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Sharon Bong problematizes the conflation of vegetarianism even veganism as a prototypical ecofeminist ethic. In doing so, it aims to uncover the deeper relationality between human and animal that goes beyond the anthropocentrism embedded in Laudato Si (2015) and most feminisms including ecological feminism or ecofeminism. Within a Christian framework, the human created in the image of God is given dominion over the earth and non-human species. Within a feminist framework, human rights and women’s human rights are accorded to the human by virtue of their humanness. In this sense, animal ‘rights’ is not only oxymoronic, but also not a priority for feminists given the all-consuming battle against gender-based violence. Within an ecofeminist framework, the parallelism of the domination of man over woman and nature is foregrounded with non-human species remaining at large, an “absent referent” or not made adequately visible, as Carol J. Adams in her seminal text The Sexual Politics of Meat (2006), puts it. And where non-human species are attended to by ecofeminists, the persistent call to eschew eating meat and the produce of animals—to become vegetarian and vegan, respectively—thus engenders a vegan-cum-ecofeminist politics and spirituality. The need to problematize this standpoint is thus necessary as a radical ethics of care for “our common home”, emerges from an almost post-Christian de-centring of the human in creation. The paper offers a critical reading of Laudato Si from a queer ecofeminist lens, that situates the human not external from the food chain and organic continuum not of humanity per se but rather the creation and the cosmos. Sharon argues for a post-Christian decentering of human in creation. She develops her argument by engaging three dialogue partners: Laudato Si, Carol J. Adams’s vegan feminism and Queer ecofeminism. Ecofeminism comes closest to the reimaginaing the relationality human beings should have with other beings. What has decentering ourselves got to do with eating or not eating meat? On one hand, at the heart of the binary of human/non-human is a relationship of humans of non-humans. This finds fullest expression in our right to kill and eat non-human other, which is bereft of speech to articulate its pain. Animals are without a soul from the Christian perspective and not made in the image and likeness of God. On the other hand, an ecofeminist standpoint says that one ought to not consume the other. Laudato Si’ calls us to have an ecological conversion and an advocacy for climate justice. It challenges us to live a life of simplicity, sobriety, inner peace, capacity for wonder. From this, we find church support for an ethics of care. However, Laudato Si’ is not without problems. For one, anthropocentrism remains paramount in the document. It remains complicit to a hierarchically ordered relationship wherein human beings as possesses particular dignity above other creatures. Experimentation remains permissible within reasonable limits. This results to a very mechanistic worldview wherein the earth is for the use of humankind. Humankind is ambivalently called to responsible stewardship–Dominion is re-imagined to correct plunder but human beings still remain at the center of creation. Moreover, the document has not recognized the good works of feminists. Carol J. Adams’s work is useful for where Laudato Si’ leads-off. Sharon highlights three points from her work. First is the sexual politics of meat. There is an intimate connection between masculinity and meat-eating: “Real men eat men” especially red meat (beef). A meet eating world reflects a very patriarchal world order. There is therefore a connection between gender-based violence and how animals are bread for eating pleasure of humans. In all this, animals remain the absent referent. They are talked about but are not part of the conversation. Second is animal ecofeminism. Adams is a radical feminist. Ecofeminism makes the connection between women and nature, while women have more affinity with culture since men drive progress. This celebrates a feminist ethics of care that is not humanist, in the sense that humans are cut-off from the rest of creation. Rather, non-humans are seen in relational terms. If there is a carbon footprint, there is a carbon hoofprint. Moreover, all this is not just personal. “The personal is political.” This is Christian veganism which challenges Christians to recognize the tension between objectification within the Christian framework and resistance to objectification. From all this, how can we work towards ecological conversion? This can be done by decentering the human and through conscientization, as we have learned from the Pedagogy of the Oppressed. An particular way to move forward in a theological ethics of care that decenters the human is by building on Agnes Brazal’s Cyborg Spirituality. The cyborg which is part human and part machine redefines what is human. In the cyborg, the machine is an extension of the human body. So much is organic and machine about us. The cyborg is a creature that breaks boundaries (Donna Haraway). Cyborg can be used as an entity that breaks the binary between human and non-human. For example, as cyborgs, we ingesting animals and engage in cosmetic surgery. The queer are like cyborgs that cross boundaries as well. The very concept of human is already being redefined in the 21st century. There is no longer a “stable fixed essence with regards to human redesigning themselves,” because human essence or human nature is being decentralized.	https://ecclesiaofwomen.com/2018/01/25/you-are-what-you-eat-the-ethics-of-eating-meat-and-queer-ecofeminism-keynote-by-sharon-bong-malaysia/
“Biodiversity is nature, it is the richness of the living world, the plants, the animals, everything that constitutes life on earth and which allows us, human beings, to be able to subsist, feed and live“. Recently declared Isabelle Autissier, president of WWF France, on a national radio. To the journalist’s question: “The dinosaurs have disappeared and that did not prevent humanity from prospering. In what way is what is happening today more serious? “. Anne Larigauderie, executive secretary of the Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES, composed of 130 countries and 145 experts), outbid: “At the time when there were dinosaurs, there were no humans; we, what concerns us is the life of human beings on earth and therefore the disappearance of all our natural resources really puts in danger our ability to have such a quality of life “. The shift, dreaded by some, from an anthropocentrism to a biocentrism, where man goes from “master and possessor of nature” to the savior and servant of nature, does not seem yet to be proven. The new alliance between the living and the human would pass through the attenuation of the Anthropocene, the visible hand … the too visible human, one of the ways seems to be the ecosystem biomimicry in agriculture, which is to take nature as a model … but to protect nature doesn’t inevitably suggest to extend its control over it?	https://dreamseeders.org/en/the-wandering-of-time-storyteller-briefs/
In this essay, I attempt to explore the relationship between anthropocentrism in the philosophy of science and technology, and issues that arise from human tendency to dominate non-human species and nature. Anthropocentrism is the view that regards humans or human activities as the central and most important element in existence. It regards non-human entities as having only instrumental value to satisfy human needs. Discussion will be based mainly on readings in the different themes in the philosophy of science and technology – such as scientific realism and anti-realism, post- and trans-humanism, ethics and environmental justice – by different authors, each containing notions of anthropocentrism or anti-anthropocentrism in some form. The main readings that will be included in this discussion are: Laudan’s "A Confutation of Convergent Realism", Bostrom’s "The Transhumanism FAQ", Katz’s "The Big Lie: Human Restoration of Nature", and Jonas’ "Technology and Responsibility". In the following parts of the essay, the relevant concepts and arguments raised by the authors in their writings and how they relate to anthropocentrism or anti-anthropocentrism will be examined. Then, issues concerning anthropocentrism in science and technology will be discussed. In "A Confutation of Convergent Realism", Laudan (Curd & Cover, 2013) critiques the type of reasoning used by realists in support of scientific realism by pointing out the fallacies in logical and historical evidence realists present. The point that is to be made here is not to agree or disagree with what Laudan (Curd & Cover, 2013) argues, or to argue for or against scientific realism. Laudan (Curd & Cover, 2013) did not explicitly state his position regarding scientific realism; his writing can only be seen as a call for more tenable reasoning by scientific realists to support their position. He does mention however, about how anti-realists would refute realists’ arguments about epistemic realism in science, and it is the anti realists’ views that will be used as a launching point in the discussion about anthropocentrism. According to Okasha (2002), anti-realists “hold that the aim of science is to provide a true description of only the ‘observable’ part of the world.” They reject scientific explanations about ‘unobservable’ region of reality, or theories that are “beyond the reach of the observational powers of humans”. This anti-realist view is also known is instrumentalism, which is the view that these ‘unobservable’ theories are meaningless, and these theories are merely ‘instruments’ for “helping us predict observable phenomena” (Okasha, 2002). The question of what phenomena should be counted as observable and unobservable is irrelevant to this discussion, for the focus is on the anti-realists’ mode of thinking. Clearly, scientific anti-realism is anthropocentric in nature. Anti-realists see reality as human dependant, or that human conception of reality depends solely on human sensory perceptions. In contrast, scientific realism asserts that the existence of objects do not depend on humans or human conception. Concepts of anthropocentrism also exist in discussions about post-humanism and trans-humanism. Post-humanism is a condition in which “human and intelligent technology are becoming increasing intertwined” (LaGrandeur, 2004). Post-humanism focuses on function rather than form, which means ‘humanness’ is not defined by how a species look; instead it will be defined by how the species processes information, whether it is sentient, emphatic, intelligent and so on. Hence in post-humanist world, it is believed that human brains and bodies will undergo technological modifications. According to Bostrom (Kaplan, 2009), humans could be merged with machines or be “completely synthetic artificial intelligences”. Humans could even “jettison their bodies and live as information patters” or enhanced uploads “on vast super-fast computer networks.” Trans-humanism, Bostrom (Kaplan, 2009) says, focuses on modifying the human organism through any kind of emerging science. Trans-humanists think that people’s lives, and the ways they relate to others, should be shaped in accordance with their own deepest values, aspirations and ideals, and the kind of experiences they wish to lead. Trans-humanists yearn to achieve augmented capacities such as super intelligence, be resistant to disease and impervious to aging, to have unlimited youth and vigour, et cetera. From the explanations given above, it is clear that post-humanism involves the ‘decentralization’ of Homo sapiens, and requires an anti- or a non-anthropocentric perspective. The idea goes beyond the human and non-human dualism, and does not see humans as unique or superior to non-humans. Instead it finds the interconnection between human and non-human. In other words, post-humanism forces humans to change their understanding about identity and dominant ideas of reality, as it emphasizes a change in human understanding of the ‘self’ and how it relates to the natural world, society and machines or technologies. Trans-humanism, in contrast, advocates no so much on how humans think of the ‘self’ and relate to the world around them, but rather provides a vision on how humans could use science and technology to ‘enhance’ their lives and to become something more than humans currently are. Some trans-humanists believe that humans should do whatever is possible to achieve augmented capabilities, even if it entails harming non-human entities and nature. Because of its sole focus is on human wants and aspirations, I argue that trans-humanism, unlike post-humanism, contains elements of anthropocentrism. Eric Katz (Kaplan, 2009), in "The Big Lie: Human Restoration of Nature", critiques the view that a damaged nature can and should be fixed or restored by humans. The belief that human science and technology will fix, repair and improve the nature is essentially “an expression of an anthropocentric worldview.” Katz (Kaplan, 2009) states that a “restored” nature is merely an artefact “created to meet human satisfactions and interests” and the act of “restoring” and repairing the degraded ecosystem and nature is merely an “unrecognized manifestation of the insidious dream of the human domination of nature.” That is to say, the re-created natural environment that is the end product of a restoration project can never be a natural object, and “is nothing more than an artefact created for human use.” This is because, according to Katz (Kaplan, 2009), when humans redesign and reconstruct natural objects, humans impose their anthropocentric purposes on “areas that exist outside human society” and construct these objects “on the model of human desires, interests, and satisfaction.” Natural objects, in contrast, lack intrinsic functions and were not ‘designed’ to meet a human purpose. The discourse on anthropocentrism inevitably leads to questions regarding ethics and human responsibility. Hans Jonas (Kaplan, 2009), in "Technology and Ethics", stresses that modern technology necessitates the reconsideration of ethics. Human action under modern technology has become different from what it has traditionally been, or what it was traditionally assumed to be. According to Jonas (Kaplan, 2009), traditional ethics presume four characteristics of human action. Firstly, that human action on non-human things bears no ethical significance; secondly, ethics is anthropocentric and matters only to the dealing of “man with man”; thirdly, the nature and essence of “man” is unchanged by techne; and lastly, ethics or proper conduct is concerned only with immediate consequences and is confined to a limited time span and horizon of space. With modern technology, Jonas (Kaplan, 2009) argues that the nature of human action has changed, hence a new conception of ethics needs to exist. Modern technology has given rise to the need to expand the scope of traditional ethics to accommodate new kinds of human action, as well as the expanded temporal and spatial horizon of human action. In short, traditional ethics is anthropocentric. Humans need to break free from this type of ethics in face of the new challenges brought forth by modern technology. Jonas (Kaplan, 2009) suggests that, because modern technology has given humans “power” over nature and would result in human actions that have wide and far-ranging consequences, human responsibility and ethics should now be based on anti-anthropocentric values. When considering a new paradigm in ethics, humans now need to take into consideration their ethical responsibilities towards nature as well as their survival in the “far-of future”, as both the ecology and human survival are interconnected. In particular, technologies that would confer “quasi-utopian” powers – such a technologies sought by trans-humanists that could enhance, augment or modify human capabilities – must be accompanied with relevant ethics that questions the consequences of these powers to the individual, the ecology and to humanity in the long-term. Non-human animals and the ecology will need to be accounted for when thinking about future of human survival. Thus, an ethics based on anti-anthropocentric values will be able to query and take into account both the ecological factors as well as the conditions for an indefinite continuation of humanity on Earth in a more comprehensive and objective manner. As mentioned, anthropocentrism and anthropocentric thoughts in science and technology call for deep and through ethical considerations. What are the consequences of anthropocentrism in science and technology to the long-term survival and well-being of humans as well as non-human animals and nature? The fundamental issue in anthropocentrism that needs to be first highlighted here, as Katz (Kaplan, 2009) mentions, is domination and the denial of freedom and autonomy. The domination of humans over the natural world and non-human animals is the result of anthropocentrism, because anthropocentrism or human centric thoughts and self-concern naturally lead to the subordination of non-human species and nature, and their relegation as instruments to serve and ‘benefit’ humans in reaching their goals. To restate this claim in Katz’s (Kaplan, 2009) own words “from within the perspective of anthropocentrism, humanity believes it is justified in dominating and moulding the non-human world to its own human purposes.” Some proponents of anthropocentrism in science and technology, in particular trans-humanists, believe that humans should do anything and everything possible to augment their abilities and enhance their lives, regardless of the damage done to the non-human realm and the ecology. Ecological damage and domination is seen as acceptable and unavoidable for humans to achieve something ‘better’. Such strong anthropocentric view and desire to use science and technology to dominate nature is hubristic and haphazard, as it could potentially subvert both human existence and nature. Arguments involving morality and non-human animals as sentient and conscious beings aside, the ecological structure and symbiotic relationships between humans and nature are complex, intricate and still not fully understood by scientists. Hence there is no certainty that the humans could continue surviving in the far future amidst a heavily degraded nature, even if their technological aspirations are fulfilled. There is always the possibility that the destruction of nature and non-human species for the sake of Homo sapiens could lead to the eventual demise of the species. Furthermore, another point of concern is with regard to the paradox of anti-realists’ view of science and the biological classification of Homo sapiens. According to biologists, research into DNA has confirmed that Homo sapiens are one of more than 200 species belonging to the order of Primates. The problem is, DNA and genes cannot be observed through human senses and can only be ‘detected’ through a sophisticated apparatus. It can thus be implied that, to anti-realists, DNA and genes must be unobservable and meaningless, and theories about the origins and evolution of the Genus Homo untenable. Since so much of Darwin’s Theory of Evolution and biological classifications are supported by DNA proofs, this would mean the classifications and Theory are also untenable. Ipso facto, current biological classification of the human species, and evolution-based accounts of how humans are superior to the non-humans are ‘wrong’, and humans would have no solid reasoning to justify their anthropocentric worldview other than hubris and gluttony. In conclusion, anti-realism, trans-humanism, traditional ethics, the re-creation or restoration of the natural environment, all stem from an anthropocentric worldview – the belief that only humans-centric views and activities matter. In my view, it is crucial for the ethics of science and technology to account for both the justice and concern for the non-human realm and the subjective needs of humans. Philosophers, ethicists, as well as scientists need to come together and deliberate on whether the practice of science and technology should be based on anthropocentric or anti-anthropocentric values, or an entirely new paradigm. (2002 Words) Reference Bostrom, N. (2003). The transhumanist FAQ. In Kaplan, D. Editor (Ed.), Readings in the philosophy of technology (pp. 345 – 360). Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.. Jonas, H. (1974). Technology and responsibility. In Kaplan, D. Editor (Ed.), Readings in the philosophy of technology (pp. 173 – 184). Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.. Katz, E. (1992). The big lie: human restoration of nature. In Kaplan, D. Editor (Ed.), Readings in the philosophy of technology (pp. 443 – 451). Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.. Lagrandeur, K. (2014). What is the difference between posthumanism and transhumanism? Retrieved from http://ieet.org/index.php/IEET/more/lagrandeur20140729 Laudan, L. (1981). A confutation of convergent realism. In Curd, M. Editor & Cover, J.A. Editor (Eds.), Philosophy of science – the central issues (pp. 1108 – 1128). New York, N.Y.: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.. Okasha, W. (2002). Realism and anti-realism. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.	http://p-scitech.wikidot.com/essays:lua
What is the difference between Ecocentric and anthropocentric views? What is the difference between Ecocentric and anthropocentric views? What is the difference between Ecocentric and anthropocentric views? The relationship between two motives underlying environmental attitudes was examined: ecocentrism—valuing nature for its own sake, and anthropocentrism—valuing nature because of material or physical benefits it can provide for humans. What is anthropocentric view? The anthropocentric view is a human-centered ideology. Christianity, Judaism, and Islam are all religions that are considered to have a strong anthropocentric view. In the anthropocentric view, humans are the favored children of the creator. What is the impact of human activities in soil Brainly? The way people use land can affect the levels of nutrients and pollution in soil. Any activity that exposes soil to wind and rain can lead to soil loss. Farming, construction and development, and mining are among the main activities that impact soil resources. Over time, many farming practices lead to the loss of soil. What are the impacts of renewable energy? The environmental impacts associated with solar power can include land use and habitat loss, water use, and the use of hazardous materials in manufacturing, though the types of impacts vary greatly depending on the scale of the system and the technology used—photovoltaic (PV) solar cells or concentrating solar thermal … What are some measures that can be done to address human impacts on the environment? Measuring and Reducing Your Environmental Impact - Use energy more efficiently. Producing electricity and natural gas and delivering it to your door generates greenhouse gas emissions. - Install renewables. - Conserve water. - Reduce, reuse, recycle. - Travel less. - Consider near sourcing. - Ship goods more efficiently. Which of the following contributes the biggest impact on the environment? Answer: Humans impact the physical environment in many ways: overpopulation, pollution, burning fossil fuels, and deforestation. What are the negative effects of human activities on resources Brainly? Human ships and tankers spill oil in the emission. Increased emissions of greenhouse gases from factories and industries causes global warming. Soil erosion is caused by deforestation, i.e. cutting of trees to clear land. Even animals are killed for meat, hide, claw, skin or even simply for sport. What is Post Anthropocentrism? The “post” in Steiner’s position refers to the “post” of a political or moral anthropocentrism that considers all too obvious human characteristics as a measure of moral value (but even in Steiner’s position there is a certain “human bias”). What is the value of human person in their environment? Environment philosophy is the discipline that studies the moral relationship of human beings with the environment and its non-human contents. Philosophers believe that the human person has the ability to change the environment to suit his purposes. How do human activities affect the environment Brainly? Answer: Humans impact the physical environment in many ways: overpopulation, pollution, burning fossil fuels, and deforestation. Changes like these have triggered climate change, soil erosion, poor air quality, and undrinkable water. What are the positive and negative changes in environment? Humans affect the environment in positive and negative ways. Cutting down trees and littering have a negative effect on animals and plants. Protecting endangered species and cleaning lakes and seas has a positive effect on the environment. What is the impact of using nonrenewable energy? Environmental Impacts of Non-Renewable Energy Sources - Perhaps the most well-known impact of using non-renewable energy sources is the emission of greenhouse gases, in particular carbon dioxide and methane, which contribute to climate change . - For example, coal is considered the worst emitter of carbon dioxide. What is an anthropocentric view of environmental ethics? Anthropocentrism, in its original connotation in environmental ethics, is the belief that value is human-centred and that all other beings are means to human ends. Environmentally -concerned authors have argued that anthropocentrism is ethically wrong and at the root of ecological crises. How will you organize or improve the environment? 8 Simple Ways to Help the Environment - Use Reusable Bags. Plastic grocery-type bags that get thrown out end up in landfills or in other parts of the environment. - Print as Little as Necessary. - Recycle. - Use a Reusable Beverage Containers. - Don’t Throw Your Notes Away. - Save Electricity! - Save Water. - Avoid Taking Cars or Carpool When Possible. How does your environment affect your way of living? The environment can influence peoples’ behavior and motivation to act. The environment can influence mood. For example, the results of several research studies reveal that rooms with bright light, both natural and artificial, can improve health outcomes such as depression, agitation, and sleep.	https://www.comicsanscancer.com/what-is-the-difference-between-ecocentric-and-anthropocentric-views/
Pope Francis believes the root cause of the ecological crisis is “a misguided anthropocentrism” which to a great extent is the cause of “the ethical, cultural and spiritual crisis of modernity” (119). Mary Evelyn Tucker of Yale University said the fact that the pope classified the environment as a moral issue changes everything. He begins by critiquing the technological paradigm in which technology and the myth of progress are leading us to commodify human beings and exploit nature: “unlimited growth is based on the lie that there is an infinite supply of the earth’s goods, and this leads to the planet being squeezed beyond every limit” (106). This paradigm accepts every advance in technology with a view to profit….yet by itself the market cannot guarantee integral human development and social inclusion” (109). Francis acknowledges the great progress technology can bring but he warns without a “sound ethics”, “it gives those with knowledge, and especially the economic resources….an impressive dominance over the whole of humanity” (104). Francis is critical of the culture of relativism, where “humans place themselves at the centre…and see everything as irrelevant unless it serves one’s own immediate interests” (122). This leads to a “culture of waste” and also to a “throwaway” mentality in relation to the environment and indeed people. It is this culture of relativism which enables people to use others in all sorts of abusive and destructive ways and also to use and abuse the resources of the natural environment. Francis gives two examples of how we might correct this excessive anthropocentrism: – firstly, work: human labour is about transformation dignity and respect and it should be a priority that “we continue to prioritize the goal of access to steady employment for everyone” (127). Secondly, biotechnology and in particular GMO’s: while Francis does not exclude their use he says there must be “places of debate” and “extensive and reliable information” as there is much concern about their use as a real threat to small producers, biodiversity and ecosystems. Fr. Liam is a Columban working in Pakistan.	https://columbans.co.uk/laudato-si-chapter-3
Anthropocentrism vs. Nonanthropocentrism: Why Should We Care? 1. Overview/abstract a. Even if Norton’s convergence thesis is true i. That is, both ethics recommend the same env responsible behaviors/policies b. Still good reasons to be worried about anthropocentric ethics c. Ethics concerns how to feel, not just what actions to take or what policies to adopt d. Anthropocentrism vs nonanthropocentrism have practical differences in how we should feel e. Anthropocentrism undermines common attitudes (love, respect, awe) that people think appropriate to take toward nature 2. Definition of anthropocentrism a. The nonhuman world has value only because and insofar as it serves human interests 3. Definition of non-anthropocentrism a. Denies the above 4. Note non-anthropocentrism is not (need not be) committed to intrinsic value of nature a. Could deny anthropocentrism and i. Claim value of organism depend on contribution it makes to health of ecosystems ii. Claim that the value of every nonconscious being depends on whether conscious beings happen to care about it iii. Claim no such thing as IV at all 5. Non-anthropocentrism argue that a. The view that “its really all about us” got us into these env messes and so to solve them and avoid them in future we need to reject self-centered anthropocentric theory and develop an ethic that respects nature rather than one that just uses it b. See anthropocentrism as wrongheaded once take seriously what ecology has taught us about our relation to nature i. We are one species among many ii. Live interdependently with other parts of nature iii. Aren’t as different from rest of nature as might have thought 6. Anthropocentrism argues a. Problems isn’t thinking that only human interests matter but an ill informed and short-sighted understanding of our interests i. If take interests of future humans seriously ii. Get clear about all ways health of natural env improves quality of human lives iii. We’d have all the arguments we’d ever need to justify env responsibility b. Anthropocentric approaches have many advantages over non-anthropocentrism i. Nonanthropocentric ethics may not be philosophically viable (interests or intrinsic value for nature are problematic ideas) ii. Anthropocentric ethics been around a long time and has well worked out theories that can be used to protect nature (human rights, etc) iii. *Most policy makers and social scientist are anthropocentric (1) Anthropocentric assumptions underlie their work (2) By adopting their assumptions this allows for more collaborative relationship with people who shape env policy (3) Think this is true? iv. Anthropocentrism can undermine the harmful people versus nature view: (1) If what is good in nature is ultimately a matter of what is good for people, then there is no deep conflict here c. Summary case for anthropocentrism i. Nonanthropocentrism recommends env responsible behavior, but is fairly radical, unpopular and theoretically problematic ii. Anthropocentrism recommends same env responsible behaviors but requires only minor changes in ethical beliefs that are already widely accepted and is theoretically well worked out iii. Only fool choose anthropocentrism 7. Anthropocentrism provides norms for action and for feeling a. It is a claim about what makes nature valuable–only serving human interests b. This is to give us a reason for why we should care about nature and why nature is worth caring about (solely because it is instrumentally valuable to humans) c. These claims about why we should care lead to two types of norms i. About action (what we ought to do) ii. About feeling (what we ought to feel) 8. Because McShane accepts convergence hypothesis for sake of argument, she does not question anthropocentric norms for action (as same conclusions as nonanthropocentrism) a. Does question anthropocentrism’s norms for feeling 9. Why questions of how we feel are important a. How we feel can affect how we act b. How people feel matters for own sake (apart from acts it leads too) i. Want your friends to really like you and not just to act in a way they would if they liked you ii. Someone who feels superior to others is problematic even if she never acted on those feelings c. In trying to be morally good I’m worried not just about how I act but how I should feel i. Jimmy Carter’s I have sinned in my heart d. How we should feel not reducible to what feelings best serve my interests i. But rather which feelings are deserved or fitting ii. May be in my best interests to admire my boss but that feeling may not be deserved 10. HOW ANTHROPOCENTRISM CAN’T ALLOW FOR LOVE, RESPECT, AND AWE FOR NATURE 11. Some feelings toward things are incompatible with our thinking that the thing’s value is entirely dependent on its satisfaction of our interests 12. For example, feelings of love, awe, and respect and religious attitudes not compatible with seeing their object as solely valuable in serving our interest 13. Love your friend but insist her value is solely reducible to how she serves your interests? a. Love is an other-centered emotion b. To love her is in part to deny her value is solely instrumental to your interests. 14. Respect something means you see it as making a claim on our moral attention in its own right 15. To be in awe is to see something as having a greatness beyond your needs, interests, attitudes 16. Same with religious attitudes toward nature 17. Central claim of anthropocentrism is incompatible with certain common attitudes towards nature 18. For anthro to love the land, respect nature, and feel awe of the vastness of the universe, are mistakes 19. Worry: I worry that the incompatibility is between loving and respecting and awing something and seeing its value as reducible to one’s own interests, a. But the anthropocentrist is claiming not that nature is of value only to the individual (not an egoist) but to all humans b. Is this enough to block the claim that these attitudes towards nature are disallowed by anthropocentrism c. Might not the fact that nature is of value to all humans actually generate love and respect and awe? 20. DO LOVE, RESPECT AND AWE MAKE SENSE DIRECTED TOWARDS NATURE?	https://hettingern.people.cofc.edu/Environmental_Studies_695_Environmental_Philosophy/McShane_Anthropocentrism%20_vs_NonAnthrop_Why_Care.htm
By Shelley Harrison This article briefly proposes an initial framework for articulating and formalizing a literary theory informed by the values of veganism and ahimsa—hereinafter simply “vegan literary theory”—and for applying that theory through literary criticism of individual works of literature. For the purposes of this endeavor, “literature” is to be broadly construed so as to include fiction and non-fiction written and spoken material as well as works in the fine and performing arts and in all expressive media, from narrative-based painting and sculpture to audio and video recordings to video games and computer-generated simulations. For present purposes, some fundamental concepts are defined as follows. Hierarchy The word hierarchy comes from the Old French ierarchie, from Medieval Latin hierarchia meaning “ranked division of angels,” from the Greek hierarkhia meaning “rule of a high priest” (Online Etymology Dictionary). Hierarchy denotes, for present purposes, a system of thought, value, or organization in which some concerns or ends are prioritized over others. Otherism The word other comes from Old English oþer, meaning “the second” or “one of two,” from Proto-Germanic antharaz (source also of Old Saxon athar, Old Frisian other, German ander, Gothic anþar). Id. The present author uses the term “otherism” as a general category that encompasses biases and prejudices as found in sexism, racism, ethnocentrism, and the like as well as in the “us vs. them” mindset. This mindset embodies dualistic or binary thinking that disregards all gradation and degree—seeing the world in only “black and white” rather than recognizing “shades of gray.” Anthropocentrism The term anthropocentrism comes from the Greek anthropos, meaning “human” as opposed to the gods, and from the Old French centre, from Latin centrum, originally the fixed point of the two points of a drafting compass (thus, “the center of a circle” meaning that we use today), from the Greek kentron, meaning “sharp point.” Id. Anthropocentrism denotes, for present purposes, the view, theory, or system of belief or value in which humans are regarded as the “center of the world” or in which “the world revolves around humans.” In focusing exclusively or almost exclusively on human concerns, anthropocentrism—a form of otherism—is inherently hierarchical by effect of focus on that which is regarded as central rather than peripheral, a circle-plus-hierarchy effect that can be envisioned as a cone, with humans at the apex and all else beneath. Speciesism The term speciesism comes from the Latin species, “a particular sort, kind, or type” (opposed to genus), originally “a sight, look, view, appearance,” related to the Late Latin meaning “a special case,” from specere, “to look at, to see, to behold.” Id. Speciesism denotes, for present purposes, applied anthropocentrism. In other words, speciesism means putting anthropocentric beliefs or values into practice to the detriment of at least one other individual on the basis of that other individual’s belonging to a different species, e.g., through anthropogenic violence, oppression, enslavement, or displacement. Theoretical Framework for a Vegan Literary Theory Anthropocentrism, when unconscious, serves as the essential cognitive bias leading to humans’ exploitation of other animals and, when conscious, as the theoretical justification for such exploitation; humans’ invasion, colonization, alteration, and destruction of other animals’ living spaces; and humans’ interference with other animals’ life activities. The anthropocentric worldview has typically been taken for granted to such a degree that it fundamentally pervades human cultures, habits, political institutions, and socio-economic systems worldwide and throughout most of recorded human history. Human concerns are typically so heavily prioritized that other animals’ concerns—even their very lives—are not considered at all or, if considered, are consciously disregarded as being of no consequence. Rarely has anthropocentrism been challenged or even merely acknowledged. Literature is a potent means whereby a given mindset may be transmitted from one person to another and from one generation to the next. In the absence of a clear, coherent, and compelling theory for use in exposing and examining manifestations of a given mindset in literature, such transmission may continue unrecognized and unchecked indefinitely. Articulation and formalization of such a theory vis-à-vis anthropocentrism is, therefore, desirable, in the present author’s view. Other social justice movements have benefited from access to a clear theoretical basis for examining, dismantling, and, where necessary, devaluing works of history, philosophy, science, art, and creative writing that embody fundamentally flawed worldviews. The animal rights, liberation, and emancipation movement can similarly benefit from having a favorable critical vantage point. Toward that end, the present article proposes founding and framing a vegan literary theory on the propositions that: (i) anthropocentrism is an inherently hierarchical system or pattern of thought, belief, or value in which humans’ concerns and ends are prioritized over those of all other species; (ii) anthropocentrism may be expressed through or manifested in a literary work; and (iii) anthropocentrism is communicable from one human to another through such a literary work. This theoretical framework is intended to provide a core that is general enough to be powerfully applied to all forms of literature, broadly construed; specific enough to produce valuable results when applied; and constrained enough to avoid inviting literary critics into areas such as those described in the “Cautionary Notes” section below. Vegan Literary Criticism The above literary theory may be applied to individual works of literature through one or more critical prongs, such as: - viewing a work of literature through a non-anthropocentric lens so as to bring express or implied embodiments of the anthropocentric paradigm into high relief - identifying and confronting anthropocentric concepts and values embedded in a work, the literary techniques used to downplay or hide those concepts and values, and the rationalizations offered to excuse or justify these concepts and values - examining the physiological and psychological effects on a reader, listener, or viewer of exposure to a work that depicts, describes, or defends speciesist acts - identifying and confronting the technical use of expressive means—such as word choice, visual design choice, spoken tone of voice, and physical gesture—to establish, justify, or spread anthropocentric cognition, beliefs, and values - extracting, by reading allegorically or analogically, insights from a work that can be applied to the benefit of animals; for instance, reversing the “beast fable” function, such that human characters are the puppet-like, stock players and the “moral of the story” is a gleaning to be deployed on behalf of other animals or from their perspective. - suggesting ways in which anthropocentric content and means of expression can be replaced by content and means that are, to the degree possible, free from anthropocentrism - highlighting the merits of literary efforts aimed at countering anthropocentrism and speciesism or at producing an anthropocentrism-free alternative voice or narrative - exploring techniques for creating works which affirmatively embody, to the degree possible, the perspectives, concerns, ideas, and ends of other animals—i.e., a “Literature of Their Own” Each of the above currents is already flowing in at least a tentative way. For instance, many animal rights activists consciously seek to avoid using words, phrases, and colloquialisms that denigrate other animals or legitimize speciesism. See, e.g., Animals and Media Guide (while laudable, even this effort unfortunately reinforces anthropocentrism at times by, for instance, characterizing “non-human”—alas—animals as “voiceless” rather than humans as unable or unwilling to pay attention to animals’ voices); the Humane Manual of Style; Animal Equality: Language and Liberation, by Joan Dunayer (Ryce, 2001). Some efforts have also been made regarding visual depictions. See, e.g., the Visual Design Principles Guide (rejecting, for instance, “Disney-ized” portrayals of animals and the use of animals as photo props). The last approach described above has been at least partly—even if incidentally—instantiated through fictional works such as George Orwell’s Animal Farm and Richard Adams’ Watership Down. Cautionary Notes Some caveats are worth mentioning. First, while anthropocentrism shares many characteristics with other forms of otherism, and while social justice goals can be powerfully served by a collective and intersectional approach, vegan literary criticism should not be commandeered as a mere pretext or cover—a Trojan horse—for advancing human concerns and ends. Other animals and their concerns merit a “literature of their own,” one which, except for the inherent limitations of the chosen medium and the given author, is fully unencumbered by human-manufactured and human-serving ideas, perspectives, judgments, and agendas. No matter how meritorious humans’ concerns are in their own right, they are still human concerns. Ultimately, “piggy-backing” human concerns on animal concerns is another form of subordinating and exploiting animals. Such exploitation and subordination are contrary to the essence of veganism and ahimsa, and attempts to hijack vegan literary theory to serve human goals should be rejected. Second, vegan literary theory should not be taken or used to imply support for any particular set of strategies, tactics, methods, or means for achieving social and political change, i.e., activism, beyond the tacit acknowledgement that literary criticism on behalf of animals itself may be a meaningful endeavor. The effectiveness of a given activist strategy or tactic varies from one place and time to another. While literary criticism may itself serve as a form of activism, vegan literary criticism should not be entangled with or anchored to any other form. Third, vegan literary theory should similarly remain dissociated from any particular socio-political theory, system of government, ideology, economic system, religion, or philosophical school of thought. In other words, “[t]he animals do not recognize / your religions, / your nations, / your other fabrications….” What other animals do need from humans is to be left alone, not to be treated as pawns and instrumentalities in humans’ internecine power struggles. Putting Theory into Practice Authors who wish to engage in vegan literary criticism can, in the present author’s view, make a valuable contribution to the movement as a whole by pursuing this interest. The process can be straightforward, such as: - choose a work, preferably one that has some cultural traction, such as a famous movie or influential political document; note that no genre (e.g., mystery, romance, fantasy), style (e.g., renaissance, classical, baroque), medium (e.g., poem, painting, play), nor subject matter (e.g., fashion, chemistry, travel) should be considered beyond scrutiny - examine that work through a non-anthropocentric lens, considering, for instance, how different an account of the events depicted in the work would be if that account were told by a pig or a crow or a shark - identify those differences and elaborate on the anthropocentric biases, values, and ideas that may have given rise to those differences - provide a glimpse of an alternate version of the work, one free from the anthropocentrism paradigm While literary criticism may seem like an esoteric field, this field lies very close to the front line of the intellectual battle in which the animal-emancipation movement is now engaged. No prior revolution with which the present author is familiar—not even the proto-abolition movement that ended human slavery—has pertained to overturning a structure as deeply embedded in human culture as the one which animal emancipationists now seek to overturn. That structure is, in a word, anthropocentrism. The nature of this structure—cognitive—and the magnitude of this undertaking—revolutionary, on a global scale—underscore the need for success on the intellectual front. Over time, a rich body of vegan literary criticism may help turn the momentum of thousands of years of human culture, away from exploitation and enslavement toward respect and restraint, by engaging the intelligentsia and literati whose aid is needed on this front. By Shelley Harrison Notes Since veganism in its original, Watsonian form pertains expressly to animal exploitation and cruelty without, for instance, directly confronting incidental harm to animals resulting from human imperialism, veganism is not, in the present author’s view, comprehensive enough to encompass all concerns with respect to protecting animals. Ahimsa may be preferable in this respect and in its literal meaning, but its religious and animist origins and overtones may be a drawback. The “Golden Rule” (“Do unto others…) and Primum non nocere (“First, do no harm”) imperative provide other options but are also not baggage-free. Given the currency of veganism, “vegan” seems to be the best available modifier. A mild distinction between adjectives may be tempting: “anthropocentric” when pertaining to anthropocentrism as a system of belief or value; “anthropocentrist” when pertaining to an individual who subscribes to this system—that individual being an “anthropocentrist.” However, the use of such labels for individuals is problematic, as it tends to “otherize” and dehumanize individuals by ignoring their differences. Particularly in the age of social media, sound bites, and short attention spans, such one-size-fits-all labels—“She’s a liberal!”; “He’s a racist!”—are becoming potent mechanisms for calculated defamation and over-simplification. Such labeling is, therefore, probably best avoided. While not intended for the purpose of defining anthropocentrism, Protagoras’ assertion “Man is the measure of all things” serves well as an eloquent and concise articulation of the anthropocentric worldview. The medieval “Great Chain of Being” concept is another articulation of and theoretical justification for anthropocentrism, as is the Biblical “dominion” passage (Genesis 1:26-28; but see Genesis 1:29-30, clearly describing the pre-Fall world as vegan—for humans and other animals). In characterizing animals with less complex nervous systems as “lower” animals, scientists like Darwin also articulate the anthropocentric model. Here again, the absence of a single word that serves as a point-for-point logical opposite of anthropocentrism is felt. Biocentrism may be trotted out but still problematic, in part because -centrism itself has inherent problems in its tendency toward and implied subscription to hierarchical thinking. Perhaps the simple negation approach taken in, for instance, a + himsa (“non” or “without” + “injury”) or non + violence would be best, but that approach would yield something like “ananthropocentrism”—a mouthful not likely to win many adherents. Jainism—the Jains appear to have been the ancient perfecters of the Indian concept of ahimsa—appears to be the earliest (circa 600 BCE) forceful, systematic, and fully implemented confrontation of anthropocentrism and speciesism that the present author has been able to find. Secular vegetarianism appears to come much later, and coinage of the secular word “vegan” arrives in the 1940s. Environmentalism is also, at least in part, a challenge to anthropocentrism. E.g., feminist literary theory and criticism; feminist jurisprudence; critical race theory. A framework for vegan jurisprudence in particular will be addressed in a separate article. Communicable in the “contagious” sense. A beast fable is “[t]he commonest type of fable, in which animals and birds [sic] speak and behave like human beings in a short tale usually illustrating some moral point” (Oxford Reference). Aesop’s Fables provide some of the classic examples of this genre, such as “The Fox and the Grapes,” through which the expression “sour grapes” has entered the language. Such stories are a sort of literary analog to animal exploitation, wherein animals—albeit imaginary—are used to entertain, teach, or otherwise serve humans. Reversing this service—treating humans as the “beasts” and animals as the primary beneficiaries of the moral—is a version of the theme that gave rise to the “Mythology and Fantasy Literature” series now being published in the Humane Herald. Even the most imaginative, subtle, fluid, and empathetic mind must eventually collide with epistemological barriers. Epistemology as it pertains to the animal emancipation movement will, however, need to be addressed in a separate piece. The animal rights and vegan movement itself has, tragically, begun to be overrun by profit-making opportunism, in which the very animal concerns giving rise to the movement have been marginalized, if not forgotten. Some popular “vegan” food or “cruelty-free” product companies, for instance, are owned by people who are not otherwise committed to vegan values. Even many VOVBs (vegan-owned vegan businesses) continue to engage in severe habitat-harming practices in pursuit of financial gain. Perhaps even more disheartening, the same can be said of some non-profit organizations that are ostensibly dedicated to serving animals’ needs and of celebrities who “go vegan” for a quick publicity boost only to revert to a violence-based way of life once the newness and newsworthiness—to use that word loosely—wear off. All of the above are instances of at least partly “piggy-backing” human concerns on animal concerns. Similar dilution and dissipation seems to have overtaken the vegetarian movement in the 19th-century U.S. See generally The Vegetarian Crusade [sic], by Adam D. Shprintzen (2013). An example of the type of encumbrance and entanglement to avoid can be found in the publications of the Institute for Critical Animal Studies, whose well-meaning mission statement combines “animal liberation and anarchism” and whose principles include “support[ing]… strategies [such as]… economic sabotage [ranging] from boycotts to direct action.” While the present author also supports such tactics, all such tactics and socio-political theories are just human gibberish from other animals’ perspectives. The animals’ cause transcends and forecloses any rightful association with these or any other such means or theories. Such association only adulterates the animals’ cause. Complete non-exploitation of, non-disturbance of, and non-interference with the lives of other animals—which may be called collectively “nonsumption”—is the minimal standard; the theories and tactics with which humans convince themselves to live up to this standard are secondary. See note 10.	https://humaneherald.org/2017/12/05/vegan-literary-theory-and-criticism-toward-a-literature-of-their-own/
Let’s explore 8 change processes that catalyze the revolution from anthropocentrism to ecocentrism, from apathy to empathy, toward conscious participation with nature. So how do we reconnect deeply with Nature? One of the participants in my Shades of Green study said: The solution is elegantly simple. Find out what you love. If you love it, you will look after it. How do we “look after” Nature, not in the sense of stewardship, but in the sense of engaging in intimate and tender relationship? Let’s use the familiar language of “being in relationship” to describe with Nature. - Empathy. An empathic response to Nature’s suffering motivates us to acquire integrated climate change information in order to understand the stress, trauma and dis-ease experienced by Nature. Empathic relationship with Nature becomes more meaningful when we think of Nature metaphorically. Some relate to Nature as a Lover – someone that you love unconditionally, including the flaws and imperfections that make her special. Many people relate to the Earth as Mother whose body provides shelter and food for her children and enlivens them with spirit. - Falling in love all over again. “… love leads us to identify ever more with the Earth, for love is the great unifying and integrating power of universe. For centuries we have thought about the Earth. We were the subject of thought, and the Earth was its object and content. After all that we have learned of the new cosmology, we must think of ourselves as Earth. Earth is the great living subject feeling, loving, thinking, and through us knowing that it thinks, loves and feels. Love leads us to identify with Earth in such a way that we no longer need to become aware of these things, for they have become second nature, Then we can be mountain, sea, air, road, tree, animal” (Boff Cry of the Earth, Cry of the Poor). - Tenderness. Tenderness is the affection we give to others for themselves. Tenderness is caring without obsession. Tenderness is neither effeminacy nor renouncing of rigor. It is an affection that, in its own way, opens us to the knowledge of the other (Boff). - Intentional. Amor mundi is the performance of liberty – the freedom of loving the world that is continually being created by all beings acting together (Arendt, p.13). Hannah Arendt, a Jewish refugee forced to flee the Holocaust, asserts that the most difficult thing is to love the world as it is, with all the evil and suffering in it. And yet she did just that. Loving the world means neither uncritical acceptance nor contemptuous rejection; it means taking responsibility for being a citizen of the world. - Listening to nature’s voice. - Spiritual. Deep connectedness to nature involves relational, unitive and expansive experiences that enhance well-being. - Participatory. ‘Conscious participation’ describes an emerging relationship in which humans consciously merge with nature to experience “a new level of unity” through the “systematic use of imagination” to integrate conscious and unconscious aspects of nature (Barfield, p.163). The “unity and coherence of nature depends on participation of one kind or another” (p.168). Humans remember to think symbolically ”by valuing the Imagination as a mode of perception that brings knowledge…a way of knowing won through a total relationship” (Baring & Cashford, 1991, p.678). Owen Barfield’s notion of “evolution” carries the sense of paradigm shift. A paradigm is a comprehensive framework derived from a belief system about the nature of knowledge (epistemology), existence (ontology) and responsibility (ethics). A paradigm shift is a revolution insofar as a society transitions from one belief framework to a replacement framework – creating the sense of different worlds or different civilizations. Barfield’s philosophy is relevant to climate change adaptation, which requires the world to deconstruct the systems that separated us from nature and to reconstruct new systems based on conscious participation with nature Barfield’s trajectory of the shift to conscious participation is not linear; it is much more like a U. The left hand of the U traces the path from “original participation” to our current estrangement from nature. …Now we are just beginning to make our ascent back up, this time on the right hand of the U as we begin to participate actively in creating the world (Lachman, 2013). Let’s explore how people who are located near the bottom of the U can move upwards on the right side of the U as they make the paradigm shift from anthropocentrism to ecocentrism. Anthropocentrism is a worldview that separates humans from nature and justifies human domination over nature. - Utilitarianism holds that nature has value only as a resource that can be developed into a commodity. It is informed by Cartesian dualism and reductionism which view nature as a machine, made up of inert objects without intelligence. - Conservationism moderates this view by holding that humans must manage and harvest natural resources sustainably in consideration of both current and future generations. Conservationist ethics are concerned about degradation and species loss and are informed by the neoliberal pillars of sustainable development: economic growth and environmental responsibility. In these hierarchal worldviews, humans are regarded as stewards and managers, responsible to manage natural resources. Moving right up the U involves several locations as emerging ecocentrics move gradually toward conscious participation. The locations are distinguished by increasing depth of relationality with nature. - The first location is ‘Green Ecology’. Emerging ecocentrics accept that nature has intrinsic value irrespective of its usefulness to humans. Rejecting a human/nature hierarchy, they recognize that humans are nature and participate interdependently and equally with all beings in the web of life. They may explore deep ecology, living systems theory and permaculture, and adopt an ethic of care that draws on the four pillars of the Earth Charter: environmental responsibility, economic health, social equality and cultural vitality. - The second location is ‘Organicism’. Ecocentrics accept that nature is intelligent, autonomous and communicative. As nature is resacralized, many ecocentrics learn to participate consciously with nature in an empathic and mutual relationship, often through transpersonal experiences. Political action resists systems of dominance and begins to explore ecocentric alternatives. Voluntary simplicity, ecofeminism, anthroposophy and biodynamics may be explored as praxes. - The third location is ‘Natality’ or ‘Regeneration’. Ecocentrics accept that the world is agentic and powerful; they invest in a tender reciprocal relationality that re-animates community. Participating with nature and being present to nature acknowledge its inner life, a communicative animated presence in its own right, capable of dialogue with us, if only we can learn to listen (Mathews, 2004, np; Barrett, 2011, p.128; Plumwood, 2010, p.45). Equality is expanded to acknowledge the rights of nature, as seen in the post-anthropocentric onto-epistemology of buen vivir. The Maternal becomes a first principle. Cosmology contributes groundedness by evoking imagination and a shared symbology to express the sacredness of the whole. This location is remarkably similar to indigenous philosophy. The U begins to morph into a spiral as the two ends draw closer together when the Western ecocentric movement toward conscious participation with nature begins to learn from indigenous philosophies. Reflection: Where do you locate yourself on the U? Each section in The Space In-Between proposes a change process that facilitates the revolution from anthropocentrism to ecocentrism. The next change process is xxx. See Reference page for details on citations.	https://terramandala.ca/archive/space/a-reconnect/
In an early essay on the implicit relationship between anthropocentrism and violence in the philosophy of Martin Heidegger, Jacques Derrida centers his analysis on the meaning of “monstrosity,” which bears a signifying relation to the French term montre, meaning “to show, to demonstrate, or to warn.” As Derrida points out, the term monster is linked to the sign that typically serves to mark the separation of human beings as a higher form of life from other animal species, so that the lack of this attribute comes to designate the condition of animality itself. Derrida’s paradoxical reading of the word monster suggests the possibility that it is the distinctively human monstrosity of the hand that serves as “a sign that shows” (Ein Zeichen), whereby human beings alone are capable of producing monstrosity. Following this paradoxical logic, Bong Joon-ho’s film, Goemul (2006), titled The Host in most Western markets, echoes Derrida’s theorization of the term monster as a sign that ambiguously evokes a “monstrous we,” a monstrous humanity. The two-syllable word goe (괴)-mul (물) in Korean literally means a “grotesque creature or object” and refers in the film to a dangerous entity that terrorizes human beings in modern Seoul. At the same time, while adding depth to both the semantic and the allegorical meanings of the monster, The Host interrogates the monstrous nature of the sign in ways that resonate with Derrida’s arguments concerning the monstrous nature of the sign. In this essay, the author highlights the ambiguity of the film’s use of the two senses of goemul—humanity and monstrosity—in portraying the current geopolitical dangers that threaten the cosmopolitan inhabitants of Seoul and, in particular, threaten the social cohesion of the family as the most elementary form of kinship and group identity. The significance of the goemul portrayed in Bong’s film may be that this monstrous creature is a “sign that shows, demonstrates, and warns.” It is through the creation of this sign that The Host brings to light the ambivalent and conflicted coexistence of tradition and modernity, family and the state, democracy and militarism, nationalism and imperialism/globalism, and the monstrous and the human in contemporary South Korean society. Monstrosity and Humanity in Bong Joon-ho’s The Host Meera Lee received a PhD in English from Dankook University and is currently a doctoral student in clinical psychology at Point Park University. Her research interests include film, cultural ethnography, and psychoanalysis. Her work has appeared in Telos, Verge: Studies in Global Asias, and Tamkang Review, as well as a collected volume Psychoanalyzing Cinema: Lacan, Deleuze, and Zizek (2012). She is coeditor of “Rethinking East Asia and World Literature,” a special issue of Symposium: A Quarterly Journal in Modern Literatures. Before coming to Point Park University, she was an assistant professor of Asian/Asian American studies in the Department of Languages, Literatures, and Linguistics at Syracuse University. Meera Lee; Monstrosity and Humanity in Bong Joon-ho’s The Host. positions 1 November 2018; 26 (4): 719–747. doi: https://doi.org/10.1215/10679847-7050543 Download citation file:	https://read.dukeupress.edu/positions/article-abstract/26/4/719/136722/Monstrosity-and-Humanity-in-Bong-Joon-ho-s-The?redirectedFrom=fulltext
DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS Here are some key terms used throughout this research for the novice reader. Actor An actor refers to any entity that can be described as the source of a given action. While this conventional use of the notion of an actor is still widely used in everyday language, scholars such as Bruno Latour (2007) have actively sought to complicate this model of the actor, suggesting the term “actant” instead, which in his view, include “any entity that does things” (Jackson, 2015, p.31), meaning that they can both be human and nonhuman. Latour’s mode of actor-network-theory emphasises that any process of action will always be enabled by networks of actors that may be enabling (e.g. a door handle making possible the opening of a door) or obstructing each other (e.g. a speedbump restricting cars from speeding). Affect Conventionally speaking, affect as a verb – to affect – is used to refer to the act of producing an effect (usually emotions) in someone (Merriam-Webster, n.d.). When used as a noun, affects may refer to “a set of observable manifestations of an experienced emotion” (Merriam-Webster n.d.). Generally speaking, there are two primary uses of the term that can be identified within philosophy. On the one hand, the definition of affect signifies a body’s capacity to affect and be affected. It is usually pre-personal and pre-cognitive (Massumi, 1995), meaning that we do not experience affect; rather, affect is what comes before our conscious experience of emotions. On the other hand, some do not insist that affect qualitatively differs from personalised emotion (Wetherell, 2013). Affordance The concept of affordance was first coined by psychologist James Gibson (1979), who developed the concept in The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception. In this work, Gibson defined the concept as follows: “The affordances of the environment are what it offers the animal, what it provides or furnishes, either for good or ill. The verb to afford is found in the dictionary; the noun affordance is not. I have made it up. I mean by it something that refers to both the environment and the animal in a way that no existing term does. It implies the complementarity of the animal and the environment” (Gibson 1979, p.127). As a psychological theory about perception, Gibson’s concept of affordance was developed to arrive at a fuller understanding of the interactions that take place between a subject and its environment. In this context, Gibson’s concept emphasises the significance of the various potential trajectories of actions that any given environment might present to the perceiving subject, whether human or nonhuman. Agency The notion of agency is commonly used to denote “the capacity, condition, or state of acting or of exerting power” (Merriam-Webster, n.d.). This capacity may take on very concrete meanings (e.g. if a person is able to move freely around a given space, the person can be said to have some degree of agency) as well as more abstract meanings (e.g. if citizens are able to influence the planning decisions of the city they live in, they can also be said to have some degree of agency). Accordingly, if someone can do neither of these things, they can be said to lack agency. While these two uses of agency emphasise the capacities of human individuals, recent developments within the fields of posthumanism and new materialist philosophy have sought to actively complicate this understanding of agency. Notably, Jane Bennett (2010) has called attention to the fact that nonhuman entities (whether it be an algae species or a rock reef) also embody some form of agency (as seen in the capacity of seaweed to sequester carbon dioxide). Importantly, this theorization of the nonhuman agency should not be construed as synonymous with the view that nonhuman entities (such as seaweed) enact their agency with the same kind of intentionality that underwrites the examples with humans offered above, see affordance). Rather, what is at stake in much of the recent writing about the nonhuman agency is a redefinition of what we might normally mean by this term. Anthropocene Ecologist Eugene Stoermer first coined Anthropocene in the early 1980s and again by chemist Paul Crutzen in 2000 (Crutzen and Stoermer, 2000). The Anthropocene is the new concept of geological time that proposes humanity as the main geological force and agent. It argues that human activity (namely, extraction of resources and burning of fossil fuels) is the main reason behind the fundamental transformation of the biosphere (Moore, 2016). There are several propositions about when the Anthropocene period began (i.e., the onset of the industrial revolution). However, in 2016, the Anthropocene Working Group agreed that the Anthropocene began in the year 1950 when the exponential increase in human activity (population growth, resource consumption, etc.) took off, called “The Great Acceleration”, which started to affect the entire planet (National Geographic Society, 2019). Anthropocentrism According to Encyclopaedia Britannica, anthropocentrism is a “philosophical viewpoint arguing that human beings are the central or most significant entities in the world. This is a basic belief embedded in many Western religions and philosophies. Anthropocentrism regards humans as separate from and superior to nature and holds that human life has intrinsic value while other entities (including animals, plants, mineral resources, and so on) are resources that may justifiably be exploited for the benefit of humankind” (Boslaugh, 2016). Algal/Algae bloom An algal bloom or algae bloom is a rapid acceleration in the population of algae in marine or freshwater systems. The term algae include many different types, both microscopic unicellular organisms like cyanobacteria and macroscopic multicellular organisms like seaweed. Algal bloom commonly refers to the rapid growth of microscopic algae, not macroscopic algae. An example of a macroscopic algal bloom is a kelp forest (Barsanti and Gualtieri, 2014). See also “eutrophication”. Bathymetry Bathymetry is the study of the underwater depth of ocean floors, lake floors, or river floors. Bathymetry is the underwater equivalent of topography (NOAA, 2021). Coastal ecosystem “A coastal ecosystem includes estuaries, coastal waters, and lands located at the lower end of drainage basins, where the stream and river systems meet the sea and are mixed by tides. The coastal ecosystem includes saline, brackish (mixed saline and fresh), and fresh waters, as well as coastlines and the adjacent lands… Shorelands, dunes, offshore islands, barrier islands, headlands, lagoons, and freshwater wetlands within estuarine drainages are included in the definition of the coastal ecosystem since these interrelated features are crucial to coastal wildlife and their habitats. A variety of animals and plants complete the ecological system” (Convertino et al., 2013). Coastal Wetland Coastal wetlands are in the coastal (transition) zone between land and sea, where it is regularly inundated in fresh, brackish, or saline water all or part of the year that contains a variety of vegetation and animals that are uniquely adapted to those conditions (Hatvany, 2009). Dredging or clapping (klapning in Danish) Dredging is the act of excavating to clear things like mud, weed, beds, and soils from a sea or a riverbed. Clapping restructures the seabed morphology by depositing the dug-up materials elsewhere, especially into the sea (i.e. Danish coastal areas). It is a necessary practice for creating and maintaining land-reclaimed ports (Plesner and Flindt, 2022). Ecological connectivity Life on land and sea are closely connected by a network of estuaries and coastal ecosystems, which are strongly dependent on each other. Marine life forms move back and forth and exchange energy and materials that make up the ecological connection of this boundary zone between land and sea (Belletti et al. 2020). The ecological connectivity among streams and coastal waters, as well as among coastal habitats such as continuous zones of salt marshes, seaweeds, and seagrasses, is critical for species to feed, reproduce, distribute over large spatial scales and assure recruitment of next populations (Bishop et al. 2017). Ecological infrastructure According to Kate Orff (2016), “ecological infrastructure refers to naturally functioning ecosystems that deliver valuable services to people. Within urban environments, this type of system can be amplified to help create resilient cities” (Orff, 2016, p.220). Ecosystem services According to Encyclopedia Britannica: “Ecosystem services, outputs, conditions, or processes of natural systems that directly or indirectly benefit humans or enhance social welfare. Ecosystem services can benefit people in many ways, either directly or as inputs into the production of other goods and services” (Johnston, 2018). Eelgrass (seagrass) Although eelgrass is not seaweed, it is commonly mistaken for seaweed in Denmark and is inaccurately categorised. Eelgrass (ålegræs in Danish) is a species of seagrass (havgræs in Danish) are considered a plant with roots, stems and leaves, while seaweed is multi-cellular algae (Mouritsen, 2019; Høgslund and Holmer, 2022). Eutrophication Eutrophication is a process of pollution that occurs when a water body has excess nutrients in the water from runoffs from fertilisers, pesticides and wastes from animals and humans. As a consequence, it becomes overgrown with algae and other aquatic plants that decompose and rob the water of oxygen, killing marine animals (European Environmental Agency, n.d.). See “algal bloom”. Fjordbyen Fjordbyen in Danish translates to “The Fjord City,” which indicates the waterfront and the harbourfront district in the city of Vejle, Denmark, which includes the Lystbådehavn (Marina) area on the waterfront. Geovisualisation Geovisualisation (short for geographic visualisation, also known as cartographic visualisation) refers to a set of tools and techniques supporting geospatial data analysis through interactive visualisation. “Geovisualisation provides an opportunity for the creator or user of the visual (i.e. map) to explore data and reveal previously hidden patterns, unknowns, and marginalized perspectives. Geovisualisatopm can therefore provide unique perspectives while opening up new possibilities to manipulate and interpret the visual. By extension, GIS and geo visualisation make it possible to ‘see’ the spatial dimensions of complex urban social and ecological relations in ways conventional mapping cannot” (Jung and Anderson, 2017). GIS “A geographic information system (GIS) is a system that creates, manages, analyses, and maps all types of data. GIS connects data to a map, integrating location data (where things are) with all types of descriptive information (what things are like there). This provides a foundation for mapping and analysis that is used in science, industry and academia. GIS helps users understand patterns, relationships, and geographic context” (Esri, 2022). Kelp (forest) “Kelp ecosystems (also known as kelp forests) span from temperate to polar regions on rocky substrates worldwide and have been estimated to cover a quarter of the global coastline. Dense populations of kelps (large canopy-forming brown macroalgae) are the engineers of structurally complex and highly productive submerged ecosystems in the shallow areas of continental shelves (< 50 m depth), supporting high marine biodiversity, from invertebrates to fish and marine mammals” (Williamson and Guinder, 2021). The common names for the most recognised kelp species (brown macroalgae in the Laminariaceae family) in Denmark is called “sukkertang”, “palmetang”, and “fingertang” (Lundsteen and Nielsen, 2019a). Kumu Kumu is a powerful data visualisation platform that helps you organize complex information into interactive relationship maps. The main use cases for Kumu are stakeholder mapping, systems mapping, social network mapping, community asset mapping and concept mapping (Kumu INC, 2011; Sage Ocean, 2022). Land reclamation (landvinding in Danish) “Land reclamation is the process of creating new land from the sea. The simplest method of land reclamation involves simply filling the area with large amounts of heavy rock and/or cement, then filling it with clay and soil until the desired height is reached. Draining of submerged wetlands is often used to reclaim land for agricultural use” (Stauber, Chariton and Apte, 2016). See “ocean sprawl”. Late Capitalism Late capitalism, or late-stage capitalism, was first popularized by the Marxist scholar Werner Sombart as a way to capture the economic boom that occurred from WWII to the 1970s. Later uses of the have resisted this periodisation with the emergence of “postmodernism” from the 1990s and onwards (Jameson, 1990). According to Fredric Jameson’s Postmodernism, or the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism (1990), this link between economy and culture is, made tangible by the fact the fully globalised post-industrial economy that we find ourselves in today itself holds the same contradictions and ironies that we find in postmodern art (or architecture). In this respect, the term late capitalism is used as a way to call attention to the contradictions, perceived absurdities, climate crises, injustices, inequality, and exploitation created by modern business development that defines the contemporary moment. Littoral zone In coastal environments, the littoral zone extends from the high-water mark, which is rarely inundated, to shoreline areas that are permanently submerged. It is “a marine ecological realm that experiences the effects of tidal and longshore currents and breaking waves… The zone is characterised by abundant dissolved oxygen, sunlight, nutrients, generally high wave energies and water motion, and, in the intertidal subzone, alternating submergence and exposure… Consequently, the littoral fauna taken as a whole involves an enormous number of species and every major phylum, although the number of individuals may vary widely with the locality” (Britannica and Editors of Encyclopaedia, 2019). Micro and Macroalgae (seaweed, tang in Danish) “Algae are organisms that perform photosynthesis; that is, they absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen… and live in water or in humid places. Algae have great variability and are divided into microalgae, small in size and only visible through a microscope, and macroalgae, which are larger in size… and have a greater diversity in the oceans” (Pereira, 2021). “Macroalgae (“seaweeds”) belong to either one of three groups of eukaryotic algae: the Rhodophyta (red algae), Chlorophyta (green algae), and Phaeophyceae (brown algae) or to the prokaryotic colony-forming Cyanobacteria/Cyanophyta (blue-green algae)” (Littler and Littler, 2011). Marine Protected Area “Marine protected areas (MPAs) are geographically distinct zones for which protection objectives are set. They constitute a globally connected system for safeguarding biodiversity and maintaining marine ecosystem health and the supply of ecosystem services. Marine reserves form a subset of MPAs in which impacts from human activities such as resource extraction and fisheries are not permitted. Networks of MPAs or marine reserves operate together at various scales and cover a range of protection levels, which work towards objectives that individual MPAs cannot achieve” (European Environment Agency, 2018). More-than-human The term more-than-human is often used to deliberately avoid the dualistic connotations tied to the terms “human” and “nonhuman”. The term was first coined by the environmental philosopher David Abram (1997), who coined the phrase “the more-than-human world” in The Spell of the Sensuous as a means of referring to what is commonly described as “nature”. Since then, several thinkers have adopted the term in an effort to describe the varying degrees of subjectivity that may be associated with beings and environments that are not exclusively human (see, for instance, (Braidotti, 2006; Haraway, 2016; Jaque et al., 2020). In this project, the term will be used interchangeably with “nonhuman” to refer to the marine world, particularly seaweed, as the main representative marine species. Multispecies coexistence Multispecies coexistence, multispecies future, multispecies cohabitation, and multispecies response‐ability are some of the many terms that deal with the need for co‐existing with other species in a more equitable and mutually beneficial manner in the age of the Anthropocene. There are many scholars and proponents of this theory; one of the prominent scholars who made this term well known is Donna Haraway (Haraway, 2007; 2016). Natura2000 The term is used to refer to a network of protected nature areas in the EU. The areas need to maintain and protect rare and endangered animal and plant species that are characteristic of the EU countries (European Commission, 2021a; Miljøstyrelsen, 2022e). Nature-based solutions The official EU definition of nature-based solutions “are inspired and supported by nature, which is cost-effective, simultaneously provide environmental, social and economic benefits and help build resilience. Such solutions bring more and more diverse nature and natural features and processes into cities, landscapes and seascapes through locally adapted, resource-efficient and systemic interventions. Hence, nature-based solutions must benefit biodiversity and support the delivery of a range of ecosystem services” (European Commission, 2021b). Node A point in a network or diagram at which lines or pathways intersect or branch. It is referred to in this research on the Kumu maps, where the nodes host various information and can be connected to other nodes. Ocean literacy Ocean literacy is an understanding of society’s impact on the ocean and vice versa. For instance, an ocean-literate person understands fundamental concepts about the way the ocean functions and thus is capable of engaging in discussion about the ocean in an informed manner that could also lead to decision-making about the way the ocean and its resources should be handled (Kelly et al., 2022). Ocean Sprawl Ocean sprawl is the act of expanding human activity out into the ocean near the coastal areas by reclaiming land from the sea for human use by dredging and draining the water to make space for industrial, commercial, residential and recreational activity. Duarte et al. (2012) are the first to coin the term (Pilkey and Young, 2011; Firth et al., 2016). See “land reclamation”. QGIS QGIS is a free open-source cross-platform that functions as geographic information system software that allows users to edit, analyse and compose spatial information. Additionally, exporting graphical maps for viewing and printing (QGIS, 2022). Rights of Nature According to IPBES, “Rights of Nature is a legal instrument that enables nature, wholly or partly, i.e. ecosystems or species, to have inherent rights and legally should have the same protection as people and corporations; that ecosystems and species have legal rights to exist, thrive and regenerate. It enables the defence of the environment in court – not only for the benefit of people but for the sake of nature itself” (IPBES, 2018). Salt Marsh A salt marsh is a coastal ecosystem in the upper coastal intertidal zone between land and open saltwater or brackish water that is regularly flooded by the tides. It is covered with dense salt‐tolerant grass-like plants that traps and bind sediments. Since soil is consistently wet from flooding, marshes are extremely nutrient-rich and can support a wide variety of plants and animal life while also providing coastal protection (Adam, 1993). Salt Meadows or Wet Meadows (eng in Danish) “A wet meadow is a type of wetland with soils that are saturated for part or all of the growing season. Unlike a marsh or swamp, a wet meadow does not have standing water present except for brief to moderate periods during the growing season. Instead, the ground in a wet meadow fluctuates between brief periods of inundation and longer periods of saturation... Wet meadows, therefore, do not usually support aquatic life, such as fish. They typically have a high diversity of plant species and may attract large numbers of birds, small mammals, and insects” (Los Huertos, 2020). Seascape “[S]patially heterogeneous and dynamic [marine] spaces that can be delineated at a wide range of scales in time and space (Pittman, 2017, p.6). Terrestrial bias Terrestrial bias is a situated perspective that responds to the fact that humans live on land and thus is bound by gravity and experience daily life as such (i.e., immersion in the air rather than water). This parameter restricts human thinking and experiences to the ones on land, thus lending to biased ways of thinking, perceiving and decision-making to prefer the terrestrial realm as the norm. This can be problematic when dealing with the watery realm of the sea with different parameters and conditions that require human stakeholders to depart from the anthropocentric and terrestrial way of doing things (Jue, 2020). Tilling Tilling is the act of preparing the soil for agricultural purposes via machinery to enact digging, stirring, and overturning. Deep tilling was possible due to the invention of powerful machines, which were able to reach deep depths into the geological layer to mix clay with the topsoil, which resulted in contributing to the suspended particles of water bodies as rain washed away these “lighter” soil such as clay (SSSA, 2008; Organo Quintana, 2020). Topobathy Topobathy integrates topography (land elevation) and bathymetry (water depths) (ARCGIS, 2022). Urban Commons The term urban commons represents shared material and immaterial resources (i.e. land) that belong to or impact the whole community in an urban environment (Hardt and Negri, 2009). It is founded on the guiding principle of equity that fundamentally reconceptualises how we view spaces and entities as something that affects all.	https://www.urbanseascaping.com/definition
The first chapters of Genesis were not written to communicate history or science. Creation stories had an entirely different purpose in the Ancient Near East. Source: The Real Story Behind Genesis from ENCYCLICAL LETTER LAUDATO SI’ OF THE HOLY FATHER FRANCIS ON CARE FOR OUR COMMON HOME May 24, 2015 III. THE CRISIS AND EFFECTS OF MODERN ANTHROPOCENTRISM 115. Modern anthropocentrism has paradoxically ended up prizing technical thought over reality, since “the technological mind sees nature as an insensate order, as a cold body of facts, as a mere ‘given’, as an object of utility, as raw material to be hammered into useful shape; it views the cosmos similarly as a mere ‘space’ into which objects can be thrown with complete indifference”. The intrinsic dignity of the world is thus compromised. When human beings fail to find their true place in this world, they misunderstand themselves and end up acting against themselves: “Not only has God given the earth to man, who must use it with respect for the original good purpose for which it was given, but, man too is God’s gift to man. He must therefore respect the natural and moral structure with which he has been endowed”. 116. Modernity has been marked by an excessive anthropocentrism which today, under another guise, continues to stand in the way of shared understanding and of any effort to strengthen social bonds. The time has come to pay renewed attention to reality and the limits it imposes; this in turn is the condition for a more sound and fruitful development of individuals and society. An inadequate presentation of Christian anthropology gave rise to a wrong understanding of the relationship between human beings and the world. Often, what was handed on was a Promethean vision of mastery over the world, which gave the impression that the protection of nature was something that only the faint-hearted cared about. Instead, our “dominion” over the universe should be understood more properly in the sense of responsible stewardship. 117. Neglecting to monitor the harm done to nature and the environmental impact of our decisions is only the most striking sign of a disregard for the message contained in the structures of nature itself. When we fail to acknowledge as part of reality the worth of a poor person, a human embryo, a person with disabilities – to offer just a few examples – it becomes difficult to hear the cry of nature itself; everything is connected. Once the human being declares independence from reality and behaves with absolute dominion, the very foundations of our life begin to crumble, for “instead of carrying out his role as a cooperator with God in the work of creation, man sets himself up in place of God and thus ends up provoking a rebellion on the part of nature”. 118. This situation has led to a constant schizophrenia, wherein a technocracy which sees no intrinsic value in lesser beings coexists with the other extreme, which sees no special value in human beings. But one cannot prescind from humanity. There can be no renewal of our relationship with nature without a renewal of humanity itself. There can be no ecology without an adequate anthropology. When the human person is considered as simply one being among others, the product of chance or physical determinism, then “our overall sense of responsibility wanes”. A misguided anthropocentrism need not necessarily yield to “biocentrism”, for that would entail adding yet another imbalance, failing to solve present problems and adding new ones. Human beings cannot be expected to feel responsibility for the world unless, at the same time, their unique capacities of knowledge, will, freedom and responsibility are recognized and valued. 119. Nor must the critique of a misguided anthropocentrism underestimate the importance of interpersonal relations. If the present ecological crisis is one small sign of the ethical, cultural and spiritual crisis of modernity, we cannot presume to heal our relationship with nature and the environment without healing all fundamental human relationships. Christian thought sees human beings as possessing a particular dignity above other creatures; it thus inculcates esteem for each person and respect for others. Our openness to others, each of whom is a “thou” capable of knowing, loving and entering into dialogue, remains the source of our nobility as human persons. A correct relationship with the created world demands that we not weaken this social dimension of openness to others, much less the transcendent dimension of our openness to the “Thou” of God. Our relationship with the environment can never be isolated from our relationship with others and with God. Otherwise, it would be nothing more than romantic individualism dressed up in ecological garb, locking us into a stifling immanence. 120. Since everything is interrelated, concern for the protection of nature is also incompatible with the justification of abortion. How can we genuinely teach the importance of concern for other vulnerable beings, however troublesome or inconvenient they may be, if we fail to protect a human embryo, even when its presence is uncomfortable and creates difficulties? “If personal and social sensitivity towards the acceptance of the new life is lost, then other forms of acceptance that are valuable for society also wither away”. 121. We need to develop a new synthesis capable of overcoming the false arguments of recent centuries. Christianity, in fidelity to its own identity and the rich deposit of truth which it has received from Jesus Christ, continues to reflect on these issues in fruitful dialogue with changing historical situations. In doing so, it reveals its eternal newness. ROMANO GUARDINI, Das Ende der Neuzeit, 63 (The End of the Modern World, 55). JOHN PAUL II, Encyclical Letter Centesimus Annus (1 May 1991), 38: AAS 83 (1991), 841. Cf. Love for Creation. An Asian Response to the Ecological Crisis, Declaration of the Colloquium sponsored by the Federation of Asian Bishops’ Conferences (Tagatay, 31 January-5 February 1993), 3.3.2. JOHN PAUL II, Encyclical Letter Centesimus Annus (1 May 1991), 37: AAS 83 (1991), 840. BENEDICT XVI, Message for the 2010 World Day of Peace, 2: AAS 102 (2010), 41. ID., Encyclical Letter Caritas in Veritate (29 June 2009), 28: AAS 101 (2009), 663. Cf. VINCENT OF LERINS, Commonitorium Primum, ch. 23: PL 50, 688: “Ut annis scilicet consolidetur, dilatetur tempore, sublimetur aetate”. This sketch of the human story began in a cave; the cave which popular science associates with the cave-man and in which practical discovery has really found archaic drawings of animals. The second half of human history, which was like a new creation of the world, also begins in a cave. There is even a shadow of such a fancy in the fact that animals were again present; for it was a cave used as a stable by the mountaineers of the uplands about Bethlehem; who still drive their cattle into such holes and caverns at night. It was here that a homeless couple had crept underground with the cattle when the doors of the crowded caravanserai had been shut in their faces; and it was here beneath the very feet of the passers-by, in a cellar under the very floor of the world, that Jesus Christ was born. But in that second creation there was indeed something symbolical in the roots of the primeval rock or the horns of the prehistoric herd. God also was a Cave-Man, and had also traced strange shapes of creatures, curiously coloured, upon the wall of the world; but the pictures that he made had come to life. A mass of legend and literature, which increases and will never end, has repeated and rung the changes on that single paradox; that the hands that had made the sun and stars were too small to reach the huge heads of the cattle. Upon this paradox, we might almost say upon this jest, all the literature of our faith is founded. It is at least like a jest in this, that it is something which the scientific critic cannot see. He laboriously explains the difficulty which we have always defiantly and almost derisively exaggerated; and mildly condemns as improbable something that we have almost madly exalted as incredible; as something that would be much too good to be true, except that it is true. When that contrast between the cosmic creation and the little local infancy has been repeated, reiterated, underlined, emphasised, exulted in, sung, shouted, roared, not to say howled, in a hundred thousand hymns, carols, rhymes, rituals, pictures, poems, and popular sermons, it may be suggested that we hardly need a higher critic to draw our attention to something a little odd about it; especially one of the sort that seems to take a long time to see a joke, even his own joke. But about this contrast and combination of ideas one thing may be said here, because it is relevant to the whole thesis of this book. The sort of modern critic of whom I speak is generally much impressed with the importance of education in life and the importance of psychology in education. That sort of man is never tired of telling us that first impressions fix character by the law of causation; and he will become quite nervous if a child’s visual sense is poisoned by the wrong colours on a golliwog or his nervous system prematurely shaken by a cacophonous rattle. Yet he will think us very narrow-minded, if we say that this is exactly why there really is a difference between being brought up as a Christian and being brought up as a Jew or a Moslem or an atheist. The difference is that every Catholic child has learned from pictures, and even every Protestant child from stories, this incredible combination of contrasted ideas as one of the very first impressions on his mind. It is not merely a theological difference. It is a psychological difference which can outlast any theologies. It really is, as that sort of scientist loves to say about anything, incurable. Any agnostic or atheist whose childhood has known a real Christmas has ever afterwards, whether he likes it or not, an association in his mind between two ideas that most of mankind must regard as remote from each other; the idea of a baby and the idea of unknown strength that sustains the stars. His instincts and imagination can still connect them, when his reason can no longer see the need of the connection ; for him there will always be some savour of religion about the mere picture of a mother and a baby; some hint of mercy and softening about the mere mention of the dreadful name of God. But the two ideas are not naturally or necessarily combined. They would not be necessarily combined for an ancient Greek or a Chinaman, even for Aristotle or Confucius. It is no more inevitable to connect God with an infant than to connect gravitation with a kitten. It has been created in our minds by Christmas because we are Christians, because we are psychological Christians even when we are not theological ones. In other words, this combination of ideas has emphatically, in the much disputed phrase, altered human nature. There is really a difference between the man who knows it and the man who does not. It may not be a difference of moral worth, for the Moslem or the Jew might be worthier according to his lights; but it is a plain fact about the crossing of two particular lights, the conjunction of two stars in our particular horoscope. Omnipotence and impotence, or divinity and infancy, do definitely make a sort of epigram which a million repetitions cannot turn into a platitude. It is not unreasonable to call it unique. Bethlehem is emphatically a place where extremes meet. Chesterton, G. K. (2012-12-19). Everlasting Man (Kindle Locations 2461-2496). . Kindle Edition.	https://stjohnoneone.com/category/anthropology-2/
