school or college sweethearts, have traditional families and most often stay married. But there’s a difference.
“What we’ve seen since the 1980s is a split in married lives,” Cherlin said. “People with college degrees have a different set of experiences…. College-educated families look like families did several decades ago, though the woman is working outside of the home. People without college degrees have much more instability.”
Brian Sherfesee, 37, of Medford, Burlington County, had always dreamed of having a traditional family – and he got it with Jamie. The two met in high school in 1996, fell in love, continued dating while they were at college, married in 2005 and remain married today. They have two young children.
“Jamie and I have had a connection since the day we met,” Brian said. “That wasn’t based around religion or children or anything. There was a connection that was hard to explain.”
That connection keeps them together, they said, but so do their children and their Catholic faith.
“I know it sounds cliche, but when I see how much Brian loves our kids, it’s like I fall in love with him all over again,” Jamie said. “That, to me, is a completely selfless act. Our kids are our glue.”
But the Sherfesees still aren’t quite Ward and June Cleaver. Brian and Jamie both work outside the home; they have to do so if they want to keep their modest house and cars. An au pair helps with the children.
Traditional families like the Sherfesees make up a smaller portion of the population than ever before.
In 2013, 46 percent of U.S. children lived with their two married, heterosexual, biological parents who were in their first marriage, Pew found, compared to 73 percent in 1960. Thirty-four percent of children lived with only one parent these days. And 15 percent of children have two married, heterosexual parents, one or both of whom is in their second or third marriage.
Reflecting the country’s increasing diversity, more than 15 percent of marriages are between people of different races or ethnic groups, Pew found.
Summers blended his family when he married Fran Robinson in the 1980s. Robinson had a daughter from a previous marriage. And Summers and Robinson had three children together. They unofficially adopted another. And their kids kids grew up and had kids of their own.
The 63-year-old Bristol Township man extended his family when he and his wife obtained custody of his stepdaughter’s children a few years ago.
“It (was) the right thing to do. There’s no other way to look at it,” he said. “Granted, they aren’t my blood grandchildren, but they are my grandchildren.”
Summers said he didn’t want the kids to be put in the foster care system and go through the tough times he experienced.
“We have the room, the ability to take care of them. We have a home – not just a house to live in, but a home,” he said.
Home come in many forms.Paul, the Quakertown woman who left a heterosexual marriage and stopped pretending to be straight, now shares a family with her partner, Erin Rush.
Paul and Rush have been together for 18 years. During that time, they adopted two teenage girls. One of the girls had a son and they adopted him when he was an infant. Edward is now 5.
Rush works and manages the couple’s finances; Paul stays home to raise Edward.
Paul said her life with Rush is a lot like the life she had in her traditional marriage: “You get up in the morning, you have coffee, you go to work, you bring money home, you pay your bills and you cook dinner at night and you do the laundry. And you have a partner who goes with you to family events and children’s events. . It’s just typical family stuff you do. The only thing that’s different is that we’re gay.”
Paul said they are close to her ex-husband and his new wife; they spent the holidays together in Tennessee until they moved to Quakertown a few years ago. And the couple’s adopted daughters remain close to their birth parents.
“We’re more into inclusion than exclusion,” Rush said. “That’s always been such an important thing.”
Family structures beyond the traditional have become more common in recent years.
Some couples live together – with or without kids – but never marry.
Some couples (heterosexual or homosexual) live together or are married, but don’t have kids and don’t intend to. They’re known as DINKs (Double Income No Kids) in some circles.
And there are people who become families by choice: folks those who live together or near one another, support each other and share financial responsibilities, but are not related through blood, marriage or romance.
Pat Gessner and Marilyn Cook, of Doylestown, are one example of a family by choice.
The two women met in 1993, when they worked in a property management office. They quickly became friends and then roommates.
“Sometimes, you get trapped in a job because you can’t afford to switch,” said Cook, 68. Having smaller bills – because they shared them – gave each woman the ability to quit jobs they didn’t like and try something different. It also gave each of them a little more pocket money.
From the beginning, the two vacationed together, celebrated holidays together and went to family gatherings together. Neither can remember a time when she didn’t feel like the other was a family member.
“She’s my best friend. It’s great to have somebody to share the day’s events or complain and whine with,” Gessner said about Cook.
And Cook said she couldn’t ask for a better friend or roommate than Gessner.
“We’ve gone through lots of different things in the last 20 years and she’s always been there for me. I’ve tried to do the same for her. If she suddenly wasn’t in my life, there’d be a very big hole that has nothing to do with my finances,” she said.
The way we could be“We’re not at the end of family change,” said Cherlin, the sociology professor from Johns Hopkins. “We’re still experiencing it.”
And Cherlin doesn’t believe Americans will return to the traditional family model – mom, dad and kids – of the 1950s.
“I don’t think there’s any chance we’ll go back to the ‘Leave It to Beaver’ model. Nor do I think we want to,” he said. “Nobody really wants to go back to the 1950s, except a few men who want to boss around their wives and children. The rest of us will laugh at the reruns, but not want to go back there. Women are in the workforce to stay and men want them to be in the workforce so spouses can pool incomes.”
Cherlin and King believe the diversity of U.S. families – in structure, gender and race – will continue.
With the legalization of same-sex marriage earlier this year, more children could grow up in families with homosexual parents.
And more children could grow up in families with parents of different races. In 2008, 15 percent of new marriages were between people of different races or ethnic groups, according to data from the Pew Research Center. That’s a dramatic increase from 2 percent in 1960.
The number of interracial marriages could grow as more people come to America from other countries. A 2009 report from the U.S. Census Bureau projects that the Hispanic population will more than double between 2000 and 2050, and the Asian population will increase by 79 percent. | https://www.dailylocal.com/2015/09/22/pope-francis-will-find-a-far-different-typical-us-family/ |
If you watched Jane Lynch’s acceptance speech at the Golden Globes on January 16th – she won for her role as Sue Sylvester in Glee – it would have been impossible not to have been affected by how gleefully she thanked her wife, Dr. Lara Ember, and their kids. While winners commonly thank their spouses and significant others at these award ceremonies, Lynch was particularly and unabashedly exuberant in mentioning her partner, to whom she straightforwardly referred as her “wife.” That in and of itself was refreshing, given the short list of openly homosexual, or married, couples in Hollywood.
Lynch and Ember got married in Massachusetts, which in 2004 became the first state to recognize same-sex marriages. But there is interesting, and legally and psychologically complicated, family history there on Ember’s part, who had previously been in a partnership with another woman, each of them giving birth to a child and then each officially adopting the other’s child. When that relationship broke up, Ember went to court to defend her right to see her adopted child, just like any other member of a couple who has adopted a child, or who has a biological child or children would do.
Clearly, the very composition of the American family has changed dramatically. Heterosexual and same sex couples are rejigging what it means to have “parents” and “children” living together in a household. “Parents” now include single/married and heterosexual/same sex, and “children” now include adopted/biological/step.
While culturally we are more and more accepting of same sex couples, married or not, who are starting families, we still have a long way to go when acknowledging whether or not someone like Sandra Bullock, whose divorce from Jesse James I referred to in my article in this column of January 7th, can or should be allowed to continue a relationship, as the ex-stepmother, with the biological children of her partner once their relationship breaks up, particularly if she has cared for those children for many years as Bullock did.
And while culturally the wheels of change do seem to turn particularly slowly, at least where tradition is concerned, there are many people who are looking for alternative ways to describe these complexly composed American families, whatever combination of biological, step or blended they may be. And there are many people who are also working to protect the rights of each of these different kinds of partnerships among parents, as well as working to preserve and protect the best interests of the children of those partnerships.
Would that it were simple enough to say that all parents and children are simply “family,” but our legal system does not see it that way. To that end, Debra Chernick, a family court attorney in Rhode Island, has started the Para-kin movement to introduce an alternative phrase to describe a sundry of relationships that are not born of biological ties. Chernick’s Para-kin movement has recently caught the eye of the Rhode Island Bar Association Journal, which included an article, entitled Para-kin: Redefining our Relationships, in their January/February 2011 issue.
And just today, January 20th, the Washington Post has posted a User Poll – What term would you rather use to describe stepfamilies – in which you can vote for Blended Families, Bonus Families or Para-Kin. This is my final interview with Chernick about her Para-Kin movement. Read on, then log on to the Washington Post User Poll and vote for your own personal preference.
Words carry tremendous power, some more than others, and can be used for positive or negative effect. How we use them, how we speak about something, matters a great deal when we communicate. If a stepmother, for instance, were referred to as a Para-mom, do you think she would be seen in a different light culturally and legally? Do you think the phrase Para-mom has the power to remove a generally unfounded negative cultural bias?
I agree that words are powerful tools and often times our culture attaches images to them, positive or negative. The word “stepmother” is just one of those words fraught with a negative image. If I were a betting woman, I’d be confident that your readership is as tired as I am of the negativity surrounding the word “stepmother.” But in reality we can’t avoid those indelible images of Cinderella. We can’t take an eraser and blot out hundreds of years of fairytales. So what to do?
In my practice I come across loving moms and step-moms along with not so caring moms and step-moms. It’s an uphill battle for many step-moms on a daily basis. Would an alternative term such as Para-mom, which, by the way, I like to abbreviate P-mom, eliminate some of the battle? Maybe. It seems to me that there are enough issues surrounding the blending of families, that if we could negate at least the “evil” connotation and have children concentrate on the loving component, then at least there would be one less struggle to overcome within the family and society at large.
In essence, the terms P-mom and P-dad, along with P-son and P-daughter, embrace the image of love and caring within a family. For married parents, Para-kin provides an acceptable alternative to the use of step terms, and for unmarried parents, it’s a necessity for identification.
We started with the image connected to words and I’ll end on this same thought. When a partner marries someone with children, there are no choices. It’s a given that one loves the new spouse, but it’s an expectation that the love should or will extend to the children of that spouse. One becomes a stepparent, for better or worse. When the stepparent runs into a brick wall communicating with the child, or is perceived as “mean” or “unloving”, the negative “step” image is the fallback position.
Using Para-kin terms is a choice. One can choose to call himself or herself a P-mom or P-dad and choose to embrace that child as a P-son or P-daughter. Then, if difficulties arise between the new spouse and the child, the words “mean” and “evil” may not necessarily be the fall back position, because that person is not referred to as a stepparent in the first instance. The child may perceive that his new P-mom “doesn’t get it” or “is all over his or her case,” but the “evil” image may not even enter the child’s mind.
The phrase Para-kin is devoid of negativity. It’s devoid of centuries old mythology, legend and baggage. That is its beauty. That is its gift.
For More Info: Log onto Debra Chernick’s Para-kin website at www.para-kin.com. | https://glowbass.com/instead-of-stepmom-try-out-para-mom-a-phrase-devoid-of-centuries-old-mythology/ |
What is the most traditional family structure?
What is the most traditional family structure?
The nuclear family has been considered the “traditional” family structure since the Soviet Union scare in the cold war of the 1950s. The nuclear family consists of a mother, father, and the children.
Which family structure is the best for children?
Biological/legal ties and stable family structures are thought to be best for children’s development by resulting in larger, higher-quality, and more consistent relationships and investments, both because stable families and (married) two-biological-parent families tend to be more socioeconomically advantaged than …
What does a traditional family look like?
A traditional family is a family structure that consists of a man, woman, and one or more of their biological or adopted children. In most traditional families, the man and woman are husband and wife. These include: cohabitation, single parent, extended, and same-sex families.
What makes the best family?
Family includes people we love and those who love us; those we are connected to through a shared history and experience. These common characteristics all contribute to family happiness and strength. Commitment: They make their relationships a high priority. This is particularly important in co-parenting families.
What is a perfect family?
Healthy families are made up of parents who do not quarrel. 2. Siblings in healthy families are always cooperative with their parents and willing to help one another. 3. Healthy families are harmonious and without conflict.
What are the different types of family structures?
Families were categorized into one of seven groups: Nuclear families: children “living with two parents who are married to one another and are each biological or adoptive parents to all children in the family,” Single-parent families: children living with a single adult of either gender,
Which is the best type of family to have?
The nuclear family today represents the traditional type of a family. This type of family includes 2 parents and a number of children. It was long considered by most societies as being the ideal way of raising children.
How many types of families are there in the world?
The three types are: 1 Nuclear family 2 Single-parenting family 3 Extended family
How are family structure and children’s health related?
On the other hand, family structure and stability are associated with children’s health in many parts of the developing world, where access to health care is limited and where single-parent families are actually less likely than nuclear families to be socioeconomically disadvantaged. | https://idswater.com/2019/07/27/what-is-the-most-traditional-family-structure/ |
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Published byRodney Francis Modified over 6 years ago
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MARRIAGES, INTIMATE RELATIONSHIPS & SOCIETY Unit 3 – Chapter 6
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The Purpose of Marriage Functionalists: Explain marriage as the central social grouping to meet the basic needs in all societies “Norm” of society Many individuals feel that getting married gives them adult status within their society and family
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Love & Marriage Social Exchange Theorists: Explain that being married will be better than being single (benefits vs. costs) The contemporary ideal in most cultures suggests that marriage is a happy state in which one can love and be loved Canadians said what they liked most about marriage was companionship, including love and support and the stability of the relationship
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Marriage & Identity Symbolic Interactionism When people marry they acquire the status of husband, wife, spouse or life partner Marriage changes how other people see them, but it also changes how individuals see themselves Also perception that marriage is the “right” and acceptable choice to make
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“Two heads are better than one!” Systems Idea that groups are better than individuals Marriages need to continue in order to carry on family system
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Conflict Based on power dynamic Couples have more access to supports (money and social status) Power dynamic between couple has typically been that “man wears the pants” … changing!
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The Purpose of Marriage In the past, marriage provided legitimate access to sexual partners and ensured the bearing and raising of children Now, 90% of Canadians accept adults having premarital sex but expect to marry when they want to have children Marriage also allows individuals to share resources to improve their standard of living
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A Legal Point of View 3 Models of Marriage in Western Society: (Justice Blair – Court of Appeal for Ontario) 1)The historical classical model emphasizes the complementary biological and social roles of men and women and views marriage as the ideal situation for raising children 2)The choice model views marriage as a private agreement between individuals, with an emphasis on self-expression of sexuality 3)The commitment model views marriage as a committed, intimate relationship based on emotional support. Although it is founded on individual choice, it focuses on connection within the community.
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A Legal Point of View Canada currently follows the commitment model which assumes: a)emotional and financial interdependence b)obligations of mutual support c)shared social activities d)marriage is more important for raising children than for producing them
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Marriage & Identity The commitment model is based on shared lifestyle In the past, if men or women wanted to improve their social status, they would marry someone of higher status Today, individuals who want to improve their quality of life will choose a partner who has similar goals and financial means, they will strive together to develop a higher status
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The Timing of Marriage The timing of significant developments in life is determined by a culture’s social clock and by an individual’s readiness to make the change Canadians believe the best age to marry is 26.3 for men and 24.9 for women (2004)
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The Timing of Marriage the average age of first-time brides was 28.5 years and for grooms was 30.5 years (2004) many Canadians cohabit before they marry, but it is not clear whether cohabitation is a cause or an effect of delayed marriage emerging adults are delaying marriage, but they are also delaying cohabitation
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The Timing of Marriage Marriage is no longer the significant rite of passage into adulthood that it once was Several adjustments in the social clock accommodate these changes – post-secondary education – finding a job in the chosen career – employment security – finances – readiness to have a child
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The Economics of Marriage Marriage has always been an economic union The economic benefit is achieved by sharing resources as well as the labour Marriages are no longer essential for economic survival for women who are employed and self-supporting Women who are educated and earning comparable incomes to their spouse are less likely to accept traditional marriage roles
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The Economics of Marriage By law, when a couple separates, all assets are communally owned, regardless of individual income Spouses have a responsibility to share their income for mutual support Couples who choose to marry or to cohabit for 3 years in Ontario, assume this unwritten contract under Canadian law
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Cohabitation Most common choice of Canadians for their first conjugal relationship (a relationship based on a sexual union) Also called a common-law relationship – these relationships are not governed by written law but by legal and social customs Although cohabitation begins less formally than marriage, spouses are still subject to some legal obligations and they are more likely to separate than if they were married
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Cohabitation Fewer emerging adults are married, but the decline is almost offset by the greater number of individuals who are cohabiting with a partner Between 2001 – 2006, the number of families with cohabiting adults increased by 18.5%, while families with married adults increased by only 3.5%, and single-parent families by 7.8%
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Cohabitation Most people assume that cohabitation means living together before marriage, it is a prelude to marriage, not an alternative The high divorce rate makes some people feel a need to test their relationship before making a firm commitment Although cohabitation is perceived to be insurance for a lasting marriage, it is not effective
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Cohabitation Fewer cohabiting couples marry than in the past Common-law couples are more likely to separate than married couples Couples who marry after cohabiting are twice as likely to get divorced Why?
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Cohabitation People who cohabit might: be less selective about their partner because they feel the relationship is less durable not make the commitment to the relationship by pooling resources or developing problem- solving strategies not be sexually exclusive
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Cohabitation Perhaps living together without a commitment changes people’s idea of marriage and family and reduces the importance of commitment so they’re more likely to separate when problems arise Perhaps the problems that prevented marriage in the first place might continue to cause difficulties after the marriage
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Same-Sex Couples Same-sex relationships have always existed, since the Civil Marriage Act was passed in 2005, same-sex marriage has been permitted in Canada In Canada, individuals choose to marry or cohabit based on the romantic attraction of partners, not on the traditional responsibilities that are defined in the law or by religious beliefs
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Same-Sex Couples 61% of Canadians feel that same-sex couples should continue to have the right to marry (2009) marriage provides the same protection to partners and their children in gay and lesbian families that it provides to heterosexual couples
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family[fam´ĭ-le]
1. a group of people related by blood or marriage or a strong common bond, such as those descended from a common ancestor, or a husband, wife, and their children.