This is troubling to me because it corresponds to me exactly. I think it is fair to say that I have a “growing ecological sensitivity,” yes, even me, and yet I feel absolutely addicted to air conditioning and my addiction “appears to be growing all the more” as I get older. No passage impressed itself on my reluctance to change as much as this one. It made me feel the “summons to [the] profound interior conversion” that the “ecological crisis” represents (§217), and how much of a “living sacrifice of praise” it would require of me to receive the “ecological conversion” Pope Francis talks about into my heart (§220, citing Rom 12:1). Then, however, I read this passage: “Yet all is not lost” (§205). Wow, I thought, all is not lost! And, reading a little farther, it got even better: “Human beings, while capable of the worst, are also capable of rising above themselves, choosing again what is good, and making a new start, despite their mental and social conditioning” (ibid.)—though I found myself thinking, maybe that is true for mental and social conditioning, but for air conditioning? Photo: Alan Davey; CC BY-NC-ND 2.0. And yet, Francis insists, “An authentic humanity, calling for a new synthesis, seems to dwell in the midst of our technological culture, almost unnoticed, like a mist seeping gently beneath a closed door” (§112). It is this renewed humanity that must be the basis for “a distinctive way of looking at things, a way of thinking, policies, an educational program, a lifestyle and a spirituality which together generate resistance to the assault of the technocratic paradigm” which would reduce reality to the material and the solutions to the technological (§111). If one is always expecting someone else to solve these problems, someone conveniently distant from oneself . . . one is always avoiding the “sacrifice,” and thus the personal conversion, that can actually change or renew a culture. Perhaps, then, we should take a closer look at the potential contained in the embrace of the small environmental works of mercy noted above. Grace, though it elevates nature, does not eliminate nature and is not magic, and neither Dorothy Day nor Pope Francis, both following Thérèse of Lisieux, are talking about some kind of magic when they say that small practices can change the world. First of all, if one begins these practices, which do not require one to shut off the air conditioning (at least not right away!), one does indeed begin to recover a sense of one’s own dignity as an agent, and an agent acting out of love, for the common good. Photo: Steven Leith; CC BY 2.0. Wouldn’t that be the seed of a renewed community, one which has a kind of new unity in a recovered sense of dignity, strengthened even more by the growing awareness that “one is capable of deep enjoyment free of the obsession of consumption” (§222)—the seed of a community experiencing together the first moments of the “ecological conversion” Francis had mentioned, founded precisely on these small works of mercy toward “our common home,” sister Mother Earth? Wouldn’t the premise of such direct, personal action—which does indeed seem insignificant to the point of being laughable—be that “an integral ecology calls for openness to categories which transcend the language of mathematics and biology, and take us to the heart of what it is to be human” (§11)? Surely an openness to categories which transcend the language of mathematics and biology is necessary not only to recovering a sense of our own dignity as agents, but a fortiori of an “appreciation of the immense dignity of the poor” (§158), which, the encyclical says, is “an ethical imperative essential for effectively attaining the common good” (ibid.). Without a “sound ethics, a culture and spirituality genuinely capable of setting limits” (§105), which can only mean de-centering the excessive, tyrannical and distorted anthropocentrism, we lose our freedom and willingly discard our own dignity. If the blood of the martyrs is “seed” according to Tertullian in a famous phrase, it is not because there is anything magical about blood, but because implied in the willingness to shed one’s blood is a belief in something that makes the sacrifice worth it, to wit, resistance to idolatry and to the political community that is formed around idolatry insofar as it is so formed. As I have mentioned and indeed emphasized, we are not right now talking about martyrdom—or worse, not to make too much of a point of it, giving up air conditioning—but there is nevertheless an issue in common: the issue of witness implied in a sacrificial practice, and indeed the witness against the formation of a political community around idolatry, namely, in this case, the “unrestrained delusions of grandeur” (§114) that are constitutive of what Francis has called an “excessive anthropocentrism” characteristic of modernity (§116). This “tyrannical anthropocentrism unconcerned for other creatures” (§68), this “distorted anthropocentrism” (§69), is, paradoxically, unable to resist the “reductionism which affects every aspect of human and social life” (§107) because it is arbitrary, as noted—a delusion of grandeur based upon an ideology of progress that is really an ideology of power, the ideology that “every increase in power means ‘an increase of “progress” itself’” (§105, citing Romano Guardini), and that human beings are completely autonomous. Human freedom becomes abstract, simply the formal possibility of choosing, that is, of exercising power as one is able, but this means, as Francis very memorably puts it, “our freedom fades,” because it ends up being “handed over to the blind forces of the unconscious, of immediate needs, of self-interest, and of violence. In this sense,” he continues, “we stand naked and exposed in the face of our ever-increasing power, lacking the wherewithal to control it” (§105). In one of the most striking sentences of the encyclical, Francis baldly states, “Never has humanity had such power over itself, yet nothing ensures that it will be used wisely” (§104). Without a “sound ethics, a culture and spirituality genuinely capable of setting limits” (§105), which can only mean de-centering the excessive, tyrannical and distorted anthropocentrism, we lose our freedom and willingly discard our own dignity. Nor will purely pragmatic considerations come to our rescue here, for pragmatism is only a subset of the language of power and leads inevitably to what Pope Francis calls “practical relativism” (§122). The paradox of tyrannical anthropocentrism is that, as an ideology of power, it reduces human beings to the same level as all other beings, depriving them of “their unique worth,” an “obsession with denying any pre-eminence to the human person” such that “more zeal is shown in protecting other species than in defending the dignity which all human beings share in equal measure” (§90). As an ideology of power, excessive anthropocentrism also entails “thinking we have absolute power over our own bodies,” for this “turns, often subtly, into thinking that we enjoy absolute power over creation” (§155). By contrast, “learning to accept our body, to care for it and to respect its fullest meaning, is an essential element of any genuine human ecology” (ibid.), which here means not only an ecology of the human being, but of an ecology overall which is properly humanistic. The reason for the paradox that an excessive and even tyrannical anthropocentrism results in a devaluation and reduction of the human person is that it is, as noted, an ideology of power, and to put limits on power you have to have an anthropology which can state what those limits are in terms that are not simply pragmatic, which can say what is the “meaning” of the human body and indeed assert that it has meaning. We would have to admit there is an “authentic” humanity and, by contrast, an inauthentic one. By using theological language to embody, incarnate, animate, and articulate a critique of a power structure that often hides itself as such . . . he is interpreting it to the culture at large, letting it see that indeed, it has a stake in people who use this language and who act on it. And by such paths Pope Francis backs his reader not only into an anthropology, but a theology. “We are not God,” Francis states laconically in the sections where he is exposing the “tyrannical anthropocentrism” for what it is: an idolatry (§67). In this way, I think of Laudato Si’ as an apologetic document. Isn’t idolatry the worship of idols? Who does that now? Or, isn’t any religion an idolatry because all and any God or Gods are false? Isn’t secularism, understood either as an official or an “in-effect” atheism, the neutral position, at very least? But “science and technology are not neutral” (§114), though formally and officially a-theistic. Francis is not arguing that societies must officially adopt a theology. He knows very well, and states explicitly, that not everyone he is addressing is a believer, since he intends, he says, “to address every person living on this planet” (§3), and yet he also states explicitly that he is speaking out of our Catholic tradition of faith, as “the Church’s social teaching” and from “Christian spiritual experience” (§15). By working in this way, by using theological language to embody, incarnate, animate, and articulate a critique of a power structure that often hides itself as such—but without reducing the theological language simply to such a critique—he is interpreting it to the culture at large, letting it see that indeed, it has a stake in people who use this language and who act on it. Part of this is exposing the ways in which the tradition has itself been inauthentically interpreted as though, in fact, it did back up an excessive anthropocentrism that is at bottom an idolatry. In the end, though, the encyclical is to the faithful, to begin to form their lives around practices that represent the sacrifice of this anthropocentrism. An apology ad extra does nothing if ad intra there is not a vigorous commitment to the practices that bear witness to something higher, to the Creator, and to what that word, and the word “creation,” means. It is this practice and this witness that can change a culture, despite its seeming insignificance. What if we took up the invitation to the small works of mercy extended to the most vulnerable of the vulnerable poor, “the earth herself, burdened and laid waste . . . among the most abandoned and maltreated of our poor,” who “groans in travail” (§2, citing Rom 8:22)? What if we decided to become living interpretations of what it means to call the earth, not a goddess, but “Sister, Mother Earth” (§1)? What if parishes decided to give up the universally present Styrofoam coffee cups after Mass, explaining in homilies that, like the human soul, they have a beginning but no end? Pope Francis is telling us that it is communities of “ecological conversion” based on the Catholic faith that can present to our culture an opportunity for dialogue, and within that dialogue, evangelization, that is credible to people and does not seem like an invitation to superstition or magic, but instead an interpretation of the true faith. Apologetic implies witness. Witness is irreducibly personal, and as such, educational. And perhaps in the end we’ll find a way to keep the one thing that would make this witness worse than a martyrdom—our air conditioning. Editors’ Note: This essay was originally delivered as an address during the conference “Laudato Si’ and the Protection of ‘Our Common Home’: Faith and Science in Conversation” at The Catholic University of America on October 26, 2015. Featured Image: O’Leary’s (Approaching Science and People); CC BY 2.0. Dorothy Day, “Preface” in Therese (Notre Dame: Fides Publishers Association, 1960), xii.	http://churchlife.nd.edu/2016/05/02/laudato-si-and-environmental-works-of-mercy/
Early in the twentieth century, G. E. Moore (1873–1958) argued that goodness was a nonnatural property that good things possessed, and although his arguments for this view have had a profound influence on the course of ethical theory, the view itself is not widely accepted (chaps. 1–3). There seems no satisfactory way to resolve disagreements over what things have this property or how to act and make tradeoffs when necessary. Should we preserve the redwood trees, or clear them to make room for the weeds that will thrive in their place? It will not do to identify ethical value with the products of evolution or natural processes, for humans are natural creatures and our creations are in some sense as much a part of nature as fossils and spider webs. What makes the forest more valuable in its own right than the strip malls along the highway? The idea that value is a nonnatural intrinsic property of things is mysterious, and many philosophers simply reject Moore's intuitions about what has it and what does not. Nor could the existence of such value in itself tell us much about what to do or how to act and choose. These same issues arise for deep ecology and for any attempt to move beyond anthropocentrism in locating intrinsic ethical value. If we think about value as something we express in our actions and attitudes, rather than as an intrinsic property of objects, then the difference between anthropocentrism and its opposite seems smaller and less significant. For even those who insist that value originates in reasons and attitudes are quick to acknowledge that we value different parts of the world in different ways and for a multitude of reasons. This includes valuing things other than humans, human experiences, and reason as ends. We can realize Leopold's vision of a land ethic without rejecting anthropocentrism, by concentrating instead on the reasons we have for attitudes toward nature that see it as worth preserving in its own right. Thinking of nature as a resource for our use in promoting human enjoyment is of course one attitude we may have, and thinking about the effects of environmental change on human health is another. But we also find it reasonable to adopt attitudes of appreciation, reverence, awe, love, and fear toward different parts of the world around us, and the appropriateness of these attitudes moreover seems to be connected intimately to other aspects of morality, such as the virtues of humility and gratitude (Hill).	https://science.jrank.org/pages/9157/Environmental-Ethics-Value-Feature-Actions-Attitudes.html
An Earth Ethos considers healing to be synonymous with justice. This philosophy is based on indigenous wisdom, where “indigenous” refers to cultures grown in connection to specific places such as aboriginal tribal members, as well as more generally a holistic worldview honouring the interconnection of all beings and viewing life as cyclical (Cervantes & McNeill, 2008). An Earth Ethos is evident in beliefs and practices of cultures around the world, and is being resurrected in modern Western culture through the work of indigenous peoples who share wisdom with non-members, as well as modern people who work to integrate such teachings and ways of being into modern life. Whoever you are, you were born of and on the Earth and are indigenous to some land and lineage(s). Understandings of justice grow out of cultural cosmologies. In indigenous cosmologies, there is no fall from grace in Heaven, no exile from abundance in the Garden of Eden, and no criminal action of eating a forbidden apple that a God has used to punish us humans. Because humans are firmly established in a particular space and time based on cultural mythology and birth, from an indigenous perspective, there is nothing to prove and no nature to discover. It is inherent (Rael, 1997). While feminism has challenged patriarchal perspectives, we still needed to challenge anthropocentric (human-centric) and ethnocentric perspectives in Western culture. We need to experience empathy with our entire human family and with all beings, to remember how to live in reciprocity with the Earth, deeply honouring our source of human life and re-evaluate core aspects of our cultural and individual identities (Ohiyesa, 2001). The Western concept of authority is out of balance. Former philosopher Alan Bloom said, “The West is defined by its need for self-justification and to discover nature, and both philosophy, whether religious or secular, and science reflect this human quest to know nature (1986). Sharon Venne, a Cree lawyer said of First Nations that: “Our sovereignty is related to our connection to the earth and is inherent” (1999). Former Menominee activist Ingrid Washinawatok agreed that “Europeans relegated sovereignty to only one realm of existence: authority, supremacy and dominion. In the Indigenous realm, sovereignty encompasses responsibility, reciprocity, the land, life and much more” (1999). In Western culture the Earth is often portrayed as a place to endure, whereas an Earth Ethos sees the Earth as the source of life, not a resource to be used for a period of time. The Earth’s health is intimately connected with and reflective of human health, because the Earth is a living Mother supporting us all. To consider a rock or tree as non-living or non-sentient places humans at the centre of the universe and devalues everyone. This results in “war to determine whose anthropocentric view is most valid” while “the earth and all its inhabitants suffer” (Gustafson, 1997). Our bodies are made of the soil of this planet, and we are all united in our hearts. An Earth Ethos sees minerals, insects, plants, animals and other beings not only as ancestors, but as wise life forms that can teach us humans how to live in harmony with the rest of nature, since they have successfully survived on Earth a lot longer than we have. We humans are the new species on the block, and an Earth Ethos acknowledges with humility that as a species we are out of balance and in need of healing.	https://earthethos.net/2018/05/10/what-is-an-earth-ethos/
regarding the human being as the central fact of the universe. assuming human beings to be the final aim and end of the universe. viewing and interpreting everything in terms of human experience and values. Nearby words - anthrop., - anthropic, - anthropic principle, - anthropo-, - anthropocene, - anthropocentricity, - anthropocentrism, - anthropogenesis, - anthropogenic, - anthropogeny Origin of anthropocentric Dictionary.com Unabridged Based on the Random House Unabridged Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2019 Examples from the Web for anthropocentric His aim is nothing less than the firm establishment of what may perhaps be described as a Ptolemaic, anthropocentric metaphysics.A Commentary to Kant's 'Critique of Pure Reason'\|Norman Kemp Smith After the geocentric illusion had been destroyed, the anthropocentric illusion still remained.The Positive School of Criminology\|Enrico Ferri The degeneration theory has exploded as entirely as the geocentric and anthropocentric theories have vanished.A Manual of the Historical Development of Art\|G. G. (Gustavus George) Zerffi But what may be called the anthropocentric view of wildflowers is now happily becoming obsolete.The Call of the Wildflower\|Henry S. Salt The radical error in Jewish, and Christian thinking is that it is anthropocentric.The Conflict of Religions in the Early Roman Empire\|T. R. Glover anthropocentric adjective regarding man as the most important and central factor in the universe Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 2012 Digital Edition © William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2012 anthropocentric "regarding man as the center," 1855, from anthropo- + -centric. Related: Anthropocentrically. Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper anthropocentric [ăn′thrə-pə-sĕn′trĭk] adj. Regarding humans as the central element of the universe. Interpreting reality exclusively in terms of human values and experience. The American Heritage® Stedman's Medical Dictionary Copyright © 2002, 2001, 1995 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company.	https://www.dictionary.com/browse/anthropocentric
By Philippe Crabbé, Alan J. Holland, Lech Ryszkowski, L. Westra This e-book comprises a few of the papers that have been provided on the NATO technological know-how, Environmental defense, complicated learn Workshop on "Implementing Ecological Integrity: Restoring local and worldwide Environmental and Human healthiness" held in Budapest from June 26 to July 1, 1999. All papers provided are summarized within the creation and, every now and then, shorter types are released. A mUltidisciplinary center of yankee and Western eu individuals had met over the preceeding years to debate the concept that of ecological integrity. The time period "ecological integrity" is located in environmental coverage files yet, in general, isn't outlined. It competes with different contemporary phrases, or environmental narratives, similar to "ecosystem well-being" and "sustainable improvement" and in addition with older ones resembling "conservation". as a result, it truly is deemed very important not just to tackle the definitions of those thoughts but in addition to determine no matter if their useful implications fluctuate. in addition, it used to be fascinating to determine even if contributors from critical and japanese ecu nations (CEEC) and, extra as a rule, from NATO accomplice nations will be, first, attentive to this idea and, moment, could carry various perspectives of it. This explains the extensive, albeit no longer continually constant, variety oftopics that are lined during this ebook. The middle crew realized that CEEC and different NATO companions contributors have been conscious of the idea that yet that they have been much less unique of human influence. Read or Download Implementing Ecological Integrity: Restoring Regional and Global Environmental and Human Health PDF Similar environmental engineering books Environmental Communication. Second Edition: Skills and Principles for Natural Resource Managers, Scientists, and Engineers. Environmental pros can not easily submit study in technical journals. Informing the general public is now a severe a part of the task. Environmental verbal exchange demonstrates, step-by-step, how it’s performed, and is a vital advisor for speaking advanced details to teams now not accustomed to clinical fabric. Environmental Archaeology: Principles and Practice Archaeologists at the present time want a wide variety of medical ways for you to delineate and interpret the ecology in their websites. yet borrowing strategies from different disciplines calls for a severe knowing, and the equipment needs to be acceptable to specific units of information. This publication is an authoritative and crucial advisor to tools, starting from strategies for measuring time with isotopes and magnetism to the sciences of weather reconstruction, geomorphology, sedimentology, soil technological know-how, paleobotany and faunal paleoecology. The Integration of Process Design and Control Often, method layout and regulate process layout are played sequentially. it's only lately displayed simultaneous method of the layout and keep watch over results in major fiscal merits and better dynamic functionality in the course of plant operation. wide study in concerns comparable to 'interactions of layout and control', 'analysis and layout of plant extensive regulate systems', 'integrated tools for layout and regulate' has ended in outstanding advances and important new applied sciences that experience enriched the diversity of tools on hand for the layout engineer in her endeavour to layout and function new techniques. Assessing and Measuring Environmental Impact and Sustainability Assessing and Measuring Environmental effect and Sustainability solutions the query “what are the on hand methodologies to evaluate the environmental sustainability of a product, process or strategy? a number of recognized authors percentage their services in an effort to provide a wide viewpoint of this factor from a chemical and environmental engineering viewpoint. - Environmentally Conscious Mechanical Design (Environmentally Conscious Engineering, Myer Kutz Series) - PVC pipe-- design and installation - Modern and Past Glacial Environments Revised Student Edition - Chemistry for environmental engineering and science - Water Pumps and Pumping Systems Additional resources for Implementing Ecological Integrity: Restoring Regional and Global Environmental and Human Health Sample text P. 146-161. , and Goodland, R. (1997) Ecological Sustainability and Integrity: Concepts and Approaches. Kluwer Academic Publishers Dordrecht: The Netherlands. Leopold, A. (1949) A Sand County Almanac and Sketches Here and There. New York: Oxford University Press. , and Westra, L. (I997) Technology and Values. Rowman & Littlefield: Lanham, MD. Westra, L. (1998) Living in Integrity: A Global Ethic to Restore a Fragmented Earth. Rowman Littlefield: Lanham, MD. , and Wenz, P. (1995) The Faces of Environmental Racism: the Global Equity Issues. INTRODUCTION Human beings have long regarded nature as a hostile power, as both an unpredictable and alien force. Securing food and shelter was an arduous and indeed often dangerous task. More recently, with the growth in human population and the emergence of powerful technologies, we have started to regard nature as a material resource to be exploited for substantial gains. Exploiting nature was the main goal of military conquest and of industrial and commercial development. With the overexploitation of certain resources, a new way of viewing nature has arisen, based largely on non utilitarian premises. A. (1995) The Role of Law in Sustainable Development and Environmental Protection Decisionmaking. Sustainable Development: Science, Ethics and Public Policy, J. Lemons and D. Brown (eds). Kluwer Academic Publishers Dordrecht: The Netherlands, p. 64-76. , ed. (1997) Introduction. Nature's Services. Island Press: Washington, DC. p. 3-4. , and Ravetz, J. (1995) Science for the Post-Normal Age. in Perspectives on Ecological Integrity. Kluwer Academic Publishers Dordrecht: The Netherlands. p. 146-161.	http://queenofthering.tv/read/implementing-ecological-integrity-restoring-regional-and-global-environmental
Are Human Rights too Human Centric? Are Human Rights too Human Centric? Prof Frédéric Mégret Abstract: The claim that human rights are too human-centric may strike as odd: this is, after all, their point. Human rights are the rights of humans and can hardly be blamed for not being something else. Or can't they? Human rights frames the key political struggle as between human beings and the powers that be (notably the state), in a way that promotes a strong notion of the centrality of human beings to all just political order. What remains persistently excluded from this framing is the almost too obvious exclusion of all-that-is-not-human from the heart of our thinking about justice. Successive critiques of human rights have successfully helped decenter its subject and extended the definition of who counts as "human," yet human rights' anthropocentrism is in a sense its ultimate taboo. But what if the fundamental limit of the human rights project lied not in its own frequently underlined internal limitations (those that relate to its limited ability to indeed be emancipatory for humans), and more in its incapacity to think of human emancipation in terms other than the subjugation of nature and other species? What if human rights are not only anthropocentric but more specifically speciesist? Prof Frédéric Mégret is an Associate Professor of Law. In March 2015, he was made a William Dawson Scholar by McGill University. He held the Canada Research Chair on the Law of Human Rights and Legal Pluralism from 2006 to 2015. Before joining the University of McGill, Professor Mégret was an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Law of the University of Toronto, a Boulton fellow at McGill University and a research associate at the European University Institute in Florence. Professor Mégret is the author of “Le Tribunal pénal international pour le Rwanda” (Pedone, 2002). He is currently co-editing the second edition of “The United Nations and Human Rights: A Critical Appraisal” (Oxford University Press, 2014) with Professor Philip Alston.	https://law.unimelb.edu.au/centres/iilah/news-and-events/2016-event-pages/are-human-rights-too-human-centric
On the uniqueness of humankind Biological and philosophical anthropologies of the 20th century keep emphasising the "Sonderstellung" of humans among the realm of living beings. However, it is not clear how this particular role should be characterised, how it should be reconciled with biological findings, and which theoretical and practical conclusions should be drawn from it. Partly in opposition to these anthropological views on humankind biological disciplines underline the extensive similarities and common characteristics between humans and other species. Apparently, these biological findings concur with the criticism of anthropocentrism, which is expressed in Western philosophy of nature and by ethicists. To discuss these issues the Europäische Akademie organized the conference "The Uniqueness of Humankind - Über die Sonderstellung des Menschen". The proceedings of the conference documented in this volume approached the theoretical and practical concept of the "Sonderstellung" against the background of present day knowledge in biosciences. Furthermore, by interdisciplinary efforts, an attempt was made to clarify those conceptual problems that arise with the idea of the uniqueness of humankind. The present volume partly takes up and further develops topics that have been raised by volume 15, On Human Nature, that was published in this series in 2002. Biological Evolution Conference papers and proceedings Conference proceedings Congress Congresses Electronic books Human beings Human beings -- Congresses Human Characteristics Humanism Humans Ingénierie Movements Personhood Philosophical anthropology Philosophical anthropology -- Congresses Philosophy PHILOSOPHY -- Movements -- Humanism 9783540271710 Grouping Information \|Grouped Work ID\|\|911226ec-04e4-faef-f791-c50088e4f1a7\| \|Grouping Title\|\|on the uniqueness of humankind\| \|Grouping Author\|\|h r duncker k priess\| \|Grouping Category\|\|book\| \|Last Grouping Update\|\|2019-12-03 18:08:28PM\| \|Last Indexed\|\|2019-12-06 04:33:44AM\| Solr Details \|accelerated_reader_point_value\|\|0\| \|accelerated_reader_reading_level\|\|0\| \|auth_author2\|\|Duncker, Hans-Rainer.\| Priess, K. \|author2-role\|\|Duncker, Hans-Rainer.\| Priess, K.	https://ccu.marmot.org/GroupedWork/911226ec-04e4-faef-f791-c50088e4f1a7/Home
\|Shangri La attempts to ignore all national and regional boundaries and detach itself from human activities, existing in the perfection of "raw" nature. Although this comes at a loss of excluding the diversity of the people in the region and the richness of their culture, I hope this helps Shangri La remain disinterested and undivided along ethnic lines. \| On the other hand, with the increasing dominance of human beings over nature, one can hardly abstract Nature in pure isolation. There is always some kind of association of the unknown with the known and established world. Yet, references to human beings and human artefacts, wherever made, are primarily for identification or within an historical setting.	http://goldenpeaktours.com.pk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=453&Itemid=760
The previous part of this article accounted for the evolution of the city in the West since the sixteenth century, a period loosely described as ‘modernity’ since it succeeds the medieval period, the Protestant Reformation, and the Renaissance. It traced the decline of Christian symbolism and identified various ideological factors that conditioned the urban environment since that time, beginning with the Protestant Reformation’s emphasis on the written word—that is, scripture—over and against the material symbols of Roman Catholic Christendom inherent in the latter’s tradition. This emphasis on scripture and internal spiritual experience—in contrast to its outward forms—was a result of a growing anthropocentrism in this epoch, hastened earlier by the Renaissance. It also had a public expression in the separation of Church and state that was catalysed by the religious infighting between Protestants and Catholics. This eventually led to figures such as John Locke demarcating sharply between the Church and state, and Adam Smith’s insistence on the relegation of religion to the private sphere/personal sensibilities so that government could function in an ostensibly unimpeded manner. Smith especially was an advocate of the Enlightenment rationalism that we saw was by nature anthropocentric, and which would inevitably influence the city space. This anthropocentrism would ironically be compounded by Calvinism, which took up the an-iconic (i.e. anti-symbolist) sympathies of the Reformation from which it emerged, and through its peculiar doctrine of double predestination compelled its adherents to undertake externalised worldly activity. The hard work of the Calvinists led to an abundance of material goods and products that were sold through a vigorous mercantilism that, according to Weber, constitutes the seedbed for modern capitalism. Since human beings are meaning-making creatures, the dissolution of Christian symbolism in the public space led to an existential lacuna that was replaced by a return to the humanist aesthetics of the Graeco-Roman world, via neoclassicism and civil religion. But these two movements failed to completely grip the public domain, such that the rapid rise of the capitalist enterprise through corporations would completely dominate the centre of city spaces in modernity. This not only chipped away at the remnants of anthropocentrism—already eroded by late nineteenth/early twentieth century nihilism—but, as we shall see below, it led to a new kind of symbolism that is materialistic and reflexive. Instead of attempting to bridge the earthly and heavenly realms, corporate symbols target the personal interests and desires of the consumer to purchase the products they sell, and often do so in ways that associate these products with human instincts and desires. This process has been helped by postmodern relativism that dominated intellectual frameworks in the latter half of the twentieth century: you can be and have whatever you like! Below I address not only the impact of the capitalist enterprise on the modern city, but its existential ramifications. Before proceeding, I feel it especially important to highlight that in critiquing the capitalist symbolism that emerged in the twentieth century, I am emphatically not doing so from a Marxist perspective. Since critiques of capitalism are often undertaken by Marxist scholars, I would like to make it clear that I do not sympathise with the latter. Moreover, I believe that—apart from attempts at a grand narrative that was restrictive to personal freedoms—communist states deployed similarly problematic and nearly ubiquitous materialistic symbolism in their city spaces. The main difference between capitalists and communists in relation to the modern city and its symbolism was that the source of that symbolism was not corporations—since businesses in communist countries were tightly controlled by centralised authorities—but, in the main, the totalitarian governmental authority. The Capitalist Enterprise and the Modern City: New Symbols for a New Age In part one of this article I addressed the Calvinist contribution to mercantilism, which was eventually replaced by liberal progress1 with its emphasis on the competitive economic enterprise.2 This was especially the case in the market, which opposed governmental intervention in economic affairs.3 Thus, in the midst of the separation between Church and state, a new player was introduced—the free market—which, with the growth of big business, fuelled by the industrial revolution, led to the emergence of capitalism. This was also known as the “market economy.”4 Capitalism presupposed that “the products of labor have become commodities, in the sense that the goods and services that human beings produce have both a use value … and an exchange value.”5 The important factor is that these commodities yield a profit. In such a system, economic power was gradually wrested away from governments and concentrated into private groups6—corporations—that monopolised the commodities they were interested in. This not only led to the marginalisation of economic liberalism—which emphasised freedom of the individual in commerce and land rights—but also the conditioning of the city as an object for economic control by corporations, where, from the beginning of the nineteenth century on, the city “was treated not as a public institution, but a private commercial venture to be carved up in any fashion that might increase the turnover and further the rise in land values.”7 Since the eighteenth century, space in cities was increasingly interpreted through the lens of neoclassicism and civil religion and their symbols. In modernity, however, this space was seen not so much as an opportunity to reflect the specific mentality of the nation, but strictly through a utilitarian lens as a commodity that could be bought and sold, and then built upon, by corporations in a growing capitalist economy. In light of these developments, “the nucleus of the contemporary town”—or city—would become predominantly secular, “the reflection of the dominant technology and economy.”8 Moreover, the modern city would be dominated by new symbols (brands, etc.) of the products that needed to be sold (and that were advertised by that same technology). In the twentieth century the gradual loss of confidence in the human being’s rationalistic enterprise—in anthropocentrism—stemming from “two European based world wars, economic crises, Fascism, Nazism, and the guilt-ridden traumas of decolonization, along with further critiques of capitalism by ‘western Marxists’ … and more recently, feminists,” led to the breakdown of the last remaining theories underpinning notions of liberal progress, or harmony through competition, of an optimistic belief in the reasonableness (of bourgeoisie) rational man.9 Here can be discerned the degradation of anthropocentrism, which can be seen especially in twentieth century art, which jettisoned the previous century’s romanticism and symbolism for abstract, cubist, and even nihilistic and absurdist imagery. Some examples include Kasemir Valemich’s Black Square and Marcel Duchamp’s Urinal (not to mention the macabre, anti-human work of Francis Bacon). Anthropocentrism then underwent a pseudomorphosis around this time. For as Keith Jenkins pointed out, this loss of confidence in the human being—a staple since the Enlightenment—would also influence capitalism: In this situation capitalism had to find itself another basis for value … But of course, as suspected, such an explicit valorisation of the ‘cash-nexus,’ such a heavy prioritisation of consumer choice, could only be bought at the expense of foregrounding relativism and pragmatism. In the open market commodities have no pretence of possessing intrinsic value; the value of ‘goods’ lies in what they can be exchanged for, in their exchange value. In such a market, people too take on the garb of objects…10 The commoditisation of the human experience (i.e. people taking on the garb of objects) resulting from the transformation of capitalism in light of the loss of confidence in the human being involved the paradoxical phenomenon of the prioritisation of the person—not necessarily as a thinking, rational being (the staple of the Enlightenment)—but as a consumer. In other words, the capitalist application of value to goods and services and material objects as commodities would become a dominant framework in public life. In light of this, the human being, who had struggled under various competing ideologies that all seemed to fail—not limited to the twentieth century movements mentioned above (civil religion, Marxism, Fascism, etc.)—would finally succumb to these commodities. Thus, the corporation, a product of capitalism, concerned with controlling the purchase and sale of commodities, “sublimated its sellable commodities as experiences both in the order of physical need and that of symbolic imagination.”11 And this fit well into the postmodern narrative that relativises absolute truths and values—even reason itself12—in favour of viewing and criticising the past which is interpreted solely through the prism of ‘power.’”13 Out of this nexus of the exaltation of the consumer and exchange value of products (marketed as essential) within the postmodern framework, a new kind of thinking emerged that defined the human person as homo oeconomicus, which, in the “standard view of economic theory,” defines human beings as “integrated, consistent, maximizing, utility-seeking, calculating creatures.”14 In other words, in an environment “where ethics become personalised and narcissistic, a relative and free wheeling affair of taste and style” and “no moral absolutes transcend the every day,”15 homo economicus becomes “fundamentally self-interested,”16 viewing even other people as commodities. He or she can, in fact, become homo narcissus. In light of this, the symbols that dominated the public spaces in cities dramatically changed. Increasingly attuned to the personal interests, desires and needs of the consumer and eschewing grand narratives—which, we saw in part one, in ancient and medieval times situated human beings within a broader cosmos imbued with the sacred—the modern city deploys very different symbols. In the central business districts that dominate the centres of most cities, skyscrapers often boast giant corporate logos and billboards that advertise the brands under which are the products or services sold by these corporations. These products are often tailored to personal interests, needs and desires without recourse to anything that might transcend them. In fact, they are marketed as essential for our wellbeing. According to Lewis Mumford, “in our time the ultimate fate of the commercial city is to become a backdrop for advertising,”17. If this is the case, then the sort of advertising just mentioned—where a soft drink might be associated with an exciting sport event or a half-naked person—will be displayed far above any temple or church (or war memorial). That these new symbols are successful is attested to by Joel Bakan, who affirmed that corporations and their “culture, iconography, and ideology” determine “what we eat, what we watch, what we wear, where we work, and what we do.”18 The prioritisation of such images in a taxonomy that still includes the older religious symbolism but which, on account of the near-ubiquity of product advertising—its placement in the most visible locations in cities and its proliferation in the software of information technology devices that almost everyone uses—is a reflection of modernity’s a-cosmic/religious worldview. This is, to reiterate, accentuated by a new kind of symbolism: city-lights and electronic signs that market material products and services while at the same time blotting out the starry canopy through light pollution. Even skyscrapers, on account of their vertical, needlelike posture, reflect this worldview. For while they are remarkable testaments to human ingenuity in engineering—and can be aesthetically impressive—skyscrapers nevertheless function according to their etymology, scraping the sky or cosmos instead of trying, like in ancient and medieval cities, to bring it, and the sacredness it contained, down to earth for our benefit. And all of this can be discerned in the above images of New York’s Times square, which in common parlance is called ‘the Crossroads of the World,’ ‘the Centre of the Universe’ and ‘the heart of the world.’ This is axis mundi terminology, yet applied in such a way as to reflect our contemporary sensibilities: for Times Square’s iconography does not intersect heaven and earth in the way that ancient and medieval civilisations envisaged their axes mundi. Instead, it is the intersection of the commercial and entertainment industries where the products or experiences they sell both are concentrated and made available to a new kind of human being: homo oeconomicus. Conclusion In the introduction to part one of this article I mentioned that I would conclude with a brief reflection on the impact of the modern city on our wellbeing. Recent studies by neuroscientists have demonstrated that in the modern city mental health issues are made worse. Overcrowding in cities can lead to social stress that in turn generates physiological changes in the brain and its chemistry, resulting in anxiety and depression; and in extreme cases, schizophrenia and violence. Florian Lederbogen has narrowed down the negative effect of modern cities on humans to “pollution, toxins, crowding, noise, or demographic factors,”19 while Andreas Meyer-Linderberg has stated that “feeling different from your neighbours because of socio-economic status or ethnicity”20 can also lead to stress. I am certainly not suggesting that this is unilaterally the case in all modern cities. But it is worthwhile asking if the detrimental effect that the modern city has on human beings could be ascribed, at least partially, to the rapid changes in the urban environment that have precluded human beings from feeling that they live in an integrated cosmos wherein there is a capacity for transcendence? This transcendence, we have seen, was articulated in ancient and medieval cities as the presence of the sacred. In part one of this article, I affirmed that the earliest cities in Mesopotamia, and generally in the Near East and the Mediterranean, were made to intersect and encompass the three basic cosmic tiers of heaven, earth, and the underworld, at junctures where the sacred was revealed; where the hierophany took place. We know that in the period preceding modernity—namely in medieval Christendom—the public thoroughfares were full of images that not only integrated passers by into the Christian narrative articulated cosmically, but ‘advertised’ dispassion through icons of Christ and the saints giving the blessing of peace. Cities like Constantinople—the capital of the Byzantine empire for over a thousand years—inherited the statues and images of classical Greece and Rome that were proudly displayed in thoroughfares, meaning that inhabitants could participate in multiple narratives within a taxonomy that prioritised the Christian experience. Such cities were not without commerce—nor without problems—yet their priorities were different and consistent with the experience of human beings since the first urban settlements. I am not suggesting something as impractical as a unilateral return to the symbolism of ancient or medieval cities; although it would not hurt for religious institutions to display more of their symbols and actively guide observers/participants into their meaning. Nor am I implying that the current state of cities is entirely problematic, for the free market—propelled by capitalist and corporate interests—has, as Jordan Peterson has claimed—reduced global poverty through the creation of jobs for the manufacturing of goods to be bought and sold. This has not been without problems, but the reduction of global poverty coupled with our ease of access to products that we freely desire or need are direct results of free market capitalism that has shaped the city through its symbolism. Moreover, the infrastructure of the modern city, its war memorials, museums, gardens, parks, and even many shops—all are part and parcel of everyday living for most people and in many cases in a positive way. (Even small towns replicate, on a micro-scale, what large cities economically reflect on a macro-scale.) What this article has argued by analysing the rise of the modern city and its symbolism—through decline of predominantly Christian symbolism in the West via the rise and fall of anthropocentrism—is that this process has not been without its problems or detrimental effects from an existential point of view. This is because unlike Christian symbols—or religious symbols in general—corporate symbols do not integrate people into a cosmic narrative that transcends the mundane. It is hoped that it has been made clear that wisdom can be gleaned from the manner in which ancient and medieval cities deployed religious symbolism to ensure that human experience was framed in a cosmic narrative. This cosmic narrative was in turned delineated in proximity to ultimate values such as sacredness, which in the past helped to give meaning and purposes to people’s lives. That religious symbolism performs this function to this day can be discerned in the continuing significance of churches, temples, synagogues, mosques—and their symbols—in the city space. Dr Mario Baghos is Senior Lecturer in Patristics and Church History at St Andrew’s Greek Orthodox Theological College, Sydney, Australia, and Chief Publishing Officer of St Andrew’s Orthodox Press. His book, From the Ancient Near East to Christian Byzantium: Kings, Symbols, and Cities (Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2021), comprehensively addresses themes related to religious symbolism in ancient and medieval cities both diachronically and cross-culturally. The present article comprises a coda to this book.	https://thesymbolicworld.com/articles/architecture/religious-symbolism-and-the-modern-city-part-two-capitalism-and-corporations/
In the context of the month of the family and of our annual activity ‘Un paso por mi Familia, in its 10th edition, and thanks to the support of this press outlet, we seek to illuminate the responsibility of the family in caring for the planet from the Encyclical Laudato Yes. It is about giving some keys or ideas that show the family-Laudato Sí connection threads in a broad dimension in which some connections with the Apostolic Exhortation Amoris Laetitia are also included. In that sense, we cite four key aspects to consider: The Encyclical Laudato yes, it is a simple but profound text, markedly interdisciplinary and that challenges everyone, not only governments, companies, institutions in general, but also each one of us on a personal, family and as citizens. It is a text that leaves no one indifferent, regardless of the religion they profess and, each time it is read, new ideas and implications, social and personal, spring to mind; but directly unavoidable family responsibilities. The second key idea is, although it is true that the Encyclical represents a step forward in the Social Doctrine of the Church, it is also true that it is framed in continuity with the writings of previous Popes. In the work numerous texts of its predecessors and terms are cited, such as ecological conversion, coined by St. John Paul II in 2001, which acquire a new dimension. A phrase from the encyclical itself captures this idea very well: “Again springs the eternal novelty of Christian thought” originating from the family paradigm made up of Joseph, Mary and Jesus in those settings of Nazareth, Bethlehem, Egypt and Jerusalem, and how they cared the environments where they moved and acted. The third idea, closely related to the previous one, is that the worldview present in the encyclical is Christian anthropology. God the Creator grants men and women a special dignity so that we can be the faithful gardeners of his creative work. The human being is nature, it is an inseparable part of the Earth and is responsible for it, for its care and for ensuring that the creator’s designs are fulfilled in it. The Pope opposes this vision of Christian anthropology to anthropocentrism, the man God of the world and also to biocentrism, deified nature and man his enemy. The encyclical shows in great detail the damage anthropocentrism and its logics have done, and continue to do, to the world, both to nature and to human beings themselves. : What is happening in the world today that we are destroying that precious Garden of God? In point 119 of the encyclical it is stated: “We cannot pretend to heal our relationship with nature and the environment without healing all the basic relationships of the human being, without recognizing the value of each human person, without recognizing the other” (LS , 119). And the basic relationships of the human being are essentially articulated in the family. Therefore, this same worldview crisis is also at the foundations of the problems that the family lives today. Professor Larrú in a recent conference on the Apostolic Exhortation Amoris Laetitia pointed out: “We do not know what the family is because we do not know what the person is.” If we cross on the anthropological plane, the texts of the Laudato si and the exhortation we see that they are intertwined. At point 122 of the encyclical it is stated: “A deviant anthropocentrism gives rise to a deviant lifestyle.” In this “liquid” modernity in which we live, one of the fundamental problems that affects all our relationships is, as point 6 of the encyclical reflects very well, “the idea that there are no indisputable truths that guide our lives” (LS , 6). This problem affects both our relationship with nature, as well as our relationship with others, others near or far, family or society in general because everything is interconnected. The fourth and last key or general idea, very present in the Laudato, but which we also find in the Exhortation, is that everything is connected. It is not possible to separate the social from the environmental and there is “an intimate relationship between the poor and the fragility of the planet.” The mass media have given much echo to the second aspect, to the clamor of the earth, forgetting to a greater extent the first, the clamor of the poor, but also the intimate and deep connection between the two. The voice that Pope Francis gives in the Encyclical to the poor and excluded from society has not resonated all that it should. And this paradigm that everything in the world is connected is one of the strong ideas of the Encyclical. As can be seen, for example, in this quote: “The authentic care of our own life and of our relationships with nature is inseparable from fraternity, justice and fidelity to others.” Consequently, it can be affirmed that there is a link between the family crisis, the social-economic crisis and the environmental crisis, but without separating them. There is an intimate relationship between the fragility of the poor and the fragility of the planet, but this intimate relationship also jumps from the gaze to the other, to those excluded from the earth, to the gaze of the other within the intra-family sphere. There is a close connection between Laudato Sí and the merciful gaze of Jesus Christ that he learned in his first school of life, which was his family. Final reflection My first approximation is that the word family or familiar is found 15 times in the Encyclical. But in addition, in three of them it is not a textual reference to the concrete family reality, but rather evokes a broader and more generic meaning: “the entire human family must be united in the search for sustainable development” (LS, 13).	https://www.americanjournal.news/the-responsibility-of-the-family-in-the-care-of-the-common-home/
The hacker group known as “Dragonfly” is behind sophisticated wave of recent cyberattacks on the energy sectors of Europe and North America, Symantec reported Wednesday. The attacks could provide the group with the means to severely disrupt energy operations on both continents. Dragonfly launched a simililar campaign from 2011 to 2014, but it entered a quiet period in 2014 after Symantec and others exposed its activities. The current campaign began in December 2015, Symantec noted. The firm found strong indications of Dragonfly activity in the United States, Turkey and Switzerland, and traces of activity in places outside those areas. The attackers have employed a number of methods to infect systems, including malicious emails, watering hole attacks and Trojanized software. Gravity of Situation “Breaching of multiple energy sector organizations is extremely concerning,” said Eric Chien, technical director of Symantec’s Security Response and Technology Division. “The U.S. power grid is large and complex, and there isn’t a single switch that turns off the electricity for the entire United States,” he told TechNewsWorld.”However, access to operational systems within multiple energy sector organizations could lead to significant disruption.” Although the impact of the attacks so far has been minimal, that doesn’t mitigate the need for concern. “The future is what’s at play here,” said Dana Tamir, vice president of market strategy at Indegy. “This might be an attempt to gain information about these systems in preparation of future attacks,” she told TechNewsWorld. “The fact that nothing’s happened right now doesn’t mean that nothing will happen in the near future.” Unclear Motives Security researchers have yet to determine the motives behind the energy sector attacks. “We are not seeing any motivation in regards to monetary, extortion or economic espionage,” Symantec’s Chien said. “We do not know the ultimate motivation of the attacker, but clearly disruption and sabotage are candidates with access to such systems,” he added. The characteristics of the attacks point to a class of perpetrator, observed Indegy’s Tamir. “The sophistication of the attack, the targets of the attack, the gathering of information indicates there’s a bigger play here that’s more typical of a nation-state than a criminal organization,” she said. Tools of the Trade While the campaign itself is sophisticated, the tools and methods used by the attackers to penetrate the SCADA industrial control systems are not. “What’s interesting here is the relatively unsophisticated methods the hacking group has used,” said Leigh-Anne Galloway, cybersecurity resilience lead for Positive Technologies. “Usually with SCADA, the tactic of choice is to exploit zero-day vulnerabilities,” she told TechNewsWorld. “In this case, though, they’ve chosen to go for the older but most-effective methods of phishing and watering holes to get in.” The Dragonfly hackers use their tools to collect credentials and perform reconnaissance on the systems they’re attacking, noted Indegy’s Tamir. “Once they get that information and penetrate the systems themselves, manipulating the systems does not require any special tools,” she said. “The systems are quite easy to manipulate once you’re inside them.” “We are seeing the attackers increasingly ‘live off the land’ by using default system administration tools in order to penetrate systems, as well as reusing and modifying existing off-the-shelf malicious software,” added Symantec’s Chien. Countering the Attacks Since discovering the latest activity, Symantec has briefed more than 100 energy sector and government organizations in the United States and Europe and made recommendations to them about coping with the attacks. “The power grid penetration incidents are terrifying,” said Varun Badhwar, CEO of RedLock. “They really hit home the importance of having a solid cybersecurity strategy in place for organizations of all types,” he told TechNewsWorld. Attacks on industrial control systems have been increasing in recent times, according to a new report from IBM Security. There were 2,788 attacks in 2016, up from 640 attacks in 2013, for instance. That trend appears to be continuing this year. Through July, IBM already had reported 2,522 attacks.	https://www.technewsworld.com/story/global-cyberattack-on-energy-sector-stokes-deep-fears-84790.html
Cyber attacks against government are growing In our just released 2018 Annual Cybersecurity Report: Impacts on Government, we found that cyber attacks against agencies across the U.S. are increasing every day. From ransomware and distributed denial of service (DDoS) to IoT botnets and cryptojacking, the mix of threats are also becoming more lethal. And leaders in utilities, public safety, transportation, operations, education, and national defense are often being forced to react unexpectedly, redirecting their limited resources to stop an attack and clean up the mess—if they can. It may take days or even months. Sometimes it is never fixed and private citizen data, critical infrastructure capabilities, or criminal case evidence are permanently affected. That’s why the need for increased cyber resilience will be a core issue for government leaders in 2018. From state and local, to federal and education, the need to protect government services and infrastructure from cyber attack, and ensure continuity of government, is now critical to protecting our quality of life. But how can we do that? How can government defend against cyber attacks? One way is through learning as much about the threats as we can. This year our public sector cybersecurity experts at Cisco prepared and distributed a detailed survey to IT security leaders in government. In it, we asked about the threats they faced in the past year, how they confronted them, and what challenges they expect in the coming year. We also asked about operational issues that can affect an organization’s cybersecurity posture. New: a cybersecurity report just for government Each year these results contribute, along with private sector findings, to Cisco’s Annual Cybersecurity Report. But this year we did something different; we pulled out and expanded the findings to create a special report focused solely on the public sector. We call it The 2018 Annual Cybersecurity Report: Impacts on Government, and it goes deep, exploring key attack methods, defensive strategies and other cybersecurity issues we’re seeing in the public sector. Plus, we designed the report so that each sub-heading topic (such as attack methods or agency discussed) can be used as a convenient stand-alone page. So if your interest is just in utilities/energy (or transportation, etc.), you can easily pull that single topic page from the report for future reference. In the 2018 Annual Cybersecurity Report: Impacts on Government, you’ll also explore: - Top trends in government cybersecurity for the next year - Major attack methods, by agency, that adversaries are launching - Unique ways your individual agency can prepare for attacks - Top recommendations for 2018 to secure your agency networks. Increase your agency’s cyber resilience As cyber attacks against government services and infrastructure become more sophisticated, it is critical that agencies begin to implement strategies that increase their cyber resilience. You can start by downloading your free copy of our government-focused cybersecurity report to: - View survey results for the public sector agencies, including utilities/energy, transportation, public safety and more - See what threats your colleagues are dealing with and their response - Gain the latest insight on the future threat landscape for government. So be sure to get your free copy today at: 2018 Annual Cybersecurity Report: Impacts on Government. To learn more about improving the quality of life for your citizens through innovative and secure solutions for cloud, collaboration, cybersecurity, and networking visit us at:	https://blogs.cisco.com/government/annual-cybersecurity-report-impacts-on-government
Threats to Industrial Control Systems (ICS) and Operational Technology (OT) that operate our critical infrastructures are now in daily news media. ICS controls provide automation of operating power plants, oil and natural gas flowing through pipes nationwide, and support critical manufacturing of goods and pharmaceutical products for everyday use. Attacks on these systems can cause interruptions of major critical infrastructures, physical damage, and potentially threaten human health and safety. The advances in technology and today’s offerings of the Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) devices expands the attack surface of the ICS with the impact extending to all parts of the organization operating the critical infrastructures, the supply chain, and ultimately the end-use customers. Current cybersecurity solutions today cannot provide comprehensive protection against all the known and unknown threats of the automation components that operate the critical infrastructures, and specifically the energy sector. Particularly with the constantly changing threat and technology environments, this defensive approach results in the critical infrastructures constantly trying to play catch up in cybersecurity. Cyber attacks may be launched, for example, by malicious insiders, via the supply chain, and/or by unauthorized remote access. Attackers only have to be effective once and defenders need to be effective 100% of the time. It is not realistic to be 100% effective in identifying and addressing all known and potential cyber attacks. In addition, with the increasing availability of attack tools and techniques, the end result is that the defenders keep falling further behind in addressing cybersecurity. This white paper proposes an alternative to the current defensive paradigm. The paradigm proposed in this paper augments this defensive approach and considers cybersecurity from the attacker’s perspective and includes identifying attack surfaces, attack vectors, and impacts. Because it is not possible to mitigate all potential cyber events, the objective is to identify the most common attack paths and mitigate the highest impact cyber events, independent of the specific attack method. This will include known and potential cybersecurity events. The unknown cyber events will be determined based on the impact to the ICS and the reliability of the grid. This paradigm will allow the energy sector to be more proactive in addressing cybersecurity and more resilient in the event of cyber attacks. The Commission under the lead of DG Energy is preparing a strategy on cyber security for the whole energy sector to reinforce and to complement the implementation of Directive on security of Network and Information Systems (NIS) at energy sector level and also to foster synergies between the Energy Union and the Digital Single Market agenda. In this respect, the Energy Expert Cyber Security Platform (EECSP) – Expert Group started work in December 2015. This document reflects the work of this Expert Group towards the development of an energy cyber security strategy by analysis of respective cyber security challenges and existing policy papers with the aim to recommend actions for consideration by the European Commission. This three-volume report presents a framework that organizations can use to develop effective cybersecurity strategies tailored to their particular combinations of smart grid-related characteristics, risks, and vulnerabilities. Organizations in the diverse community of smart grid stakeholders can use the methods and supporting information presented in this report as guidance for assessing risk and identifying and applying appropriate security requirements. This approach recognizes that the electric grid is changing from a relatively closed system to a complex, highly interconnected environment. Each organization’s cybersecurity requirements should evolve as technology advances and as threats to grid security inevitably multiply and diversify. This publication provides a catalog of security and privacy controls for federal information systems and organizations to protect organizational operations and assets, individuals, other organizations, and the Nation from a diverse set of threats including hostile attacks, natural disasters, structural failures, human errors, and privacy risks. The controls address diverse requirements derived from mission and business needs, laws, Executive Orders, directives, regulations, policies, standards, and guidelines. The publication describes how to develop specialized sets of controls, or overlays, tailored for specific types of missions and business functions, technologies, environments of operation, and sector-specific applications. Finally, the consolidated catalog of controls addresses security and privacy from a functionality perspective (i.e., the strength of functions and mechanisms) and an assurance perspective (i.e., the measure of confidence in the security or privacy capability). Addressing both functionality and assurance ensures that information technology products and the information systems that rely on those products are sufficiently trustworthy. This document provides baseline cybersecurity procurement language that is the consensus opinion of the document authors and was guided by input from voluntary reviewers representing the Acquirer, Integrator, and Supplier communities. It focuses on the cybersecurity of energy delivery systems (i.e., control systems) and does not attempt to specify or replace cybersecurity-based procurement language for acquisitions involving IT. Considerations for IT cybersecurity are outlined in many standards and guidance documents (e.g., the NIST 800 series of publications). Users of this document have the responsibility of ensuring that actions taken during the procurement process comply with current standards and regulations. In addition to the language included in this document, acquired products and services should conform to the applicable IT security standards and operations technology (OT) standards for energy delivery systems. This document is designed to provide baseline cybersecurity procurement language for the following: The Electricity Subsector Cybersecurity Capability Maturity Model (ES-C2M2) can help electricity subsector organizations of all types evaluate and make improvements to their cybersecurity programs. The ES-C2M2 is part of the DOE Cybersecurity Capability Maturity Model (C2M2) Program and was developed to address the unique characteristics of the electricity subsector. The program supports the ongoing development and measurement of cybersecurity capabilities within the electricity subsector, and the model can be used to: The ES-C2M2 provides descriptive rather than prescriptive industry focused guidance. The model content is presented at a high level of abstraction so that it can be interpreted by subsector organizations of various types, structures, and sizes. This document describes a set of security measures which are considered to be appropriate for smart grids. The European Network and Information Security Agency (ENISA) issued this report to assist the Member States and smart grid stakeholders in providing a framework/measurement tool that could be used for: This catalog presents a compilation of practices that various industry bodies have recommended to increase the security of control systems from both physical and cyber attacks. The recommendations in this catalog are grouped into 19 families, or categories, that have similar emphasis. The recommendations within each family are displayed with a summary statement of the recommendation, supplemental guidance or clarification, and a requirement enhancements statement providing augmentation for the recommendation under special situations. This catalog is not limited for use by a specific industry sector but can be used by all sectors to develop a framework needed to produce a sound cybersecurity program. This catalog should be viewed as a collection of recommendations to be considered and judiciously employed, as appropriate, when reviewing and developing cybersecurity standards for control systems. The recommendations in this catalog are intended to be broad enough to provide any industry using control systems the flexibility needed to develop sound cybersecurity standards specific to their individual security needs. The selective application of technological and related procedural safeguards is an important responsibility of every Federal organization in providing adequate security in its computer and telecommunication systems. This publication provides a standard that will be used by Federal organizations when these organizations specify that cryptographic-based security systems are to be used to provide protection for sensitive or valuable data. Protection of a cryptographic module within a security system is necessary to maintain the confidentiality and integrity of the information protected by the module. This standard specifies the security requirements that will be satisfied by a cryptographic module. The standard provides four increasing, qualitative levels of security intended to cover a wide range of potential applications and environments. The security requirements cover areas related to the secure design and implementation of a cryptographic module. These areas include cryptographic module specification; cryptographic module ports and interfaces; roles, services, and authentication; finite state model; physical security; operational environment; cryptographic key management; electromagnetic interference/electromagnetic compatibility (EMI/EMC); self-tests; design assurance; and mitigation of other attacks.	https://www.nevermoresecurity.com/category/guidelines/
Compensation for a security analyst depends on years of experience, education, industry, and level of seniority. Salary estimates can range from $59,695 to $121,650 or more, according to salary data from Glassdoor and the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics. Read on to learn about the salary range for common cybersecurity jobs. Here’s what we’ll cover: The cybersecurity field is rapidly expanding, with the Bureau of Labor Statistics estimating that employment for security analysts will grow by 31% between now and 2029. As demand increases in the coming years, salaries are also expected to rise. Below are the salary averages for security analysts and the specialized roles that fall under the cybersecurity umbrella. Also known as a cybersecurity specialist, security analyst, data security analyst, or information security analyst, cybersecurity analyst is a catch-all job title for a person who implements security measures to help organizations prevent and recover from cyber-attacks. While it is increasingly common for cybersecurity experts to specialize in either cybercrime prevention or incident response, most cybersecurity professionals can handle both and have job responsibilities that include monitoring networks for intrusions and anomalies, responding to security threats, and implementing security policies that ensure compliance. When a security threat or breach is detected, incident response analysts are deployed to perform security audits, risk assessments, and address the breaches themselves through network forensics and reverse engineering. Many incident response analysts also have prevention duties such as identifying and resolving weak points in a security system before they become a problem for the organization. These high demand cybersecurity professionals are also well versed in threat intelligence and analysis and are adept at identifying and understanding malware. One of the primary responsibilities of an application security analyst, also known as a network security analyst or system security analyst, is to scan computer systems and web applications against known vulnerabilities and attacks. Using best practices such as penetration testing and installing firewalls, a person in this position typically has a strong background in threat analysis and detection, OWASP security standards, and cross-site scripting. While many organizations expect their application security analysts to hold a bachelor’s degree or higher, it’s not unusual for someone with security experience, work history, and knowledge that is backed up by online courses or a cybersecurity bootcamp to land entry-level positions without a college degree. At the center of the Venn diagram of technical skills, project management know-how, and strong communication is the security compliance analyst, who ensures that an organization’s technology and security protocols meet government and industry regulatory standards and that everyone in an organization is on the same page when it comes to data security processes and best practices. This career path offers cybersecurity analysts with a bird’s-eye view of an organization’s security posture and the opportunity to strengthen network security across the board. A cybersecurity consultant is a security specialist whose skills run the gamut—from cyber attack prevention to implementing recovery plans—who is brought in to assist an organization with its security needs. The specific responsibilities of a cybersecurity consultant will vary depending on an organization’s security posture, although it’s not unusual for a cybersecurity professional to specialize in one area and offer a narrow set of services. Is cybersecurity the right career for you? According to Cybersecurity Ventures, the cybersecurity industry is expected to have 3.5 million high-paying, unfilled jobs this year. With Springboard’s comprehensive Cyber Security Career Track, you’ll work 1:1 with an industry-mentor to learn key aspects of information technology, security software, security auditing, and finding and fixing malicious code. Learning units include subject-expert approved resources, application-based mini-projects, hands-on labs, and career-search related coursework. The course will culminate in a multi-part capstone project that you can highlight on your resume for prospective employers or use to demonstrate your technical knowledge in your job interview. The learning materials will also help prepare you to pass the globally-recognized CompTIA Security+ certification so you stand out when applying for cybersecurity roles. Learn more about Springboard’s Cyber Security Career Track here. Ready to learn more?	https://www.springboard.com/library/cybersecurity/salary/
The Jackson County Intermediate School District was hit with a ransomware attack this past week resulting in canceled classes and major disruption. The cyberattack locked district accounts in schools in both Jackson and Hillsdale Counties. The impact of this cyber incident has far-reaching implications including: - Missed school days – Students lost valuable instruction since virtual classes were not an option. Email and other critical systems that educators, students and families use to communicate were halted. - Ransomware – Payment demands could be in the millions—at the taxpayer’s expense. - Major inconvenience/uncertainty for educators and the school community – Teachers didn’t have access to valuable student data. Parents had to take time off work and stay home with their children. - Negative press – A cyber incident brings negative, unwanted attention to the district. - Lost confidence – The school community (educators and families alike) need to be confident that their personal information is not in the wrong hands. A similar incident happened in the South Redford School District in September. The district was a victim of a malicious cyberattack that closed schools and impacted more than 3,000 students and their families. Earlier this year, Federal agencies had warned that attacks on schools would escalate. School districts, both public and private, should be on high alert. These cyberattacks serve as a grim reminder that schools must be proactive (instead of reactive) about their cyber hygiene and diligent about improving their cybersecurity posture to help mitigate future attacks. The following are cybersecurity recommendations from the SensCy team: - There’s no magic answer. Cybersecurity is a risk that needs to be managed and included in your strategic planning. As with any other risk, cybersecurity should be visible at the top of the organization. Recommendation: Make cybersecurity risk a standing agenda item at board meetings and executive leadership meetings. - 80%+ of successful cyber breaches are the result of social engineering. Your employees are your greatest risk, but they can also be your first line of defense with ongoing education. Recommendation: Invest in your employees by educating them on how to recognize these attacks. - Visibility at the top + Education throughout your organization = An Active Cybersecurity Culture. An active cybersecurity culture is better protected from an incident, better prepared to respond to an incident, and able to recover and stay open should an incident occur. Recommendation: Ensure you have a Cybersecurity Incident Response Plan. Make sure the leadership team and the IT team understand it, know how to activate it, and have practiced doing so. - Security patches cannot be ignored. They are released because a vulnerability has been identified. Every day you wait to install them puts you at greater risk. Recommendation: Institute a policy that ensures security patches are installed within 24 hours of release. Ensure your team is accountable for doing so. - Backing up your data is critical to ensuring you don’t fall victim to Ransomware. Recommendation: A successful recovery from a Ransomware incident requires that your data is backed up on a separate network or in a cloud service designed for this purpose. Back up your data daily! To learn more about these recommendations, read You’ve Been Hacked! Now What? by Raj Patel. With more than 25 years of experience helping clients with their cybersecurity, Raj’s insights will get you thinking the right way about your cyberhealth. Want to find out how vulnerable your organization is to a cyberattack? Your SensCy Score is a good indication of your organization’s cyber hygiene and preparedness. It is like a credit score for your cyberhealth. We can generate your score in less than 30 minutes—at no cost or obligation to you. Click here to get your free SensCy Score or visit www.senscy.com to learn more.	https://senscy.com/another-cyberattack-on-michigan-schools-districts-need-to-be-on-high-alert/
It takes only minutes from the first action of an attack with 5 or less steps for an asset to be compromised, according to the 2019 Verizon Data Breach Investigations Report (DBIR). However, it takes days—an average of 279 days—to identify and contain a breach (Ponemon Institute). And the longer it takes to discover the source, the more money the incident ends up costing the organization. Luckily, you can reduce your chance of falling victim to these attacks by proactively anticipating your greatest threats and taking measures to mitigate these. This blog post breaks down two tools to help you determine just that: your most at-risk data, how this data can be accessed, and the attacker’s motives and abilities. Once you have an understanding of these, it will be much easier to implement countermeasures to protect your organization from those attacks. I recommend first reading through the DBIR sections pertaining to your industry in order to further your understanding of patterns seen in the principal assets being targeted and the attacker’s motives. This will assist in understanding how to use the two tools: Method-Opportunity-Motive, by Shari and Charles Pfleeger and Attack Trees, as discussed by Bruce Schneier. Defining Method-Opportunity-Motive: Method Methods are skills, knowledge and tools available to the hacker, which are similar to Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures used by the Military and MITTR. Jose Esteves et. al. wrote, “Although it used to be common for hackers to work independently, few of today’s hackers operate alone. They are often part of an organized hacking group, where they are members providing specialized illegal services….” A hacker’s methods are improved when part of a team, which has a motive and looks for opportunities to attack principle assets. Opportunity Opportunities are the amount of time and ability required for an attacker to access their objective. The 2019 DBIR authors’ note, “Defenders fail to stop short paths substantially more often than long paths.” It’s critical to apply the correct controls to assets and to monitor those tools in order to quickly detect threats. Motive The motive is the reason to attack; for instance, is the attacker trying to access financial information or intellectual property? The 2019 DBIR notes that most attacks are for financial gains or intellectual property (IP), varying by industry. Using Attack Trees to Visually Detail Method-Opportunity-Motive: Bruce Schneier (Schneier on Security) provides an analytics tool for systematically reviewing why and how an attack might occur. After defining what assets are most valuable to an attacker (motive), you can identify the attacker’s objective, referred to as the root node in an attack tree. From here, you can look at all the possible actions an attacker might use to compromise the primary assets (method). The most probable and timely method shows the most likely path (opportunity). I like using divergent and convergent thinking described by Chris Grivas and Gerard Puccio to discover plausible motive, opportunity, and methods used by a potential threat actor. Divergent thinking is the generation of ideas, using techniques like brainstorming. Convergent thinking is the limiting of ideas based on certain criteria. Using this process, you and your security team can generate objectives and then decide which objectives pose the greatest threat. You can then use this process again to determine the possible methods, referred to as leaf nodes, that could be used to access the objective. Then, you can apply values, such as time, to visualize possible opportunities and attack paths. To further your understanding of how to create an attack tree, let’s look at an example: 1. First, decide what primary assets your company has that an intruder is interested in accessing. The 2019 DBIR provides some useful categories to determine attack patterns within specific industries. For this example, let’s look at a financial institution. One likely asset that a threat actor is attempting to access is the email server, so this is our root node, or objective. Again, using divergent and convergent thinking can help a team develop and clarify possible objectives. 2. After deciding on the objective, the second step in developing an attack tree is to define methods to access the objective. The 2019 DBIR describes some likely methods threat actors might use, or you can use divergent and convergent thinking. In the example below, I’ve included some possible methods to access the email server. 3. As you analyze the threat, continue working through the tree and building out the methods to develop specific paths to the asset. The diagram below shows some potential paths to access and harvest information from the email server, using OR nodes, which are alternative paths, and AND nodes, which require combined activities to achieve the objective (this is represented using ). Note that every method that isn’t an AND node is an OR node. 4. The fourth step is to apply binary values to decide what paths the attack is most likely to follow. For example, I’m going to use likely (l) and unlikely (u) based on the methods my research has shown is available to the attacking team. Then, use a dotted line to show the all likely paths, which are those in which all methods of the path are assigned a likely value. 5. The fifth step is to apply numeric values to the sub-nodes to decide on what path, specifically, the threat actor might attempt. I’m going to use minutes in this scenario; however, other values such as associated costs or probability of success could also be used. These are subjective values and will vary amongst teams. Paths with supporting data would provide a more accurate model, but Attack Trees are still useful even without objective data. In the above example, I have determined the path with the shortest amount of time to be phishing (credential harvesting), assuming the credentials are the same for the user accounts as they are for admin accounts. Since I have already determined that this path is likely and I now know it takes the shortest amount of time, I can determine that this is the most at-risk and likely path to accessing the email server. In this example, the least likely path is stolen credentials. 6. After examining the possible motives, opportunities, and methods, you can decide how you want to protect your assets. For example, I determined that phishing is likely with the attack tree above, so I might decide to outsource monitoring, detection, and training to a Managed Security Service Provider (MSSP) that can provide this at a lower cost than an in-house staff. I might also consider purchasing software to detect, report, and prevent phishing emails, limiting the possibility of a phishing attempt. If social engineering is determined to be a concern, you could conduct end-user training, look for ways to secure the physical environment (guards, better door locks), or make the work environment more desirable (cafeteria, exercise room, recreation area, etc.) The models discussed work together to provide ways to determine, analyze, and proactively protect against the greatest threats to your valuable assets. Ultimately, thinking through scenarios using these tools will provide a more thoughtful and cost-effective approach to security. The post Define Your Unique Security Threats with These Tools appeared first on GRA Quantum. GRA Quantum Launches Comprehensive Security Services GRA Quantum launches a comprehensive scalable security services offering to provide small to midsize firms a custom solution that scales as their business needs change. NEW YORK, August 14, 2019 (Newswire.com) – Global cybersecurity firm GRA Quantum announces the launch of its comprehensive offering, Scalable Security Suite, providing solutions based on a combination of Managed Security Services and professional services, tailored to the specific needs of each client. Scalable Security Suite was created to give small to mid-sized organizations a running start when it comes to security, providing the same standard of security controls as large enterprises. According to GRA Quantum’s President Tom Boyden, “Small and medium-sized firms are prime targets for cybercrime, but many don’t have the necessary resources or guidance to properly strengthen their security stance. Our Scalable Security Suite is designed to help these organizations prioritize their greatest vulnerabilities and provide them a security solution that aligns with their business needs and evolves as these needs and the threat landscapes change.” Managed Security Services (MSS), launched in December 2018, is the foundation of Scalable Security Suite. Through comprehensive security assessments, GRA Quantum experts identify vulnerabilities and provide recommendations for a custom combination of professional service offerings to best address these vulnerabilities. Professional services can be added to Managed Security Services to overcome vulnerabilities and build a more comprehensive, proactive security program. Jen Greulich, GRA Quantum’s Director of Managed Security Services, has seen the need arise among current MSS clients for these supplemental services. “Oftentimes, it becomes clear in a scoping call that clients’ needs extend beyond what we offer through MSS. Our new flexible offering allows us to work with the clients to develop a custom security solution for them that compliments MSS — whether they need incident response or penetration testing services.” Aligned with GRA Quantum’s mission, Scalable Security Suite goes beyond the ordinary cyber assessment to understand and remediate acute physical and human-centric vulnerabilities as well. To learn more about Scalable Security Suite, visit us on our website or begin to build your cybersecurity strategy with The Complete Guide to Building a Cybersecurity Strategy from Scratch. The post GRA Quantum Launches Comprehensive Security Services appeared first on GRA Quantum. 7 Steps to Building a Cybersecurity Strategy from Scratch When your organization is young and growing, you may find yourself overwhelmed with a never-ending to-do list. It can be easy to overlook security when you’re hiring new employees, finding infrastructure, and adopting policies. Without a proper cybersecurity strategy, however, the business that you’ve put your heart and soul into, or the brilliant idea that you’ve spent years bringing to life, are on the line. Every year, businesses face significant financial, brand, and reputational damage resulting from a data breach, and many small businesses don’t ever recover. Not only that, but as you grow you may be looking to gain investors or strategic partners. Many of these firms are not willing to give organizations that don’t take security seriously a chance. A strong security stance can be your differentiator among your customers and within the Venture Capital landscape. One thing’s for sure: you’ve spent a great deal of time creating a business of your own, so why throw it all away by neglecting your security? You can begin building your own cybersecurity strategy by following these steps: 1. Start by identifying your greatest business needs. This understanding is critical when determining how your vulnerabilities could affect your organization. Possible business needs could include manufacturing, developing software, or gaining new customers. Make a list of your most important business priorities. 2. Conduct a third-party security assessment to identify and remediate the greatest vulnerabilities to your business needs. The assessment should evaluate your organization’s overall security posture, as well as the security of your partners and contractors. Once you understand the greatest risks to your business needs, you can prioritize your efforts and budget based on ways to remediate these. 3. Engage a Network Specialist to set-up a secure network or review your existing network. A properly designed and configured network can help prevent unwanted users from getting into your environment and is a bare necessity when protecting your sensitive data. Don’t have a set office space? If you and your team are working from home or communal office spaces, be sure to never conduct sensitive business on a shared network. 4. Implement onboarding (and offboarding) policies to combat insider threat, including a third-party vendor risk management assessment. Your team is your first line of defense, but as you grow, managing the risk of bringing on more employees can be challenging. Whether attempting to maliciously steal data or clicking a bad link unknowingly, employees pose great threats to organizations. As part of your onboarding policy, be sure to conduct thorough background checks and monitor users’ access privileges. This goes for your employees, as well as any third parties and contractors you bring on. 5. Implement a security awareness training program and take steps to make security awareness part of your company culture. Make sure your training program includes topics such as password best practices, phishing identification and secure travel training. Keep in mind, though, that company-wide security awareness should be more than once-a-year training. Instead, focus on fostering a culture of cybersecurity awareness. 6. Set-up multi-factor authentication and anti-phishing measures. Technology should simplify your security initiatives, not complicate them. Reduce the number of administrative notifications to only what is necessary and consider improvements that don’t necessarily require memorizing more passwords, such as password managers and multi-factor authentication for access to business-critical data. 7. Monitor your data and endpoints continuously with a Managed Security Services Provider. As you grow, so does the amount of endpoints you have to manage and data you have to protect. One of the best ways to truly ensure this data is protected is to have analysts monitoring your data at all hours. A managed security services provider will monitor your data through a 24/7 security operations center, keeping eyes out for any suspicious activity such as: phishing emails, malicious sites, and any unusual network activity. You’re not done yet: revisit your security strategy as you evolve. It’s important to remember that effective cybersecurity strategies vary among organizations. As you grow, you’ll want to consider performing regular penetration testing and implementing an Incident Response Plan. And, as your business changes, you must continually reassess your security strategy and threat landscape. For more information, get the Comprehensive Guide to Building a Cybersecurity Strategy from Scratch. The post 7 Steps to Building a Cybersecurity Strategy from Scratch appeared first on GRA Quantum. APT41: A Dual Espionage and Cyber Crime Operation Today, FireEye Intelligence is releasing a comprehensive report detailing APT41, a prolific Chinese cyber threat group that carries out state-sponsored espionage activity in parallel with financially motivated operations. APT41 is unique among tracked China-based actors in that it leverages non-public malware typically reserved for espionage campaigns in what appears to be activity for personal gain. Explicit financially-motivated targeting is unusual among Chinese state-sponsored threat groups, and evidence suggests APT41 has conducted simultaneous cyber crime and cyber espionage operations from 2014 onward. The full published report covers historical and ongoing activity attributed to APT41, the evolution of the group’s tactics, techniques, and procedures (TTPs), information on the individual actors, an overview of their malware toolset, and how these identifiers overlap with other known Chinese espionage operators. APT41 partially coincides with public reporting on groups including BARIUM (Microsoft) and Winnti (Kaspersky, ESET, Clearsky). Who Does APT41 Target? Like other Chinese espionage operators, APT41 espionage targeting has generally aligned with China's Five-Year economic development plans. The group has established and maintained strategic access to organizations in the healthcare, high-tech, and telecommunications sectors. APT41 operations against higher education, travel services, and news/media firms provide some indication that the group also tracks individuals and conducts surveillance. For example, the group has repeatedly targeted call record information at telecom companies. In another instance, APT41 targeted a hotel’s reservation systems ahead of Chinese officials staying there, suggesting the group was tasked to reconnoiter the facility for security reasons. The group’s financially motivated activity has primarily focused on the video game industry, where APT41 has manipulated virtual currencies and even attempted to deploy ransomware. The group is adept at moving laterally within targeted networks, including pivoting between Windows and Linux systems, until it can access game production environments. From there, the group steals source code as well as digital certificates which are then used to sign malware. More importantly, APT41 is known to use its access to production environments to inject malicious code into legitimate files which are later distributed to victim organizations. These supply chain compromise tactics have also been characteristic of APT41’s best known and most recent espionage campaigns. Interestingly, despite the significant effort required to execute supply chain compromises and the large number of affected organizations, APT41 limits the deployment of follow-on malware to specific victim systems by matching against individual system identifiers. These multi-stage operations restrict malware delivery only to intended victims and significantly obfuscate the intended targets. In contrast, a typical spear-phishing campaign’s desired targeting can be discerned based on recipients' email addresses. A breakdown of industries directly targeted by APT41 over time can be found in Figure 1. Figure 1: Timeline of industries directly targeted by APT41 Probable Chinese Espionage Contractors Two identified personas using the monikers “Zhang Xuguang” and “Wolfzhi” linked to APT41 operations have also been identified in Chinese-language forums. These individuals advertised their skills and services and indicated that they could be hired. Zhang listed his online hours as 4:00pm to 6:00am, similar to APT41 operational times against online gaming targets and suggesting that he is moonlighting. Mapping the group’s activities since 2012 (Figure 2) also provides some indication that APT41 primarily conducts financially motivated operations outside of their normal day jobs. Attribution to these individuals is backed by identified persona information, their previous work and apparent expertise in programming skills, and their targeting of Chinese market-specific online games. The latter is especially notable because APT41 has repeatedly returned to targeting the video game industry and we believe these activities were formative in the group’s later espionage operations. Figure 2: Operational activity for gaming versus non-gaming-related targeting based on observed operations since 2012 The Right Tool for the Job APT41 leverages an arsenal of over 46 different malware families and tools to accomplish their missions, including publicly available utilities, malware shared with other Chinese espionage operations, and tools unique to the group. The group often relies on spear-phishing emails with attachments such as compiled HTML (.chm) files to initially compromise their victims. Once in a victim organization, APT41 can leverage more sophisticated TTPs and deploy additional malware. For example, in a campaign running almost a year, APT41 compromised hundreds of systems and used close to 150 unique pieces of malware including backdoors, credential stealers, keyloggers, and rootkits. APT41 has also deployed rootkits and Master Boot Record (MBR) bootkits on a limited basis to hide their malware and maintain persistence on select victim systems. The use of bootkits in particular adds an extra layer of stealth because the code is executed prior to the operating system initializing. The limited use of these tools by APT41 suggests the group reserves more advanced TTPs and malware only for high-value targets. Fast and Relentless APT41 quickly identifies and compromises intermediary systems that provide access to otherwise segmented parts of an organization’s network. In one case, the group compromised hundreds of systems across multiple network segments and several geographic regions in as little as two weeks. The group is also highly agile and persistent, responding quickly to changes in victim environments and incident responder activity. Hours after a victimized organization made changes to thwart APT41, for example, the group compiled a new version of a backdoor using a freshly registered command-and-control domain and compromised several systems across multiple geographic regions. In a different instance, APT41 sent spear-phishing emails to multiple HR employees three days after an intrusion had been remediated and systems were brought back online. Within hours of a user opening a malicious attachment sent by APT41, the group had regained a foothold within the organization's servers across multiple geographic regions. Looking Ahead APT41 is a creative, skilled, and well-resourced adversary, as highlighted by the operation’s distinct use of supply chain compromises to target select individuals, consistent signing of malware using compromised digital certificates, and deployment of bootkits (which is rare among Chinese APT groups). Like other Chinese espionage operators, APT41 appears to have moved toward strategic intelligence collection and establishing access and away from direct intellectual property theft since 2015. This shift, however, has not affected the group's consistent interest in targeting the video game industry for financially motivated reasons. The group's capabilities and targeting have both broadened over time, signaling the potential for additional supply chain compromises affecting a variety of victims in additional verticals. APT41's links to both underground marketplaces and state-sponsored activity may indicate the group enjoys protections that enables it to conduct its own for-profit activities, or authorities are willing to overlook them. It is also possible that APT41 has simply evaded scrutiny from Chinese authorities. Regardless, these operations underscore a blurred line between state power and crime that lies at the heart of threat ecosystems and is exemplified by APT41.	https://www.myspacebox.net:8443/2019/08/
The worst has happened–a hacker found a weakness and you’re in the middle of a cyberattack. Whether your organization is large or small, being hacked can be a devastating experience. The average cost for a small business is $108,000 and some companies just can’t recover. So what should you do if your organization gets hacked? Here are some of the most important steps that you should take. 1. Identify the Attack Your first step is to scan for any malware or viruses that may have been installed on your systems as a result of the hack. This can help you get a better sense of the full impact of the attack and will help minimize further damage. A 2016 IBM & Ponemon Institute study found that, “leveraging an incident response team was the single biggest factor associated with reducing the cost of a data breach – saving companies nearly $400,000 on average (or $16 per record).” Your team should verify the attack by: - Finding the compromised systems - Determining which IP addresses were used in the attack - Confirming the type of attack (Virus? Malware? Unauthorized remote access? Human error?) 2. Change All Your Passwords After you have notified the proper authorities and your insurance company, it is important to change all of your passwords. This not only includes your organization’s login credentials, but also any other online accounts that may have been compromised as a result of the hack. Ensuring that you use strong and unique passwords can help prevent future attacks. 3. Review Your Security Policies and Procedures If you have an incident response plan (and we hope you do), now is the time to bring it out. This will help you identify any gaps or weaknesses in your organization’s defenses so that you can take steps to improve your overall security posture moving forward. Your plan should be a living document that is regularly updated to reflect the latest best practices. An incident response plan should include things like: - Contact information for key personnel - A list of steps to take in the event of a hack, such as accessing backups - A description of how to scan for and remove malware and viruses - Best practices for creating strong and unique passwords - Data from security tests and vulnerability assessments By having a plan in place, you can help ensure that everyone in your organization knows what to do in the event of a hack or other security incident. You can create an incident response plan on your own, but a managed IT provider would help you to develop a strategy that will cover all of your bases. 4. Notify the Proper Parties Don’t forget to notify the proper authorities. Depending on the type of data that was compromised, you may need to contact local law enforcement, the FBI, or another federal agency. You should also notify your insurance company as soon as possible. Although it may hurt your credibility a little bit, you’ll need to inform your customers if their data is at risk. Consider how much more damaging it would be for a company that tries to hide a data breach and then is discovered to have withheld information. 5. Improving Your Overall Security Posture Finally, once you have taken these initial steps to recover from your organization’s hack, it is important to focus on improving your overall security posture. This may involve implementing new security measures, such as two-factor authentication or stronger password requirements, in order to help prevent future incidents. One of the most important, but often overlooked, aspects of data security is employee education and training. All too often, employees are the weak link in an organization’s security chain. They may not be aware of the latest threats or how to avoid them, or they may be careless with their passwords or otherwise negligent in their use of company systems and data. By investing time and resources in regular employee training, you can help ensure that your organization is secure from the inside out. AIS Can Help with Prevention and Recovery As an experienced security firm, AIS can help your organization improve its overall data security posture and minimize the impact of any future attacks. With extensive experience in incident response and recovery, we can help you get back on your feet quickly so that you can focus on rebuilding your business instead of dealing with a costly data breach. Contact us today to learn more!	https://aisllp.com/cyber-attack/your-business-has-been-hacked-now-what/
If you are considering taking a Comptia CySA+ Certification Course, but are uncertain if you want to make the commitment, consider the opportunities this certification can provide to you. The CySA+ certification prepares you for a cybersecurity analyst position, among others. A security analyst plays a critical role in any organization. This person helps to ensure that the organization keeps their sensitive information secure. This person works across the entire organization to determine where the gaps in security. Once the security analyst finds these problems, their role is to put solutions in place. In addition, the security analyst recommends improvements that the organization can make to create a stronger and more robust security plan moving forward. A security analyst is the responsible party to protect the organization from unauthorized access and digital intrusion. This protection includes online and within the building attacks. This role reviews data to help find an activity that appears suspicious to help mitigate risk before any data breach happens. When there is a breach, the security analyst is the person that leads the way to minimize damage, block the attack, and future attacks. A security analyst monitors all those that have access to the system. If there are not varying levels of access, the analyst will create them, allowing only those who need it access to sensitive information. They will continually conduct tests on the system to determine any vulnerabilities or risks. They are responsible for performing internal and external audits to the security. When there is a breach, they analyze it to determine the cause and work to prevent them from happening in the future. They create recovery plans in the event of a disaster and continue to review them to ensure they are current. They verify the security of any vendors or outsiders that interact with the organization and work with them to ensure they have the same level of protection. This certification can also be applied to a cybersecurity engineer position. This position takes a deep dive into the current security problems of an organization and creates innovative solutions for them. They evaluate all new technology and processing to see if it can enhance the security within an organization. A cybersecurity engineer defines security policies and then implements them. Once they are in place, it is their responsibility to maintain them. They install and configure firewalls to detect when there is an intrusion before it becomes a more significant security concern. This role is responsible for maintaining the hardware, software, and other technology support within the organization.	http://spoutfire.com/are-there-jobs-for-a-comptia-cysa-certification/
An Interview With Vector’s Chief Information Security Officer, Greg Surla Cybersecurity is a buzz word we hear thrown around all the time, but, like so many areas of our business, creating a resilient security posture is not a set-it-and-forget-it task. Cybersecurity is more important than ever, as the pandemic forced many businesses towards virtual and remote operations, a shift that has exposed our vulnerabilities to hackers and data breaches. In honor of National Cybersecurity Month, we spoke with Greg Surla, Vector’s Chief Information Security Officer, to learn more about what drew him to this exciting field, the common mistakes organizations make when approaching their cybersecurity strategy and how you can improve your resilience in this critical area. TOP TIPS FOR IMPROVING YOUR ORGANIZATION’S CYBERSECURITY POSTURE Cybersecurity is a core need for every business, big or small, and will become more and more critical as our technology continues to advance. Here are our top tips for improving your cybersecurity posture at your organization. 1. Recognize Your Risk In the movies, cyber attacks are often targeted at large organizations like banks or casinos, but this is not always realistic. In fact, the most common targets are small and medium-sized companies. The reason for this is that smaller organizations are often limited in their defense and don’t prioritize or have the resources they need for a comprehensive strategy to cybersecurity. Shockingly, 60% of small businesses that suffer from a cyber attack do not recover and go out of business. “It’s not impossible to create a scalable solution for the size and resources of your organization, but the critical first step is to know your blindspots and recognize that you are fallible, so you can get to work protecting yourself,” says Surla. 2. Clearly Define Your Protection Needs “When you try to protect everything, you protect nothing. You need to clearly define what your organization’s ‘crown jewels’ are and have a strategy to defend those,” Surla recommends. At Vector Solutions, we consider each client’s specific needs and priorities. In education, for example, privacy is absolutely critical, so the priority becomes focusing our strategy and solutions around protecting data above all else. Consider what the main risk for your organization is, from intellectual property to patient information or manufacturing processes. Once you’ve defined what is the top priority for you to secure, you can begin building a strategy to protect it, mitigating risk for your organization. “It makes no sense, but, often, companies will give up in the face of not being able to protect everything and protect nothing. It’s always worth the time and expense of protecting the aspects of your business that are vulnerable, as most small businesses unfortunately do not recover from cyber attacks.” 3. Never Become Complacent Surla warns that, when it comes to cyber attacks, it’s not a matter of “if,” it’s “when.” “Everyone should expect hacks to occur because it’s a reality, but being prepared for one helps save a lot of time, money, and effort. Cybersecurity technology is evolving day to day, but protection technology (like firewalls, intrusion prevention, monitoring, log management) is still relatively the same; what’s changing is that there’s a human firewall that we have to improve.” As a result, the biggest opportunity and investment for all organizations seeking a secure workplace: training employees to keep up with the continual advances in the type and sophistication of attacks. “Because of the lightning speed at which technology advances, particularly in AI, the security landscape is always shifting and, in the next 5 years, attacks will continue to increase both in volume and speed, making it harder to defend against them.” It’s also important to note that security is not solely an IT problem! “Every team member is responsible for noting suspicious activity and ensuring protocol is followed to respond as quickly and efficiently as possible. Sadly, hackers aren’t in a dark room somewhere as they are in the movies – sometimes they are within the walls of our own companies. Security awareness is crucial and a major focus for us at Vector solutions,” says Surla. 4. Adjust Your Strategy For Challenges Like The COVID pandemic Recognize that unforeseen challenges will occur and that you will need to develop actionable strategies to combat the vulnerabilities they expose. Surla references the recent shift to remote work during the global pandemic as an example, stating: “The most common issue has been an increase in phishing attacks as people are easy targets when they are working from home. This is a result of no longer being able to rely on the perimeter protection afforded by a company firewall on the internet connection at their brick and mortar location. As we have shifted to cloud-based systems, it’s critical that we are able to protect the laptops and mobile devices our workforce is using.” 5. Prioritize & Protect Your Reputation To Ensure Profitability At Vector Solutions, we are wholly committed to protecting the privacy of our clients and internal team members, which is why we view cybersecurity as an enhancement to their experience when working with us. Surla explains, “It’s always more expensive to respond defensively to an attack, especially because of the surprise factor. It can take months to recover from an unknown attack, so getting in front of it is crucial and a watertight cybersecurity strategy ensures that everyone understands their role, saving your organization time and heartache.” At the end of the day, for Surla, it all comes down to being able to walk the walk. “Your trust and reputation is everything. It’s critical that you have enough security tools and knowledge to not just say you’re committed to protecting your client’s data — but to actually prove you can deliver on that promise.” CYBERSECURITY PROTECTS THE FUTURE OF OUR ORGANIZATIONS With the rapid development of new technologies comes the downside of new methods and opportunities for hackers. At Vector Solutions, we’re committed to providing a secure experience for our clients and team members and we make it a priority to consistently train our teams and optimize our approach to security because we fully understand that the health of our own organization, and those of the clients we serve, depends on it. Greg Surla is Chief Information Security Officer for Vector Solutions. His journey to becoming a leader in security started in a surprising place: Nursing School. Joining the National Guard, Surla transitioned into the communication field and his experience with hardware encryption boxes during the internet’s infancy led to a focus on security. His experience in the medical field and armed forces allow him to remain calm in the face of high-stakes security breaches and he is driven by a commitment to providing companies and individuals with the security they need to be successful.	https://www.vectorsolutions.com/resources/blogs/5-tips-for-improving-your-organizations-cybersecurity-posture/
Oct 26, 2021, 08:00 ET SAN JOSE, Calif., Oct. 26, 2021 /PRNewswire/ -- The Application Security Division of NTT Ltd., a world leader in application security, today released AppSec Stats Flash Volume 10, the latest installment of the company's monthly report and podcast reflecting on the current state of application security and the wider cyber threat landscape. NTT Application Security's monthly analysis includes data from more than 400 million lines of code in applications spanning all industry sectors to provide comprehensive insight into the digital risks facing organizations today. In AppSec Stats Flash Volume 10, NTT Application Security researchers take a closer look at the improving cybersecurity posture of applications in the healthcare industry, more than half of which currently contain a critical vulnerability. Key findings of the analysis include: - 52 percent of the applications in the healthcare industry have at least one serious vulnerability — rating 'high' or 'critical' on the Common Vulnerability Scoring System scale — open throughout the year - 18 percent of critical vulnerabilities found in applications are fixed within one month of discovery, while 39 percent were remediated within the examined timeframe - Healthcare has performed 14 percent better than the industry average on remediating critical risks in the past three months; a positive trend for healthcare, which historically performs below average based on a rolling 12-month analysis "Healthcare is one of the most regulated industries in the U.S., and data breaches can quickly lead to lawsuits, revenue loss, and brand damage," said Zach Jones, senior director of detection research. "To rise to the challenge posed by the critical need for accelerated digital transformation, healthcare organizations have had to reconfigure traditional procedures and protocols that have been in place for decades. We are glad to see an industry that is responsible for our most critical personal data is improving their application best practices." The most serious vulnerability healthcare organizations encountered in recent months was abuse of functionality, which refers to an attack technique that uses a website's own features against it after gaining access to an organization's network through password-recovery flows. However, a far more common vulnerability in healthcare organizations' applications is information leakage — a weakness where an attacker uses sensitive data to exploit their target, its hosting network or users. According to NTT's 2021 Global Threat Intelligence Report, 67 percent of global attacks in 2020 can be attributed to application-specific or web-application attacks. This is a dramatic increase from 2018, in which application vulnerabilities accounted for 32 percent of the share. Jones adds, "the healthcare industry should focus on improving the remediation rate for critical vulnerabilities found in web applications in order to reduce its overall breach exposure. The longer these threats go unresolved, the more likely they are going to be exploited by nefarious actors." Those interested in learning more about the findings and analysis in AppSec Stats Flash Volume 10 can now download the report and stream the latest podcast episode on NTT's Application Security website and popular platforms including Apple Podcasts, Spotify, Stitcher, Amazon, and more. For more information about NTT's Application Security Division, please visit whitehatsec.com. About NTT NTT Ltd. is a leading global technology services company. Working with organizations around the world, we achieve business outcomes through intelligent technology solutions. For us, intelligent means data driven, connected, digital and secure. Our global assets and integrated ICT stack capabilities provide unique offerings in cloud-enabling networking, hybrid cloud, data centers, digital transformation, client experience, workplace and cybersecurity. As a global ICT provider, we employ more than 40,000 people in a diverse and dynamic workplace that spans 57 countries, trading in 73 countries and delivering services in over 200 countries and regions. Together we enable the connected future. Visit us at hello.global.ntt Media Contact Chris Marsh—Senior Manager, Analyst Relations & Communications NTT Application Security [email protected] Allison Arvanitis Lumina Communications for NTT Application Security [email protected] SOURCE NTT Ltd.	https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/new-analysis-more-than-half-of-healthcare-applications-currently-open-to-attack-301408410.html
The National Governors Association (NGA) recently announced a partnership with states and territories that are looking to enhance their cybersecurity posture through the implementation of key controls to mitigate future attacks. After a competitive application process, the six states and one territory chosen were Arkansas, Guam, Louisiana, Maryland, Massachusetts, Ohio and Washington. Through a series of workshops between now and the end of the year, NGA, along with their respective homeland security agencies and National Guard units, will coordinate with state agencies, local government and K-12 schools to develop methods of improving existing cybersecurity approaches. During the workshops, participants will brainstorm new methods to protect critical infrastructure, and vendors may discover new business opportunities. In addition to developing more comprehensive strategies and collaborating with neighboring governments, the participants will be focusing on implementing six key controls outlined by the Center for Internet Security:	https://blog.immixgroup.com/tag/nga/
The Bell Tolls for the Cybersecurity Movement The alarm bell tolls for an awakening that is occurring across Canada that affects all of us, including our local small businesses, our medium & large companies and our biggest enterprise organizations. An awakening that has created a new dawn that shines a bright light on a cybersecurity movement that is happening throughout the country. Like any important movement through our history, there is a tipping point that happens when meaningful and sustained momentum is achieved. According to the results of the 2019 Scalar Security Study, that tipping point appears to have occurred over the last year. Astonishingly, of the study’s sample size of over 400 participants across organizations of all sizes, 100% of the IT industry respondents reported experiencing a cybersecurity attack over the last 12 months. And those attacks are becoming both more successful, increasing a full percentage point in the last year, as well as more costly, with the financial damage incurred by an organization effected increasing by more than $1,000,000. As the Scalar research illustrates, in spite of this new awakening, just over 10% of the study respondents indicated that they have a “high” degree of confidence in their organization’s ability to prevent cybersecurity breaches from happening. Fortunately, however, that confidence can increase dramatically if Canadian organizations adopt a disciplined framework for a modern, effective cybersecurity strategy. The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and other thought leaders throughout the industry have developed a thorough approach to cybersecurity hygiene for companies to follow. Common across the NIST approach and other available cybersecurity frameworks is a combination of steps to provide threat defence as well as response and recovery strategies. The fundamentals included in these plans provide objectives intended to support a more resilient approach to cybersecurity risk. Given the new normal we are experiencing in Canada, this type of discipline is exactly what is required to protect ourselves from the continuing onslaught of cyber attacks. Adding to the crisis of confidence is the ever-increasing noise generated from the volume of security alerts across a fragmented network of cyber security products. The result is that our already thin IT teams are chasing alarms in an endless race against the clock. Detection and response times are elongated and the time to recover (TTR) from an attack is increasing. The Scalar report shows that organizations that have a defined methodology for tuning their network by increasing the fidelity of the noise, and a detailed cyber response plan save approximately 20% more time improving their TTR. Compounding the security challenge is a global environment of advanced government regulation to protect the privacy of our citizens and the confidentiality of our information. From GDPR across the European Union to PIPEDA in Canada, combined with already strict rules around HIPAA and SOX, new legislation has been enacted this past year that compels organizations to improve the protection of data security and personally identifiable information, the exact targets for the cyber criminal. With an expanding attack surface and ambiguous controls, the challenge is greater than at any time before. Like the report from last year, this year’s 2019 Scalar Security Study demonstrates that there is a strong conviction that better security controls can help to provide cyber resilience for Canadian organizations. Working closely with Scalar, Cisco Systems Inc. is uniquely positioned to help support organizations to build the framework for an integrated cybersecurity infrastructure required for a modern and effective strategy. The architectural approach to cybersecurity available from Scalar and Cisco provides a comprehensive Cloud to Core solution, including protection through to the network and to the endpoint. Cisco is the only company that has a complete cyber security portfolio that is supported by the world’s largest non-governmental threat intelligence organization (Cisco Talos). Combined with active defences, including threat hunting, security intelligence and incident response, the Cisco integrated cybersecurity platform will continue to drive the momentum’s strength as we work to provide all organizations across Canada with the confidence required to improve our position in this continuing fight.	https://www.scalar.ca/en/the-bell-tolls-for-the-cyber-security-movement/
It’s important to make sure that your report is tailored to the real world business outcomes the board will care about. Download this guide to learn best practices and tips for reporting cybersecurity to the board. Drafting a cybersecurity executive summary – an example Reporting on the performance of cyber risk and security programs is critical to avoiding breaches, learning from prior performance, and mitigating risk. Effective communication and decision making between different levels of an organization – from the practitioners and managers on the ground to the C-suite and the Board – can be the difference between keeping systems secure and suffering a massive incident. However, too many security and risk professionals make mistake of providing information that’s too technical, too detailed, or without context. These reports can be indecipherable for readers who lack a technical background, preventing security leaders from engaging in the clear communication around risk and security programs that’s required to keep the organization safe. An effective report should capture the highest risk items in a cybersecurity executive summary. For example, aspects of a security program that are significantly underperforming and adding unacceptable risk to the business should be front and center. Effective communications may also include a cybersecurity KPI dashboard that summarizes key findings and recommendations, contextualizing them with risk scores that help the reader understand the severity of risks and the importance of remediation efforts. As the world’s leading Security Ratings platform, BitSight provides the tools to accurately assess risk and security performance of an organizations network, as well as their vendors’ risk. The BitSight Security Ratings platform also includes solutions that can streamline cyber security presentation and reporting, providing templates and examples of cybersecurity executive summaries that help users deliver the most pressing risk information quickly and easily. Template example: a cybersecurity executive summary An effective cyber security executive summary includes several essential sections. Key findings Every cybersecurity report should begin up front with a summary of the most critical findings and action items in non-technical language that every executive and board member can understand. Key findings can also include security ratings that provide external insight into the organization’s security performance. Monitoring summary This section should outline what was monitored for the report, including the number and locations of monitored servers, devices, and workstations, and the extent to which the organization’s endpoints where assessed. Parts of the IT environment that weren’t monitored should also be mentioned, to clearly identify the scope of the report. Incident summary It’s helpful to include a summary of the number of incidents detected and resolved in the cyber executive summary. Depending on the audience, you can provide a breakdown of incidents by type, target, and severity, along with metrics such as the Mean Time to Detect (MTTD) and Mean Time to Resolve (MTTR). Threat summary In this part of the cyber executive summary, examples and details of the most severe threats faced by the organization can help the reader understand the context of cybersecurity concerns and recommendations. It’s helpful for readers to know about emerging malware trends and recommended actions for stopping them. The threat summary can also include overall or specific levels of financial risk your program is subject to based on the vulnerabilities present. Recommendations Recommendations – and the cost of implementing them, if possible – comprise the final section of the cybersecurity executive summary. For example, if a large amount of malware is entering your organization through phishing emails, the recommendations in this section might include stricter enforcement of policies across departments and security awareness training for employees. The BitSight Security Ratings platform Since its founding in 2011, BitSight has consistently delivered Security Ratings with the most extensive depth and breadth of coverage for organizations around the world. BitSight Security Ratings provide an accurate, data-driven measurement of the security performance of an organization and its third-party vendors. Issued daily, BitSight’s ratings range from 250 to 900, with higher numbers representing stronger security posture. BitSight ratings are based on information derived from 120+ sources that cover 23 key risk vectors in 4 major categories: security diligence, user behavior, evidence of compromised systems, and public disclosures of data breaches. Using a proprietary algorithm, BitSight analyzes and classifies 250 billion security measurements each day to provide a verifiable, objective assessment of the security posture of 540,000 organizations. BitSight ratings are independently verified to correlate to breach – that is, the lower a company’s security rating is, the greater likelihood it will experience a security incident. BitSight Security Ratings provide the detailed cyber security information behind BitSight solutions for managing security performance, mitigating third-party risk, conducting cloud security audits and security benchmarking, and analyzing the organization’s attack surface. Cybersecurity Benchmarking & Security Performance Management Cybersecurity Benchmarking & Security Performance Management How secure is the organization? Are we improving over time? Are our investments in cybersecurity paying off? Are we more or less secure than others in our industry? Find out how today's CIOs are answering these questions. BitSight Executive Reports BitSight Executive Reports help organizations bridge the gap between risk management and executive teams by simplifying and streamlining information security presentations and reporting. BitSight’s reporting capabilities allow security and risk professionals to quickly pull metrics that matter and are understood by C-suite executives and the Board. To report on the security performance of their organization and vendor portfolio, users can leverage more than a dozen readily available reports with cybersecurity executive summaries, for example, or create custom reports based on their organization’s specific needs. Centralized reporting Pull information about company and vendor security performance into one central location and view in the BitSight platform. Actionable metrics Quickly determine whether security programs and vendors are meeting security standards and develop a plan of action to remediate vulnerabilities. Custom-defined inputs Query all data in the BitSight platform to create flexible, custom reports and executive summaries that speak to the organization’s risk tolerance and profile, or focus in on a specific area of risk the organization has struggled with in the past. Effective communication Facilitate easily understood, data-driven conversations about cyber risk in the digital ecosystem. Why choose BitSight? An industry-leading solution BitSight is the most widely adopted Security Ratings solution in the world. BitSight’s 2,100+ customers include 20% of the world’s countries, 25% of Fortune 500 companies, and 40+ government agencies, including U.S. and global financial regulators. Extensive visibility BitSight’s proprietary method of collecting data from 120+ sources provides unprecedented visibility into key risk vectors, many of which are unique to BitSight. An engaged community The BitSight platform hosts the most robust community of cyber risk professionals in the industry. BitSight customers share security ratings with more than 170,000 third-party organizations, making BitSight the most widely used security ratings platform across all industries. Prioritization of risk vectors BitSight incorporates the criticality of risk vectors in to calculation of Security Ratings, highlighting risk in a more diversified way to ensure the most critical assets and vulnerabilities are ranked higher. FAQs: What’s an example of a cybersecurity executive summary? See Security Ratings in Action Get a personalized demo to find out how BitSight can help you solve your most pressing security and risk challenges.	https://www.bitsight.com/glossary/cybersecurity-executive-summary-example
What is Cybersecurity? Cybersecurity is the practice of protecting systems, networks, and programs from digital attacks. Attacks aimed at accessing, changing, or destroying sensitive information; extorting money from users; or interrupting normal business processes. A successful cybersecurity approach has multiple layers of protection spread across the computers, networks, programs, or data that one intends to keep safe. In an organization, the people, processes, and technology must all complement one another to create an effective defense against cyber attacks. Therefore, it is a process designed by humans to prevent an array of security attacks. Attacks come in the form of ransomware, malware, phishing, and social engineering. It affects private and public corporations, and federal agencies, as well as the military. Technology is essential to giving organizations and individuals the computer security tools needed to protect themselves from cyber attacks. Three main entities require protection: endpoint devices like computers, smart devices, and routers; networks; and the cloud. What is Intelligence Analysis? Intelligence Analysis is the process of taking known information about situations and entities of strategic, operational, or tactical importance, characterizing the known, and, with appropriate statements of probability, the future actions in those situations and by those entities. In performing these tasks, they must consider the quality of information; the meaning of observed, reported, or assessed developments; and sources for additional information. The quality of each judgment is a function of the evidence, assumptions, analytic methods, and other aspects. The attacks of 9/11 forced the Department of Defense to become more proficient in intelligence analysis. New technologies developed to help combat terrorism and fight two insurgencies, the way military intelligence analysts conducted analysis also developed. The evolution of the military intelligence analyst grew from tracking tanks and enemy movement on a sand table to combining intelligence from the nation’s most sensitive technical collection platforms with information collected on the ground. Education-Cyber Security Cyber security can be as simple as downloading an anti-malware program on your personal computer. The purpose is to prevent hackers from accessing your personal information, such as bank account information or credit card numbers. It can also occur on a larger scale. For example, hackers breached Target Stores in 2013 compromising the information on up to 110 million credit cards. Your college education teaches you how to thwart these attacks. This education comes in a variety of degree terms, depending on the college/university. At the bachelor’s level, the names could be Information Technology, Information Systems, Cybersecurity, Networking & Security, Cyber Operations, Cybersecurity and Information Assurance, and more. Any of these degrees can start you on a career path in this field. A degree at any level in this field will require computer skills. Some programs place a greater emphasis on the technology aspect. For example, courses in Java, networks, systems architecture, computer forensics, and programming. These are in addition to topics including threat reduction, vulnerability reduction, deterrence, international engagement, incident response, resiliency, and recovery policies. Education-Intelligence Analysis The work of an intelligence analyst is to gather, research, analyze, and evaluate information – sometimes information that is crucial to homeland security or the safety of military troops and civilians. There are different degree choices that lead to a career as an intelligence analyst. A bachelor’s degree in criminal justice is one option. This degree with a concentration in Crime and Intelligence Analysis can provide you with a comprehensive learning experience. You become versed in homeland security, intelligence, and digital forensics. Particularly, with a program that incorporates intelligence theory and investigative philosophy with collaborative decision-making processes for crime analysis and intelligence scenarios. Simulated exercises, case studies, and lab-based exercises are other possible additions to a program. Another option is a major in intelligence analysis. Some programs offer the choice of concentrations in counter-intelligence, criminal intelligence, intelligence operations, and intelligence collection. Each specialty examines specific subjects with respect to the concentration. Much of the curriculum for each concentration has overlapping courses. Examples involve courses in tactical, foreign, signal, and geospatial intelligence. In addition, you may study the subjects of cybercrime, terrorism, human intelligence, threats, and risk assessment, criminal profiling, and narcotics. Which one is best for Employment? The cybersecurity unemployment rate was zero in 2016. The current (2017) number of U.S. cybersecurity job openings is up from 209,000 in 2015. In 2017, the U.S. employed nearly 780,000 people in cybersecurity positions, with approximately 350,000 current cybersecurity openings, according to CyberSeek. These figures are from a project supported by the National Initiative for Cybersecurity Education (NICE), a program of the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in the U.S. Department of Commerce. The job growth in intelligence analysis is not as impressive as cybersecurity. According to Recruiter, the demand for Intelligence Analysts should create 20,300 new jobs in 2018. This represents an annual increase of only 2.29 percent over the next few years. However, individuals who want to work in the intelligence field can do so with select cybersecurity degrees. Some of these include the combination of cybersecurity and threat/intelligence analysis. Furthermore, jobs in intelligence analysis can be difficult to find at the entry-level. The cybersecurity degree route may afford more career opportunities.	https://www.degreequery.com/what-is-the-difference-in-a-degree-in-cyber-security-and-intelligence-analysis/
Security Scorecard has released the findings of its 2017 U.S. State and Federal Government Cybersecurity study. The study assesses the cybersecurity posture of 17 industries, ranking them based on their security scores in ten categories. This year, the U.S. Government performed poorly again for cybersecurity, registering the third lowest overall score out of any sector. Only the telecommunications and education sectors performed worse. The pharmaceutical industry didn’t fare much better and was ranked fourth from bottom. The healthcare industry was in 13th place, 6th from bottom. The list was topped by the food industry, followed by entertainment in second and retail in third place. There is some news for the U.S. government. Last year, the government was rooted to the bottom of the list. Improvements have been made, although the U.S. government is still struggling to improving its security posture and still has serious network infrastructure weaknesses and vulnerabilities. In theory, smaller government organizations should fare better as they have a smaller attack surface to defend, although that did not prove to be the case. Smaller agencies typically have smaller budgets and do not tend to have staff dedicated to cybersecurity. The main areas where smaller organizations performed poorly was patching cadence and DNS health. For medium-sized agencies the problem areas were also DNS health and patching cadence, along with a relatively poor rating for network security. Larger organizations such as the IRS, Congressional Budget Office and the FTC performed well in all categories, although the City of Indianapolis, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and the Central Intelligence Agency performed poorly, with the latter the worst of all agencies for security posture. Overall, the government was among the bottom performers for network security, application security, leaked credentials, patching cadence, IP reputation, and was second from bottom for endpoint security. Unsurprisingly, the government was bottom for hacker chatter – an assessment of the speed at which vulnerabilities are communicated on hacker forums and social media networks. The government ranked second overall for DNS health, third for protections against social engineering attacks and second for cubit score. Cubit score is an assessment of administrative portals and subdomains that are publicly viewable. The report shows the government has a long way to go to improve its security posture, but how did the healthcare industry fare? The healthcare industry has also struggled with cybersecurity in the past, although the situation has been improving thanks to increased investment. Security Scorecard rated the healthcare industry among the bottom performers for network security, application security, leaked credentials, patching cadence, and IP reputation. The healthcare industry was third from bottom on endpoint security and susceptibility to social engineering attacks. The healthcare industry made the top half of the list for cubit score and DNS health and ranked particularly well for hacker chatter. The report shows the situation is improving, but there is still a long way to go to bring security up to reasonable standards.	https://www.hipaajournal.com/security-scorecard-gives-government-healthcare-poor-marks-security-posture-8940/
Enterprises with Multiple Subsidiaries Face Greater Risk of Cyber Attacks Organizations overestimate their ability to manage cyber risk associated with their subsidiaries, CyCognito, a specialist in external attack surface management and protection, said in a new report. The report, entitled Managing Risk from Subsidiaries, surveyed enterprises with more than $1 billion in annual revenue and an average of more than 19 subsidiaries to assess their level of cyber risk through merger and acquisition (M&A) activity. The basic equation is the more subsidiaries a company has under its corporate umbrella, the greater the overall cyber risk. Sixteen subsidiaries appears to be the top end for risk management, according to the study’s data. “As an extension of the parent organization, the subsidiaries’ security posture is not well evaluated as part of the overall attack surface, thereby creating an attractive target for attackers,” said Rob Gurzeev, CyCognito founder and chief executive. “As global organizations work to get a handle on risk, visibility into the security posture of their subsidiaries are paramount to stave off revenue and reputation crushing attacks.” For MSSPs, it’s especially important to understand customer ownership structures, associated network segmentations, the coordination of cyber programs across a company, and where each service provider’s responsibilities begin and end. Current tools and processes for managing subsidiary risk are inadequate in a number of ways CyCognito said in the report, including: - Prioritizing compliance at the expense of security. - Complex on-boarding processes. - Infrequent and lengthy risk management processes that leave too many blind spots. - An excess of manual tools. - A lag between results and remediation. Business Subsidiaries and Cybersecurity Risks: Numbers to Know Here are the report’s 10 key findings: - 67% of respondents said their organization had experienced a cyber attack where the attack chain included a subsidiary or that they lacked the ability or information to rule out that possibility. - 85% regard assessing subsidiary risk as a top 10 priority relative to other security and risk initiatives. Overall, 47% regard subsidiary risks as a top 5 priority. - Pandemic-accelerated digital transformation and supply chain breaches are having the greatest impact on risk in subsidiaries. - 50% of respondents would not be surprised if a cyber breach occurred tomorrow at one of their subsidiaries. Cybersecurity managers had a higher expectation of breach than risk managers. - Meeting compliance mandates, measuring subsidiary risk and prioritizing investment to improve security posture are the three most important outcomes for subsidiary risk management. - The three highest ranked concerns about existing subsidiary risk management practices: 1) they provide only a point-in-time snapshot, (2) the process takes too long, and (3) they offer only limited test coverage, leaving too many blind spots. - The three changes respondents would most like to make in their process are getting actionable information, reducing false positives and increasing the process frequency. - 67% of respondents report that time to remediate a detected subsidiary risk was a week or longer and on average up to three months. For 71% of respondents, the preference is a day or less. - Enterprises with more subsidiaries are 50% more likely to take longer than a month to remediate detected security gaps than those with fewer subsidiaries. - Respondents at parent companies with 17 or more subsidiaries were almost twice as likely to say that a subsidiary has been implicated in a cyber attack chain more than once than at parent companies with 16 or fewer subsidiaries. Best Practices for Risk Mitigation Based on results from the survey, CyCognito concluded that organizations should strengthen subsidiary risk management processes by: - Embracing an elevated focus on security (vs. compliance) outcomes. - Introducing simpler and faster on-boarding processes. - Driving more frequent and comprehensive visibility into vulnerable attack vectors. - Shrinking the time gap between results and remediation. “With M&A, not only do you end up with a blend of employees, operations, revenue but you also blend your cyber security risk,” said Gurzeev. “Those risks are opportunities for attackers looking for the path of least resistance to networks, applications and data they can breach, whether the starting point is the parent company or one of its subsidiaries.” MSSP Mergers and Acquisitions: Related Risks The risks outlined above also apply to MSSPs that are buying peer MSSPs and cybersecurity companies. At least five factors are driving the M&A activity, MSSP Alert believes. - Talent: The cyber skills shortage is driving MSSPs to find talent through M&A. - Threats: The growing, shifting threat landscape is inspiring M&A deals to close technology and expertise gaps. - Speed to market: Acquiring companies can often be a faster path into a new or evolving technology market or business region. - Scale: Smaller MSSPs are merging to counter the scale of larger rivals. - Growth: The traditional MSP market will experience sub-10 percent compound annual growth rates (CAGR) going forward. By contrast, the MSSP market is growing at an 18 percent CAGR. Still, MSSPs must carefully consider cyber due diligence as part of each M&A engagement.	https://www.msspalert.com/cybersecurity-news/enterprises-with-multiple-subsidiaries-face-greater-risk-of-cyber-attacks/
What is a letter of credit? The steps of a letter of credit... Step 1: First contract between B and S which will include the price, terms and conditions and that letter of credit will be the payment method Step 2: Buyer instruct the IB (in their own country) to open credit Step 3: AB will act on instructions of IB and the relationship between the two is one of agency. NB: a confirming bank confirm the credit and the relationship changes in that there is a direct relationship between the confirming bank and the seller, although the relationship between the IB and CB is still one of agency as it is with IB and AB. Step 4: seller will ship goods and present documents to confirming bank Step 5: CB has paid the seller Step 6: CB will pass documents back to IB in exchange for reimbursement Step 7: Documents go from IB to buyer for payment and buyer can go to the port and get the goods. Definition of a letter of credit... Basic definition: A letter of credit is a letter issuing from a bank that promises payment in the event that the recipient (beneficiary) presents to the bank stipulated documents. These will be shipping documents consisting of a bill of lading (or equiv) and other documents. These will then be passed on by the bank to the buyer. The buyer (applicant) is the person who took the steps leading to the issuance of a letter of credit. The UCP 600: Article 1 states that the UCC are rules that apply to any letter of credit when the text expressly indicates it is subject to such rules, which are binding on such parties unless expressly excluded or modified. (NB: Prof. Goode says even in absence of express incorporation the UCP would still be used as good business practice and rare to find a letter of credit without). Contractual Relationships: FIRST: underlying contract of sale (B + S) SECOND: contract between IB + B (bank/customer) - IB strictly adhere B's instructions. Midland Bank v Seymour (Devlin) 'when an agent acts on ambigious instructions, he is not in default if he can show tht he adopted a reasonable meaning'. - Commercial Banking Sydney v Jaslard (Diplock) 'where banks instructions from customer are ambigious or unclear, he commits no breach of his contract if construed in reasonable sense'. - European Asian Bank v Punjab Bank: 'where terms so ambigious, bank should simply clarify' - The Q must be: has IB acted in accordance w/mandate to get reimbursement. Contractual relationships: part 2 - UCP 600 Art 14(a): (IB must examine docs to determine compliance) banks must examine a presentation to determine on docs alone whether appear on their face to comply. Gian Singh v Banque de I'Indochnine (Diplock) 'visual inspection of docs is all that is called for. Bank under no duty to take further steps to investigate genuineness of signature'. (Singh to sue seller not bank, req'd to tender certificate of quality of goods and signed by X person, but was forged and bank accepted docs and paid seller. Docs not compliant but were on face per Art 14(a)). - UCP 600 Article 14(b): (time to comply): 5 banking days following day of presentation to determine compliance (amended from reasonable time in UCP 500): Bankers Trust v State Bank of India (if days exceeded, will be estopped and buyer can sue for breach of mandate). THIRD: Contract between IB and CB/AB in sellers country (not compulsory step). This is governed by law of agency if AB and agent or CB and dual capacity agent. Contractual relationships: part 3 FOURTH: Contract between S and IB & S and CB. (Diplock in UCM case said only 4 contracts, ommitting 4thcontract+Mance in Bank of Baroda v Vysa Bank 'the last 4th (CB + S and S and IB) relationship co-exists, beneficiary2banks to hold resp'.) If CB bust=S has IB=certainty to transac. Compliant doc's: -UCP 600 Art 7(a) & Art 8(a) - undertaking of the IB and CB that £ will be made if docs presented -UCP 600 Art 14(b) - 5 banking days -UCP 600 Art 15(a) & (b) - IB and CB must honour when compliant Non-compliant docs: - *UCP 600 Art 16(a): when docs do not comply as determined, it may refuse to honour credit - UCP 600 Art 16(b): IB may approach the B for a waiver of discprencies. (not-reinspection) - Article 16: Bankers Trust Co v State Bank of India COA (Farqhuharson) - 'if submit docs to B for opinion on discrepencies, not for B to find more, the bank makes the decision to reject'. Contractual relationships: part 4 FOURTH (cont'd): notice of rejection to S: Art 16(C): must give single notice to that effect to include: 1. bank refusing to honour or negotiate 2. each discrepency in respect of which bank refusing to honour 3a. bank is holding the docs pending further instructions, b. IB is holding docs until receives waiver or receives further instructions prior to agreeing to accept waiver, c. bank returning docs, d. bank acting in accordance with instructions recieved previously. Art 16(d): form of notice: telecommunication or other experditious means no later than 5th day Art 16(f): IB or CB fails to act with article 16, be precluded from claiming docs do not comply. Why have a doctrine of strict compliance? - Strict compliance is in place because it provides protection to the banks because banks cannot be expected to have knowledge of all industries. It is also for the benefit of certainty too as it would be too difficult to require an all-embracing definition and easier to have in or out. LOC are equivalent to cash and strict compliance needs this method to be conforming for the certainty of commercial expediency. - Mackinnon L.J. in JH Rayner v Hambro's Bank affirmed that it is quite impossible that a banker is to be affected with knowledge of the customers of every one of thousands of trades for whose dealings he may issue a documentary credit. Doctrine of Strict Compliance Equitable Trusts Co of New York v Dawson HoL's (Viscount Sumner): 'no room for docs almost the same, or which will do. Bank cannot decide what will do+what wont. If it does as it is told=safe. If departs=at own risk.' (cert of excellence by experts but was by 1 expert+bank £ S. Docs back to B, refused to reimumburse due to non-compliance. HoL's ruled in favour of B). - Quantity compliance: Moralice Ltd v F Man (S tendered docs to bank showing shipment of X tonnes of sugar, credit called for 500 tonnes, court held bank entitlted to refuse as de minimis rule did not apply). (But now have...UCP 600 Art 30: 5% allows more/less, Moralice bad law now). - Terminology compliance: JH Rayner v Hambro Bank (Mackinnon LJ) coromandel groundnuts v machine-shelled groundnut, same thing but 'banker not affected with knowledge of customs of every 1 of the thousands of trades for whose dealings he may issue a letter of credit'. Confirmed in Bank Melli Iran v Barclays- trivial will justify rejection, new vs. new/good = inconsistent. - Trivial/typo errors: Seaconsar (Sir Staughton): 'discprepencies not of great signif, but that is neither here nor there. Hornbrook law for banks that docs appear on their face to comply. Lord Lloyd: 'cannot define trivial discrepency but Bankers Trust v State of India where telex number 1 digit wrong. (LOC said docs should bare name of B+LOC no.Docs presented w/out to AB +refused to £ as no name. CoA held bad tender+not trivial. Hing Yip Hing Fat v Daiwa Bank (industrial vs industry)&Beyene v Irwing (Soran vs. Sofan) = trivial! Erosion of the doctrine of strict compliance? Article 14(d): 'data in doc need not be identical to but must not conflict' Article 14(f): Except transport+insurance docs and invoice, docs w/out whom doc is to be issued will be accepted by banks if content appears to fulfil function of req'd doc+complies with 14d. Article 18(c): strict approach to invoices (discprencies + descriptions of goods) Article 14(e): in all other docs, goods can be described generally but not conflict LOC. - Glencore International v Midland Bank: (IB argued description of goods = original western bound Indonesia vs. original any western bound was inconsistent but CoA rejected argument as descrip was OK and acceptable. Court held that the bank was not entitled to reject the documents on the basis of the terminology presented in the commercial invoice as the description fell within the ‘broad generic nature of the description in the credit’. Art 18c applied. - Kredietbank Antwerp v Midland Bank COA (Evans LJ): (draft survey report issued at port, signed on behalf of Griffith as a member of worldwide inspectorate group. 'Requirement of strict compliance is not equiv. to test of exact literal compliance. Banker must exercise own judgment if satisfied'. Was a trivial and evidence of moving away from strict compliance. Doctrine of strict compliance 2 Originals & Photocopies: - UCP 500, Art 20(b): unless otherwise stated, banks will accept docs as original a doc appearing or produced: 1. by reprographic, auto or computerised, 2. As carbon copies - if marked original and signed (hand or facsimile or perforated, stamp, symbol or other methods of authentication). - Glencore (photocopies on non-headed paper but signed and original, WP not an original. or Credit Industriel et Commercial v China Bank (CoA more lenient, WP ok if clearly original and not copy of another doc so should be treated as original). - UCP 600, Art 17: a. at least 1 original of each doc presented. b. bank to treat original doc bearing apparently original sig, mark, stamp or label, unless says not original. c. unless doc says not original, bank accept if: appears written, types, perforated, stamped by doc issuers hand or states original, unless appears to not comply or appears to be on doc issuers original stationary. d. if doc requires presentation of copies of original docs, presentation of original or copies is permitted. e. if credit requires presentation of multiple docs by using 'in duplicate','in two-fold' or 'in two copies', this will be satisfied by presentation of at least 1 original and remaining in copies. - Debattista 'The new UCP 600; changes under LOC' 2007 JBL 329. Articles for Strict Compliance Academic commentary: 1. Debattista ‘The New UCP 600- Changes to the Tender of the Seller’s Shipping Documents under Letters of Credit’ JBL. Linkage issue=inconsistencies between docs tendered to constitute a discrepency preventing £. UCP 500=light touch on linkage, art 13(c) UCP 500=on face inconsistent=discrepency, replaced by 14(d) UCP 600=need not be identical but must not conflict=attracted great support from ICC, wording only explains but doesnt extend old art 13. Effect of susbtantial word change=banks entitled+obliged to be far more rigorous in scrutinising data in each doc tend. Perhaps old art 13 terms inserted to excl art 14. BUT, limits to what can be expected of any UCP revision, tall order! Best to interpret actual contract rather than UCP. UCP necessary but not sufficient instrument for smooth operation of an international trade transaction. 2. Strict compliance: In some USA courts=applied strict compliance to contract between bank+beneficiary BUT only substantial compliance to contract between applicant+IB=bifurcated approach=not welcomed+G McLaughlin in 1990 in 'The standard of Strict documentary Compliance in letter of credit law :an american perspective':'in the overwhelming no of cases, appropriate standard is strict compliance'. R Buckley 2002 in 'Documentary Compliance in Documentary Credits:lessons from the UCC and UCP' critiqued bifurcated approach: 'nothing less than strict compliance appears workable as standard for document checkers within banks'. Autonomy of Credit - UCP 600: Art 4: 'A credit by its nature is a separate transaction from the sale or other contract. Banks are in no way concerned with or bound by such contract, even if referred to in contract. - Hamzeh Malas and Sons v British Imex Industries (Jenkins): 'the LOC constitutes a bargain between the banker and vendor, which imposes an absolute obligation on the banker to pay, irrespective of any dispute between the parties as to whether the goods are up to the contract or not. Commercial system built on this and wrong for the court to interfere with established practice'. (Cl was Jordanian and agreed to buy steel rods from British seller to be delivered in 2 installments. £ to be paid on 2 separate LOC's. LOC opened with British Midland Bank and S sent first shipment and were paid under 1st LOC. Buyers complained 1st installment of goods were defective and sought injunction to refrain from drawing on 2nd installment. Court refused. Fraud exception to autonomy Fraud unravells all?: Fraud Exception is only one that is recognised in English law. It can relate to the underlying contract between B + S or LOC itself. - Lord Diplock in UCM v Royal Bank of Canada: 'there is one established exception: that is where the seller for the purpose of drawing on the credit, fraudulently presents to the CB docs that contain express or impliedly, material representations of fact that to his knowledge are untrue.' (English sellers selling manufacturing equip to Perugian buyers. LOC stated last date of shipment 15th Dec. Goods not shipped til 16th. Fraudulently issued bill of lading showing 15th date. Sellers no knowledge of this. Docs presented to banks and refused as bank knew shipment on 16th. Sellers sued bank. Seller unaware of fraud so exception should apply. 1st inst: as sellers unaware, bank wrong to refuse £. CoA: bank entitled to refuse and rely on fraud. HoL's: 2 separate issues (fraud/illegality), fraud = Lord Diplock set out what the fraud exception is and dealt with quickly saying didn't fall within as sellers unaware of fraud and only applies when seller aware of fraud. Then discussed banks obligations for accepting which evolved around the banks' defence argument. Argued: Knowledge of fraud = irrelevant: Diplock: as bank not under obligation to make payment if docs conform on face but contain some fact that is incorrect. Bank also argued again from COA in HoLs: if docs contain misrep+made w/knowledge+intention to decieve, bank should be entitled to reject (reduced from S's knowledge to doc makers knowledge: this was rejected. Nullity Exception - Recognised in other jurisdictions i.e. Singapore (Beam Technologies) but refused to be recognised in this country. - UCM (Diplock): date changed but still valid receipt. - Montrod Ltd v Grundkotter (LJ Potter): 'the fraud exception has been restricted in English law. It should not be extended by the argument that a document presented, which conforms on its face, is none the less of a character which disentitles a person making the demand to payment because it is fraudulent in itself.' Sellers are entitled to payment always. Many reasons for rejecting a nullity exception: incapable of precise definition and would lead to uncertainty, undermine principle of autonomy, threaten principle of apparent conformity, prejudice innocent sellers and general nullity would undermine whole system of documentary credits. (seller of pork to russian buyer. LOC specified 1 doc to be presented was inspection cert signed by Montrod, a doc signed by seller honestly mistaken was allowed to. Became clear that Montrod not given auth and then disputed sellers entitlement to £. 1st inst and upheld by CoA: seller innocent and entitlted to £.) - Beam Technologies : recognised nullity exception. - Prof. Goode and Healy argues for (see essay) as null doc is worthless piece of paper. Illegality exception No successful use of this exception and stagnated!!! - UCM: (Diplock): illegality first raised in this case. 'contrary to exchange control regs'. Raised as UK compnay agreed to invoice buyers at double the money paying to exchange currency for excess, which was against Perugian currency and illegal. Court held transaction split from sale - illegal and LOC could be enforced. Illegality didn't cause an issue as transaction severed. - Groupe Jose v Walbrook Insurance Co (Straughton obiter only): (insurance contracts + illegal nature of them, court ultimately held not illegal and exception didn't apply...BUT did discuss illegality and when could apply which is when illegality in underlying contract between B & S and bank would have a defence to refuse to pay because the 'LOC was being used to carry out an illegal transaction'. - Mahonia Ltd v JP Morgan (J Coleman): (swap transactions entered into by 3 parties, Enron being loaned 350mill for 6 months then £ back in full and interest, like a loan in disguise, Enron in return provided security in form of LOC but filled bankruptcy. LOC presented to bank, did bank have to pay or illegal transaction, bank argued loan and against US securities law: 'strong arguable case that LOC cannot be enforced against bank'. LOC was essential and indivisable from transaction and couldnt be severed like in UCM case. Further academic commentary: exceptions 1. Illegality exception: Proffesor Nelson Enonchong 'The autonomy principle of letters of credit: an illegality exception? 2006: law should recognize an illegality exception provided that it is confined within a narrow scope. Distinguishes between cases where the letter of credit is illegal and where the underlying contract is illegal but the letter of credit is sound. 2. Fraud exception: Yanan Zhang- 2014 'Evaluation of documentary letter of credit fraud exception rules in China'. Supreme People’s Court of PRC (SPC) (although it is not a legislature officially in China), played an important role in gradually developing L/C fraud exception rules in judicial practice and formulated several documents. Thinks we decision in UCM was commercially and practically reasonable: an antedated date but genuine bill should not render it a fraud. The SPC create a new legal instrument to standardise the approach that the courts in China deal with L/C fraud dispute the "stop-payment order" especially for dealing with L/C fraud dispute cases. It can be seen that the function of "stop-payment order" in art.9 is the same as that "preliminary injunction" in the United States, and the "interlocutory injunction" in England, under the context of L/C fraud disputes. BUT it is not clear whether a beneficiary is considered fraudulent when he/she submits fraudulent documents, which are made by a third party, but the beneficiary does not know this (3rd party fraud). Obtaining a stop-payment order does become more difficult, and the judicial intervention to the L/C system in China is now highly restricted. Potential exam Q's 1. Problem question (Art 16 and Art 17 photocopies or doctrine of strict compliance) 2. "The doctrine of strict compliance is necessary in letter of credit transactions and any deviations therefrom would only cause undue uncertainty in international trade financing." Do you agree? 3. Do the English courts recognise an illegality exception to the rule that the credit is autonomous?	https://getrevising.co.uk/revision-cards/commercial_law_letters_of_credit
to optimize other dimensions, to give her decent performance. All dimensions on this page are metric, linear dimensions are in meters (m), areas are in square meters (m2), displacement volumes in cubic meters (m3), masses (displacement, weight) are in kilograms (kg), forces in Newton's (N), powers in kilowatts (kW) and speeds in knots. Length, Draft and Beam There are two major dimensions of a boat hull: The length of the hull LH and length of waterline LWL . The following consist of arbitrary values to illustrate a calculated example. LH = 12.20 LWL = 12.00 \|Figure 1\| \|After deciding how big a boat we want we next enter the length/beam ratio of each hull, LBR. Heavy boats have low value and light racers high value. LBR below "8" leads to increased wave making and this should be avoided. Lower values increase loading capacity. Normal LBR for a cruiser is somewhere between 9 and 12. LBR has a definitive effect on boat displacement estimate.\| \|B WL= LWL/ LBR\|\|In this example LBR = 11.0 and beam waterline B WL will be:\| \|Figure 2 \| \|BWL= 1.09\|\|A narrow beam, of under 1 meter, will be impractical in designing accommodations in a hull. \| \|B TR = B WL / T c\|\|A value near 2 minimizes friction resistance and slightly lower values minimize wave making. Reasonable values are from 1.5 to 2.8. Higher values increase load capacity. The deep-V bottomed boats have typically B TR between 1.1 and 1.4. B TR has also effect on boat displacement estimation.\| \|T c = B WL / B TR \| T c = 0.57 \|Here we put B TR = 1.9 to minimize boat resistance (for her size) and get the draft calculation for a canoe body T c (Figure 1). \| \| \| Midship coefficient - C m \|C m = A m / T c (x) B WL\|\|We need to estimate a few coefficients of the canoe body. where A m is the maximum cross section area of the hull (Figure 3). C m depends on the shape of the midship section: a deep-V-section has C m = 0.5 while an ellipse section has C m = 0.785. Midship coefficient has a linear relation to displacement. In this example we use ellipse hull shape to minimize wetted surface, so C m = 0.785\| \|Figure 3\| \|Prismatic coefficient - Cp\| \|Cp=D / A m× LWL\|\|where D is the displacement volume (m 3) of the boat. Prismatic coefficient has an influence on boat resistance. Cp is typically between 0.55 and 0.64. Lower values (< 0.57) are optimized to displacement speeds, and higher values (>0.60) to speeds over the hull speed (hull speed ). In this example we are seeking for an all round performance cat and set C p := 0.59\| \|Water plane coefficient - Cw\| \|Cw = Aw / BWL× LWL\|\|where Aw is water plane (horizontal) area. Typical value for water plane coefficient is Cw = 0.69 - 0.72. In our example Cw = 0.71\| \|Fully loaded displacement - mLDC\| \| mLDC = 2 × BWL x LWL× T c × C p × C m × 1025 \| mLDC = 7136 \|At last we can do our displacement estimation. In the next formula, 2 is for two hulls and 1025 is the density of sea water (kg/m3). Loaded displacement mass in kg's\| \|Length/displacement -ratio - LDR\| \| \| LDR = 6.3 \|LDR near five, the catamaran is a heavy one and made from solid laminate. Near six, the catamaran has a modern sandwich construction. In a performance cruiser LDR is usually between 6.0 and 7.0. Higher values than seven are reserved for big racers and super high tech beasts. Use 6.0 to 6.5 as a target for LDR in a glass-sandwich built cruising catamaran. To adjust LDR and fully loaded displacement mLDC , change the length/beam ratio of hull, LBR . \| \|Empty boat displacement - m LCC\| \| mLCC= 0.7 × mLDC \| mLCC= 4995 \|We can now estimate our empty boat displacement (kg): This value must be checked after weight calculation or prototype building of the boat.\| \| \| \| \| \|Light loaded displacement - m moc\| \| mmoc= 0.8 × m LDC \| mmoc = 5709 \|The light loaded displacement mass (kg); this is the mass we will use in stability and performance prediction:\| \|Beam of sailing catamaran\| \|The beam of a sailing catamaran is a fundamental thing. Make it too narrow, and she can't carry sails enough to be a decent sailboat. Make it too wide and you end up pitch-poling with too much sails on. The commonly accepted way is to design longitudinal and transversal metacenter heights equal. Here we use the height from buoyancy to metacenter (commonly named B M ). The beam between hull centers is named B CB (Figure 4) and remember that the overall length of the hull is L H .\| \|Figure 4\| \| \| \| \| \| \| Length/beam ratio of the catamaran - L BRC \| \| LBRC = LH / BCB \|If we set L BRC = 2.2 , the longitudinal and transversal stability will come very near to the same value. You can design a sailing catamaran wider or narrower, if you like. Wider construction makes her heavier, narrower means that she carries less sail.\| \| \| \| \| B CB = LH / LBRC B CB = 5.55 \| \| Beam between hull centers (m) - B CB \| \| \| \| BM T = 2[(BWL3 × LWL x Cw2 / 12) +( LWL × BWL × Cw x (0.5BCB )2 )] × (1025 / mLDC ) \|Transversal height from the center of buoyancy to metacenter, BMT can be estimated\| \| \| \| \|\|Longitudinal height from the center of buoyancy to metacenter, BML can be estimated. Too low value of BML (well under 10) will make her sensitive to hobby-horsing\| \| \| \| \| BH1 = 1.4 × BWL \|We still need to determine the beam of one hull BH1 (Figure 4). If the hulls are asymmetric above waterline this is a sum of outer hull halves. BH1 must be bigger than BWL of the hull. We'll put here in our example:\| \| \| \| \| B H = BH1 + BCB B H = 7.07 \|Now we can calculate the beam of our catamaran B H (Figure 4):\| \| \| \| \| Z WD = 0.06 × L WL \|Minimum wet deck clearance at fully loaded condition is defined here to be 6 % of L WL :\| \| \| \| \| \| \| EU Size factor \| \| SF=1.75 x m moc SF = 82 x 103 \|While the length/beam ratio of catamaran, L BRC is between 2.2 and 3.2, a catamaran can be \| certified to A category if SF > 40 000 and to B category if SF > 15 000. \| \| \| \| \| \| Engine Power Requirements \| \| P m = 4 x (mLDC /1025) P m = 28 \|The engine power needed for the catamaran is typically 4 kW/tonne and the motoring speed is near the hull speed. Installed power total in Kw\| \| \| V m = 2.44 V m = 8.5 \|Motoring speed (knots)\| \| \| Vol = 1.2(Rm / Vm )(con x Pm ) Vol = 356 \|motoring range in nautical miles R m = 600, A diesel engine consume on half throttle approximately: con := 0.15 kg/kWh. The fuel tank of diesel with 20% of reserve is then\| Disclaimer: From time to time it is possible that a boat will be listed here by a boat broker. Brokers are responsible for the accuracy of the boat information presented in their advertisements on this website. A buyer should instruct his surveyors, or his agents, to investigate any boat details as the buyer desires inspected. These vessels are offered subject to price changes, prior sale, or withdrawal without notice.	http://www.catamaransite.com/catamaran_hull_design_formulas.html
As we have seen multiple times, the basic documentation (such as the P-825/17) covers only the co-speed intercepts. In such scenarios, the Collision Bearing is determined very easily by using the relation: CBCOSPD = Cut / 2. However, in DCS this is very rarely the case. Therefore, when the speed of the fighter (VF14) and the speed of the target (VTGT) are different (ΔV > 0), the relation is no longer applicable. This simple study aims to quantify the difference between CB and CBCOSPD. In other words, help the RIO to better understand this situation by having an idea of how much, what he can expect and what he can do to compensate such difference. Let’s start from the beloved TID in Aircraft Stabilized mode, as it shows very clearly when Collision Course is established no matter ΔV. By comparing that angle and CBCOSPD, we can understand the magnitude of the impact of ΔV on CB. Testing scenario These are the parameters set for recreating the TID AS display below. In this scenario, the two variables are VF14 and VTGT. BH = 135° DTG = 135° (“ α “) Cut = 45L DOP Left to Right The image above clearly shows how the CB changes depending on the speed of the fighter and the bandit. For example, the Vector angle (and therefore the CB) of a situation where VF14 = 300 and VTGT = 200 is exactly the same of a scenario where VF14 = 450 and VTGT = 300: 300/200 = 450/300 → 1.5 (The image on the side is hand-drawn, so there are imprecisions). Hey, hey kid! Wanna calculate some angles?! The question is how we find the angle. The answer can be found in the geometry, by doing some poor man’s reverse-engineering on the TID Vector: We already know that, then CB is established, the vector points towards the F-14 and the triangles defined by the vectors and the one defined by the headings and the CB are geometrically similar (my coolest discovery so far :p ). Let’s consider the third image. The thick black line is the FFP, the red thick line is the FFP used to construct the vector. Therefore, they are parallel. CB, the thinner black line that connects the vector to the F-14, is therefore cutting two parallel lines. The angles originated are congruent (“γ”, the green one, plus the red, which is the opposite angle). We also know b, c and α. The Cosine rule allows to easily calculated the hypotenuse (the “length” of the Vector, “a“). From there, we can calculate γ. cos γ = (a2 + b2 – c2) / 2ab I chucked the formulas on Google Spreadsheet (I can share the spreadsheet, but there’s really not much to see there) and then filled a table with different values of speed: Then determined ΔCB: Practical Test A simple test to check if the model makes sense: Altitude: Co-altitude, value non-factor; VF14 = 400; VTGT = 200; I set up the geometry a bit randomly, let’s see what the TID said: True Course: 167 True Heading: 19 DTG = 148° Cut = 32° → CBCOSPD = 16° However, due to the speed difference, CB must be adjusted. The model should tell us how much: I measured the CATA graphically, htherefore there is a double chance of introducing imprecisions: CB in-game and measurement with GIMP. However, the resulting value is 10.26°, quite close to what the model suggested. Practical Utility? The issue here is that there is no linear relation between the parameters (at least I can’t see one). If, for example, the values of ΔCB expressed as a percentage were constant for different values for DTG, then it would be easy. Unfortunately, this is not the case and the simplest solution in this scenario is using the avionics (e.g. the Collision option on the TID). There are still some interesting things to notice. Let’s start by looking at how the values change for different DTG. VTGT is constant at 400, DTG is calculated between 80 and 170: It gets even more interesting when we look at the Δ: Observations and Conclusions After this quick dive into the geometry, what can we conclude? - No simple relation: unfortunately the lack of a simple relation describing the variations of the CATA as a function of ΔV makes the creation of a single model impossible (it would require too many pages: assessing the drift and correcting is much more efficient).; - Maths & Geometry. The relation between the parameters is purely geometrical. It does not matter if the values are IAS, TAS, CAS, GS, mm/day; as long as both speeds are measured using the same unit; - ΔV: considering an equivalent ΔV, CB varies more from CBCOSPD when the target is slower than the F-14. - Higher DGT = Less Variation: it may be taken for granted, but there is more: if you look at the Δ percentages of the test right above, they are quite similar after a certain magnitude of DTG, although in reality the variation consists of several degrees. For example, VTGT = 350, DGT = 80 → -9.1%, DGT = 90 → -8.5%. The same interval instead includes from DTG 120 (-7.3%) to DTG 170 (-6.7%). This is important because the RIO can expect a greater variation between the Cut / 2 and the actual CB when Cut is high. Therefore, low DTG requires more corrections, since it impacts the angles the most; - Low Target Speed: when VTGT is low, the difference between CBCOSPD and the new CATA is higher. For example, considering the Δ for DTG = 130, VTGT = 200 → CB = -8.84°; for VTGT = 600 = 5.33; - Combining the last two points, we can now identify the case where CB diverges the most from CBCOSPD: low Speed, high Cut (or low DTG). This case is the trickiest as the two parameters make the CB diverge the most from CBCOSPD. On the other hand, the difference decreases along the Cut, to the point where, in extreme cases, reference tables are not even useful anymore. New Kneeboard Page The quantity of parameters and the lack of a simple, intuitive and linear relation that does not require the RIO to do any abstruse calculation, makes creating a dedicated kneeboard page quite hard. In theory, dozens of pages are required to satisfy the combinations of the variables, which is honestly a waste of time when we can use the Tactical Information Display in Aircraft Stabilized mode to monitor the CB and the DDD (or the attack display in a modern aircraft) to monitor the drift and correct if necessary. Nevertheless, a couple of reference tables can help new RIOs to have an idea of the magnitude of the difference between the actual CB and CBCOSPD. This page is quite simple to use: the columns’ header with inverted colours is the speed of the F-14 (I choose 400, 500, and 600). The headers are the speed of the target. The rows’ header is the Cut. The column having a grey background is the co-speed CB. Examples The following are three simple examples of how the page can be used to determine the CATA. Example I VTGT = 350 Cut = 40 We use the second table, fourth column, fourth row from the bottom → 16°. The RIO simply has to command the Pilot to turn until ATA = 16°. Example II This is the same example discussed above in the Practical Test. VTGT = 200 Cut = 30 We use the first table, first column, third row from the bottom → 10°. Again, the RIO simply has to command the Pilot to turn until ATA = 10°. Example III For the last example I put together a simple scenario: VTGT = 600 Cut = 97 CBCOSPD = Cut / 2 = 48.5° Instead, CB in this scenario is ~61°. When values are not exactly what reported in the tables (it never will), they can be rounded following the usual procedure. At the end of the day, this is a tool aiming to help the RIO to better understand what to expect, not SOP-worthy material (in my opinion, of course).	https://flyandwire.com/2021/02/12/v-in-non-co-speed-intercepts-empirical-assessment/?shared=email&msg=fail
The purpose of this research was to determine the effectiveness of three blossom-thinning compounds on crop density and fruit quality of two peach cultivars. Treatments consisted of 15 ml·L–1 and 30 ml·L–1 ammonium thiosulphate, 30 ml·L–1 and 40 ml·L–1 decyl alcohol, and 40 ml·L–1 lime sulfur. Treatments were applied to `Redhaven' and `Harrow Diamond' peach trees at two phenological stages: 80%, and 100% full bloom in 2002 and 2003. In both years, treatments reduced the crop density in both cultivars, and in 2003 the amount of hand thinning required to adjust the crop load was significantly reduced. Fruit size from several blossom-thinned treatments was comparable with that observed from hand-thinned trees. However, treatments caused significant leaf phytotoxicity to `Harrow Diamond' trees in 2003, likely a result of hand spray gun applications. These data indicate that chemical sprays at bloom can be used successfully to reduce fruit set, but are very environmentally, dose, and cultivar dependent. H.M. Wallace, B.J. King and L.S. Lee Pollen source is known to affect the fruit size and quality of 'Imperial' mandarin, but no study has determined the appropriate orchard design to maximize the beneficial effects of pollen source. We determined the parentage of seeds of 'Imperial' mandarin using the isozyme shikimate dehydrogenase to characterize pollen flow and the effect on fruit size in an orchard setting. Two blocks were examined: 1) a block near an 'Ellendale' pollinizer block; and 2) an isolated pure block planting. Fruit size and seed number were maximum at one and three rows from the pollinizer (P ≤ 0.05). Isozyme results were consistent with all seeds being the result of fertilization by the 'Ellendale' pollinizer. In the pure block planting, fruits in rows 5-11 inside the block were very small with no seeds. This indicates poor pollen flow resulting in a reduction in fruit quality for the pure block. These results emphasize the importance of pollinizers in orchard design, and bees in orchard management. They suggest that each row should be planted no more than three rows from the pollinizer to maximize the benefits of the pollen parent in self-incompatible cultivars such as 'Imperial'. Ed Stover, Scott Ciliento, Monty Myers, Brian Boman, John Jackson Jr. and Max Still Six trials were conducted to determine whether lower spray volumes or inclusion of different surfactants would permit adequate thinning of mandarin hybrids (Citrus reticulata hybrids) at a much lower cost per hectare. Sprays were applied using a commercial airblast orchard sprayer during physiological drop when fruitlets averaged 8 to 16 mm in diameter. Surfactant was always included at 0.05% v/v. NAA always reduced fruit per tree, increased fruit size, and decreased production of smallest size fruit. However, in only three experiments, contrast of all NAA treatments vs. controls indicated increased production of the largest (80–100 fruit per carton) and most valuable fruit. In four of five experiments, comparison of spray volumes of 600 (only examined in three of four experiments), 1200, or 2300 L·ha–1 demonstrated significant fruit size enhancement from all NAA applications. Most individual NAA treatments resulted in fewer fruit per tree, but there were no statistically significant differences between NAA treatments at different spray volumes. In only one of the four experiments, there was a marked linear relationship between spray volume and fruit per tree, yield, mean fruit size, and production of largest fruit sizes. The effects of surfactants (Activator, a nonionic, Silwet L-77, and LI-700) on NAA thinning were tested in both `Murcott' and `Sunburst'. In comparisons between Silwet L-77 and Activator surfactant, one experiment with `Murcott' showed greater fruit per tree and yield reduction from using Silwet, but with a smaller increase in production of largest fruit sizes, whereas in another `Murcott' experiment, Silwet L-77 reduced numbers of smaller fruit size with no increase in production of larger fruit. Based on these findings, current recommendations for NAA thinning of Fla. mandarins are use of spray volume of ≈1100–1400 L·ha–1 on mature trees with proportionally lower volume on smaller trees. These data appear to support use of a nonionic surfactant rather than other tested surfactants in NAA thinning of Florida mandarins. Because experience with NAA thinning of Florida citrus is limited, it is only recommended where the disadvantages of overcropping are perceived to substantially outweigh the potential losses from overthinning. Ed Stover, Mike Fargione, Richard Risio and Xiaoe Yang Two years of field experiments were conducted in eastern New York to evaluate the efficacy of a multi-step thinning approach on reducing crop load (no. fruit per cm2 trunk cross-sectional area) and increasing fruit size of 'Empire' apple (Malus ×domestica Borkh.). Applications of Endothall (ET) at 80% bloom, NAA + carbaryl (CB) at petal fall (PF), and Accel™ + CB at 10 mm king fruitlet diameter (KFD), alone and in all combinations, were compared to a nonthinned control and to the application of NAA + CB at 10 mm KFD (commercial standard). In both 1996 and 1997, orthogonal contrasts indicated the multi-step treatment significantly increased fruit size, reduced cropload, and reduced yield compared to single applications. Effects on cropload of consecutive treatments were largely predicted by multiplying effects of individual treatments. Although all thinning treatments except for NAA + CB at PF in 1997 significantly reduced cropload, no single treatment thinned sufficiently to ensure good return bloom. Compared to NAA + CB at 10 mm KFD, multi-step thinning with NAA + CB at PF followed by Accel™ + CB at 10 mm KFD produced bigger fruits in both years, and resulted in a higher percentage of spurs carrying a single fruit in 1996. When fruit size was evaluated after removing the effect of cropload (cropload adjusted fruit weight), NAA + CB at PF, Accel™ + CB at 10 mm, and the two applied sequentially, resulted in greater cropload adjusted fruit weight than the nonthinned control in both years, whereas NAA + CB at 10 mm did not. Contrast analysis of treatments with and without ET showed no significant effect of including ET on fruit size, though total cropload was reduced at P = 0.10 and total yield was reduced (P = 0.03 in 1996 and P = 0.12 in 1997). No deleterious effects from multi-step treatments have been observed. All thinning treatments significantly increased return bloom in 1996 and 1997 compared to the control with little difference observed between treatments. Chemical names used: naphthalene acetic acid (NAA); 1-naphthyl-N-methylcarbamate [carbaryl (CB)]; 6-benzyladenine [BA (Accel™)]; 7-oxabicyclo (2,2,1) heptane-2,3 dicarboxylic acid [ET (Endothall™)] James W. Olmstead, Amy F. Iezzoni and Matthew D. Whiting The mature cherry fruit is composed of a thin protective exocarp, a fleshy mesocarp, and an inedible stony endocarp (pit) surrounding the seed ( Esau, 1977 ). All three tissue types arise from the ovary, and the increase in fruit size results from Lisa Klima Johnson, Anish Malladi and D. Scott NeSmith Fruit size is a commercially valuable trait in many horticultural crops, including rabbiteye blueberry. Sensory evaluations indicate a greater preference among consumers for large-sized blueberry fruit ( Donahue et al., 2000 ; Saftner et al., 2008 Gregory A. Lang and Robert G. Danka analyses, Jim Parrie for his suggestions and discussion, and Suzanne Lang for her assistance in fruit size measurements. The cost of publishing this paper was defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. Under postal regulations, this paper therefore Shaul Naschitz and Amos Naor Water availability and crop load (number of fruit per tree) affect the fruit size of apple (Malus ×domestica Borkh.), but their interaction in relation to fruit size is not well understood. The objective of the present study was to explore the effect of crop load on water consumption of `Golden Delicious' apple in relation to fruit size. A wide range of irrigation rates and crop loads was applied to mature, field-grown `Golden Delicious' apple trees for two consecutive years, 1995 and 1996. The number of fruit, crop yield, and average fruit diameter were determined for each tree. A model was proposed to describe the combined effect of crop yield and irrigation rate on fruit size. In the model, irrigation waters were divided between two uses: vegetative water use (UV), which enables the tree to produce a steady, long-term yield; and reproductive water use (UR), which supports the production of the dry mass of commercial-size fruit. Potential fruit diameters were 77.1 and 72.2 mm for 1995 and 1996, respectively. Calculated vegetative use values were 300.2 and 323.4 mm for 1995 and 1996, respectively. The response of fruit diameter to reproductive water use per ton fresh weight (specific reproductive water use; URT) was fitted by a hyperbolic model in which the fruit diameter increases with increasing specific reproductive water use and approaches the yearly potential diameter at 60 to 70 m3·t-1, irrespective of the potential fruit diameter. In both years, fruit diameter showed a closer correlation with the specific reproductive water use than with either crop load or irrigation rate. In conclusion, the crop yield and the potential fruit size determine the irrigation rate required to achieve a certain average fruit diameter. The year's potential fruit diameter does not affect the total tree water use or its components. The proposed model can be used by growers for supporting decisions on irrigation and thinning strategies in commercial orchards.	https://journals.ashs.org/search?q=%22fruit%20size%22
Warning: more... Fetching bibliography... Generate a file for use with external citation management software. Cohort Description of the Madagascar Health and Environmental Research-Antongil (MAHERY-Antongil) Study in Madagascar. Golden CD, Borgerson C, Rice BL, Allen LH, Anjaranirina EJG, Barrett CB, Boateng G, Gephart JA, Hampel D, Hartl DL, Knippenberg E, Myers SS, Ralalason DH, Ramihantaniarivo H, Randriamady H, Shahab-Ferdows S, Vaitla B, Volkman SK, Vonona MA. Front Nutr. 2019 Jul 19;6:109. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2019.00109. eCollection 2019. Similar articles Emerging human infectious diseases and the links to global food production. Rohr JR, Barrett CB, Civitello DJ, Craft ME, Delius B, DeLeo GA, Hudson PJ, Jouanard N, Nguyen KH, Ostfeld RS, Remais JV, Riveau G, Sokolow SH, Tilman D. Nat Sustain. 2019;2(6):445-456. doi: 10.1038/s41893-019-0293-3. Epub 2019 Jun 11. Review. Types and frequency of non-conformances in an IVF laboratory. Sakkas D, Barrett CB, Alper MM. Hum Reprod. 2018 Dec 1;33(12):2196-2204. doi: 10.1093/humrep/dey320. Review: Food loss and waste in Sub-Saharan Africa. Sheahan M, Barrett CB. Food Policy. 2017 Jul;70:1-12. doi: 10.1016/j.foodpol.2017.03.012. Review. Agricultural factor markets in Sub-Saharan Africa: An updated view with formal tests for market failure. Dillon B, Barrett CB. Food Policy. 2017 Feb;67:64-77. doi: 10.1016/j.foodpol.2016.09.015. Ten striking facts about agricultural input use in Sub-Saharan Africa. Food Policy. 2017 Feb;67:12-25. doi: 10.1016/j.foodpol.2016.09.010. Forest value: More than commercial-Response. Barrett CB, Zhou M, Reich PB, Crowther TW, Liang J. Science. 2016 Dec 23;354(6319):1541-1542. doi: 10.1126/science.aal2612. Epub 2016 Dec 22. No abstract available. Erratum in: Science. 2017 Jan 13;355(6321):. Assessing the Impact of U.S. Food Assistance Delivery Policies on Child Mortality in Northern Kenya. Nikulkov A, Barrett CB, Mude AG, Wein LM. PLoS One. 2016 Dec 20;11(12):e0168432. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0168432. eCollection 2016. Positive biodiversity-productivity relationship predominant in global forests. Liang J, Crowther TW, Picard N, Wiser S, Zhou M, Alberti G, Schulze ED, McGuire AD, Bozzato F, Pretzsch H, de-Miguel S, Paquette A, Hérault B, Scherer-Lorenzen M, Barrett CB, Glick HB, Hengeveld GM, Nabuurs GJ, Pfautsch S, Viana H, Vibrans AC, Ammer C, Schall P, Verbyla D, Tchebakova N, Fischer M, Watson JV, Chen HY, Lei X, Schelhaas MJ, Lu H, Gianelle D, Parfenova EI, Salas C, Lee E, Lee B, Kim HS, Bruelheide H, Coomes DA, Piotto D, Sunderland T, Schmid B, Gourlet-Fleury S, Sonké B, Tavani R, Zhu J, Brandl S, Vayreda J, Kitahara F, Searle EB, Neldner VJ, Ngugi MR, Baraloto C, Frizzera L, Bałazy R, Oleksyn J, Zawiła-Niedźwiecki T, Bouriaud O, Bussotti F, Finér L, Jaroszewicz B, Jucker T, Valladares F, Jagodzinski AM, Peri PL, Gonmadje C, Marthy W, O'Brien T, Martin EH, Marshall AR, Rovero F, Bitariho R, Niklaus PA, Alvarez-Loayza P, Chamuya N, Valencia R, Mortier F, Wortel V, Engone-Obiang NL, Ferreira LV, Odeke DE, Vasquez RM, Lewis SL, Reich PB. Science. 2016 Oct 14;354(6309). pii: aaf8957. Analyzing IVF laboratory error rates: highlight or hide? Sakkas D, Pool TB, Barrett CB. Reprod Biomed Online. 2015 Oct;31(4):447-8. doi: 10.1016/j.rbmo.2015.08.006. Epub 2015 Aug 14. No abstract available. Opinion: Measuring development resilience in the world's poorest countries. Headey D, Barrett CB. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2015 Sep 15;112(37):11423-5. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1512215112. No abstract available. Toward a theory of resilience for international development applications. Barrett CB, Constas MA. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2014 Oct 7;111(40):14625-30. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1320880111. Epub 2014 Sep 22. Poverty, disease, and the ecology of complex systems. Ngonghala CN, Pluciński MM, Murray MB, Farmer PE, Barrett CB, Keenan DC, Bonds MH. PLoS Biol. 2014 Apr 1;12(4):e1001827. doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.1001827. eCollection 2014 Apr. Socioenvironmental threats to pastoral livelihoods: risk perceptions in the Altay and Tianshan Mountains of Xinjiang, China. Liao C, Sullivan PJ, Barrett CB, Kassam KA. Risk Anal. 2014 Apr;34(4):640-55. doi: 10.1111/risa.12146. Epub 2013 Nov 27. Predicting personalized multiple birth risks after in vitro fertilization-double embryo transfer. Lannon BM, Choi B, Hacker MR, Dodge LE, Malizia BA, Barrett CB, Wong WH, Yao MW, Penzias AS. Fertil Steril. 2012 Jul;98(1):69-76. doi: 10.1016/j.fertnstert.2012.04.011. Epub 2012 Jun 4. Risk-taking behavior in the presence of nonconvex asset dynamics. Lybbert TJ, Barrett CB. Econ Inq. 2011;49(4):982-88. Index insurance for pro-poor conservation of hornbills in Thailand. Chantarat S, Barrett CB, Janvilisri T, Mudsri S, Niratisayakul C, Poonswad P. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2011 Aug 23;108(34):13951-6. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1012291108. Epub 2011 Aug 22. Economic and geographic drivers of wildlife consumption in rural Africa. Brashares JS, Golden CD, Weinbaum KZ, Barrett CB, Okello GV. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2011 Aug 23;108(34):13931-6. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1011526108. Epub 2011 Aug 22. On biodiversity conservation and poverty traps. Barrett CB, Travis AJ, Dasgupta P. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2011 Aug 23;108(34):13907-12. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1011521108. Epub 2011 Aug 22. Agriculture. Research principles for developing country food value chains. Gómez MI, Barrett CB, Buck LE, De Groote H, Ferris S, Gao HO, McCullough E, Miller DD, Outhred H, Pell AN, Reardon T, Retnanestri M, Ruben R, Struebi P, Swinnen J, Touesnard MA, Weinberger K, Keatinge JD, Milstein MB, Yang RY. Science. 2011 Jun 3;332(6034):1154-5. doi: 10.1126/science.1202543. No abstract available. Influence of embryo sex on development to the blastocyst stage and euploidy. Eaton JL, Hacker MR, Barrett CB, Thornton KL, Penzias AS. Fertil Steril. 2011 Mar 1;95(3):936-9. doi: 10.1016/j.fertnstert.2010.06.063. Epub 2010 Aug 5. Derivation of pre-X inactivation human embryonic stem cells under physiological oxygen concentrations. Lengner CJ, Gimelbrant AA, Erwin JA, Cheng AW, Guenther MG, Welstead GG, Alagappan R, Frampton GM, Xu P, Muffat J, Santagata S, Powers D, Barrett CB, Young RA, Lee JT, Jaenisch R, Mitalipova M. Cell. 2010 May 28;141(5):872-83. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2010.04.010. Epub 2010 May 13. Measuring food insecurity. Barrett CB. Science. 2010 Feb 12;327(5967):825-8. doi: 10.1126/science.1182768. Influence of patient age on the association between euploidy and day-3 embryo morphology. Fertil Steril. 2010 Jun;94(1):365-7. doi: 10.1016/j.fertnstert.2009.09.019. Epub 2009 Dec 14. Prognosis for clinical pregnancy and delivery after total fertilization failure during conventional in vitro fertilization or intracytoplasmic sperm injection. Kinzer DR, Barrett CB, Powers RD. Fertil Steril. 2008 Aug;90(2):284-8. Epub 2007 Aug 21. The complex links between governance and biodiversity. Barrett CB, Gibson CC, Hoffman B, McCubbins MD. Conserv Biol. 2006 Oct;20(5):1358-66. The sperm stress test: a novel test that predicts pregnancy in assisted reproductive technologies. Alvarez JG, Minaretzis D, Barrett CB, Mortola JF, Thompson IE. Fertil Steril. 1996 Feb;65(2):400-5. Progestins inhibit murine oocyte meiotic maturation in vitro. Barrett CB, Powers RD. J Exp Zool. 1993 Mar 1;265(3):231-9. A purified S6 kinase kinase from Xenopus eggs activates S6 kinase II and autophosphorylates on serine, threonine, and tyrosine residues. Barrett CB, Erikson E, Maller JL. J Biol Chem. 1992 Mar 5;267(7):4408-15. Efficacy and safety field trials of a recombinant DNA vaccine against feline leukemia virus infection. Clark N, Kushner NN, Barrett CB, Kensil CR, Salsbury D, Cotter S. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1991 Nov 15;199(10):1433-43. Ha-rasVal-12,Thr-59 activates S6 kinase and p34cdc2 kinase in Xenopus oocytes: evidence for c-mosxe-dependent and -independent pathways. Barrett CB, Schroetke RM, Van der Hoorn FA, Nordeen SK, Maller JL. Mol Cell Biol. 1990 Jan;10(1):310-5. Heat-induced changes during processing and use of edible fats. Barrett CB, Henry CM. Proc Nutr Soc. 1966;25(1):4-9. No abstract available. Investigation of the factor in groundnut meal responsible for "turkey X disease". de IONGH, BEERTHUIS RK, VLES RO, BARRETT CB, ORD WO. Biochim Biophys Acta. 1962 Dec 17;65:548-51. No abstract available. Filters: Manage Filters National Center for Biotechnology Information,	https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?cmd=search&term=Barrett+CB%5Bau%5D&dispmax=50