2. a taxonomic category below an order and above a genus.
blended family a family unit composed of a married couple and their offspring including some from previous marriages.
dysfunctional family one in which adult caregivers are unable to consistently fulfill their family responsibilities.
extended family a nuclear family and their close relatives, such as the children's grandparents, aunts, and uncles.
nuclear family a family consisting of a two-generation relationship of parents and children, living together and more or less isolated from their extended family.
nuclear dyad family a husband and wife with no children.
family of origin the family in which a person grew up.
family processes the psychosocial, physiological, and spiritual functions and relationships within the family unit; for nursing diagnoses, see under process.
single-parent family a lone parent and offspring living together as a family unit.
skewed family a family in which one spouse is severely dysfunctional and the other spouse assumes an acquiescent, peacemaking stance to maintain equilibrium.
family (omaha) in the omaha system, a problem modifier defined as a social unit or related group of individuals who live together and who experience a health-related problem.
Miller-Keane Encyclopedia and Dictionary of Medicine, Nursing, and Allied Health, Seventh Edition. © 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier, Inc. All rights reserved.
nu·cle·ar fam·i·ly
in genetics, two parents and their progeny in common.
Farlex Partner Medical Dictionary © Farlex 2012
nuclear familyGlobal village
See Nuclear club.
Social medicine
The core family unit which classically consists of heterosexual male and female partners and their direct genetic progeny; disintegration of this unit and its central role in society is held responsible by some for losses in mental equilibrium.
Segen's Medical Dictionary. © 2012 Farlex, Inc. All rights reserved.
nuclear familySocial medicine The core family unit, which typically consists of heterosexually-oriented ♂and ♀ partners and their direct–usually unmarried genetic progeny. Cf Companionship, Extended family, Marriage bonus, Most significant other, Social isolation. Cf Single-parent family.
McGraw-Hill Concise Dictionary of Modern Medicine. © 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
nu·cle·ar fam·i·ly(nū'klē-ăr fam'i-lē)
In genetics, two parents and their progeny in common.
Medical Dictionary for the Health Professions and Nursing © Farlex 2012
Nuclear family
The basic family unit, consisting of father, mother, and their biological children.
Mentioned in: Family Therapy
Gale Encyclopedia of Medicine. Copyright 2008 The Gale Group, Inc. All rights reserved.
nu·cle·ar fam·i·ly(nū'klē-ăr fam'i-lē)
In genetics, two parents and their progeny in common. | https://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/nuclear+family |
What is a family anyway? It used to be that a family consisted of at least a husband and wife, and then progressed with children. Extended family referred to grandparents, uncles, aunts and cousins. Though whether immediate or extended, pretty much everyone knew what a family was. “Was” is the operative word here. What was, and what is, are two different things. Today, family refers to the 49% plus divorced families. A child’s family consist of a father and mother who don’t live together. A stepparent may be on the scene. A man’s family may consist of his wife and possible stepchildren, and his own children who live with his ex-wife. That’s his family.
Divorce has effectively caused our society to do a double take on what a family is. There are enormous legal consequences to divorce. Aside from problems with alimony and child payments, there are insurance questions. Should an ex-wife be allowed to collect on a policy if her ex-husband dies?
In an attempt to keep children from being to psychologically hurt by divorce, courts now have child sharing plans. If both parents live in the same town, Johnny stays with mom one week, and dad the next. Sometimes its months, mom gets six months, dad gets six. Johnny gets a severe case of identity crisis.
The reshaping of what the modem family is because of divorce did not happen on purpose. It comes with the territory, after all, who marries planning to divorce? Some of the reshaping is taking place intentionally. It seems these things don’t appear to affect the family. Upon closer examination, however, it is clear they not only affect the family, they say what a family is, and cannot be. If a man and a woman can marry and have a family, why can’t a man and a man marry and have a family? The attempts of the homosexual movement to acquire rights as a family pose one of the most dangerous threats to families in America today.
This year, San Francisco took steps to “normalize” homosexuality by giving type of marital status to homosexual couples seeking a legal union. In effect, what San Francisco authorities have said, is that though homosexuals engage in a behavior that most Americans consider morally abhorrent, and medical science has proven unhealthy and abnormal, homosexual couples are on the same legal and moral level as other heterosexual couples. Now, if such a status is granted to homosexual couples, will they need divorces like other couples? Can they sue for alimony or child support? Imagine, one gay man suing another gay man for alimony. Of course, child support assumes that homosexual couples will have children. Indeed, they will. What gays and lesbians cannot acquire through reversing the biological function, may soon be acquired through legal means.
The homosexual political movement has long had on its agenda the right for gays to raise adopted children. [Adoption is the only natural means whereby homosexuals may reproduce.) That means the state, or a state agency must approve of the home of a homosexual couple for the child. Now, what if a homosexual couple and a heterosexual couple wanted to adopt the same child? Ask most Americans who could provide a better atmosphere for a growing child, a homosexual couple, or the traditional family, and most will opt to put the child with a normal family. Homosexual activists, however, would fight such “discrimination” like angry cats. The identity of the homosexual is found in who the homosexual sleeps with. Sanctioning a homosexual “family” with obvious dysfunctions is an error society will long regret.
There are other means of redefining the family that are not as obvious. Educational insiders view educators as the only qualified people to teach children. In fact, the current educational system is predicated upon more administrative control over how, who, and why we educate than on the basics of education itself. Education in the 1990’s focuses on affecting students socially and not in academics. Social issues are prevalent in high school classrooms. While often an effective way of making the day’s lesson relevant and interesting to students, it also provides a platform for liberal educators and the education unions to further their own agenda on the family. For instance, education unions politically support abortion on demand, the use of pornographic materials in the classroom, explicit sex education courses and more. What do abortion on demand and pornographic sex ed materials have to do with teaching children skills? Obviously, nothing, but teachers’ unions are actively involved in many issues unrelated to education.
Reshaping the family is also a media event. While the Cosby show, and Family Matters have been refreshing changes in family portrayal, family betrayal is still the media noon. While a lot of us may want J.R. Ewing’s money, how many of us would like his family problems? In reality, many of us do have them. Affairs, fights and friction are not just the TV norm. My Two Dads was a warm show about two men raising a teenage girl. Often a cute show, but it also lent support to the idea of homosexual families. The characters played on My Two Dads were not homosexual, but the idea that two uncommitted men living under one roof could successfully raise a teenage girl without a mother’s influence was one of the most subtle ways the media has lent support to the concept of homosexual families in a long time.
Legally, common law marriages and even “domestic partnerships” between an unmarried man and woman have hurt the family. Why bother to get married at all. Just live together and split when your partner gets ugly, bored, or loses his or her interest or job. After all, “domestic partners” can sue for many of the same things as those who divorce do. It seems that in actuality, we’re getting married and divorced without getting married and divorced. It’s all the same, and yet, its confusingly different.
Many churches are sanctioning homosexual marriages, recognizing common law marriages, and even domestic partnerships. When the institution that is supposed to uphold the differences between right and wrong and teach the absolutes of morality lowers its guard and accepts definitions for the family and morality foreign to its nature and existence, it ceases to be a church. It becomes a popular social club.
Hold onto the family. Husbands, hold onto your wives. Wives, hold onto your husbands. While you’re at it, reach out and hold onto your kids. Teach them right and wrong, and that nothing changes what is right and wrong. Teach them the standards they can use to make decisions by. If we give up those we love the most, and the values that can keep them together, what are we left with? Try divorce, domestic partnerships, media fantasies and stale sermons.
The Bible describes the relationship of a husband and wife as that of Jesus Christ and the Church. Jesus Christ loved us so much He willingly gave up all and was crucified for us. After He rose from the dead, He declared He was coming back for us. That’s commitment. It’s been 1900 plus years and He hasn’t returned yet, but He will. That’s patience. That’s the kind of commitment we need for our families, the kind of patience we need within our families, and the kind He commanded us to have. | https://www.tomthinking.com/wp/redefining-the-family/ |
Family are based on relationships of blood, marriage or adoption.
Family of choice is where individuals choose to include people as family members who are not traditionally related.
Households are a group of people who live at the same address.
Nuclear families
- A nuclear family consists of a mother, father and 1+ biological/adopted children.
- Used to be seen as the norm in Western societies up until the 70s.
- The only family type to decrease in number since 1996.
Extended families
- Extended families include relatives beyond the nuclear family.
- It can be extended vertically: 3+ generations.
- It can be extended horizontally: siblings living together and having families of their own.
- Extended families were common in working class culture until 1950s.
- Because of the emergence of individualisation, people can choose whether they want to keep ties with their extended family or not.
Lone parent families
- Families where at 1+ children lives with just one parent.
- 91% lone parent families have the mother as the parent.
- In 2013 there were nearly 1.9mil lone parent families in the UK, which is an increase from 1.8mil in 2003.
- Many children will spend their childhood in a lone parent situation but many lone parents only remain alone for 5 years.
- Panico et al. found that 3.9% lone parents went into cohabiting and 1.9% lone parents went into marriage.
Reconstituted families
- Where a couple form a family with children from previous relationships.
- Can be called step-families/blended families.
- In 2011 there were 544,000 reconstituted families with depended children in England and Wales (340,000 cohabiting, 203,000 marriage).
- As the mother tends to stay with the child, there are more reconstituted families with step-dads rather than step-mums.
Same-sex families
- LGBT+ relationships became legal for men 21+ for the first time in 1967, since then there have been many advances.
- 2013, legislation to allow same sex marriage came into force.
- They remain a tiny majority in the UK with only 8,000 civil partnerships and 5,000 cohabiting couples in 2013 (in comparison to 5.7mil heterosexual couples).
Non-family households
- Not all households are made up of families.
- In 2013, there were 7.8mil households in the UK consisting of one person living alone (increase from 7.2mil in 2003).
- There were also 800,000 households containing 2+ unrelated people living together (flatmates) from 2003 and this has remained unchanged.
Living alone
- Sociologist Klinenberg believes that in western society people are living alone in large numbers for three reasons:
1. Cult of the individual: individuals are more focused on their own needs rather than on their role within a larger society, meaning that it is easier for people to not want families.
2. The communications revolution: individuals can achieve the pleasures of a social life even whilst living alone because of new technologies and the media.
3. The ageing population: people are living longer meaning that it is more likely that they will be living alone, sp. elderly women bcause they have a longer life expectancy than men.
- Adam Smith et al. found that 59% of people living alone had been to visit relatives in the last fortnight, meaning that many are still part of family networks.
Living apart together
- People can live alone but still be a part of families.
- Many elderly people still have regular contact with their children. | https://getrevising.co.uk/revision-cards/family-and-household-types-in-the-contemporary-uk |
Legal recognition of gay families could improve outcome for children
If you attended a Gay Pride event last week, you undoubtedly saw something that has increasingly become associated with the Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender (LGBT) movement: families. While the fact that children are being raised by gay men and lesbians is not new, what is noteworthy is the rising number of open gay and lesbian families. This is largely a consequence of the LGBT political movement of the last two decades, coupled with the so-called "gayby boom." Indeed, 2010 census data show that about one-quarter of same-sex couples in the U.S. are raising children in their households.
Gay and lesbian families draw socio-political and academic debate, particularly when it comes to how well gay and lesbian parents fare compared to their heterosexual counterparts. Most recently, University of Texas sociologist Mark Regnerus published a study that claims to make this comparison - and found gay families lacking. Regnerus' findings run counter to the majority of academic research on gay and lesbian families, which has found few significant differences in child outcomes.
Although the data and analysis are rife with weaknesses, Regnerus' study has nonetheless been taken up by conservative groups and the media as evidence of subpar outcomes for children raised by gay parents. The methodological issues have been well-documented across many media outlets (such as The Washington Times and The New York Times), so we will not rehash them all here. Suffice it to say that the children who had "gay parents" in the analysis were primarily children of divorce and spent little or none of their childhood in a household with a same-sex couple. Regnerus found that they had worse outcomes than children raised in heterosexual married households.
Is it surprising that individuals from families that experienced instability due to divorce would fare worse than those who lived in the socially and legally privileged family structure of heterosexual marriage? Of course not. Regnerus himself acknowledges that "the most significant story in this study is arguably not about the differences among young adult children whose parents have had same-sex relationships and those whose parents are married biological mothers and fathers, but between the latter and nearly everyone else. Contexts of instability - whether in gay or straight households - appear suboptimal for children's healthy long-term development." We agree. It is bewildering, then, that the story largely being told within the article itself, and by some facets of the media, is that of poor outcomes for children of gay parents.
Let us, for a moment, ignore the methodological issues as well as prior research, and assume that children of gay parents have worse outcomes than those of heterosexual married parents. We suggest that the effect of larger structural forces in producing these outcomes should be considered, rather than simply an argument that "gay men and lesbians make bad parents."
In our current work, we are interviewing gay and lesbian parents across the nation to examine whether and how marriage and family laws play a role in their parenting decisions. Our interviews have revealed the importance of legislation for children's perceived family stability. One interview in particular exemplified this idea. Residing in California, this family already possessed many of the legal rights of married couples due to domestic partnership. Nonetheless, their adopted daughter would pretend to marry her two mothers in a ceremony with plastic rings, telling them: "Now you're married, you can keep your kids forever."
To this child, like so many, marriage is symbolic of stability; this stability is not just for the adults' relationship, but the child's relationship to the parents as well. Without a legally recognized marriage, children may view their family as "lesser," and are likely to experience both real and perceived challenges as a result.
Children of gay and lesbian parents are particularly vulnerable in cases where their parents' relationships dissolve. Many of our subjects described this vulnerability, observing that they had no recourse if their partner walked out on their child. Given that the ability to acquire and enforce a child support order is limited for those who are raising a child with a person of the same sex, there are resulting economic ramifications for children of gay parents. As in the case of marriage, this lack of legal and social protection can suggest to the child that their household is not recognized by the state as a "real family."
Our interviews have emphasized one thing: Gay men and lesbians are going to raise children, even in legally hostile environments. And if instability produces worse outcomes for children, then social science data would suggest that our investment should be in correcting the structural inequalities that produce such outcomes.
Baumle is an associate professor of sociology at the University of Houston and Compton is an assistant professor of sociology at the University of New Orleans. The opinions expressed within this article represent those of the authors, and not the University of Houston or University of New Orleans. | https://www.chron.com/opinion/article/Legal-recognition-of-gay-families-could-improve-3656114.php |
Approved by:
Moh. Supardi, Ss, M. Hum
Supervisor
ENGLISH LETTERS DEPARTMENT
LETTERS AND HUMANITIES FACULTY
STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY “SYARIF HIDAYATULLAH”
JAKARTA
2010
ABSTRACT
Bisri Musthofa, American Nuclear Family Traditional Values in “Malcolm in the
Middle” Drama. Thesis: English Letters Department, Letters and Humanities
Faculty, State Islamic University “Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta”, 2010.
This research is intended to give understanding of what the American nuclear family
traditional values in the drama “Malcolm in the Middle”. The writer tries to describe
and analyze the American nuclear family traditional values reflected in the drama
“Malcolm in the Middle” by Linwood Boomer. This drama was studied by using the
descriptive qualitative method. In analyzing, the writer explains the description of the
American nuclear family tradition values. Next, the writer analyzes the major
characters followed by American nuclear family traditional values expressed in the
script. Afterwards, the writer tries to find the correlation of the major characters and
the American nuclear family traditional values.
From the data analysis, the writer found that there are nine characters of American
nuclear family traditional values represented in the drama. They are: the old still
prefer living with children, the younger generations have made every effort to
improve the quality of the old couple’s life, enjoyable to share weal and woe of
family, a stable environment, behavioral stability, a sense of consistency, learning
skills, sharing responsibility, and physical and emotional support as well as it
symbolized the nuclear family traditions at that time.
Each of major characters expressed the values of life tradition of nuclear family in
America. Sure, there are similarities between the drama and the traditional values
background behind the drama. Consciously or not, Linwood Boomer had tried to
deliver the message and describe the values of American nuclear family tradition in a
brief way through this drama. This drama can be considered as an alternative drama
to help to improve people in understanding the nuclear family traditional values in
America.
LEGALIZATION
Name
NIM
Title
: Bisri Musthofa
: 101026o21483
: America Nuclear Family Traditional Values In “Malcolm in The
Middle” Drama
The thesis has been defended before the Letters and Humanities Faculty’s
examination Commettee on March 5, 2010. It has already been accepted as a partial
fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Strata 1.
Jakarta, March 5, 2010
Examination Committee
Signature
Date
Dr. H. M. Farhan, M. Pd (Chair Person)
NIP. 19650919 200003 1 002
…………….
…………
Drs. A. Saefuddin, M. Pd (Secretary)
NIP. 19640710 199303 1 006
…………….
…………
M. Supardi, Ss. M. Hum (Advisor)
…………….
…………
Drs. A. Saefuddin, M. Pd (Secretary)
NIP. 19640710 199303 1 006
…………….
…………
Drs. H. Abdul Hamid, M. Ed (Examiner II)
…………….
…………
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and that, to the best of my
knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by
another person nor material which to a substantial extent has been accepted for the
award of any other degree or diploma of the university or other institute of higher
learning, except where due acknowledgement has been made in the text.
Jakarta, March 5, 2010
Bisri Musthofa
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
In the name of God, the Infinitely Good, the All-Merciful
First of all the writer would like to thank to Allah SWT, the Lord of the
universe, for creating this macro cosmos. Without him, none of this paper would be
done. Peace and blessings be upon to the prophet Muhammad SAW, his fellows and
followers.
Second, the writer would like to express his gratitude to his beloved mom and
dad; Drs. H. A. Zarkasyi Usman, MA and Hj. Churaiziah for all prayers, supports,
hopes and everything in writer’s life. The writer wants to thank to his beloved wife;
Nidaul Hasanah and his son; Fajri Habiburrahman who had supported him.
Next, the writer would like to thank to his supervisor Mr. Moh. Supardi, S.S,
M. Hum for the great patient and contribution to finish this thesis, and for all his
advices that has been given to him. May Allah response his deeds with thousand of
kindness
Consequently, the writer also wants to thank to these following people:
1. Dr. H. Abdul Chair, MA, the Dean of Letters and Humanities Faculty Jakarta
Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University.