Telos Canton, inspired by Telos’s ideal, adheres to the “Fair, Just, Open” principle, and strives to make Telos Canton a complete DAO. And the Libra.Vote decentralized voting and social survey system will be developed to extend the Telos network usage. Telos Canton’s operation is entirely self-financed. As a Telos BP Candidate, in order to ensure independence, and not subject to any capital controls, Telos Canton will not accept any third-party investment now or in the future. Agreement Telos Canton agrees and strictly abides by the following Agreements of Telos Blockchain Network: 1.1. Telos Blockchain Network Operating Agreement – Signed 2.1. Telos Blockchain Network Arbitration Rules and Procedures – Signed 3.1. Telos “regproducer” Human-language Contract – Signed 4.1. Telos “regarb” Human-language Contract – Signed The above documents were signed by Telos Canotn founder Yang Jianfeng (known as Fieldy Yeung) on behalf of Telos Canton. The signature is shown on the last page of each document. The style is as follows: Belief - Fair, Just, Open - Fairness is not average, but a reasonable return based on contribution, creating a variety of opportunities, and maximizing the individual’s traits and abilities. - Fairness is reflected in the strict observance of the rules of consensus, the judgment of behavior according to the rules, and the independent of the influence and control of interests. - Public information includes, and is not limited to, ideas, decisions, finances, executions, and rights, which guarantees transparency and public supervision. - The technology and governance model of blockchain can make our world fairer and better, enable more people to realize their dreams. - “Sometimes it is the people no one can imagine anything of who do the things no one can imagine.” – Allen Turing - “The telos of an acorn is to become an oak tree.” – Aristotle - Teleology believes that before deciding how resources are allocated, we need to study what the “purpose” of the allocated resources is. The philosophical starting point of Plato and Aristotle is “Telos”, which is ancient Greek, meaning purpose, intention, goal or nature. - “What belongs to the national belongs to the world.”- Lu Xun As the world itself is composed of diverse cultures of different nationalities, the essence of the world is diversity, and each national culture is unique. Only by respecting one’s own culture, maintaining the uniqueness of its own culture and removing the inferiority of its own culture, can a nationality become the common cultural wealth of all mankind. That is when world culture is defined as world culture. On the basis of recognizing one’s own traits, culture and abilities, we can make the world-wide collaboration more unimpeded by accepting and embracing the diversity of different groups of people.	https://www.teloscanton.io/en/code-of-conduct/
4 Reasons Why Diversity in the Workplace Makes You a Better Leader To be an effective leader, taking the time to evolve through personal development courses and programs is highly productive and incredibly beneficial. It doesn’t just result in your own growth and improvement: It trickles down to benefit the teams you lead and positively influences the organization you work with. However, no matter how many courses you take, life experience is often the biggest and most influential contributor to what you learn and, why you learn it. There is a famous quote by Confucius that says: “If you’re the smartest one in the room — then you are in the wrong room.” The meaning of this quote infers that mentorship and diversity are imperative to expanding your knowledge and improving yourself as you strive to reach your personal potential. After all, if everyone in the room is thinking the same way, has the same beliefs, or likes the same things, what benefit does it have for those in the room? It certainly doesn’t improve one’s ability to be innovative or think critically. Related: The Myriad Benefits of Diversity in the Workplace Diversity in the workplace results in a multitude of organizational benefits all the way down from the C-Suite to the entry-level employee. In your role as a leader, embracing and nurturing diversity among your team and colleagues will ultimately result in your ability to lead more effectively, compassionately, and successfully. Here are four reasons why diversity in the workplace makes you a better leader. You’ll discover the power of multiple points of view Because a diverse workforce is comprised of people from different cultures, different beliefs, and different backgrounds, they are most likely going to have different experiences, skills, and abilities. As a leader, you will have an opportunity to observe and learn from these differences and, discover a multitude of new and effective ways to implement ideas and take action. Having multiple points of view will help expand your understanding of your team, your customers, and your organization. You’ll improve the way you think When everyone thinks the same, it becomes more difficult to think “out-of-the-box” and you can often get stuck in your own thoughts and habits. Employees with different backgrounds and experiences will introduce you to new ways of thinking. You’ll begin to ask questions differently and evaluate thoughts more critically. You won’t have to spin your wheels wasting time on solving a problem because the way you think will be more efficient and productive. Related: Diversity and Inclusion are Driving Force of Future of Businesses You’ll increase productivity and achieve more The link between team engagement and diversity is pretty clear. When you choose to be a leader who encourages and creates opportunities for diverse employees and team members to feel included and accepted, those workers become more engaged and feel less overlooked. They’ll respect you for respecting them and, in turn, they’ll take responsibility for getting the tasks done that you assign to them. As a result, not only will you have an improvement in your team productivity, you’ll become more compassionate and achieve a greater understanding of how you can make a measurable difference in your world and the lives of others. You’ll continue to grow and improve In a diverse and progressive workplace, the pool of people to choose from presents a greater opportunity to discover exceptional employees and to develop strong teams. Working with people of different backgrounds, experiences, and working styles contributes to the overall success of an organization. As a leader, these contributions provide an opportunity to incorporate this diverse knowledge into what you do, why you do it, and how you do it. And, as an added bonus, you’ll continually improve and grow not just as a leader but also, as an individual. Related: Why You Need to Focus on Diversity Before It's Too Late When you continuously demonstrate to your organization and employees that you value their hard work and results regardless of any individual differences, they’ll be more likely to encourage and support your efforts to lead them. Surrounding yourself with individuals regardless of race, culture, nationality or religion will be a testament of who you are as a leader and as an individual. As a result, you’ll improve morale, engagement, and productivity from the people you lead and, become the example of leadership to follow for many others.	https://www.entrepreneur.com/article/354547
11 Jul Diversity has many advantages and disadvantages within an organization. In regards to gender identity and embracing diversity in the workplace, do you consider yourself an accepting Diversity has many advantages and disadvantages within an organization. In regards to gender identity and embracing diversity in the workplace, do you consider yourself an accepting person? How important is it to you to accept diversity? Remember that there are no right or wrong answers; this is simply a reflection. Unit Lesson Religion, Sexual Orientation, and Gender Identity The impact that we have on society begins with a personal decision. Our convictions will play out due to our thinking and then our actions. Our upbringing has a powerful impact on our experience, our learning, and our interpretation or perspective of the world around us. If an individual grows up in a rural setting, away from metropolitan life, his or her perspective of the world will be very different than the individual who grows up in the cosmopolitan life of a large city and all that it entails. Human nature is resistant to change. How individuals view change or that which is different from what they know will have a strong influence on their perspective and adaptation. The individual who grew up in a community of like-minded people will struggle to assimilate to those of a different mind, background, and perceived belief system. The individual who grew up in a community of many blended cultures and backgrounds may integrate many various characteristics, traits, and intuitions because he or she was not isolated to a single culture. New cultures and belief systems will be more readily integrated for the individual who is exposed to many cultures (Bell, 2017). This background provides a foundation for accommodating change more readily. Names like Gandhi, King, and Parks (in addition to Shepard, Jenner, and a myriad of others whose names may be lesser known) have stood to be counted as being true to themselves by standing up and stepping out. These are the difference makers who change the way we think. These are the influencers who hold a less conventional perspective of what they believe should be. Diversity under these auspices means opening our minds, our hearts, and our perspectives. If we have a limited perspective and we have been taught to believe one way, a new perspective being presented to us will challenge our beliefs and values. While religious or cultural perspectives are often more prevalent in different regions of the world, some are more accepted in certain areas of the world than others. If we are raised in a Jewish or Christian heritage, often the Hindu or Muslim religions will be very foreign to us. In the United States, we may be brought up under certain religious beliefs and values. These may stem from many religions or no religion at all. Events in recent years have increasingly brought these various perspectives to light. The issues of Christians protesting at military funerals and Muslims declaring jihad are issues we observe on a regular basis. We have seen religion-based attacks on Jews, Christians, and Muslims. There is value in also considering the impact that social media and Internet coverage provide to allow us to encounter these events in near-real time. A bombing or execution can go viral very quickly. One religion denouncing another religion, bombing people and communities because of conflicting beliefs, and making religious or political statements through vicious attacks are issues we are surrounded by in society. We hear of covert military operations, media fire as verbal attacks, and belittling or sarcastic or even violent verbal responses by people in leadership positions. These elements have a heavy impact on the world scene and how we take in information about people, cultures, and communities as well as religion and our belief systems (King et al., 2009). Our values, ethics, and thought processes take in this information. How we process this new information will be compared and assimilated with our established beliefs, then synthesized to become a part of how we react. If we do not take the time to further analyze the information we are receiving, we may gain a jaded perspective based on what, when, where, and how we received the information. The individual who listens to a news report filled with soundbites, not getting the full story, will gain a skewed interpretation of the events that have occurred. The individual may not have enough information to adequately balance his or her perspective in a comprehensive approach. Society continues to change. As technology has opened new opportunities, it has also allowed a broader knowledge of different societies around the globe. Philosophy, behaviors, and values that in some cultures would be ill-considered are widely accepted and vice versa. Dress, language, and interaction by males and females in different settings across cultures vary significantly. When we consider the leading religions of the world and the traditions of these religions, we begin to see the similarities as well as the differences. As there is integration, accommodation, and synthesis of these perspectives, a new degree of acceptance is required for continued progress of how society evolves. The way business is done also changes in respect to external and internal forces. Not only are there the religious and cultural differences in respect to nationality, tradition, and position, but also new perspectives as to gender and sexual orientation in the workplace as well as in society. Adaptation and learning take on a new component. Sexual orientation and integration of gender roles in the workplace or organizational culture are not a new paradigm. Organizations are facing new challenges in adapting to new legislation and changes in societal acceptance of the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) community. Gender roles of males and females have brought their own challenges over the past 70 years since WWII. The roles in the workplace were more gender specific in the 1940s. Currently, however, gender roles are no longer limited to traditional male and female roles. Society and the workplace have heterosexual, lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender. These roles have taken on a new look, a new meaning, and a new place in the work environment. An organization’s position can have a strong impact on how individuals who identify in these roles are understood or treated. Organizations offer training on understanding roles. Animosity towards particular roles and how they fit within the individual or organizational culture is a shifting paradigm. There will be individuals who will be more accepting, adapting to the roles and the work the identified individuals provide. Other individuals may be less accepting, thus creating a stigma or conflict in the team and organization. How an organization chooses to address these issues will carry with it a strong message from all levels within the organization (Bell, 2017). The corporate office in a large metropolitan city may have a very open and accepting organizational environment. The remote office in more rural settings may have a very different perspective towards individuals who are perceived as different from the norm. Inclusion, acceptance, and assimilation are necessary to develop an effective team. Communication of styles, approach, and the ensuing challenges are necessary for an open dialogue to occur. Breakdowns in these areas lead to misunderstanding, segregation, and separation of teams, which, in turn, causes division, loss of productivity, and resources. Results will be diminished. Training is key, and gaining knowledge and insight is critical—not to judge but to become informed. Asking questions, engaging, and interacting are all part of building the dynamics within the teams and the organization. A shift is continuing to take place as we see more legislation and advocacy for LGBT lifestyles (Herek, 1993). Bell (2017) addresses how relationships are displayed in the workplace, whether casual, personal, or professional. At an after-hours office event, an individual may consider a same-sex couple to be flaunting their lifestyle by coming together or bringing their partner. The mind shift occurs when we ask how is this different from the employee who brings his or her heterosexual partner? The employee is bringing the person he or she values and is committed to in a present relationship. Organizations today focus on projects and teams. The use of affirmative action is less legislative today than 30 years ago. Today’s broad range of potential job candidates transcends color and gender as was considered the case a few decades ago. As society has evolved, diversity now includes gender, race, and orientation. Diversity also entails ethnicity, religion, and beliefs. What and how an individual believes should not negatively impact his or her ability to conduct work or affect how he or she is accepted as a team member (Bell, 2017). The formation of the team should include requesting information regarding recognition of religious or cultural holidays (e.g., Christmas, Ramadan, and Passover). Understanding of the culture and beliefs will impact worker gatherings. Accommodations for religious beliefs may include prayer times and practices in the workplace. All of these things are to be addressed by employers in policy and practice. Assessment and management of any type of discrimination is to be treated as possible harassment and requires investigation and acceptable, consistent actions. The same holds true based on gender and orientation. Diversity has continued to evolve, and no matter how we celebrate diversity, the paradigms are changing. Assimilation and adaptation are necessary. There is a natural tendency to be acknowledged and accepted for who and what we identify as. New trends and thereby new understandings are presented consistently. How we choose to address these issues will have a powerful impact on society, community, and the workplace. References Bell, M. P. (2017). Diversity in organizations (3rd ed.). Cengage Learning. Herek, G. M. (1993). The context of anti-gay violence: Notes on cultural and psychological heterosexism. In L. D. Garnets, & D. C. Kimmel (Eds.), Psychological perspectives in lesbian and gay male experiences (pp. 89-107). Columbia University Press. King, J. E., Bell, M. P., & Lawrence, E. (2009). Religion as an aspect of workplace diversity: An examination of the US context and a call for international research. Journal of Management, Spirituality & Religion, 6(1), 43–57. Our website has a team of professional writers who can help you write any of your homework. They will write your papers from scratch. We also have a team of editors just to make sure all papers are of HIGH QUALITY & PLAGIARISM FREE. To make an Order you only need to click Ask A Question and we will direct you to our Order Page at WriteDemy. Then fill Our Order Form with all your assignment instructions. Select your deadline and pay for your paper. You will get it few hours before your set deadline. Fill in all the assignment paper details that are required in the order form with the standard information being the page count, deadline, academic level and type of paper. It is advisable to have this information at hand so that you can quickly fill in the necessary information needed in the form for the essay writer to be immediately assigned to your writing project. Make payment for the custom essay order to enable us to assign a suitable writer to your order. Payments are made through Paypal on a secured billing page. Finally, sit back and relax.	https://www.essay-doers.org/2022/07/11/diversity-has-many-advantages-and-disadvantages-within-an-organization-in-regards-to-gender-identity-and-embracing-diversity-in-the-workplace-do-you-consider-yourself-an-accepting/
A recent NPR Hidden Brain podcast discussed the idea of the edge effect, which is the concept of encouraging collaboration between people with diverse interests and backgrounds. The thought is that, when diverse peoples interact and work together, they can solve problems more effectively. For example, one study from Columbia University found that those having relationships with people from other countries become more creative, as evidenced by scoring higher on creativity tests. Applying this idea to the world of scientific research, a Harvard study found that published research with diverse authorship is more likely to get greater attention. Increasing interaction with diversity — gender, race, experience, background, religion, or any other number of identities — is a great way open our eyes to new ideas and become more creative. From an ecological perspective, the edge effect refers to the changes in a population or community that occurs at the edge of two or more habitats. Generally, it is in these spaces that we expect to find higher species diversity, driven by adaptive and resilient behavior. I work to embrace with the tenets of this edge effect concept, especially the importance of considering and implementing different thoughts and ideas to create more resilient solutions for our social and environmental problems. The difficulty is putting the rubber to the road and actually applying this concept to my scientific career. Thankfully, with some fortune and intention, I had an opportunity presented to me to start embracing both meanings of the edge — the one for habitat and biodiversity, and the one with more informed perspectives. Two years ago, my advisor told me about a specialized two-week summer graduate school course that some of his colleagues hosted in Brazil. It was the São Paulo School of Advanced Science on Nitrogen Cycling, Environmental Sustainability and Climate Change. The topic directly related to my research on Maryland’s Eastern Shore. The course brought together 100 graduate students from around the world for the purpose of discussing and creating solutions for environmental issues we work on related to nitrogen cycle changes. \| \| Eline Costa, Qiurui Zhu (UMCES), and I working together in the field. Photo Credit: Eline Costa Excess nitrogen, partially driven by fertilizer production and application, has caused major environmental problems from contaminated drinking water supplies to large algal blooms globally and in the Chesapeake Bay. While nitrogen is essential for crop growth, excess application can have unintended consequences. It is these unintended consequences that we are currently trying to understand and mediate. My project examines the effectiveness a particular best management practice has on reducing nitrogen going in the Chesapeake waters, which I was able share with other course participants in Brazil. Each day for two weeks, we listened to lectures in the morning. In the afternoon we worked in small groups to brainstorm and develop solutions to specific issues raised in the lecture. Being only one of a handful of students from the United States, with 50 students from different parts of Brazil and 50 students from other parts of the world, the small groups had a good mixture of cultures, identities, religions, and backgrounds converging to brainstorm solutions to the global nitrogen problem. To me, this experience fulfilled the concept of edge effect, because everyone got to interact with people of diverse backgrounds and meld together those perspectives. In one particular small group session, comprised of Brazilians, Iranians, Pakistanis, Dutch, Venezuelans, and Americans, we were discussing the idea of raising the prices on nitrogen fertilizer as way to decrease the amount bought and subsequently the amount applied for crops. It seemed like a simple solution until we considered all the perspectives. Questions like, who would we increase the price for? Everyone, or only countries with a large GDP? How would raising the price impact a farmer’s ability to grow their crops? Sure, it would reduce nitrogen application, but if they can’t grow the crop then that reduces food availability. Since we had representatives from countries with different economic structures, crop production, and fertilizer application rates, the original solution of raising fertilizer prices became much more complicated, but the final solution was much more refined and nuanced because of the diversity of the group. These types of experiences are essential in scientific research because they can provide career-long collaborations that enhance both the people and the research. In fact, this Brazil school experience inspired a Brazilian graduate student who attended the course, Eline Costa, to visit the University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science, Appalachian Lab in Frostburg, Maryland for six months. Since the institution is located in the headwaters of the Potomac, we study how human activities impact the environment from the start of the rivers into the Chesapeake Bay. Eline helped us with fieldwork on the Eastern Shore of Maryland and got to immerse herself in the small mountain town culture of Frostburg. The seasonality of Maryland was completely new for her coming from the Brazilian coast, where flip-flops are common for most of the year. Wearing a winter coat and seeing snow was new and thrilling for her. Luckily, we found a Brazilian restaurant on Kent Island that we treated ourselves to after long field days. This collaboration and our conversations about sampling methods and field experiences helped me view aspects of my research in new ways. I was sad for Eline to return to Brazil, but I look forward to continuing to work with her. I guess I have go to back to Brazil now! As we continue to try and solve tough global and regional environmental issues, seeking people with different backgrounds, viewing problems from a new perspective, and valuing input from diverse sources are essential tools for new scientists. To my fellow young scientists, I say, embrace the edge. Photo, top left: Participants and hosts of the Nitrogen school in Brazil. Photo credit: Nazanin Ak Sign up to receive email alerts about new posts to the Fellowship Experiences blog See all posts to the Fellowship Experiences blog The Blue Crab: Callinectes Sapidus An essential resource for researchers, students, and managers. Get your copy today!	https://mdsg.umd.edu/fellowship-experiences/embracing-edge
In his book Rebel Ideas, Matthew Syed shares some interesting data: - 43% of Fortune 500 companies were founded by immigrants (or their children) - Immigrants are twice as likely to become entrepreneurs - Although they account for only 13% of the US population, immigrants account for 27% of all US entrepreneurs - Half of the US-based Nobel Prize winners were born abroad - What do Elon Musk, Walt Disney, Henry Ford and Arianna Huffington all have in common? They are all immigrants (or children of immigrants). The point Syed makes is that an immigrant perspective is responsible for many innovations and business successes. Given their exposure to different cultures and perspectives, immigrants are better able to generate new and creative ideas than those without a similar experience or insight. He calls this the Outsider Mindset. What is the Outsider Mindset? The Outsider Mindset is the ability to step away from convention and view a challenge from a different/novel perspective – something that we absolutely must do in order to innovate. For those who have not had opportunity to live abroad, there are other ways to learn to be creative. As one study has shown, Nobel Laureates are typically also proficient in other disciplines like playing musical instruments, drawing, writing and drama. This is also the case with entrepreneurs and inventors. Diverse skills and disciplines can replace experience of living in a different culture yet offer a broader perspective – an Outsider Mindset. This allows one to look at a problem and apply learnings from other experiences that may have nothing to do with the matter at hand. Like putting wheels on suitcases or dispensing water from fridges. Two ideas from unrelated functions that are brought together to create a third idea or solution. It takes the mindset of an outsider to come up with an insight like this. How can we cultivate an Outsider Mindset at work? One suggested way to do this is to turn assumptions on their heads in order to liberate the Outsider Mindset in us. Here’s an example: Instead of assuming that all employees of a company must be located in the same place as the company’s offices, assume that employees do not need to be located at the ‘epicentre’ of the business and, instead, can do the job from anywhere in the world. By doing that, you instantly open up the pool of candidates for these jobs to people anywhere in the world and, as a result, stand to hire with greater levels of diversity. What is the connection to Diversity? People with an Outsider Mindset can bring huge benefits to an organisation, bringing innovation that can be transformative. However, if they are perceived as being ‘different’ or not fitting the required criteria, they may in fact be excluded from contributing fully and struggle to be heard. An inclusive environment – one that seeks out different voices BECAUSE they’re different – is one that stands to benefit the most. As Matthew Syed quotes: ‘To become a visionary, you have to take the perspective of an outsider in order to see things that are taken for granted by insiders. Possibilities and opportunities become most apparent when you are confronting a problem with fresh perspective.’ Do you want to find out how to transform your work environment to one that can harness diversity of thought? Get in touch to discuss how we can help.	https://www.voiceatthetable.com/blog/the-outsider-mindset/
Find your favorite nonprofit or choose one that inspires you from our database of 2+ million charitable organizations. Displaying 1–12 of 7,508 THE MISSION OF THE JAPANESE AMERICAN NATIONAL MUSEUM (THE "MUSEUM") IS TO PROMOTE UNDERSTANDING AND APPRECIATION OF AMERICA'S ETHNIC AND CULTURAL DIVERSITY BY PRESERVING, INTERPRETING AND SHARING THE EXPERIENCES OF JAPANESE AMERICANS. The Smithsonian's mission is "the increase and diffusion of knowledge." It was established in 1846 with funds bequeathed to the United States by James Smithson. The Institution is as an independent trust instrumentality of the United States and holds more than 137 million artifacts and specimens in its collections. It is a center for scientific research and scholarship in the arts, history, and culture. The American Folk Art Museum is the premier institution devoted to the aesthetic appreciation of traditional folk art and creative expressions of contemporary self-taught artists from the United States and abroad. The museum preserves, conserves, and interprets a comprehensive collection of the highest quality, with objects dating from the eighteenth century to the present. The National Women’s History Museum educates, inspires, empowers, and shapes the future by integrating women's distinctive history into the culture and history of the United States. Until legislation passes in Congress designating a permanent museum in Washington, D.C., the NWHM promotes women's history through its temporary exhibits, special events and programs, online museum, online educational materials and social media. Our mission as an organization is to rescue children from sex slavery and dismantle the criminal networks abusing them. Promote Black History and museum. The Museum of Chinese in America (MOCA) aims to engage audiences in an ongoing and historical dialogue, in which people of all backgrounds are able to see American history through a critical perspective, to reflect on their own experiences, and to make meaningful connections between: the past and the present, the global and the local, themselves and others. MOSI is a 501(c)(3)nonprofit, community-based institution and educational resource dedicated to advancing public interest, knowledge, and understanding of science, technology, engineering, art and math (STEAM). The Universal Hip Hop Museum's mission is to teach, engage and inspire audiences around the world through the creativity and power of Hip Hop Culture. The UHHM carries out its mission by giving voice to the stories of the people, events and artifacts that shaped the five elements of Hip Hop — through digital collections, virtual exhibits, interviews, pop-up experiences, award shows, and a wide array of innovative educational programs and activities, bringing new understanding, fresh interpretation and scholarship to the world's most popular culture of our time. Lake Erie Nature & Science Center educates and inspires people to understand, appreciate and take responsibility for our natural world. Our mission is to educate and inspire current and future generations about the experiences and contributions of women by collecting, preserving, and interpreting the evidence of that experience. . . . Respecting and honoring all women and their experiences . . . Respecting all individuals’ beliefs, cultures and ideas . . . Inviting and encouraging participation and open dialogue from women, men and children . . . Integrity of our collection and in our presentation of women’s history . . . Diversity, cultural competence, cultural democracy and inclusion in our organizational structure . . . An organizational environment that builds and fosters open, honest, considerate communication and a spirit of cooperative problem solving, consensus and community . . . Planning, responsible decision-making, well-designed systems accountability, and fiscal responsibility . . . Enthusiasm, positive attitude, creativity, recognition, humor, commitment, support, passion, acceptance . . . Human life and human rights. TO C0LLECT SHARE AND CELEBRATE STORIES OF COURAGE TO INSPIRE EVERYONE TO STAND UP TO HATE.	https://www.pledge.to/organizations?cause=art-museums
About a month ago, on a Saturday afternoon, I had the pleasure to speak at the Families in Global Transition Annual Conference in the Netherlands. I led a cross-cultural talk for their Kitchen Table Conversations about what I believe is our responsibility to future generations: shaping our global human identity to one of unity, harmony, and collaboration. In order to achieve that, there are many questions we need to ask ourselves about what we believe to be true and the world as we know it. It is important that we reevaluate what we inherited from the past and look towards the future and the legacy of the global human identity we want to leave behind. Here are some questions I shared with attendees at the Kitchen Table Conversation: Is Latino a race? Does it matter? Although for many this seems like a silly question, it is one that gets asked a lot. Are women really a minority? Does skin color define your love of country? Does color -not place of birth- defines your origin? Is the country of your parents really your own, even when you are not growing there? I truly believe that finding sensible answers to these and other pressing questions is what’s going to help us change the way we view our experience on this planet. Let’s deconstruct race, for example. As per the Merriam-Webster dictionary, one of the definitions of the word race is ‘a category of humankind that shares certain distinctive physical traits,’ while ethnicity is defined by them as ‘a people having a common language, culture, and body of traditions’. Which simply means that these two concepts are tied to either biology or sociology. However, that being said, we must remember there is only one race, the human race. So, both of these terms are tied to social norms created by men at a time when the world was made up of monolithic societies, many of them based on imperialistic ideals. Both race and ethnicity were created to differentiate people and make colonizers superiors. Now, with globalization in full force, we see how these flawed ideas are creating contention and separation within countries. The lines have blurred as to who is local and who is foreign, and so our global human identity must change to adapt to the new realities. Cultural Diversity & The Global Human Identity That’s why it is important to examine the role that cultural diversity plays in shaping up the new global identity. The Second World Report issued by UNESCO 9 years ago defines cultural diversity as “the capacity to maintain the dynamic of change in all of us, whether individuals or groups.” I like this definition because, in order for all of us to benefit from the world diversity, we must be willing and open to the changes generated by our global mobility, as well as go through a collective process of healing the wounds of the past. Another question that is often in people’s minds is the following: Will one ethnic group ultimately impose a ‘mainstream culture’ as it has been up until now? Or, are we witnessing a transformation of our identity in its global scope? I believe the latter, but we must contribute our part to reduce the fear of the unknown, create more dialogue and make an effort to see each other in our humanity. As per the UNESCO’ Second World Report states, there are challenges in establishing a global human identity because “cultural diversity entails an ethical challenge, for different reasons. One is that there are differences in moral perceptions and moral judgments among cultures, and consequently a tension appears between moral universalism (universal ethical principles or standards) and moral-cultural relativism.” However, I agree with the report that cultural identity is “about innovation, creativity, and receptiveness to new cultural forms and relationships.” With that in mind, I believe it is possible to shift our tribal mindsets by embracing cultural diversity as the distinctive traits of our cultural background and experiences while at the same time, recognizing one another as a fellow human and examining the combined challenges we face with a spirit of collaboration. Attending the Families in Global Transition Conference reinforced my beliefs as I encountered a community of people committed to wonder and exploration based on respect and appreciation of other cultures. Realizing that my talk was part of a bigger conversation on global mobility and the challenges and responsibilities we have as we move around the world while our definition of home expands to the degree that we become citizens of the world, gave me great hope. During my talk, I shared my ideas on how to foster dialogue among people of diverse backgrounds and the tangible benefits of diversity in local, regional and global settings, and how cultural diversity is the way to more understanding, which the attendees understood well as they are some of the people doing the work on the ground with their lived experiences usually far from home. In a way, I felt I was preaching to the choir, and that was a breath of fresh air. Being on the other side of the world in a place with so many like-minded individuals proved to me that those of us who believe in peace, respect and understanding through our differences are many and growing, and that there is hope for future generations if we all do our part to change the ways of the past that don’t serve the human race and this home of ours called earth.	https://embracingdiversity.us/global-human-identity-cross-cultural-conversation/
When the issue of diversity has come up I’ve noticed that the concept has different meanings for people, depending on your ethnicity, your culture, your sexual orientation, your level of education, financial status, employment status, political affiliation, the community you live in, and how you’ve been raised among a myriad of other factors. Diversity: The quality or state of having many different forms, types, ideas, etc. : the state of having people who are different races or who have different cultures in a group or organization. My definition of diversity means being open to accepting and respecting the differences among people, cultures and perspectives. And by “differences” I mean the differences in characteristics, ideas, points of view, thoughts, dreams, goals, standards, gender, belief system (religion), etc. It means having a variety of people from other races and ethnicities together in the same environment working for the same goals. From my perspective, diversity promotes self-growth, enhances creativity, and learning among individuals that in turn helps the community as a whole. I think it’s important that we’re careful in the way we frame the concept of being culturally diverse. The fact is diversity extends far beyond merely race and culture. It encompasses a variety of dimensions of differences. It defeats the purpose if we find ourselves reinforcing stereotypes and promoting an “us versus them” mentality. But it is clear from the results of the recent election, that a large percentage of folks are questioning the benefits of living and working in a country that embraces diversity of race, ethnicity, gender and sexual orientation. It is also evident that a large percentage of folks feel like if their job, or neighborhood were to become “diverse“, it could cause discomfort, or encourage conflicts and other nonsensical problems. The sad fact is that as much as I would love to lay the blame for this kind of thinking at the feet of our newly elected President, the reality is this is a sentiment that many folks have been harboring for quite some time now. However, I do believe that many feel liberated and empowered to speak their truth, in words and actions, thanks in large part to our newly elected President, and all of the values and standards he espouses to live by. And then we have our education system. As parents, we should be asking if the schools are respectful and representative of the myriad of cultures that make up their student body. We have a responsibility to help shape the process that aids our kids with the formation of relationships with kids from other cultures. There can be no denying that a multicultural education, for our youth, is a necessary and vital component of a healthy community. Our kids are done a disservice when it is apparent that their school doesn’t respect diversity, while simultaneously teaching all students to become productive and participating members of society. How are they to accomplish this without exposure to other cultures? I truly believe this issue of cultural diversity must be introduced in the early years because that’s when attitudes about and understanding of race are being shaped. Kids need to understand the importance of respecting one’s individuality while promoting the respect for others! Those of us who work with kids know how crucial it is that our youth are exposed to racially and culturally diverse environments. The knowledge and social perspectives they stand to gain encourages the development of critical and complex thinking and reasoning skills. There also should be an emphasis on the importance of kids sharing their stories and consequently the learning that is gained from listening to the stories of others. By building positive and healthy peer influence, we will witness our kids begin to change negative attitudes, perceptions, and behaviors about diversity. If there is one thing that I have come to realize, it’s how important it is that we each take the opportunity to dialogue with someone from a culture different from our own. Gaining that type of insight encourages the interest in perspectives that differ from your own, and that ultimately leads to better decision making and problem solving. Simply adding social diversity to the agenda makes people believe that differences of perspective might exist among them and that belief makes people-in general- think about their words and/or behavior. Even simply being exposed to a diverse environment can change the way you think about situations and the way you perceive people. I’ve had the fortunate opportunity to dialogue with women and men from many different backgrounds, cultures and ethnicities, and I tell you what I have learned from each of them has been truly enlightening. And during these conversations I have had the chance to dispel some myths, shatter some stereotypes, and educate in some instances, about Black American culture and life here in the US, from the perspective of a Black Woman.	https://locz4lyfe.com/2016/11/17/what-is-the-true-definition-of-being-culturally-diverse/
THG Thankful Thursday! This week, we are thankful for diversity! Merriam Webster Dictionary defines diversity as: - The condition of having or being composed of differing elements: Variety, especially: the inclusion of different types of people (such as people of different races or cultures) in a group or organization i.e. programs intended to promote diversity in schools - an instance of being composed of differing elements or qualities: an instance of being diverse i.e. diversity of opinion This word is often tossed out as a buzzword for workplaces, communities, schools and civic groups. But why is it important? Diversity in our schools and community helps that community to have exposure to other ways of life, cultures, and traditions. It, over time, can lead to more tolerance for others, their choices, and their beliefs. It allows us the opportunity to understand, regardless of agreement. In the workplace, it gives birth to new ideas and new ways of looking at things. Diverse backgrounds bring a variety of experiences to play in brainstorming and problem solving. These options allow for innovation and progress. Is the goal of embracing diversity to make us a melting pot or a mosaic? It seems like a “melting pot” brings to mind a blending of identities. Treating diversity as a mosaic offers the opportunity to acknowledge our differences and celebrate what those differences bring to any given situation. The mosaic is far more beautiful with it’s variety and character. Today, let’s honor those differences and be thankful for those friends, neighbors and colleagues who bring their diversity to the tapestry of our experiences and lives.	https://www.livelovekchomes.com/blog/thg-thanksful-thursday/
As I’ve grown older, my tolerance for ambiguity and differences has increased. Ultimately, through time and experience I have come to understand why differences are so important. Diversity In the early 90’s I did organizational consulting engagements to develop self-directed work teams, and I’ve learned first-hand that a functional heterogenous team usually performs better than a homogenous team. From my work in the classroom I’ve learned that varying perspectives, world views, and backgrounds make for richer discussions. Diversity of thought and experience often creates more opportunity for people to connect in meaningful ways. Working with diverse groups can also yield better results. With different experiences and opinions, solutions may take longer and sometimes there are conflicts or tensions. However, the resulting product is generally higher functioning and more applicable . I think a good measure of societal maturity is how a community takes care of people on the fringe, of those different than themselves. Respecting diversity and welcoming people who may have a different background or perspective is may not always be easy, but it’s worth doing. DACA The United States has long been known throughout the world for one of its greatest assets – our higher educational system. The access, the research facilities, and ultimately the ability to create new discoveries and further humankind has been a defining characteristic of the American university system. Additionally, our Statue of Liberty, a gateway for many immigrants to this country, has this quote on it – “Give me your tired, your poor, your huddled masses yearning to breathe free.” The profundity of this statement, together with the nearly unparalleled caliber of our nation’s higher education system, brings us to the issue of DACA. The tensions around DACA are quite significant right now. If this crisis yields a more permanent solution, then it may in fact be for the better. But, it is important to recognize that all of those affected – whether it is students, their families, their extended families, or their friends – are all living in a time of tremendous tension and anxiety. My thought around DACA right now is wait and see, but do it with a tremendous amount of empathy for all of those who are negatively affected. TITLE IX As most of you reading this know, Title IX is not referring to a women’s athletic wear company. It has come to be associated with either providing equal sports opportunities in college for women, or with how schools handle sexual assault or sexual harassment on campus. However, if you peel back Title IX and get to its heart, it’s fundamentally about inclusion, access, and providing a safe environment for more people in a higher education environment. I find it sad that this has become a political ping pong ball and that we may lose the some of the benefits of what Title IX is intended to do. Random Gratitude This month I am grateful that my parents took us to live in another country for 6 years when I was growing up. From this experience, I was able to gain a broader appreciation of the world.	https://mindmax.net/ideas/three-thoughts-on-diversity-daca-and-title-ix-from-september/
Table of Contents What are the advantages of being a global citizen? Importance of Global Citizenship - Greater awareness of global issues and challenges. Through international experiences, individuals develop a greater awareness of the challenges faced by different parts of the world. - Broaden Horizons. - Develop knowledge and expertise. What is the role of global citizenship in globalization? A global citizen is someone who is aware of and understands the wider world – and their place in it. They take an active role in their community and work with others to make our planet more peaceful, sustainable and fairer. Global citizenship helps young people to: Build their own understanding of world events. What are the disadvantages of global citizenship? One major downside of being a global citizen means that one is less likely to promote the interests of one’s own country. What are some qualities of a global citizen? Global citizens are willing to help and cooperate with others. Global citizens have their own ideas and express them, but they are open to changing them if they are proved wrong. Global citizens are curious and want to learn more about the world. Global citizens look after the environment and don’t waste things. What it means to be a global citizen in the 21st century? Global citizenship, defined as the awareness of other cultures and contributing and working towards community improvements, is a primary characteristic of 21st century learning. Learning through experience is undoubtedly the most thorough way to partake in the global citizenship movement. What qualities should a global citizen have? If you are a global citizen, these nine characteristics should sound familiar to you. - Nº 9/ You Are Not One to Follow the Crowd. - Nº 8/ Ignorance Isn’t Bliss. - Nº 7/ You Always Keep an Open Mind. - Nº 6/ You Are Naturally Empathetic. - Nº 5/ You Crave Experiences — Not Possessions. - Nº 4/ You Are Not Short-Sighted. How can you play your role as a global citizen? Being open minded of several of different ways/ culture….Global Citizen - Living/residing in the world. - Being part of a group and being under a certain classification. - Be human and be diverse. - Being respectful of differences. - Knows that we co-exist with tons of other different culture and systems. What is the main responsibility of a global citizen? including respecting others, obeying rules and laws, and setting a good example to others. Global citizens feel a sense of responsibility to help when the rights of others are violated, no matter where in the world they live. difference. When individuals join with others, local action can create global change. What are the rights and responsibilities of a global citizen? GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP RESPONSIBILITIES. A global citizen, living in an emerging world community, has moral, ethical, political, and economic responsibilities. These responsibilities include: #1 Responsibility to understand one’s own perspective and the perspectives of others on global issues. What are the ethical obligations of a global citizen? The ethics of global citizenship have their potential value in education because they prepare learners to face the global issues and provide them with the necessary skills and ethical concepts, such as respect, empathy, cooperation and many other standards in order to create global ethical societies. What does it mean to be a global citizen reflection? “A global citizen is someone who identifies with being part of an emerging world community and whose actions contribute to building this community’s values and practices.” We must critically reflect on our unequal world to find ways to take responsible action. What it means to be a global Filipino? For others, it is the choices we have made in our lifetimes that have made us “global”: these are the documented and undocumented OFWs; permanent residents of another country; former Filipinos who renounced but subsequently reacquired Filipino citizenships. How do students become global citizens? Use the following tactics to make your students global citizens: - Empower your students as leaders and teachers. - Incorporate global stories into your curriculum. - Organize penpals for your class. - Apply for grants. - Take field trips. - Take time to reflect on the world around you. - Volunteer. How can we promote global awareness? 3 Creative Ways to Teach Global Awareness - Become consultants. Encourage students to learn about ecotourism. - Connect with new people. Do you want your students to interact with others across the globe and share their knowledge and learning with others? - Explore a new place. What is global awareness in the classroom? Global awareness in the classroom involves teaching students about different nations and cultures, as well as their civic duties and rights both locally and globally. The idea behind global awareness is to create global citizens who are open to those raised in different countries, cultures and religious settings. What makes a global teacher? GLOBAL EDUCATION AND THE GLOBAL TEACHER Global Teacher A GLOBAL TEACHER is a competent teacher who is armed with enough skills, appropriate attitude and universal values to teach students with both time tested as well as modern technologies in education in any place in the world. What does it mean to have a global perspective? A global perspective means being open to new ideas, issues and solutions. Often times, it even means being open to changing the way you do things if you find a new system that works better. It means being culturally sensitive and willing to learn from others. What is global perspective in healthcare? What is a global health perspective in nursing? It is the understanding that health and wellness issues transcend geographical and national borders; it is cultural competence and consciousness – having empathy, respect, and understanding of diverse populations; it is the drive to work together toward health equity. What are the skills that you need to develop in Cambridge Global Perspective Class? Cambridge Primary Global Perspectives is typically for students aged 5 to 11 years. This curriculum develops the skills of research, analysis, evaluation, reflection, collaboration and communication. How do you connect globally? 10 ways to create global connections… - Think small. Connect with a teacher you know (me for instance!). - Be inspired. Read about great global collaborations other teachers have made. - Connect asynchronously. - Sign up to Skype. - Make friends with your tech support people. - Make it relevant. - Let kids own it. - Consider the benefits. What are the basic assumptions of global citizenship? There are two basic assumptions of a global citizen: - First is there is a present change or growing global community which the people will later on use for them to identify. - Second is that community has a promising future for the global citizens. How do you describe yourself as a global citizen? For me, being a global citizen means thinking about more than yourself. It means realizing that we’re all connected to one another in this emerging global community. It means protecting the environment, uplifting the vulnerable and advocating for equality. Why must a global citizen think global and act local? As global citizens, we need to R 16;think global and act local’ to create sustainable change. This is key to Global Action Plan’s work. We support communities to live sustainable lifestyles by empowering them to make positive behaviour change and actions. Why do we need to be global digital citizens? Addressing the 21st century skill of digital citizenship is important; to help students to learn, communicate and collaborate safely and responsibly. Being a best digital citizen in the community includes having email etiquette, reporting and preventing cyber bullying, learning how to protect private information, etc. What is digital citizenship and why is it important? According to Digital Citizenship, digital citizenship is “how we should act when we are using digital tools, interacting with others online, and what should be taught to help the next generation be better stewards of this technology.” For schools and teachers, it is what and how we teach our students to interact with … Why is digital literacy important? This ability allows global citizens to interact and bond together for common goals. It also means that discerning authentic content is becoming harder to do. Those with good digital literacy skills will have the advantage of sharing ideas efficiently and knowledgeably filtering content. What does it mean to be a digital global citizen? Digital Citizenship: Digital citizenship means showing respect and responsibility for yourself, for others, and for property of every definition. For the global digital citizen, this means a concern for the well-being of the people with whom we share our world, and a desire to serve others. What does it mean to be a good digital citizen? A good digital citizen protects their personal information, uses good judgment and treats others with respect. Whether you’re posting on social media, sending an email or commenting on an online discussion, practicing good digital citizenship makes our online world a more welcoming place for everyone. What are the 9 themes of digital citizenship? The 9 elements of Digital Citizenship - Digital access. Although we live in a digital era, not everyone has access to technology. - Digital commerce. - Digital communication. - Digital literacy. - Digital etiquette. - Digital law. - Digital rights and responsibilities. - Digital health and wellness. What are 2 pillars of digital citizenship? Three principles of digital citizenship. Digital citizenship is a term used to define the appropriate and responsible use of technology among users. Three principles were developed by Mark Ribble to teach digital users how to responsibly use technology to become a digital citizen: respect, educate, and protect.	https://citiesthemagazine.com/what-are-the-advantages-of-being-a-global-citizen/
Creating a workplace where employees are engaged and collaboration comes easily is the dream of many managers. To achieve that, it is essential to nurture inclusion and embrace diversity. Plenty of research already backs up the fact that a more diverse workforce directly influences the bottom line. Companies with a more diverse executive team, for example, are significantly more likely to have higher profits, according to a 2018 McKinsey report. A more diverse workforce also helps solve two of the most pressing challenges facing businesses today – enabling enterprises to find the right people for the job and boosting their innovation efforts. Broadening the scope Before demonstrating the outcomes of having a diverse workforce, it is first important to examine what we mean by diversity. While the focus is often on race and gender, a truly inclusive workforce should also consider age, cultural norms, economic status and sexuality. Jill Ader, chair of Egon Zehnder, a global management consulting and executive search firm, told delegates at this year’s World Economic Forum at Davos that companies rarely consider sexuality in their inclusion policies. Yet a 2017 UNAIDS study estimated the global cost of LGBTI discrimination at $100 billion per year. Businesses have an important role to play in respecting and protecting human rights through the workplace inclusion of LGBTI people, according to the World Economic Forum’s Partnership for LGBTI Equality. And Ader says firms must create a safe space where people feel able to be themselves and where everyone is empathetic and curious about other people. While businesses are well aware of the gender gap, the disability gap is not given anywhere near as much attention, despite the fact that more than 1.3 billion people in the world live with some sort of disability – visible or not. At Davos, activist and humanitarian Edward Ndopu, one of 17 advocates for the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, spoke about the challenges of growing up with a disability. At the age of two, he was diagnosed with Spinal Muscular Atrophy and given just five years to live. He defied the prognosis, got a degree from Oxford University and is now aiming to be the first person with physical disabilities in space. Self-actualization and occupying positions of power is crucial, he believes, to enable people with disabilities to be part of the discourse in changing the globe. “We are graduating from the notion that [embracing diversity] just requires legal recognition. We are here and we’re going to break the doors wide open.” “I don’t want to underestimate the gains we have made, but we need cultural, social and economic recognition. The fight needs to include the totality of who we are as human beings.” Solving the talent problem Almost a third of senior leaders say finding talent is their most significant managerial challenge and Gartner says the emerging talent shortage is now the top emerging risk facing organizations. Left unchecked the talent shortage could result in $8.5 trillion in unrealized revenues by 2030. A diverse workforce where potential employment candidates can recognize similar people and feel they could fit in is key to attracting talent from a wider pool. At one panel at Davos, Jonas Prising CEO of Manpower Group said that the talent exists but that the problem lies in the lack of diversity in the hiring process: “We all need to work hard to remove bias and create a culture of conscious inclusion,” he explained. The first step on the road to attracting more diverse talent is recognizing the existing diversity within an organization, making sure that equal opportunities are promoted and given to all. At the same session, Finland’s prime minister Sanna Marin said female leaders should become the new normal. Marin said it needs to be seen as normal to have different generations and genders in power and it’s up to everybody to make sure that happens. It is not a ‘women’s issue’ she said but ‘a people issue’. However, there is still a long way to go: According to the Global Gender Gap Report 2020, it will take 100 years for gender parity to be reached at the current rate. Put simply, initiating a strategy for a diverse workforce gives companies a much wider pool of talent from which to pick, helping solve the talent crisis. Diversity drives innovation Alongside recruiting talent, the success of companies also rests on their ability to be innovative and embrace and use the abundance of resources – human capital, technology, and so on – to drive the business forward. Workplaces full of like-minded people are not the best recipe for driving new thinking and innovation. But when people come from diverse backgrounds they offer different perspectives. Not only will this help companies come up with innovative solutions, but it also ensures they create products that are aligned with the diverse customer base. Research has shown that people with diverse experiences and backgrounds are better at solving problems than homogeneous groups. This is not just because they have a broader base of information, but also because the differences force people to prepare better, anticipate different viewpoints and realize that finding a consensus will take effort. And a Forbes Insight survey of senior executives found overwhelming backing for the claim that a diverse and inclusive workforce is crucial to providing the different perspectives needed to power an innovation strategy. For instance, two years ago, toy company Mattel decided to launch a line of dolls that were going to be marketed to African-American girls. In order to ensure that the dolls were culturally sensitive, senior management enlisted the aid of Mattel’s African-American Employee Resource Group to advise and guide the marketing team through the launch of the product. Today, it is one of the company’s best-selling, minority-focused brands. A critical investment Diversity and inclusion has moved from a concern limited to HR professionals to one that sits on the board agenda. It is not a ‘nice to have’ but is a crucial part of building and operating a business that engages its employees and meets its customers’ needs. As Microsoft CEO Satya Nadella says, his company needs to “look like everyone and every organization in the world”. He believes that the difference in the way that people are brought up, their different backgrounds and cultures all influences the way they think and is crucial to what makes the company tick. About the author(s) Business & Technology Services TCS’ Business and Technology Services organization combines the power of business excellence with digital innovations to help enterprises and leaders be purpose-driven and performance-oriented, making the shift from shareholder value to stakeholder value. By harnessing the abundance of data, talent, connectivity and capital, B&TS helps leading companies around the world build ecosystems that fuel growth and innovation, foster collaboration and engagement across ecosystems, improve health, safety, and well-being, enabling empowerment and inclusivity, and driving sustainability and positive environmental impact.	https://www.tcs.com/finance-how-diversity-inclusion-transform-businesses-blog
The principles of belief and faith are purely intertwined, although not always co-dependent. After years of debate, scholars have but to attain one common recognition and definition of faith. Faith is a social and social system, and is centered on traditions, procedures and organizations. Although faith is actually a human build, it can be constructed around a god or a deity that individuals worship. Religion and perception in a same deity is exactly what delivers men and women with each other, and what makes all of them enhance and enlarge her forums. Yet, the thought of fait doesn’t fundamentally need to be associated with religion. The expression “faith” signifies commitment, trust and fidelity. Although the two concepts may seem similar, they truly are, indeed, profoundly different. What is trust? Religion try a peculiar feeling, and that is frequently difficult to present and determine. The idea of trust is linked towards concepts of count on and support – and it is, for that reason, frequently linked to faith. In this perspective, trust is defined as overall and full belief inside the deity plus in the intermediaries (priests, pastors, etc.). Generally in most religions, the deity try worshipped by communities which happen to be introduced collectively by inexpressible and indefinable sense of faith, rely on and abandonment. Any individual which ways a religion will question their trust (frequently for its entire life), because choosing to abandon rationality and empiricism to diving inside uncertainty and secrets of religion is an important action. Not every person has got the capability (and/or willingness) to concern their sets of thinking and maxims to embrace a unique truth (the deity). More scholars determine religion (particularly faith in a deity) as your own, mystical and individualistic experience, which can hardly go into terms which can hardly become rationalized. What exactly is faith? Although there isn’t any typical arrangement regarding the definition and main features of faith, the definition of usually describes a personal and social system, created by several men just who worship one common deity. Religions can be extremely different (i.e. monotheist, polytheist, animist, etc.) and will be characterized by different traditions and processes. Religious tactics could be veneration, initiations, matrimonies, funerals, prayer, ways, songs, rituals, sermons, sacrifices, community providers and lots of different aspects of a person’s life. Also, religions posses record, narratives, products, sacred locations, ethical and moral guidelines and symbols. People has actually always viewed deities, gods and supernatural power to give a meaning and objective alive, and also to understand the idea of demise (and of lifestyle after passing). Some of the primary (and the majority of usual) religions feature: - Christianism; - Islamism; - Buddhism; - Shintoism; - Taoism; - Confucianism; and - Hinduism. Faith try a supply of convenience for males and lady, nevertheless has additionally been (and continues to be) the foundation of issues, wars and differences between countries and social teams. Parallels between Religion and Faith As faith and faith become purely connected and certainly will become co-dependent, we could diagnose couple of parallels between the two. Without a doubt, in this case we are thinking about trust in the same way of spiritual trust – specific notion in a deity (or jesus) that may be shown through faith and its traditions and processes. A number of the primary similarities between faith and faith include: - The 2 ideas are co-dependent. Indeed, some religions are (and are also) developed on such basis as beliefs and religion, while trust is key aspect that delivers communities with each other and that holds the whole spiritual design; - Faith and religion include hardware that shape societies and personal structures (and vice versa). They have been important elements that define certain social organizations which enable people to find their particular identification within bigger communities; and - Religion and faith tend to be mutually reinforcing. A person’s expanding trust can strengthen the religious framework and create a stronger relationship around the people. At exactly the same time, a compelling spiritual debate can illuminated the spark of trust in certain people. Distinction between Trust and Faith Belief and religion include close, yet very different, principles. Religions tend to be historical and cultural methods that develop over time, while belief are an individualistic, individual sense of someone. Indeed, religion are contributed among others will start recognizing and believing in a few things/deities/procedures, but, typically, trust are a much narrower concept if in comparison to faith. A few of the biggest differences when considering the 2 include: Religion vs Religion: Evaluation Table Strengthening on the secret differences laid out in the last section, we can decide couple of some other functionality that differentiate religion and religion. Summary of Religion and Trust The ideas of trust and faith are strictly linked to each other and the notion of spirituality. While trust are your own and individualistic feelings – associated to believe and belief – which might prove difficult show, religion offers the terminology reveal what exactly is fundamentally inexpressible. While there are numerous various religions during the term, the concept of belief are common, and individuals usually make use of various religious practices (or different dialects) to convey similar ideas. Religion is dependant on rituals, general public service, art, audio, history, property and internet sites, while faith is usually resided and shown in a more private measurement. Religions were a social and social system, produced by boys who have been (whilst still being include) shopping for the meaning of life and for answers to worldwide questions. Religion gives the answers, and belief is the reason why men believe that those will be the best solutions.	https://cac-maranura.com/difference-between-belief-and-faith-the-ideas-of/
The concept Mass media and culture represents the subject, aboutness, idea or notion of resources found in Bates College. The Resource Mass media and culture Resource Information The concept Mass media and culture represents the subject, aboutness, idea or notion of resources found in Bates College. - Label - Mass media and culture - Authority link - http://id.loc.gov/authorities/subjects/sh94007034 ContextContext of Mass media and culture Subject of No resources found No enriched resources found - Abject performances : aesthetic strategies in Latino cultural production - Belief in media : cultural perspectives on media and Christianity - Big media, big money : cultural texts and political economics - Big media, big money : cultural texts and political economics - Celebrity/culture - Circuits of visibility : gender and transnational media cultures - Cool nations : media and the social imaginary of the branded country - Cosmopolitanism and the media : cartographies of change - Creativity and cultural production : issues for media practice - Crisis in the global mediasphere : desire, displeasure and cultural transformation - Critical studies in media commercialism - Digital matters : theory and culture of the matrix - Discourse theory and cultural analysis : media, arts and literature - Exploring the roots of digital and media literacy through personal narrative - Fans, bloggers, and gamers : exploring participatory culture - From kung fu to hip hop : globalization, revolution, and popular culture - Gender in the media - Global media apocalypse : pleasure, violence and the cultural imaginings of doom - Global media, culture, and identity : theory, cases, and approaches - Globalization, cultural identities, and media representations - Haunting hands : mobile media practices and loss - Hollywood planet : global media and the competitive advantage of narrative transparency - Illusions in motion : media archaeology of the moving panorama and related spectacles - In the company of media : cultural constructions of communication, 1920s-1930s - Keyframes : popular cinema and cultural studies - Language wars : the role of media and culture in global terror and political violence - Locating television : zones of consumption - Making sense of cultural studies : central problems and critical debates - Marshall McLuhan : cosmic media - Media and participation : a site of ideological-democratic struggle - Media and society - Media audiences and identity : self-construction in the fan experience - Media ethics : opening social dialogue - Media in a globalized society - Media scandals : morality and desire in the popular culture marketplace - Media solidarities : emotions, power and justice in the digital age - Media worlds : anthropology on new terrain - Media, communication, culture : a global approach - Media, culture and human violence : from savage lovers to violent complexity - Media, gender, and identity : an introduction - More : the vanishing of scale in an over-the-top nation - On media memory : collective memory in a new media age - OurSpace : resisting the corporate control of culture - Postcolonial masquerades : culture and politics in literature, film, video, and photography - Postcolonial studies meets media studies : a critical encounter - Practicing religion in the age of the media : explorations in media, religion, and culture - Production studies : cultural studies of media industries - Prophetic critique and popular media : theoretical foundations and practical applications - Residual media - Rethinking media, religion, and culture - Screen stories : emotion and the ethics of engagement - Sexual rhetoric : media perspectives on sexuality, gender, and identity - Slow media : why "slow" is satisfying, sustainable, and smart - Streams of cultural capital : transnational cultural studies - The Anthropology of media : a reader/ - The Paul Goodman reader - The World Wide Web and contemporary cultural theory - The cinematic life of the gene - The franchise era : managing media in the digital economy - The image of the twentieth century in literature, media, and society ; : selected papers [from the] 2000 conference [of the] Society for the Interdisciplinary Study of Social Imagery - The media and body image : if looks could kill - The new science of communication : reconsidering McLuhan's message for our modern moment - The panic virus : a true story of medicine, science, and fear - The production of modernization : Daniel Lerner, mass media, and the passing of traditional society - Through a screen darkly : popular culture, public diplomacy, and America's image abroad - Total propaganda : from mass culture to popular culture - Watching YouTube : extraordinary videos by ordinary people - Writing and materiality in China : essays in honor of Patrick Hanan - iPod, YouTube, Wii play : theological engagements with entertainment Embed Settings Select options that apply then copy and paste the RDF/HTML data fragment to include in your application Embed this data in a secure (HTTPS) page: Layout options: Include data citation:	http://link.bates.edu/resource/ALuOaq8e3LE/
This collection of essays offers thoughtful discussions of major challenges confronting the theory and practice of citizenship in a globalized, socially fragmented, and multicultural world. The traditional concept of citizenship as a shared ethnic, religious, and/or cultural identity has limited relevance in a multicultural world, and even the connection between citizenship and national belonging has been put in jeopardy by increasing levels of international migration and mobility, not to mention the pervasive influence of a global economy and mass media, whose symbols and values cut across national boundaries. Issues addressed include the ethical and practical value of patriotism in a globalized world, the standing of conscience claims in a morally diverse society, the problem of citizen complicity in national and global injustice, and the prospects for a principled acceptance by practising Muslims of a liberal constitutional order. In spite of the impressive diversity of philosophical traditions represented in this collection, including liberalism, pragmatism, Confucianism, Platonism, Thomism, and Islam, all of the volume’s contributors would agree that the crisis of modern citizenship is a crisis of the ethical values that give shape, form, and meaning to modern social life. This is one of the few edited volumes of its kind to combine penetrating ethical discussion with an impressive breadth of philosophical traditions and approaches. Chapters “What is the use of an Ethical Theory of Citizenship?” and “An Ethical Defense of Citizenship” are available open access under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License via link.springer.com. - About the authors - Dr David Thunder is a Research Fellow at the University of Navarra’s Institute for Culture and Society (Religion and Civil Society Project). Prior to this appointment, he held several research and teaching positions in the United States, including visiting assistant professor at Bucknell and Villanova and Postdoctoral Research Fellow in Princeton University’s James Madison Program. Dr Thunder earned his BA and MA in philosophy at University College Dublin, and his Ph.D. in political science at the University of Notre Dame. His research, which primarily engages the work of twentieth and twenty-first century political and moral philosophers, seeks to recover a more holistic and person-centered vision of human action and life in community with others, in the face of attempts by modern thinkers to isolate legal, economic, and political activity from broader concerns and values that affect the human person as such. Specific issues he has taken up in his writings include integrity and corruption in public life, our responsibilities toward the distant needy, the philosophical justification of human rights, and the challenge of building sustainable communities in individualistic cultures. In Citizenship and the Pursuit of the Worthy Life (Cambridge University Press, 2014), he makes the case that the modern separation between ethics and political morality is a dangerous error, and that democratic societies would be much better served by a more ethically integrated form of citizenship. Dr Thunder’s work has appeared in venues such as the American Journal of Political Science, - Table of contents (9 chapters) - - What Is the Use of an Ethical Theory of Citizenship? Pages 3-12 - Varieties of Citizenship and the Moral Foundations of Politics Pages 13-26 - Civic Motivation and Globalization: What Is It Like to Be a Good Citizen Today?	https://www.springer.com/us/book/9783319504148
For functinalists, society is a system of interrelated parts or social institutions, such as religion, the family and the economy. Society is like an organism, with basic pre-requistes that it must meet in order to survive. These needs are met by the different institutions. Each institution performs certain functions - that is, each contributes to maintaining the social system by meeting a need. Society's most basic need is the need for social order and solidarity so that it's members can cooperate. For functionalists, what makes order possible is the existence of value consensus - a set of shared norms and values by which society's members live. Without this, individuals would pursue their own selfish desires and society would disintegrate Durkheim on religion - sacred and profane For functionalists, religious instiutions play a central part in creating and maintaining value consensus , order and solidarity. The first functionalist to develop this idea was Durkheim (1858-1917) The scared and the profane For Durkheim the key feature of religion was not a belief in the Gods, spirits or the supernatural, but a fundemental part dinstinction between the sacred and the profane found in all religions. Sacred = things set apart and forbidden, inspire feelings of awe, wonder and fear, surrounded by taboos and prohibitions . Profane = things that have no special significance-things that are ordinary and mundane. furthermore, religion is never simply a set of beliefs. It also involves definite rituals or practices in relation to the sacred, and these rituals are collective - performed by social groups. The fact that sacred things evoke such powerful feelings in believers indicates to Durkheim that this is because they are symbols representing something of great power. In his view, this thing can only be for society itself, since society is the only thing powerful enough to command such feelings. When they worship the sacred symbols, they worship society itself. For Durkheim, although sacred symbols vary from one religion to another, they all perform the essential function of uniting believers into a single moral community. Durkheim on religion - Totemism - Studied Totemism among Australian Aboriginal clans in which the sacred totem represented different clans. - Religious symbols are simultaneously symbols of God and Society, and thus when people worship religion they are also ‘worshipping society’, religious symbols serve as a simplified representation of a more complex whole, reminded individuals that they are merely small and part of a much ‘bigger picture’. - Religion acts as a constraining (conservative) force: through religious worship (ceremonies) the ‘collective conscience’ is imprinted on the individual: they literally ‘feel’ the weight of the community on them. - Religion reinforces a sense of belonging and shared identity to society. Durkheim on religion - collective conscience In Durkheims view, the sacred symbols represent society's collective conscience. CC = Shared norms, values, beliefs and knowledge CC makes social life and cooperation between individuals possible - without these, society would disintegrate. Regular shared religious rituals reinforce the CC and maintain social integration. Participating in shared rituals binds individuals together, reminding them they are part of a single moral community to which they owe their loyalty. Such rituals also remind the individual of the power of society = without which they see themselves as nothing, and to which they owe everything. In this sense, religion also performs functions for the individual. By making us feel part of something greater than themselves, religion reinvigorates and strengthens us to face lifes trials and motivates us to overcome obstacles that would otherwise defeat us. Durkheim on religion - Cognitive functions of reli Durkheim sees religion not only as the source of social solidarity, but also of our intellectual or cognitive capacities - our abilities to reason and think conceptually. For example, in order to think at all, we need categories such as time, space, cause, substance, number ect. Secondly, in order to share our thoughts, we need to use the same categories as others. In Durkheim's view, religion is the origin of the concepts and categories we need for reasoning, understanding the world and communicating. The division of tribes into clans gives individuals their first notion of classification. Thus for Durkheim, religion is the origin of human thought, reason and science. Criticisms The evidence on toteism is unsound. Worsely (1956) notes that there is no sharp division between the sacred and the profane, and that different clans share the same totems. And even if Durkheim is right about totemism, this does not prove that he has dicovered the essence of all other religions. Durkheim's theory may apply better to small-scale societies with a single religion. It is harder to apply it to a large-scale societies, where two or more religious communities may be in conflict. His theory may explain social integration within communities, but not the conflicts between them. Similarly, postmodernists such as Mestrovic argue that Durkheim's ideas cannot be applied to contemporary society, because increasing diversity has fragmented the collective conscience, so there is no longer a single shared value system for religion to reinforce. Psychological functions Malinowski (1954) argrees with Durkheim that religion promotes solidarity. However inthis view, he believes it does this by performing psychological functions for individuals, helping them cope with emotional stress that would undermine social solidarity. Malinowski identifies 2 types of situation in which religion performs this role: 1) where the outcome is uncontrollable and thus, uncertain - in his study of the Islanders of the Western Pacific, Malinowski contrasts fishing in the lagoon and fishing in the ocean. - lagoon fishing - is safe, predictable = no ritual - ocean fishing - dangerous and uncertain = 'canoe magic' (rituals to ensure a certain and safe expedition, gives them a sense of control, easing tension, giving confidence for them to undertake hazardous tasks and reinforces social solidarity. He sees ritual serving as a 'god of the gaps' - it fills in the gaps in human being's control over the world, such as being unable to control the outcome of a fishing trip 2) At times of life crisis - birth, puberty, marriage and death are disruptive changes in social groups. Religion helps to minimise disruption. For example, the funeral rituals reinforce a feeling of solidarity among the survivors, while the notion of immortality gives comfort to the deceased by denying the fact of death. Malinowski argues that death is the main reason for the existence of religious belief Parsons; values and meaning Like Malinowski, Parsons sees religion helping individuals to cope with unforseen events and uncontrollable outcomes. In addition, Parsons identifies 2 other essential functions that religion performs in modern society. - It creates and legitimates society's central values - it is the primary source of meaning. Religion creates and legitimates society's basic norms and values by sacrilising them (making them sacred). An example of this, in the USA, Protestantism has sacrilised the core American values of individualism, meritocracy and self-discipline. This serves to promote value consensus and thus social stability. Religion also provides a source of meaning. In particular, it answers 'ultimate' questions about the human condition,such as why the good suffer and why some die young. Such events defy our sense of justice and make life appear meaningless, and this may undermine our commitment to society's values. Religion provides answers to such questions, for example by explaining suffering as a test of faith that will be rewarded in heaven. By doing so, religion enables people to adjust to adverse events or circumstances and helps maintain stability Civil Religion Like Parsons, Bellah is interested in how religion unifies society, especially a multi faith society like America. What unifies America is an overarching civil religion - a belief system that attaches sacred qualities to society itself.In the Americancase, civil religon is a faih in Americanism or the 'American way of life'. Bellah argues that civil religion integrates society in a way that no other religion can. While none of these can claim the loyalty of all Americans, civil religion can. American civil religion involves loyalty to the nation-state and a belief in God, both of which are equated with being a true American. It is expressed in various rituals, symbols and belief; such as the pledge of allegiance to the flag,singing the national athem,the Licoln Memorial. However,this is not a specifically Catholic, Jewish or Protestant God, but rather an 'American' God. It sacrilises the American way of life and binds together Americans from many different ethnic and religious backgrounds Functional alternatives Functional alternatives or functional equivalents to religion are non-religious beliefs and practices that perform functions similar to those of organised religion, such as reinforcing shared values or maintaining social cohesion. For example, although in America civil religion involves a belief in God, Bellah argues that this doesn't have to be the case. Some other belief system could perform the same functions. For example, Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union had secular (non-religious) political beliefs and rituals around which they sought to unite society. However, the same problem with the idea of functional alternatives is the same as with functional definitions of religion that we saw earlier. That is, it ignores what makes religion distinctive and different - namely, its belief in the supernatural evaluation of functionalism Functionalism emphasises the social nature of religion and the positive functions it performs, but it neglects negative aspects, such as religion as a source of oppression of the poor or women. It ignores religion as source of division and conflict, especially in complex modern societies where there is more than one religion – e.g. Northern Ireland. Where there is religious pluralism (many religions), it is hard to see how it can unite people and promote integration. The idea of civil religion overcomes this problem to some extent, by arguing that societies may still have an overarching belief system share by all, but is this really religion – especially if it is not based on belief in the supernatural?	https://getrevising.co.uk/revision-cards/chapter-one-theories-of-religion-functionalism
Statistics always only tell part of the story. Yes, religion is on the decline as evidenced by the British Social Attitudes survey which noted that 53% of all adults describe themselves as having no religious affiliation, up from 48% in 2015. Unsurprisingly this has ignited the secular society debate and many argue that the time has come for greater debate around the role of religion in society and question whether or not our political and religious institutions are out of touch with people’s real attitudes to faith and belief. Yet faith can be a positive influence for societies. It is important to tap into and celebrate how what we call lived faith can be channelled in a myriad of ways for common benefit. Indeed, amidst questions of how religious or not we are and how this feeds into the role of institutions in society, we should not forget the multitude of faith based projects going on to meet the needs of different communities – whether this be the need for food, for shelter, for spaces to pray, for communities to come together, for access to health serves, for language support, and much else besides. Many are small scale and little known. 3FF will be highlighting 70 such projects on 27th November at our inaugural Evening of Faith Recognition and Celebration in partnership with Her Majesty’s Greater London Lieutenancy. Having said this, we must not forget the importance of creating spaces in which difficult and challenging conversations can take place, including ‘the role of religion in society’. Such dialogue and discussion needs to be encouraged amongst all ages and at all levels of society. I have recently contributed a chapter to a new publication ‘We Need to Talk about Religious Education (RE)’. This chapter makes the argument that RE in schools offers one kind of safe space in which such questions can be explored, primarily because it offers the student the opportunity to connect discussion of societal issues with an understanding of the complexities of our own identities and that of others. More on this here. Another safe space, on offer this month, is the annual Interfaith Summit on 16th November run by the alumni of our ParliaMentors leadership programme . This year it will be at Tabacco Dock in East London and will bring together hundreds of mainly young people, with different faiths and beliefs, to explore issues of concern to them, including faith, gender and sexuality, faith in the media, and race and faith. Young people, whether at school, university or outside an education setting, need these spaces to voice their concerns and express their ideas. These may relate to the broad notion of religion in society. However, such a topic encompasses a wide array of issues that young people of religious faith and non-religious belief want to apply their curiosity and creativity to. So, let’s celebrate what we can all achieve through our different faiths and beliefs. Let’s also have the courage to have the difficult conversations we need to have about faith, belief and society. Both work together to improve social cohesion and the communities we share together.	http://www.3ff.org.uk/blog/changing-face-religion-belief-cause-dialogue-celebration/
There are multitudes of cultural differences between different societies of the world. We can easily say people of one society come from a background, distinct from the other. Therefore, they are bound to have different beliefs and engage in activities that do not coincide with the other. The world we live in is rich in several cultures and we are typically a part of many such cultures at the same time, either directly or indirectly. What brings people of distinct cultures together is popular culture or mass culture. It aims at forming a larger collective unit (i.e. a social group) and bringing a large number of heterogeneous people together, by using the high level of influential power it possesses. Popular culture is defined as “a set of practices, beliefs, and objects that embody the most broadly shared meanings of a social system”. Popular culture sets out to influence people belonging to different identities and establish a particular belief or practice that gains global recognition. Thus, it becomes a universal language that manages to connect us across racial, political, and social divides. It comprises, among other things, media, objects of pleasure and leisure, fashion and trends, and language conventions. It is beyond conventional ways of culture. Rather, it focuses on the soft power of things (i.e those which have the potential of making an impact on the whole generation, irrespective of their traditional outlook on practices). The connection between popular and mass culture leads to a focus on popular culture's role in the capitalist economy. From this economic perspective, popular culture is viewed as a collection of commodities produced mainly for for-profit motives and therefore sold to clients. According to one viewpoint, popular culture is a technique used by the elites to try to modify and control the consumption standards of the people on the ground by acquiring control of the mass media. It is claimed the elites use this culture to divert people's attention away from essential concerns to enjoy the benefits of the same. Through this, popular culture emerges as an arena of negotiation between the interests of dominant groups and those of subordinate ones. The other, opposition to this, is that it is a weapon used by the subordinate and lesser classes or groups to rebel against the dominating groups. This tradition saw popular culture as a culture emerging from authentic folk and the working class. Through this subculture perspective, popular culture is defined as a set of behaviors or trends by artists that result in performances are received and interpreted by audiences. Popular culture can be created through a variety of mediums, including movies, television shows, pop music, sports, books, radio, games and sports, the internet, and so on. Television is one of the major mediums of popular culture because of its wide reach. First, media professionals put into meaningful televisual discourse, their particular account of raw social events. In the moment of audience decoding, another range of ways of looking at the world is ‘in dominance’, i.e. those portrayed by the media. If the message has not been segmented, it has no effect. On the other hand, if the audience acts upon decoding, it has now become a new form of consumption. Films are part of our world today much as they inform us about our contemporary world. Different types of film genres set out different forms of popular cultures and ideologies in the minds of the viewers. For example, science-fiction films are very popular in today’s time. Science fiction films reflect both man's wild and moderate imaginations as he considers extraordinary scientific advancements such as the discovery of fires capable of destroying the entire earth. We can take the example of Marvel films where their different ‘heroes’ and characters have some supernatural powers that help them in saving humanity. Such films expand human vision and thought, and therefore they have attracted a considerable audience among both old and young people all over the globe. Social media and the internet are fast emerging as the major tool for establishing any popular culture in society. It has turned out to be influential for the people in terms of content and spreading ideas. It influences the type of music we listen to, setting fashion trends, and the type of dance form we watch and perform, among several others. TikTok and Instagram reels are good examples of setting popular trends on social media, be it in the fields of dance, music, fashion, or even the food we eat. TikTok dance trends and similar compilations have taken over the internet and traditional forms of dance have been replaced by them, especially for the younger generation and youth of not only one country, but the entire world. Celebrities also use social media for their promotional purposes and people enjoy their content as they get to consume more insights into the lives of their favorite celebrities. This is also turning into popular culture in today’s globalized world. The cultural experiences and attitudes are more accessible to the common people on the ground and that represent mainstream society are referred to as popular culture. Unlike high culture, most individuals are aware of and have access to popular culture. The first and most basic consequence of pop culture is how it fosters and strengthens relationships with others who share similar interests. The wide range of representation in pop culture's numerous genres helps individuals grow and become more inclusive. It is indisputable that popular culture has aided in the realization of the concept of "global society" by providing a common topic of discussion for individuals all over the world. It has widened the scope of globalization even more. People are proven to be adaptable to a variety of cultures. It demonstrates that interaction between different cultures around the world enriches culture. As a result, globalization is not a disintegrative but an integrative process.	https://thesocialtalks.com/blog/the-era-of-popular-culture/
Chapter 1. Introduction: From Mediation to Mediatization Chapter 2. Mediatization: A New Theoretical Perspective Chapter 3. The Mediatization of Politics: From Party Press to Opinion Industry Chapter 4. The Mediatization of Religion: From the Faith of the Church to the Enchantment of the Media Chapter 5. The Mediatization of Play: From Bricks to Bytes Chapter 6. The Mediatization of Habitus: The Social Character of a New Individualism Chapter 7. Epilogue - Mediatization: Consequences and Policies References Index Stig Hjarvard, PhD, is Professor and Vice-Chair at the Department of Media, Cognition and Communication at the University of Copenhagen, Denmark. He has published books and articles on journalism, media and globalization, media and religion, media history and mediatization theory. He is editor of the journal Northern Lights and of the English language books News in a Globalized Society (2001) and Media in a Globalized Society (2003). 'Stig Hjarvard has through the last decade been a leading scholar in the emerging research on mediatization of culture and society. In this book he synthesizes his theory and makes his extensive work accessible in one English volume. He refines his institutional approach to changes in the media and in social and cultural areas that more and more take on media forms' - Knut Lundby, Professor of Media and Communication, University of Oslo, Norway. 'In this noteworthy book, Stig Hjarvard redirects theories about the power of media. Hjarvard reveals a complex and vital picture of how contemporary societies are transforming themselves under conditions of high modernity.' - Gaye Tuchman, Professor of Sociology, University of Connecticut, USA. 'Mediatization is one of the most inspired innovations in contemporary media studies, and Stig Hjarvard provides essential reading for the road ahead.' - Mark Deuze, Associate Professor, Indiana University, USA.	https://www.fishpond.com.au/Books/Mediatization-of-Culture-and-Society-Hjarvard-Prof-Stig/9780415692373
Position Focus: Reporting to the Associate Director of Organizational Effectiveness and Organizational Development (OESD), the Sr. Organizational Development Consultant will build programs and talent management tools that enhance the organizational and individual capabilities of staff at Yale in alignment with HR and operational strategy. In addition, serving as an internal consultant, the successful incumbent will provide organizational development services to Yale Departments based on research, best practices, and project management expertise to support the achievement of organizational goals through human resources systems and tools, including learning and development, leadership development, talent and succession planning, performance management, individual development and change management. The Sr. Organizational Consultant will have senior-level experience building a “learning organization” and aligning organizational structure and processes to influence employee behavior, motivation, and performance. This is an exciting opportunity to develop and work with all levels of leaders across Yale’s campus to enhance Yale’s talent management capabilities and to grow the organizational capabilities of management and union staff. Essential Duties: 1. Designs and recommends organizational development strategies, initiatives, programs and interventions in support of the enterprise business strategy. 2. Anticipates organizational impacts of current and future business strategies and develops/provides advice, action plans and interventions to minimize risk and increases organizational performance. 3. Leads the development of organizational and individual effectiveness/performance assessments and the development of recommendations that enable proactive management of business and people issues and risks. 4. Provides Best Practice Organizational Development and Design models and methodology as well as useful applicable research. 5. Identifies, assesses and diagnoses client problems and issues, including data gathering, research and data analysis. 6. Partners with, includes and/or interacts with other HR staff and directors to increase effectiveness and collegiality. 7. Provides leadership in change management and transformation by consulting on and developing strategic and tactical approaches and practices. 8. Provides a broad range of consultative services to all levels of employees. 9. Facilitates select forums and meetings to foster organization learning. 10. May supervise other staff. 11. Performs other duties as assigned. Required Education and Experience: Master’s Degree in Organizational Development, Human Resources, Psychology, or a related field and a minimum of six years of experience or an equivalent combination of education and experience. Required Skill/Ability 1: Demonstrated ability working with all levels of management, assessing needs, diagnosing workforce challenges and creating appropriate interventions to enhance individual and organizational effectiveness in support of strategic goals. Required Skill/Ability 2: Demonstrated proficiency with OD principles and tools, such as strategic planning, organizational analysis, needs assessment, cultural assessment, organizational design, goal setting, instructional design, optimizing performance, and expert facilitation. Required Skill/Ability 3: Demonstrated ability managing OD projects i.e. process improvement interventions, team effectiveness initiatives, leadership program course development and delivery, assessment and coaching. Ability to identify best practices and lessons learned into future program planning. Ability to spot future organizational trends and proactively readjust, as necessary. Required Skill/Ability 4: Demonstrated ability providing leadership, coaching and guidance for talent management processes such as performance management, leadership and staff development, developmental 360, coaching, and individual development planning. Required Skill/Ability 5: Demonstrated ability to develop and utilize HR metrics to identify organizational trends, perform data analysis and develop strategies to monitor and measure effectiveness of progress. Preferred Education, Experience and Skills: Experience implementing change management principles and theories, talent management programs via technology solutions. Understanding core functions of human resources management and OD solutions integration. Strong project management and planning skill. Experience with current OD principles, practices, and trends in leadership and management; experience in a University setting. Drug Screen: No Health Screening: No Background Check Requirements: All candidates for employment will be subject to pre-employment background screening for this position, which may include motor vehicle, DOT certification, drug testing and credit checks based on the position description and job requirements. All offers are contingent upon the successful completion of the background check. For additional information on the background check requirements and process visit “Learn about background checks” under the Applicant Support Resources section of Careers on the It’s Your Yale website. COVID-19 Vaccine Requirement: Thank you for your interest in employment at Yale University. Please also note that the university has a COVID-19 vaccination and booster requirement for all students, staff & faculty which is described in the COVID-19 Vaccine Program. As you search our open positions, you will see that all postings list their on-site addresses which gives more detail on the on-campus work location of the role. Posting Disclaimer: The intent of this job description is to provide a representative summary of the essential functions that will be required of the position and should not be construed as a declaration of specific duties and responsibilities of the particular position. Employees will be assigned specific job-related duties through their hiring departments. To apply, visit https://sjobs.brassring.com/TGnewUI/Search/home/HomeWithPreLoad?partnerid=25053&siteid=5248&PageType=JobDetails&jobid=1568749 Yale is a tobacco-free campus. Copyright ©2022 Jobelephant.com Inc. All rights reserved. Posted by the FREE value-added recruitment advertising agency jeid-dd3984df4ce06146a4ca2ed8f32c46fd Job Information - Job ID: 66630081 - Workplace Type: On-Site - Location:	https://www.mmalumni.net/sr-organizational-development-consultant-yale-university-new-haven-ct/
Closed or Expired Job Posting This job posting is closed or has expired and is no longer open for applications. Upload Riyadh, Saudi Arabia Posted 2021/04/28 14:24:09 Ref: JB1100009341 Job Description Key Accountabilities - Develop plans and operation KPIs for the unit ensuring successful and effective implementation under the approved budget and provide the relevant completion reports; to achieve the Unit’s Strategic Plan. - Follow-up with the emerging technologies relevant to the Unit to facilitate, increase the efficiency and effectiveness of work and improve the level of the provided services. - Develop frame work, approach and policies for the Cybersecurity Risk Management at GAC in accordance with the global best practices and Information Security Risk Management Standards (ISO 27005, ISO 31000) and ensuring the effective and efficient implementation; to ensure coherence and consistency in the execution of relevant activities and practices. - Develop the Risk Management strategy to include types and levels of acceptable cybersecurity risks, review and enhance it regularly to protect the Information Technology systems and data that support GAC. - Establish plans and timeframes for assessing cybersecurity risk at GAC to manage risk assessment activities and develop mitigation strategies. - Support, advice and guide the organizational Units at GAC to increase awareness on the importance of Managing Cybersecurity risks and disseminate a positive culture about the types of risks - Supervise the operations and impact analysis procedures on workflow to identify operations and critical assets and engaging in recovery strategies after crisis to ensure business continuity . - Assess GAC’ ability in addressing current and potential risks to provide appropriate recommendations for finding new procedures or changing the current ones in order to meet all the organizational Cybersecurity requirements. Skills ualification: - Bachelor Degree in Cybersecurity, Computer Systems, Information Systems or Systems Engineering. - Minimum of 8 years of experience in Cyber Security Risk Management field - Holders of the following Professional Certificates are preferred: - Certified Information System Security Professional - Certified Cloud Security Professional - Certified in Risk and Information Systems Control Skills: - Work under pressure and meet deadlines. - Excellent communication and reporting skills. - Proficiency-Level of English skills. - Multi-tasking capability. Important Notes: Up to date CVs must be attached to applicants' profiles.	https://careers.gac.gov.sa/en/saudi-arabia/jobs/risk-management-unit-head-cyber-security-1100009341/
...The Role of Leadership in Shaping Organizational Culture Douglas E. Kronk Walden University Abstract Leadership’s role in shaping a healthy organizational climate has many facets. Both leadership and organizational culture are difficult concepts to define, as many researchers have chosen to define each in various ways. For the purposes of this paper, I examine leadership as a process that guides both leaders and followers to a common goal, that being a shared culture that binds the members together in a healthy and productive climate. I present several leadership factors that play an important role in shaping a healthy organizational culture. The Role of Leadership in Shaping Organizational Culture One of the most critical roles of a leader is to create and maintain a healthy culture in his or her organization. This needs to happen at all levels of an organization, so the responsibility rests with all levels of leadership, from the most senior executives down to the first line supervisor. Culture represents the organization’s personality and has a critical influence on both employee satisfaction and organizational success. While every organization has a culture, it is often misunderstood by the members of the organization due to various interpretations between departments or divisions, both laterally and hierarchically.... Words: 2317 - Pages: 10 ...The Role of Leadership in Shaping Organizational Culture Paetha Michele Thompson Walden University The Role of Leadership in Shaping Organizational Culture Organizational culture is viewed as the “glue” that holds companies together or the foundation the company is built on. According to Schneider, Ehrhart, and Macey (2013) they stated, organizational culture may be defined as “the shared basic assumptions, values, and beliefs that characterize a setting and are taught to newcomers as the proper way to think and feel, communicated by the myths and stories people tell about how the organization came to be the way it is as it solved problems associated with external adaptation and internal integration” (p. 362). To further define, BusinessDictionary.com (2015) defined organizational culture as, “the values and behaviors that contribute to the unique social and psychological environment of an organization”. Leaders must have the ability to establish a culture in which the company is respected in society, and it is through the use of leadership the culture of the organization is passed to employees and the customers it serves. Diversity is another important factor of culture as having a diverse group allows for a variety of ideas to ensure innovation.... Words: 2879 - Pages: 12 ...Examining the effect of leadership behavior and organizational culture on knowledge management Introduction: From 1993 knowledge was an important economic resources and to gain the competitive advantage organization should have emphasis on knowledge. Now a day its knowledge based economy in which knowledge based organizations have focus on the process of knowledge management which is knowledge creation, knowledge acquiring/learning, knowledge sharing and knowledge transferring. Organizational knowledge has two types tacit and explicit knowledge. Tacit knowledge basically subjective and experiential based which cannot be express in words while explicit knowledge based on objective and rational knowledge which can be express in words. According to Maggie Haines, NHS Acting Director of KM “Knowledge management is a process that emphasizes generating, capturing and sharing information know how and integrating these into business practices and decision making for greater organizational benefit.” Leaders play important and significant role in developing and maintenance the culture in an organization. An effective leader should be have understanding of organizational culture so that they can implement knowledge management effectively (S.K. Sharma & A. Sharma, 2010). Organizational culture means believe and value structure in an organization. We have taken two approaches of leadership; transformational and transactional leadership behavior.... Words: 2324 - Pages: 10 .... \| APPENDIX \| \| ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between leadership style and organizational culture towards employee satisfaction. The roles of leader and organizational culture haveexpanded over time and cover wide spectrum of the organization. Employees’ satisfaction also enhances a new identity in the current organization. A set of... Words: 13433 - Pages: 54 ...The subsequent analysis of leadership and organizational culture will attempt to discuss several mechanisms of leadership, and the role leadership plays in shaping the culture of an organization. Leadership and Organizational Culture Defined To ensure that members of the organization are appropriately equipped with pertinent knowledge to aid in the success of an organization, it is necessary for them to know and comprehend the meaning of leadership and organizational culture. Although there are numerous definitions of leadership, a comprehensive classification is that... Words: 1911 - Pages: 8 ...It is possible that at least certain aspects of leadership and organizational culture, and its impact on KM practices emerge with some kind of time lag. A longitudinal treatment of data might yield additional insights into the impact of leadership behaviors and organizational culture. This study was also unable to actually observe managers interacting with followers. Practical implications – The results of the study are generally consistent with theoretical predictions based on extant research. Originality/value –... Words: 6851 - Pages: 28 ...There is a direct relationship between organizational culture and performance. In some organizations, the organizational culture results in high level... Words: 1628 - Pages: 7 ...The correlation between independent variables of transformational, transactional and passive/avoidant leadership styles and the dependent variables of transformational and transactional OC, and OEO variables of effectiveness, satisfaction, and extra effort were examined. Data was collected on leadership styles and organizational effectiveness outcomes by using Bass and Avolio’s Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ-5X-Short) and the Organizational Description Questionnaire (ODQ). Leader/manager leadership styles were compared with organizational culture and organizational effectiveness outcome. This... Words: 18315 - Pages: 74 ...Management is the only way to control human beings The management is not only the only contributor in managing people, it means that they are liable for the work and performance of others, the success of management very much dependable on the performance of the team or performance of an employee. It is the responsibility of the managers to closely observe and monitor the behavior of an employee and evaluate the people on the basis of their performance, capabilities and attitude towards the work. I am Controlling the employees through Management control can be defined as a regular effort to evaluate performance to prearranged principles i.e. SOP is defined in each and every organization and the management is controlling their staff through the predetermined polices which are written in the SOP .The role of the management is to compare the employee performance with the rules, regulation and polices defined in the SOP. Other than SOP, my Management can adopt different strategies to control the employees i.e. giving high rewards to increase the performance of the employees, recognize them publicly to give motivation, confront the employee in a professional manner. Providing employees the deadlines to change their behavior towards the job and follow the employee and giving them caution such as demotion, termination and suspension. I as employee is paid to get my job in a good manner, offering the incentive will bring a change in the employee behavior, which Is a positive... Words: 1506 - Pages: 7 ....…8 The Organizational Behavior (OB) of Apple Inc………………………….….....8 The Organizational Development (OD) of Apple Inc…………………….……..9 The Organizational Effectiveness (OE) of Apple Inc……………………………9 Effects of Conflict on the OB, OD, and OE of Apple Inc…………………...…..10 Benefits and Weaknesses of Motivation used by Apple Inc…………………..…11 Impact of Culture, Leadership Style and Motivational Style in the Firm………11 Recommendations………………………………………………………..………13 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………..……14 Bibliography…………………………………………………………………...…15 References………………………………………………………………...………17 THE IMPACT OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR ON ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND EFFECTIVENESS Introduction Organizational behavior (OB) is the study of activity as well as the performance of an individual or as a group in an organization. It is concerned with examining human behavior in an environment of work and determining the impact of these human behaviors on the structure of job, communication, leadership and performance. It consists of two theories which show how firms view it, namely: internal perspective and external perspective. Internal perspective theory of organizational behavior embraces the idea of first understanding the personal values, feelings and thoughts of a person so as to apprehend the individual in a company environment.... Words: 3763 - Pages: 16 ...House Peter W Dorfman Societal Cultures Societal Culture and Organizational Culture Culture and Societal Effectiveness Culture and Leadership Leadership Profiles of Cultural Clusters Culture Dimensions and... Words: 1771 - Pages: 8 ...This internal satisfaction in employees can only be achieved under motivating leadership of the company. This overall sets the work culture in the firm. If a firm fails to provide motivating leadership employees would suffer from internal dissatisfaction. However there are other factor such as interpersonal relationship, working conditions and regulations. Due to positive leadership and organizational culture leads to better utilizations... Words: 1961 - Pages: 8 ...It explains the understanding of interaction between cultural influences on organizational leadership and the impact of societal culture and industry on organizational cultures. The research methodology section states that prior research in the area provides the foundation for GLOBE’s investigation of the influence of selected cultures on leadership and organizational behavior, especially Hofstede’s 1980 monumental study. In this study, leader acceptance and effectiveness are the dependent variables and... Words: 790 - Pages: 4 ...Understand the relationship between organizational structure and culture: 2 1.1 Compare and contrast different organizational structure and cultures: 2 1.2 Explain how the relationship between an organization’s structure and culture can impact on the performance of the business: 4 1.3 Discuss the factors which influence individual behavior at work: 4 2. Understand different approaches to management and leadership: 5 2.1 Compare the effectiveness of different leadership styles in different organizations: 5 2.2 Explain how organizational theory underpins the practice of management: 5 2.3 Evaluate the different approaches to management used by different organizations: 6 3. Understand ways of using motivational theories in organizations 7 3.1 Discuss the impact that different leadership styles may have on motivation in organizations in period of change: 7 3.2 Compare the application of different motivational theories within the workplace: 8 3.3 Evaluate the usefulness of a motivation theory for managers: 9 4.... Words: 3641 - Pages: 15 ...This success can be primarily attributed to the strong organizational structure—including its organizational culture and corporate values—that is grounded in the company vision and imbedded in the execution of the company’s mission throughout all levels. While the company has had issues of internal conflicts and ineffective leadership; nevertheless, the organizational structure of good sport has not been a stumbling block impeding upon progress. As a result, Good Sport can be considered a stable and thriving company—even in the midst of leadership and/or organizational change. This paper will further describe the organizational structure of Good Sport and examine its cultural environment—to include a description of the subcultures of two of its department. The analysis will include a look at the departmental leadership—examining the effectiveness and influence over these groups. Finally, this paper will provide a hypothetical “best” leadership style and suggested change management strategies to be employed if Good Sport were to implement a major change initiative in the company. Good Sport: Organizational Structure and Culture Organizational Structure The manner in which an organization is structured can be critical to the success of a company. The paradigm,...	https://www.termpaperwarehouse.com/essay-on/Organizational-Culture-and-Leadership/258858
\|Description\|\|Employee Training and Development at Centennial College will focus on the premise that people are the most valuable asset of an organization. As such, you will learn how to ensure an organization achieves its goals and objectives while employees fulfill their career potential. \| Because one of the mandates of the human resources department is to develop and administer policies, practices and procedures to provide for the effective training and development of employees, you will partake in both lectures and practical activities that will give you expertise to carry out these important tasks. Additionally, you will gain an understanding of the skills required to assess employee training needs, design and administer employee training and development programs, and evaluate both the efficiency and effectiveness of such programs. The Employee Training and Development course will be comprised of three assignments (individual presentation, training trends in the Canadian workplace and a training practicum during which you will design a lesson plan and deliver a 30 minute training session), a mid-term test, and a final exam that will include all material covered, discussed and/or noted on the course outline. Once you complete the course, you will be able to: • Assess the broader context within which training and development activities occur and the factors that impact the function, both within and outside of the organization; • Position, manage and market the training function effectively to internal and external clients and/or stakeholders, including responding to requests for proposal; • Present the findings of an accurate training needs assessment and/or analysis; • Design and deliver training and development programs, assessing pros and cons of various training methods then utilizing a variety of approaches including off- and/or on-the-job training methods; • Identify, critique and demonstrate methods to improve the positive transfer of learning; • Identify elements that enhance or detract from, and design effective organizational development initiatives and career development programs; • Evaluate (using multiple levels of analysis) the effectiveness of training and development initiatives and programs, and report on conclusions and recommendations; • Calculate the cost of training initiatives and return on training investment accurately, and report on conclusions and recommendations; • Demonstrate engagement in critical reflective practices. \|Notes\|\|Prerequisite: Human Resources Management HRMT-301 or permission of the department. \| Required course for the following outside certifications: HRPA of Ontario This course is offered in both CE and Distance Learning formats. For further information regarding Distance Learning, visit www.centennialcollege.ca/dl or email [email protected].	https://db2.centennialcollege.ca/ce/coursedetail.php?CourseCode=HRMT-312
4. Critically assess the role of leadership in delivering organizational efficiency and capacity through the development of human capabilities World Class Professional Skills Assessed This assignment will help to develop your ability to link theory and practice, reach conclusions that demonstrate your understanding of how management behaviour influences organizational performance and assess your understanding of sustainability in relation to renewing organizations. PLO 1: Apply critical thinking to the analysis of situations, draw appropriate conclusions and make recommendations for action PLO 3: Apply a critical and reflective awareness of sustainability and ethical issues Task Using the Unilever as your case study organization write a report of 4000 (+/- 10%) words (excluding the Executive Summary) which answers the question below To what extent do the structure, culture and leadership of Unilever encourage long-term sustainable performance such that the organization may survive and prosper in a global knowledge economy? This task requires you to analyse the internal environment of Unilever and measure the level of congruence/harmony it displays with the external environment – i.e. the global knowledge economy. You may consider any of its global operations or you may wish to focus on UK & Ireland. Whichever level of analysis you wish to conduct you must identify the scope of your discussion when outlining the purpose and objectives of your Report. You need to consider structure, culture, and leadership in relation to whether they are likely to enable the longterm survival of the organization. In other words are the practices likely to deliver sustainable performance. Since we 2 CMSO ASSIGNMENT 2 GUIDANCE are operating in a global knowledge economy, the context in which the organization is operating must be taken into consideration. So, evaluation must assess whether current practices enable the organization to respond effectively to the factors driving a knowledge economy – capacity for learning, innovation, speedy decision-making, responsiveness to customers/ employees etc. Is it in a fit state to maximise opportunities for innovation and therefore enhance competitiveness. As a minimum you should access the appropriate corporate web site where a range of material can be found about their purpose, principles and values, innovation and their approach to approach to sustainability. https://www.unilever.co.uk/ https://www.unilever.com A suggested resource list can be found on page 6, which lists a range of web sites that have information about Unilever plus a number of Harvard Business Review references. This is by no means an exhaustive list and you should explore beyond this You must be selective in the use of the material – remember you need to create a critical discussion and should avoid being overly descriptive.	https://essayshaven.com/cmso-assignment-2/
We are pleased to release the new A Playbook for CIO-Enabled Innovation in the Federal Government, by Gregory S.Dawson, Arizona State University, and James S.Denford, Royal Military College of Canada. Innovation plays a key role in government transformations at all levels. Over the past several years, governments have increasingly established chief technology officers, chief innovation officers, chief data officers, entrepreneurs-in-residence, and similar roles to promote new approaches to innovation. The Obama Administration has moved forward with an innovation agenda driven by new offices including the US Digital Service in the Office of Management and Budget, Presidential Innovation Fellows, 18F in the General Services Administration, and Digital Services offices in individual agencies. Because many innovations are rooted in the use of technology, agency Chief Information Officers (CIOs) have a strong role to play in the innovation ecosystem as well. The successful application of CIO-enabled innovation within the federal government offers a sustainable way to improve the effectiveness, efficiency and performance of government while often also reducing costs. For this report, the authors interviewed nearly a dozen senior leaders, most of whom currently or recently served as Federal CIOs in a wide range of federal agencies. The report identifies how these leaders undertook technology innovation initiatives, such as moving agency operations to a cloud environment, or upgrading technology in the global environment of an international agency. The authors then distilled a series of findings and recommendations for how CIOs could enable innovation. Among the findings are that CIOs recognize the value of innovation and have participated in a larger innovation ecosystem to make real progress, and that agency leadership can foster an innovation-oriented culture. From the analysis and based on these findings, the authors make five recommendations for federal agencies to stimulate innovation within their organizations: - involve key participants in the innovation lifecycle - assess current and desired levels of innovation maturity - create a formal process for enabling innovation within the agency - foster a culture and space for experimentation - identify and implement appropriate metrics We hope this report helps CIOs and other stakeholders to foster innovation that enables federal agencies to meet their organizational mission more effectively and efficiently, and capitalize on innovation that can better serve citizen needs.	https://www.govloop.com/community/blog/cios-can-enable-innovation/
e-Participation platforms for policy deliberation have been sought to facilitate more inclusive discourse, consensus building, and effective engagement of the public. Since many internet governance deliberations are global, distributed, multistakeholder and often not formally binding, the promise of e-participation platforms is multiplied. Yet, the effectiveness of implementation of such platforms, both in traditional and multistakeholder policy deliberation, is up for debate. The results of such initiatives tend to be mixed and literature in the field has criticized excessive focus on technical solutions, highlighting the tension between expectations and actual outcomes. Previous research suggests that the utility and effectiveness of these platforms depends not only on their technical design features, but also on the dynamic interactions of technical choices with community or organizational practices, including “politics of participation” (i.e., the power relations among stakeholders and the dynamics of their interactions). We argue the importance of unpacking the interactions between technical capacities, and organizational practices and politics in emergent e-participation tactics for internet governance deliberations. To better understand the tension between expectations and outcomes of e-participation tools in internet governance deliberations, and to unpack the practices and politics of participation, we offer a case study of ICANN’s use of the IdeaScale platform to crowdsource multistakeholder strategies between November 2013 and January 2014. To the best of our understanding this is one of the first empirical investigations of e-participation in internet governance. This is an ongoing project, building on our own previous work presented at CHI 2016 on the impacts of crowdsourcing platforms on inclusiveness, authority, and legitimacy of global internet governance multistakeholder processes. Empirically, we draw on interviews with organizers and users of the ICANN IdeaScale implementation (currently underway), coupled with analysis of their activity on the platform. Conceptually, we draw on crowdsourcing and e-participation literature and apply Aitamurto and Landemore’s (2015) five design principles for crowdsourced policymaking processes and platforms to evaluate ICANN’s system-level processes and impacts of the IdeaScale platform design on participant engagement, deliberative dynamics, and process outcomes. Our paper will conclude with design recommendations for crowdsourcing processes and technical recommendations for e-participation platforms used within non-binding, multistakeholder policy deliberation forums.	https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2944371
1 - 10 of 10 Results Date: The Rapid gender analysis seeks to draw attention to the gender dynamics in the war in Ukraine—both preexisting and emerging—and draws out recommendations for humanitarian leadership, actors and donors to ensure consideration of the gendered dimensions of risk, vulnerability and capabilities in response and preparedness to this crisis. Gender-inclusive peace processes: Strengthening women’s meaningful participation through constituency building Date: This report on the proceedings of the global conference “Gender-inclusive peace processes: Strengthening women’s meaningful participation through constituency building” explores current challenges, best practices, and recommendations on how best to leverage the practice of constituency building to further gender-inclusive peace. Date: The impact of gender inequality on the HIV response efforts is widely acknowledged, yet, efforts to rectify this are lagging. UN Women, with the United Nations University International Institute for Global Health, convened an Expert Group Meeting on financing for gender equality in the HIV response and commissioned seven discussion papers to identify existing gaps and map recommendations for action. Date: This research explores the causes of the under-investment in gender-inclusive peace in conflict and post-conflict settings and the significant gaps in financing that make the implementation of Women, Peace and security commitments more difficult. This paper focuses on the three case studies of Colombia, Iraq, and the Philippines. Date: This meta-synthesis brings together evidence from evaluations of UN Women’s organizational effectiveness and efficiency outputs. In addition to highlighting progress, the synthesis captures commonly identified drivers of change in the form of good practices and innovation, as well as impediments. Date: In an effort to address the impacts of COVID-19, companies are developing a number of socially beneficial communications for the public. It is essential that these communications avoid harmful stereotypes and seek to depict positive and progressive gender portrayals. Date: The report draws on a new dataset from the Peace Agreement Access tool PA-X together with gender quota data from the Quota Project (www.quotaproject.org). This report responds to what the author suggests is an urgent need to develop clearer conceptual thinking on the relationship of women’s equality to power-sharing in the peace and security field. It also responds to a need to work towards more systematic empirical evaluation of the relationship. Date: This report examines what ‘a gender perspective’ in peace agreements might mean, suggesting that the term has not been fully enough considered. It also produces data on when women have been specifically mentioned in peace agreements. The data summary shows that peace agreement references to women have increased over time. Yet, only a few of these agreements provide evidence of adopting a robust ‘gender perspective.’ Evaluation of Gender Mainstreaming in United Nations Peacekeeping activities in (MONUC/MONUSCO) in the Democratic Republic of the Congo Date: This evaluation report is a complementary report by UN Women to the evaluation of the UN Peacekeeping Activities in the Democratic Republic of the Congo carried out in 2011-12 by the Inspection and Evaluation Division (IED) of the Office of Internal Oversight Services (OIOS). It provides an in-depth analysis of gender mainstreaming results in the Peacekeeping Mission. Review of the implementation of the agreed conclusions from the forty-seventh session of the Commission on the Status of Women: Report of the Secretary-General Date:	https://www.unwomen.org/en/digital-library/publications?Country=c23bc3bc370342018cbe5706f923618f&f%5B0%5D=subject_area_publications%3A1400&f%5B1%5D=subject_area_publications%3A1438&f%5B2%5D=subject_area_publications%3A1910
Details on Writing Reports based on Interviews: You must choose to interview a person whom you have identified as having significant intercultural experience and knowledge. We ask that you transcribe word for word the interview – you can choose to type as the person speaks, but using a video recorder or webcam would make things easier. However, consent must be obtained if recording equipment are to be used. You can for example focus on any of the following themes (or others related to the topic which may not be listed): - Cultural experience of an expatriate and/or accompanying family: analysis of experience abroad - National & corporate cultures in perspective - Transnational Technology Transfers & cultural issues - Managing, leading, and aligning a culturally diverse team - Intercultural Conflict Management - Intercultural Negotiations, Agreements, and Meetings - Remote global team management: challenges and best practices - Strategies for leveraging best communication practices across cultures - Direct & indirect communication styles and challenges in business context You are free to be creative in writing & organizing these reports, but we do ask that you include at least 3 sections based on the following: - A. Research/theoretical part: you relate the interview subject to the intercultural management theory or concept studied in class (based on the readings you completed for the course and other existing theories). For example, you should analyze some critical events or situations discussed with the person in light of national and corporate cultural dimensions (Power Distance, Uncertainty Avoidance, Attribution theory, cognitive typologies, Universalism, Ethnocentrism…) or other studies and models of culture (Bennett, Hall, Hofstede, Trompenaars, etc) discussed in your readings. Here you should explain the interview findings and experiences of the manager from an intercultural perspective (Was there poor communication? Cross cultural awareness? Lack of knowledge of other culture(s)? Failure to address different needs? Lack of clear strategy? Were there ill-guided management decisions? Positive outcomes?) and back this up with research on the subject. Include any relevant studies based on the countries/nationalities involved as well (India, China, Italy, Germany, US, France, Hong Kong…) and remember to always cite your sources. We will give a zero (0) for any papers containing plagiarized ideas or passages. - B. Corporate Cross-cultural issues in a MANAGERIAL context: this is the part of the paper where you describe the person’s working context, role in the organization, role in corporate strategy, and role as a manager. Now look at the cross cultural communication and management aspects of this context–what are the specific principles and aspects of Intercultural Management at play here? - C. Expertise & Recommendations to be applied: Now you play the role of Consultant and make Recommendations in your Report. Now you should give your own opinions and recommendations for ‘What’s Next?’ by addressing the following: 1/ Your personal opinion/reaction to the manager: What works here? What could be improved? What is your assessment of the situation? What did this person’s case make you think of? What are the major issues you see at stake? 2/ Explanation of any cultural problems/issues presented or detected in interview 3/ Who or What is responsible for problem(s) and why (structural problem, issue coming from corporate strategy/corporate cultural, national cultural difference, other organizational constraints, etc.) 4/ Were there any cultural stereotypes/cultural biases you detected? 5/ Identify any of the various intercultural conflicts you detect in the case study and discuss the differences in terms of norms, beliefs, values, relationship to time, space, power, communication styles, management styles, corporate culture, etc.	https://nursingpaperservice.com/2021/08/28/cross-cultural-management/
Audit expectation gap is not a new phenomenon in auditing literature. It somewhat gives bad reputation to external auditors. This paper addresses the nature and different dimensions of audit expectation gap around the world. The author comes to the conclusion that this kind of gap should be reduced by the auditor himself, by improving audit responsibilities, educating various users, and mandating new... September 2011 The effects of psychological contract breach on various employee level outcomes: The moderating role of Islamic work ethic and adversity quotient This study seeks to explore the moderating role of Islamic work ethic and adversity quotient over the relationship between psychological contract breach and various employees’ level outcomes (job satisfaction, employees’ commitment and intention to quit). After the extensive overview of scholarly research, we have come up with a conceptual model that perception of psychological contract breach has negative... September 2011 Managing the state-civil society relations in public policy: Deliberative democracy vis-a-vis civil society movements in Malaysia This paper is trying to examine the state-civil society relation and also argue from the theory of deliberative democracy in explaining the roles of civil society in Malaysia. Carolyn Hendriks sees deliberative, from two fundamental approaches; there are micro deliberative which concentrates on defining the procedural conditions of a structured deliberative forum and macro deliberative which are more concerned with the... September 2011 Consumers attribute analysis of economic hotels: An exploratory study Service sector represents nearly 50% of Brazilian GNP in a sector which hotel industry has had a lot of changes as the entrance of international competitors. The objective of this article is to identify which attributes of low price hotel segment was more valuated causing more consumer´s satisfaction. For this reason an exploratory research using a structured questionnaire with pre selected attributes was... September 2011 Causal analysis of customer needs in the banking system by applying fuzzy group decision making Effective customer satisfaction investigation is a very important precondition in the banking system. It is needed to get the knowledge of how to use advanced methods to identify customer preferences, classification and prioritization of banks and how to use the evaluation result to improve their quality services. Iranian Bank also plays a leading role in providing financial facilities in which satisfaction of... September 2011 The pricing and timing of the option to invest for cash flows with partial information This paper extends real options theory to consider the situation where the mean appreciation rate of cash flows generated by an irreversible investment project is not observable and governed by an Ornstein-Uhlenbeck process. The main purpose of this study is to analyze the impact of the uncertainnty of the mean appreciation rate on the pricing and investment timing of the option to invest under incomplete markets with... September 2011 The impact of advertising appeals and advertising spokespersons on advertising attitudes and purchase intentions The first purpose of this research was to investigate the impact of advertising appeals and advertising spokespersons on advertising attitudes and purchase intentions. The second purpose was to compare the effectiveness of the influences of different types of advertising appeals and different types of spokespersons on purchase intentions. A 2*2 factorial experiment design method was adopted. The cell phone industry was... September 2011 Building international entrepreneurship through entrepreneurship capital perspective Is entrepreneurship capital theory useful for international entrepreneurship research and practice? In this paper, we describe how international entrepreneurship research can benefit from including the concept of entrepreneurship capital at the individual level of analysis. We define entrepreneurship capital as a composite measure of entrepreneurial proclivity, human capital, and social capital of the entrepreneur. We... September 2011 Using greedy clustering method to solve capacitated location-routing problem This paper introduces a new heuristic method to solve the location-routing problem (LRP). Facility location problem (FLP) and vehicle routing problem (VRP) are considered simultaneously in the LRP. The problem selects the location of depot(s) to be established among a set of potential sites. On the other hand, the allocation of customers to depot(s), and the distribution routes between the customers and depot(s) are... September 2011 The influence of the emotional intelligence on self monitoring Self monitoring is an ability to consciously observe and regulate one’s own behaviour.Incorporating self monitoring in today’s research and practice is beginning to yield a better understanding of how organizational processes are substantially affected by individual issues of how they are seen by others. Especially in service industries, the effect of outcome of interactions of the employees with the clients... September 2011 Is moral intensity applicable to natural environment issues? Previous research about moral intensity has mostly centered on ethical issues related to people, with relatively less exploration of ethical decisions related to the natural environment. Therefore, this study investigated perceptions toward three aspects of business environmental ethics, including natural ecology definition, business ecological role and business environmental protection; as well as the relationship... September 2011 The impact of human resource (HR) performance management on project outcome To ensure successful accomplishment of projects, quality performance of the project team is required to be maintained. The existing literature declares scope, time, cost and quality as quadruple constraints for project’s success while management of human resource (HR) communication, procurement and risk are declared support functions. Literature further acknowledges that HR management functions are dealt with low... September 2011 Organizational culture and performance: The mediating roles of innovation capacity This study highlights the service-dominant logic perspective of a firm’s complex capability. The links between the functions of marketing strategies and distinctive capabilities indicate the importance of service management innovation, and emphasize the conceptualization of a service economy to verify the model. The model proposed in this study examines the relationships among market orientation, interaction... September 2011 Cross-level effects of ethical climate on the relationship between psychological contract breach and ethical decision-making intention This study explored the relationship between psychological contract breach and ethical decision-making intention. Previous studies analyzed the relation mainly from the Western cultural perspective, thus leaving the Eastern context. In this regard, the present study examined the cross-level moderating effect of ethical climate on variables at the individual level. Forty state-owned and private companies... September 2011 Capturing Arab gulf market: An analysis of Malaysian exports competitiveness in the market In recent years, the Arab Gulf Countries in particular Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) has been an attractive market destination for the Asian businesses. China, India, Japan and other Asian countries have huge interest in developing close relationships with the six nations. As an emerging economy in the West EasternAsia, the GCC offer huge interest in doing businesses and become a gate for the Middle Eastern markets.... September 2011 Open business models: A case study of System-on-a-Chip (SoC) design foundry in the integrated circuit (IC) industry In the global IC industry, business models have evolved into design foundry models and manufacturing foundry service models over the past twenty years. The concept of system-on-a-chip (SoC) refers to integrating all components of a computer or other electronic system in a single integrated circuit (IC). Due to the increasing complexities of SoC devices, it is impossible for one IC design house to have the... September 2011 Port performance: The importance of land transport in a developing economy This study set out to establish that land transport system in the country of destination, determines the turn-around time, capacity utilisation of port infrastructure, facilities and cargo-handling equipment and general port performance. Of particular interest, is the contribution of road transport infrastructures and system to the magnitude of turn-around time, port performance and general economic growth and... September 2011 A linear price model for insect-damaged industrial roundwood: A case study in Northeastern Turkey Wood production has been among the most important objectives in forest resource management for a long time. Therefore, quality and quantity losses, especially caused by bark beetles in growing stock and wood based products, have been a prominent problem. In recent years, Artvin State Forest Enterprise in Northeastern Turkey has been affected by bark beetles, which caused serious destruction in forests. This study aims... September 2011 Influence of transformational leadership on employees outcomes: Mediating role of empowerment The purpose of the study is to find the relationship of transformational leadership with organizational commitment and innovativeness, and to know if empowerment mediates the relationship between the transformational leadership, the organizational commitment, and the innovativeness. It was hypothesized that transformational leadership is positively related with organizational commitment, innovativeness, and empowerment.... September 2011 Analyzing the technical efficiency on the effects of foreign portfolio investment in the financing of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in Turkey This paper investigates the contribution of foreign portfolio investment (FPI) to firms’ technical efficiency and total factor productivity by applying two empirical methodologies over a sample of firms. In the study, panel data is from 45 small businesses (small and medium-sized enterprises, SMEs) in Turkey were observed between 2006 and 2010 years. We will analyze the effects of foreign portfolio... September 2011 Development of personnel internal benchmarking by 360° feedback approach with a case study in AT Pipe Company The main purpose of this study is to enhance internal benchmarking by the use of 360° feedback approach. Therefore, internal benchmarking has been developed for personnel's performance evaluation. The study has been conducted in AT Pipe Company. Statistical population includes personnel of the sales department and customers and data has been gathered by questionnaire. Descriptive and inferential statistics and... September 2011 An analysis of training needs of evaluation professionals of agricultural and extension programs in Iran This study aimed to understand the competences needed by agricultural and extension evaluation experts in Iran. Using a descriptive and correlational research design, a valid and reliable self-completion questionnaire was utilized for data collection from a sample of 132 out of 170 managers and professional staff involved in agricultural and extension evaluation programs. The professionals mostly preferred to... September 2011 Designing a model for explanation of internet banking acceptance rate The present article tries to utilize structural equations model to explain internet banking acceptance rate. So accordingly, three factors including innovation characteristics of electronic banking system, individual characteristics of bank customers and market facilitating conditions have been used based on different theories proposed. Measurement of the variables by the use of questionnaires based on the comments of... September 2011 Job motivation and organizational commitment among the health professionals: A questionnaire survey The objective of this study is to investigate the level of organizational commitment and motivation as well as the relationship between health staff’s organizational commitment and motivation within state hospitals. Using the Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), the relationships between the organizational commitment and motivation were examined. Data for this study were obtained through... September 2011 Different ways of synergistic effects of human resource management (HRM) practices on organizational performance: A method of 2+2 =5 Synergy is a main characteristic of human resource management (HRM) system. It highlights the hidden characteristics of HRM system. This research paper has empirically tested that internally consistent and complementary HR practices/components in the HR system are more able to predict and enhance the organizational performance than the sum of individual practice. The data was collected from the sample of 109 firm... September 2011 Structural equation modeling analysis of effects of leadership styles and organizational culture on effectiveness in sport organizations This study examines the effects of leadership styles and organizational culture on organizational effectiveness in Iranian sport organizations. 341 sport experts in the Physical Education Organization of the Islamic Republic of Iran and various sport Federations voluntarily filled out the Denison organizational culture survey (DOCS), multifactor leadership and organizational effectiveness questionnaires. Results of... September 2011 A study of supply chain replenishment system of theory of constraints for thin film transistor liquid crystal display (TFT-LCD) plants The thin film transistor liquid crystal display (TFT-LCD) including three fundamental process stages: array process, cell process and module process is generally called liquid crystal panel by consumers. Each process stage existing the variable manufacturing flow-process and characteristic of capacity results in acquiring individual objective in each plant,... September 2011 The retrenchment effect on job performance with mediating effect of work life balance The purpose of this research is to find out the surviving employees during a period of economic recession in 2009/2010 and jobs cut down in Pakistan. Present research paper finds out the relationship between employees who survived retrenchment/lay off during economic recession and job performance with mediating role of work load, work to family conflict and stress (work life balance). The main focus in this paper is... September 2011 Effects of utilitarian and hedonic atmospheric dimensions on consumer responses in an online shopping environment As in physical environments, one of the most important research topics is related to the effects of the characteristics of these new interactive virtual environments on different dimensions of human behaviour. This is particularly relevant in the case of consumer shopping behaviour on the internet. In this line, research on webmosphere, and specifically, the impact of utilitarian and hedonic atmospheric dimensions... September 2011 The analysis of the basic dynamics of entrepreneurship in creating competitive advantages: The case of organized industrial zone in Turkey In this study, the effect of entrepreneurship on firm performance, firm performance and growth regardless of sectoral differences from a macro perspective were analyzed in the light of the data gathered from 3034 firms operating in organized industry zones in Turkey. According to the results of the correlation analysis, positively significant relationships between firm performance and dimensions of entrepreneurship,... September 2011 Cost-benefit analysis in selected air trips using a non parametric method The Brazilian airlines industry went through great changes since its deregulation at the beginning of this century. The appearance of Gol Linhas Aéreas Inteligentes, the first low-cost, low-fare, mass Internet ticket vendor airline in Latin America made passenger competition fiercer. The country’s airline crisis, with its delayed and cancelled flights, the duopoly created by Gol’s purchase of Varig,...	https://academicjournals.org/journal/AJBM/edition/23_September_2011
Volume 11, Number 1, January 2013 A value culture always plays a significant role in organization development. Although the contemporary business organizations are gradually realizing the importance of these values in enhancing organization effectiveness, most of the organizations in Pakistan are still in dire need to adapt the values of openness, trust, authenticity and empowerment, collaboration and continuous organization learning in order to enhance organizational effectiveness and efficiency to survive or compete. Especially, the SME sector which constitutes a considerable part of Pakistani economy where majority of the firms have not been able to realize their full potential, the absence of value culture is constantly giving rise to low employee morale and less productivity and declining firms’ performance. Using goal theory of organization effectiveness, this study explores the association of four important OD values: employee empowerment, open communications, employee collaboration and continuous learning on the perceived effectiveness taking the case of 20 small and medium enterprises located in Karachi. A hypothetic-deductive approach is adapted to obtain the findings. The results support that open communication, employee collaboration and continuous organization learning are significantly associated with the perceived goal achievement levels of the firms. A positive but statistically insignificant association is observed in case of employee empowerment. The regression analysis indicates that the selected four OD values significantly contribute to the perceived organizational effectiveness on the given four important goals of the firm. The findings of this study do not only contribute to the organizational development, but would also help the government and the concerned authorities to devise strategies to develop and reinforce the value system in SMEs to deal with effectiveness and productivity issues in this major sector.	http://jisr.szabist.edu.pk/JISR-MSSE/Publication/2013/11/1/395/Article
Several conclusions can be drawn from comparing the status quo in the organization to the major findings of the literature review. However, the biggest challenge the managers are facing is the budget not being a pass. Organizational behavior is an interdisciplinary body of knowledge with strong ties to the behavioral sciences such as psychology, sociology and anthropology as well as to allied sciences. Even though a culture is highly subjective and influenced by many controllable and uncontrollable factors it has a deep impact on organizational behavior. Problems come from overlapping responsibilities and unclear instructions. It identifies the cultures that make up an organization which transpires into the types of leaders within an organization. Within Welding Unlimited, communication is conveyed straight and to the point with all employees present, rather than by position within the company. Context and Background Organizational analysis papers begin with a brief description of the context and history of the organization. Organizational behavior is the study of how individuals behave within organizations and how organizations respond to that behavior. Differences in age, race, gender, demographic characteristics, etc. The cultural diversity in the world come close to each other with the globalization in the next time. First, is the value, or mission, that guides the organization. The internal and external forces that are to be understood are restructuring, economy, competition, fiscal policies, organizational mission and globalization and economy. This article needs additional citations for. This is Similar to the Sociotechnical model, or the work of. If you had been the first in your field but now you face increasing competition, you can address this threat by focusing your branding on consistency and longevity. At the time of the accident, the country was experiencing an economic slowdown. Such capabilities will be their foundation in creating future plans and decision making. Some leadership qualities are good customer orientated relationships making the customer feel that they are exploring all possibilities to their problem and that each interaction is positive and productive. A leader should develop and retain their employees and promote continuous learning of staff while inspiring others to become better by using education and examples of good leadership. Employees were moneymaking machines and how they achieved those numbers was not a concern of their managers as long as the numbers were being met. Identifying the main characteristics of this theory and why they are effective within the organization. While Ians is family is just the opposite quiet, calm and collective. However, with every good there is a bad. Some locations offer even more amenities than those listed. I have found that the Organizational Behavior class has given me a boundless amount of information, knowledge and insight that I feel will help me to become successful in the business world. The government encourages retailers to provide a mix of job opportunities such as low-paid jobs, local based jobs, flexible jobs, high-skilled jobs and high-paid jobs etc. In the modern world, working environment characteristics are team work, delegation, information technology interfaces, which have an impact on the effectiveness of organization and management. Explore the history of work and past successes as well as the financial standing of the contractor. Organizational performance on the other hand refers to the degree to which the organizational objectives have been achieved. For an employee to be truly successful, they must have an understanding of organizational behavior, culture and diversity, communication, effectiveness and efficiency, and learning. An agreed upon system for feedback throughout the collaboration should be built into the agreement. One would assume that employees with high wages and secure jobs would ultimately be happy, however, this was not typically the case. Include 3 to 4 references relevant to the assignment, in addition to the readings. Since email is an innovation that, if utilized fully, enhances communication in organizations, many of the findings from the review of literature on its use can be applied to the organizational issue. In a generalized framework, the term refers to the friendly and warm reception and entertainment of the guests by the hosts. It sounds simple; just strike the right balance of respect, dignity, fairness, incentive, and guidance, and you will create a motivated, productive, satisfying, and secure work environment. These are the things that keep the organization going. These include; the process of planning, organizing and leading an organizations human, financial, material, and others resources to increase its effectiveness. Again, there is no generalized advice for these kinds of processes as they will largely depend on where your company is at, where it was, and where it needs to go. The groups I am going to use as part of my examples are all from formal groups. Communication, the exchange of information is a key concept because when information is shared in a constructive manner there is an opportunity for understanding and even acceptance in most cases. Input your observation, findings, and the data you gathered upon conducting the analysis in a way that can be interpreted easily. Using this model, a strategy for an organization is considered good if these three components are in alignment. I tend to look down or pretend not to notice the people I acquaint with to avoid saying hi. There is greater opportunity for specialized training. Supplies and material are at the limit, which the manager have to figure out how to keep their unit functional. This will cause you to be well rounded and will help guide you towards your dream job. However, research can enhance what organizational culture has been found to be the best culture in creating… 1921 Words 8 Pages the key drivers of change in the American social, economic and political reform agenda. It is hard for me to stay in a conversation with new people sometimes because I cannot think of things to talk about. Finding a right person to a particular managerial role is really hard to do but there is another factor that we can consider here, which is the managerial skills. Value diversity includes differences in personality and attitudes.	http://congressoanbimadefundos.com.br/organizational-analysis-paper.html
How does organizational culture affect organizational and individual trust? - Action Group in Russia Abstract: Aim: This study aims to explore how organizational culture affect organizational- and individual trust, and how the relationship is between the three constructs. Method: Qualitative method is used for this case study. Semi-structured interviews are conducted with ten representatives of the targeted company. Respondents hold different positions in the organization, including top- and middle managers, and line employees. The data was analyzed thematically according to the three main points of research questions such as organizational culture, organizational trust and individual trust. Results and Conclusions: Organizational culture and values are set by owners and top management of the company but are influenced by national culture. By using national culture and individual characteristics, and in lining them with organizational culture, organizations can enhance both profit and image. Employee motivation and commitment are enhanced as a result of a high level of trust. With the help of informal control, organizational trust also affects trust at an individual level. However, it is important to employ people whose values match the organizations. Suggestions for future research: This study is limited to one company in Russia. For future research, we recommend a longitudinal study of several companies to compare them overall, to find the impact of trust on each organizational culture and how it affects employees and business in the long term conditions. Another research approach could be to compare organizational cultures of the companies from different countries to investigate the advantages and differences of factors of success. Contribution of the thesis: The main contribution is that certain organizational culture affects trust in the organization. Development of trust as a part of organizational internal culture provides certain benefits such as efficiency, innovation, results, motivation and commitment. Trust as a part of organizational culture provides a foundation that enables the organization to develop and adapt to the market. It is important to recruit people with similar values as the company to be able to develop the desired organizational culture. Keywords: Organizational culture, national culture, organizational trust, individual trust, control, motivation, work efficiency, satisfaction, recruitment.	https://www.essays.se/essay/85e1093543/
Culture is created and shaped with time, it’s learned, but also intimately bound to the company’s DNA. Defining and transmitting those values is one of the biggest challenges an organization must go through, but one that can bring countless benefits. What is organizational culture? By nature every company possesses an identity that differentiates it from other companies. From the time a company is established, the accumulated actions, behaviors and values contribute to the development of the corporate culture. What types of organizational culture exist? Every company possesses its own cultural structure, inherent to it since its foundation. There are no two companies that share the same values. Nevertheless, it’s useful to know the existing generalized organizational culture models, to help in the defining stage. Once a company is created, it’s essential to know the importance of the organizational values system. The company’s culture will have a key role not only in the internal ecosystem, but also on the work environment, and the way the organization will reach its goals. There are many examples of corporate culture types The most commonly used is by author Roger Harrison, who distinguishes between power, roles, task and person centered organizations. Each model offers different advantages, and places different values above others: - Power centered organizations: Usually very centralized companies, they hold competition and effectiveness as their top values. They also reward aggressive thought and risk-taking in benefit of the centralized power. - Role centered organizations: They base their decisions on logic and rationality. Rules and procedures are prioritized over innovation outside the assigned role and soft skills. - Task centered organizations: Usually organized in multi-disciplinary sectors in which the top values are teamwork and synergy, oriented at the fulfillment of objectives. - Person centered organizations: They put the individual’s development at the center of the company. Its values are often related to innovation and the relationships between individuals, with personal growth as the primary value. Why is company culture important for good organizational climate? 23% of employees in the US think they can apply the company’s values in their daily work. Only 27% believe in the veracity of those values. (Source: Gallup Management Consulting Company) Organizational culture does not consist solely on a list of values, it needs to encompass all the company’s internal activities. A well defined and applied value scheme acts as a cohesive element and ensures all human capital is focused on the same objectives. It’s important to keep in mind that it’s not enough to communicate the expected attitudes, but that values are learned and internalized thanks to peer and superior recognition. This recognition helps create a positive work environment, and enables value learning and transmission within the company. The keys to enhancing organizational culture The identification of a company with certain values helps attract and retain talent that look for those characteristics in the workplace. According to a joint study by Surrey Business School and Grenoble Ecole de Management, a workplace culture focused on colleague interaction is key to talent retention. On the other hand, lack of identification with the corporate culture can result in the loss of those employees, regardless of salary or results. The learning and interiorization of those values creates a double benefit for companies, not only aligning the employee with the company values, but also turning them into transmitters. The availability of tools that make recognition easier allows both the enhancement of the culture and a better knowledge of where and how those interactions happen. Results-oriented culture A culture that embraces all sectors of the company results in synergy and an aligned understanding and vision of the objectives. It’s important to ensure that all the elements that compose the culture are applied throughout the organization. Knowing the company’s objectives is fundamental to an employee’s job. Understanding how to get to those objectives creates a safe and effective work environment, that facilitates the growth of both the organization and the people that are a part of it. Is it possible to measure culture? Even when all companies possess their own identities, characteristics and cultures, it’s possible to measure the results we expect to see as a result of that identity. Organizational values are manifested in actions, that can be recognized and measured with the use of real-time feedback tools. Once established, measurements contribute to the corporate culture assimilation. By knowing and being a part of the feedback process, employees are at the same time transmitters and receptors of the message, which helps them feel like an integral part of the organization. Measurement and feedback need to be a continuous processes. As it is tightly bound to the company’s DNA, organizational culture can evolve together with the organization’s growth. Using tools to strengthen organizational culture In companies with a large number of employees, recognition can be easily taken for granted. The need for immediate results and the geographical distance can make communication and feedback between team members difficult. The use of online solutions provides easier peer recognition, helping reinforce institutional values and improve the work environment. With tools like StarMeUp, company members are given a platform that facilitates the interaction with peers and superiors, highlighting the importance of horizontality in feedback. At the same time, StarMeUp provides the organization with a valuable platform that allows it to identify positive influencers, cultural strengths and improvement opportunities.	https://www.starmeup.com/blog/en/culture-and-values/organizational-culture/
An orgainisation is based on the management’s philosophy, values, vision and goals. Theses objectives drive the orgainisation, the culture of the orgainisation has an impact on the type of leadership, communication and departmental dynamics. Staff should be aware of this and use it to base their work ethics and motivation on. The outcome should then be job satisfaction nad growth for the individual team members as well as the team as a whole. A leader needs to adapt to situations and use techniques that are inclusive in order to avoid conflict and aids decision-making. To capitalize on their coaching investment, organizations must work to nurture this type of pro-development culture. The importance of a coaching culture in promoting engagement with coaching has been highlighted by a number of authors (Cox, 2012; Gormley & Van Nieuwerburgh, 2014). Anderson, Frankovelgia, and Hernez- Broome (2009) surmised that a coaching culture with more trust and openness in the organization leads to more participation and transparent organizational decision- making. Further, this survey revealed the following range of organizational benefits from having a coaching culture: 1) Employee performance, 2) Engagement and retention, 3) Collaboration and teamwork, and 4) An improved ability to execute strategy and adapt to ANALYSIS OF LEADERSHIP STYLES AND MUSKS’ LEADERSHIP STYLE 2.1 Introduction to leadership An effective leader is someone who knows how to inspire and relate to subordinates, knows how to increase the employees’ motivation and make employees loyal to the organization. (Alkahtani, 2015) Leadership style is the approach an individual use to steer people in the direction that they are going in. Analysis has identified a range of leadership styles based on the number of followers. the most applicable leadership style depends on the operate of the leader, the followers and also the situation. 2.2 Different types of leadership styles Leadership plays a vital role in order for an organization to succeed, by effectively managing and controlling employees the type of leadership style. Adaptive and technical challenges combined and adaptive challenges alone can be remedied with leader behaviors, like regulating distress and protecting leadership voices below, that encourage followers to continue to strive for their best and essentially the good of the organization also. Adaptive Leadership has two focal strengths relevant to this philosophy and validate its inclusion in this analysis. First, this style, unlike other theories, is follower-centered and leaders provide the tools necessary for followers to grow and as a result, the whole organization grows (Northouse, 2016, p.275). Lastly, Adaptive Leadership provides instructional behaviors anyone can learn that can facilitate positive, adaptive change (Northouse, 2016, Introduction In any organisation, a good leadership is important to motivate their subordinates, bring the organisation forward and achieve its goals. A good leader has a clear vision and passion to influence their followers. Job satisfaction and organisational commitment are important factors in determining organizational efficiency. Robbins & Judge (2013) defined leadership as the ability to influence a group toward the achievement of a vision or set of goals and to perform at their highest capability (Rad and Yarmohammadian, 2006). Fuziah & Mohd Izham (2011) stated transformational leadership is effective in sustaining schools as learning organisations. Power-wielders influenced followers to accomplish goals that are important mostly to the power-wielder. Leaders mobilized followers and marshaled resources to accomplish goals that would benefit followers, themselves, as well as others. Burns (1978) also described leadership as recognizable in two forms: transactional leadership and transformational leadership. Transactional leadership transpires in a mutually beneficial relationship of exchange between the leader and follower. Burns (1978) characterized this kind of leadership as transitory and effective, but in pursuit of modal values of mutual exchange. It could be assessed that Jobs depicted a transformational leadership style through his initiatives of creating a vision, guiding his followers to achieve it through effective inspiration thereby leading to a change in the individuals and the social systems as well. These are the basic traits of a transformational leader (Warrick, 2011). The feeling of achievement through the delivery to the organizational goals and objectives will be made possible. Your ultimate goal is to make sure that members are encouraged to follow group objectives instead of their own personal objectives; which could have a direct implication on the success of the organization. In selecting or developing a leadership style, you must know that how you react to problems, resolve crisis, relate to members and reward or punish them are some of the ways that you going to be judged by your members. Your effectiveness will depend on how you can influence and control your members towards the common final goals and objectives. The financial position of the organization has a direct correlation with your leadership style and the success of a program or the The followers will believe in their abilities and optimist about the future as the leaders have encouraged them. One of the visionary aspects of leadership that can drive followers toward their goals is communication skills that can make the vision intelligible, powerful and engaging. Thirdly, individualized consideration is one of the most important characteristics that a transformational leader A manager 's job is to coach or guide workers to choose the best paths for reaching their goals. Based on the goal‐setting theory, leaders engage in different types of leadership behaviors depending on the nature and demands of a particular situation. A leader 's behavior is acceptable to subordinates when viewed as a source of satisfaction. He or she is motivational when need satisfaction is contingent on performance; this leader facilitates, coaches, and rewards effective performance. Path‐goal theory identifies several leadership styles: • Achievement‐oriented.	https://www.ipl.org/essay/Four-Dimensions-Of-Transactional-Leadership-FJCCBB9SZN6
In many ways, watershed management is relationship management. Strong connections and trust between watershed professionals, farmers, community members and groups, and local institutions are essential to implement the solutions for achieving the goals of a watershed plan. This is why social capital matters in watershed management. Social capital is a community’s relational resources, the network and norms between individuals and groups. It is the glue that holds a group together, the threads that keep a community fabric strong and capable of collective action. Watershed management projects are more likely to succeed in communities with high social capital. In fact, according to a report led by the North Central Region Water Network, it’s one of the necessary elements for scaling up watershed management in the Midwest. But if you are working in a community with low social capital, how can you build it? While there are no step-by-step instructions, understanding some basics about social capital will help. One key thing is focusing on strategies and activities that will support the four elements of social capital, as identified by scholars Jules Pretty and Hugh Ward: trust, reciprocity, norms or common rules, and connectedness. It’s also helpful to know the distinction between the three types of social capital. Bonding social capital is close ties within groups of people with similar identities or values, such as between friends or neighbors, or even within a farmer-led watershed group. Bridging social capital is connections between different groups or communities, such as between a farmer-led watershed group and a lakeshore owners association. While these connections may be weaker and interaction happens infrequently, bridging social capital is incredibly important for expanding opportunities and building community cohesion. Finally, linking social capital is relationships across explicit, formal power gradients in a community, such as between a farmer-led watershed group and a government agency that funds it. This type creates access to resources or power that can support change-making processes and activities. Here are five things any watershed leader could do to accrue social capital to support their watershed project. Own your role as a connector. It takes human capital to build social capital, and watershed leaders play essential roles as connectors and network builders. Make the time to reach out to and meet the people who could make important contributions to your watershed effort. And you don’t need to invest heavily in every connection – in fact, research shows that more loose ties mean more social capital. Owning your role as a connector also requires a little bit of self-awareness, particularly around your own interpersonal skills. Not everyone is a social butterfly, and that is okay. You don’t have to be outgoing to develop meaningful working relationships with people. If you feel something is holding you back from networking with people, try to identify what that barrier is and focus on ways you could overcome it. Map your relational assets. Asset mapping is a tactic for identifying a community’s strengths and assets that can help it solve problems. Employ this method to identify the individuals and groups who could be relational assets to your watershed project. Taking this approach helps you be strategic with your relationship building, allowing you to focus on making the ties that will be critical to achieve the goals in your watershed plan. Consider creating your relational asset map with collaborators on your watershed plan, so you can reap the benefit of your collective knowledge about the people in your watershed. Create opportunities that strengthen networks. Building social capital is about creating opportunities for people to connect with and feel connected to each other. One way you could strengthen networks is by providing spaces or opportunities for sharing information, stories, or resources. For example, organize bridging events that enable otherwise un-connected groups, such as farmers and lakeshore property owners, to share their stories with each other. Or facilitate an opportunity for dialogue between a community group and leaders from a public or private institution about an important issue in your watershed. Creating opportunities for exchange and communication cultivates reciprocity and transparency, which can help build trust. And trust is the oil in the engine of collaboration. Invite people to participate. Successful watershed projects often follow a participatory approach, meaning community members are involved in identifying the problems, strategies, and solutions. And it’s important to invite community members to participate in your watershed project early and often to ensure their voices are heard, their local knowledge is considered, and they develop a sense of ownership around the project and its outcomes. That said, inviting participation is more successful in communities with a high level of readiness to participate. You know a community is ready when its people recognize there is a problem with water quality or quantity, they are motivated to fix it, and there is agreement on a solution. Prioritizing projects with high community readiness will increase chances of success. If there is low community readiness, a starting point to participation may be to do a bit of community organizing to raise awareness about the problem and spark motivation to act. It will also be important to work with community members to define the issue in a way that makes sense to them and feels winnable. Celebrate the small wins. Speaking of winning, celebrating the small ones may be important to maintain social capital. It is easy to become overwhelmed by the enormity of challenges like degraded freshwater or climate change vulnerability, or to get discouraged when your efforts are falling short of your goals. By celebrating the results that are visible – such as cooperation between two groups that had previously never interacted before – you can maintain motivation among community members to keep working together. If you are part of a watershed management project, what have you done to build social capital in your watershed? Share your story in the comments! Want to geek out about social capital? Here are some resources I used to write this post, and there are certainly many more out there. - Successful Watershed Management in the Midwest: Getting to Scale by Amulya Rao and Rebecca Power - Strategies for Building Social Capital by James R. Cook. - Social Capital Research, a research and consulting organization - Social Capital and the Environment by Jules Pretty and Hugh Ward - Building trust in communities by University of Minnesota Extension - Build Your Social Capital and Build Your Community by Tammy Day of the Nebraska Community Foundation - What is Social Capital and How Do You Build It? by Heather Keam of the Tamarack Institute Jenny Seifert is a watershed outreach specialist for the North Central Region Water Network. Her work focuses on building leadership capacity and motivating behavior change to achieve clean water goals. Header photo: Tim Youngquist of Iowa State University (left) with Larry and Margaret Stone at their prairie strips near Traer, IA. NRCS/SWCS photo by Lynn Betts. The Human Capital series features insights and stories to help tap the true human potential for achieving clean water in the Midwest.	https://northcentralwater.org/ways-to-build-social-capital-to-help-watershed-management-projects-succeed/
In the rolling hills of rural Rwanda, Beatrice Nyirahabimana makes a living in agriculture. For long stretches of her day, she tends to dairy cows and carefully cultivates Irish potatoes and pyrethrum, small white flowers grown for their insect repellent properties. Like many of the 500 million smallholder farmers worldwide, poor production, distant markets and limited access to financing meant she regularly felt isolated and struggled to afford necessities for herself and her family. “Before joining the group, as a family, we had limited capacity to meet all the basic needs,” said Beatrice, referring to the Heifer-supported collective of like-minded women she joined in 2018. “We were constantly living a difficult life.” This group, the Abihuje women’s self-help group, proved a lifeline for Beatrice and other women in her community who were facing similar challenges and a sense of isolation farming alone. With training and technical support, the women began a united effort to transform their livelihoods through a shared savings-and-loan function. “It felt good joining the group and it felt even better when I started saving in the group and borrowing,” said Beatrice, who has now borrowed and repaid loans three times, and used the money to grow her herd. “In addition to material gains, I have gained friends and self-confidence and I am now able to interact and network with my neighbors confidently, which was a challenge before.” When farmers like Beatrice come together like this, when they develop trust and shared goals, when they form fruitful relationships with buyers and traders, they strengthen the intangible “glue” that binds prosperous communities together: social capital. Social capital is the set of relationships, attitudes and values, such as integrity and mutual respect, that exist in a community and govern interactions among individuals. Simply put, social capital is the positive outcomes of human engagements and the connective trust born from a community’s many networks. Examples of social capital in society range from the consequential — such as people overcoming their gender bias and sending girls to school, extending financial and psychological support to others in times of crisis or voting in local elections — to the more mundane, like trusting your mail will arrive each day, giving directions to a stranger or returning a lost item. When cultivated properly, these relationships foster cooperation, social cohesion and collective problem solving — and form the building blocks of a functioning society, from effective government to trusted institutions and equitable markets that ensure fair trade. The positive force of social capital provides individuals, like Beatrice and her fellow group members, with purpose and hope, as well as a solid foundation on which personal and society-wide change can occur. In many of the regions where Heifer works, communities are divided on the basis of social, economic and cultural differences. More often than not, families living in poverty also contend with obstacles like inadequate access to power or water for irrigation, limited employment opportunities, and deeply-entrenched beliefs such as strict patriarchal norms, that often restrict a population’s participation in society and stand in the way of progress. Developing social capital in these circumstances bands people, families and institutions together with the thread of shared values and principles. For Beatrice and the women of the Abihuje self-help group, social capital also represents the potential to obtain skills, knowledge and resources, such as agricultural equipment and inputs, from their group connections. In regions characterized by marginalization, poverty, limited infrastructure and inequitable access to financial tools like loans, social capital empowers individuals by identifying common challenges and promoting collective action to overcome them. For Heifer’s project participants, this involves building relationships and networks, instilling common values, identifying prejudices, and helping group members work toward personal and shared goals in unity. Increasing the social capital in a community strengthens farmers’ ability to form effective associations like self-help groups, savings-and-loan groups, farmer-owned agribusinesses and cooperatives. These groups bring producers together, improve their access to markets, supplies, knowledge and the capital needed to grow their businesses and, in turn, earn a stable income. “Social capital helps the people and groups gain wisdom and perspectives, which keeps people’s hearts, minds and actions balanced, focused and productive,” said Buddi Khatri, associate director of social capital development for Heifer programs in Asia. “As a result, they become self-resilient and take ownership of further developments.” This was certainly the case for Beatrice. After she joined the self-help group, she found herself in the company of other women who supported her growth. The members entrusted each other with their savings and extended loans to women who required immediate financial support for their farming and business needs. “I am able to get school fees and other school requirements and clothes for children,” Beatrice said. “We have food at home. It makes me proud.” Social capital is important because it holds a functioning society together — it is built on the understanding that members of a network trust each other, can count on their reliability, and are invested in each other’s success. Social capital reduces poverty by strengthening the networks within a community that allow for the most vulnerable to take advantage of income-generating opportunities. Mutual respect, trust and shared goals are necessary for economic development and the upward mobility of poverty-stricken families. Studies show that developing norms of cooperation, social trust and civic participation are all associated with reduced instances of poverty. Networks and institutions, like efficient markets that pay producers fair prices and financial entities willing to extend loans to smallholder farmers, are built on foundations of strong social capital. In short, more trusting and effective communities are bound by positive interactions and a shared understanding of values. For smallholder farmers, like Beatrice, who are already struggling to earn enough for their family’s needs, pooling their scarce resources to create a savings-and-loan scheme requires a significant amount of trust — trust that fellow members will repay their loan in full and on time. Social capital is key to developing that trust, and vital to sustainable development. Heifer strengthens social capital by organizing project participants into groups, reinforcing shared goals and values, providing technical training and physical inputs — such as livestock, seeds or farming equipment — connecting farmers with markets, and supporting community members to take ownership of their vision of the future. Central to this work is our values-based holistic community development model (VBHCD), which places community groups at the heart of our poverty alleviating development efforts. This model — supported by Heifer’s 12 Cornerstones — is a set of trainings, discussions and reflections that inspire behavioral change among people and create a conducive environment for personal growth. In small group settings led by a Heifer-trained facilitator, who lives in the community and is familiar with the customs, members learn about and discuss the 12 Cornerstones, including values such as sharing and caring, justice and personal accountability. “They read, then they close the book and they start to reflect,” said Mahendra Lohani, Heifer’s senior vice president of Asia programs. “What does it mean to me as a family member? As a community member? As a member of my society? Whatever the participants discover is the right answer.” This community-led development model is “a systematic approach to address the constraints that affect the most vulnerable, marginalized communities,” he continued. “It transforms them in a way to take advantage of the economic forces that exist in their communities.” Around the world, improved social capital opens the doors for farmers capitalizing on these economic opportunities to improve their incomes and their families’ circumstances. For Heifer-supported groups in Central and South America, for example, that looks like shared access to improved equipment and technology, like cardamom dryers in Guatemala. During the pandemic, social capital and goodwill between rural farmers and local partners spurred innovation and led to the creation of whole new food system in Ecuador. Relationships with financial institutions that offer low-interest loans for poultry farmers in Kenya or the savings-and-loans groups in Rwanda are critical to smallholder farmers growing their enterprises. In Nepal, trained community veterinarians are earning an income of their own while keeping local farmers’ livestock healthy. And workshops, led by community facilitators in Bihar, India, create a safe space for local women to reimagine their potential by critically examining the prejudice and social attitudes holding them back. For Beatrice, now earning almost double than what she did before joining the self-help group, the outcome of social capital means reinvesting her money back into her family and supporting others in her group to grow and prosper.	https://www.heifer.org/blog/what-is-social-capital.html