2. Dr. H. Muhammad Farkhan, M. Pd and Drs. Asep Saefuddin, M. Pd, the Chief
and Secretary of English Letters Department.
3. Nurhasan, MA, the Academic Advisor
4. All of the lecturers of English Letters Department who have taught and
educated him during his studies at the campus.
5. All my beloved siblings: Omah, Ichang, Tia, B-doel, Lala and Aah, and his
nephew TB. M. Ariful Ichsan
6. All of the staff of UIN Jakarta Center Library, UIN Jakarta American Corner
Library, FAH UIN Library, FIB UI Library, American Embassy library, who
help him to get many extraordinary references to finish this thesis.
7. All of my friends of English Letters students Class A of 2001. Especially for
Geng Ijo, Uup, Ubed, Thope, Ebin and Dado. I love and miss you guys!
The writer can’t finish all his study without spirit that comes from
surrounding him, either it comes from friends or family. The writer can’t reciprocate
their kindness. May Allah bless and give the greatest award for them. Eventually, the
writer realizes that this thesis is far from being perfect, then, the writer will be very
appreciated for any suggestions and criticisms.
Jakarta, March 2010
The Writer
TABLE OF CONTENTS
APPROVEMENT ........................................................................................................ i
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................... ii
LEGALIZATION ........................................................................................................ iii
DECLARATION ......................................................................................................... iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.......................................................................................... v
TABLE OF CONTENTS.............................................................................................. vii
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION................................................................................ 1
A. Background of the Study ………………………………………….. 1
B. Focus of the Study ………………………………………………… 3
C. Research Question ………………………………………………... 4
D. Significance of the Study ................................................................. 4
E. Research Methodology ..................................................................... 4
1. Objective ..................................................................................... 4
2. Method ........................................................................................ 5
3. Technique.................................................................................... 5
4. Unit Analysis............................................................................... 5
5. Instrument of Research ............................................................... 5
F. Place and Time.................................................................................. 5
CHAPTER II THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK .................................................... 6
A. Sociology of Literature ..................................................................... 6
1. Definition of Sociology................................................................. 6
2. Definition of Literature ................................................................. 7
B. Definitions of American Family........................................................ 9
1. Social Scientists’ Definition of Family ......................................... 11
2. Tha States’s Definition of Family ................................................. 14
3. The Definition of Family in a Conservative Free Society ............ 15
4. The Definition of Family in a Libertarian Free Society................ 16
C. American Family ................................................................................ 17
D. The Description of American Nuclear Family Traditional Values .... 29
1. The old still prefer living with children...………………………... 30
2. The younger generations have made every effort to improve
the quality of the old couple’s life……………………………….. 30
3. Enjoyable to share weal and woe of family……………………... 31
4. A Stable Environment…………………………………………… 31
5. Behavioral Stability……………………………………………... 31
6. A Sense of Consistency…………………………………………. 31
7. Learning Skills…………………………………………………... 32
8. Sharing Responsibility………………………………………….. 32
9. Physical and Emotional Support………………………………... 32
CHAPTER III RESEARCH FINDINGS................................................................... 33
A. Description of “Malcolm in the Middle” Drama .............................. 33
B. American Nuclear Family Traditional Values Presented in
“Malcolm in the Middle” Drama ...................................................... 34
CHAPTER IV CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS ......................................... 47
A. Conclusions ....................................................................................... 47
B. Suggestions ....................................................................................... 48
BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................
APPENDIX ...................................................................................................................
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. Background of the Study
America, the popular country in the world - is rich with kinds of social aspect
especially during the 2000, when the Indian housing price climbed by remarkable
10,9 percent to almost $160,000. 1 The high life-style makes them different view of
society when they see themselves as individuals who are different from other
individuals. 2 This fact does not make America escape from literature especially
drama as one of their cultures until this time.
Muhammad Sobary said that:
“Sastra menyodorkan ke hadapan kita ekspresi estetis tentang manusia dan
kebudayaannya. Di dalamnya tercakup kompleksitas ideologi, dunia nilai,
norma hidup, etika, pandangan dunia, tradisi, dan variasi-variasi tingkah
laku manusia. Dengan kata lain, sastra berbicara tentang tingkah laku
manusia di dalam kebudayaannya.” 3
(Literature promotes us aesthetic expression about human being and its
culture. It comes within an ideology complexity, the world assess, the life
values, ethics, worldview, tradition, and variations of human being behaviors.
In other word, literature converse about human behaviors in its culture.)
Drama is a kind of literature that studied by many students of literature.
Drama, not only existing in Indonesia, the country enriched by variety of cultures,
but also it is available in America before the twenty century. Hundreds of writers and
1
Hal Rothman & Neon Metropolis, How Las Vegas started the twenty first century, (New
York, Rontledge, 2003), p. 274
2
Althen Gary, American Ways, A Guide for foreigner in the United States, (Yarmouth, Maine
04096 USA, Intercultural Press Inc., 2003) p.3
3
Muhammad Sobary, “Sastra, ideologi, dan Dunia Nilai,” Kompas, 3 juni, 2006, p 43
actors appear there and come with their qualified and famous literary work; like
poems, folk story, fairy tale and drama. Day by day passes and the author of those
kinds of literature are still pleasant in front of all people in the world wide. Of course,
we will think that drama also still exists there even though this literary work is not
written by the old author any more like we have known them some. It is the fact that
the literary works will never end as the new author always comes after the old one.
This can be seen from the fact that drama had began from that in ninetieth, especially
the drama titled “Great White Way” which was presented in 1940s. 4 And later, until
this era it still exists with a poem titled “Boy Breaking Glass” by Gwen Dolyin
Brooks. 5
Here, the writer would like to introduce the new author of drama during early
twenty first century who has come with his well-performed drama during this era.
This name is Linwood Boomer who was born on October 9th 1956 in Vancouver,
British Columbia, Canada, the beautiful country with its Canadian Rockies which is
one of dramatically fast and beautiful geological transition. 6 Boomer is the second
youngest of four children. He is an Emmy award winning Canadian-born television
producer, writer, actor, and creator of teen drama in 2000. His other works are like
The Young and the Restless in 1984, Silver Spoons in 1985, Night Court in 1986,
Flying blind in 1992, The Boys Are Back in 1994 and his famous drama in America
4
Mc Conachie Bruce, American Theater, in the cultural of the cold war, (Iowa City,
University of Iowa Press, 2003),p. 66
5
Robert Pinsky, Poems to read. A new favorite Poems, project anthology, (New York, W.W.
Northon & Company Inc., 2002), P.11.
6
__________Northwest 2003, (North Cicero Avenue, Mapquest, 2002), p. 398.
Malcolm in the Middle, which won the Emmy Award 2000 for outstanding writing in
a comedy series.
“Malcolm in the Middle”, which later called MIM, presents us the family life
of Malcolm - the third born children in the family- when his oldest brother called
Francis was shipped off to Military School leaving his three little brothers behind;
Reese, Malcolm and Dewey living at home. Since then, Malcolm become the second
oldest of the three, and this is the title of the show. Malcolm then becomes adolescent
genius, and his eccentric, although early normal life. This is to show that Malcolm
takes an important role in his family.
Since this drama has different tradition and the most wanted one in the era of
2000, the writer is really intended to analyze this literary work. The other reason of
the writer choosing this drama is that play “MIM” is the biggest and most popular
work of Linwood Boomer.
B. Focus of the Study
The writer will focus this study on traditional values of nuclear family in
America, which has correlated into the life in this era. Then the writer tries to
describe data taken from episodes in the drama, which related to the American
nuclear family traditional values.
C. Research Question
Based on the background of study, the writer will formulate the matter in
order to find the right research in appropriate way. The matter is:
1. What are American nuclear family traditional values represented in
“Malcolm in the Middle”?
D. Significance of the Study
After reading this research, the writer hopes that the audiences will understand
more about the American nuclear family traditional values as the stimuli to sharpen
up their sharp ability on analyzing the literary work. In addition, the writer hopes this
research will develop people’s intention to dig deeply more and more in order to find
amazing value in the literary work. There are so many literary works like poem, prose
and drama reflect to the social life where the literary work was written. That is why
many literary works are analyzed by using sociology of literature.
E. Research Methodology
1. Objective
This research aimed to know the traditional values of American nuclear
family based on the analysis of the play.
2. Method
The method of this research is descriptive qualitative method. The
writer tries to represent the American nuclear family traditional values
reflected in the drama entitled “Malcolm in the Middle” by Linwood Boomer.
3. Technique of Analysis
In this research, the writer uses the concept of Margareth Mead to
analyze the available data. The American Nuclear Family Traditional Values
in “Malcolm in the Middle” will be described based on some episodes in the
play. The next, the existing data will be explained and analyzed in order to
find the answer as mentioned in the research question.
4. Unit of Analysis
Analysis unit used in this research is the script of drama “Malcolm in
the Middle” by Linwood Boomer presented during 2000.
5. Instrument of Research
Research instrument is the writer himself by marking and classifying
data from several sources related to the drama.
F. Place and Time
This study was taken place in the State Islamic University started on February
2008 until October 2009, the academic year of 2008/2009.
CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
A. Sociology of Literature
1. Definition of Sociology
Sociology is an evolution of society, including the forms, institutions,
functions of human group. Thomas Ford Hoult dictionary of Modern Society
defines sociology as the intellectual discipline concerned with developing
systematic, reliable, knowledge about human social relationships in general and
about the product of such relationship. 7
The sociology intends to know how the structure of social life, how the
people can live peacefully, and how they can exists. Those structures are like
religion, family, politics, culture, etc. We can find the description from those
structures of how the people adapt with the society, mechanism, cultural process
where finally they will be placed as social member in the society. 8
Both of Sociology and literature has the correlation with the society the
environment of the society is able to rise a literary work, because the work that
represented by the author is a reflection from the environment, or the experience
where he or she lives. This can be seen when Ernest Hemingway praises his
7
Peter Worsley, Pengantar sosiologi; Sebuah pembanding,. (Yogyakarta: PT Tiara wacana,
1991). p.19
8
Sapardi Djoko Damono, Sosiologi Sastra, Sebuah Pengantar Ringkas,. (Jakarta: Pusat
Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa Departmen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, 1984). p.6
beloved heart through his poem, “No second Troy’ which presents praises to his
wife. Another like Robert Frost serves his poem titled “Two Roads Not Taken”
which presents two choices that is not taken. Moreover, the other is “The
Crucible” by Arthur Miller, which presents McCarthyism when communism
touches American social life.
Thus, sociology and literature are inseparable as both of them always give
influence between one another. That is why Suwardi Endaswara said that literary
sociology is reflective. This is because literary work is a creation that reflects
social life. Not only that, but also literature can give social effect.
Sociology theory, or called literary sociology shows that literary work
cannot be separated from social context in which it was created. Even sociology
and literature are different; they can give explanation to the literary text meaning.
We can say this because the object of both elements is the same one. It is of
course, a society.
2. Definition of Literature
Before going to further information the writer would like to explain what
literature is. As we know that all of us like to hear things, hear stories, we like to
hear music, we like to hear things happened to other people. We also like to hear
radio and TV. We like going to the movie because we like to see and hear
something happening. Those elements are always increasing our experience of
going places, of doing things in our imagination that we might never have a
change to do otherwise. Literature is simply another way we can experience the
world around us through our imagination.
Literature, in its broadest sense, includes its all written materials. Into this
general grouping fall history books, philosophical works, novels, poems, plays,
scientific articles, dictionaries, directories, instructional manuals, travel folders,
magazines and school text books. We can divide this large mass of material into
two different groups. The firs we can place those things that mainly present
information and the other is that mainly entertain. A famous writer defined this by
saying:
“There is first, the literature of knowledge, and secondly, the literature of
power. The function of the first is to teach and the function of the second is to
move”. 9
Terry Eagleton writes, “Literature must indeed be re-situated within the
field of general cultural production; but each mode of such production demands a
semiology of its own, which is not compliable with some universal cultural
discourse. 10
Literature is an influence. Every influence comes from literature is
literature. There is an influence between the readers and the literature itself. 11
9
Edward H. Jones, JR. Outlines Of Literature, Short Stories, Novels and Poems, (USA: the
Macmillan Company, 1986). p.1
10
Eagleton 1976). (Peter Widdowson. Literature, the New Critical Idiom., (New York:
Rutledge Publisher ,Inc. 1999)
11
Thaha Nada. Sastra Bandingan., (Depok UI 1999.).
Meanwhile, Arnold put literature upon an equal footing with science. He
says that literature and science considered philosophically. 12
So, what is the meaning of literature?
Literature means that the arranged texts or used are not merely for practice
communicative aims and temporal running. It is done somehow to use in
communication situation, which is arranged by environmental situation of certain
culture. 13
Sartre said that literature is a prose, because he argues that it is capable of
a purposeful reflection of the world, because in prose, the words are significative;
they describe people and object. 14
B. Definitions of American Family
A family is a domestic group of people, or a number of domestic groups,
typically affiliated by birth or marriage, or by comparable legal relationships
including adoption. There are a number of variation in the basic family structure. The
nuclear family consists of husband, wife, and their children, while the extended
family includes grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins. Other family patterns
include polygamous usually patriarchal and single parent families usually headed by a
female.
12
Allen Tate, “The Man of Letters” In the Modern World. (New York: Meridian Book,
inc.1955). p.35
13
Jan Van Luxemburg, Pengantar Ilmu Sastra., (Jakarta: Gramedia 1989). p. 9
14
Jean Paul Sartre. What is Literature,. (London: Routledge 2001). P. 23
Smith, D.E. defined standard North American Family as follows:
“It is a conception of the family as a legally married couple sharing a
household. The adult male is in paid employment; his earnings provide the
economic basis of the family-household. The adult female may also earn an
income, but her primary responsibility is to the care of the husband,
household, and children. Adult male and female may be parents (in whatever
legal sense) of children also resident in the household”. 15
Throughout history, families have been central to human society; a key
indicator of a society's well-being is the health of its families. For this reason, as
stated in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, "The family is the natural and
fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to protection by society and the
State." The family is the basic social unit for the expression of love between man and
woman and the creation and rising of children. The family tames the wilder impulses
of men to the responsibilities of fatherhood, enables young women to blossom as
mothers, and cultivates morality in children. Moral virtues, empathy, and good human
relationships are learned in the family.
All religions recognize the importance of the family and have moral teachings
that support it. Some religions regard the family as an institution created by God for
people to perfect themselves, become like God and experience oneness with God.
Some scientists appeared definitions of American family such as follow:
15
Smith, D.E., “The standard North American family: SNAF as an ideological code”.
Journal of Family Issues, 14(1). 1993, July 19, 2009. http://www.stats.govt.nz/census/2006-censusinformation-about-data/2006-definitions-questionnaires/definitions/family-definitions.htm, p. 52.
1. Social Scientists' Definition of Family 16
Anthropologists say a culture's biological and marital kinship rules and patterns of
reciprocal obligations define family. Each culture defines who is biological and
marital kin, and who is not kin, and defines the obligations kin have to one another. In
one culture, kinship is based on the father's biological line; in another, kinship is
based on the mother's biological line; in another, kinship is based on a combination of
both the father's and mother's biological line, but kinship obligations may quickly end
about the level of uncles, aunts and first cousins. American culture maintains a
distinction between brothers, sisters and cousins, but some early African societies
made no distinction between brothers, sisters and cousins and used a single word to
designate these kin. The rules for kinship and marital family relationships are
virtually unlimited.
Structure-functionalists say the patterns of reciprocal obligations among people
and between structures of people and the greater society define family. The greater
society has needs that must be met; in order to meet those needs, society creates
subsets of people structured to help meet the needs of society. The family is one of
those structures. The definition of "family" changes as the needs of the greater society
change. When the greater society needs rapid population growth — after a time of
16
The article by Gordon Neal Diem, D.A, issue of Formulations formerly a publication of the
Free Nation Foundation published in the Spring 1997, now published by the Libertarian Nation
Foundation. July 19, 2009. http://libertariannation.org/a/f43d1.html, p. 1
war, for example — society's definition of family emphasizes heterosexual bonding,
procreation and child rearing; but when the greater society is faced with overpopulation and the need to limit population growth, society's definition of family may
be modified to include homosexual bonding and may be more supportive of childless
couples.
Institutionalists define family as a "traditional," biological, procreative and childrearing structure and emphasize the biological relationship among family members.
Interactionists, on the other hand, define family based on the voluntary assumption of
family-related role behaviors. Institutionalists focus on the presence of a biological
mother and father and biological offspring to define family. Interactionists merely
require the presence of persons assuming mother, father and child roles to define a
group as a family. For interactionists, it is performance of family roles that is
important, not the biological or marital relationship.
Situationalists focus on social, cultural and physical forces beyond the
individual's control which compel individuals to assume family-related role
behaviors. Family may be either a relatively permanent or temporary phenomenon.
For example, in the midst of war, natural disaster, or even foreign travel, individual
adults and/or children may be thrown together into temporary "family" structures
with individuals in the group assuming family role behaviors, especially parental and
sibling roles, as the group seeks to endure or survive an ordeal. Temporary "families"
may also develop in orphanages boarding schools or military units. The American
system of serial monogamy creates and dissolves temporary sequential families and
step-families as the adults marry, divorce, and remarry.
Psychoanalysts focus on the individual's stage of development and unconscious
needs in defining family. Social-psychologists focus on the self's need to belong and
to achieve. The two separate approaches are similar since the individual's sense of
attachment or estrangement is important in defining family. Thus, abused or
estranged biological offspring may sever their psychological association with the
family and effectively dissolve the family. Others, who are not biological kin, may
consider themselves to be "family" and effectively create a family or join an existing
family.
Developmentalists focus on physical growth and maturity and the imposition of
societal definitions on individuals based on the individual's chronological age.
The anthropologist and the institutionalist, on the other hand, would probably define
this pair as a family based on the biological kinship relationship.
Economists focus on production and consumption activities; the family is a
production and consumption unit. Historical economists may define the household
slave in an African or Arabian household or the indentured servant in an earlyAmerican household as part of the family since the slave or servant works and
subsists as a member of the family, living in the family household, eating at the
family table and participating in family activities.