Copyright © 2008 by the author(s). Published here under license by The Resilience Alliance. Go to the pdf version of this article The following is the established format for referencing this article: Njuki, J. M., M. T. Mapila, S. Zingore, and R. Delve. 2008. The dynamics of social capital in influencing use of soil management options in the Chinyanja Triangle of southern Africa. Ecology and Society 13(2): 9. [online] URL: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol13/iss2/art9/ Research The Dynamics of Social Capital in Influencing Use of Soil Management Options in the Chinyanja Triangle of Southern Africa 1International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), 2Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Pretoria, 3Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility Institute of CIAT Social capital has become a critical issue in agricultural development as it plays an important role in collective action, such as, management of common resources and collective marketing. Whilst literature exists on the role of social capital in the use and adoption of improved agricultural technology, such literature is fraught with issues of the measurement of social capital beyond membership of farmers in groups. We hypothesized that different types of social capital influence the adoption of soil management options differently. This study looked at the measurement of social capital, differentiating between the main types of social capital and employed factor analysis to aggregate indicators of social capital into bonding, bridging, and linking social capital. Using logit analysis, the role of these types of capitals on influencing use of different soil management options was analyzed. The study found that bonding, bridging, and linking social capital all influence the adoption and use of different soil management options differently, a trend that might be similar for other agricultural technologies as well. The study recommends more research investments in understanding the differentiated outcomes of these forms of social capital on use and adoption of technologies to further guide agricultural interventions. Key words: gender; smallholder farmers; social capital; soil management In rural areas of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), most people depend on agricultural production for their livelihoods. In the last three decades, numerous advances have been made in agricultural research and technology generation for increasing agricultural productivity in SSA, and for ensuring sustainable use of scarce natural resources. Adoption of such technologies has the potential to increase yields and reduce poverty, as seen in South Asia and East Asia where per capita gross domestic product (GDP) rose annually by 2.3% and 3.1%, respectively, over the last three decades (World Bank 1996). An integral part of sustained poverty reduction efforts is improved soil management and sustainable use of natural resources (Kabubo-Mariara et al. 2007, Nkonya et al. 2004). Andriesse et al. (2007), in an analysis of reports by bilateral and multilateral donors and development agencies on the role of agriculture in stimulating pro-poor economic growth and reducing hunger, found that most reports recognize the need for priority investments in the restoration of soil fertility and sustainable use of natural resources. Investments in soil management options, however, need to be accompanied by farmer capacity and willingness to use soil fertility and natural resource management options to improve agricultural productivity. At the farmer level, although there are many factors that influence adoption and use of these technologies, studies have shown that rural communities that are characterized by strong social capital have faster rates of technology diffusion and improved environmental management (Claridge 2007, Woolcock and Sweetser 2007). This is because social capital may be the most important resource available for poor communities that are often burdened with low incomes, poor education, and few material and financial assets (Woolcock and Sweetser 2007). Social capital, however, influences the use of technologies differently; for example, technologies that are knowledge intensive may require different forms of social capital than those that are labor or input intensive. Studies on the links between social capital and agricultural technologies have, however, not differentiated the different forms of social capital and how these influence the adoption and utilization of different technologies. The term “social capital” has become increasingly popular in different disciplines and an important variable in contributing to rural development. As a result of its popularity and wide application, it has generated different definitions, classifications, and measurement methods (see Bourdieu 1986, Coleman 1988, 1990, Putnam 1993). It is often quoted that social capital is “features of social organization such as networks, high levels of interpersonal trust and norms of mutual aid and reciprocity which act as resources for individuals and facilitate collective action” (Putman 1993, Lochner et al. 1999). Bourdieu (1986) defines it as the “aggregate of the actual or potential resources which are linked to possession of a durable network of more or less institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintance and recognition—or in other words to membership in a group—which provides each of its members with the backing of the collectively owned capital.” Lochner et al. (1999) adds that social capital has a collective dimension as it is external to the individual and the structure of social capital is hence different from economic capital (money, financial capital) or human capital, e.g., education and training, which are more individual. Benefits of social capital can, however, accrue to the individual as Portes (1998) argues in the definition that social capital is the ability of individuals to secure benefits through membership in networks and other social structures. Social capital captures network-based processes or aspects of social structure that generate communal benefits through norms and trust (Office for National Statistics 2001, Durlauf and Fufchamps 2004). It is the establishment of norms that permit people to work in groups, hence social capital is the consequence of intensely rooted cultural habits (Fukuyama 2004), and as a result, it is defined differently in different cultural settings. The vast literature on social capital further refines its definition to distinguish between bonding, bridging, and linking social capital. Bonding Social Capital Bonding social capital is generally defined as closed networks of close friends and relatives or horizontal relationships among equals within a localized community (Claridge 2007, Beugelsdiyk and Smulders 2003). It is the social cohesion that takes place between individuals of similar ethnic backgrounds or social status and it is reinforced by working together (Sanginga et al. 2007a). Szreter and Woolcock (2004) define bonding social capital as the trusting and cooperative relations between members who are similar in a sociodemographic sense. Some examples of this type of social capital include formal and informal clubs, groups, or associations established by farming communities in many villages across SSA. These groups may be formed through church affiliations, local traditional structures, or other localized structures. Bonding social capital is thus characterized by trust and norms that exist within the social structure. Bridging social capital, on the other hand, is widely agreed to be vertical relationships or networks that cross social groupings. These are established between people or organizations that are removed from each other and are in different communities (Claridge 2007, Beugelsdiyk and Smulders 2003). Bridging Social Capital Bridging social capital links networks requiring collaboration and coordination with other external groups to achieve set goals; for example, it can be the link between two local groups from different villages. Leonard and Onyx (2003) use five indicators of social capital (networks, reciprocity, trust, shared norms, and social agency) developed by Onyx and Mullen (2000) to define bonding and bridging social capital. The authors define bonding social capital as characterized by dense, multiplex networks, long-term reciprocity, thick trust, shared norms, and less instrumentality, whereas bridging social capital is characterized by large, loose networks, relatively strict reciprocity, and a thinner or different type of trust and more instrumentality. Linking Social Capital Linking social capital is the engagement of local groups or networks with institutions or agencies in higher influential positions (Office for National Statistics 2001, Sanginga et al. 2004, Woolcock and Sweetser 2007). Through linking social capital, groups of poor people are able to access support, resources, and information from organizations and networks. Szreter and Woolcock (2004) define it as the “norms of respect and networks of trusting relationships between people who are interacting across explicit, formal, or institutionalized power or authority gradients in society,” such as citizens’ interactions with local government. Woolcok and Narayan (2000) see bonding social capital as operating as a defense mechanism against poverty, whereas bridging social capital is what is required for real economic growth to take place. They see bonding social capital as what communities use to “get by” and bridging social capital as what they use to “get ahead.” Leonard and Onyx (2003), however, argue that bridging social capital should not replace bonding social capital as communities have multiple sources of social capital that they draw on for different functions. The three types of social capital, therefore, complement each other, in that the strong bonds existing in bonding social capital are diversified by the existence of bridging social capital, whose bonds are weaker but more cross cutting, hence enabling increased diversity in an otherwise closed community. Linking social capital allows for the accumulation of resources, information, and wealth, which is needed by networks to achieve set objectives. Hence, all three types of social capital can coexist in a community to different extents, but more frequently one maybe more prominent. With these differences between the three types of social capital, it can be assumed that they have differentiated outcomes, some of which are quantitative in nature. Farmer groups, such as farmer associations or cooperatives, create social relations and enable individuals to achieve goals that they are not able to achieve by themselves. For example, farmers can benefit from economies of scale when sharing transport to access inputs or rely on help in case of sickness or need due to the extended number of friends or people they can trust. More so, frequent interaction will most likely increase the access to information as close friends are likely to share knowledge and information. The functioning of marketing groups is based on the “ability of the group to cooperate on the trust between members” (Lyon 2000). Farmer groups have also been known to enhance the productivity of agri-businesses and are used as a channel for delivering services (Chamala and Shingi 1997). Membership into farmer groups further enables individuals to have access to capacity building efforts such as training and study tours, and to information pertaining to new agricultural technologies. The farmer group or other local-level community formal or informal structures shape norms, such as extent of trust, abiding by bylaws, settling conflicts, cooperation among members, giving gifts, or exchanging items, as well as the extent of financial contributions toward group activities or collective community problems. Numerous studies have shown that social capital facilitates the diffusion of innovations by increasing the inter-linkages among individuals (Hobbs 2001). And many more studies have been conducted to demonstrate the role of social capital in adoption of various technologies (Chou 2002, Skinner and Staiger 2005, Huijboom 2007). More recently, a number of studies have specifically looked at the role of social capital in the adoption of improved agricultural technologies, such as the adoption of improved inputs, soil and water conservation technologies, agro-forestry technologies, and improved crop management (Parthasarathy and Chopde 2000, Isham 2002, Sanginga et al. 2004, 2007a, b). All these studies concur that social capital has a positive impact on the adoption and use of improved agricultural technologies. Most of these studies linking social capital to technology use and adoption have mainly used qualitative measures of social capital, such as membership in groups or associations. Few studies have attempted to isolate the different types and aspects of social capital from a quantitative perspective. This paper looks at the empirical measurement of social capital, uses this to differentiate the different forms of social capital, and analyzes how these different forms influence the adoption and use of soil management technologies. The paper uses factor analysis to group social capital variables into three categories, thus providing an empirical analysis of the links between different types of social capital and technology use. This paper postulates that different types of social capital facilitate—to different extents—networking among rural households, which results in accumulation of knowledge and in adoption of improved soil management options. The paper contributes to the current debates in social capital by providing an empirical, quantitative method for the measurement of the different forms of social capital and the relationships that these have with the use of improved technologies by smallholder farmers. Study Location and Sampling The study was carried out in the Chinyanja Triangle, which is composed of the Eastern Province of Zambia, Southern and Central Regions of Malawi, and Tete Province of Mozambique, where the predominant language is Chinyanja. In this area, agriculture is the most predominant source of livelihood (Myburgh and Brown 2006). The area is not easily accessible and agricultural inputs are transported over long distances, making them costly and unaffordable for most smallholder farmers. Population is very dense and the land-holding size for most households is less than 1 ha (Ajayi et al. 2003, Myburgh et al. 2006). A four-stage cluster sampling technique was used to select a total of 630 farming households from Malawi, Zambia, and Mozambique. In the first stage of clustering, the three countries were purposefully selected from Southern Africa based on the criteria that they share geographical boundaries and the Nyanja language and form the Chinyanja Triangle area. In the second stage of sampling, five sites were purposefully selected from each of five districts across the three countries. Two districts were selected from Malawi (Lilongwe and Kasungu), two from Mozambique (Tsangano and Angonia), and one from Zambia (Chipata District). The districts were selected purposefully based on the criteria that several research and extension institutions are working in those districts to promote soil fertility management technologies, including the appropriate use of organic and inorganic fertilizers. In the third stage of sampling, eight communities or villages were purposefully selected to target areas working within a USAID-funded Livelihoods Improvement Program within the Chinyanja Triangle. The fourth stage involved random selection of 630 households from within the group villages. A semi-structured questionnaire was used to collect information on key variables of social and human capital, knowledge and use of improved soil management options, information pertaining to crop and livestock production, income-generating activities, markets and agro-enterprises, food security and dietary diversification, fertilizer use, as well as gender relations. For social capital variables, respondents were asked a set of questions relating to households relationships with others in and outside their communities. Data Analysis Factor analysis is used in this paper to identify the concealed types of social capital that exist and that are manifested in features of social organizations. The different types of social capital are both observable and unobservable variables as they result from complex social interactions, such as trust, norms, and shared values, whose tangibility can be measured through individual member perceptions (Durlauf and Fufchamps 2004). Factor analysis can concurrently manage large sets of variables with unknown interdependencies by using correlations to group sets of variables (Rummel 2007), where each group represents a single hidden factor. The social capital variables in this study were analyzed using the Principal Axis Factoring Method with Varimax rotation. By default, only factors with eigenvalues greater than one are retained in the analysis; for this study, however, only factors whose eigenvalues were greater than 1.3 were retained, as this entails that the factor is accounting for a greater proportion of the variance than the original variable and hence it facilitates better interpretation. Additionally, only variables with factor loadings greater than 0.3 were used for the factor analysis. Using factor score regression, a new data set representing each household sampled was generated and this was used to incorporate social capital as a variable in the development of a logit model to analyze the relationship between the social capital factors existing and the use of improved agricultural technologies. Onyx and Mullen (2000) have similarly used factor analysis to group social capital variables. Choices between different strategies are commonly modeled using binary models like probit and logit. Logit regression was used to analyze the determinants of farmers’ use of certain technologies. Several studies have used the logit model in relation to adoption of different technologies (Mariam et al. 1993, Buckles et al. 1998, Zegeye et al. 2001, De Groote et al. 2002, Cramb 2004, Nyende and Delve 2004). The estimated regression model predicts the probability that the dependent variable takes a value of 1. Logit(pi) = ln (pi/1 - pi) = β1x1,i + ....+ βkxk,i The unknown parameters βj are usually estimated by likelihood. The interpretation of the βj parameter estimates is as the additive effect on the log odds ratio for a unit change in the jth explanatory variable. The three social capital variables extracted in the factor analysis are included as variables in the logit model using the factor scores that were generated. Principal Factor Analysis From the analysis of social capital variables used in the Factor Analysis, three underlying factors of social capital emerged (Table 1). Factor 1 can be termed “Bonding Social Capital.” This is because different variables that facilitate creation of cohesion among people in a community have high positive loadings. This includes cooperation among people (0.848), extent of trust among people (0.784), and participation in community activities (0.654). Other signs of solidarity, such as the extent of settling conflicts and extent of abiding by norms, also have factor loadings that can be considered to be on the greater side (greater than 0.3). The extremely high positive loading on cooperation, implies that creation of trust, settling of conflicts, participation in community activities, and abiding by norms are all enabled by an environment where there is high cooperation between and among the people. These findings concur with studies by Bowles and Gintis (2002, as quoted by Durlauf and Fufchamps 2004) that found that bonding social capital generally refers to trust and a willingness to live by norms and bylaws of one’s community. Bonding social capital as seen from the factor loadings is a characteristic of within-group relations, the extent to which people within the same group or community cooperate with each other, participate in joint activities, and the extent to which they trust one another. Pretty et al. (2005) defines bonding social capital as the connectedness that exists between individuals within local groups and communities or what they refer to as local connections. It is the links between people that have similar outlooks and objectives. These connections may take many forms, such as exchange of information, exchange of gifts and reciprocity, helping each other out, working collectively toward a common goal among other things. Bonding social capital is linked to high levels of trust, reciprocity, and community action. These characteristics of bonding social capital are expected to be positively linked to adoption and use of technologies that require collective action, such as soil erosion control, pest and disease management, and management. The bonding social capital is also expected to have a positive relationship with technologies that require pooling of labor due to their labor-intensive nature. Some groups in Kenya, for example, were formed for the purpose of pooling and sharing labor across households especially for soil and water conservation. The second factor of social capital that has emerged with high positive loadings can be associated with bridging and linking social capital. Variables loading onto this factor include membership in groups outside of one’s community, extent of financial contributions for group and wider collective activities, and links with extension staff and access to training by other organizations. All these variables have aspects of links or networking across groups and with outside organizations. The bridging and linking social capital implies links across groups, across communities, and with other organizations. These two types of social capital are expected to have a positive relationship with knowledge-intensive technologies that require sharing of information on their use, training, or visiting other farmers, research institutions, and other organizations where these technologies are developed or demonstrated. It is not surprising that group formation and the presence of extension have loaded highly on the same factor as empirical evidence has shown that one of the key roles of extension service providers is to help farmers or community members empower themselves to form groups that are organized for development. The third factor that does not seem to fit within any of the existing social capital classifications in the literature is related to gender relations at the community level, as indicated by high positive loadings on women’s ability to speak with confidence in pubic and men’s respect and consideration of ideas given by women. These two factors represent women’s empowerment and improved gender relations at the community level, and this could be enhanced due to the high levels of cohesion that exist within the communities as explained by factor 1. The higher loading on men’s respect and consideration for women’s ideas indicates empowerment of women and men’s acceptance of women as partners in development. We have called this factor “gendered social capital” and it is expected to have a positive relationship with technologies that favor women, whether in terms of reducing their labor or increasing their cash returns. Technology Use Several soil management options were considered. The technologies, their characteristics, and uses are summarized in Table 2. From Table 3 it can be seen that different types of technologies are widely used in different combinations across the three countries. Two of the most commonly used technologies in Malawi besides inorganic fertilizer were early ploughing (49%) and incorporation of crop residues (47%). In Zambia, the most commonly used technologies were crop rotation (86%) and the use of animal manure (47%). Incorporation of crop residue was used by 85% of the farmers in Mozambique, whereas early ploughing was used by 47%. Across the three countries, crop rotation was the most commonly used technology, with 57% of farmers using it, followed by incorporation of crop residue and early ploughing. The use of botanicals was not common, and was used by less than 10 of the 630 farmers interviewed. Relationship between Social Capital and Technology Use Adam and Roncevic (2003) make several conceptualizations of social capital, one of which is social capital as catalyst for disseminating human and intellectual capital. They postulate that economic capital on its own is not sufficient to achieve certain development goals and that social capital is required as an asset that can facilitate the circulation, recombination, and reconfiguration of human capital in order to make it useful for technological application and for the solution of both social and economic problems. The authors see a slow link between social capital and the application of human and technological knowledge. The factors influencing use of the technologies varied widely and these are presented in the results of the logit model (Table 4). Bridging and linking social capital significantly influenced the use of crop rotation, crop residues, planting of agroforestry trees and the use of inorganic fertilizers. Gender was more linked to soil erosion structures, planting of agroforestry trees, use of cover crops, and fallows. Crop residue incorporation increases the organic matter content of soil and hence soil fertility. The type of residue, time of incorporation, and role in organic matter in crop production is a knowledge-intensive process, and this knowledge is acquired through technology messages, on-farm demonstrations, and field visits to other farmers using these technologies. This is unlike other less knowledge-intensive technologies, e.g., inorganic fertilizers. Results show that farmers with more linking and bridging social capital use these technologies more than farmers who have fewer links (Table 4). Kiptot et al. (2006) found that although informal and kinship networks were useful for the dissemination of seed, they were not commonly used for dissemination of knowledge and knowledge-intensive technologies. Although social capital increases farmer’s adoption of soil conservation measures (Cramb 2004), the results show that it has a significant negative relationship with crop rotation, planting of agroforestry trees, and use of inorganic fertilizers (Table 4). One reason is that it is smallholders with larger land sizes and access to capital that most often use crop rotations and purchase inorganic fertilizers and these smallholders are the least likely to depend on social networks for support compared with poorer households with smaller land holdings. A Pearson test showed a negative significant correlation (at p = 0.01) between the bonding and linking social capital and land size indicating the greater the land size, the lower the farmers’ bonding and social capital. Bonding social capital was found to be positively significant in influencing the use of cover crops. This implies that stronger bonds or cohesion within a community will lead to more members growing cover crops. This can be attributed to that for many rural communities with low access to improved technologies; access to seeds for many crops, including cover crops, is through informal networks and interactions (Winters et al. 2006) and within a village of clansmen, the seeds are shared and this positively influences their use. A study in Kenya (Kiptot et al. 2006) found that most seed dissemination of agroforestry trees and shrubs were along kinship ties rather than formal systems of seed distribution. It is, however, not surprising that the existence of bonding social capital was only significant in influencing the adoption of one type of improved technology. Other studies conducted by Winters et al. (2006) similarly found that households with strong bonding social capital are less likely to be diversified in their adoption and use of improved innovations. Gender was expected to have a positive relationship with technologies that were in favor of women, either in terms of increasing their incomes, improving their access to resources or reducing their labor. This category of technologies included agroforestry trees and legume cover crops. In this analysis, gender social capital was found to have a positive and significant relationship with agroforestry trees, which may be attributed to the fact that the use of agroforestry trees increases access by women to firewood sources, fodder for livestock, and fruit trees. Although the study did not distinguish what kind of agroforestry trees were being planted by households, it can be assumed that some of these trees have uses of benefit to women. Cover crops as expected were also found to have a significant relationship with the gender variable. Cover crops are mainly legumes, such as soya beans, lablab, and groundnuts. For women, legumes offer a more attractive source of household income than traditional cash crops in southern Africa, such as tobacco, cotton, and maize as these are often controlled by men. The positive significant relationship between soil erosion control and gender was unexpected. It had been hypothesized that due to the high labor requirement of constructing and maintaining soil erosion control structures, that the relationship between the gender variable and soil erosion structures would be negative. However, one of the most common form’s of soil erosion control in Malawi is the planting of vetiver grass. Apart from being an effective mechanism for the control of erosion, the grass also provides fodder within the confines of their own farms for livestock, thereby reducing women’s time and labor for harvesting fodder in communal areas. Additionally, the positive relationship also means that, as women are empowered, they are better able to find means of ensuring that labor-intensive technologies that normally elude them, are incorporated into their farmsteads. The negative significant relationship between gendered social capital and fallowing of land is not unexpected. Literature shows that land owned and managed by women is often under utilized due to lack of sufficient labor, information, education, and resources (Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) 1995, Pinkard 2006). Other Determinants of Technology Use From the analysis, the sex of the household head was found to have a positive and significant relationship with soil erosion control and fallows, and a negative relationship with inorganic fertilizers. This implies that households that were headed by men were more likely to use soil erosion structures and fallows than households headed by women. The effects of the sex of the head of household, however, has more to do with the unequal access to resources by women, which is common in most African countries. Women have been found to have less access and control of resources, such as land and property, and less access to services such as agricultural credit and information (Quisumbing et al. 1995, Njuki 2001). Various studies have looked at the role of land size in determining the use of soil and water management technologies (Isham 2002, Kaliba et al. 2000, Marenya and Barrett 2007, Waithaka et al. 2007). The probability of using fertilizer, fallows, crop rotation, and soil erosion control was positive and significant. Although some of the technologies, such as fallows, are land and scale dependent and not appropriate for households with small land sizes, for others the effects may be due to other factors that are related to land. These may include the fact that wealthier households have bigger farm sizes and are also able to purchase fertilizers, and they have a broader crop mix and therefore use crop rotations. A study by Marenya and Barrett (2007) found significant relationships between farm size and the use of stover lines, agroforestry, manure, and inorganic fertilizers in Western Kenya. Older heads of households were more likely to use agroforestry trees and fallows. This is due to the larger land sizes associated with older people. In the customary land-tenure system common in the three countries, land is distributed by traditional chiefs. Young people, when they marry, then receive land from the chief or from their parents. Due to this age-dependent system, younger people tend to have smaller land sizes than older people. One of the commonly neglected factors in assessing the use of technologies by smallholder farmers is the role of farmers’ own perceptions of both the technologies and the status of their soils. Farmers’ perceptions were found to play an important role in determining the use of technologies. Farmers who perceived fertilizers to be bad for the soil were more likely to use other soil management options. There was a negative correlation between the perception of fertilizers as good for the soil and the use of most of the technologies, including crop rotation, agroforestry trees, cover crops, and fallows. Farmers who perceived their soils to be fertile were also less likely to use soil management options and soil erosion control strategies. This was especially significant for the use of cover crops, and soil erosion management. Although farmers’ perceptions of different technologies have been sought, studied, and documented, they have rarely been used ito model the determinants of technology use. The results of this study show that the use of various soil management technologies depends on socioeconomic variables and the existence of different dimensions of social capital. Social capital is especially important in determining whether households have access to, and therefore use, different soil management technologies. Although different studies have looked at social capital in terms of membership in groups, this study shows the need to differentiate different kinds of social capital as these influence technology adoption differently. There is, therefore, a need to develop multiple indicators for measuring the different forms of social capital and how these forms influence research and development outcomes. The study finds that bonding, bridging, and linking social capital all influence the adoption and use of different soil fertility management options, a trend that might be similar for other agricultural technologies as well. The study recommends investments especially by development organizations in strengthening these different forms of social capital by supporting local kinship or community groups that generate social capital, promoting farmer access and links with external organizations that can act as sources of information and technologies for farmers, as well as links with other farmer associations and groupings from whom they can learn. Gendered social capital was found to be a critical factor in improving the adoption and use of technologies that are especially beneficial for livelihood outcomes. Extension and community development programs, therefore, need to deliberately incorporate gender within extension and other programs aimed at increasing access to technologies; they need to promote technologies that are beneficial to women in terms of increasing their incomes or reducing their labor. Efforts to promote the empowerment of women, increase their voice, and improve household gender relations are crucial. Lastly, in order to broaden the knowledge base and adoption of improved technologies, it is essential that the entry point for working with communities ensures that there are links between these communities and other groups of farmers in order to broaden the scope for networking beyond local community and kinship groupings. Responses to this article are invited. If accepted for publication, your response will be hyperlinked to the article. To submit a response, follow this link. To read responses already accepted, follow this link. 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This article analyzes the importance of social capital in the emergence of local institutions and the contribution of these institutions to the governance of rural territories. By valuing useful links between people and favoring the formalization of these types of links, social capital facilitates the establishment of local ways of managing rural territories and their resources. A vision of governance of rural territories is presented, based on local institutions that formalize social relationships and organizations in these territories. It is considered that community forms of organization in rural territories are more effective for the administration of local resources, than actions implemented by the States or external actors. Specifically, a case study is carried out on a rural organization, the General Board of Users of the Pirca Irrigation System, located in the San José de Minas parish of Ecuador. The presence and contribution of social capital to the institutionalization of the Board and its contribution to the establishment of a local governance in the territory is analyzed. Introduction The marked poverty and inequality of rural territories compared to large cities, as well as the permanent disinterest or historical inefficiency of the Ecuadorian State in establishing policies and actions that contribute to the development of rural territories, leads those who study these territories in Ecuador to rethink governance and development alternatives for them. This article analyzes social capital as a precursor for the formation of local institutions and how these institutions facilitate their own or endogenous governance of rural inhabitants over their territories; allowing the administration of local resources present in these rural territories. By social capital we understand all the resources or potential resources that can be linked to a network of interpersonal relationships, more or less institutionalized (Bourdieu 1980). Social capital studies the useful links established by individuals to satisfy needs or interests, for example trust and cooperation are resources that individuals maintain in their relationships. These resources in social relations are valued and can be accumulated, therefore they constitute a type of capital. Bourdieu (1980) raises the existence of different types of capital, such as social capital and cultural capital, contradicting the position of a purely economic capital which considers only productive factors such as land, machinery and work. There are non- financial capitals that must be taken into account within socioeconomic studies, specifically on means of production and productive factors, since there is a marked influence of these types of capital on productive activities. It is considered that individuals obtain material benefits such as services, which are provided from useful relationships derived from their belonging to a certain group. The diversity of the groups presents opportunities for individuals to access different types of capital (Bourdieu 1980), there are strategic interpersonal networks formed and oriented to common interests. Coleman (2001) analyzes social capital from its function, giving utility to social relations. It starts from the rational action that people take, but leaves aside solely personal benefits, taking into account the relationships between individuals. Social capital sets aside individualism, not out of altruism, but for interest. Cooperation between individuals with a common interest is considered to be more beneficial to each individual than the individual benefit obtained through individual management. Coleman (2001) studies how social organizations influence the functionality of economic activities. Social capital is productive, it allows individuals to achieve goals and interests. The strength of the bonds between individuals provides security in the transactions, outside these bonds of trust, these transactions could not be carried out. Coleman (2001) assesses the constitutive aspects of social relationships and structures, aspects such as interactions, obligations, norms and sanctions. This author considers that effective norms and sanctions are forms of social capital that imply an institutional framework of social relations, which facilitates and limits the performance of actions by individuals. Another author who works on social capital from an institutional or collective perspective is John Durston, who considers social capital as “the content of certain social relationships and structures, that is, the attitudes of trust that occur in combination with behaviors of reciprocity and cooperation” (Durston 2002, 15). This author mentions that social capital contributes with 3 types of benefits: it produces public goods, reduces transaction costs and allows the constitution of solid organizations. Durston (2000) mentions two forms of social capital, individual based on reciprocity between people and communal or collective based on norms and organizations created through group cooperation. This collective perspective of social capital is the one emphasized in this article. A vision of local governance of the territories is proposed, based on the institutionalization of useful relationships or links between the inhabitants of these territories. Social capital from a collective perspective contributes to the formation of institutions that go beyond interpersonal relationships. The institution being a social group determined by a system of rules that establishes a form of cultural exchange, composed of mechanisms of order and cooperation, normalizing the practices of individuals (Lapassade 1974); allows directing the actions of people, to achieve specific ends and satisfy common interests. This institutional framework provides greater functionality and efficiency to relationships and organizations in achieving common needs. Collective social capital values the formal or institutional aspects of human relations, such as regulations, procedures, behaviors, sanctions. The consolidation and effectiveness of the institutions in the territories goes through the previous reciprocal relations and common objectives between the individuals. Institutions provide an infrastructure that allows order and avoids uncertainty for individuals in their relationships (North 1993), for these institutions to take shape or be effective, there must be certain prior correspondence between their members. In general, institutions in rural areas are formed as investment strategies that seek a regulated return to satisfy common needs and interests. These needs or interests could hardly be satisfied from individual efforts. Local institutions that are formed in rural territories, generally for productive purposes, in addition to generating profitability, employment, exchange of services, exchange of knowledge, ease of access to local resources and distribution of goods among their members, contribute to the governance of the territories. A vision of governance for rural territories is proposed from the institutionalization of reciprocity relations, in this sense it is understood that “governance is being seen as a process of economic coordination, capacity development, creation and strengthening of local institutions that have for the purpose of reducing transaction costs, from a neo- institutional economics and sociology point of view” (Torres Salcido, G .; Ramos Chávez, H. 2008, 81). Local institutions contribute to the governance of territories, “governance is characterized by a network of institutions and individuals that collaborate together and united by a pact of mutual trust, they are organizations of power that form semi-autonomous and sometimes self-governed networks” (Zurbriggen 2011 , 43). Local institutions in rural areas allow forms of governance in the territory that establish a greater representation of the inhabitants of said territories, as well as a better interrelation with: the State and with other local, national and international institutions. This since they empower the inhabitants of these territories. “The importance of the theory of social capital for the strategies of overcoming poverty and the integration of excluded social sectors is in the way in which it complements empowerment. ” (Durston 2000, 33). Empowerment constitutes a premeditated social process, which aims to change power relations (Sen 1997), by generating opportunities for one or more individuals. It is not based on a power granted by a higher authority, but rather a power acquired through self- management, which consists of enhancing the pre-existing strengths of a person or a group of people. Empowerment should not be considered as a neutral process, but as a process that seeks to gain control by substituting the external barriers that influence access to resources (Sen 1997). Empowerment is conceived from the local, from self-management. Private investments can show development in rural areas, but these investments in many cases do not include local inhabitants, who are spectators of activities that generate benefits but do not necessarily include them. Institutions make it possible to avoid external threats, for example they prevent external actors from working on local resources. Through an institutionalized organization, the resources of the territories can be concessioned and have certain legal security in their management. The institutionalization of useful relationships or links is key to empowering individuals in excluded territories, since an organization, being established, is legitimate and allows its members to establish negotiations as a bloc. Individual needs are formalized and channeled, through the institution, the individual home is connected with public institutions and with private companies. Social capital constitutes a bridge for regional alliances (Durston 2002), individuals through institutions can expand their social capital networks, including generating external coalitions or “bridging”, the form of social capital that analyzes the relationship of individuals and organizations with external factors (Putnam 2000). Bebbington (2001) also makes an approach about the alliances that community organizations should take into account. It considers that the ties that are forged with non- governmental organizations (NGOs), municipalities, federations, among others, should be analyzed. When groups become institutionalized, they can generate pressure on political decision-making on the territory. In rural areas, local institutions have more influence on the governance of the territories, mainly because they are often the only institutions present in them; contrary to cities, where political institutions are more present, due to the fact that the State administration tends to be centralized. Although there are some political institutions in rural territories, these generally manage very large territories and in most cases obey the territorial order of the States, without necessarily having a very broad knowledge of specific territories. While the local institutions that are generated from associations between individuals in rural territories manage internal, decentralized and specific levels of action. Specifically, the local institutions in charge of the use or administration of natural resources, such as the Water Boards, represent central axes of productive activity in the territories, but they are also considered a central focus in their administration. Irrigation projects represent a fundamental factor for social organization in the Andes, specifically in rural areas. Irrigation constitutes a communal issue that allows establishing a symbiosis between the community and the economy (Boelens, Dávila 1998). Case Study The case study of this article is carried out precisely in a Water Board, called: General Board of Users of the Pirca Irrigation System, located in the San José de Minas parish. The territory of the present investigation constitutes the former farm of Pirca, currently the sector known as “Alance”, where the workers of the former farm settle and who were acquiring plots after the dissolution of this and formed the Board of Waters of Pirca ago more than 50 years. The Pirca Water Board, through its Board of Directors, has the main function of managing the Pirca drought. Part of its management consists of creating and maintaining the infrastructure of the irrigation canal, this is usually done by carrying out mingas and specialized works in the maintenance of the irrigation canal. The extension of the irrigation canal is approximately 28 km, the irrigation system is conventional and the irrigation method uses gravity. Regarding the flow, this is approximately 22 liters per second, the irrigation canal crosses for 300 (ha); Depending on the day of assignment, the Board members use the water by raising gates that go to their hoses in order to carry water to their plots. Figure 1. Irrigation Canal Representation Figure 1 corresponds to a satellite image of the year 2020, which was processed with a digital model of the terrain, this allows to see the geomorphology of the terrain in three dimensions. The route of the irrigation canal and its descending route are observed, operating by means of gravity. After the fall of the water from the waterfall, there are intakes from water holes, from where the water is captured and directed along the channel. Only the main irrigation canal is represented, since there are hundreds of branches throughout the territory and that supply water to each land where the members of the Board live. Once the irrigation canal is characterized, the methodology used in this article is exposed to solve the following objectives: firstly, to identify social capital that contributes to the institutionalization of the Pirca Board. Secondly, and in case it is demonstrated that the Pirca Water Board constitutes an institution, its contribution to the governance of the territory. Social capital in the forming of institutions In order to identify the presence of social capital in the Pirca Board, which contributes to the institutionalization of this organization and its contribution to the governance of the territory, a mixed methodology was applied, addressing quantitative and qualitative techniques of social investigation. Regarding the quantitative methodology, surveys were carried out on a sample of all the members of the Board, this sample corresponded to 32 people. Questions with multiple choice answers were designed, which were asked to selected Board members. These questions were based on the postulates of the authors previously described. In the qualitative field, interviews were conducted to key stakeholders of the Pirca Board, including its board of directors. Likewise the participant observation technique was applied, attending several official meetings of the Board, called General Assemblies. Although within the existing literature there is no consensus methodology regarding the identification and measurement of social capital, variables have been generated for its identification and measurement thought. Durston (2002) from a collective perspective of social capital identifies some variables: the control norms determined by the group, the sanction or punishment of individuals who transgress the determined norms, trust as the willingness to deliver their own goods (Durston 2001), reciprocity as relational transactions, cooperation aimed at achieving objectives, conflict resolution by an instance of judgment within the group, mobilization and management of resources present in the territory, the election of leaders and the implementation of structures for the execution of specific works. Narayan and Cassidy (2001) establish a diagram regarding the dimensions of social capital, where they establish variables such as the types of contribution of the participants to the groups they belong to, the frequency of participation, the heterogeneity of the group, the generalized norms, the solidarity, voluntary actions and trust. Espinoza (2001) considers the following variables for the measurement of social capital: Associativity, it has to do with the interest of people to participate in the actions of the group, Density, which establishes belonging or considering themselves part of the community, Centrality that has to do with the coordination that is maintained between internal and external relations, Mediation, it has to do with the processes of recognition of a member as part of an organization, Fractions, the level of conflict present in the group is measured. There are ways in which social capital can be evaluated in an irrigation system, Bebbington (2001) mentions that the ease of organization in resolving conflicts can be valued, that is, the ability to solve problems derived from the use of water irrigation. Likewise, the establishment of sanctions and the execution of the norms agreed within the organizations that are dedicated to the administration of irrigation are analyzed. Another aspect is the management and mobilization of resources, is the management to carry a service to those who are part of the organization (Durston 2002), this includes the generation of infrastructure and technical assistance. This management and mobilization of resources must be carried out from a fair and sustainable environment. Because the information transmitted by individuals constitutes part of social capital, communication must necessarily be an aspect to be taken into account in the evaluation of social capital in organizations. The spaces and means by which individuals communicate within organizations must be considered. Cooperation between individuals must be analyzed since it has to do with the management of individuals to mobilize resources (Durston 2002), this coordination is aimed at carrying out activities related to the irrigation canal, which also have to do with democratic participation. The concepts and variables mentioned, allowed to elaborate the questions for the elaboration of the surveys, which were applied to a representative sample of the members of the Board. The members were asked about the social capital variables present in their organization, then their responses were tabulated using specific software. Figure 2. Presence of collective social capital in the Board of Pirca Source: Own elaboration 2020 Figure 2 shows the variables that were used to determine the existence of social capital in the Board of Pirca from a quantitative view, also in towards a collective or institutional perspective. Because all the variables were represented in percentages, the results could be located within a comparative percentage table, which systematizes the social capital variables. For the variables that had several response categories (such as “often”, “sometimes”, “never”), the category with the highest frequency was selected. Financial capital is important but the basis of management lies in trust. Figure 2 shows the general perception of the members of the Board surveyed, regarding the variables of social capital consulted. This multivariate graph shows the presence of social capital in the Board and allows us to observe the degree of social capital from a quantitative point of view. Also Figure 2 shows how solid is the social capital present in this organization. In which aspects it is strong and what weaknesses are present. The variables of valued opinion, sense of belonging, absence of significant conflicts among its members, justice and trust in the Board account forms of social exchange and interpersonal values oriented to mutual interests; This allows and facilitates the establishment of regulatory mechanisms on the forms and practices that are agreed upon, since there is a predisposition and general agreement to regulate common practices, and in order to make them more effective and avoid arbitrariness. The majority of respondents agree with the economic contributions, they recognize the importance of financial capital and the need to contribute financially, but these contributions are only given thanks to the trust they have in the board of Directors and the other members of the Board. Board members are willing to hand over part of their individual resources and invest them in stocks for mutual benefits. It is possible to appreciate the presence of variables that are precursors for the institutionalization of the relations between the members of the Board, for example the attendance to the General Assemblies, the associativity or the participation in “mingas” (traditional cooperative work); this last practice, as could be corroborated in the territory, is carried out constantly and has a high degree of acceptance. This type of more or less institutionalized regular practices or behaviors are easy to regulate since there is a need or common interest to reproduce this type of productive relationship. Social capital variables are identified and account the existence of institutionalization processes of the Water Board, such as the presence of regulations in the organization. As it was observed when the General Assemblies were attended, there is a Statute of the Water Board, as well as procedures such as taking a list, where the Assembly only starts if there is half plus one of the Board members; also there are Acts of each meeting and agendas to be discussed previously approved. It was observed that the Board is legally constituted and recognized, complying with what is dictated in the Ecuadorian case for its legalization, obtaining legal status. In this sense, the action of the Water Board is legal, allowing the award of water intakes. There has been an important intervention of farmers who belong to the Board in the processes of legalization. “Farmers of the Board who originally came from the city have helped a lot, they know other things, they have contacts, they know about laws and they help with the papers that they must be done in Quito” (Danilo Naranjo, August 2018). The heterogeneity of the Board enriches the current social capital, since it allows the exchange of knowledge, services and contracts among the members. In addition to the legal processes for the recognition of legal status of the Board and the concessions of water intakes, the institutionalization of the processes regulates the activities of the Board members, avoiding arbitrariness and allowing better water management. The variables of social capital such as regulations, rules or procedures, make the functions of the Water Board effective, allowing democratic decision-making, justice in the distribution benefits the organization to satisfy the production and profitability needs of the Board members. Effective relationships and useful links between individuals and formalizing them allow the Board members to obtain a greater benefit from these relationships, “organization has always been the only way to solve needs and carry out projects” (Jorge Morales, August 2018). The social capital present in the Pirca Board has contributed and continues its contribution to strengthen its institutionalization, although there are aspects that must be worked on, for example creating and improving the sanction and exclusion mechanisms for those who violate the Board’s regulations. Regardless that, this study concludes that, the Pirca Water Board has enough aspects to consider it an Institution. Social capital not only contributes but allows the emergence of local institutions, legal recognitions are only the process for regulating constant behavior. Regulating constant actions or processes favor the institutionalization, but this only regulates processes and actions that are already established, stable and legitimate. The links between individuals form institutions, as solid as social capital is the more effective the institution will be. This postulate can be applied to all types of social organizations. Especially in rural areas, productive institutions, mainly those in charge of irrigation management, have a special connotation, since they constitute a central axis of economic activity; where their actions go beyond only the interests of productivity, these indeed can have a significant role in the governance of the territory. Contribution of the Institution to the Governance of the Territory It is analyzed whether the Pirca Water Board contributes to governance in the territory. Although the general function of the Board does not have to do with the exercise of governance, the fact that it administers the irrigation canal of the territory, necessarily places the institution in the axis of the productive and political sphere of the territory, mainly because it is an area purely agrarian. Managing the main resource for agricultural production entails a priority attention of the inhabitants of the territory towards the Board, establishing implicit governance processes, “territorial actors are much more significant when it comes to ensuring or building a real change than what occurs within the territory and determine if it will be viable or not and sustained.” (Berdegué et al; 2015, 11). Based on the perception of the respondents, 56.3% of these mentioned not being entirely satisfied with the government services in the territory. On the other hand, there is considerably greater trust towards the Board (71.90%), indicating a greater legitimacy towards the Board than towards state and municipal institutions. Part of the legitimacy of the Board has to do with the fact that the institutions that make political decisions about the parish correspond to centralized administrations in large cities, in this case the Metropolitan District of Quito. This is confirmed by 56.3% of those surveyed who consider that the political administration of the parish is not centralized in the same territory, where the decisions made are not necessarily made under specific knowledge of the area. In rural areas, local institutions and organizations are often the only instances to which the inhabitants can turn to solve their conflicts, as the vice president of the Board mentions “in the meetings we talk about problems that occur where we live, that, if someone has a complaint, he speaks to the Board” (Danilo Naranjo, August 2018). The presence of specific government entities in the area of conflict resolution is limited and community organizations allow for local administration and justice enforcement systems. It could be observed in the General Assemblies that the Board to some extent exerts pressure on its members, in order to preserve and prioritize common interests. Although the sanction mechanisms are not entirely effective, it was noted that there is group pressure that affects the behavior of individuals, avoiding excesses or impairment of rights in the use of water. Although the General Assemblies are spaces that bring together all the members of the Board to discuss issues related to the irrigation canal, it was evidenced that these spaces also serve for members to deal with other types of problems with their neighbors, for example criminal activities that arise in the territory, improvement of roads or rapprochement with other organizations for the generation of external alliances. The Board can exert greater pressure on the Parish Board and the security and control institutions, each member of the board has more possibilities of being heard through the Water Board than individually, there is greater individual political representation by being part of the Water Board. This article considers local institutions as forms of government, as ways of managing the territory. Institutions are agreed spaces that go beyond the will of each individual, regulate the behavior and activities that individuals can exercise, establishing common benefits. Part of these benefits has to do with greater political representation, an empowerment of individuals over their territories, the possibility of negotiating as a bloc, establishing external alliances and avoiding external threats. Figure 3. Political Representation of Individuals Source: Own elaboration 2020 Figure 3 establishes a comparison regarding the representativeness of individuals who belong to an institution compared to others who do not, in the first case all members of an institution benefit from all the relationships that the institution maintains with other actors. While in the case of the right, few individuals have access to and can benefit from relationships with other actors, although these will hardly be able to have relationships with all relevant actors. An example of this were the relationships maintained by the Water Board with the Provincial Council in 2018, this approach from the Board, allowed the donation of a large part of the pipe that was used for the irrigation canal works; “Cooperation between institutions should continue to be sought to improve the service provided to the members of the Irrigation Canal” (Danilo Naranjo, August 2018). Institutions allow their own or endogenous governance, in the sense that it is the inhabitants themselves who can make decisions about the territory, establish external alliances and avoid external threats, but perhaps the main reason has to do with the fact that they allow the administration of own resources. Governance from institutions has to do with the empowerment of the territory, this empowerment deals with a power acquired through self-management (Sen 1997). If the resources of the territory are managed by community organizations and not by external institutions that perhaps do not know the entire territory or seek a commission for the work they can carry out, there will be a better use of resources, including more a more sustainable management. At the moment the Water Board is pressuring the Parish Board for the formation of mancomunidades, with other parishes such as those of Puéllaro and Perucho. “The idea is to keep the territories out of mining or deforestation, it seeks to avoid the presence of extractive companies that affect the environment, declaring them protected areas” (Danilo Naranjo, August 2018). The institution allows better management of its own resources, a legal use of them, the possibility of negotiating with external actors and avoiding external threats; the latter in the sense that keeping certain resources under concession prevents new possessions or uses of them. It should be clarified that the benefits are not necessarily going to be the same for all members, for example being able to access irrigation water will benefit more individuals who have a reservoir. Belonging to the institution benefits everyone, but there is a difference in the individual impact. Finally, local institutions allow the emergence of local leaders, who are elected. In the case of the Water Board the president is elected by majority vote, the fact of having legitimate local leaders allows in part the self-determination and self-regulation of the territories. Final Thoughts This article analyzed the importance of social capital in the formation of local institutions and the contribution of these institutions to the governance of rural territories. The presence of social capital from a collective perspective was evidenced in the Pirca Board, which has contributed to the institutionalization of this organization, and it was also evidenced that the Pirca Board contributes to the governance of the territory. In the case of study, the social capital manifested in customary practices, agreements, procedures, regulations and norms have allowed the consolidation of the Board of Pirca as an institution. This institution has had a marked importance within the governance of the territory. Being part of the institution gives political representation to individuals, allows them to empower the territory, manage its resources, establish alliances with political actors for the benefit of the territory and avoid external threats. The regulations and actions instituted allow efficient management of resources, the establishment of rules allows resources to be distributed in a more just and equitable way, it allows the territory to be governed from the local inhabitants, from self-management. This is only possible if there are previous links and agreements, that is, social capital. The imposition of an institutionality will be ephemeral and inefficient; this must be part of the process of formalizing existing relations and organizations. Governments should not impose institutions in rural territories. If what the government is looking for is to generate public policy aimed at rural development, it should strengthen and cooperate with the organizations present, facilitate their institutionalization rather than impose new institutions. As rural actors are the ones who know the territory and its needs, local organizations that have already been created must be supported; it is not about creating organizations but rather about consolidating and instituting existing links. Social capital in the formation of local institutions and their contribution to territorial governance. Social capital does not necessarily have to do with empathy, but with the interests of individuals. Although the affinity between individuals can be beneficial, in the General Assembly Board it was observed that not all individuals have an affinity, but they understand the importance of the organization, to generate agreements to fulfill their interests. The study of social capital does not imply downplaying other types of capital, but relating to them. Trust, for example, facilitates financial capital transactions, if there is no trust between the members of a group, they would not risk investing in works for the canal. It is clear that the benefit between the members of the Board is differentiated, likewise not all the individuals present in the territory may be part of all the organizations located in the territory, in the case of those who do not belong to an organization may consider the option to enter this, even so this requires a prior investment. In the event of not having the facilities or sufficient capital (whatever this may be) to enter an organization, individuals may choose to associate with other individuals who have common needs or objectives, in order to carry out joint actions; there is greater individual benefit after collective management. Social relationships are essential for individuals to establish common interests and generate links. Local integration is impossible if I do not know my neighbors, in this sense meetings, events, parties that allow the establishment of social relationships are important. The organization studied in this case was linked to the management of an irrigation canal, however, in all organizations the presence of social capital can be studied, its contribution to the institutional framework of relationships and its possible contribution to the governance of the territories if applied. It does not matter if it is a group of artisans, ranchers or farmers, the type of links may change, but the consolidation of local institutions constitutes a competitive advantage for its members. It also allows the self- determination of individuals towards their territory, allowing governance from rural territories to rural territories. Bibliography Bebbington Anthony. 2001. Capital Social en los Andes. Quito: Abya-Yala. Berdegué Julio, Bebbington Anthony, Escobal Javier. 2015. “Conceptualizando la diversidad espacial en el desarrollo rural latinoamericano: estructuras, instituciones y coaliciones“. Centro Latinoamericano para el Desarrollo Rural 165: 1-28. Bourdieu Pierre. 1987. “Los tres estados del capital cultural”. Sociológica 5 (2): 11-17 Bourdieu Pierre 2001. “El capital social. Apuntes provisionales”. Zona Abierta 94-95: 83- 87. Coleman James 2001. “Capital social y creación de capital humano”. Zona Abierta 94- 95: 47-81. Coleman, James S. (1990), The Foundations of Social Theory. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Coleman James 1986. “Social Theory, Social Research, and a Theory of Action”. American Journal of Sociology 91: 1399-1335. Durston John. 2000. ” ¿Qué es el capital social comunitario?” CEPAL 38: 3-41. Durston John. 2002. El capital social campesino en la gestión del desarrollo rural. Santiago: CEPAL Durston, John. 2001. “Capital Social parte del problema parte de la solución”. CEPAL: 1-43 Espinoza, Vicente 2001, “Indicadores y generación de datos para un estudio comparativo de capital social y trayectorias laborales”. CEPAL 55: 23-32. Lapassade, Georges (1974), Grupos, Organizaciones e Instituciones. París: Gedisa Editorial. North, Douglass. 1991. “Institutions”. Journal of Economic Perspectives 5: 97-112. https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/jep.5.1.97 Narayan, Deepa, and Michael F. Cassidy. “A Dimensional Approach to Measuring Social Capital: Development and Validation of a Social Capital Inventory.” Current Sociology 49:59–102. Putnam Robert. 2000. “Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community” New York: Simon & Schuster.	https://www.socialcapitalresearch.com/social-capital-in-the-formation-of-local-institutions-and-their-contribution-to-territorial-governance/
Did you know... SOS Children, an education charity, organised this selection. A quick link for child sponsorship is http://www.sponsor-a-child.org.uk/ \|Sociology\| \|Outline\| \| \| \| \| \|Research methods\| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|Browse\| \| \| Social capital is a sociological concept used in business, economics, organizational behaviour, political science, public health and the social sciences in general to refer to connections within and between social networks. Though there are a variety of related definitions, which have been described as "something of a cure-all" for the problems of modern society, they tend to share the core idea "that social networks have value. Just as a screwdriver ( physical capital) or a college education ( human capital) can increase productivity (both individual and collective), so do social contacts affect the productivity of individuals and groups". Background L.J. Hanifan's 1916 article regarding local support for rural schools is one of the first occurrences of the term "social capital" in reference to social cohesion and personal investment in the community. In defining the concept, Hanifan contrasts social capital with material goods by defining it as: "I do not refer to real estate, or to personal property or to cold cash, but rather to that in life which tends to make these tangible substances count for most in the daily lives of people, namely, goodwill, fellowship, mutual sympathy and social intercourse among a group of individuals and families who make up a social unit… If he may come into contact with his neighbour, and they with other neighbors, there will be an accumulation of social capital, which may immediately satisfy his social needs and which may bear a social potentiality sufficient to the substantial improvement of living conditions in the whole community. The community as a whole will benefit by the coöperation of all its parts, while the individual will find in his associations the advantages of the help, the sympathy, and the fellowship of his neighbors (pp. 130-131)." While various aspects of the concept have been approached by all social science fields, some trace the modern usage of the term to Jane Jacobs in the 1960s. However, she did not explicitly define a term social capital but used it in an article with a reference to the value of networks. Political scientist Robert Salisbury advanced the term as a critical component of interest group formation in his 1969 article "An Exchange Theory of Interest Groups" in the Midwest Journal of Political Science. Sociologist Pierre Bourdieu used the term in 1972 in his Outline of a Theory of Practice, and clarified the term some years later in contrast to cultural, economic, and symbolic capital. Sociologists James Coleman, Barry Wellman and Scot Wortley adopted Glenn Loury's 1977 definition in developing and popularising the concept. In the late 1990s the concept gained popularity, serving as the focus of a World Bank research programme and the main subject of several mainstream books, including and Lewis Feldstein's " Better Together (book)". The concept that underlies social capital has a much longer history; thinkers exploring the relation between associational life and democracy were using similar concepts regularly by the 19th century, drawing on the work of earlier writers such as James Madison ( The Federalist Papers) and Alexis de Tocqueville (Democracy in America) to integrate concepts of social cohesion and connectedness into the pluralist tradition in American political science. John Dewey may have made the first direct mainstream use of "social capital" in The School and Society in 1899, though he did not offer a definition. Though Bourdieu might agree with Coleman that social capital in the abstract is a neutral resource, his work tends to show how it can be used practically to produce or reproduce inequality, demonstrating for instance how people gain access to powerful positions through the direct and indirect employment of social connections. Robert Putnam has used the concept in a much more positive light: Though he was at first careful to argue that social capital was a neutral term, stating “whether or not [the] shared are praiseworthy is, of course, entirely another matter”, his work on American society tends to frame social capital as a producer of "civic engagement" and also a broad societal measure of communal health. He also transforms social capital from a resource possessed by individuals to an attribute of collectives, focusing on norms and trust as producers of social capital to the exclusion of networks. Mahyar Arefi identifies consensus building as a direct positive indicator of social capital. (2003) Consensus implies “shared interest” and agreement among various actors and stakeholders to induce collective action. Collective action is thus an indicator of increased social capital. Edwards and Foley, as editors of a special edition of the American Behavioural Scientist on "Social Capital, Civil Society and Contemporary Democracy," raised two key issues in the study of social capital. First, social capital is not equally available to all, in much the same way that other forms of capital are differently available. Geographic and social isolation limit access to this resource. Second, not all social capital is created equally. The value of a specific source of social capital depends in no small part on the socio-economic position of the source with society. On top of this, Portes has identified four negative consequences of social capital: exclusion of outsiders; excess claims on group members; restrictions on individual freedom; and downward levelling norms. Here it is important to note the distinction between "bonding" and "bridging". There is currently no research which identifies the negative consequences of "bridging" social capital when in balance with its necessary antecedent, "bonding". Finally, social capital is often linked to the success of democracy and political involvement. Robert D. Putnam, in his book Bowling Alone makes the argument that social capital is linked to the recent decline in American political participation. Definitions, forms, and measurement Social capital lends itself to multiple definitions, interpretations, and uses. David Halpern argues that the popularity of social capital for policymakers is linked to the concept's duality, coming because "it has a hard nosed economic feel while restating the importance of the social." For researchers, the term is popular partly due to the broad range of outcomes it can explain; the multiplicity of uses for social capital has led to a multiplicity of definitions. Social capital has been used at various times to explain superior managerial performance , improved performance of functionally diverse groups , the value derived from strategic alliances and enhanced supply chain relations . Early attempts to define social capital focused on the degree to which social capital as a resource should be used for public good or for the benefit of individuals. Putnam suggested that social capital would facilitate co-operation and mutually supportive relations in communities and nations and would therefore be a valuable means of combating many of the social disorders inherent in modern societies, for example crime. In contrast to those focussing on the individual benefit derived from the web of social relationships and ties individual actors find themselves in, attribute social capital to increased personal access to information and skill sets and enhanced power . According to this view, individuals could use social capital to further their own career prospects, rather than for the good of organisations. In The Forms of Capital Pierre Bourdieu distinguishes between three forms of capital: economic capital, cultural capital and social capital. He defines social capital as "the aggregate of the actual or potential resources which are linked to possession of a durable network of more or less institutionalised relationships of mutual acquaintance and recognition". His treatment of the concept is instrumental, focusing on the advantages to possessors of social capital and the “deliberate construction of sociability for the purpose of creating this resource”. James Coleman defined social capital functionally as “a variety of entities with two elements in common: they all consist of some aspect of social structure, and they facilitate certain actions of actors...within the structure” – that is, social capital is anything that facilitates individual or collective action, generated by networks of relationships, reciprocity, trust, and social norms. In Coleman’s conception, social capital is a neutral resource that facilitates any manner of action, but whether society is better off as a result depends entirely on the individual uses to which it is put. According to Robert Putnam, social capital "refers to the collective value of all ' social networks' and the inclinations that arise from these networks to do things for each other". According to Putnam and his followers, social capital is a key component to building and maintaining democracy. Putnam says that social capital is declining in the United States. This is seen in lower levels of trust in government and lower levels of civic participation. Putnam also says that television and urban sprawl have had a significant role in making America far less 'connected'. Putnam believes that social capital can be measured by the amount of trust and "reciprocity" in a community or between individuals. Nan Lin's concept of social capital has a more individualistic approach: "Investment in social relations with expected returns in the marketplace". This may subsume the concepts of some others such as Bourdieu, Flap and Eriksson. In "Social Capital and Development: The Coming Agenda", Francis Fukuyama points out that there isn't an agreed definition of social capital, so he explains it as “shared norms or values that promote social cooperation, instantiated in actual social relationships” (Fukuyama, 27), and uses this definition throughout this paper. He argues that social capital is a necessary precondition for successful development, but a strong rule of law and basic political institutions are necessary to build social capital. He believes that a strong social capital is necessary for a strong democracy and strong economic growth. Familism is a major problem of trust because it fosters a two-tiered moral system, in which a person must favour the opinions of family members. Fukuyama believes that bridging social capital (a term coined by Putnam in "Bowling Alone"), is essential for a strong social capital because a broader radius of trust will enable connections across borders of all sorts and serve as a basis for organizations. Although he points out many problems and possible solutions in his paper, he does admit that there is still much to be done to build a strong social capital. The Social Capital Foundation (TSCF) suggested that social capital should not be mixed up with its manifestations. While for example social capital is often understood as the networks that a person possesses and that he/she may use in a social integration purpose, it is more the disposition to create, maintain and develop such networks that constitutes real social capital. Similarly, civic engagement is a manifestation of social capital but not social capital itself. In this definition, social capital is a collective mental disposition close to the spirit of community. Nahapiet and Ghoshal in their examination of the role of social capital in the creation of intellectual capital, suggest that social capital should be considered in terms of three clusters: structural, relational and cognitive. Carlos García Timón describes that the structural dimensions of social capital relate to an individual ability to make weak and strong ties to others within a system. This dimension focuses on the advantages derived from the configuration of an actor's, either individual or collective, network. The differences between weak and strong ties are explained by Granovetter (1973). The relational dimension focuses on the character of the connection between individuals. This is best characterized through trust of others and their cooperation and the identification an individual has within a network. Hazleton and Kennan added a third angle, that of communication. Communication is needed to access and use social capital through exchanging information, identifying problems and solutions, and managing conflict. According to Boisot and Boland and Tensaki, meaningful communication requires at least some sharing context between the parties to such exchange. The cognitive dimension focusses on the shared meaning and understanding that individuals or groups have with one another. A network-based conception can also be used for characterizing the social capital of collectivities (such as organizations or business clusters). Roots Definitional issues The term "capital" is used by analogy with other forms of economic capital, as social capital is argued to have similar (although less measurable) benefits. However, the analogy with capital is misleading to the extent that, unlike traditional forms of capital, social capital is not depleted by use, but in fact depleted by non-use ("use it or lose it"). In this respect, it is similar to the now well-established economic concept of human capital. Social Capital is also distinguished from the economic theory Social Capitalism. Social Capitalism as a theory challenges the idea that Socialism and Capitalism are mutually exclusive. Social-Capitalism posits that a strong social support network for the poor enhances capital output. By decreasing poverty, capital market participation is enlarged. Sub-types In his pioneering study, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (Simon & Schuster, 2000), Harvard political scientist Robert D. Putnam wrote: " Henry Ward Beecher's advice a century ago to 'multiply picnics' is not entirely ridiculous today. We should do this, ironically, not because it will be good for America — though it will be — but because it will be good for us." Putnam is not suggesting here that we must expand an already stable level of networking and civil interaction. He has found an overall decline in social capital in America over the past fifty years, a trend that may have significant implications for American society. Putnam speaks of two main components of the concept: bonding social capital and bridging social capital, the creation of which Putnam credits to Ross Gittel and Avis Vidal. Bonding refers to the value assigned to social networks between homogeneous groups of people and Bridging refers to that of social networks between socially heterogeneous groups. Typical examples are that criminal gangs create bonding social capital, while choirs and bowling clubs (hence the title, as Putnam lamented their decline) create bridging social capital. Bridging social capital is argued to have a host of other benefits for societies, governments, individuals, and communities; Putnam likes to note that joining an organization cuts in half an individual's chance of dying within the next year. The distinction is useful in highlighting how social capital may not always be beneficial for society as a whole (though it is always an asset for those individuals and groups involved). Horizontal networks of individual citizens and groups that enhance community productivity and cohesion are said to be positive social capital assets whereas self-serving exclusive gangs and hierarchical patronage systems that operate at cross purposes to societal interests can be thought of as negative social capital burdens on society. Social capital development on the internet via social networking websites such as Facebook or Myspace tends to be bridging capital according to one study, though "virtual" social capital is a new area of research. Measurement There is no widely held consensus on how to measure social capital, which has become a debate in itself: why refer to this phenomenon as 'capital' if there is no true way to measure it? While one can usually intuitively sense the level/amount of social capital present in a given relationship (regardless of type or scale), quantitative measuring has proven somewhat complicated. This has resulted in different metrics for different functions. In measuring political social capital, it is common to take the sum of society’s membership of its groups. Groups with higher membership (such as political parties) contribute more to the amount of capital than groups with lower membership, although many groups with low membership (such as communities) still add up to be significant. While it may seem that this is limited by population, this need not be the case as people join multiple groups. In a study done by Yankee City, a community of 17,000 people was found to have over 22,000 different groups. The level of cohesion of a group also affects its social capital. However, there is no one quantitative way of determining the level of cohesiveness, but rather a collection of social network models that researchers have used over the decades to operationalize social capital. One of the dominant methods is Ronald Burt's constraint measure, which taps into the role of tie strength and group cohesion. Another network based model is network transitivity. How a group relates to the rest of society also affects social capital, but in a different manner. Strong internal ties can in some cases weaken the group’s perceived capital in the eyes of the general public, as in cases where the group is geared towards crime, distrust, intolerance, violence or hatred towards other. The Ku Klux Klan and the Mafia are examples of these kinds of organizations. Social capital not only measures the relationship of people and their community, but also the relationship of these citizens with their animal companions. Robert Putnam claims in his book Bowling Alone that an increase in companionship with pets also increases the strength on the community bonds. Interacting with fellow pet owners and citizens at the local dog park, or while exercising your "best friend" can create a network of bridging relationship centered around the commonality of pet ownership. In his chapter entitled "Social Capital in the Dog Park" Putnam uses the example of Fido and his owner Jane to exemplify the bridging relationship between Jane and her dog. The discrepancy in the species type of Jane and Fido illustrates the bridge between them, rather than the bond. And due to this unique relationship that one may possess with his or her pet demonstrates the ability of social capital to increase not only the livelihood of the people in the community, but the pets' livelihoods as well. Sociologists Carl L. Bankston and Min Zhou have argued that one of the reasons social capital is so difficult to measure is that it is neither an individual-level nor a group-level phenomenon, but one that emerges across levels of analysis as individuals participate in groups. They argue that the metaphor of "capital" may be misleading because unlike financial capital, which is a resource held by an individual, the benefits of forms of social organization are not held by actors, but are results of the participation of actors in advantageously organized groups. Social capital and civil society A number of authors give definitions of civil society that refer to voluntary associations and organisations outside the market and state. This definition is very close to that of the third sector, which consists of "private organisations that are formed and sustained by groups of people acting voluntarily and without seeking personal profit to provide benefits for themselves or for others". According to such authors as Walzer, Alessandrini, Newtown, Stolle and Rochon, Foley and Edwards, and Walters, it is through civil society, or more accurately, the third sector, that individuals are able to establish and maintain relational networks. These voluntary associations also connect people with each other, build trust and reciprocity through informal, loosely structured associations, and consolidate society through altruism without obligation. It is "this range of activities, services and associations produced by... civil society" that constitutes the sources of social capital. If civil society, then, is taken to be synonymous with the third sector then the question it seems is not 'how important is social capital to the production of a civil society?' but 'how important is civil society to the production of social capital?'. Not only have the authors above documented how civil society produces sources of social capital, but in Lyons work "Third Sector", social capital does not appear in any guise under either the factors that enable or those that stimulate the growth of the third sector, and Onyx describes how social capital depends on an already functioning community. However, a truer definition of civil society is different though not wholly distinct from the third sector. Lyons goes some way to addressing this by introducing a somewhat Marxist interpretation of civil society, where civil society is "the space for free association, where people could meet and form groups to pursue their enthusiasm, express their values and assist others". This is a "vibrant space, full of argument and disputation about matters of greatest import to its citizens", resembling the polis of Athens more than the organisations of the third sector. This also implies "elements of the enlightenment use of the term civil society" including decency, respect, good manners and kindness to fellow beings. The idea that creating social capital (i.e. creating networks) will strengthen civil society underlies current Australian social policy aimed at bridging deepening social divisions. The goal is to reintegrate those marginalised from the rewards of the economic system into "the community". However, according to Onyx (2000), while the explicit aim of this policy is inclusion, its effects are exclusionary. Foley and Edwards believe that "political systems...are important determinants of both the character of civil society and of the uses to which whatever social capital exists might be put". Alessandrini agrees, saying, "in Australia in particular, neo-liberalism has been recast as economic rationalism and identified by several theorists and commentators as a danger to society at large because of the use to which they are putting social capital to work". The resurgence of interest in "social capital" as a remedy for the cause of today’s social problems draws directly on the assumption that these problems lie in the weakening of civil society. However this ignores the arguments of many theorists who believe that social capital leads to exclusion rather than to a stronger civil society. In international development, Ben Fine and John Harriss have been heavily critical of the inappropriate adoption of social capital as a supposed panacea (promoting civil society organisations and NGOs, for example, as agents of development) for the inequalities generated by neoliberal economic development. This leads to controversy as to the role of state institutions in the promotion of social capital. An abundance of social capital is seen as being almost a necessary condition for modern liberal democracy. A low level of social capital leads to an excessively rigid and unresponsive political system and high levels of corruption, in the political system and in the region as a whole. Formal public institutions require social capital in order to function properly, and while it is possible to have too much social capital (resulting in rapid changes and excessive regulation), it is decidedly worse to have too little. Kathleen Dowley and Brian Silver published an article entitled "Social Capital, Ethnicity and Support for Democracy in the Post-Communist States." This article found that in post-communist states, higher levels of social capital did not equate to higher levels of democracy. However, higher levels of social capital led to higher support for democracy. A number of intellectuals in developing countries have argued that the idea of social capital, particularly when connected to certain ideas about civil society, is deeply implicated in contemporary modes of donor and NGO driven imperialism and that it functions, primarily, to blame the poor for their condition. The concept of social capital in a Chinese social context has been closely linked with the concept of guanxi. An interesting attempt to measure social capital spearheaded by Corporate Alliance in the English speaking market segment of the United States of America and Xentrum through the Latin American Chamber of Commerce in Utah on the Spanish speaking population of the same country, involves the quantity, quality and strength of an individual social capital. With the assistance of software applications and web based relationship oriented systems such as LinkedIn, these kinds of organizations are expected to provide its members with a way to keep track of the number of their relationships, meetings designed to boost the strength of each relationship using group dynamics, executive retreats and networking events as well as training in how to reach out to higher circles of influential people. Social capital and education Coleman and Hoffer collected quantitative data of 28,000 students in total 1,015 public, Catholic and other private high schools in America from the 7 years’ period from 1980 to 1987. It was found from this longitudinal research that social capital in students' families and communities attributed to the much lower dropout rates in Catholic schools compared with the higher rates in public. Teachman et al. further develop the family structure indicator suggested by Coleman. They criticise Coleman, who used only the number of parents present in the family, neglected the unseen effect of more discrete dimensions such as stepparents' and different types of single-parent families. They take into account of a detailed counting of family structure, not only with two biological parents or stepparent families, but also with types of single-parent families with each other (mother-only, father-only, never-married, and other). They also contribute to the literature by measuring parent-child interaction by the indicators of how often parents and children discuss school-related activities. Morgan and Sorensen directly challenge Coleman for his lacking of an explicit mechanism to explain why Catholic schools students perform better than public school students on standardised tests of achievement. Researching students in Catholic schools and public schools again, they propose two comparable models of social capital effect on mathematic learning. One is on Catholic schools as norm-enforcing schools whereas another is on public schools as horizon-expanding schools. It is found that while social capital can bring about positive effect of maintaining an encompassing functional community in norm-enforcing schools, it also brings about the negative consequence of excessive monitoring. Creativity and exceptional achievement would be repressed as a result. Whereas in horizon expanding school, social closure is found to be negative for student's mathematic achievement. These schools explore a different type of social capital, such as information about opportunities in the extended social networks of parents and other adults. The consequence is that more learning is fostered than norm-enforcing Catholic school students. In sum, Morgan and Sorensen’s (1999) study implies that social capital is contextualised, one kind of social capital may be positive in this setting but is not necessarily still positive in another setting. In their journal article “Beyond social capital: Spatial dynamics of collective efficacy for children”, Sampson et al. stress the normative or goal-directed dimension of social capital. They claim, "resources or networks alone (e.g. voluntary associations, friendship ties, organisational density) are neutral--- they may or may not be effective mechanism for achieving intended effect" Maljoribanks and Kwok conducted a survey in Hong Kong secondary schools with 387 fourteen-year-old students with an aim to analyse female and male adolescents differential educational achievement by using social capital as the main analytic tool. In that research, social capital is approved of its different effects upon different genders. In his thesis "New Arrival Students in Hong Kong: Adaptation and School Performance ", Hei Hang Hayes Tang argues that adaptation is a process of activation and accumulation of (cultural and social) capitals. The research findings show that supportive networks is the key determinant differentiating the divergent adaptation pathways. Supportive networks, as a form of social capital, is necessary for activating the cultural capital the newly arrived students possessed. The amount of accumulated capital is also relevant to further advancement in the ongoing adaptation process.. Min Zhou and Carl L. Bankston in their study of a Vietnamese community in New Orleans find that preserving traditional ethnic values enable immigrants to integrate socially and to maintain solidarity in an ethnic community. Ethnic solidarity is especially important in the context where immigrants just arrive in the host society. In her article “Social Capital in Chinatown”, Zhou examines how the process of adaptation of young Chinese Americans is affected by tangible forms of social relations between the community, immigrant families, and the younger generations. Chinatown serves as the basis of social capital that facilitates the accommodation of immigrant children in the expected directions. Ethnic support provides impetus to academic success. Furthermore maintenance of literacy in native language also provides a form of social capital that contributes positively to academic achievement. Stanton-Salazar and Dornbusch found that bilingual students were more likely to obtain the necessary forms of institutional support to advance their school performance and their life chances. Putnam (2000) mentioned in his book Bowling Alone, " Child development is powerfully shaped by social capital" and continued "presence of social capital has been linked to various positive outcomes, particularly in education". According to his book these positive outcomes are the result of parents' social capital in a community. States where there is a high social capital, there is also a high Education performance. The similarity of these states is that parents were more associated with their children' education. When there is more parents' participation to their children' education and school, teachers have reported these engagements lower levels of students misbehavior, such as bringing weapons to school, engaging in physical violence, playing hooky, and being generally apathetic about education. From these Putnam's arguments and evidents in order to find out relationship between social capital and education, one needs to consider amount of parents engagement to education and a school and existence of amount of social capital in a community. Borrowing Coleman's quotation from Putnam's book, Coleman once mentioned we cannot understate "the importance of the embeddedness of young persons in the enclaves of adults most proximate to them, first and most prominent the family and second, a surrounding community of adults". It has been noted that social capital may be not always invested towards positive ends. An example of the complexities of the effects of social capital is violent or criminal gang activity that is encouraged through the strengthening of intra-group relationships. (Bonding social capital) This iterates the importance of distinguishing between bridging social capital as opposed to the more easily accomplished bonding of social capital. In the case of deleterious consequences of social capital, it is a disproportionate amount of bonding vis-à-vis bridging. Without "bridging" social capital, "bonding" groups can become isolated and disenfranchised from the rest of society and, most importantly, from groups with which bridging must occur in order to denote an "increase" in social capital. Bonding social capital is a necessary antecedent for the development of the more powerful form of bridging social capital. Bonding and bridging social capital can work together productively if in balance, or they may work against each other. As social capital bonds and stronger homogeneous groups form, the likelihood of bridging social capital is attenuated. Bonding social capital can also perpetuate sentiments of a certain group, allowing for the bonding of certain individuals together upon a common radical ideal. The strengthening of insular ties can lead to a variety of effects such as ethnic marginalization or social isolation. In extreme cases ethnic cleansing may result if the relationship between different groups is so strongly negative. In mild cases, it just isolates certain communities such as suburbs of cities because of the bonding social capital and the fact that people in these communities spend so much time away from places that build bridging social capital. Social capital (in the institutional Robert Putnam sense) may also lead to bad outcomes if the political institution and democracy in a specific country is not strong enough and is therefore overpowered by the social capital groups. “Civil society and the collapse of the Weimar Republic” suggests that “it was weak political institutionalization rather than a weak civil society that was Germany’s main problem during the Wihelmine and Weimar eras.” Because the political institutions were so weak people looked to other outlets. “Germans threw themselves into their clubs, voluntary associations, and professional organizations out of frustration with the failures of the national government and political parties, thereby helping to undermine the Weimar Republic and facilitate Hitler’s rise to power.” In this article about the fall of the Weimar Republic, the author makes the claim that Hitler rose to power so quickly because he was able to mobilize the groups towards one common goal. Even though German society was, at the time, a "joining" society these groups were fragmented and their members did not use the skills they learned in their club associations to better their society. They were very introverted in the Weimar Republic. Hitler was able to capitalize on this by uniting these highly bonded groups under the common cause of bringing Germany to the top of world politics. The former world order had been destroyed during World War I, and Hitler believed that Germany had the right and the will to become a dominant global power. Later work by Putnam also suggests that social capital, and the associated growth of public trust are inhibited by immigration and rising racial diversity in communities. Putnam's study regarding the issue argued that in American areas with a lack of homogeneity, some individuals neither participated in bonding nor bridging social capital. In societies where immigration is high (USA) or where ethnic heterogeneity is high (Eastern Europe), it was found that citizens lacked in both kinds of social capital and were overall far less trusting of others than members of homogenous communities were found to be. Lack of homogeneity led to people withdrawing from even their closest groups and relationships, creating an atomized society as opposed to a cohesive community. These findings challenge previous beliefs that exposure to diversity strengthens social capital, either through bridging social gaps between ethnicities or strengthening in-group bonds.	http://75-3-247-200.lightspeed.sntcca.sbcglobal.net:81/wikipedia_en_for_schools_opt_2013/A/wp/s/Social_capital.htm