2. The State's Definition of Family 17
The state tends to define family in structure-functional terms. From all the various
alternative definitions of family, the state selects portions from each to create
authoritative and legal definitions of family. The definitions of family are based on
the needs of the state. Instead of creating one single all-encompassing definition of
family, various governments, and various agencies of the various governments, each
have slightly different needs and objectives, so each creates its own individual
definition of family. It is the state's needs and objectives that determine the definition,
not the society's, the individual's or the family's needs and objectives.
Since one of the state's historic functions is accounting for numbers of people (the
census), the state needs to be informed on the whereabouts and living arrangements
of all people under its jurisdiction. One way to maintain accountability is to license
and register couplings, cohabitations and procreations. Only licensed and registered
couplings create a "legitimate" family. To protect its definition of family, the state
enacts laws against fornication and adultery, insuring only licensed and registered
couples cohabit and copulate, and discourages "illegitimate" births. Zoning codes
prevent two unlicensed people from cohabiting as a "family," prevent anyone other
than a legally defined child or parent from cohabiting with a family, and prevent
residential occupancy by non-traditional "families," including fraternities and
sororities. These and a host of other government-enacted and government-enforced
17
Ibid. p. 2
laws and regulations insure the state's ability to account for the physical location of
people under its jurisdiction.
Throughout most of history, states sought to expand their populations by various
means, including the procreation of its citizens. Marriage legalizes and legitimizes the
offspring and creates a "family." In many nations, and in many American states, the
failure to procreate is grounds for divorce or annulment of the marriage and
dissolution of the family.
In state-enacted marital and divorce law, the economic obligations among family
members insure that children and women are prevented from becoming the financial
responsibility of the state. Again, the needs of the state define family and family
obligations.
3. The Definition of Family in a Conservative Free Society18
In a Conservative "free society," such as one envisioned by sociologist Robert
Nisbet, with a severely reduced role for the state and an enhanced role for alternative
social institutions — church, economy, educational system — the state's needs no
longer prevail in the definition of family. Instead, the needs of the alternative social
institutions are paramount. In a Conservative free society, individuals and couples
merely exchange the state's definitions of family for definitions imposed by other
social institutions.
18
Ibid. p. 3
4. The Definition of Family in a Libertarian Free Society 19
In a Libertarian "free society," with severely reduced roles for all social
institutions, the needs and interests of the individual are paramount in defining
family. Rather than being defined in structure-functional terms, family is defined in
interactional, situational, psychoanalytical and social-psychological terms. Persons
define family for themselves.
Family in a Libertarian free society is a voluntary union for the mutual personal
gratification, mutual personal and group need fulfillment, and personal selfactualization. This voluntary union may be limited to two adults, or extended to
include several adults; it may or may not include children, biological or otherwise.
This voluntary union may have rigid boundaries, if that is what the members of the
union desire, or may have relatively open permeable boundaries, with members
entering or exiting the union at their will.
With family defined in interactional, situational, and psychological terms and
each family of individuals free to define family for themselves, the variations in
family are limitless. Even without institutional authorities to create, defend and
enforce some common framework for the definition of family, and even with the
number of competing definitions approaching the infinite, the concept of "family"
will still have meaning.
Family in a Libertarian free society will be an open, voluntary relationship based
on the mutual and reciprocal benefits family participants receive from family
19
Ibid
membership. Family status will be recognized by general humanity, although general
humanity will share little or no common agreement concerning the definition of
family. Family will function to meet the needs of offspring created through the
family, if not in the biological unit of conception, then in some other family created
for the nurturing and rearing of children.
C. American Family
Once, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld a “one family” zoning law that
stopped a group of college students from living in a house. According to the local
zoning rules, a "family" was "one or more persons related by blood, adoption, or
marriage, living and cooking together as a single housekeeping unit, exclusive of
household servants. A number of persons but not exceeding two living and cooking
together as a single housekeeping unit though not related by blood, adoption, or
marriage shall be deemed to constitute a family." Justice Marshall objected that this
was discriminating against unmarried couples, but the majority found it to be a valid
exercise of the locality’s police power. 20
There are three kinds of American family:
1. Blended families
According to etymology, blended family is to mix a family formed when
parents bring together children from previous marriages. 21
20
________, Village of Belle Terre v. Boraas, 416 U.S. 1 (1974).
Mosby's Medical Dictionary, 8th edition. © 2009, Elsevier.
21
It means that Blended families are formed when remarriages occur or when
children living in a household share only one or no biological parents. The presence
of a stepparent, stepsibling, or half-sibling designates a family as blended.
The process of blending a family is quite simply a choice to do what is in the
best interests of the children. It is putting us in uncomfortable situations because it is
best for the children. It is working at relationships that we had no intentions on
continuing. It is putting in the time, effort, heartache, and madness of rebuilding
relationships that have been damaged. Not in hopes that they will become what they
once were but so we can all participate, be involved, encourage, and love our children
together. However, the terms may be interchangeable and we can all grasp what the
concept is of the logistics, blending a family is an action, a verb. It is something we
do and therefore we are. We inherit stepfamilies through relationships. We create
blended families.
A blended family will face many of the same struggles and hardships that a
traditional nuclear family will face. Nevertheless, being part of a blended family
means you will also face struggles and hardships that are inherent to blended families
and are unlike any that other families may face. Blended families are complex
extensions of prior relationships and they have complex issues. It is possible to have
a successful, happy blended family and it is more rewarding than one can even
imagine. 22
22
http://www.examiner.com/x-5485-Blended-Families-Examiner~y2009m3d16-What-is-ablended-family
2. Extended family
Around the world, the structures of family norms are different. Ideas of what
constitute a family changes based on culture, mobility, wealth, and tradition. Yet, as
James Q. Wilson has stated:
In virtually every society in which historians or anthropologists have inquired,
one finds people living together on the basis of kinship ties and having
responsibility for raising children. The kinship ties invariably imply
restrictions on who has sexual access to whom; the child-care responsibilities
invariably imply both economic and non-economic obligations. And in
virtually every society, the family is defined by marriage; that is, by a publicly
announced contract that makes legitimate the sexual union of a man and a
woman. 23
In many cultures, the need to be self-supporting is hard to meet, particularly
where rents property values are very high, and the foundation of a new household can
be an obstacle to nuclear family formation. In these cases, extended family forms.
People remain single and live with their parents for a longer period. Generally, the
trend to shift from extended to nuclear family structures has been supported by
increasing mobility and modernization.
Some have argued that the extended family, or at least the three-generational
family including grandparents, provides a broader and deeper foundation for raising
children as well as support for the new parents. In particular, the role of grandparents
has been recognized as an important aspect of the family dynamic. Having
23
Wilson, James Q. The Moral Sense. (New York: Free Press, 1993, ISBN 0684833328),
Reprint edition, 1997, p. 158.
experienced the challenges of creating a family themselves, they offer wisdom and
encouragement to the young parents and become a reassuring presence in the lives of
their grandchildren. Abraham Maslow described the love of grandparents as "the
purest love for the being of the other." 24 The benefits of these intergenerational
encounters are substantial for all involved.
An extended family is a group of related persons who usually reside together
and consists of: 25
-
a family nucleus and one or more ‘other related persons’, or
-
two or more related family nuclei, with or without other related persons.
People who usually live in a particular dwelling, and are members of an
extended family in that dwelling, but who are absent on census night, are included, as
long as they are reported as being absent by the reference person on the dwelling
form.
Therefore, it can be concluded that extended family is a household where a
child lives with at least one parent and someone other than a parent or siblings, either
relatives or non-relatives. It is a type of family in which relatives in addition to
parents and children (such as grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins) live in a single
household. A nuclear family forms the core of an extended family.
24
Maslow, Abraham. Motivation and Personality. (New York: HarperCollins Publishers,
Third edition, 1987), p. 183.
25
http://www.stats.govt.nz/census/2006-census-information-about-data/2006-definitionsquestionnaires/definitions/family-definitions.htm
3. Nuclear family
This term from sociology refers to a household consisting of a mother, father,
and a child or children. By contrast, many families are more than just this nucleus. An
extended family may include grandparents, aunts and uncles, cousins, or other
relatives living in the same home. A blended family could also include a stepmother
or stepfather, half-sisters and half-brothers, and so on.
The word 'nuclear' here means 'central and elemental', not 'radioactive'. Live
forever points out, however, that the term 'nuclear family' is also used in the media to
refer to the nuclear club of nations with nuclear weapons. 26
The term nuclear family developed in the western world to distinguish the
family group consisting of parents, most commonly a father and mother, and their
children, from what is known as an extended family. Nuclear families can be any
size, as long as the family can support itself and there are only parents and children
(or the family is an extended family).
For a group to be called a nuclear family there must at some time be a father,
mother and at least one child. This type of family structure is found in almost all
societies, although the length of time in which the family remains in this form varies
even within the same society. The nuclear family was most popular in the 1950’s and
60’s. 27
26
The New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third Edition. Edited by E.D. Hirsch, Jr., Joseph
F. Kett, and James Trefil. Copyright © 2002 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Published by Houghton
Mifflin Company. All rights reserved
27
http://www.buzzle.com/editorials 6-23-2004 55793.asp. Published October, 23
2004. July 19, 2009
The nuclear family can be a nurturing environment in which to raise children
as long as there is love, time spent with children, emotional support, low stress, and a
stable economic environment. In nuclear families, both adults are the biological or
adoptive parents of their children.
The nuclear family consists of a married couple and their children. The
nuclear family is ego-centered and impermanent, while descent groups are permanent
(lasting beyond the life-spans of individual constituents) and reckoned according to a
single ancestor. One’s family of orientation is the family in which one is born and
grows up, while one’s family of procreation is formed when one marries and has
children.
Claims made for the universality of the nuclear family, based upon the
universality of marriage, does not hold up the nuclear family are widespread, but not
universal. In societies where the nuclear family is important, this structure acts as a
primary arena for sexual, reproductive, economic, and acculturative functions, but it
is not the only structure used by societies for these.
Take an example 53.7 % of Canadians live in two parent, or nuclear families.
There are three types of married nuclear families depending on employment status of
the woman and man.
In the first type, the man works outside the home while the woman works
inside the home caring for the children 28 percent of all households fit this
description.
In the second type of married nuclear family, the woman works outside the
home and the man cares for the children. This constitutes 2 percent of the families in
this country.
In the third kind of married nuclear family, both the wife and the husband
work outside the home or are income providers. In some situations, the woman might
have a home-based business, such as a day care center. Nearly 60 percent women
with children under the age of six were in the workforce during the pat decade. 28
Marxist feminist suggest that the nuclear family meets the needs of capitalism
for the reproduction and maintenance of class and patriarchal inequality. It benefits
the powerful at the expense of the working class and women. They look at issues like
inheritance, individualism, privacy, women work and pretty power. Bellows are some
statements taken from nuclear family:“Nobody has ever before asked the nuclear
family to live all by itself in a box the way we do. With no relatives, no support, we’ve
put it in an impossible situation”(Margaret Mead). 29 “The great advantage of living
in a large family is that early lesson of life’s essential unfairness” (Nancy Mitford).
Pearl S. Buck criticized current system on part of emotional security aspects.
He said, “that the lack of emotional security of American young people is due, he
believes, to their isolation from the larger family unit. No two people – no mere father
and mother – as he has often said, are enough to provide emotional security for a
child. He needs to feel himself one in a world of kinfolk, persons of variety in age and
28
29
Ibid
Margareth Mead and Ken Heyman, Family. (New York: Macmillan, 1965), p. 77.
temperament, and yet allied to himself by an indissoluble bond which he cannot break
if he could, for nature has welded him into it before he was born.” 30
Murdoch, a functionalist and other functionalists in America believe that the
nuclear family is the only acceptable family structure as it provides and supplies the
needs of every member of the family. Radical Feminists have an entirely different
view, believing that the nuclear family does not benefit anyone, except the men of
society.
Functionalists have a very clear view on the nuclear family. They believe that
society actually benefits from the nuclear family because of what they provide.
Functionalists feel that the nuclear family helps to educate children whilst stabilizing
adult personalities, which in turn benefits society greatly. This in turn is helping to
train children who will become the workers of the next generation. Murdock, who is a
functionalist, feels that the nuclear families are an excellent role model for children;
providing them with both a guide to follow their life by and values to believe in.
We need to consider, however, if the values that he is sitting are actually
benefiting the modern people. It is a well known that functionalists tend to generalize
the “facts,” which they are trying to talk about. Murdock is trying to avoid real life
situations, which arise quite frequently within families. He is practically ignoring the
downsides of family relationships that can be seen through things like domestic
violence. 31
30
31
http://www.buzzle.com/editorials 6-23-2004 55793.asp (July 19, 2009), Loc. cit
http://everything2.com/title/Nuclear+Family
Feminist Alison Jaggar notes that:
“some feminists also critized nuclear traditional family values because of their
broader social implications. Radical feminists charged that the nuclear family
promoted a norm of heterosexuality, regarded as indispensable for
maintaining male dominance, whereas Marxist and socialist feminists argued
that the nuclear family fulfilled a variety of vital economic functions for
capitalist society.” 32
However, Radical Feminists feel that the nuclear family is made to serve only
the interests of men this is because radical feminists believe that out society is very
much a male dominated society (or Patriarchy), believing that women are exploited.
Whilst the nuclear family carries on with the segregation of roles, these women feel
that men are holding them back; so they are unable to become more independent.
Radical Feminists argue that during industrialization, their job was simply named as
“wife-mother” and they were not even given the chance to work. They also argue that
nuclear families do not serve the needs of the whole society.
Therefore, we can see that both views on the nuclear family are very different.
Functionalists believe that the nuclear families benefit society and Radical Feminists
believe that the nuclear families exploit the women in society. Both views have good
points as the nuclear family could provide a stable home for a child and its parents.
However, we have to consider that these opposing opinions are, in fact, both correct
but perhaps need to be less one sided in their argument. To conclude, we feel that
with a mixture of both views would show that the nuclear family could be desirable
with adaptation.
32
http://www.conservapedia.com/Nuclear_Family
For better or worse, human beings seem to be programmed to live in families.
Research indicates that most Americans (71 percent) still idealize the traditional
family even as they grow more accepting of divorce (78 percent), cohabitation (49
percent), and single-parent families. 33
As far back as our knowledge takes us, human beings have lived in families.
We know of no period where this was not so. We know of no people who have
succeeded for long in dissolving the family or displacing it again and again, in spite
of proposals for change and actual experiments, human societies have reaffirmed
their dependence on the family as the basic unit of human living—the family of
father, mother and children.
The graphic of American family structure 34
Family arrangements in the United States have become more diverse with no
particular household arrangement representing half of the U.S. populat
Parts
» Focus of the Study Research Question Significance of the Study Place and Time
» Sociology of Literature THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
» Definitions of American Family
» American Family THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
» The Description of American Nuclear Family Traditional Values
» The younger generations have made every effort to improve the quality of
» The old still prefer living with children. Enjoyable to share weal and woe of family.
» A stable Environment. Behavioral Stability. A Sense of Consistency. | https://text-id.123dok.com/document/ky60d95y-american-nuclear-family-traditional-values-in-malcolm-in-the-middle-drama.html |
How Can Families be Imagined Beyond Kinship and Marriage?
The Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Bill, 2019 and the Surrogacy Regulation Bill, 2019 reinforce the idea of family as a patriarchal, heterosexual and casteist institution and fail to account for other models of "chosen families'"and intimacies that co-exist in India. Given that the Supreme Court has recognised the right to intimacy as a core component of autonomy and privacy, the article makes a case for the law to fundamentally rethink the way it regulates personal relationships and in doing so, adopt a more functional" approach.
On 5 August 2019, the Lok Sabha passed the Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Bill, 2019 (hereinafter the transgender bill, 2019) and the Surrogacy (Regulation) Bill, 2019 (hereinafter the surrogacy bill, 2019) without due deliberations. These bills which reinforce patriarchal, heteronormative, and casteist values of the "great Indian family," if passed by the Rajya Sabha, could soon become a reality.
In this piece, the authors critique the predominant understanding of the family inscribed in these bills as one based solely on marriage, blood, or adoption. The bills do not acknowledge other forms of chosen families and intimacies that coexist in the Indian society. Through an analysis of various existing judicial precedents and recently enacted laws, the authors argue that the legislature needs to rethink how the said laws regulate interpersonal relationships.
Prevalence of Non-normative Families and Families of Choice
The idea of the marital and procreative family is at the heart of regulation of intimacy by the state. Yet, there are many individuals and relationships that do not fit into this idea. Recent reports show that single person households constitute 12.5% of the all households in India (Pandit 2019). Moreover, 7.5% of all the households are lone-parent families of which majority (4.5% or approximately 13 million households) are headed by women (Pandit 2019). However, a lesser researched question is how such individuals live and define family outside of the traditional structures of marriage and blood ties.
While research in this area is scarce, the greater visibilisation of the LGBT+ community since the 1980s and 1990s in India threw light on how some individuals were creating their own structures of support outside the rigid bounds of marriage. This period saw same-sex couples document their intention to live together in the form of a registered life partnership deed (Vanita 2005:97) and in some cases, in the form of friendship contracts such as Maitri Karar, which declared their status and rights as a couple (Vanita 2005:63). By 1999, legal alternatives to the idea of the family were explored: domestic partnerships for the recognition of same-sex relationships were debated in the Indian context (Fernandez 1999: 73–74) as much as the idea of how “marriage” could be reformed to recognise queer relationships (Fernandez 1999:83–88).
Further, within the LGBT+ movement, the existence of Hijra communities also draws attention to the diversity of familial structures prevalent within the Indian society (Reddy 2005:150; Revathi and Murali 2016:10–13). Hijras, who are cast out of their natal families for defying strictly enforced gender codes, complicate our understanding of family as they create their own non-biological forms of kinship. Their households are headed by older Hijras, known as “gurus” or mothers who take on the economic and social responsibilities for their “chelas” or children and are responsible for initiating the chelas into the customs and traditions of the Hijra household. These relationships are integral to the lineage and descent within Hijra gharanas (Reddy 2005: 150).