The Culture for Cooperation project reacts to the lack of cooperation between different institutions and communities in Košice. We plan to open the dialogue and engage representatives of all cultural sectors to co-create and prototype the common platform/umbrella organization, with importance on the process itself. Culture has huge potential to involve marginalized groups and to contribute to democratize processes, raise social trust and foster cooperation with great social and economic impact. Košice The lack of dialogue between the institutions, communities, and individuals (public sector, independent organizations and private sector) is the challenge we would like to tackle. The lack of trust and absence of communication channels can be changed by using the right methods and systematic effort. Eastern Slovakia faces continual brain-drain, slower economic development, together with higher unemployment and strong presence of social exclusion. Culture has huge potential to address the exclusion and support cooperation that can have an impact on social and economic development. We believe that the pandemic situation has shown that fragility of the sector can be transformed into strength, cohesion and common steps to ensure the stability and continuity of good life in the city. Mainly, we would like to engage organizations from cultural industries working in the city of Košice. There are 170 cultural institutions varying from state-owned to underground initiatives with different opinions, backgrounds, access to finances, options and approaches to the audience. We would like to equalize niche and marginalized groups with mainstream or elite culture initiatives. Main activities of the project are focusing on opening the dialogue between representatives of them in order to co-create and define the shared vision and common goals with the impact on the whole city of Košice. We would reach out to all organizations from the cultural sector with the idea of co-designing the umbrella organization/platform for cultural organizations. The initial research will collect the relevant data in these fields: Cultural sector - needs, expectations and common goals, Other sectors (e.g. social care, health, education) - needs and expectations from cultural institutions Mapping of the cultural institutions and defining who they are Best examples of the platforms/organizations/clusters within Slovakia and the other countries. The results will be published, promoted and shared at the end of the first phase. It will also serve as a knowledge base on the following co-designing activities. We plan to organize and facilitate 10 workshops led by the professional facilitators that will open the dialogue between the various representatives of the cultural sector in the city. We will use “plain language” and communicate step-by-step evolution of the co-creative process in order to reach transparency and inspire others to join the process at any stage. workshops will cover different topics connected with establishing and prototyping the common platform (e.g. form, selection processes, main goals, content). The outcome of the project will not only be the prototype of the platform but also culture representatives ready to collaborate and co-create actions for the future. We want to change the perspective of at least 100 individuals who represent around 80 institutions through the positive experience with co-creation and collaboration. They will meet and recognize each other (faces and names) and they will understand the vision and history of various organizations. Therefore, they will be aware of the value that each of them brings to the city. The result of the co-creation workshops should be a prototype of a common practice/solidarity tool, that can help as a flexible arrangement in times of crisis for the cultural sector in Košice. We believe that co-creation is the strongest method of civic and political engagement and participation. We understand that the public sector often reaches out to consult the public, but we see the lack of legitimacy for such actions (sometimes selective on target groups, sometimes only representing the local municipality, that has been elected by only 25 % of the population). Therefore, true participation is based on co-creative practices. By organizing a regular mapping and reaching out to different groups, we believe that we will be able to prototype a co-creative network/platform that can perform how participation could look in the urban environment as the willing outcome of the series of co-creation meetings. Creative Industry Košice was responsible for implementing the European Capital of Culture project in Košice from 2008. We have had the vision of the common umbrella organization for the culture and creative sector since 2014. Nowadays, it seems like solidarity in the cultural sphere needs to be supported and that co-creative practices will be also a great tool to social and political transformation to increase mutual trust and further collaboration. Michal Hladký, the director, advocates for cross-sectoral collaboration and increase of trust among the stakeholders from culture and other sectors. There will be Zuzana Révészová and Alexandra Matiová involved in the project. Both of them are facilitating collaborative activities for CCIs. Total budget Funding requested from Civic Europe Fees for experts - 18000€ Space rent - 4000€ Personnel costs - 6000€ Office expenses - 500€ Promotion costs - 1000€ Documentation - 3000€ Any sort of feedback will be very useful, especially sharing good collaboration practices from different countries.	https://civic-europe.eu/ideas/cucoo/
A knowledge management dimension to, and perspective upon, project management has become increasingly prevalent in the project management literature in recent years. Increasingly, it has been recognised that projects, comprising “…teams of individuals from diverse organisations with different specialist knowledge … [working] together under time and budget constraints to produce a new product, process or service” (Reich, 2007), involve significant knowledge processing and are “rich with significant personal learning opportunities” (Sense, 2003). Sense (2003) presents a conception of project teams as “learning generators” where the members of different communities of practice interact to achieve a common objective. It is reasoned that team members, individually and collectively, must learn new knowledge, create new shared understandings, and transfer their knowledge to others “at the right times and for the right cost” (Reich, 2007). It follows that learning and knowledge management concepts are highly relevant to project, and therefore organisational, success and this line of reasoning is supported by much empirical research (see for example, cited in Reich, 2007, Faraj & Sproull, 2000 – 69 software development projects; Yoo & Kanawattanachai, 2001 – 38 virtual project teams; and Tiwana, Bharadwaj & Sambamurthy, 2003 – 133 projects). However, we see two significant issues with this literature. First, it can be highly conceptual and abstract, which may make it difficult for project management professionals, who are generally very practice-oriented and non-theoretical, to access and benefit from. The importance and value of concepts such as “epistemology,” “socially constructed reality,” “negotiated meaning,” and the like may be difficult to grasp for those tasked with planning, monitoring, and controlling the creation of deliverables using schedules, budgets and risk logs. This is reflected in a recent study where “[i]nterviews with project managers identified a lack of common understanding about the meaning of knowledge management within a project context” (Reich, 2007, p. 8). Second, this literature focuses predominantly upon the role of project management professionals and neglects the role of organisational leaders. Consequently, it does not provide guidance to leaders about how they can facilitate knowledge management in project-based organisations, nor does it guide project management professionals in how they need to influence organisational leaders. We will endeavour to address these issues by surveying some of the important knowledge management concepts relevant to project-based organisations, explaining them in a deliberately practice-oriented manner with reference to examples from project-based organisations. In particular, this discussion includes: - A review of key ideas such as positivist and constructivist epistemologies, explicit and tacit knowledge, cognitive and situated approaches to learning, communities of practice, and social capital - An exploration of applied problems including barriers to learning within projects, sharing knowledge between projects, the relationship between project and organisational learning, and the locus of responsibility for managing learning and knowledge in project-based organisations. Key Knowledge Management Concepts in Project Management Positivist and Constructivist Epistemologies What is Epistemology? Epistemology, or the theory of knowledge, is concerned about issues having to do with the nature, creation, dissemination, and limits of knowledge. Epistemological assumptions and beliefs (worldviews) strongly influence approaches to personal and organisational learning and knowledge management. Of particular interest in this respect are positivist and constructivist epistemologies. Positivism Positivism assumes that knowledge exists in the real world just like everyday objects such as houses and cars; knowledge is “out there,” residing in books, independent of thinking beings. This knowledge is a reflection of a correspondence to reality. Knowledge represents a real world that is thought of as existing, separate and independent from acts of knowing and “knowers,” and knowledge should be considered as true only if it correctly reflects the independent world. Jackson and Klobas (2007) assert that such epistemological assumptions pervade the project management profession and particularly information systems development. Constructivism Over the last century, however, philosophers, cultural anthropologists, sociologists, and knowledge management researchers have influenced our thinking to appreciate that knowledge is not absolute, but relative to cultures and contexts (Jackson & Klobas, 2007). A constructivist epistemology (or world view) sees knowledge as something that is constructed by people rather than as something that has some objective reality; knowledge and reality do not have an objective or absolute value or, at the least, we have no way of knowing this reality, as the only tools available to a “knower” are the senses. It is only through seeing, hearing, touching, smelling, and tasting that individuals build (or construct) a picture of the world. Words therefore are not containers whose meanings are intrinsic; rather they are based on the constructions of individuals; and rather than thinking of truth in terms of having a “correspondence to reality” constructivism focuses upon viability—concepts, models, and theories are viable if they prove adequate in the contexts in which they were created. Belline and Conico (2007, p. 2) state that “the social-construction approach moves from the idea that knowledge is an object that can be managed and transferred since …[it] is not the representation of an objective reality, but …an interpretation (therefore a construction) of it.” Meaning in an organisational context is said to be constructed “through joint endeavour,” and thus the “creation, diffusion and application of knowledge is situated and thus heavily influenced by the context of practice.” To illustrate this, a systems development project can be seen as a process of social construction by the project team: “the knowledge embodied in information systems emerges as we proceed in the analysis and design of a business system … It is the emergence and articulation of multiple, indeterminate, sometimes unconscious, sometimes ineffable realities and the negotiated achievement of a consensus of a new, agreed reality in an explicit form, such as a new business or data model, which is amenable to computerisation” (Jackson & Klobas, 2007). However, most contemporary design methodologies use the language of engineering, a discipline that “builds lasting structures of steel and concrete from pre-existing elements,” which may explain the high rate of failure in such projects. Cognitive and Situated Learning Approaches Cognitive Learning Approaches The predominant approach to learning, underpinned by a positivist epistemology, focuses upon the cognitive dimensions of learning—i.e., the internal processes of the mind. This focus “includes those fabled items of mental models (Senge, 1990), single and double-loop learning and Model I and Model 2 type people (Argyris & Schon, 1978), and experiential-learning cycles (Kolb, 1984; Lewin, 1951)” (Sense, 2003). The emphasis of this approach is upon the psychological dimension of learning and it assumes that knowledge can be transferred between people independently of any particular social context, experience or practice. Learners are encouraged to view objects, events and phenomena with an “objective” mind. The meaning that is produced through thought processes is external and determined by the structure of the real world. Situated Learning Approaches On the other hand, informed by a constructivist epistemology, a focus on “the situated aspects of learning is concerned with the practical and social aspects of learning, assuming that most learning occurs on the job in culturally embedded ways within a community of practice … Situated learning evolves from the participation of people and the negotiated construction of their identities and common meanings within this community of practice” (Sense, 2003, p. 6). Learners are encouraged to make sense of what is taught by trying to fit it with their previous experience. Belline and Conico (2007, p. 2) state that the “creation, diffusion and application of knowledge is situated and thus heavily influenced by the context of practice … the concept of doing is not only the element that characterises knowledge, but it becomes the way through which knowledge is manifested, converted and transferred.” Similarly, Jackson and Klobas (2007) state that “knowledge (i.e., the process of learning) is not the discovery and inscription of predetermined facts, but is a process of continual sense-making, in which people build, communicate, verify and commit to mutually agreed views of the world. This process is essentially social not cognitive.” Jackson and Klobas (2007) review some of the important processes that have been discussed in relation to situated learning, including: - Internalisation—The absorption of knowledge by a recipient - Personal knowledge creation—Including habituation (the development of knowledge into useful routines through repetition of tasks) or transformation (radically changing subjective reality and creating new ideas) - Externalisation—The expression of knowledge in symbolic form such as speech, artefacts or gestures into the physical world such that others can perceive and internalise it - Objectivation—The creation of shared social constructs that represent the group's rather than the individual's understanding of the world, stored in physical symbols such as language, behaviour, or artifacts - Legitimation—The process whereby knowledge is authorised and meanings are validated and accepted as “correct” or “standard” - Reification—The process in which concepts harden in the minds of the group and attain an existence, apparently independent of human beings Communities of Practice What is a Community of Practice? Communities of practice have been defined as “groups of people who share a concern, a set of problems, or a passion about a topic, and who deepen their knowledge and expertise in this area by interacting on an ongoing basis” (Wenger et al., 2002, pp. 4-5). Three interacting elements define a community of practice—a domain of knowledge, a community of people who care about this domain and the shared practice that they develop over time to be effective in their domain (Wenger et al., 2002, p. 27). A domain sets the common ground and creates a sense of common identity for all community of practice participants. A community consists of a group of people who interact, build relationships, learn together, and in the process develop competence, a sense of belonging and mutual commitment and accountability. A practice embodies the history of the community and the knowledge it has developed over time, including historical or social resources and frameworks, ideas, tools, information, styles, language, stories, routines, and documents that the community develops, shares and maintains. Thus, a community of practice represents a shared knowledge and a shared discourse that reflects a particular perspective on the world (Sense, 2003). The lifecycle of a community of practice reflects a collectively negotiated process because it is based on joint learning, and members of a community of practice are a living repository for the knowledge of the community. The project management community is a good example of this. The domain is the field of project management, the community consists of project management practitioners, researchers and others, and the practice is represented by the project management body of knowledge. This community is mature, publishing practice standards and guides, establishing accreditation and formal education, conducting conferences, and establishing local chapters and special interest groups. Project Teams and Communities of Practice The PMBOK® Guide defines a project as “[a] temporary endeavour undertaken to create a unique product or service.” Projects are non-routine processes and are ad hoc in nature. This combination of temporality, uniqueness (or specificity around predefined tasks and objectives) and non-routine processes contrasts a project team with a community of practice, where the emphasis is upon an ongoing domain and a shared practice. Additionally, the identities of project team members are forged externally to the project team. Garrety et al. (2004, p. 352) note that “projects are more clearly instrumental than communities of practice.” On the other hand, although a project team is a very different creature to a community of practice, it is usually the case that project teams develop a common perspective on the world and negotiate shared meanings over time. It also follows that some of the social processes that lead to new knowledge in communities of practice are bound to exist in project teams, but will rarely if ever have the time dimension required to develop into a practice. This has lead Sense (2003) to posit that project teams should be considered as a type of “embryonic community of practice.” Social and Morale Capital The processes of learning and knowing depend heavily upon the availability of intangible forms of capital that are generated and leveraged “in community”—in particular, social and morale capital (Dovey & Fenech, 2007). Social capital is a form of capital that is collectively owned by members of a “network” characterized by strong relationship bonds and multiplex connections to other “networks,” and involves resources such as trust and voluntary cooperation between all those who hold a stake in the mission of the organization (Nahapiet & Ghoshal, 1998). Morale capital refers to resources such as passionate identification with, and commitment to, the purpose of the organization (Dovey & Singhota, 2005). These forms of capital consist of social resources that are constructed and leveraged through network relationships and without which the network would not be able to function at an optimal level. Learning and knowing requires the existence of such social capital resources because they are developed and leveraged through specific kinds of relationships (Leonard-Barton, 1995; Choo, 1998; Wenger, 1999; Lave & Wenger, 1991). The unique aspect of these forms of capital is that they are not depleted but re-generated through their exploitation (Dovey & Fenech, 2007). The most critical of these social capital resources is trust, as it underpins the capacity to leverage many of the other resources potentially available to a network either through its members or through its partner networks (connections) (Dovey & Fenech, 2007). Once trust—and the social norms of reciprocity and voluntary cooperation that go with it—is established, network members have access to vital human or social capital (knowledge and other resources that are embodied in individual members) and morale capital (resources such as passion, commitment, motivation, courage and resilience that are rooted in, what Nahapiet and Ghoshal call, “identity resources”). Trust underpins stakeholder collaboration—an activity that is singled out in the literature as the most important means of learning and knowledge construction in organizations (Wenger, 1999; Dougherty, 1999; Choo, 1998; Leonard-Barton, 1995; Lave and Wenger, 1991). It is vital to the processes of converting creative ideas into new innovative products, services and business practices. Without trust, irrespective of the availability of other important resources, little of collective value is likely to be achieved. However, while trust is such an important resource in a knowledge economy, it is for many reasons rarely available in abundance in organizations (Putnam, 1993; 1995). Applied Knowledge Management Problems in Project Management Barriers to Learning within Projects As observed earlier projects have been described as learning generators and are widely seen as the powerhouse of learning within organisations. However, the very characteristics that underpin this learning potential also create barriers to harnessing it. As Garrety et al. (2004, p. 353) state: “The problem for project managers is to overcome barriers to communication created by the existence of groups with quite different skills, languages, expectations and assumptions,” and they are under time and budget constraints to do so. One of the key processes by which project teams integrate their divergent knowledge is through a process of “brokering.” Garrety (2004, pp. 353-357) describes the process of “brokering” as “the use of multi-membership to transfer some element of one practice to another … it involves processes of translation, coordination, and alignment between perspectives. It requires enough legitimacy to influence the development of a practice, mobilise attention and address conflicting interests.” Such integration of knowledge between different communities requires a great deal of work in creating and maintaining social relationships. Projects need persons to act as brokers, transferring and translating knowledge and aligning and productively organising different interests and perspectives as projects move through phases of differentiation and integration. Knowledge Sharing between Projects and from Project to Organisation Ayas and Zeniuk (2007, p. 61) ask the question: “Can projects enable or facilitate the creation and diffusion of knowledge and innovative practices beyond individuals, specific teams or projects?” Schindler and Eppler (2003, p. 219) have recently reported that while “projects are especially suited to learning … our research with various project teams (in product development, controlling, consulting, and financial services) over the course of three years shows that knowledge and experiences gathered in different projects are not being systematically integrated into the organisational knowledge base.” Similarly, Scarborough et al. (2004, p. 492) state that “despite increasingly systematic efforts to capture learning from projects and make it available to other parts of the organisation, the evidence to date suggests limited success for such initiatives (Chaston, 1998; Sahlin-Andersson, 2002) suggesting a sharp contrast between the abundant generation of learning within projects and the more limited prospects for the diffusion of such learning across the wider organisational context (Ayas & Zeniuk, 2001).” Challenges stem from the relatively self contained, idiosyncratic and finite nature of project tasks—inevitable discontinuities occur in the flow of resources (especially personnel and information) from one project to the next (Bresnen et al., 2003). Kasvri et al. (2003) observe that “… projects are temporally limited, and the people involved and the lessons learned are dispersed when the project ends. Often people change even during a project.” Bresnen et al. (2003) argue that in addition to the problem of the fragmentation of knowledge, the ability to develop shared meaning and understandings is also undermined in a project setting. Groups are temporally, spatially, and culturally differentiated in ways that militate against the diffusion of knowledge via the development of well-established communities of practice. The immediacy of project objectives and the finite lifespan of project activity may act as a focus for innovative activity, but they also militate against the emergence of networks of actors who are able to construct a community based upon shared understandings. Attempts to develop informal networks for the spread of knowledge and learning inevitably cut across strong institutional, professional, and contractual boundaries and demarcations. Scarborough et al. (2002, p. 492) describe how the “absorptive capacity” of an organisation—i.e., the ability to recognise the value of new information, assimilate it and then apply it to commercial ends—is determined in large measure by the prior distribution of knowledge and the extent to which there is a shared common stock of knowledge, both technical and organisational. A particularly interesting idea in this context is the concept that in a multi-project environment, which characterises most organisations where change and innovation are imperative (Fenech & Dovey, 2005), a community may develop around the “practice” of serial and ongoing participation in tightly knit project teams. The domain in this case is the “multi-project environment,” in which “most of the work of businesses is organized as projects, formalised project management is the predominant business process for managing change, and multiple projects are executed simultaneously” (Fenech & Dovey, 2005). The community comprises those people who work and thrive in this dynamic business context, regardless of their disciplinary background, including project managers, business analysts, solutions architects, test managers, deployment managers, and so on. The shared practice involves that combination of skills and knowledge required to collaboratively solve problems and autonomously make decisions framed by agreed objectives by diverse participants, under time and budgetary constraints. On this last point, Gee et al. (1996, p. 58) state that “in the new capitalism it is not really important what individuals know on their own, but rather what they can do with others in a collaborative way to effectively add ‘value’ to the enterprise.” There is some support for such a conception in the literature. For example, Sense (2003, p. 8) states that “a project-based or matrix organisation may have people constantly moving between and interacting frequently on different projects, and a focus on learning across all those projects may constitute a type of mobile COP” (2003, p. 8). Through this Sense posits the “development of a mobile practice that can constitute learning between projects” (2003, p. 9). Similarly, Ayes and Zeniuk (2007, p. 71-72) note that: It is not only the nature of single projects that supports learning but also the web of relationships that are created in organisations that manage by projects … Project-based organisations may grow into constellations of interrelated communities of practice, offering a web of mutual support for cultivating reflective practices. When projects share members, they are bound together and become embedded in the same social network (Grantovetter, 1973). The recursive interaction among projects creates social networks of mutual assistance. Such a mechanism would need to be supported by appropriate organisational structures and power management practices. Project portfolio management offers some promise in this respect, providing the basis of an organisational configuration, and formal and informal practices, in which such project knowledge can become embedded. As well as that it provides a structure of legitimacy that promises to limit inappropriate management intrusions and power management practices by providing project teams with autonomy through formal project selection and the approval of charters and budgets. Consequently, this may assist to facilitate the development of social capital resources such as trust that are sensitive to power management practices. Responsibility for Knowledge Management in Project-Based Organisations Project Managers' Responsibilities Reich (2007, p. 13) expresses the view that it is the responsibility of project managers “to establish a climate of trust, where it is safe to make mistakes (Grant, 2006), where sharing knowledge is the norm and helping others is promoted (Adenfelt & Lagerström, 2006). This nurturing and safe climate is essential for implementing even simple activities such as collecting accurate and meaningful lessons learned.” Project managers can implement five practices to build a climate for learning: - Engage the team when building the risk register - Communicate that mistakes are a natural part of the team's growth and understanding - Reward behaviour that supports a learning climate - Practice using desired team behaviours on minor issues - Speak the truth. Similarly, Jackon, and Klobas (2007) state that “if knowledge is socially constructed then managers of projects need to attend to the elements of an environment which influence the construction of the knowledge required to get things done in projects.” Leaders' and Owners' Responsibilities However, while there is no doubt that project managers have an important role to play, particularly with respect to learning within projects, there are obvious limits to their power. There is little that a project manager can do to address organisational factors that inhibit both project learning and organisational learning from projects. Cultural and political factors often lead to inappropriate power management practices that can destroy the nascent culture of trust established by a project manager within (or through) some project initiative, which makes it essential that organisational leaders not only support the efforts of project managers but drive the transformation and structural change necessary to ensure the success of learning and knowledge management initiatives (see Dovey & Fenech, 2007). Eskerod and Skriver (2007, p. 118) note that their findings from a detailed case study “suggests that to promote knowledge transfer, top management must focus on basic assumptions embedded in the organisational culture at hand and not solely on direct knowledge transfer between project managers.” Dovey and Fenech (2007) argue for leaders to develop “a new form of enterprise logic—one characterized by emergent structures, shared ownership, and broadly distributed ‘non-authoritarian’ power bases—through which the creativity and learning capabilities of all staff can be built and leveraged.” The key implication of their findings is the need to broaden the concept of leadership in organisations to incorporate the role of “structural architect.” They go on to argue that: With suitable frames of reference regarding the relationship between structure and mission accomplishment, leaders need to explore the range of organizational forms that are emerging as appropriate alternatives to the functional hierarchy. Such forms include cellular (Miles et al., 1997); federal (Handy, 1994); hypertext (Nonaka & Takeuchi, 1995); communities of practice (Wenger, 1999) and network (Lipnack et al., 1994) structures (Fenech & Dovey, 2007, p. 587). This argument is supported by a case study at Fokker Aircraft described by Ayus and Zeniuk (2007, pp. 68-70) in which project learning was facilitated by the implementation of a project network structure—“an organic network of self managing teams … a dynamic approach to [organisational] design derived from the principles of organisational learning … constituted by teams within teams”—and changes to reward systems. Their findings support the need for organisational leaders to establish conditions of “psychological safety” and a “learning infrastructure.” Conclusion In this paper we have attempted to provide project managers with the benefit of practical access to concepts from knowledge management literature in order to assist their practice as project managers. For example, Garrety et al. (2004, p. 351) state that “[a] communities of practice perspective can help project managers to maximise the fruitfulness of the relationships that are crucial to knowledge exchange in complex projects … [drawing] attention to the social processes that produce differentiation, as well as the processes that facilitate productive integration … [and recognising that while] it is important to specify and pursue technical goals, complex projects are also social enterprises.” It is hoped that this assistance extends to helping project managers to influence organisational leaders more effectively. We have also sought to highlight some of the areas where organisational leaders need to drive transformation in order to support learning cultures within their organisations. It is not all up to project managers. References Ayus, K., & Zeniuk, N. (2001). Project-based learning: Building communities of reflective practitioners. Management Learning, 32(1), 65-76. Bellin, E., & Canonico. (2007). Knowing communities in project driven organisations: Analysing the strategic impact of socially constructed HRM practices. International Journal of Project Management. Bresnen, M., Edelman, L., Newell, S., Scarborough, H., & Swan, J. (2003). Social practices and the management of knowledge in project environments. International Journal of Project Management 21, 157-166. Dovey, K. A., & Fenech, B. J. (2007, November). The role of enterprise logic in the failure of organisations to learn and transform. Management Learning, 38(5), 573-590. Eskerod, P., & Skriver, H. J. (2007, March). Organisational culture restraining in-house knowledge transfer between project managers—A case study. Project Management Journal, 38(1), 110-122. Faraj, S., & Sproull, L. (2000). Coordinating expertise in software development teams. Management Science, 46(12), 1554-1568. Fenech, B., & Dovey, K. (2005). Evaluating project management maturity models: An analysis of business needs. 2005 PMI Global Conference – Asia Pacific, Singapore. Garrety, K., Robertson, P. L., & Badham, R. (2004). Integrating communities of practice in technology development projects. International Journal of Project Management, 22, 351-358. Gee, J., Hull, G., & Lankshear, C. (1996). The new work order: Behind the language of the new capitalism. Sydney: Allen & Unwin. Jackson, P., & Klobas, J. (2007). Building knowledge in projects: A practical application of social constructivism to information systems development. International Journal of Project Management. Kasvi, J. J. J., Vartiainen, M., & Hailikari, (2003). Managing knowledge and knowledge competencies in projects and project organisations. International Journal of Project Management, 21, 571-582. Reich, B. H. (2007, June). Managing knowledge and learning in IT projects: A conceptual framework and guidelines for practice. Project Management Journal, 38(2), 5-17. Schindler, M., & Eppler, M. J. (2003). Harvesting project knowledge: A review of project learning methods and success factors. International Journal of Project Management, 21, 219-228. Sense, A. (2003). Learning generators: Project teams reconceptualised. Project Management Journal, 34(3), 4-12. Tiwana, A., Bharadwaj, A., & Sambamurhty, V. (2003). The antecedents of IS development capability: A knowledge integration perspective. Proceedings of the 24th International Conference on Information Systems, Seattle, USA. Yoo, Y., & Kanawattanachai, P. (2001). Developments of transactive memory systems and collective mind in virtual teams. The International Journal of Organisational Analysis, 9(2), 187-208. Wenger, E., McDermott, R., & Snyder, W. (2002). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning and identity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ©2008 Bryan J. Fenech, Ken Dovey Originally published as part of Proceedings PMI Global Congress – 2008 Sydney, Australia Advertisement Advertisement Related Content - Practice Standard for Work Breakdown Structures An essential tool for project planning, a work breakdown structure organizes a project’s total scope to help practitioners track projects across disciplines and project life cycles. - - - - Advertisement Publishing or acceptance of an advertisement is neither a guarantee nor endorsement of the advertiser's product or service. View advertising policy.	https://www.pmi.org/learning/library/knowledge-management-integration-7065
Community is a network of people who regularly come together for some common cause or celebration. A community is not necessarily geographic, although geography can define certain communities. To come to an understanding of community is to appreciate that community really is based on the relationships that form, not on the space. In fact, space can be an abstract notion when it comes to understanding community. Think about the global community created by the Internet. These communities are not bound by geography, but are relationships forged in cyberspace. The term “community” is the blending of the prefix “com,” which means “with,” and the root word, “unity,” which means togetherness and connectedness. The notion of being “with unity” is a good way to think about the concept of community. When people come together for the sake of a unified position or theme, you have community. The term “culture” is analogous to community, but culture relates more to the behaviors manifested by the community. People bound together around a common cause create a community, but the minute they begin to establish behaviors around their common cause they develop a culture. In this way, culture is the learned and shared way that communities do particular things. This basic approach to community and culture blend three key features. One is the fact that community is a network of people. Often these people may have great differences or even distances between them. They can be different in age, background, ethnicity, religion or many other ways, but in spite of their differences, their commonality or common cause pulls them together. The similarity of the common cause or celebration is the second key feature of community and the glue that creates the network. Regardless of who the members of the network are as people, their common cause overrides whatever differences they may have and creates a powerful connection. Finally, as the collection of people continues to meet and celebrate on a regular basis, they begin to frame behaviors and patterns and become a culture, the third key ingredient. These regular meetings bond the community members as they discover other ways that they are similar. One of the most important facets of community is that it promotes a sense of social capital for the members who belong. Social capital refers to the connections and relationships that develop around community and the value these relationships hold for the members. Like physical capital (the tools used by communities, or human capital – the people power brought to a situation), “social capital” is the value brought on by the relationships. More recently, Robert Putnam (2000) defined the concept of social capital as: “referring to connections among individuals-social networks and the norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from them … [It] is closely related to … civic … virtue … A society of many virtuous but isolated individuals is not necessarily rich in social capital.” (p.19). Other sociologists suggest that social capital is enhanced by social currency. This idea is how social fodder links people together. For example, a popular person who is the life of the party might be regularly included in activities. To this extent he is strong in social capital. His jokes and storytelling, the items that make him popular in the gathering, are the social currency he exchanges. The fact that social capital keeps us safe, sane and secure cannot be understated. Most of us tend to think that institutions or organizations are key to safety. Places like hospitals or systems like law enforcement are thought to keep us safe, but the bold truth is that these systems have never really succeeded in keeping us safe or healthy. Rather, it is the opportunity for relationships that community offers us as well as the building of social capital. Simply stated, your circles of support and the reciprocity they create are the most important element in your safety. In fact, it has been suggested that social isolation, or the opposite of social capital, it responsible for as many deaths per year as is attributed to smoking. When we consider social capital for people with disabilities, we must recognize the void. We know that people with disabilities still are separated from the greater community and mostly involved in special programs or services designed for them. In these realities, the major outlet for social capital is found only within the borders of the special programs. To this extent then, the relationships that constitute the social capital of many people with disabilities are other people with disabilities. The narrowness of this reality leaves a significant void. Consider the notion of reciprocity. The more you become connected with your community, the more people begin to watch out for each other. If one day a regular member of your group doesn’t show up, a natural inclination would be to check up on them. This sense of group reciprocity is what leads to individual safety. If the major social capital outlet for people with disabilities is other people with disabilities, then the reciprocity factor can become narrow. The more narrow the confines of reciprocity the less impact it offers. Putnam’s ideas of how social capital builds tolerance and lessens pugnaciousness also fit closely to the concept of cultural shifting. Anthropologists have found that for communities to get better, new and different ideas, people or products are necessary. Yet intolerant and angry communities are not as open or as ready to absorb new things. Consequently, cultural shifting is more difficult when communities remain narrow. Social capital helps build tolerance because the exposure to others challenges us to consider new things. This developing openness then has an effect on pugnaciousness. Simply put, if you become more exposed to difference, anger levels have a greater potential to go down. This notion of social capital and the blending of similarity of interest with natural diversity of the members create unique phenomena for growth and development in both people and organizations. The drive to find, create or be more than we had before is magically transformed when it is blended with community. The reciprocity developed through social capital is helpful as well for either specific or general reasons. Many current business leaders understand the notion of community and social capital. Most successful companies and organizations work to create a community sense among their employees. A company can be energized by the idea that people can bond around a mission statement and objective to find mutual success. The relationships that form a bond create opportunities for social reciprocity and build social capital. In fact, about any organization or work force, including families, can lead to a greater sense of bonding, focus and success. Quite simply, community is a universal concept that creates advancement not only in products and ideas, but for people as well. Cultures and communities have many features, but one key ingredient is regularity. That is, for a community to be viable it must have some regular points of contact and connection. For a family community, this might be annual reunions or the celebration of holidays together. For a religious community, this would be weekly services and holy days for celebration. For organizations this would be regular staff meetings or stakeholder gatherings. For clubs, groups or associations, regular meetings or gatherings formalize the group as a community. The more people come together the more they find other ways that they are linked. That is, when a person first comes to a community they are drawn by the common interest of the community. As they attend again and again they will find other similarities with people in the community and create a deeper sense of bonding. Other features of community include the notions of consent, creativity and cooperation. Years ago Robert Nisbit (1972) suggested that community thrives on self-help and equal consent. He felt that people do not come together merely to be together, but to do something together that cannot be done in isolation. Others (Sussman, 1959) identified community for its sense of interdependence. McKnight (1988) described community as a collective association driven toward a common goal. Indeed, if we think about communities that we know, they all work toward some identified goal. From teaching people new skills, to saving souls, to addressing a common problem, to launching a government, all of these ventures capture the power of community, and then, through their behavior, create a culture. The most vibrant and successful of these communities are the ones that have built more social capital. Contact Al Condeluci via email or phone at (412) 683-7100 x 329. This article is excerpted from Cultural Shifting: Community Leadership and Change (TRN Press, 2002). An additional article, The Critical Nature of Social Capital, compliments this piece and is available in pdf format.	https://www.abilitycenter.org/what-we-do/essays/community-social-capital/
DYNAMICS OF TRUST FOR GOOD‘WAQF’ GOVERNANCE DIAN MASYITA LECTURER AT THE FACULTY OF ECONOMICS AND BUSINESS UNIVERSITY OF PADJADJARAN The phenomenon of philanthropy is dynamic and complex involving different values and activities brought together to produce such a system. Waqf is one example of Islamic philanthropies. Trust, emanating from the belief system in Islam, as social capital has remained as an important working mechanism for waqf to work efficiently. The static perpetuity, rigidity, and the mismanagement of awqaf with the decline in trust between individuals, and between individuals and institutions in the recent past had created inefficiencies and ineffectiveness. However, mismanagement and moral hazard can be avoided by a good governance system based on religion with the enhanced notion of trust among all stakeholders of a waqf. For this, in addition to the form oriented understanding of fiqh, ethical norms of Islam should reemerge to provide substance, such as through ethics, in making sure that the high objectives of Shari’a are achieved through activities of waqf based on the articulation of trust and good governance. ALTRUISM – CONCEPT AND REALITY Altruism, as a universal concept, refers to the willingness to do things which benefits other people as part of human nature. In other words, altruism refers to selfless acts that put others welfare before one’s own. If the ultimate goal of benefiting another is to increase their welfare, then the motivation is altruistic. If the ultimate goal is to increase one’s own welfare, then the motivation is egoistic. A FRAMEWORK OF WAQF MANAGEMENT Good waqf governance is purposed as an integrated system. Every element in this system is supposed to support each other in order to achieve efficient waqf management. Trust as Social Capital and Transparency Trust is recently considered as a social capital and also recognised as an important aspect of facilitating financial and economic transactions by reducing the transaction costs. In particular, due to the charitable nature of the waqf system, trust remains key to achieving the ultimate goal in the voluntary sectors. Trust between individuals, and between individuals and institutions is developed according to a general framework of the larger environment, including ethics and religion. Thus, religious values can help develop and perpetuate trust in a society, which then can develop into social capital. Akkermans states that when the modeller maps trust in a stocks-and-flows format, it makes sense that trust is an accumulation that grows slowly over time . Interestingly, during the initial stages of a relationship, trust is more easily depleted than grown. Higher trust levels lead to lower costs. Trust is an important indicator of customer satisfaction within the Islamic financial institutions in general, and waqf institution in particular. Understanding the dynamics of trust in Islamic finance such as waqf seems pivotal for determining the ways to create managerial actions leading to adequate performances of waqf institutions. Creating a framework for understanding the dynamics of trust in an institution and how these influence the policy scheme is essential. Trust is produced through reputation acquired on the basis of consistent behaviour in terms of value and product of human actions over time. Trust as social capital creates efficiency and effectiveness thereby reducing transaction costs. If people can trust the other party, there is no need for additional energy and time to calculate the outcomes of the process due to nontrustable nature of the parties. There is then simple administrative work without the need for extensive contracts and guarantees. Thus, trust as a social capital further facilitates transparency and accountability, which are prerequisites to the success of the trust/endowment fund management. Lack of transparency results in nontrustable charitable organisations and hence produces an outcome where institutions are not trusted. This lack oftransparency may also contribute to the attitude that directs donations are better, as compared to donations to an institution. For example, in Turkey, nearly 87% of donations are direct donations. This bypasses philanthropic organisation, and thereby excludes aid to the neighbourhood in which the donor resides. This model of giving stagnates capacity building. The effective collaboration among parties involve a great deal of openness and hence transparency needs trust. Transparency results in well informed individuals and stakeholders who want to know what benefits they bring to the community, implying the formation of trust between different stakeholders in the society. The real cost of lack of trust is the inability to share information openly. Therefore, the greater the trust among the parties, the higher their openness towards each other and the greater the focus on getting the work done. From a system dynamics perspective, trust and transparency are causally linked into a reinforcing cycle, which may operate as either a virtuous or a vicious cycle, depending on what directions things are moving. If a non-profit organisation, charity, waqf, trust fund or endowment fund is not transparent in its dealings with the sources and uses of fund, the donors will not trust them. Consequently, it will be difficult for them to donate their money to those institutions. Hence, building mutual trust and openness takes time, as Akkermans states trust “comes by foot but leaves on horseback.” There is another asymmetry to take into account in the development of trust, namely the differences between the processes of building trust versus destroying it (creating distrust). Empirical and theoretical analyses of trust are consistent in pointing out that while building trust is a gradual process, it can be destroyed quickly by a single event or a minor inconsistency in the trustee’s behaviour. Dynamics of Trust Trust is dynamic by nature; and therefore, some researchers have endeavoured to classify the factors that influence how trust develops or changes over time, how it relates to the social processes, and how it links to the organisational and interorganisational relationships. Trust is derived from various dimensions that are multi-aspects, cross-cultural, and range at different times. Thus, trust incompasses a full range of social sciences from the economic models of transaction costs and negotiation to sociological theories of group and interorganisational behaviour, to psychological and culture-based models of interpersonal interactions. The enhancement and maintenance of trust have been identified as an important element in human relationships, whether at the interpersonal, business, or organisational level. These are challenging questions for researchers and practitioners. An increasing number of multidisciplinary researchers in the fields of philanthropy, endowment fund policy and trust firm strategy shows that the performance of the non-profit organisations cannot be viewed as an isolated phenomenon but has to be analysed as a part of a larger system. These fields inevitably deal with trust management. Trust is also described as a mental strategy that reduces the complexity of our environment and that allows us to make decisions even though their outcomes may potentially be harmful. These dynamic approaches to trust typically involve some form of learning or knowledge accumulation, or change as an important part of the trust dynamics. In transaction cost analyses, varying levels of trusts or hazards resulting from untrustworthiness influence the structure of interorganisational relationships. Higher trust levels lead to lower costs resulting from the need to protect against opportunism. Political approaches and institutional analyses have also shown that trust is an important factor in governance mechanism across organisations. But these structural approaches do not account for how trust develops. Collaboration and Knowledge Creates Trust Ostrom, as the Nobel laureate, emphasises that “Learning to trust others is central to cooperation”. Hence, trust is considered as a fundamental factor in cooperation among economic actors and institutionbuilding processes. However, in order to develop trust, knowledge and information on social and economic structures is essential to reduce uncertainty and reduce transaction cost. In other words, trust is difficult to gain without transparent information. As several studies have demonstrated, collaboration and knowledge are important factors, which influences the decisionmaking process. Collaboration and knowledge sharing can solve problems of trust, conflict, and risk among different parties. These are largely matters of perception and beliefs, about other participants in a network that can influence interactions and decision making. Mutual understanding and collaboration in inter-organisation will create a trust that is related to transaction costs. Trust has consistently been found to be an essential feature in inter-organisational knowledge sharing relationships. The collaboration of cross-organisational sharing of knowledge inevitably raises risks and furthermore brings potential conflicts. The strength and value of committed resources, including knowledge, influence those risks. Some level of trust is both an initial condition for the formation of relationships as well as a result of positive interactions over time. Regarding the thirdsector management (trust/charity/endowment/waqf fund), the openness in sharing information between the trustee and donor or nazir/mutawalli and waqif/founder is crucial for flexibility. Openness, or transparency, requires a high level of trust among parties. Trust and transparency form a reinforcing loop, with either good or bad non-profit organisational performance as the link between them. Joint hard work, mapping out how things work out between parties, and an increased understanding of the other side, can over time lead to more trust. A long relationship among parties is an important thing in building a trustworthy behaviour. Each party has to pass some kind of a trust barrier, for if there were mistakes in the beginning, relations would end. This also makes it clear that people who work well together manage to do so for considerable amounts of time. In the voluntary sector context, once donors trust a charity organisation, they do not give their money to other organisations. The credibility of a nonprofit organisation is considered an important thing by donors. Credibility is not an easy thing to achieve, as it is built through expertise and trustworthiness. Performance of Waqf Management The inferior performance of an institution gives both sides all the more reason to distrust each other, which leads to less openness, more inferior performance and even less trust. However, reversing a vicious cycle into a virtuous one is always difficult in a business setting and especially so when such “soft” and cultural issues such as trust are involved. But, it can be done. Trust and Risk There is a close connection between trust and risk. If there is no risk, there is no need for trust and vice versa. However, “the willingness to take risks may be one of the few characteristics common to all trust situations”. Hence, trust can be seen as a mental mechanism that helps reduce complexity and uncertainty in order to foster development or maintenance of relationships even under risky conditions. Indeed, the absence of risk indicates confidence, i.e. certainty in positive outcomes. On the other hand, risk such as unpredictable future events, require trust to overcome uncertainty and enable constructive interpersonal relations. In terms of non-profit organisations, the ability to manage risk becomes a pivotal matter for being considered by donors. The more professional the investment manager is in managing the risk of waqf fund portfolios, the more beneficial it can be for achieving the goals of non-profit organisations and waqf institutions. There are other dilemmas in the management of waqf institutions in order to create a waqf that has a huge impact to society, as a huge amount of money is required with a centralised way of mobilising waqf fund. Based on past experiences, the evidence shows that the centralisation of waqf institutions have created inefficiency and destruction of waqf assets.13 Mobilising a huge fund is only possible through the centralisation of waqf institutions by the government. On the other hand, it has been recognised that the government is a bad manager for the third sector. The ability of small waqf institutions to gather waqf fund is quite small and even if there are a lot of waqf institutions established, it is still difficult to reach the scale of economy. In addition, many waqf institutions have their own objectives and beneficiaries portfolio which weakens their ability to mobilise a huge fund. However, the scale of the economy is very important to reduce costs, be competitive and create significant impact on society. CONCLUSION: INTEGRATING TRUST INTO WAQF MANAGEMENT Considering the historical experience in the Muslim world, one sees the impact of trust perpetuating in the Islamic civilisation. The very title given to Prophet Muhammad was Muhammad-ul Amin (the trustable Muhammad), which is considered as the cornerstone of the Muslim self. The contemporary economy has two major issues: welfare and development needs in the Muslim society; and the mistrust that marks the market economy and the behavioural norms of individuals. The first problem can be alleviated by the regeneration of the waqf system in the Muslim world in the case where states have failed. This role is historically played well by the waqf, which could be repeated. However, trust in some Muslim societies and communities is terribly low; as individuals do not trust each other nor do they trust the institutions and the state. Thus, the integration of trust in waqf management in the welfare system can be alleviated in society, which rationalises the importance of trust as social capital. Since transparency, reputation, accountability, credibility, good collaboration, productivity, risk management and Shari’a-compliance are the key-words for the sustainability of the waqf management, endogenising trust through the values and norms of Islamic economy can help develop an optimal outcome.	https://www.islamiceconomist.com/dynamics-of-trust-for-goodwaqf-governance-dian-masyita-lecturer-at-the-faculty-of-economics-and-business-university-of-padjadjaran/
Permanent Link: http://digital.auraria.edu/AA00004044/00001 Material Information Title: Coordination of an emergent multiorganizational network responding to the arrival of Katrina evacuees in Colorado Springs Creator: Rikoski, Giannina P Publication Date: 2008 Language: English Physical Description: xviii, 341 leaves : ; 28 cm Thesis/Dissertation Information Degree: Doctorate ( Doctor of Philosophy) Degree Grantor: University of Colorado Denver Degree Divisions: Department of Public Affairs, CU Denver Degree Disciplines: Public Affairs Committee Chair: deLeon, Peter Committee Co-Chair: deLeon, Linda Committee Members: Null, James A. McEntire, David A. Riddle, Mark D. Subjects Subjects / Keywords: 2005 ( fast ) Incident command systems -- United States ( lcsh ) Emergency management -- United States ( lcsh ) Hurricane Katrina, 2005 -- Social aspects ( lcsh ) Social networks -- United States ( lcsh ) Interagency coordination -- United States ( lcsh ) Emergency management ( fast ) Incident command systems ( fast ) Interagency coordination ( fast ) Social aspects ( fast ) Social networks ( fast ) United States ( fast ) Genre: bibliography ( marcgt ) theses ( marcgt ) non-fiction ( marcgt ) Notes Bibliography: Includes bibliographical references (leaves 315-341). General Note: School of Public Affairs Statement of Responsibility: by Giannina Petrullo Rikoski. Record Information Source Institution: \|University of Colorado Denver Holding Location: \|Auraria Library Rights Management: All applicable rights reserved by the source institution and holding location. Resource Identifier: 259110931 ( OCLC ) ocn259110931 Classification: LD1193.P86 2008d R54 ( lcc ) Auraria Membership Aggregations: Auraria Library University of Colorado Denver University of Colorado Denver Theses and Dissertations Full Text COORDINATION OF AN EMERGENT MULTIORGANIZATIONAL NETWORK RESPONDING TO THE ARRIVAL OF KATRINA EVACUEES IN COLORADO SPRINGS by Giannina Petrullo Rikoski B.A., Beloit College, 1969 M.A., University of Pennsylvania, 1970 A thesis submitted to the University of Colorado Denver in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Public Affairs 2008 4 $ 2008 by Giannina Petrullo Rikoski All rights reserved. This thesis for the Doctor of Philosophy degree by Giannina Petrullo Rikoski has been approved by Peter deLeon Linda deLeon David A. McEntire Mark D. Riddle 'll Date Rikoski, Giannina P. (Ph.D., Public Affairs) Coordination of an Emergency Multiorganizational Network Responding to the Arrival of Katrina Evacuees in Colorado Springs Thesis directed by Professor Peter deLeon ABSTRACT Government lacks the capacity to manage the consequences of disasters alone. Effective response and recovery require the involvement of networks that often are comprised of public, non-profit, and private organizations. This dissertation uses a collaborative governance framework focusing on the interaction of structure and process to pursue the question of how to organize and govern response to disasters. Collaboration has been viewed as a key process in the governance of networks, while the hierarchically structured Incident Command System (ICS) has been widely adopted as the standard organizational form for managing disaster response. A single case is used to examine collaboration and authority in an emergent multi-organizational network managed with ICS. Specifically, the dissertation investigates whether collaboration can occur across as well as within levels of the hierarchical command structure and whether the authority structure may foster collaboration and the creation of social capital in the network. Social network analysis is employed to identify pre-existing ties among organizations and patterns of interaction among organizational units in the ICS structure, including the exercise of formal authority and participation in joint decision making. The social network analysis shows that reciprocal direction giving and joint decision making occurred across levels and branches of the structure. This indicates that both developing and active collaboration were present and suggests that other forms of authority besides formal hierarchical authority were operative. The analysis also shows that units with formal authority engaged in joint decision making with multiple partners who also made decisions with each other. Interview and observational data suggest that units with authority encouraged collaboration and facilitated the development of collaborative relationships among other units. This dissertation concludes that collaboration and hierarchy are not necessarily incompatible and that ICS may be a workable system for disaster response when multiorganizational collaboration is required. However, flexibility in implementation and skill in collaborative processes are essential. This abstract accurately represents the content of the candidates thesis. I recommend its publication. Signed Peter deLeon ACKNOWLEDGMENT I wish to express my deep appreciation to Peter deLeon, the chair of my committee, for his patience and endurance through the many years that it took me to get to this point. His insistence that I stay grounded in the literature and his sharp attention to detail taught me a great deal. I also wish to thank him and Linda deLeon for encouraging me to seize the moment presented by the establishment of the Pikes Peak Disaster Recovery Center and conduct research on its coordination and governance. I am grateful to Peter deLeon, Linda deLeon, and James Null for agreeing to serve on my committee when I was pursuing a different topic and remaining with me when I made the change. I appreciate the practical assistance that Mark Riddle provided with social network analysis and UCINET software. The comments on the penultimate draft provided by David McEntire and Linda deLeon led to important improvements in the dissertation. I could not have had a better committee. While working on this dissertation I also had a full-time job. I am grateful to Chief Manuel Navarro of the Colorado Springs Fire Department for his enthusiastic support and for his tolerance of the extended vacations I took to complete this work. During those absences, Elizabeth Freitag kept the Finance Section of the Colorado Springs Fire Department running smoothly, for which Chief Navarro and I are both grateful. However, I now know that I am not indispensable. Completing this dissertation would not have been possible without the support of my husband David Kuamoo who assumed many tasks on the home front. I especially appreciate his attention to geriatric pet care while I was occupied with writing. My first course of graduate study occurred early in my life, before I had children. In the time it took me to complete this second course of graduate study, my son Rick and my daughter Jenny graduated from college and completed two advanced degrees each. I continue to draw inspiration from their success. Finally, I owe thanks to William H. Wallace for challenging my ideas with his precise mathematical mind and to Eileen Kelley for freeing me to focus on substance by dealing with formatting issues and making word processing software do what I could not get it to do. TABLE OF CONTENTS Figures.......................................................xiii Tables.........................................................xiv Preface.........................................................xv CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION..................................................1 Hurricane Katrina and the Flooding of New Orleans.........1 Risk and Expectations.....................................6 Emergency Management......................................8 Overview of the Dissertation.............................13 2. LITERATURE REVIEW............................................15 Introduction.............................................15 Network Organizations....................................16 Bureaucracy............................................18 Networks and Collaboration.............................20 Network Governance and Management......................26 Summary of Key Points..................................34 Social Capital...........................................35 Definitions and Basic Concepts.........................35 Indicators of Social Capital...........................46 viii Summary of Key Points...................................47 Disaster Theory and Research.............................47 Social Construction of Disasters........................50 Impact of Disasters on Minority Populations.............52 Response to Disasters...................................54 Summary of Key Points...................................86 Social Network Analysis..................................88 Applications of Social Network Analysis to Organizations.90 Discussion...............................................96 3. THE KATRINA DIASPORA AND THE RESPONSE OF HOST COMMUNITIES..................................................99 Introduction.............................................99 Assistance under the Stafford Act.......................101 The Response of Selected Host Communities...............103 Overview...............................................103 Baton Rouge............................................104 Birmingham.............................................106 Atlanta................................................109 Houston................................................112 San Antonio............................................117 Chicago................................................119 ix Examples of State-Level Efforts..........................120 Discussion of the Response of Receiving Communities........121 Return to New Orleans......................................125 4. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND RESEARCH DESIGN.......................127 Research Goals.............................................127 Conceptual Framework.......................................128 Research Design............................................133 Propositions.............................................134 Description of the Case..................................137 Data Collection..........................................140 Analytical Methods.......................................148 Measures.................................................158 Reliability and Validity Issues............................163 5. THE PIKES PEAK DISASTER RECOVERY CENTER.......................166 Introduction...............................................166 Events Leading to the Opening of the PPDRC.................170 Mobilization...............................................175 Operations at the PPDRC....................................177 Roles and Responsibilities of Participating Organizations.177 Services Delivered, Effort Expended, and Costs...........184 x Follow-Up on the Evacuees................................186 Organizational Structure of the PPDRC....................188 Operational Details......................................194 Demobilization and Transition..............................207 6. FINDINGS FROM THE NETWORK ANALYSIS.............................209 Period I: The Year Prior to Katrina........................209 Period II: Between Hurricane Katrina and the Opening of the PPDRC......................................................212 Period HI: The PPDRC in Operation..........................214 Contact and Meetings, Information Exchange, and Resource Exchange.................................................217 Command and Collaboration................................225 7. DISCUSSION.....................................................245 Origin of the PPDRC........................................245 ICS at the PPDRC...........................................247 Collaboration and Social Capital...........................258 Assessing Support for the Propositions.....................265 Applications of the Findings to other Issues in Network Research and Emergency Management...................................268 The Role of Leadership...................................268 Appropriateness of ICS...................................266 Planning and Improvisation...............................269 xi Limitations of the Research 274 8. CONCLUSION.......................................278 Collaborative Governance in Disaster Response.278 Implication for Policy and Practice...........280 Directions for Future Research................282 APPENDIX A. INTERVIEW PROTOCOL I.............................289 B. INTERVIEW PROTOCOL II............................296 C. INTERVIEW PROTOCOL III...........................299 D. CONSENT FORM.....................................306 E. SUMMARY REPORT OF PPDRC CLIENT SERVICES..........307 F. EVACUEE SOLICITATIONS........................... 309 GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS.............................311 GLOSSARY OF ACRONYMS AND ORGANIZATIONAL ABBREVIATIONS...........................................315 REFERENCES .............................................310 xii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1 Basic Structural Elements of ICS.....................................67 4.1 Governance of Disaster Response.....................................129 5.1 PPDRC Organizational Chart..........................................190 6.1 Period I: Strong Ties Prior to Katrina Reported by Twelve Organizations........................................................211 6.2 Period I: Weak Ties Prior to Katrina Reported by Twelve Organizations........................................................212 6.3 Period II: Contacts among Organizations on the PPDRC Roster Reported by Thirteen Organizations...................................214 6.4 Formal Organization of the Study Network............................216 6.5 Contact among Organizations at the PPDRC............................220 6.6 Frequent Meetings among Organizational Units........................221 6.7 Resource Exchange among PPDRC Organizational Units..................226 6.8 Confirmed Giving Direction to Others................................229 6.9 Decision Model for a Relaxed Hierarchical Structure.................234 6.10 Confirmed Joint Decision Making.....................................235 6.11 Daily Joint Decision Making.........................................239 6.12 Egonet of Operations Command........................................241 6.13 Joint Decision Making with Organizations on Roster..................243 xiii LIST OF TABLES Table 4.1 Raw data...............................................................156 4.2 Reconstructed data.....................................................156 6.1 Legend for the study network diagram...................................217 6.2 Average density of contact within and between hierarchical levels......218 6.3 Information exchange: Freeman degree centrality from valued data.......223 6.4 Resource exchange: Freeman degree centrality from valued data..........225 6.5 Confirmed direction to others: Freeman degree centrality from valued data.......................................................230 xiv PREFACE Standing by the racks of brochures in a local office of emergency management in Colorado some years ago, I was amused to see brochures on how to prepare for a hurricane. I remember thinking to myself, Colorado has severe weather, but it does not have hurricanes. I was to find out, however, that a hurricane does not have to hit Colorado for its effects to be felt there. Within a day or two of Hurricane Katrina and the subsequent flooding of New Orleans in 2005, evacuees from the affected areas began to arrive in Colorado Springs. As more arrived over the next week and an emergent group tried to coordinate assistance to them, officials of local government agencies and non-profit organizations realized that a coordinated effort was needed. Before two weeks had passed, the City of Colorado Springs and the local Red Cross chapter had opened an interagency center with assistance from other governmental entities, non-profit organizations, and volunteers. The Pikes Peak Disaster Recovery Center (PPDRC), as it came to be called, remained open for six weeks and served over 1,500 evacueesapproximately thirty-two percent of all evacuees who went to Colorado. Over the six-week period of operation, twelve City departments or offices, six agencies from El Paso County or other local government entities, three federal agencies, twenty-four non-profit or faith-based organizations, five private xv organizations, and an emergent group were actively involved at the PPDRC, with many others providing support. The organizations at the PPDRC provided initial medical screening and referral to health care providers, coordinated emergency housing and transportation, assisted with applications for benefits and assistance, moved evacuees into temporary housing, provided assistance with employment searches and school enrollment, and facilitated access to a variety of other services. When the PPDRC opened, the lack of a formal structure led the chief of the Colorado Springs Fire Department (who had been put in charge of the effort by the city council) to implement the Incident Command System (ICS). As head of finance for the Colorado Springs Fire Department, I was activated to share the position of Finance Section Chief in the ICS with City of Colorado Springs Director of Finance Terri Velasquez. I served in that capacity for the duration of the PPDRCs operations. During the first week, I also took on the responsibility for producing the after-action report. The second assignment cast me in the role of observer and gatherer of information. Unlike the more common practice of participant observation in which the researcher becomes a participant, I was a participant who became a researcher. That brings with it certain biases. As a civilian member of the Colorado Springs Fire Department since 1992,1 am familiar with ICS and understand how effective it can be for coordinating tactical emergency operations and providing accountability. However, my personal XVI preferences are for collaborative relationships rather than formal hierarchical ones and for collaborative decision-making rather than giving or receiving orders. Thus, I am neither an uncritical supporter of ICS as a framework for coordination nor a committed critic. I am, first, aware of the need for multiorganizational response to large scale emergencies and the complexity of coordinating that response. Because even routine emergencies may strain the resources of emergency response agencies, mutual-aid agreements are common among fire departments to provide individual departments with access to additional resources. In addition, established community organizations may provide support. For example, when fires occur at dwellings, the Red Cross often provides hotel rooms for people whose living quarters have been damaged or destroyed. At larger emergencies, the Salvation Army may provide meals for responders and victims, and the Red Cross may open shelters for individuals and families who have been displaced. As incidents increase in size and complexity, so does the need for additional organizations to become involved. Second, I am aware from the academic literature and my own observations that collaboration is important in multiorganizational response. Without multiorganizational, multisectoral collaboration, it would not be possible to mobilize the diverse resources needed for effective response. But regardless of sector, organizations that participate voluntarily work under the constraints of their own capabilities, policies, and procedures, although some have more flexibility than XVII others. Participating organizations frequently expect to have a say in what they do and how they do it. The failure to respond effectively following Hurricane Katrina and the apparent contradiction between the need for collaboration and the need for structure and authority emphasize the need to improve our understanding of how to organize and govern response to large-scale emergencies and disasters. Undertaking this dissertation gave me an opportunity to explore that issue through a case study of the PPDRC. The dissertation has not been sponsored by the Colorado Springs Fire Department, the City of Colorado Springs, the Colorado Springs City Council, or any individual or group of individuals connected to the PPDRC. I bear sole responsibility for the conduct of the research and the interpretation of the data. XVIII CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Hurricane Katrina and the Flooding of New Orleans Early on August, 26, 2005, Hurricane Katrina crossed the southern tip of the Florida peninsula and gathered strength as it moved west across the Gulf of Mexico. Later the same day, in response to forecasts that the hurricane would make landfall along the Louisiana and Mississippi coast, Louisiana Governor Kathleen Blanco and Mississippi Governor Haley Barbour issued emergency declarations for their states. Residents in vulnerable areas were urged to evacuate. It is estimated that over a million people evacuated coastal areas, including 450,000 people from the immediate New Orleans area. However, the evacuation was not complete. Some residents did not hear, or did not heed, the warnings (Brinkley 2006; U. S. House 2006). Some suffered from disabilities that made it difficult for them to leave, while others stayed behind to care for ill or disabled family members. Although the emergency operations plan for New Orleans acknowledged that approximately 100,000 residents would not be able to leave the area on their own (Brinkley 2006), no systematic effort was made to evacuate them. It is estimated that 70,000 people remained in New Orleans when the hurricane came ashore on August 29 (U. S. House 2006). The strongest part of the storm missed 1 New Orleans but devastated communities to the east along the Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama coasts, destroying some completely. For New Orleans, the worst was yet to come. The storm surge from the Gulf of Mexico and Lake Ponchartrain pushed water into the canals and against the levees that protected areas below sea level in the city of New Orleans and adjacent parishes. Breaches occurred in the levees, and water poured into low-lying areas, flooding 80% of the city and rising as high as twenty feet in some places (U. S. House 2006). In the lowest areas, such as New Orleans Lower Ninth Ward, residents drowned in the rising water. Others made it to the safety of high spots such as highway overpasses, either on their own or with the assistance of rescuers, but suffered for days without adequate water, food, shelter, or medical care. The New Orleans Superdome became a refuge of last resort for thousands, but the conditions were terrible due to overcrowding, inadequate supplies of drinking water, food, and medical supplies, intense heat, and failed plumbing. Similar or worse conditions prevailed at the Convention Center where thousands more gathered to wait for help. Days passed before the water receded and efforts to move survivors out of the damaged areas were undertaken in earnest. (Major parts of the New Orleans area were flooded for three weeks.) When evacuations of the remaining population began, survivors were bused to Houston, San Antonio, Baton Rouge, and other communities in the Gulf states, where their immediate needs were addressed by government and non-profit organizations. 2 Although the situations of those who survived the hurricane, the storm surge, and the flooding in the affected communities received the most attention, hundreds of thousands of Gulf Coast residents who evacuated before Katrina were unable to return home. Their homes and, in some cases, their livelihoods had been destroyed. They were scattered in hotels, motels, shelters, and private homes, first across the southeast, but, in short time, across all fifty states (New York Times 2005). They were soon joined by survivors evacuated from the Superdome, the Convention Center, and other places of refuge in the Greater New Orleans area, as well as survivors from other communities along the Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama coasts. In many host communities, non-profit organizations worked together with governmental agencies to provide services to the evacuees and help them to settle temporarily in those communities. For many evacuees, short-term stays became long-term stays. It is estimated that, as of November 2007, the Greater New Orleans area had only 86% of households it had prior to Hurricane Katrina (Brookings Institution Metropolitan Policy Program and the Greater New Orleans Community Data Center 2007). Demographic data suggest that not all the current population is composed of returning residents. Rather, some of the households counted are those of construction workers and their families who are new to the area (Brookings Institution 2007). 3 Statistics on the effects of Hurricane Katrina and the flooding of New Orleans have changed over time as more complete information has become available. But, while all figures are estimates, it is safe to say that $96 billion in damage occurred over an area of 93,000 square miles (White House 2006); as many as 2 million people required aid, many of whom were temporarily or permanently displaced (New York Times 2005; OKeefe 2007); and at least 1,836 deaths occurred that were directly attributable to the storm and flooding (OKeefe 2007). In the first year following Katrina, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) provided more than $6 billion in direct assistance to 950,000 applicants through the Individuals and Households Assistance Program (FEMA 2006b). This does not include such expenditures as $650 million spent on hotel and motel rooms in the weeks after the disaster, $1.75 billion obligated to Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama for emergency sheltering, $735 million in reimbursements paid to 45 non-affected states and the District of Columbia for sheltering and emergency protective measures, or $4.8 billion earmarked for public infrastructure projects in the affected states. The American Red Cross estimates that its response to Hurricanes Katrina, Rita, and Wilma in 2005 cost $2,116 billion (American Red Cross 2006a) and involved over 225,000 staff" and volunteers (American Red Cross 2006b). It provided 3.8 million overnight stays in more than 1,400 shelters in 27 states and the District of Columbia (nearly 450,000 evacuees), served over 38 million hot meals in 4 conjunction with the Southern Baptist Convention, and provided emergency assistance to 1.4 million families (American Red Cross 2007). The Salvation Army estimates that it expended more than $84 million in the three months immediately following Katrina (Salvation Army 2007). In the fall of 2005, its disaster workers logged more than 830,000 hours of service on the Gulf Coast providing assistance to 1.7 million people. It served 5.7 million hot meals and 8.3 million sandwiches, snacks, and drinks from 178 canteens and eleven field kitchens in the affected areas. As of August 2007, it had spent over $239 million on response and recovery efforts. These examples make up only a small part of the overall effort. Even in Colorado Springs, a mid-sized city more than 1,200 miles from New Orleans, government personnel, officials of non-profit organizations, and volunteers put in close to 15,000 hours over a six-week period at a multiorganizational center assisting evacuees. Hurricane Katrina and the flooding of New Orleans will affect the Gulf States and the remainder of the United States for many years. The poor planning and response of government at the local, state, and federal levels has been implicated in the suffering of hundreds of thousands of people and may have contributed directly to the deaths of some (Brinkley 2006; U. S. House 2006; U. S. Senate 2006). But there were successes as well. The National Weather Service and the U. S. Coast Guard stand out as agencies that performed their functions admirably. Non-profit 5 organizations played major roles in caring for evacuees and helping them to resettle, and many individual citizens contributed money and/or volunteer time to assist in both initial response and long-term recovery efforts. Nevertheless, the failure to respond effectively to Hurricane Katrina and the flooding of New Orleans provided a tragic demonstration of the inadequacy of the approach used in the United States to managing the risk and consequences of disasters. Risk and Expectations Disasters are familiar phenomena both from the historical record and from contemporary events. While disasters of the past may seem to have been rare occurrences, recent events such as the terrorist acts of 9-11, mudslides in South America, the 2004 tsunami in the India Ocean, earthquakes around the Pacific Rim, and a succession of hurricanes, tornados, floods, and wildfires in the United States have kept disasters in the public consciousness. The extensive media coverage of these events has raised awareness of both the risk of disasters and the difficulty of responding to them effectively. The risk of disasters can be understood as a combination of the probability of occurrence and the potential severity of the effects. The probability of large-scale natural events has increased due to climate change and other ecological factors (Comfort 2005; Tierney, Lindell, and Perry 2001). At the same time, the addition of technological failure and both accidental and deliberate human actions as possible causes has added to the overall probability of disasters (Comfort 2005; Fischer 1998; 6 McEntire 2005). The potential severity of impact of both natural and human-caused disasters has increased as engineering and development have altered the natural environment and as population density and economic assets in vulnerable areas have grown (Comfort 2005; Oliver-Smith 2005). Thus, both aspects of risk have been growing. At the same time that risk has been increasing, citizens expectations of governmental action that contains human suffering and economic losses have been growing also. Protecting citizens from harm is a quintessential role of government (Comfort 2005, 336, emphasis added) and disaster management is the quintessential function of government (Comfort 2002, 32, emphasis added). Ironically, government cannot manage disasters effectively without significant participation from the private and non-profit sectors, so disaster management necessarily involves multiorganizational, multisectoral coordination (Comfort 2002, 2005; Weber, McEntire, and Robinson 2002; Waugh and Streib 2006; Zakour 1996). Before Hurricane Katrina, Comfort (2002) noted that the failure to manage disasters effectively can have political as well as humanitarian and economic consequences. Katrina demonstrated the consequences of ineffective disaster management. But how to mobilize effective response to large-scale emergencies remains, as Comfort stated in 2002, one of the least understood problems in public management (31). As the risk of disasters and the expectations for governments response have grown, the management of disasters has become an important topic in public affairs 7 as well as in government circles. After being largely ignored for many decades (Petak 1985), emergency management has been the most recent addition to the public affairs curricula in many schools. The 9-11 disaster in 2001 resulted in the creation of the U. S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS) and the development of the National Response Plan (NPR) (U. S. Department of Homeland Security 2004b) and the National Incident Management System (NIMS) (U. S. Department of Homeland Security 2004a). The absorption of the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) into DHS, the attention and resources focused by DHS on terrorism, and the return under President George W. Bush to political rather than professional appointments to FEMA are thought to be significant factors in the poor response to Katrina by the federal government (Birkland 2006; Cooper and Block 2006; Kettl 2003). The failure to prepare for or respond effectively to Hurricane Katrina in 2005 made it clear that much improvement is needed in emergency management, both at each level of government and in the cooperation among the different levels. Emergency Management Government does not have the capacity to plan for disasters or manage their consequences alone (Comfort 2005; Weber, McEntire, and Robinson 2002). Mitigation, planning, and consequence management (which includes both response and recovery) typically involve public, non-profit, and private organizations. For example, under the National Response Plan established in 2004, the American Red 8 Crosschartered by Congress in 1905 to provide disaster relief supportwas the primary agency responsible for mass care, housing, and human services (U. S. Department of Homeland Security 2004b). (In the National Response Framework that replaced the National Response Plan in March 2008, FEMA became the lead agency for mass care [U. S. Department of Homeland Security 2008] .) Many other non-governmental organizations are active in response and recovery efforts following disasters, but typically they are not included in formal plans. Coordinating the activities of these independent organizations requires different strategies from directing a few specific government agencies. Thus, interorganizational relationships have been termed the core of emergency management (Drabek 2002). While some relationships may exist prior to disasters, such as those between government agencies and the Red Cross, it is not unusual for organizations that have not worked together before to become part of the network responding to a disaster. Even when disasters affect wide areas, as was the case with Hurricane Katrina, disasters are local events for the people and communities that experience them. Local government is expected to respond first. Under the American system of federalism, when the situation is larger or more complex than can be handled by local resources, local government requests aid from state government, which may request assistance from the federal government if conditions warrant. Funds to supplement local resources flow in reverse, from the federal government to state 9 government to local government. But this system does not anticipate that local government will be rendered incapable of response, or that action will be needed long before the bureaucratic requirements of federal programs can be met. Moreover, as was evident from many news broadcasts in the immediate aftermath of the hurricane, much of the public expects an active federal response, not just supplemental funding. That expectation may conflict with the desire on the part of state and local governments to retain control over the response in their jurisdictions. Furthermore, it is not clear that a centralized response could effectively integrate the many entities that have the capacity to act at the local and regional levels. Following the terrorist attacks of 9-11, efforts were launched to integrate homeland-security into a single system incorporating federal, state, and local government, but the federal government has limited control of state and local policy (Kettl 2004). Thus, it has used the familiar approach of tying federal funding to compliance with mandates. In 2003, the National Incident Management System (NIMS) was established by Presidential directive as the body of organizational processes and procedures for managing large-scale emergencies of all kinds at the local, state, and national level. Homeland Security Presidential Directive-5 stated: Beginning in Fiscal Year 2005, Federal departments and agencies shall make adoption of the NIMS a requirement, to the extent permitted by law, for providing Federal preparedness assistance through grants, contracts, or other activities (President 2003, Sec. 20). 