Recent academic work on motherhood also explores the concept of non-normative families. Nandy (2017) explores the stories of women who identify as “queer” or “lesbian”, unwed biological mothers and unmarried friends raising an adopted child together. The narratives of these women highlight the socio-legal exclusions that are faced by those who choose to live in such arrangements. For instance, what would be the status of an unmarried woman who has a child with a married man but does not “live-in” with him or that of two or more friends raising a child together? These narratives highlight the need for broadening legal recognition of dependency under the law, especially where it arises out of bonds that are not conjugal or romantic, but could nonetheless involve significant instances of emotional and economic interdependence (Nandy 2017: 290–324). As Nandy notes, “Friends are often seen as ‘outsiders’ to the family because they share neither blood nor material assets; hence they remain outside the structures created by bloodlines” (2017: 349-350).
Such realities underscore how the social understanding of "family" is witnessing an intermittent and patchy transition even while the idea of the marital, procreative, heterosexual family continues to dominate both the public discourse and our social imagination. In the following section, we discuss how, despite the diversity of families that exist in our society, the state continues to reinforce the idea of the marital, procreative and casteist family through the transgender bill and surrogacy bill.
Transgender Persons Bill, 2019: A Step Closer Towards Denying the Right to Chosen Families
In 2014, the Supreme Court of India in the National Legal Services Authority (NALSA) v Union of India (2014) (hereinafter the NALSA judgment) case laid the groundwork for the realisation of the rights of transgender persons within the framework of the constitutional rights to equality (Article 14), life and personal liberty (Article 21) and freedom of speech and expression (Article 19). With the intention of giving a legislative framework to the NALSA judgment, a private member’s bill was introduced by Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam Member of Parliament Tiruchi Siva in 2014. This was drawn up in consultation with the transgender community (Choudhary and Sharma 2018). However, in complete disregard of this bill, a series of bills from the government followed in 2016 and 2018, which in the words of the members of the community “were but a death knell on the culmination of hopes of the community” (Mudraboyina et al 2019). The Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Bill, 2019, the latest in the series, continues down this very path. It was already passed in Lok Sabha and awaiting discussion and passage in the Rajya Sabha.
The aggrieved community feels that the bill being tabled in the Parliament smacks of “apathy, neglect and secrecy” towards the transgender persons in the country (Mudraboyina et al 2019). The bill has problematic provisions such as the lack of self-determination, lesser punishments in cases of violence against transgender persons, lack of reservations (Sampoorna Working Group 2019) and the conflation of the transgender identity with that of persons with intersex variations. The 2019 bill is in contravention of the directions given by the Supreme Court in the NALSA judgment [paragraph 129(5)] as it makes it mandatory for the persons concerned to undergo sex-reassignment surgery in order to identify within the male-female binary. The bill also restricts the right to a legal remedy when the state officials act in “good faith” in pursuance of the provisions of the act (section 21).
Of all the issues mentioned in the bill, fierce criticism has been levelled against section 2 (c), which expressly defines family as one that is determined by blood, marriage, or adoption. Under section 12 (3), the bill empowers the court to pass orders directing a transgender person to be shifted to a “rehabilitation” centre, thus forcing them to either choose between natal families (that are usually spaces of violence) or rehabilitation homes. This reflects the paternalism of the state wherein it denies transgender persons the autonomy to decide their futures when they face rejection from their natal families.
This paternalism is further compounded by the failure of the bill to recognise Hijra households. Some members of the community have considered the bill to be an “attack on Hijra households,” which have been the only protective space for trans, intersex and gender non-binary people abandoned or disowned by their natal families (Sampoorna Working Group 2019). Others claim that the bill, which does not recognise Hijra households, is adopted without any application of mind (Mudraboyina et al 2019) and is an attempt to “erase the Hijra culture” (Sinha 2019). The invisibilisation of such families of choice is one of the chief failings of the bill.
Surrogacy (Regulation) Bill, 2019: An Exclusivist and Casteist Law in the Making
In comparison with the transgender bill, the discussion around the surrogacy bill, 2019 has been limited. An earlier attempt was made to regulate surrogacy in 2016 when the union cabinet approved the Surrogacy (Regulation) Bill. Despite the fact that the 2016 bill was critiqued by the Rajya Sabha Standing Committee (Rajya Sabha 2017), the surrogacy bill, 2019 continues to reproduce the same provisions as those contained in the 2016 bill.
The 2019 bill, like its 2016 predecessor, bans commercial surrogacy and uncritically adopts the idea of altruistic surrogacy, which has been extensively criticised by lawyers, activists, and women’s health groups. The bill defines altruistic surrogacy as one where “no charges, expenses, fees, remuneration or monetary incentive of whatever nature” [Section 2(b)] can be paid to the surrogate mother. While the rationale behind this is to prevent exploitation of women from poor economic classes—which is a possibility in commercial surrogacy—activists claim that the bill, rather than addressing the exploitation, attacks the work itself (Gopinathan 2018).
Activist Chayanika Shah critiqued altruistic surrogacy as it portrays “child bearing as a noble cause that women should do not only for their husbands, but also for all eligible close relatives chosen and screened by the state” (Gopinathan 2018). The altruistic view, thus, discounts the premise that surrogacy is a form of reproductive labour for which a person should get paid. Even the Rajya Sabha Standing Committee had argued in favour of “compensated surrogacy” and considered the ban on commercial surrogacy affecting the right to livelihood of women who wish to become surrogates (Rajya Sabha 2017: para 5.19).
Additionally, the bill imposes the ideals of a heteronormative family while defining the eligibility for availing surrogacy. A heterosexual couple [Section 2 (g) read with Section 4 (iii) (c)], who are married for at least five years and have no child of their own [Section 4 (iii) (c)] and have been medically certified to be an infertile couple [Section 2 (r) read with Section 4 (ii) (a)] are eligible to commission surrogacy. More importantly, the surrogate mother needs to be a close relative of the couple, is married with children of her own and does not donate her own gamete for the purposes of surrogacy [Section 4 (iii) (b)].
By restricting the eligibility to a heterosexual couple associated through “marriage” and permitting only a “close relative” to be a surrogate, the surrogacy bill seeks to regulate what women do with their bodies, but also reinforces the idea of the heteronormative family. Further, it also criminalises surrogacy in case of single men, women, and live-in partners including same-sex couples and transgender persons (section 38). Such a restriction is not only discriminatory, but is violative of the right to reproductive autonomy as an aspect of the right to privacy guaranteed under the Indian constitution (Ghosh and Khaitan 2017). Further, by allowing only a “close relative” to be a surrogate mother, the state promotes casteist notions by trying to preserve the “purity” of the family (Gopinathan 2018).
A Legal Paradox
Both surrogacy and transgender bills perpetuate a narrow vision of the "family" based on hetero-patriarchy and caste purity. This completely ignores instances of Indians creating and living in non-normative families. The legal regime in India recognises only monogamous, heterosexual, conjugal relationships that are legitimised by marriage. Non-biological kinship networks or Hijra Gharanas, same-sex couples, those in polyamorous relationships or more fluid friendship networks cannot access a range of civil rights that flow from marriage (Agarwal et al, 2019: 7).
For instance, even though the Protection of Women against Domestic Violence Act, 2005 (PWDVA) recognises live-in relationships, it does so only between men and women (Indra Sarma v VKV Sarma 2013: para 37). Further, these relationships must be as “marriage-like” as possible (D Velusamy v D Patchaiammal 2010: para 33). Thus, where a woman enters into such an arrangement with a married man, she does not receive any protection under the law. By making marriage and marriage-like relationships the only institution through which the basic human need for connection, intimacy, and dependency is realised, the law leaves out many individuals who intend to establish more fluid living arrangements, or platonic associations that could nonetheless be characterised by economic and/or emotional interdependence (Duncan et al 2014: 1–10).
A Silver Lining
There are some encouraging signs of change within the law. In 2017, the Supreme Court recognised privacy as a fundamental right where the right to sexual intimacy was recognised as a core component of the right to privacy (Justice KS Puttaswamy & Anr v Union of India 2017: para 157). Based on this robust framework of privacy, the Supreme Court, while reading down the draconian Section 377, also observed that the manner in which individuals choose to exercise intimacy was beyond the legitimate interests of the state (Navtej Johar v Union of India, 2018: para 240). Even prior to this, in 2016, the Himachal Pradesh High Court interpreted the guru-chela relationship as a “custom” and held that a guru would thus be entitled to the deceased chela’s property (Sweety [Eunuch] v General Public 2016). These judgments have opened up avenues for recognising the diversity of relationships, intimacies and families many of which may not necessarily be heterosexual, marital, or biological. Significantly, in 2019, the Madras High Court upheld marriage between a biological man and a transgender woman under the Hindu Marriage Act, 1956 (Arunkumar v The Inspector General of Registration 2019). Despite the heteronormative understanding of “consummation” as peno-vaginal intercourse between a cis-man and a cis-woman under the law, the fact that the court validated this marriage displays its willingness to interpret “consummation” beyond its traditional interpretation.
Towards a Functional View of the Family
If the law recognises the right to intimacy as a core component of autonomy and privacy, then arguably, it should maintain neutrality between various forms of intimate relationships and the diverse domestic, emotional, and economical arrangements that are a part of it. This argument forces us to re-examine the role of law regulating close, adult, personal relationships. In other words, how can the law facilitate autonomy in the ways in which we define “family” while also ensuring that those most vulnerable within such arrangements are protected?
Legal alternatives for recognising non-normative families have been especially prominent in the discourse surrounding unmarried, cohabiting heterosexual partners as well as LGBT+ relationships (Barker 2012: 59–60). Civil unions and registered partnership laws have been pursued in other countries. At the same time, given the prevalence of fluid friendship networks, siblings staying together and a large number of individuals opting to cohabit than to marry, laws meant to provide defacto recognition to such relationships have been enacted. Many such acts operational in Canada, Tasmania and Hawaii recognised not only conjugal, romantic relationships, but also non-conjugal, caring relationships characterised by some form of economic and emotional interdependency.
Recently, a group of lesbian, bisexual and trans women when consulted for their views on the Uniform Civil Code, wrote a letter to the Law Commission recommending that those who are not married by law should be able to nominate people who can act as a “legal representative” on their behalf. These representatives should not have to be related to the person by blood, adoption, or marriage and would have the authority to act on behalf of a person in the choice of nominees, custody of minor children, legal heirs and end-of-life decisions (Shah et al 2018). This could be enabled by issuing certain rules/guidelines under laws that would allow people to register their legal representatives through affidavits or any other standard legal format.
A good precedent of such a practice is already prevalent in the form of the Mental Healthcare Act, 2017. By giving individuals the freedom to decide who can be their nominated representative, the Act provides a great degree of autonomy to individuals. As per section 14 (3), any person who is not a minor and is competent to discharge the duties can be a nominated representative under the Act. This person does not have to be related to the person by blood or marriage. The nominated representative has the authority to execute an advance directive made by the person in question. This is an instrument that allows a person to choose how one wants to be cared for during a mental illness when they no longer have the capacity to make their own decisions (section 5). Other legislations could also follow a similar model.
A vision of the family, which is broad and inclusive and is based on recognising functional aspects of families rather than their form, that is, what families do rather than what families look like (Mirabelli 2018), would serve as a useful template when lawmakers are drafting legislations that regulate intimacy and dependency. Recognising that families are diverse, complex, and dynamic means providing individuals with the freedom to nominate/designate their beneficiaries wherever possible and not assuming ties of blood and conjugality as the only relevant ones. In addition, it would also involve closely evaluating factors of economic and emotional interdependence and interpreting them flexibly depending on the legislative objective and situation (Cossman and Ryder 2001). For instance, in some situations, co-habitation and duration of the relationship could be a relevant factor, but in other cases, it may not matter. Hence, maintaining flexibility as opposed to pursuing a one-size fit all policy is essential and could in the future, legitimise families of choice. | https://epw.in/engage/article/how-can-families-be-imagined-beyond-kinship-and-marriage |
Normal development is.....
Cephalocaudal & proximodistal
Physical development occurs in _____________and __________directions
Cephalocaudal
Head to toe
Proximodistal
Center outward
Psychosocial development
Refers to the development of personality
Erik Erikson: Psychosocial development through MATURITY
Jean Piaget: Psychosocial development through COGNITION
Who are the main developmental theorists that we are focusing on in the class, and what did they focus on in their theories?
Infancy = Trust vs Mistrust
Toddler = Autonomy vs Shame & Doubt
Preschool = Initiative vs Guilt
School Age = Industry vs Inferiority
Adolescent = Identity vs Role Confusion
Young Adult = Intimacy vs Isolation
Middle Adult = Generativity vs Stagnation
Older Adult = Integrity vs Despair
What are Erik Erikson's 8 stages of development?
Infants learn to trust that their caregivers will meet their basic needs. If these needs are not consistently met, mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety may develop.
What is occurring in Erik Erikson's 1st stage of Trust vs Mistrust?
Toddlers are learning that they are separate entities from their caregivers and that they have the ability to do things on their own. If discouraged from this independence, the toddler learns shame and doubt which may lead the child to rebel or leave him/her with a lasting sense of insecurity.
What is occurring in Erik Erikson's 2nd stage of Autonomy vs Shame & Doubt?
Children begin to assert their power and control over the world through directing play and other social interaction. Through this, they develop a sense of purpose. If discouraged or dismissed, they may feel a sense of shame or guilt.
What is occurring in Erik Erikson's 3rd stage of Initiative vs Guilt?
Children are at the stage where they will be learning to read and write, to do sums, to do things on their own. If not successful at the activities they pursue, they may feel unable and inadequate.
What is occurring in Erik Erikson's 4th stage of Industry vs Inferiority?
During this stage, adolescents explore their independence and develop a sense of self, often trying on different roles before deciding which one fits them and who they are/want to be.
What is occurring in Erik Erikson's 5th stage of Identity vs Role Confusion?
During this period, the major conflict centers on forming intimate, loving relationships with other people.
What is occurring in Erik Erikson's 6th stage of Intimacy vs Isolation?
During this time, adults strive to create or nurture things that will outlast them; often by parenting children or contributing to positive changes that benefit other people, contributing to society and doing things to benefit future generations.
What is occurring in Erik Erikson's 7th stage of Generativity vs Stagnation?
During this period, people reflect back on the life they have lived and come away with either a sense of fulfillment from a life well lived or a sense of regret and despair over a life misspent.
What is occurring in Erik Erikson's 8th stage of Integrity vs Despair?
~Can help to enhance development by providing appropriate activities
~Help an individual cope with illness
~Educate parents
How can understanding each stage of development help RNs in their patient care?
1. Sensorimotor (Birth-2 yo)
2. Preoperational (2-7 yo)
3. Concrete Operational (7-11 yo)
4. Formal Operational (11 yo +)
What are Jean Piaget's Phases of Cognitive Development?
The infant develops an understanding of the world through trial and error using their senses and actions. Infancy is characterized by extreme egocentrism, where the child has no understanding of the world other than their own current point of view.
The main development during this stage is the understanding that objects exist and events occur in the world independently of one's own actions ('object permanence').
What is occurring in the Sensorimotor phase of cognitive development?
During this stage, the child learns to use the symbols of language. The child cannot use logic or transform, combine, or separate ideas. Development consists of building experiences about the world through adaptation and working towards the (concrete) stage when it can use logical thought.
During the end of this stage children can mentally represent events and objects, and engage in symbolic play.
What is occurring in the Preoperational phase of cognitive development?
Characterised by the development of organized and rationale thinking. The child is now mature enough to use logical thought or operations (i.e. rules) but can only apply logic to physical objects (hence concrete operational).
Children gain the abilities of conservation (number, area, volume, orientation) and reversibility. However, although children can solve problems in a logical fashion, they are typically not able to think abstractly or hypothetically.
What is occurring in the Concrete Operational phase of cognitive development?
As adolescents enter this stage, they gain the ability to think in an abstract manner by manipulating ideas in their head, without any dependence on concrete manipulation.
He/she can do mathematical calculations, think creatively, use abstract reasoning, and imagine the outcome of particular actions. They now have the ability to think about things which they have not actually experienced and to draw conclusions from its thinking.
What is occurring in the Formal Operational phase of cognitive development?
~Help to develop a teaching strategy for a specific age group
~Understand that normal range of development is wide
~Educating parents
How can understanding each stage of cognitive development help RNs in their patient care?
Assimilation
Process through which humans encounter and react to new situations by using mechanisms they already possess
Accommodation
Process of change whereby cognitive process mature sufficiently to allow individual to solve problems that were unsolvable before.
Adaptation
Ability to handle demands made by the environment. Coping behavior.
Developmental disabilities
Cluster of conditions that occur as the result of impairment in physical function, language, development, behavioral patterns, or learning ability.
Attention Deficit/Hyperactive Disorder (ADHD)
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
Cerebral Palsy (CP)
Failure to Thrive (FTT)
What are 4 of the common developmental impairments found in pediatric patients?
Attention Deficit/Hyperactive Disorder (ADHD)
Disorder marked by a delay in brain maturation in areas of self-regulation. Characterized by having difficulty completing tasks that require focused concentration, hyperactivity, hyperkinesis, and impulsivity.
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
Characteristically demonstrates impaired communication and social interaction patterns, and the presence of repetitive, restrictive, and stereotyped behaviors.
Cerebral Palsy (CP)
A group of chronic conditions affecting body movement, coordination, and posture that results from a non progressive abnormality of the immature brain. Often a result of some type of insult to developing brain of the fetus or infant that occurs in later stages of pregnancy, during birth, or with the first 2 years after birth. May or may not include mental retardation.
Failure to Thrive (FTT)
Most commonly describes syndrome in which infant falls below the 5th percentile for BMI and height on the standard growth chart.
Family
2 or more individuals who are joined together by marriage, blood, or adoption, and are residing in the same household.
~Cultural background
~Social norms
~Education
~Environmental influences
~Socioeconomic status
~Beliefs held by others (peers, coworkers, political leaders, etc)
Family values may change because they are influenced by external factors including....
~Socialization & caring of children
~Receiving & giving love
~Protection & economic support of members
~Serving as a buffer between members & environment/society by advocating for needs of members
What are the roles of a healthy functioning family?
Family-Centered Care
Partnership between the family and the nurse
Family-Centered Nursing
Nursing that considers the health of the family as a unit in addition to the health of individual family members
Family Structure
Family roles and relationships
Family Function
Interactions among family members and with the community
~Married couples w/ children
~Married couples w/out children
~Other family households (single-parents, unmarried parents, etc...)
~Men living alone
~Women living alone
~Other non-family households
What are the 6 types of households?
Nuclear Family
Mother, father and children living together as a unit
Extended Family
Relatives of nuclear families such as aunts, uncles, grandparents.
Extended-Kin Network Family
Specific form of extended family in which 2 nuclear families of primary or unmarried kin live in proximity to each other
Two-Career Family
Both partners are employed by choice or by necessity. May or may not have children.
Single-Parent Family
A family in which only one parent is present to care for the children
Adolescent Family
Adolescent parents to children
Foster Family
Children who can no longer live with their birth parents are placed with a family that has agreed to include them temporarily.
Childless Family
A couple without children
Step Family (Blended Family)
Consists of a biological parent with children and a new spouse who may or may not have children
~Fewer financial issues than single-parenting
~Offers child a new support person and role model
~provides new opportunity to parent for successful relationship
What are some strengths to Step Families?
~Relationship between stepparents and stepchildren may be strained
~Stress in adaptation of new patterns in behavior and respecting each others' differences
~Discipline issues
~Role ambiguity
~Strain with other biological parent
~Communication issues
~Manipulative behaviors of children
~Different parenting styles
What are some challenges to Step Families?
Bi-Nuclear Family
Post-divorce family in which the biological children are members of 2 nuclear households both that of the father and that of the mother. Children alternate between the 2 homes.
Joint Custody
Both parents have equal responsibility and legal rights regardless of where the children live.
Intergenerational Family
When more than 2 generations live together
Heterosexual Cohabiting Family
Unrelated individuals or families who live under 1 roof
Gay/Lesbian Family
(also includes gay or lesbian single parent families)
Include those families in which 2 or more people who share a same-sex orientation live together w/ or w/out children.
Children typically have only 1 biological/adoptive parent with co-parent having no legal parental status.
What is a consideration in regards to Gay/Lesbian Families in regards to HIPPA?
Domestic Partners
2 adults who have chosen to share one another's lives in an intimate and committed relationship of mutual caring without marriage
Family Development
Refers to the dynamics or changes that a family experiences over time including changes in relationships, communication patterns, roles, and interactions.
1. Beginning family - newly married couples
2. Childbearing family - oldest child infant to 30 mos
3. Families ow/ preschoolers
4. Families w/ school children
5. Families w/ teenagers
6. Families launching young adults
7. Middle age parents
8. Family in retirement and old-age
What are the 8 stages to the Family Life Cycle (nuclear family)
~Adjusting to living together as a couple
~Establishing mutually satisfying relationship
~Relating to kin
~Deciding whether or not to have children
What are some Family Developmental Tasks that occur in the Beginning Family (Couple) stage?
~Adjusting to having and supporting needs of more than 2 members
~Developing attachment between parents and children
~Adjusting to economic costs of having more members
~Coping with energy depletion and lack of privacy
~Carrying out activities that enhance growth and development of the children
What are some Family Developmental Tasks that occur in the Childbearing Family & Family with Preschool Age Children stages?
~Adjusting to expanded world of children in school
~Encouraging educational achievement
~Promoting joint decision-making between kids and parents
What are some Family Developmental Tasks that occur in the Family w/ School-Age Children stage?
~Providing supportive home-base and maintaining open communications during transition
~Parents must balance freedoms w/ responsibilities
~Release adult children as they seek independence
What are some Family Developmental Tasks that occur in the Family with Teenagers & Launching Young Adults stages?
~Maintaining ties w/ older and younger generations
~Planning for retirement
~Reestablishing the couple relationship
~Acquiring role as a grandparents
What are some Family Developmental Tasks that occur in the Middle Age Family stage?
~Adjusting to retirement
~Adjusting to aging
~Coping w/ loss of a spouse
~Adjusting to living alone
~Closing the family home
What are some Family Developmental Tasks that occur in the Older Adult Family stage?
Sandwich Generation
Adults who care for their own children and 1 or more of their aging parents
~Parent-Child Interaction
~Family Size
~Sibling Relationships
~Boundaries
~Family Cohesion
~Resiliency
~Family Coping Mechanisms
~Emotional Availability
~Family Flexibility
~Family Communication Patterns
~Parenting Styles
What are the 11 factors that shape family development?
Parental Sensitivity
Assessed by how parents pick up on children's emotional signals and how appropriately parents express their own emotions
Parental Structuring
The ability of parents to support learning and exploration w/out overwhelming the child's autonomy
Parental Nonintrusiveness
Parent's availability to the child w/out being interfering, overprotective, or overwhelming
Parental Nonhostility
Ways parents interact w/ the child that are patient and pleasant
Parental Warmth
Amount of affection and approval displayed
Parental Control
How restrictive parents are regarding rules
Authoritarian Parents
Parents who are rigid and punitive and value unquestioning obedience from their children
Authoritative Parents
Parents who are firm, set clear limits, reason with their children, and explain things to them
Permissive Parents
Parents who provide lax and inconsistent feedback and require little of their children but show a great deal of warmth
Indifferent Parents
Parents who neither set limits nor display much affection or approval
~Asking parents how they handle situations that require limit setting
~ Observing parent-child interactions
How can you assess Parenting Styles?
Discipline
A method of teaching children the rules for how to behave in society and what is expected in different circumstances
Punishment
Action taken to enforce the rules when the child misbehaves
~Determine level of family functioning
~Clarify family interaction patterns
~ID family strengths and weaknesses
~Describe health status of the family and its individual members
What is the purpose of doing a Family Assessment?
Genograms
Consist of visual representations of gender showing lines of birth decent through the generations
Ecomaps
An assessment tool that can help nurses visualize how the family unit interacts w/ the external community environment, including schools, religious commitments, occupational duties, and recreational pursuits.
Family Wellness Promotion
Emphasizes addressing each individual family member's contribution to the health and well-being of the family
Encouraging:
~Tobacco cessation
~Increasing exercise
~Healthy eating habits
~Use of stress reduction techniques
~Help set own family and personal wellness goals
What are some family health promotion strategies?
THIS SET IS OFTEN IN FOLDERS WITH...
HACC N144 Spirituality
47 terms
patty_burgess
HACC N144 Thermoregulation
77 terms
patty_burgess
HACC N144 Infection
116 terms
patty_burgess
HACC N144 Culture & Diversity
42 terms
patty_burgess
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By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Define and contrast family and household.
- Describe how families differ across cultures.
- Differentiate between consanguineal and affinal ties.
- Distinguish between different family types.
- Understand the roles of fictive kin.
A family can be defined as two or more people in an adaptable social and economic alliance that involves kinship, whether perceived through blood, marriage, or other permanent or semipermanent arrangement. It frequently, but not always, involves reproduction and the care of offspring and coresidence within the same locale. Families vary greatly across cultures and also adapt to changing social and economic needs. Sometimes families aggregate into larger units for short periods to meet challenging needs, such as eldercare, illness, job loss, transition between college and career, etc. A household is a group of individuals who live within the same residence and share socioeconomic needs associated with production and consumption. A family and a household may be the same unit, but they do not have to be. Sometimes families live within larger households, where there may be two or more families residing; at other times a family may be physically separated as family members migrate to work or study temporarily in other locations.
Like the concept of kinship, family is a sociocultural construct. Family is defined and recognized differently across cultures according to differing social norms. Some cultures consider families to be only those people believed to be related to each other, living together, and sharing similar goals, while other cultures define family as a disperse set of individuals with an ancestral history. The definition of family that a cultural group endorses reflects such things as kinship and the social interpretation of biology, cultural traditions and norms, and socioemotional ties. It is commonly scaled from the intimate unit in which children are raised to a larger, more amorphous web of relatives.
Many Western societies perceive family to be a nuclear family of parents and their immediate offspring living together in a household. The extended family, on the other hand, is a loose collection of relatives with varying degrees of perceived kinship, from those referred to as blood relatives (consanguine) to those who have married into the family (affine). Among the Mundurucú in the lowland Amazonia of Brazil, the resident family includes only the mother and her preadolescent offspring, while the father resides in the tribal men’s house. Among the Mosuo of China (also called the Na), women form sexual alliances with men from outside of their families to produce offspring, and then remain with their brothers in their own households to raise their children. The children are considered to be part of the women’s lineage unit and family.
Reading and Using Kinship Charts
Anthropologists graphically illustrate relationships between family members with kinship charts (also called kinship diagrams). Anyone who has ever used an online genealogy program like Ancestry.com is already familiar with the ways that family relationships can be depicted. Anthropological charts use EGO as their starting point. The term EGO identifies the person whose chart is depicted. EGO marks the starting point for the kinship chart, and relationships are read as alignments between EGO and other individuals. The sum of kinship relationships identified through EGO is referred to as EGO’s kindred. Serving as a map and model, the kinship chart can be “read” like a text, with its own syntax and grammar identifying each individual within a society by means of their relatedness to each other.
Kinship charts depict two types of relationships, consanguineal and affinal. A consanguineal tie between individuals indicates a perceived biological connection (a connection “by blood”) and is indicated by a single line, regardless of whether it is drawn vertically or horizontally. A consanguineal tie is most often considered to be permanent. An affinal tie depicts a contractual relationship by marriage or mutual agreement and is drawn as a double line. Such ties usually can be broken, and if they are, a forward slash will be struck though the double line. There is also a hashed line (----) used for relationships that do not conform completely to type (e.g., to indicate adoption or an honorary family member). Hashed double lines are used to distinguish between a formal marriage and a relationship of cohabitation. The following is the most basic legend of the kinship chart:
Kinship charts can be read both vertically and horizontally. Individuals who share the same horizontal line are considered to be in the same cohort or generation, and individuals above and below EGO are in relationships of descent, meaning they are believed to be connected by blood or enduring kinship bond across generations. Anthropologists use common abbreviations to depict kinship relations across cultures, allowing us to compare families: father (FA), mother (MO), brother (BR), sister (SI or Z), aunt (AU), uncle (UN), son (SO), daughter (DA), and then compound terms, such as mother’s or father’s brother (MoBr, FaBr) or mother’s or father’s sister (MoSi, FaSi). Grandparents are usually designated as GrFa and GrMo.
Figure 11.5 depicts a kinship chart utilizing standard icons and abbreviations. Within this chart, EGO is depicted as a part of two different families: the family of orientation, which is the nuclear family unit in which EGO was reared and nurtured as a child and adolescent, and the family of procreation, which is the family that EGO creates, usually as a result of marriage. Test yourself and see if you can read it.
As you can see in Figure 11.5, EGO has multiple ties and embeddedness within the kinship network, leading to a complex web of rights and obligations. These concurrent ties with more than one family involve descent rules (how an individual traces relatedness across generations), residence rules (where an individual will live following marriage), and in some societies, even remarriage rules (how marriage will be reinstated following the death of a spouse). Each of these will be discussed later in the chapter.
Family Types across Cultures
Although family is difficult to categorize because of its diversity, anthropologists have defined four basic family types that are duplicated across cultures with minor variations. Each of these types is adapted to the social and economic needs of the family unit and is normally associated with particular subsistence strategies. Some families change to address immediate needs, such as when elderly parents can no longer live on their own independently. Regardless of its type, the family unit is a remarkably adaptive cultural mechanism.
Nuclear families: Also known as a single-couple family, a nuclear family is composed of one or two parents and their immediate offspring. It is the smallest family structure and is often found in societies where geographic mobility is valued. The nuclear family is common in small-scale foraging societies (bands) and industrial/postindustrial and market societies (states), both settings in which subsistence activities require families to relocate with some regularity. Although the model of the American nuclear family consisting of a two-parent household with one or more children has become less typical over the last several generations, it continues to be a norm. As of the 2016 census, 69 percent of US children under the age of 18 were living in a two-parent household, a decrease from 88 percent in 1960.
There are, however, other kinds of nuclear families. In the 2016 US census, 23 percent of children under 18 were living in a female single-headed household (mother), almost triple the number living in female single households in 1960 (8 percent). There was also an increase in children under 18 living in male single households (father), from 1 percent in 1960 to 4 percent in 2016 (United States Census Bureau 2016; Kramer 2019). Another growing nuclear family type is same-sex families. These may or may not include children. In the 2020 census, 14.7 percent of the 1.1 million same-sex couples in the United States had at least one child under 18 in their household (United States Census Bureau 2020). In cases where the alliance between adults is temporary or informal, these families may be nonconjugal nuclear families or cohabitation families. (Note: The above terminology related to sex, gender, and family relationships is consistent with US Census data collection and reporting terminology, and may not reflect the terminology used by readers.)
Extended families: The extended family can be very complex. It includes two or more family units functioning as a single integrated family. It may involve three or more generations (e.g., grandparents, parents, and children), polygamous families with multiple spouses and their offspring, or married siblings living together with their children, a type of extended family known as joint families. The extended family can be an effective social and economic unit because it involves multiple adults able to contribute to the household. Extended families have been most commonly associated with agricultural societies, where a high value is typically placed on labor and self-subsistence. In the United States today, we commonly see the emergence of the extended family during times of transition, such as when family members are changing jobs, returning to school, or recovering from economic hardship. Worldwide, the extended family is the most common type of family.
Blended families: Blended families are families in which there is more than one origin point for the members. This typically occurs when one or more divorced and/or widowed adults with children remarry, combining two formerly independent units into a new blended family. Blended families are common in the United States and in societies in which we find serial monogamy. Although the US census does not collect data specifically on stepfamilies, in 2009 Pew Research estimated that 16 percent of all American children lived in blended families.
Fictive Kinship
Some families also include fictive kin, a kinship tie in which individuals are defined as family regardless of biology. Fictive kinship is based on intentional relationships such as godparenthood or other close social ties.
One form of voluntary fictional kinship is a type of godparent relationship called compadrazgo. Originally developed as a social institution within the Catholic Church, the godparents of a Catholic child are named during the ritual of baptism when the child is an infant. These godparents are selected by the child’s parents as role models to encourage their child in religious instruction and living a “godly” life. Godparents are most frequently chosen from among the child’s relatives, thus reinforcing kinship ties. Although godparenthood is not formally practiced in every society, families in all societies do cultivate non-blood relationships and close friendships.
The Spanish and Portuguese empires introduced godparenthood into Latin America following the 16th-century conquest. The institution was adapted to meet the particular needs of populations suffering from disease, warfare, and mass casualties. These social disruptions often left children without parents who were able to adequately take care of them. In such a setting, children’s godparents shifted from being chosen from among relatives to being selected from friends and acquaintances. This use of fictive kin relationships served as an extension of family for a child and created new kinship ties between families not previously related. It created a contract (Foster 1961) between the godparents (who referred to the child as ahijado/a), the child (who referred to their godparents as padrino and madrina), and the parents (who, along with the godparents, referred to each other as compadre and comadre), which provided an ever-widening social network.
Over time, the practice of compadrazgo adapted to the specific needs of this new cultural setting. A symmetrical form developed in which parents choose friends and coworkers of their same socioeconomic status to serve as godparents for their children. An asymmetrical form also developed, in which parents contract with individuals or couples who are in a higher class or status group to provide opportunities for their child. This form functions very similarly to a social security system. Many members of the upper classes see it as their Christian duty to sponsor a large number of godchildren within their communities or workplaces.
In addition, compadrazgo extends beyond religious rituals into secular society, including the practice of naming compadres for such things as a child’s first haircut or the purchase of a new house. In smaller communities, compadrazgo is even practiced as the ritual sponsorship of community buildings or initiatives. In 1980 in Ica, Peru, the installation of a new water tower included the designation of compadres.
Those serving as compadres enjoy an enhancement of social status in Latin America. Over a lifetime, individuals typically have a series of new and expanding compadrazgo relationships. People gain new compadres through life changes such as marriage, the birth of children, and sometimes even the acquisition of expensive material items. While these relationships may change over time—for example, when a child has become an adult, the birth compadres may no longer send gifts or offer advice—the relationships themselves endure as (fictive) family connections. The respect and acknowledgement of these relationships remains important to all the individuals involved in the compadrazgo family.
Adoption
Adoption of children is widespread across cultures, sometimes constituted legally, but more often through informal structures of support and sponsorship. There were an estimated 1.5 million adopted children under 18 in the United States in 2019, about 1 out of every 50 children, and adoption is increasing, especially among same-sex couples. In 2019, 43.3 percent of children of same-sex couples were adopted or stepchildren.
Across cultures, informal adoption and foster care have long been practiced to strengthen families and provide opportunities for young people. Anthropological studies in West Africa, Oceania, Latin America, and in minority communities in North America document the prevalence of these practices, as well as their benefits and risks. In general, cultures that see social relationships as open and fluid are able to provide a greater range of opportunities to children. One common form of informal adoption relocates children from rural birth families to relatives living in urban areas, where they have more opportunities for education, employment, and career training. Sometimes informal fostering helps to provide caretaking for shorter periods of time. A family may send an older child to temporarily live with a relative or even a friend who has a new infant or is facing a family crisis. These relationships may be mutually beneficial, allowing older children to meet new people and develop a wider network of friends and relatives. Historically, adoptive ties have played a major role in family security and in creating stronger social ties between families, some of which may provide future educational, work, and career opportunities. | https://openstax.org/books/introduction-anthropology/pages/11-2-defining-family-and-household |
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“The family” has occupied a core position in policy and public debates about the common good and national identity formation in Ireland since the foundation of the State. The family, for instance, was afforded privileged mention and protection in the Irish Constitution of 1937. Under Article 41.1 the State promises to “protect the Family” and recognises it as having “inalienable and imprescriptible rights, antecedent and superior to all positive law”. Women were accorded a very specific familial role in the State’s legal framework and the Constitution still states that “woman by her life within the home gives to the State a support without which the common good cannot be achieved”.
Given the pivotal role of the family in the social structure and religious ethos of the State historically, it is not surprising that it is still at the centre of social and political debate in the twenty-first century. Various individuals and interest groups in Irish society frequently argue for the preservation of what they view as the ideal form of marriage and family while others welcome and promote the emergence of more diverse and alternative family forms. Conflicting interest groups such as the Catholic Church, the women’s movement, the gay and lesbian movement, new right campaigns and institutes, media commentators and political actors continue to stimulate a vibrant traditional family values versus family diversity/libertarian discourse.
The passing of the Child and Family Relationships Bill (2014), a referendum on same sex marriage in May 2015 and continued controversies surrounding reproduction and childbirth (including in relation to abortions and maternal deaths, redress for symphysiotomy victims and ongoing issues concerning mother and baby homes) will undoubtedly unleash further robust debate in this arena in the coming years.
Irish society was considered to be a demographic outlier for much of the twentieth century and to have embraced more secular, European-wide values in personal and intimate life at a late stage. Divorce, for instance, was not legalised until a referendum on its prohibition was narrowly passed in 1995 and reproductive rights remains a contentious issue in Ireland in the aftermath of a clause inserted in the constitution in 1983 to protect the right to life of “the unborn”. At the same time, by the twenty-first century Ireland had a relatively high non-marital birth rate compared with a number of other European countries, women with young children were participating in the labour force in rapidly increasing numbers, homosexuality was decriminalised, cohabitation was in evidence alongside conventional marriage, contraception was legalised and accessible, and marital separation legislation had been introduced. At face value, it appeared that the family was undergoing a process of delayed but rapid transformation and modernisation and was gradually aligning with more secular European values and trends.
Ireland represents an interesting and challenging case study in the context of twenty-first century family life. A key contention in The ‘Irish’ Family is that Irish family patterns today are clearly converging closely to European trends in some arenas (for instance, the rate of non-marital births and the crude marriage rate, which was traditionally lower in Ireland for much of the twentieth century has recently converged towards the EU average) but maintaining a distinctive trend in others (the divorce rate remains low and the overall fertility rate is comparatively higher, for instance). There is therefore a complex tension between traditional values and modernity in Irish family life and in intimate relationships more generally understood.
The middle decades of the twentieth century have been described as a “golden age” for marriage and the nuclear family in Europe and the developed world. More people were married and married at a younger age than at any other time in the modern era. However, by the 1960s, previously accepted definitions of family, kinship, marriage and reproduction through the lens of the nuclear family were fundamentally challenged by the proliferation of more diverse expressions of family and personal life in western societies and the weakening of marriage as the primary route into family formation, sexual activity and procreation. The steep rise in the European divorce and re-marriage rates set in motion from the 1960s on have produced complex new sets of kinship relationships in the twenty-first century, such as one-parent families (which are mostly headed by women) and “reconstituted” or “blended” families. Official statistics show that increasing numbers of children in the West now adapt to and live with step-parents who may, for instance, also have previous children of their own, and post-divorce childhood has been coined an intrinsic feature of twenty-first century western families. Likewise, recent decades have witnessed a greater acceptance of gay partnerships and same sex families, evident in Ireland in the decriminalisation of homosexuality in 1993 and in the passing of the Civil Partnership and Obligations of Cohabitants Act 2010. New reproductive technologies, involving donor sperm and egg or surrogacy for example are also fundamentally challenging and changing the accepted relationship between family, biology and reproduction. Heterosexual marriage and biological reproduction no longer have a monopoly on family formation therefore and increasing numbers of children are born outside of marriage or live with non-biological stepparents. In some Northern European societies, cohabitation is an established alternative to marriage and more children are born outside than inside marriage. A further key trend is that, in general, the overall fertility rate in Europe has declined steeply in recent decades resulting in an ageing population and insufficient population replacement rate. Childlessness and one-person households also feature increasingly in European data. A search for new ideas and perspectives on twenty-first century families has accordingly emerged.
Where does Ireland fit in in relation to these trends? The ‘Irish’ Family draws on new empirical data and research to analyse a range of trends and issues. What has changed over time in Ireland and how does Ireland compare with other European societies in relation to key, recent trends in family life? For much of the twentieth century, Ireland was considered a demographic outlier in Europe and the situation was quite distinctive. The key features of Ireland’s social structure up to the 1960s were a class structure dominated by a large agricultural population, with the majority employed on “the land”; a rural profile and ethos; economic protectionism in the mid-century; high levels of emigration and overall population decline; and distinctive patterns in family and demography that broadly encompassed a late age of marriage, a high rate of non-marriage and a high marital fertility rate resulting in distinctly large families. A climate of censorship regarding sexual and intimate matters and social control, resulting in harsh treatment for women who had children outside of marriage and for children born into categories categorised as “deviant” was a further dominant feature of twentieth century Ireland.
However, by the 1960s new trends that coincided with economic modernisation policies and radicalising social movements were emerging in Irish society, including younger age of marriage, longer formal schooling of marriage partners and greater educational opportunities for women, and the increased involvement of the welfare state and the state in the family. In particular, an active and radical women’s movement had mobilised extensively by the 1970s and questioned traditional family values as well as women’s constitutionally defined primary role in society as mothers in the home. The right of women to access contraception and to engage in productive work outside as well as inside the home was vigorously campaigned for. For some commentators, the family itself was considered the core site of women’s oppression in society, with marriage invariably considered a form of domestic and sexual slavery, in light of the resistance to legal contraceptives and lack of opportunities for women outside the home. “The Irish family” was about to enter into a period of significant social change and radical questioning, and analysts started to assess whether or not Irish family patterns were radically departing from tradition and converging closer to European norms or continuing to follow a distinctive path?
A detailed overview of changing trends in marriage, divorce, cohabitation, reproduction, sexualities, lone parenthood, gender, generations, migration and technology in Ireland is provided in The ‘Irish’ Family. Finola Kennedy has aptly stated that: “the story of family change in Ireland is both unique, and at the same time, similar to that of many other countries.” The available data on Irish family life continues to present a mixed picture. In some arenas, current trends are corresponding more closely with European averages but in other areas the trends in Ireland continue to be distinct. In relation to divorce, cohabitation, the number of children living in one-parent households and the overall fertility rate, statistical trends in Ireland are not fully in line with European averages. Marital separation has undoubtedly increased in recent decades but Ireland still has one of the lowest divorce rates in Europe. Alternatives to traditional marriage (such as cohabitation and civil partnership) have increased among the younger generations especially but they are not even remotely close to replacing marriage as a basis for family formation, as has been the established trend in some other Northern European countries in particular.
The fertility rate in Ireland does, however, remain the highest in the EU but by Irish standards it represents a historical low. Irish women are on average now having two children (in the 1970s the average wa sfour) but the fact that Irish mothers are currently the oldest in Europe suggests that the upper range fertility rate in evidence is more a reflection of the postponing of having children to later in the life cycle than being due to a greater propensity among Irish women to have large numbers of children in common with previous generations. In other areas, such as non-marital births and the crude marriage rate, the figures in Ireland are approximating very closely to European averages. The marriage rate in Ireland is not particularly high but marriage has not diminished either or been replaced by cohabitation. In the case of non-marital births, the rate in Ireland (34 per cent of all births occur outside marriage; however, the figure approximates to around 50 per cent in the main cities of Dublin, Cork and Limerick) is much higher than in several other countries with very low rates (such as Greece where the 2011 figure is 7.4 per cent). But, it is not exceeding the European average (38 per cent) or approximating close to the upper ranges in this category (in the region of 60 per cent of all children are now born outside marriage in total in Iceland, 55 per cent is the figure in France and 54 per cent in Sweden, for example).
In the case of single parents who are not cohabiting or in a relationship, the current situation in Ireland is noteworthy. In the past, illegitimacy was utterly frowned upon and stigmatised and the UK became a refuge for Irish unmarried mothers to the extent that they were afforded the label “PFIs” (Pregnant from Ireland) by social services. Adoption rates were high as a consequence of unmarried mothers concealing their pregnancies, often with the assistance of the Catholic Church and mother and baby homes. In Ireland, however, while the largest proportion of households today is made up of couple households with children, with single adults with no children second, Ireland at the same time has a much higher percentage of children living in lone parent households than in much of the rest of Europe. Given the fact that the vast majority of lone parents in Ireland are women, this distinct trend and available data suggests that women (particularly women of low educational attainment) are putting motherhood before marriage to a much greater extent than their European counterparts and are cohabiting less – which is a trend that requires further investigation.
The idea of postmodernism implies that we can no longer deal with a single entity called “the family”. Yet the findings presented in this book suggest that the situation is more complex in the Irish case. Traditional forms of family life (such as, the lifelong, nuclear family based on heterosexual marriage and the persistence of an unequal gender-based division of labour in the home that is continually reiterated in social research) continue and sustain alongside new, more diverse family forms and households emerging in contemporary Ireland (such as one-parent families, “reconstituted” families post-separation/divorce, cohabitees and same sex couples). Taken together the new forms of family and intimate life that are now evident in Ireland fundamentally challenge the notion that there is only one way to be married, intimate and committed to another person in the Irish context. At the same time, these developments have not even remotely replaced the predominance of conventional family forms and trends.
Family life in Ireland most certainly experienced rapid change in the period between the McGee judgment on contraception handed down by the Supreme Court in 1973 and the divorce referendum held in 1995, but subsequently entered into a more stable period. From the mid-1990s on, it is argued, it is possible to talk of a post-revolutionary settling down of family patterns and what was new and unsettling in the 1980s became “normal” in the 2000s. Fundamentally, expectations that the structure and convention of the past would give way to endless diversity and fluidity in family life have not been fulfilled in the Irish case. Statistically speaking, most individuals are still socialised within traditional nuclear family units and develop their identities, sense of self and understanding of the meaning of life primarily in terms of what happened within their family. The ontological sense of self in the majority of individuals, the way they see and understand themselves, is developed and maintained in terms of relations with parents and siblings. Most Irish people are still bound to family. The family is still considered the centre of intimate, personal relations through which people create and sustain meaning on a daily basis. In addition, gender remains an unrecognised but crucially important framework in shaping young people’s lives in particular.
The relationship between generations is subject to both continuity and change. In contemporary Ireland, the decline of co-residence between children and their grandparents is associated with growing economic independence of parents. However, a considerable proportion of Irish parents rely on grandparents to provide childcare, particularly as mothers increasingly participate in the labour force. Continuity in the warm relationships that develop between children and their grandparents is evident across different birth cohorts. However, significant transformations in household and family contexts and in childhood have given rise to changes in the texture of the relationship between grandchildren and their grandparents. Firstly, as grandchildren are less likely to spend extended periods of time with a grandparent, parents have greater power to act as gatekeepers between the generations. Secondly, changes in the nature of childhood mean that the time children spend with their grandparents has become more domesticated. Contemporary children’s experiences of being cared for in the private space of a grandparent’s home contrast with adult memories of exploring the wider world in the company of grandparents; in the past children “tagged along” as their grandparent went about the daily activities of working and visiting.
Migration is a key dynamic in Irish society. Return migrants and their children accounted for the vast majority of immigrants during the Celtic Tiger era. Family connectedness facilitated belonging to local and national/ethnic collectivities for some return migrants, but conversely, worked to exclude those who did not have access to such connections. Children play a central role in shaping and re-shaping social and familial networks, actively involved in the everyday doing and re-doing of family and kinship. As they negotiate belongings and identities from complex positions in Irish society as simultaneously children, migrants and returnees, return-migrant children’s unique perspectives highlight the complex relationships between family, power, locality and belonging that exist in Ireland.
With 10 per cent of the current Irish population now not born in Ireland, the number of mixed Irish/non-Irish households is also on the rise. While there is an increasing number of mixed international families in Ireland where one partner is Irish and the other is not, legal, social and political acceptance of these newer Irish citizens is slower to change. This could be seen as part of the growing global stratification of citizenship and belonging where the formal status of citizenship does not ensure acceptance or belonging to the nation. On the other hand, continued assertions by mixed Irish/non-Irish families of their “right” to be Irish continues to challenge the notion that in order to be considered truly Irish one must be “WHISC” – white, heterosexual, Irish-born, settled, and Catholic.
Researchers commonly understand lesbian and gay kinship to be distinctive and argue that alienation from families of origin led many lesbians and gay men to form new relational networks, or “families we choose”. However, research into the experience of lesbian mothers in Ireland and London further suggests that Irish lesbian and gay people can often remain committed to families of origin and go to considerable lengths to maintain connections with them after coming out. In contrast to research that emphasises alienation, dominant discourses of “the family” underline its importance for those Irish lesbian and gay people who carry out considerable emotional labour with their families. Having a child often reinvigorates relationships with parents and siblings and emigration underlined the importance of maintaining ties “back home”.
At one level new technologies have facilitated the micro-co-ordination and communication on which significant aspects of contemporary family life depends. At another level, however, issues of surveillance and privacy arise. Certain forms of new technologies (such as mobile phones) facilitate increased parental supervision but others (Facebook, for example) allow the creation of a private realm secure from parental oversight, evident in the growth of a mobile youth culture and the intensification of what media researchers have labeled “bedroom culture”. The ‘Irish’ Family concludes by raising very challenging questions about the impact of online communication on the very fabric of our existence and fabric of life as intimate citizens and as family members in twenty-first century Ireland.
Linda Connolly is author and editor of The ‘Irish’ Family (Routledge, 2015). Her other books include The Irish Women’s Movement: From Revolution to Devolution (Lilliput, 2003 and Palgrave, 2003), Documenting Irish Feminisms (Woodfield, 2005) (co-authored with Tina O’Toole) and Social Movements and Ireland (Manchester University Press, 2007). | http://www.drb.ie/essays/investigating-the-irish-family |
In the human perspective, a family is a group of persons connected by kinship, compassion, or sharing of residence. In a number of societies, the family is the basic unit for the socialization of children. A basic family unit is made up of a father, mother, and children, and is known as a nuclear family, however, this unit can be extended to include other relations to be known as an extended family.
The concept of the family has undergone a transformation and in today’s society, many people define the family structure as an arbitrary cultural set-up, a statement could be partially true. In ancient times, the family was a closely-knit, patriarchal clan consisting of a man, his wife or wives, and several children!
This has changed to include a monogamous parent taking care of the children. Besides, certain concepts of the family have broken with tradition within specific communities while some have been implanted through migration to thrive or else disappear in the new communities and societies.
Current debates and interest concerning the family have forced individuals to reassess themselves in a society driven by change and uncertainty. Because of its intricate nature, sociologists have not succeeded in coming with a universal definition of what family is and how is constructed. Rather, the definition is subject to individual interpretation and depends on the value a person attaches to being a member of a communal social group.
Objective
The aim of the paper is to give a concise definition of family, and the context of family structures such as the traditional family; single parent family, blended family and cohabiting relationship families. The paper also examines the influences that have progressively shaped the concept of family from the past to the present day.
Critical Analysis
A family is generally defined as a group of individuals who are linked by kinship or adoption, and who have a common residence. (Germov and Poole, 2011, 132). Kinship ties are connections or associations that link individuals through genealogy lines or marriage.
However, a few writers disagree with this concept. For instance, George Murdock, an American anthropologist, defines family as a social group that lives together, support each other economically, and raise children (Germov and Poole, 2011, 128).
In the mid 20th century, sociologists defined family as a man living together with his wife and children, joined by blood, marriage or adoption. The couple had sex, procreated, and cared for the children jointly, besides bringing resources such as money and food together. The family members also guarded and supported each other.
Again, some writers have given a different perspective. Some asserted that previous definitions of the concept of the family should be altered as they are founded on ‘monolithic’ models that exhibit partiality towards a specific kind of family typified by gender discrimination and legal attachment, instead of gender fairness and patterns of care or emotional response.
Besides, modern reproductive methods have changed family associations and the definition of terms such as ‘mother’ and ‘father’ gas considerably changed. For instance, women past their menopausal age can now have children through surrogate mothers. Consequently, an increasing number of studies are focusing on what really defines a family. This perspective overlooks the gender inclination of the couple and the legitimacy of the relationship, and centers rather on the patterns of caring and affection.
The concept of the family has been conventionally related to the traditional family setup, which can be defined as a relationship in the children live with both the biological parents with the father often at work while the mother stays at home (Germov & Poole, 2011, 128). Today less than ten percent of families satisfies this principle.
The second approach is that of single parent setup in which the child resides with one of the parents, and may result from death, divorce, separation, out-of-wedlock pregnancy, or a nonunion pregnancy. Milstead and Perkins (2010, para. 8) recognized that teenage mothers were less likely to enter marriage and preferred to care for the child without paternal help leading to certain social and economic deficits for both the mother and child including lack of proper education, poorly paying occupations, reliance on welfare, and bad health for both of them.
The third approach is that of a blended family, in which the child lives with one of the biological parents, and that parent’s partner. This type of family may also include children born to the new couple. This family setup is made up of children, one of the biological parents, and a stepparent (Kinnear, 2010, 8). Even though the availability of another adult may lead to more material and financial resources, studies indicate that such children may be more disadvantaged than those living in stable single-parent families. In fact, children living in blended families have a higher likelihood of suffering emotionally and/or psychologically than those in single parent families.
The fourth perspective is that of a cohabiting relationship, in which a child lives with one of the biological parents, and that parent’s significant other, however, in contrast to blended families, the adults are not married. This type of family has been on the rise and a possible explanation could be that couples take it as a good practice before marriage. In contrast, Joltes (2007, para. 2) notes that those who have cohabited are more likely to divorce than those who have not. Cohabiting families regularly create less defined family roles, lower levels of parental support, supervision and involvement, and more conflicts (Kinnear, 2010, 8).
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In contrast from the family setups described above, the traditional family is characterized by a unit comprising of a married couple with two or more children. In this setup, the male adult is the head of the house and the breadwinner too, while the female adult performs household tasks and cares for children and her husband.
Back then, the gender roles were clear. Most (preferably all) members of the family attended a church service weekly. Children were obedient, respectful and responsible. Families resided in the same town, or at least close to each other. Instances of divorce were an abomination and were very rare. Unmarried couples were uncommon too, and the act was thought of as shameful (Briggs, 2002, 5).
The number of unmarried adults was very low. The 1950s was a period when everybody worked together towards a common goal; society was stable or improving, and disagreements extremely rare. Women were satisfied with their housekeeping roles and respected their husbands as the house heads. Similarly, it was generally accepted that homosexuality, divorce, sex before marriage, abortion, and illegitimate birth did not exist, or occurred only to ‘bad’ families. Indeed, such issues were never conversed in an open forum.
For instance, women living in Australia in the 1950s had their lives centred on family and housekeeping tasks. Women who held wartime jobs were supposed to quit their jobs to create opportunities for men who had previously been in war. Consequently, women quit their jobs and returned to their housekeeping tasks. However, a few women challenged these norms and retained their jobs, but were paid less than men for similar jobs and were often given lowly paying jobs.
The practices in the traditional family have transformed significantly, and it is unlikely that we will ever switch back to the conventional nuclear family as the only ideal type of family. For the near future, the new family setup is here to stay. The ‘cereal packet’ image of the family comprising of the father, mother, and the children joyously having breakfast together is a bad reminder of how single-parent, blended, extended, same-sex, or childless families have considerably dented the idea of a perfect family.
Add this to the effects of the multiplicity of ethnic and cultural origins, aboriginal Australians and post-war migrations, and all Australians will finally encounter family forms quite dissimilar from their own. In Australia, as in many societies, the nuclear family setup is no longer conventional.
Towards the end of the 20th century, major demographic changes had affected even the family setup. Societies were aging while the number of children and youths was diminishing. These anomalies led to a shift in roles that today challenge the traditional family setup.
Today, families may comprise of couples who may be married or cohabiting, and have a child who is either a co-resident. A new form of family setup emerged in the 21st century, as mentioned by Anthony Giddens and Ulrich Beck. The two sociologists write that from the mid 70s onwards, significant changes occurred in family life and relationships; marriage rates were failing, divorce was on the increase, and fertility rates dropping. According to Saggers and Sims (2004, 34), these changes marked the end of the family.
for only
While often referred to as a ‘haven in a heartless world’, the fact is that families cannot be insulated from the world of which we are a component. In fact, change in the family stricture has always been inherently linked to wider social changes. As society undergoes swift, turbulent and far-reaching changes in economic, cultural and political aspects, family keeps pace with the changes (Saggers and Sims, 2004, 32).
Conclusion
The family, as we once knew it, has undergone rapid transformations and is today a shadow of its former self. Previously unacceptable behaviors such as homosexuality and same-sex families are now welcomed in the family. Consequently, these unnatural acts have further deteriorated the family by causing same-sex families, which raises important sociological questions about the actual meaning of the term ‘family’.
Secondly, the rising number of women in the workforce has altered the basic roles of members of the family. Divorce and separation, once abhorred, is now a normal affair. Indeed, parental divorce disrupts the lives of almost one in five Australian children. Cohabiting has also found its way into the modern family, and this has resulted into a popular and often quoted belief that the Australian family is disintegrating.
While the social construct of the family has evolved to cater for the social pressures of modern life, the values attached to it are perhaps more enduring. While the concept of the family is multifaceted, perhaps it comes down to the individuals belonging to any particular family group, who seek the similar values of belonging and compassion that offer a true definition of what a family is.
Reference List
Briggs, Freda. 2002. The changing family, from Children and Families : Australian Perspectives, Sydney: Allen & Unwin.
Joltes, Richard. 2007. Critical Enquiry: Family Values. Web.
Kinnear, Pamela. 2002. New families for changing times. Discussion Paper No 47, ISSN 1322-5422. Web.
Milstead, Kayla & Perkins, Gerra. 2010. Family structure Characteristics and academic success: Supporting the work of school counsellors. Academic Leadership, Vol 8, issue 4. Web.
Poole, Marylin & Germov John. 2011. Public Sociology, An introduction to Australian Society, 2nd edition, Sydney: Allen & Unwin.
Saggers, Sherry and Sims, Margaret. 2004. Diversity: Beyond the nuclear family, Edited by Marilyn Poole, Sydney: Allen & Unwin. | https://ivypanda.com/essays/what-is-the-family/ |
Marrying and starting a family is one of the most important milestones in life that many people look forward to. In its legal context, two persons are only considered married when they have entered a legally recognized social contract that is often permanent.
However, it is undeniable that our ideas of family and marriage have changed beyond reckon compared to the dawning of society. Fewer people are holding on to these traditional beliefs, instead going for a more contemporary perspective. How has marriage changed from history until now?
Marriage, in most of the world throughout history, relates to the union between a man and a woman. In some of the earliest instances of marriage, it was common for a man to take multiple wives for various reasons. The more wealthy might have done it for lust, while others may have done so to preserve bloodlines, for fertility purposes, or because times of war may have yielded a shortage of mates for women. A man of power, such as a monarch, would usually also have concubines in addition to multiple wives. One notable example was King Solomon of Israel, who had an astonishing 700 wives and 300 concubines.
Additionally, it was not unheard of for relatives to be married to each other. Members of small tribes often procreated within their clans, while in other civilizations such as ancient Egypt and Ireland, incest was very common in the royal families. Pharaoh Amenhotep I was born of three generations of brother-sister unions, and Cleopatra and Tutankhamun had parents who were siblings. Tutankhamun later also married his half-sister Ankhesenpaaten. It is believed that these practices in ancient civilizations were to preserve the purity of the royal bloodline, since the monarchs were considered to be gods or otherwise elite. Between the second and third centuries B.C. in Egypt, censuses recorded that incestual marriage extended to even the common folk, with sibling marriages accounting for 15 to 20 percent of all marriages. These unions were considered by all accounts ordinary.
One other tradition of marriage is that it did not always include a romantic component. It was rare that people married out of love more than they would for obligation or to fulfil their duty. Any adolescent, especially those in middle or high-class families, would be expected to settle down with their own spouse and start a family at a young age. As such, it was customary in many cultures for the parents and other relatives to arrange marriages for their children the moment they came of marrying age – which could be as young as twelve or even earlier. Often, these marriages would be done to establish new ties with a neighboring people, a different tribe, or another kingdom.
Since traditional marriages were almost always heterosexual and conducted out of purpose, it was also widely believed that marriage should always yield offspring. Sometimes, having offspring was the main reason for marriage – and only sons in particular, as they could carry down the family name. A couple that could not conceive a son might be seen as cursed or suffering from divine punishment. Some monarchs took on new wives if their previous ones were unable to bear them children or died in labor.
Over time, the concept of marriage began to change. People started to marry out of love rather than purpose, leading to most being able to choose their own partners today. Divorce and separation also became commonplace, where people would break off a relationship if they felt that the love was no longer there. In addition, couples began to date for a longer period to get to know each other fully before deciding to commit to a marriage. This is completely different from traditional obligational marriages where neither party would have a say in who their spouse was, would likely only meet them on the day of the marriage, and were expected to remain in the relationship until either one passed away. Although most of these arranged marriages are things of the past, there are still some happening today.
Society also began to see marriage as less important and not an absolutely necessary step for any adolescent. Accompanying the upward shift in the age of adulthood, the new age group of teenagers was defined. Teenagers were encouraged to stay in school and pursue their education before settling down with a partner. Today, most people in first-world countries complete tertiary education and even get some work experience before deciding to marry and have children. Some people choose to remain single or remain in a relationship without marrying, both of which have much less negative connotations nowadays than in the past.
The emphasis placed on bearing children and carrying on the family line is minimal these days. There are still parts of the world that hold these traditional beliefs, but an increasing number of young couples are recognizing that they have the option not to have children. Along with this, couples are also combining their last names so that their children will contine the family line of both names, instead of going with tradition where the children take on only the father’s name. Some couples even opt not to use their last names at all, and instead give their child a completely different name.
The contemporary world has much-changed views of marriage and family. Although the traditional nuclear family still holds strong, more people have loosened their views and may recognize other combinations to be families as well. Single parenting is common nowadays, whereas in historical times, people would often be pressured to re-marry if they had lost their spouse. It was also unheard of for an unmarried person to have a child, while these days, having a biological child without ever getting married is not so much of a stigma any longer. Some single people also choose to adopt their own children, a practice that would have been very surprising in the past.
Of course, LGBT families have also come into the mix. While society has not fully accepted the notion of same-sex couples, they are prevalent enough that one would be unlikely to bat an eye compared to a couple of centuries ago, where even interracial relationships would rock the boat. LGBT activists around the world are advocating for their sexual orientations to be recognized, leading to an increasing number of countries legalizing gay marriage.
Additionally, there are small communities of polygamic families living around the world. The polygamic families of today differ from the historical dynamics of men having multiple wives, in that the people in today’s polygamic relationships all have a mutual relationship with one another. The multiple wives of historical men, on the other hand, would probably not have been romantically or sexually interested in one another.
In general, people these days are more inclined to believe that any family structure can be considered a family as long as the people identify themselves as such. Compared to the traditional views of ancient civilizations, we have definitely come a long way in recognizing a basic human right. | https://www.essaysusa.com/article/sociology-of-families-and-marriage |
In the 1980s New Right thinkers argued that government policy was undermining the family so policy changes were needed. Their thinking dominated policy development from 1979 to 1997.
Like Functionalists, the New Right hold the view that there is only one correct or normal family type. This is the traditional or conventional nuclear family. Again like Functionalists, The New Right sees this family as ‘natural’ and based on fundamental biological differences between men and women. In their view this family is the cornerstone of society; a place of contentment, refuge and harmony. Finally the New Right argue that the decline of the traditional family and the growth of family diversity are the cause of many social problems such as higher crime rates and declining moral standards generally
The New Right believe that it is important for children to have a stable home, with married mother and father, and that ideally the wife should be able to stay at home to look after the children.
They believe that the introduction of the welfare state led to a culture where people depend on hand-outs from the state and that these encourage single parenting, which in turn, they argue leads to deviancy and a decline in morality.
New Right thinking encouraged the conservative government to launch the Back to Basics campaign 1993 to encourage a return to traditional family values. This was criticised for being unsuccessful, and hypocritical due some Conservative MPs being found to be having affairs or being divorced.
Evidence for ‘non-nuclear families’ being a problem
- The rate of family breakdown is much lower amongst married couples (6% compared to 20%)
- Children from broken homes are almost five times more likely to develop emotional problems
- Young people whose mother and father split up are also three times as likely to become aggressive or badly behaved
- Lone-parent families are more than twice as likely to live in poverty as two-parent families.
- Children from broken homes are nine times more likely to become young offenders.
Criticisms of the New Right view of the family
- They exaggerate the decline of the Nuclear family. Most adults still marry and have children. Most children are reared by their two natural parents. Most marriages continue until death. Divorce has increased, but most divorcees remarry.
- Feminism – gender roles are socially determined rather than being fixed by biology. Traditional gender roles are oppressive to women.
- Feminism – divorce being easier is good because without it many women end up being trapped in unhappy or abusive relationships.
- Most single parents are not welfare scroungers – most want to work but find it difficult to find jobs that are flexible enough so they can balance work and child care.
- Chester (see later!) argues that the New Right exaggerate the extent of cohabiting and single parent families – most children still spend most of their lives in a nuclear family arrangement.
Signposting and Related Posts
The Troubled Families Programme – A current social policy which the New Right agree with
The Feminist View of The Family – criticises the New Right view
The Late Modern View of The Family – criticises the New Right view.
The New Right Perspective on the family is a key part of the families and households module within A-level sociology. | https://revisesociology.com/2014/02/10/new-right-family/ |
Nuclear families, which include a mother, father and children living in the household, are what many consider 'typical.' However, as the social landscape changes, so do ideas and perceptions of different family types. Every family structure has advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages of the Nuclear Family
Approximately 68 percent of children live in a nuclear family unit, according to 2016 U.S. Census data. In general, people view this family structure as an ideal or dominant arrangement to raise a family. Two married parents and their children living together provides a favorable image for many reasons.
Strength and Stability
Children born into a marriage tend to have more stability than children born into cohabitation. Pew Research Center found that 20 percent of kids born to married parents experience divorce, while nearly 50 percent of kids in cohabiting families experience divorce. Both of these groups of children have a better chance to one day live with a married couple than kids born to single moms. Committed spouses or partners model a loving, caring, and supportive relationship for their children. This translates into future success when children learn how to seek positive relationships and interact well with others. Children see partners work together to solve problems, delegate household responsibilities, and support one another through positive and negative issues.
Financial Stability Equals More Opportunity
Many nuclear families have enough economic stability to provide children with luxuries, opportunities, and a safe environment. Pew Research Center notes 57 percent of households with married parents were well above the poverty line while only 21 percent of single-parent households were. Children in nuclear families may be able to attend dance, gymnastics, music or other types of classes, especially when both partners work outside the home. Children with these opportunities are more likely to be successful academically and socially.
Consistency Means Behavior Successes
The successful nuclear family provides children with consistency in caretaking. Children who have both stability and consistency in their lives are more likely to exhibit positive behavior, earn good grades in school and become more involved in community and extracurricular activities. The nuclear family may eat dinner together on a regular basis, go to church or temple, and take family vacations which strengthens relationships and builds a solid foundation for future life goals.
Encourages Education
Children born to parents with college degrees are more likely to attend and complete college themselves. An analysis by the Council on Contemporary Families indicates educated parents are less likely to divorce and have more resources to provide for children. Pew Research Center adds that parents with degrees are more likely to be in the labor force, which increases family income level in educated, nuclear families. The placement of value on education combined with a higher income level improves the academic future of children.
Health Benefits
Overall, research suggests children in families with married, biological parents have better social, emotional and physical health than other children. One reason for this is because married parents are less likely to abuse children. Nuclear families are also more likely to use emergency rooms and may have the means to provide good healthcare for children. The emotional strain on children living in a non-violent household with two parents is significantly less than children living with one parent or other caregivers.
Communication Skills
Communication between family members in a nuclear household features fewer obstacles and distractions. With technological advances, these families increase communication from outside the home. According to an analysis by Pew Internet & American Life Project, nuclear families are the most likely of all family types to use internet and cell phones. This allows parents to better monitor child internet use and participate in online activities with children. Kids with cell phones have the means to keep in contact with parents about schedule changes and emergencies.
Connection to Family During the Aging Process
Those who grow up in a stable nuclear family have a better chance of keeping family ties intact and therefore having familial connections during the aging process. As children from nuclear families age, they will tend to have more familial support versus children who have one parent and no siblings. This can leave those from nuclear families at an advantage when it comes to economic and emotional support as parents and/or siblings experience illness and eventually pass away.
Disadvantages of the Nuclear Family
Every type of family experiences problems and emergencies throughout life. The nuclear family format is not always a viable option for several reasons.
Extended Family Exclusion
The nuclear family unit provides a strong bonding experience for immediate family members. The smaller family size allows individualized attention towards partners and children which creates lifelong bonds. However, one analysis published at Preserve Articles points out that the nuclear family unit can isolate people from other relatives and relationships. This breakdown of the extended family unit, won't be beneficial in hard times. Grandparents, aunts, uncles and cousins have a place within a family structure, but the nuclear family doesn't always foster these relationships.
The Realities of Burnout
Acts International suggests family members, particularly mothers, have a tendency to burn out from attempts to meet every person's needs. The focus on children can be overwhelming and leave little room for parents to take care of themselves. Without help from extended family, parents may need to take off work to care for sick children. The struggle to balance the demands of work, family and friendships without outside assistance leads to stress, depression, anxiety or other problems.
Conflict Resolution Skills
While less conflict and decreased family stress is an advantage of the nuclear family, it also puts the family at a disadvantage. Conflict is a part of life, and conflict resolution skills are beneficial in school, the community and the workplace. Nuclear families can develop like-minded thinking, leading to fewer arguments within the family unit. However, it can increase the disagreements with extended family members. Extended family with differing opinions and ideas can help families see alternate viewpoints and learn to deal with outside opinion and conflicts.
Small Support System
Emergency situations, such as an accident or even a time of illness, can leave small nuclear families in crisis. The Preserve Articles analysis points out how extended family structures offer built-in help for these scenarios. In a nuclear family where both parents work and have young children, the ability to meet all expectations and needs solely within the family unit is not always feasible. Multi-generational households offer assistance as needed.
Compounding Stereotypes
The emphasis on the nuclear family as best practice exacerbates stereotypes of single mothers, family structures based on religion, and cultural family structures around the world. The International Encyclopedia of Marriage and Family suggests nuclear families are not as historically prevalent as originally believed. The symbolism this idea represents is an ideal for all to seek while those in other scenarios earn criticism. This normalized ideal influences public policy and government programs, which can exclude different family types.
Self-Centered Worldview
According to the Concordia University - St. Paul, the traditional nuclear family is child-centered. This means the focus is on the immediate family, children in particular, for all facets of life. The family unit strives to meet its own needs and places secondary emphasis on others. This viewpoint can lead children to selfish tendencies and thinking. It can also create a narrow worldview where the greater good of society gets little consideration.
Traditional Nuclear Family Is Not Same-Sex Inclusive
Research notes that any stable two-parent household regardless of the parents' gender can create a healthy, loving environment for their child or children to thrive. The nuclear family definition is non-inclusive and excludes same-sex households despite the fact that they can provide just as stable of an environment. Children who grow up in stable homes with two parents have a higher chance of upward economic mobility versus children who grew up in unstable home environments. This means that the nuclear family is not the best option when it comes to providing family stability, it is simply just one option of many.
Preferred Family Structure
The nuclear family is preferred by many to raise children, although the incidence of single parent, divorced and multigenerational households are on the rise. The choice to raise a family by the nuclear model does not guarantee success or happiness but can provide a basis for obtaining those ideals. Awareness of the possible advantages and disadvantages allows a big-picture view of this family structure. No family is perfect, but when you work together with family members, you ensure the best possible outcomes for everyone involved. | https://www.gtgindia.com/2019/06/pros-and-cons-of-nuclear-family.html |
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