10 State and local governments have rushed to get personnel trained and plans developed to meet the requirements of NIMS compliance, lest they jeopardize their funding for homeland security or emergency management. The report on Katrina by a select bipartisan committee of the U. S. House (U. S. House 2006) concludes that it was the failure of command and control that resulted in delays and duplicative efforts for post-landfall evacuation, uncoordinated search and rescue efforts, and diversion of supplies. The report implies that more or stricter command and control would have been more effective. At the same time, the report makes positive comments about the coordination among charitable organizations, which was not carried out through a centralized control system, but simply through frequent communication. The report also notes that one of the more effective components of the response to Hurricane Katrina was the use of EM AC, the Emergency Management Assistance Compact, which is a system of mutual aid among states. Administered by the National Emergency Management Association and ratified by Congress, EMAC provides a structure through which states can request resources from other states to assist in emergencies. More formalized than the coordination among the charitable organizations, the deployment of resources in response to a request through EMAC is, nevertheless, on a voluntary basis. Disaster response occurs in environments that are unstable. Contingency theory suggests that, in turbulent and unpredictable environments, the most effective forms of organizations are those that are flexible and adaptable, less authoritarian 11 than traditional bureaucracies, with complex roles, and a relatively high amount of discretion in those roles (Morgan 1997). Disaster scholars argue for an emphasis on promoting interorganizational coordination and common decision making in disaster response rather than on establishing authority relationships (Buck, Trainor, and Aquirre 2006; Dynes 1994; Harrald 2006; Waugh and Streib 2006). Yet, in spite of the use of networks in many aspects of governance and their prevalence in disaster response, the tradition in professional emergency management has been to embrace command-and-control models. This not only reflects emergency managements roots in civil defense of the post-World War II era, but the hierarchical tradition in public administration generally (Kettl 2006). In the urgent atmosphere of disaster response, the need for leadership is acute, but so is the need for cooperative efforts among networks of local, state, and federal agencies, non-profits, private business and professional entities, sometimes groups that did not exist prior to the disaster, and even unaffiliated volunteers. It is clear that effective disaster response requires collaboration that integrates many entities inside and outside the trained responder community. But it is not clear what organizational structures best promote effective collaboration in disaster scenarios. This dissertation poses the question raised by many: how should response to disasters be organized and governed? This question has several components, including who should be involved in disaster response, what should be the responsibilities of different levels of government, and what organizational structures 12 and management strategies should be used. While this dissertation cannot provide certain or comprehensive answers, it contributes to our understanding of the coordination of effective response to disasters by investigating an emergent multiorganizational network mobilized in a mid-sized city to respond to the needs of evacuees following Hurricane Katrina. It analyzes relationships and patterns of interaction within a multiorganizational network that employed a formal organizational structure prescribed by NIMS, focusing on the use of authority and collaboration. Specifically, it analyzes the relationships that existed among organizations prior to Hurricane Katrina, the patterns of exchange that developed within the emergent network, and the patterns of decision making. Overview of the Dissertation Chapter 2 reviews pertinent literature on network organizations and collaboration, social capital, and disaster theory and research. It also introduces social network analysis. Chapter 3 describes the scope of the population dispersion after Hurricane Katrina and examines the responses of several communities that received large numbers of evacuees. Chapter 4 presents the conceptual framework and research design and states the propositions to be tested. It describes the methods used for data collection and analysis and discusses in detail the application of social network analysis in this research. Chapter 5 provides a narrative description of the case that is the subject of this dissertation: the Pikes Peak Disaster Recovery Center (PPDRC) in Colorado Springs. Chapter 6 presents the results of the social network 13 analysis of interorganizational relations at the PPDRC. Chapter 7 discusses the results of the social network analysis and the observations of the key informants from the PPDRC in relation to the implementation of the command system and theory on collaboration and social capital. Chapter 7 also revisits the propositions posed in chapter 4 and discusses the limitations of the research. Finally, chapter 8 summarizes the contributions of the dissertation, notes the implications for policy and practice, and suggests directions for fixture research. 14 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW Introduction In recent decades, scholars have begun to distinguish between the concepts of government and governance. While government is understood as the institutional apparatus of the state, governance is a system of governing that encompasses multiorganizational networks engaged in public activities (Frederickson 1997; Hajer and Wagenaar 2003). Governance involves creating the conditions for ordered rule and collective action through mechanisms that are not under the direct control of government (Milward and Provan 2000, 360). Due to the complexity of many problems, few organizations have the power or resources to accomplish their missions alone (Goldsmith and Eggers 2004; Innes and Booher 2003; Milward and Provan 2000). Increasingly, the art of governance is carried out through sets of interacting networks that may involve private and non-profit entities as well as government agencies (Agranofif and McGuire 2001; Comfort 2005; Goldsmith and Eggers 2004; Keast et al. 2004; Milward and Provan 2000). These networks are more fluid than their institutional predecessors and perhaps less stable (Hajer and Wagenaar 2003). 15 With more services and activities provided through contracts and partnerships and fewer provided directly by government, public administration has become concerned less with managing bureaucracies and more with managing networks. Thus, network management has become a core function of governance (Agranoff and McGuire 2001). One area in which network management is a critical governmental function is in emergency management, because it requires the participation of many governmental, non-profit, and private organizations. This chapter provides a review of literature pertinent to this dissertation. It begins with a section on network organizations and then provides a short overview of literature on social capital. The majority of the chapter is devoted to disaster theory and research, especially the coordination of response to disasters. A section on social network analysis introduces key concepts and provides examples of its application to research on network organizations and the coordination of disaster response. Network Organizations Organizations are a form of social group or collectivity created to pursue specific goals (Scott 1998; Rosenbloom 1998). One way that they may be distinguished from other collectivities is that they devote resources to maintaining the organization as well as to attaining specified goals (Scott 1998). The establishment and maintenance of boundaries are part of overall organizational 16 maintenance. Moreover, Kaufman (1991) asserts that the start and end of boundary maintenance mark the beginning and end of an organizations life cycle. Organizations can be viewed from a variety of theoretical frameworks (Morgan 1997; Scott 1998). For example, Scott describes three different views of organizationsas rational systems, as natural systems, and as open systems. The rational systems perspective focuses on normative structure and emphasizes control as a means to coordinate behavior to achieve specified goals. In contrast, adherents of the natural systems perspective focus more on behavioral structure and emphasize organizations as social groups that attempt to adapt and survive in a particular environment. The open systems perspective focuses even more attention on the external environment and views complex systems as containing nested elements of suprasystems and subsystems that may be only loosely coupled and are capable of autonomous action. Because of their adaptability, loosely coupled organizations may be more efficient in certain situations than more tightly structured organizations (Iannello 1992; Morgan 1997; Scott 1998). Other views of organizations include organizations as machines, as brains, as cultures, and as political systems (Morgan 1997). A network perspective may focus on relations within an organization, such as informal ties, resource exchange, and knowledge sharing, (Kilduff and Tsai 2003), or it may focus on the interorganizational environment (Rosenbloom 1998; Kilduff and Tsai 2003). Different perspectives can produce different analyses and highlight different 17 characteristics of the same organization. Dominance of a particular perspective on organizations can lead to different organizational designs and management practices. Bureaucracy Traditional governmental organizations developed from a rational systems perspective. They are formally structured as Weberian bureaucratic organizations with clear divisions of labor, responsibility, and power. They are ordered hierarchically with authority adhering to an office or position rather than to an individual, and they operate according to formal, documented rules (Bennis 1997; Gerth and Mills 1970; Merton 1968; Morgan 1997; Rosenbloom 1998). Modem bureaucracies originally grew out of the management needs of the Industrial Revolution. Their development was influenced by a mechanistic approach to management that was fostered by the scientific management movement in the first part of the twentieth century (Gerth and Mills 1970; Rosenbloom 1998). The development of government bureaucracies was also influenced by the advent of the civil service in the post-Civil War era. Both scientific management and the structures and practices of the civil service put an emphasis on performance and efficiency (Bennis 1997; Rosenbloom 1998). Weber claimed that bureaucratization offers above all the optimum possibility for carrying through the principle of specializing administrative functions according to purely objective considerations (Gerth and Mills 1970, 214). 18 While Weber saw bureaucracy as functionally efficient, it has become known for its inefficiencies. For example, bureaucracies can transmit information efficiently up to a point, but high volumes of information can overload upper levels in the hierarchical structure and cause communication failures (Iannello 1992; Comfort 2005; Dodds, Watts, and Sabel 2003). Merton (1968) observed that bureaucracies can achieve a high degree of technical efficiency, but to do so they must enforce a high degree of conformity that can lead to the displacement of the original goals by rules that become ends in themselves. It is this tendency to elevate rules and procedures to ends in themselves that has led to the common characterizations of bureaucracy as inflexible, unresponsive, and burdened with red tape (Kaufman 1977). Throughout much of the twentieth century, bureaucratic structures and processes dominated American public administration. Government was organized by purpose and function, using hierarchies to establish control and assign tasks and responsibilities (Comfort 2002; Kettl 2004, 2006; Rosenbloom 1998). Organizational managers controlled the actions of members below them by exercising the authority of their positions (Mandell 1990). Kettl (2003, 2004, 2006) observes that coordination issues in formal organizations have often been addressed through redesigning organizational structures, but that structural solutions have rarely been successful because coordination is a contingent problem. Kettl (2004, 2006) asserts that the hierarchical 19 tradition no longer fits well with operating realities of public administration and recommends a collaborative, network-based approach rather than creating more hierarchical relationships. However, he notes that the political symbolism of the hierarchical tradition continues to be very powerful (Kettl 2006). Over the last century, conditions changed for both the private and public sectors. Interdependence created by specialization and professionalization, turbulence in organizations external environments, and rapid changes in technology and society resulted in a need for new approaches to organization and management (Bennis 1997; Cleveland 1985; Kettl 2006). In addition, new perspectives on organizations, individual and interpersonal behavior, and management called into question earlier mechanistic assumptions. Currently, while government and industry continue to have many bureaucratic structures, they also make use of alternative forms of organization. Networks and Collaboration One type of organization that represents a significant departure from the bureaucratic organization is the network. While a network perspective can be applied to the analysis of any type of organization, a network as a form of organization is a distinct type consisting of voluntary, cooperative connections among independent organizations in pursuit of common purposes that cannot be achieved by any one organization. (Agranoff and McGuire 2001; Booher 2004; Keast et al. 2004; Scott 1998; Wohlstetter, Smith, and Malloy 2005). 20 Similar organizational forms that are referred to by other names include strategic alliances (Wohlstetter, Smith, and Malloy 2005), network structures (Booher 2004; Keast et al 2004), and collaborative public management (OLeary, Gerard, and Bingham 2006). Individual authors may distinguish among these variously denoted organizational forms according to differences in longevity, stability, size, and other variables, but, as Mandell and Steelman (2003) have noted, these differences are not reflected consistently in the terms used. When contrasted with traditional formal organizations, the similarities are more important for the present discussion than the differences. Therefore, the organizational arrangements listed above will be aggregated and considered together with networks as one organizational form. Private sector networks are usually established to gain competitive advantage for an industry or a single company and, therefore, differ in goals and often governance from networks in the public and non-profit sectors (Burt 2005; Mandell and Steelman 2003). Thus, while a great deal has been written about private sector networks, the literature reviewed here is generally limited to that on established for public purposes, whether under government auspices or in the non-profit realm. Closely related to networks is collaboration, and the work of network and collaboration scholars overlaps. The term collaboration is used both to refer to certain types of behaviorfor example, in collective action theoryand as a name that denotes a process, organizational form, or relationship. In the latter sense, 21 collaboration has been defined as a process (Gray 1989; Thomson and Perry 2006) an interactive process (Wood and Gray 1991), a temporary organizational form (Roberts and Bradley 1991), a mutually beneficial relationship involving sharing of responsibility, authority, and accountability for achieving common goals (Crislip and Larson 1994), and, simply, working relationships among organizations (Provan et al. 2003). While Gray (1989) and Wood and Gray (1991) restrict the term collaboration to consensus processes, other authors do not necessarily associate collaboration with a specific type of decision making. Collaboration is not the same as coordination or cooperation. Coordination of resources and activities may be achieved in a variety of ways, including through command and control structures and procedures (Gulick 1997). Cooperation involves a willingness to coordinate with other actors or entities in pursuit of a specific objective (AgranofF2006). Collaboration is distinguished from coordination or cooperation by the voluntary nature of participation and the sharing of authority, responsibility, and accountability (Crislip and Larson 1994; Gray 1989). Cooperation has been studied extensively in both natural and laboratory settings (Cohen, Riolo, and Axelrod 2001; Ostrom 1990). Axelrod (1984) presents evidence that, when cooperation can advance individual interests, it can develop even among antagonists. However, some collection action theorists, such as Olson, (1971) argue that, except in very small groups, individuals will not cooperate to achieve common ends without coercion or other incentives. 22 Collective action involves the pursuit of common ends by groups of individuals. Olson (1971) presented a theory of collective action that departs from earlier theories of group action (such as labor theory and Marxian theories of class action) that assumed individuals would act together to pursue a common objective from which they stood to benefit. Olson argued that a common goal is not sufficient to make individuals act collectively (without coercion or some separate incentive), because they stand to gain the benefit of actions of others without participating themselves. This is known as the free-rider problem. In small groups, where each member stands to get a higher proportion of the total benefit, there is more incentive to participate, although the outcome will still be suboptimal for the individuals (Olson 1971, 34-35). Olson concludes that only when groups are small, or when they are fortunate enough to have an independent source of selective incentives, will they organize or act to achieve their objectives (Olson 1971, 167). However, Olsons theory (1971) fails to explain such examples of cooperation as the resolution of common-pool resource problems in natural settings (Ostrom 1990) and various forms of collective altruism that are frequently displayed following disasters (Drabek 1994; Drabek and McEntire 2002; Fischer 1998; Perry and Lindell 2003; Tierney, Lindell, and Perry 2001). While it can be argued that societal norms and individual psychological satisfaction can serve as the selective incentives to which Olson refers, including norms and psychological benefits as 23 possible incentives may make Olsons theory overly broad, and, therefore, not useful for explaining behavior (Green and Shapiro 1994). Elinor Ostrom (1990) takes issue with uncritical applications of Olsons model, arguing that he assumes extreme conditions that do not necessarily match conditions in the real world. She argues that Olsons model is useful for predicting behavior in large groups in which no one communicates, everyone acts independently, no attention is paid to the effects of ones actions, and the costs of trying to change the structure of the situation are high (Ostrom 1990, 184). Prisoners Dilemma games have been used to examine the emergence of cooperation in small, controlled settings. Cohen, Riolo, and Axelrod (2001) found that when pairings were fixed or varied within small sets of players, sustained cooperative behavior developed. They attribute the cooperative behavior to the continuity of interaction (e g., in repeated games) within stable social structures and the effect it has on actors expectations of the immediate future. In addition, other research suggests that norms of reciprocity and fairness may encourage cooperation in both laboratory and natural settings (Ostrom 1990; Sigmund, Fehr, and Nowak 2002). As noted above, collaboration is distinguished from cooperation by the sharing of authority, responsibility, and accountability. Collaborative relationships are characterized by reciprocity and interdependence (Imperial 2005; Powell 1990). Exchange mechanisms may be informal and depend more on relationships and 24 shared goals than on internal or external authority structures (Imperial 2005; Powell 1990). Thompson and Perry (2006) refer to collaboration as a higher order level of collective action than cooperation. They define collaboration as .. a process in which autonomous actors interact through formal and informal negotiation, jointly created rules and structures governing their relationships and ways to act or decide on the issues that brought them together.. .(2006, 23). Collaboration is the fundamental process by which networks are governed. Networks may have advantages over traditional organizations in situations where individual organizations do not have all the resources needed to solve the problem, problem domains cross organizational boundaries, diverse perspectives or stakeholders are needed to formulate viable solutions, or environments are characterized by complexity, rapid change, or uncertainty (Agranoff 2007; AgranofF and McGuire 2001; Booher and Innes 2002; Goldsmith and Eggers 2004). Networks may marshal a wider range of resources, bring together more perspectives, diverse expertise, and a wider array of stakeholders than individual organizations. They may be characterized by broad information sharing among members and may be more flexible and adaptive than traditional organizations. Networks may produce innovations or new alternatives as a result of the interaction and collaboration of the participants (Agranoff and McGuire 2001; Booher and Innes 2002; Goldsmith and Eggers 2004), although collaborative processes may be slow. Finally, Agranoff and McGuire suggest that network decision making may be more rational than individual 25 decision making because there is more information available, more alternatives to consider, and decision systems are less bounded by individual thinking. However, network governance and management have received attention only recently. Theory and research on what is required to achieve performance through networks is, perhaps, less developed than theory and research on achieving performance in bureaucracies. Network Governance and Management Members of networks developed for public purposes share a commitment to specific goals or purposes. However, as Olson (1971) argued in his theory of collective action, commitment to goals is not sufficient to ensure success. As in other types of organizations, the success of networks may depend on their governance and management (Agranoff and McGuire 2001; Goldsmith and Eggers 2004; Thomson and Perry 2006). Organizations that participate in public sector networks can act independently, regardless of whether the organizations are non-profit, private, or governmental, or, if the last, the level of government to which the organization belongs (Mandell 1990). Shared responsibility and blurred lines of authority replace the clear divisions of responsibilities and lines of authority that characterize bureaucracies (National Academy of Public Administration 1991). Because relationships are not hierarchical, networks must be managed differently from bureaucracies. 26 Collaboration theorists, and some network theorists, argue that formal, hierarchical authority structures are incompatible with collaboration, and that participants must be equal partners for collaboration to occur (Booher 2004; Gray 1989; Keast et al. 2004). However, all network organizations have some form of governance. There are at least three forms: self-governance, governance by a network administrative body, and governance by a lead organization (Provan and Kenis 2005; Provan and Milward 1995; Goldsmith and Eggers 2004). The form that network governance takes may depend on the purpose of the network. In many public management networks, implementation takes place inside the individual organizations and, thus, apart from the network itself (Agranoff 2007). This may permit more informal structures. When the network itself is responsible for task performance, it is likely to develop a more formal structure with elements of hierarchy (Iannello 1992). In a self-governing network, the members make all decisions jointly and are collectively responsible for managing relationships internal and external to the network. Network relationships are horizontal and collaborative, and power is shared among equal partners (Booher 2004; Gray 1989; Keast et al. 2004; Provan and Kenis 2005). The absence of formal hierarchical relations, however, does not necessarily mean that power is equal (Agranoff and McGuire 2001; Agranoff 2006; Iannello 1992; Mandell 1990, 2002; Provan and Milward 1995). Two sources of power in networks are the power to withdraw and the power that comes from 27 linkages to external resources (Mandell 1990; Agranoff 2007). In addition, where organizations depend on each other to accomplish network goals, organizations that are essential to the networks success have more power than less essential organizations, regardless of the structure of the network (Mandell 1990). Iannello 1992) observes that organizations that allow leadership to develop naturally run the risk that certain members may gain informal power. Agranoff and McGuire (2001) suggest that the focus among scholars on equity and joint decision making in collaborative efforts may mask the potential for coercive action in networks among actors with different roles and carrying different weights. Power can be either a positive or a negative force in networks. Collaboration theorists such as Booher and Innes (2002) express concern that power as it has been traditionally viewedthe ability of one player, organization or class to make another person or group do something it would otherwise not do (222)is not compatible with collaboration. However, power is not always coercive. In contrast to exercising power over others in the network, the power of organizations to mobilize, organize, or perform other critical functions may be positive (Agranoff and McGuire 2001). In an empirical study of fourteen networks, Agranoff and McGuire (2001) found both types of power were active in each of the networks. One way of marshaling power in a network is through governance by a network administrative body such as a board or steering committee. While the locus of policy determination rests with the board or committee and with the larger body of 28 members, a board or committee may choose to set up administrative structures and mechanisms to assist in maintaining the network and providing accountability and may designate or hire a lead individual and/or support staff. The actual work performed to accomplish network goals may be carried out through standing committees or work groups (Agranoff2006), or within the constituent organizations. In networks developed to provide public services or address public problems, frequently there is a lead organization that governs the network. The lead organization may be a constituent organization, or it may be a public agency accountable for the outputs of the network (Goldsmith and Eggers 2004; McGuire 2002; National Academy of Public Administration 1991). A lead organization may be the recipient of a grant or contract to coordinate a network of organizations providing specific services, for example, to Katrina evacuees, or it may assume lead responsibilities because of its capacity or stature among network members. A public agency may develop a network of organizations under grants, contracts, or purely voluntary arrangements to conduct the work that it lacks the resources to accomplish on its own. Where the lead organization is a public agency, there is likely to be a public manager with specific responsibility for the networks outputs and for the expenditure of public funds (Goldsmith and Eggers 2004). These managers may have to adopt new strategies and acquire new skills, since their control over organizations in the network is limited and indirect (National Academy of Public 29 Administration 1991; Goldsmith and Eggers 2004). Network scholars generally agree that, because of the limited and indirect control, network management requires different approaches from the management of traditional hierarchical organizations (Agranoff and McGuire 2001; Booher 2004; Goldsmith and Eggers 2004; Keast et al. 2004; Milward and Provan 2000; National Academy of Public Administration 1991). Even with a lead organization or a public manager with accountability for network performance in a lead role, the authority structure of networks is fundamentally different from that of bureaucratic organizations, with accountability for results replacing accountability to the next level in a hierarchy (Agranoff and McGuire 2001; Goldsmith and Eggers 2004). Agranoff (2007, 87) describes authority in networks as pooled authority that is based more on expertise than on position. Network accountability structures are necessarily broader and more flexible than in traditional bureaucracies, with less emphasis on how the work is accomplished (Goldsmith and Eggers 2004). Regardless of the form of governance of the network, successful management depends on bargaining and negotiating among members (Mandell 1990). Under all forms of network governance, someone needs to maintain contact with members, set meetings, coordinate communications, and carry out other routine administrative tasks (Agranoff and McGuire 2001; Goldsmith and Eggers 2004; Provan and Milward 1995; Thomson and Perry 2006). Thus, networks, especially 30 those governed by an administrative body or a lead agency, may institutionalize rules or create additional administrative structures to take on network maintenance functions as well as to monitor activities and progress toward goals (Imperial 2005; Provan and Milward 1995; Thomson and Perry 2006). Maintenance activities include recruiting or mobilizing members, managing the relationships among the members, and establishing rules for interaction (Agranoff and McGuire 2001; Goldsmith and Eggers 2004). Agranoff (2006) identified four elements of power in networks: a champion or champions, a political core, a technical core, and paid staff. The champion is typically a prestigious head of a public agency or non-profit organization who drives the formation of the network; the political core is composed of other agency department heads and officials of non-profit organizations; the technical core is made up of workgroup or committee members with particular expertise; and the paid staff often perform the administrative tasks. This suggests that governance structures and even the provisions for accomplishing technical and administrative tasks have implications for power relations in networks. Goldsmith and Eggers (2004) and Kiefer and Montjoy (2006) insist that formal governance structures, such as boards or management by a lead organization with positional authority, are important for effective networks. In a comparative study of four community mental health providers, Pro van and Milward (1995) found that networks integrated and coordinated through a core agency were more likely to 31 be effective than dense, cohesive networks integrated in a decentralized way among the organizational providers that made up the system. They suggest that the monitoring and control activities engaged in by the core agency may be critical to getting autonomous agencies to pursue system or network goals rather than their own goals. Regardless of the form of network governance, many writers on networks agree that some form of leadership is necessary to maintain the network and help it accomplish the shared goals (Agranoff and McGuire 2001; Crislip and Larson 1994; Goldsmith and Eggers 2004; Provan and Milward 1995; Provan et al. 2005). For example, Crislip and Larson (1994) stress the importance of a leader in collaborative efforts to keep participants involved, help negotiate difficult points, and enforce group norms and ground rules. Agranoff and McGuire (2001) and Agranoff (2007) suggest that leadership in the form of soft guidance is an important factor in maintaining self-managing networks. Goldsmith and Eggers (2004) and Agranoff and McGuire (2001) note that aligning goals and structuring incentives to promote cooperation are necessary to the success of the network. Agranoff and McGuire suggest, further, that a network leader may need to act as a facilitator or broker to accomplish goal alignment and the proper structuring of incentives. In spite of the importance these various writers place on leadership, they do not offer a definition of it, nor consistently distinguish it from management. It appears that the choice of the term stems from the different authority structure of 32 networks, and therefore, the need for facilitation and brokerage rather than the exercise of hierarchical authority (Agranoff2007; Agranoff and McGuire 2001; Goldsmith and Eggers 2004; Mandell 1990). Nevertheless, Goldsmith and Eggers (2004, 76) suggest that a public agency in the lead or managerial role can use its positional authority and perceived impartiality to coordinate the different parties and resolve disputes. Network cohesion is often mentioned as important for effective network performance, and relationship building and trust are frequently cited as key elements in network integration (Agranoff 2007; Goldsmith and Eggers 2004; Imperial 2005; Powell 1990; Thomson and Perry 2006). Agranoff (2007,230) even suggests that trust derived by smooth collaborative processes is a functional substitute for formal hierarchy. Agranoff (2007) identifies pre-existing relationships among individuals, previous collaborations among constituent organizations, consensus building processes, and actual work production and goal accomplishment by the network as sources of trust. Booher and Innes (2002) see reliable reciprocity as the basis of trust in networks and as the foundation of the interdependence on which the power of networks is based. Agranoff and McGuire (2001) emphasize that network leaders play a central role in developing both trust and network cohesion by eliciting common goals and engaging in other strategic interactions such as brokering the contributions of network members. 33 Summary of Key Points Networks consist of voluntary cooperative connections among independent organizations pursuing common purposes that cannot be achieved by any one organization. Because of their flexibility and adaptability, they may have advantages over traditional organizations where problem domains cross organizational boundaries, diverse perspectives are needed, or environments are characterized by complexity, rapid change or uncertainty. Networks require different forms of governance and management from traditional bureaucracies. In networks, authority, responsibility, and accountability for outcomes are shared. Networks may be self-governing, governed by a board or steering committee, or governed by a lead organization. Regardless of the form, there are certain administrative tasks common to network functioning that must be carried out, such as setting meetings and coordinating communications. Interdependence and cohesion are among network members are thought to be important for network performance. Network scholars stress that for networks to be successful, some form of leadership is required to align goals, foster trust, achieve network cohesion, and manage relationships among members. This may sometimes be provided by a representative of a lead organization or a public manager with responsibility for the performance of the network; 34 Social Capital Definitions and Basic Concepts Social capital is a concept that has gained much attention in recent years as various authors have sought to use it to explain differences in social, economic, and political outcomes at the individual, group, and societal level. Social capital was used by Bourdieu (1980, 1985) and Loury (1977) to explain differences in socio- economic positions in society that were inadequately explained by individual or class differences per se. Bourdieu defined social capital as the actual or potential resources available through linkages among individuals and groups. Thus, for Bourdieu, the volume of social capital accessible to an individual is the sum of the economic, cultural, and symbolic capital possessed by that individual and the set of individuals to which he/she is connected (1980, 1985). Loury (1977, 176) characterized social capital as a social force outside the individuals control that represents the consequences of social position in facilitating acquisition of human capital, that is, individual differences in education and work experience. Coleman (1988) built on these understandings of social capital in forming a more general definition of social capital as an aspect of social structure that facilitates action. For Coleman, social capital is an attribute of the relations between individuals that forms as a result of reciprocal transactions. If A does something for B and trusts B to reciprocate in the future, this establishes an expectation in A and an obligation on the part of B (Coleman 1990, 306). 35 In order for obligations and expectations to create social capital, two elements are critical: the trustworthiness of the social environmentthat is, how certain it is that the obligations will be repaidand the extent of obligations held. The greater the degree of interdependence, the greater the amount of social capital that will be generated. Thus, reciprocity within closed networks generates interdependence in the form of obligations and expectations, with symmetrical relations generally producing higher amounts of social capital than asymmetrical, authority based relations. In Colemans (1990) view, the stability of the social structure is important for creating and maintaining social capital. In order for social capital to be maintained, social networks must be maintained. In general, he sees mobility as a factor that inhibits the development and maintenance of social capital. Of particular interest for this dissertation, he notes that organizations with positions rather than individuals as elementsthe classic bureaucracy have stable structures. Therefore, social capital can be created and persist in the relations among positions even when incumbents change. Although Coleman stresses that symmetrical relations generally produce higher amounts of social capital than asymmetric relations, he also argues that authority relations can be important forms of social capital that can coordinate action. Other authors employ a variety of definitions of social capital depending on whether the focus is on the individual, the community, the general society, or a 36 network of specific relations. For example, Brehm and Rahn (1997, 1000) describe social capital as an aggregate concept that has its basis in individual behavior, attitudes, and predispositions. Fukuyama (1995, 26) defines it as a capability that arises from the prevalence of trust in a society or certain parts of it . Burt (2005, 4) defines it as the advantage created by a persons location in a structure of relationships. Nahapiet and Ghoshal (1998, 243) define social capital as the sum of the actual and potential resources embedded within, available through, and derived from the network of relationships possessed by an individual or social unit. This is the definition employed in this dissertation, because it can be applied to multiorganizational networks without requiring extension or revision. It is primarily through the writings of Putnam (1993, 1995a, 1995b, 2000) that the concept of social capital has gained wide attention. For Putnam, social capital refers to features of social organization such as trust, norms, and networks, that can improve the efficiency of society by facilitating coordinated actions (1993, 167). In contrast to Coleman, for whom the concept is neutral, Putnam sees social capital as having positive benefits. Putnam (2000) describes social capital as having both a private and a public face. An individuals social capital is the sum of his or her relations or connectedness to others, while, at the community or society level, social capital is the overall interconnectedness of individuals, and more importantly, groups. 37 Putnam has used different levels of social capital first to explain differences in the performance of social and political institutions in different regions of Italy (1993) and then to explain the decline in public participation and generalized trust in the United States (1995a, 1995b, 2000). In his study of Italy, Putnam found a strong interrelationship among democratic institutions, economic progress, and social capital, with the last characterized by networks of civic engagement, generalized reciprocity, and trust. He also found that the weak ties of inter-group relations foster wider cooperation than do the strong ties of intra-group relations. In the United States, Putnam observed a decline in public participation and trust in government that he linked to a decline in civic engagement as measured by falling memberships in associations. Putnams theory of social capital and its relationship to democracy can be summarized in four propositions: 1. Networks of civic engagement foster norms of generalized reciprocity and encourage the emergence of social trust. 2. Such networks assist in the resolution of collective action problems by facilitating coordination and communication and by building and communicating reputations. 3. Successful collaboration becomes a model for future collaboration. 4. Dense networks of interaction may alter an individuals awareness of self from a narrow I to a broader we (Putnam 1995a, 1995b). 38 Putnam (2000) stresses the difference between intra-group and inter-group social capital, or bonding and bridging social capital. The first builds intra-group solidarity, while the second provides links to other assets in the society. In Putnams words, bonding social capital constitutes a kind of sociological superglue, whereas bridging social capital provides a sociological WD-40 (23). He asserts that social capital, particularly the bridging type, facilitates the resolution of collective problems, reduces the costs of social and business transactions, widens awareness of commonalities with others, helps information flow, and improves lives through psychological and biological factors. In addition, he argues, participation in civic associations fosters civic virtues, including active participation in public life. Since the publication of Putnams work on Italy in 1993, the concept of social capital has been applied in a number of areas, including the study of civic engagement (e g. Brehm and Rahn 1997; Kazee and Roberts 1998; Stolle 1998; Stolle and Rochon 1998), political efficacy (e g. Booth and Richard 1998; van Deth 1998), economic development (e.g. Crowe 2007; Flora et al. 1997; Jennings and Haist 1998), health (e g. Cannuscio, Block, and Kawachi 2003; Lochner et al. 2003), and organizations (e g. Burt 1997; Provan and Milward 2001). In some studies social capital is used as an antecedent or independent variable (e g. Burt 1997; Flora et al 1997; Kazee and Roberts 1998; Jennings and Haist 1998; van Deth 1998), while in others it has been analyzed as at outcome or dependent variable (e g. Brehm and Rahn 1997; Stolle 1998). 39 As might be expected when a concept has been used differently by different researchers and applied in many different contexts, there is disagreement among scholars as to the definition of social capital, the completeness of its conceptualization, and whether its role (for example, in civil society, economic progress, or political efficacy) is positive or negative (Chambers and Kopstein 2001; Edwards and Foley 1997; Law and Mooney 2006; Maloney, Smith, and Stoker 1998; Newton 1997; Portes and Landolt 1996; Sturtevant 2006; Woolcock 1998). But in addition to disagreement among social capital theorists and researchers, there has been criticism by other authors who question the soundness of social capital as a concept. Woolcock (1998) asserts that it is not clear whether social capital is the infrastructure or the content of social relations (156). Fine (2002) and Law and Mooney (2006) call social capital an elusive concept. Fine criticizes social capitalists for using it to explain everything from individuals to societies and for responding to criticism by adding variables that further confuse the concept. Foley and Edwards (1997) and DeFilippis (2002) argue that social capitalists, and Putnam in particular, ignore power relations and conflict. Edwards and Foley (2001) claim that Putnam is oblivious to institutions and structural causation. Law and Mooney (2006) and Fine (2002) object to putting social together with capital. They argue that it does not create a distinct meaning, because economic capital is also social in nature. 40 In spite of the serious criticisms of theoretical constructions of social capital, Bebbington (2002) argues that it has value as a mesolevel concept that can be usefully linked to other bodies of theory in order to ground them better by focusing our attention on actors and their networks (801). He further argues that is useful as a linguistic device (802) for facilitating exchange among scholars in different fields. In that spirit, and following Colemans (1990) formulation, social capital is used in this dissertation to refer to an attribute of the relations between actors that is distinct from attributes of the actors themselves. Granovetter (1973) first called attention to the different types of social capital. He observed that those to whom we are weakly tied are more likely to move in circles different from our own and will thus have access to information different from that which we receive (1371). Thus, weak tiesor bridging social capital (in Putnams (2000) later terminology)are thought to facilitate the diffusion of information and ideas. However, Granovetter points out that his theory of weak ties may not be applicable to small, face to face groups or to groups in confined institutional or organizational settings where interactions are dense (1376). Elinor Ostrom (1990) has observed that, in small-scale local settings where there are repeated communication and interaction, people may learn who is trustworthy and how to organize themselves to solve problems. She states that when individuals have lived in such situations for a substantial time and have developed shared norms and patterns of reciprocity, they possess social capital with which they can build institutional 41 arrangements for resolving CPR [common pool resource] dilemmas (Ostrom 1990, 184). This suggests that strong ties facilitate collective action, whereas Putnam (1993, 2000) argued it was weak ties that were important for collective action. Some experimental research suggests that communication substantially increases cooperation. Ostrom (1990) suggests that it is not the content of the information communicated that seems to matter as much as the act of communicating face-to-face. [Exchanging mutual commitment, increasing trust, creating and reinforcing norms, and developing a group identity appear to be the most important processes that make communication efficacious (7). However, Sturtevant (2006) notes that bonding social capital may inhibit the solution of collective action problems by suppressing dissenting views or exerting pressure to conform. It is for such reasons as these that Putnam (1995a, 1995b) has emphasized bridging social capital in collective action. Crowe (2007) found that both bonding and bridging social capital were important in community economic development. She suggests that cohesive ties among subcomponents of a community network lower the risk of cooperation in self- development activities within the community, but that weak ties were important for accessing resources and information outside the community. Thus, while strong and weak ties function differently, both may be important for collective action. 42 Burt (2000, 2005) has identified the importance of both types of social capital in discussing brokerage and closure in cross-functional teams. His work suggests that performance is highest when brokerage (diverse external contacts) is combined with closure (internal cohesiveness). Weak ties may bring together diverse resources and perspectives while strong ties facilitate quick, coordinated action. Together, the weak and strong ties may provide the right ingredients for successful collaboration and creative problem solving. Applying this to disaster response suggests that an emergent multiorganizational network may benefit simultaneously from pre-existing weak ties among the independent organizations and strong ties (cohesiveness) that develop while participating in the network. Ostrom notes that the success of small collaborations create social capital that can be applied to solving larger problems requiring more complex solutions. This point was also made by Putnam (1993) in his study of Italy. It is echoed by experts on deliberative processes who point to how the exercise of having participants come to agreement on the process rules establishes a pattern for collaboration and problem solving (Fisher and Brown 1989; Kheel 1999; Program for Community Problem Solving 1989). The evidence from deliberative processes suggests that establishing a pattern for collaboration and problem solving can happen more quickly than is sometimes assumed. Axelrod (1984) argues that disaggregating problems or issues into small pieces allows parties to make many small moves rather than a few large ones. This 43 increases interaction and makes reciprocity and cooperation more likely. Furthermore, he states that cooperation can get started by even a small cluster of individuals who are prepared to reciprocate cooperation, even in a world where no one else will cooperate (173). According to Axelrod, neither trust, altruism, nor central authority is required for cooperation. What is required is that actors be able to recognize one another, recall the prior history of interactions, and have an expectation that they may interact in the future (Axelrod 1984, 174). Axelrod (182) observes that the role of time perspectives is critical in the maintenance of cooperation. When the interaction is likely to continue for a long time, and the players care enough about their future together, the conditions are ripe for the emergence and maintenance of cooperation (182). He concludes that [t]he foundation of cooperation is not really trust, but the durability of the relationship (182). However, trust appears as an important variable in social capital theory and collective action theory, as well as in collaboration and network theory. Trust may be defined as: the expectation of one person about the actions of others that affects the first persons choice, when an action must be taken before the actions of others are known. (Ostrom, 1998, 12). Trust in networks may have a different character from direct interpersonal trust. In a network with actors engaged in a goal-directed activityor, for that matter, in most complex organizationsunless each actor can directly and fully 44 observe the actions of each other actor, each must trust to some degree that the other will do his part (Coleman 1990, 188). Coleman considers this a special case of trust in organizations, just as he recognizes the special type of social capital that exists among positions in organizations. Network scholars note the importance of social capital in public sector networks both for the production of current services and for the joint production of future services (Provan and Milward 2001). As was noted in an earlier section, Booher and Innes (2002) stress the importance of reciprocity and interdependence in essence, social capitalin holding networks together. Networks can create social capital, but they must also maintain it (Burt 2004) if it is to contribute to more efficient and effective services in the future. From this discussion, it seems that social capital may have important functions in emergent multiorganizational networks responding to disasters. First, both bonding and bridging social capital that exists among participants in the network prior to the disaster may facilitate collaboration. During the response, bridging social capital may contribute diverse knowledge, skills, and information, while bonding social capital that develops among participating organizations may increase effectiveness and efficiency. Finally, social capital developed during a disaster response may last after a specific collaborative effort is finished and facilitate future ones. 45 Indicators of Social Capital Social capital has been measured through a variety of indicators such as interpersonal trust (Booth and Richard 1998; Brehm and Rahn 1997), memberships in associations and other forms of civic activity (Brehm and Rahn 1997; Cigler and Joslyn 2002); trust or confidence in national institutions or political systems (Brehm and Rahn 1997; Kazee and Roberts 1998; van Deth 1998), community ties such as length of residence (Fuchs, Minnite, and Shapiro 2000); and generalized trust (Berry, Portney, and Thomson 1993; Putnam 2000; Stolle 1998). It has also been measured at the community and societal level as the density of memberships in associations (ONeill and Molina 1998; Portney and Berry 1997; Putnam 2000). These reflect a view of social capital that sees it in terms of values, attitudes, norms, and behaviors of individuals that are measurable at the individual and group or community level. The structural view, as put forth by Bourdieu (1980, 1985), Loury (1977), and Coleman (1990) requires different analytical approaches such as those of social network analysis. Social network analysis is a structural approach to relationships among social actors, both individuals and collectivities (Wasserman and Faust 1994). Many of the concepts of social network analysissuch as the density of ties, the strength of ties, and reciprocityare also important concepts in social capital theory. Both social capital and social network analysis are concerned with the relations between and among actors, rather than attributes of the individual actors. Since social network 46 analysis is able to map relations among actors and measure the strength of ties, its concepts and tools lend themselves well to studying both bonding and bridging social capital, which, as noted above, may be important in emergent multiorganizational networks responding to disasters. Social network analysis will be discussed in more detail later in this chapter. Summary of Key Points Social capital consists of the actual or potential resources available from a network of relationships. Reciprocity and interdependence are important for building and maintaining social capital. Strong ties (bonding social capital) create intragroup cohesion, while weak ties (bridging social capital) facilitate information exchange and broader, intergroup cooperation. Reputation, the durability of relationships, future expectations for interaction, and communication also appear to be important for cooperation. Most, though not all scholars argue that trust is important as well. While social capital is often measured as an attribute of individuals or groups, it can also be viewed as an attribute of the relations between social actors, whether those are individuals or organizations. Social network analysis is a structural approach to social relations that can be used to study social capital. Disaster Theory and Research While the term disaster^ is used loosely in common speech and by the media, scholars have attempted to define it more precisely. The most common definition in the disaster research field views disasters as extreme events impacting 47 health, safety, and property that exceed the capabilities of the affected areas to deal with them (Comfort, Ko, and Zagorecki 2004; Fischer 1998: Tierney, Lindell, and Perry 2001). A variation on this functionalist perspective emphasizes the disruption of community life rather than impacts to health, safety, and property per se (Quarantelli 2001). From a social constructionist perspective, disasters are defined not by the physical events or by the disruption of social life but by the meaning given to the events, especially by those promoting claims about disasters and seeking to put disaster issues on the public agenda (Kreps and Drabek 1996; Tierney, Lindell, and Perry 2001). Disasters can also be seen as the convergence of vulnerability and physical hazards. The vulnerability perspective focuses attention on the political, economic, social, and cultural factors that put populations at risk and fail to protect them (Bolin and Stanford 1998; Oliver-Smith 2005; Tierney, Lindell, and Perry 2001). These various definitions do not have to be viewed as mutually exclusive. Rather, taken together, they direct attention to the conditions under which certain populations can be affected by physical conditions or events, how the conditions or events are perceived by those affected and by observers, and the consequences of those perceptions for mitigation, warning and evacuation, response, and recovery. Disaster scholars and practitioners break disasters into different phases and may focus research or planning efforts on a specific phase or phases. Fischer (1998) discusses five phases: pre-impact, impact, immediate post-impact, recovery, and long-term reconstruction. Killian (2002) refers to four phases: warning, impact, 48 emergency, and recovery. Drabek (2003) has studied emergent multiorganizational networks in four phases: warning, evacuation, emergency response, and restoration. FEMA training materials take a broader view of disasters and break disasters into four phases: mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery (Drabek 1996). Abbreviated definitions of each of these in turn are: activities that reduce the degree of long-term risk to human life and property, activities that develop operational capabilities for responding to an emergency, activities taken immediately before, during, or directly after an emergency, and short term activities that restore vital life-support systems to minimum operating standards and long-term activities that return life to normal (McCloughlin 1985,166). It is important to note that the phases of disasters are neither linear nor mutually exclusive. Rather, they may overlap and the boundaries may be indistinct (Neal 1995). Nevertheless, the designation of phases is useful for framing discussion and research efforts. The work on disasters reviewed here is primarily related to the response phase, that is, the short-term mobilization of resources to respond to an immediate problem, since this dissertation is concerned with the organization of such responses. Government organizations typically have lead roles in disaster response, and the coordination of disaster response is almost always a function of government officials. However, many government and non-government organizations and individuals may be involved in disaster response and many will be functioning outside of their normal patterns. 49 Social Construction of Disasters While there is a definition of disasters associated with a social constructionist perspective, Quarantelli (1989) argues that all our understandings of what constitutes a disaster are socially constructed. From a sociological perspective, it can be argued that all meaning is socially constructed, because even realities that appear to be objective are infused with subjective meaning that arises from social relations (Berger and Luckmann 1967). The issue that Quarantelli points out in defining disasters stems from this fundamental understanding of meaning. One needs to ask: Are disasters an objective reality to which we apply a label, or does the concept of disaster arise from the meaning given to the events? Kreps (1998) takes the former position, insisting on an event-based definition. He asserts: Disasters are nonroutine events in societies or their larger subsystems (e g. regions, communities) that involve social disruption and physical harm (34). Quarantelli takes the latter position: .. we create the phenomenon of disasters by the conceptual labels we use or impose (245). The social constructionist definition of disasters not only draws attention to the general meaning given to the events, but focuses attention on the meaning given to it by those promoting claims about disasters and seeking to put disaster issues on the public agenda (Kreps and Drabek 1996; Tierney, Lindell, and Perry 2001). The social constructionist perspective also provides insight into the impact of disasters on minority populations and into the phenomena of convergence and emergence (which 50 are defined later in this chapter). Thus, while the physical effects of destructive events are readily observed, it is the social conceptions of disaster and disaster victim, (shaped in part by media depictions), that drive disaster response (Dynes and Rodriguez 2005; Hurlbert, Beggs, and Haines 2005; Kreps and Drabek 1996; Quarantelli 2005). In particular, these social conceptions encourage altruistic and socially integrative responses and influence the emergent norms of disaster situations (Tierney, Lindell, Perry 2001). At the same time, such social conceptions, which often reflect the understandings of dominant or elite groups, shape public policy (Fischer 2003). Schneider and Ingram (1997; Ingram and Schneider 2005) have written extensively about the social construction of populations that are targets of public policy. Tierney, Lindell, and Perry (2001) have noted that dominant cultural assumptions shape the way that organizations respond to the victims of disasters and may result in the failure to take cultural differences into account in the delivery of disaster-related services (217). For example, the social construction of the property owner has been positive since at least the time of the nations founding, while the social construction of many minorities, particularly African-Americans, has been negative (Ingram and Schneider 2005). The impact of these social constructions may be seen in the design and implementation of official disaster relief policies that provide benefits to property owners but fail to address the needs of renters, a group 51 that typically includes many citizens with the fewest resources and one that may be composed disproportionately of members of minority communities (Roberts 2005). Disaster victims are not only targets of public policy at several levels of government, but also of non-governmental organizations, emergent groups, and individuals attempting to render aid. How victims are viewed, specifically, the degree to which they are perceived as deserving by other groups or the way they are characterized as qualifying or non-qualifying by bureaucratic aid programs, will affect what assistance is provided and how it is delivered. For example, following Katrina, evacuees were perceived as deserving of assistance from FEMA and other agencies that was not offered to the homeless in the communities where the evacuees relocated. The exclusion of some individuals and groups from eligibility in established disaster aid programs may motivate emergent groups to provide direct aid or lobby on behalf of certain groups of victims. Impact of Disasters on Minority Populations In recent years, more attention has been paid to the impact of disasters on minority populations than previously. Minority populations may be especially vulnerable to the physical impacts of disasters because of housing patterns that result in their being located in more vulnerable areas (Fothergill 1999; Tierney, Lindell, and Perry 2001), such as New Orleans low-lying Ninth Ward. This issue is similar to that raised by the environmental justice movementthat lack of economic and political power may result in certain populations residing in less desirable areas with 52 greater environmental risks, which, in turn, may result in disproportionate suffering by minority or economically disadvantaged populations (Lester, Allen, and Hill 2001). In addition to location, other risk factors that may make minority populations more vulnerable in disasters include dwelling units of substandard construction, lack of awareness of appropriate disaster preparation, and disaster planning that does not take the needs of minority groups into account (Tierney, Lindell and Perry 2001), e g., the failure to provide alternative means of evacuation for residents without access to private vehicles. Physical assets such as housing and financial assets such as small businesses may be located in the same areas, so that damage to one causes damage to the other (Lindell and Prater 2003). In addition, lower income groups may also have low mobility due to factors such as higher than average rates of disability (Fussell 2005) and ties to extended family members living in the same area (Lindell and Prater 2003), as was definitely the case in New Orleans. In addition, the likelihood that extended families live in close proximity reduces the potential for aid through an extended family network, because many otherwise supportive family members may be victims themselves (Lindell and Prater 2003). Institutionalized disaster response often reflects existing socioeconomic inequalities (Bolin and Stanford 1998; Dyson 2006). The effects of differences in socioeconomic position are exacerbated by sociocultural factors (Bolin 1986) that affect risk perception, preparedness, warning communication and response, and psychological impacts (Fothergill 1999). The structure of government programs and 53 a lack of sensitivity to sociocultural factors may result in differential impacts of emergency response, recovery, and reconstruction. For example, authorities in Louisiana and Mississippi implemented contra- flow (that is, made all lanes one-way outbound) on the freeways, resulting in the successful evacuation of over one million people in southern Louisiana, but did not provide a means of evacuation for those who could not leave on their own. As a result, some of the poor and largely African-American population left behind in low lying areas drowned in their homes, while others crowded into locations on high ground without adequate water, food, or sanitation (U. S. House 2006). Minority populations and minority community groups may also not be well integrated into disaster response networks (Lindell and Prater 2003; Phillips 1993). Phillips (1993) argues that including minority community groups in emergency and disaster planning can have positive results for certain subpopulations. Bolin and Stanford (1998) assert that local government, local offices of non-governmental organizations, and community-based organizations can be more flexible than standard federal programs and can develop responses that are sensitive to the needs of minority populations. Response to Disasters While it is fortunate that disasters are infrequent occurrences in the communities that suffer them, their infrequency makes preparing for them difficult. Not only are there issues of maintaining proficiency in disaster response, but, more 54 fundamentally, there are issues of capacity. It would be enormously expensive to prepare and maintain a state of readiness for a wide range of possibilities. Besides, such preparation would be wasteful, since the actual events are rare (Kettl 2003). To attempt to be completely prepared would require extremely large on-going expenditures of funds and time that would inhibit or prohibit many other activities. Therefore, it may be unrealistic to suppose that there will be full preparation for disasters. A statement attributed by Tierney (1985, 77) to a doctor describing emergency medical services in disasters applies equally well to disaster response in general: many people trying to do quickly what they do not ordinarily do, in an environment with which they are not familiar. No matter how careful the planning process, no plans can anticipate all the contingencies of a disaster situation. Practice exercises can only partly prepare responders for the complexities of the response or for the interorganizational challenges. Nevertheless, planning and preparation have been identified by numerous researchers as key elements in successful response (e g. Drabek 2003; McEntire 2002). Tierney, Lindell, and Perry (2001) point out, though, that cause and effect has not been established clearly between planning and preparedness on the one hand and successful response on the other due to the many other variables that come into play. 55 Convergence and Emergence Two aspects of disaster response that jurisdictions are rarely prepared for are convergence and emergence. Convergence is the influx of aid to an area that has suffered a disaster. It may include equipment, materials, and supplies, as well as personnel from local, state, and federal government, paid and volunteer personnel with non-profit organizations, and spontaneous volunteers (Perry and Lindell 2003). Convergence can substantially increase the available resource base, but without effective coordination, it can hamper response efforts (Perry and Lindell 2003; Weber, McEntire, and Robinson 2002). Donations may overwhelm responding agencies and community organizations and present problems for storage and disposal, as often what is donated does not match needs. Similarly, spontaneous volunteers may overwhelm service organizations, and individuals wanting to help may have difficulty finding volunteer work. The creativity they may exhibit in their attempts to help can present challenges as well as benefits for emergency management (Kendra and Wachtendorf2003). Convergence and other pro-social behaviors, such as offering or providing food, clothing, and shelter to victims, may arise from several motivations. In reference to participation in the public sphere generally, Hirschman (1982) has theorized that human beings are able to reflect on their preferences (contrary to purely economic models), resulting in psychological factors that drive them to seek satisfaction in public action. More specifically, disaster researchers have identified a 56 number of factors that prompt pro-social behavior, including sympathetic identification with victims, individual feelings of moral obligation, and emergent norms in favor of helping (Barton 2005). Lowe and Fothergill (2003) found that spontaneous volunteers after the 9-11 disaster had internalized the suffering of victims, so that they felt victimized themselves. The self-assumed sense of victimization, in addition to other internal and external factors, motivated them to try to help. While their activities generally did have positive effects for the community, the authors found that the greater impact was on the individual helper who experienced increased feelings of interconnection, healing, and empowerment (Lowe and Fothergill 2003, 303). Similarly, Britton, Moran, and Correy (1994) suggest that volunteering may help individuals deal with stress brought about by the events and their consequences. Research repeatedly shows that convergence will occur. Nongovernmental organizations will respond with or without government approval. Volunteers will arrive with or without an invitation. First responders will self-deploy. This type of.. behavior is inevitable (Waugh and Streib 2006, 138). Moreover, the additional resources are often badly needed, yet typical emergency plans do not include strategies for making use of them. Many disaster researchers advocate the integration of the community into response and recovery efforts (Drabek and McEntire 2003; Waugh and Streib 2006), yet it seems that few emergency operations 57 plans make provisions for including community organizations and spontaneous volunteers. Emergence is the phenomenon of new norms, values, and social structures arising in the aftermath of disasters (Drabek and McEntire 2003; Neal and Phillips 1995; Quarantelli 1985). It is a form of collective behavior, which to sociologists is group behavior not guided by usual social conventions and norms. While disasters can be seen as collective stress situations (Kreps and Drabek 1996), research has shown that altruistic behavior rather than anti-social behavior often emerges following disasters (Drabek 1994; Drabek and McEntire 2002; Fischer 1998; Perry and Lindell 2003; Tierney, Lindell, and Perry 2001). Disasters alter community priorities and values in ways that encourage social participation (Wenger and James, 1994). While some of the shift in values and norms may be forced by the disruption of normal activities at the disaster site, sympathetic behavior may be observed in areas well removed from the disaster site in both organized and spontaneous assistance activities (Perry and Lindell 2003; Tierney, Lindell, and Perry 2001), as was illustrated following Katrina by the outpouring of donations and the many hours of volunteer work conducted on behalf of the victims. Emergent norm theory suggests that certain kinds of precipitating events, including disasters, create a sense of uncertainty and urgency that prompts people to act and to create new normative structures as they interact with others (Aquirre, Wenger, and Vigo 1998). Emergent norms may contrast with pre-disaster norms, 58 including bureaucratic norms, and lead even formal organizations to depart from normal procedures temporarily (Neal and Phillips 1995). For example, following Katrina businesses donated goods, sheltered evacuees, and provided transportation or other services. (Specific examples are given in chapter 3). Typically, such behavior does not persist once the immediate crisis has passed. Emergent social structures are the result of ad hoc organizing that include new divisions of labor, new hierarchies, and new social networks. The multi- organizational networks that form to respond to disasters are a form of emergent social structure that fits the definition of organizations. In contrast, emergent groups are not organizations, but collections of individuals who work together to pursue collective goals (Drabek and McEntire 2003; Quarantelli 1985; Stalling and Quarantelli 1985). Emergent groups arise in response to a perceived need, but more specifically, they often arise in reaction to a perceived inadequacy of the official response (Neal and Phillips 1995; Quarantelli 1985; Stallings and Quarantelli 1985). (Similarly, convergent behavior, such as spontaneous volunteering and donating, can be prompted by perceptions of inadequate response by official agencies [Dynes and Rodriguez 2005].) Participants in emergent groups may have little or no experience with performing disaster-related tasks. Their roles and relationships are new (Stalling and Quarantelli 1985; Tierney, Lindell, and Perry 2001) and, as noted above, they may have negative perceptions of the official response. For these reasons, emergent 59 groups may be difficult to integrate into the overall response. But they have flexibility in structure and domain that more established organizations do not, and they may provide needed labor and other resources (Stallings and Quarantelli 1985). A few may develop some permanence and develop into organizations, but most will dissolve once the immediate need they seek to fill has abated. Emergency Management As emergency management has evolved into a profession (as well as a field of study), it has embraced a network model that incorporates multiple levels of government and organizations from multiple sectors. Emergency management has become a full-time function in many jurisdictions, with the role of the emergency manager centering on intergovernmental relations and maintaining links with both disaster relief organizations and other organizations that may come into play when disasters occur (Tierney, Lindell, and Perry 2001; Waugh and Streib 2006). Because emergency management encompasses all phases of disasters, emergency managers may be enmeshed in multiple networks, each potentially active at a different phase. Developing formal plans and engaging in training and exercises are activities that consume a substantial amount of time in emergency management agencies. Common training and joint exercises with other agencies and jurisdictions not only reveal strengths and weaknesses in plans and skills, but build important relationships among participants. While planning is a key function of emergency management, it is generally recognized that plans cannot anticipate all contingencies. 60 Modem emergency management presents a paradox. On one hand, emergency response requires meticulous organization and planning, but on the other hand, it is spontaneous. Emergency managers have to innovate, adapt, and improvise because plans, regardless of how well done, seldom fit circumstances (Waugh and Streib 2006, 132). In addition, managers and policy makers must be able to secure collaboration among different entities to address critical problems that are unique or may occur rarely (Kettl 2003). Thus, emergency management relies to a great extent on collaborative networks and the interpersonal skills of the emergency manager (Waugh and Streib 2006). The importance of interpersonal skills may limit the effectiveness of formal planning, preparedness, and exercises. The Structure of Disaster Response A structural typology originally developed at the Disaster Research Center (DRC) and, therefore, known as the DRC typology, classifies organizations according to two dimensions of possible change: organizational structure and tasks (Dynes 1970). Structure can be old or new and tasks can be regular or non-regular. If the structure of an organization remains the same as before the disaster (old), and the tasks remain the ones the organization usually carries out (regular), then the organizations response is classified as established. If, the organizational structure remains the same but the tasks expand or change, the organizations response is classified as extending. If an organizations structure changes, perhaps by expanding to incorporate additional personnel or volunteers, but the tasks remain routine, the organization is classified as expanding. Finally, if a new entity is 61 formed to respond to disaster needs, both the structure and tasks are new. These new structures with non-routine tasks are classified as emergent. A number of authors have offered additional categories that they feel incorporate types outside the basic four described above, including various subtypes of expansion, extension, and emergence, as well as multi-dimensional adaptations such as expansion and extension occurring together (Drabek and McEntire 2003; Stallings and Quarantelli 1985; Sutton 2003). In this dissertation we utilize the original DRC typology in interpreting data from the Pikes Peak Disaster Recovery Center. Kreps (1983) views the organization of disaster response as a process rather than an entity or entities. He identifies three phases and four elements in the process of organization. The three phases are initiation, maintenance, and suspension, while the four elements are domain, tasks, resources, and activities. He characterizes disaster response systems in terms of the patterns of occurrence of these elements in each of the phases of organizational process. Various ordered combinations of these elements yield a total of 64 forms: 24 four-element forms, 24 three-element forms, 12 two-element forms, and four one-element forms. Only the four-element forms constitute the existence of organization, while the other three forms depict stages in organizational development. If all four elements are not present, an organization is not formed and it cannot move into the maintenance phase. Once all four elements are present, the absence of any element moves the organization into the suspension phase (Kreps 1983; Kreps and Bosworth 1994; Saunders and Kreps 1987). 62 Any of the four-element forms appear to be as frequent and effective as the others, but each indicates different modes of organizing. Formal organizing typically begins with domain and incorporates tasks, resources, and activities in that order, while collective behavior (emergent organizations) begins with activities, then mobilizes resources, establish tasks, and, finally, defines a sphere of activity (domain) (Saunders and Kreps 1987). Kreps and his colleagues have used the elements to study the origins of organizations, the organizing of social networks, and the restructuring of organizations in disaster response. While developed for application to the process of organization in disaster response, Saunders and Kreps (1987) suggest that the elements can be applied to any process of organizing and used to determine when an actual organization has been formed or suspended. However, the organizing elements apparently have not been as widely applied in disaster research as the DRC typology. Kreps and Bosworth (1994) have added another dimension to the structural view of disaster response with research on role enactment. Their findings include that role enactment is likely to be conventional when the following conditions are met: organizations involved have responsibilities related to disaster response, the roles require significant knowledge, and there is prior experience in carrying out the roles. When these conditions are not met, Kreps and Bosworth argue, role change and improvisation are likely. 63 Coordination of Disaster Response It is generally agreed that effective coordination increases the likelihood of effective response to disasters (Drabek and McEntire 2002; Fischer 1998; Quarantelli 1997; Sorenson, Mileti, and Copenhaver 1985). Quarantelli (1997) observes that there are different views of coordination, from seeing it simply as one group informing other groups of what it is doing, to seeing it as the centralization of decision making. He subscribes to the view that coordination is mutually agreed upon co-operation about howto carry out particular tasks (Quarantelli 1997,48). For this dissertation, we adopt a more general definition provided by Drabek (2004, chap. 20, 8): the process of integrating different organizations and activities in a system to accomplish a common goal. Because of its importance, coordination has been both a topic of research and a focus of training materials for practitioners. Successful disaster response requires the efforts of many organizations, groups, and individuals, no one of which has the resources or skills to do all of the tasks required. The multiorganizational networks that are assembled for disaster response are referred to as emergent because they do not exist in that form prior to the precipitating event or situation. They are mobilized to respond to a specific event and typically are suspended or terminated when tasks have been completed or regular organizational structures are able to assume the tasks (Gillespie et al. 1993; Kreps 1983; Kreps and Bosworth 1994). Since the patterns of organization for disasters reflect the organization for routine activities in society, and since findings 64 from research on organizational behavior and relations in disasters are generally consistent with those from other organizational research (Sorenson, Mileti, and Copenhaver 1985; Tierney, Lindell, and Perry 2001), what has been discussed in an earlier section about managing networks is largely applicable to emergent networks in disaster response. The specific challenges involved in the coordination of resources and tasks in response to disasters are well documented in the literature (e.g. Comfort 2002; Drabek 2003; Fischer 1998; Granot 1999; Kreps 1983; McEntire 2002; Perry and Lindell, 2003; Tierney, Lindell, and Perry 2001). For the present purposes, it is sufficient to note that there are two types of demands in disaster situations, agent- generated demands and response-generated demands (Dynes 1994; Quarantelli 1997). While many of the challenges at the locale of a disastersuch as disrupted communicationsstem from the effects of the physical agents, other challenges arise from the response to the disaster (Dynes 1994; Quarantelli 1997). For example, the convergence of organizations and unaffiliated volunteers on the disaster area and interagency conflict due to lack of domain clarity are examples of response- generated challenges. Before discussing the scholarly literature on this topic, it is useful to begin by introducing the official strategies for the coordination of disaster response that have been promulgated by the Department of Homeland Security. 65 NIMS and ICS. In February 2003, President George W. Bush issued Homeland Security Directive 5 (HSPD-5), directing the Secretary of Homeland Security to develop and administer a National Incident Management System (NIMS). It also directed that all federal departments and agencies adopt NIMS for use in domestic incident management, and emergency prevention, preparedness, response, recovery, and mitigation activities, as well as those actions taken in support of State or local entities (President 2003, Sec. 18). Furthermore, as noted in chapter 1, it included provisions that required compliance by other levels of government in order to receive federal funding for emergency preparedness. Since most (if not all) state, county, and municipal emergency management agencies receive, or seek to receive, some federal funding for preparedness, this directive amounted to a mandate to implement NIMS in state and local jurisdictions nationwide. In March 2004, the Secretary of Homeland Security Tom Ridge announced the actual establishment of NIMS. A key feature of NIMS is the Incident Command System (ICS). ICS was developed in California by the fire service in the 1970s as the command system for wildland firefighting. Such fires typically require response from multiple jurisdictions and, often, multiple levels of government. The ICS was developed to provide a standard way to integrate and direct resources. Because of its successful use by the fire service, ICS was taught as a model for general emergency management for many years before HSPD-5 was issued. It has been adopted by NIMS for use in all types of incidents. 66 ICS uses a modular organizational structure that can be expanded or contracted as needed, but the basic structure and the associated processes are intended to be used regardless of the size or other characteristics of the incident. ICS is officially defined as the combination of facilities, equipment, personnel, procedures, and communications operating within a common organizational structure, designed to aid in domestic incident management activities (U. S. Department of Homeland Security 2004a, 63). The basic structural elements consist of incident command and four sections: operations, planning, logistics, and finance and administration, as shown in figure 2.1. c&rnimod 1-----------------1--------1--------1----------------1 Opaerattons Ftaraahsg Us-gpstfcs fteawqa/ AdsttatstesUon Source: U. S. Department of Homeland Security 2004a, 65. Figure 2.1 Basic Structural Elements of ICS The structure of ICS follows that of a traditional formal organization with divisions of labor, responsibility, and power. Command has overall responsibility for the incident and sets incident objectives, strategies, and priorities. An incident may have a single commander, or the function may be shared by two or more jurisdictional or organizational commanders, in which case it is called unified command. Operations is responsible for tactical operations to carry out the plan. 67 Planning is responsible for collecting and evaluating information, preparing the incident action plan, tracking the status of resources, and maintaining documentation. Logistics provides or arranges for support, resources, and services needed to support the operational objectives. Finance and Administration provides accounting, procurement, time recording, and cost analyses. The organization may be simple or complex depending on the size and needs of a particular incident. In almost any incident, Operations will be the largest section and have the most complex organization beneath it. The ICS structure can be expanded or contracted depending on the size and the specific needs of a particular incident. It is common for the command staffthat is, the staff of the incident commanderto include a public information office, a safety officer, and a liaison officer, who is the point of contact for cooperating agencies. A key principle articulated in ICS training materials is that the framework is flexible and can be used for any type of emergency incident. Another principle is that organizational structures, processes, and procedures are standardized. The objective of standardization is that, through training, properly credentialed personnel can be brought together to fill roles in an incident who know how to function in their assigned roles, understand the roles of others, share common terminology, and consistently implement standard processes and follow standard procedures. Standard training is intended to facilitate the integration of resources in an incident, eliminate confusion and conflict, and make it possible for jurisdictions to assist others or make 68 effective use of assistance themselves. An important concept in ICS is unity of command, which means simply that each individual reports to one and only one supervisor. ICS utilizes management by objectives (MBO). Key features of MBO generally that are utilized in ICS processes and procedures include involving multiple individuals and groups in establishing goals and objectives, setting specific objectives to be accomplished within a given time, developing plans for accomplishing results, allocating resources, tracking progress, evaluating results, and making adjustments to plans and operations as needed (Rosenbloom 1998, 179; U. S. Department of Homeland Security 2004a). ICS training emphasizes open communication. In this, it departs from the scalar principle, by which communication as well as authority follows the chain of command (Fayol 1996). Communication is facilitated through frequent short meetings and briefings, although informal communication is encouraged as well. Elapsing time during an incident is divided into operational periods. Depending on how quickly conditions change or how frequently plans must be modified, operational periods may be only a few hours duration, or a day or longer. Plans are developed and implemented for each operational period, setting forth the objectives for that period and the resources needed to achieve them. In a typical planning meeting at the start of an operational period, both the progress on objectives set for the previous operational period and the action plan for the new operational 69 period are discussed. The planning meeting is typically followed by operational briefings. Applicability ofNIMS and ICS. From what has already been discussed on the differences between networks and bureaucracies, it is not surprising that many disaster scholars question the use of bureaucratic command-and-control systems to coordinate emergent multiorganizational networks responding to disasters. Many disaster scholars question whether command-and control structures and processes can be effective in the unstable and unpredictable environment of disasters (Comfort 2002; Drabek 2003; Drabek and McEntire 2003; Dynes 1994; Harrald 2006; Kettl 2004; Neal and Phillips 1995; Quarantelli 1997; Tierney, Lindell, and Perry 2001; Waugh and Streib 2006; Wenger, Quarantelli, and Dynes 1990). Some scholars argue that the assumptions of command-and-control models are faulty because they do not reflect actual behavior in disasters. Specifically, they point to the assumptions that the civilian population needs to be controlled and that emergent behavior is dysfunctional, in spite of consistent evidence that rational, pro- social behavior dominates in the immediate aftermath of disasters (Drabek and McEntire 2002; Quarantelli 1997; Tierney, Lindell, and Perry 2001; Wenger, Quarantelli, and Dynes 1990). In addition, researchers note that the assumptions of some command-and-control models that government agencies are the only responders, or the only responders that are needed, are patently incorrect. Disaster research has shown that government agencies do not have all the resources needed 70 (Comfort 2002, 2005; Tierney, Lindell, and Perry 2001; Waugh and Streib 2006; Weber, McEntire, and Robinson 2002; Zakour 1996) and has consistently documented convergence and emergence (Drabek and McEntire 2002; Dynes 1970; Perry and Lindell 2003; Tierney, Lindell, and Perry 2001; Wenger and James 1994). Finally, the assumption that centralized decision making through bureaucratic structures is required is also challenged by researchers, with many arguing that the multiorganizational environment requires a different approach to decision making (Drabek and McEntire 2002; Quarantelli 1997; Waugh and Streib 2006). It should be noted that emergency operations centers may have different environments from command posts of field operations, with the former perhaps being more collaborative and the latter more reliant on authority structures. While scholars recognize that quick and authoritative decision making is necessary in disaster response (Quarantelli 1997; Kiefer and Montjoy 2006; Waugh and Streib 2006), there is disagreement on the best structure for doing so. Kiefer and Montjoy (2006) argue that decision making in networks tends to be slow. They take the position that networks are necessary in disaster management, but they are rarely sufficient (129) and argue for the necessity of a central agency that coordinates and supports network operations. On the other hand, Waugh and Streib (2006) observe that, in rapidly changing circumstances, hierarchical decisions processes may be slow and inflexible. Good information is required for good decisions, and (as was noted earlier in this chapter) high volumes of information can overload the upper 71 levels of a bureaucratic structure and cause communication failures (Comfort 2005; Dodds, Watts, and Sabel 2003; Iannello 1992). In their research on ICS in a fire department, Bigley and Roberts (2001) found evidence of decentralized decision making based on expertise rather than formal authority. Respondents reported that decision making may migrate quickly from those with formal authority to individuals with specific expertise. This is consistent with theory and research on network organizations discussed earlier. An additional criticism of command-and-control models is that they do not take into account other organizational and community plans or authority relationships, and that ICS, in particular, is poor at integrating many relief agencies, other non-profit organizations, and volunteers outside of the first responder community (Buck, Trainor, and Aquirre 2006; Harrald 2006; Drabek and McEntire 2002; Moynihan 2007; Quarantelli 1997; Wenger, Quarantelli, and Dynes 1990). Waugh and Streib (2006) stress the importance of collaboration in emergency management at all phases of disasters but note that disasters and fear of disasters also generate a strong desire for hierarchysomebody to take charge, or possibly someone to be held accountable (138). This desire for someone to be in charge may be considered misplaced by some disaster researchers (Quarantelli 1997), but the desire for authoritative leadership arises persistently in the aftermath of disasters (Kettl 2003; Waugh and Streib 2006). 72 Harrald (2006) argues that the idea of imposing centralized control is at odds with the variety of activities and the emergence of decentralized decision-making that researchers have documented in disasters. He suggests that the MMS emphasis on structure and process may have hindered agile and imaginative response following Hurricane Katrina. Certainly many examples support that view, volunteer medical personnel were turned away because they lacked the proper credentials; evacuation by air proceeded very slowly because FEMA had to locate federal air marshals to ride the planes; emergency rations that were in metal containers were confiscated because someone thought they might contain explosives (Perrow 2006). In another example, scientists from the U. S. Geological Survey, together with personnel from the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, the Louisiana Department of Natural Resources, and Ducks Unlimited rescued more than 250 people before having to suspend activities when the U. S. military canceled all civilian operations (USGS 2005). Later the military reconsidered and these organizations resumed activities, but two days (and possibly lives) had been lost. While seeing the lack of agility and imagination as weaknesses, Harrald (2006) sees the structure and discipline of ICS as a strength. He does not see these two different facets as two ends of a continuum, but, rather, as orthogonal dimensions. Harrald (2006, 267-268) presents a fourfold typology of organizations 73 based on the two dimensions and labels the resulting types dysfunctional (low on discipline and agility), bureaucratic/procedural (high on discipline, low on agility, ad hoc/reactive (low on discipline, high on agility), and balanced/adaptive (high on discipline and agility). Harrald sees the balanced/adaptive organization as being able to mobilize and manage large, complex organizations, able to change rapidly, and able to adjust to other organizations. He notes that this requires leaders who are innovative as well as technically competent. Buck, Trainor, and Aquirre (2006) suggest that command-and-control approaches and coordinative management styles are complementary, with ICS being useful for the organization and accomplishment of predictable tasks by formal agencies and coordinative systems useful for integrating multiple perspectives and dealing with disagreement. They take the position that the deficiencies of ICS for trained responders are related to inadequate implementation rather than inherent problems with the model. They think it is possible that the widespread adoption of ICS would create the cultural and social processes required for effective multi jurisdictional response (21). Certainly there are examples of the successful use of ICS for complex incidents other than wildland fires including the response to the Pentagon on 9-11 (Kettl 2003; 2006) and the coordination of the space shuttle Columbia recovery operation after the vehicle disintegrated over Texas during reentry in 2003 (Donahue 74 2006). Both of these involved more than one level of government, resources from more than one jurisdiction, and employed a unified command. In the case of the Pentagon response, the Arlington County Fire Department retained a command role for the frill ten days of the search and rescue operation before turning the scene over to the FBI (Titan Systems Corporation 2002) Kettl (2006, 17) calls the response to the Pentagon on 9-11 a well-choreographed interorganizational response and attributes the success to two factors: they began with a sense of the problems they were likely to confront and they envisioned a collaborative response as the best solution. Arlington County Fire Department had engaged in inter-agency planning and training, and many of the key personnel at the Pentagon incident knew each other (Titan Systems 2002). Donahue (2006) describes the successful use of a unified command to coordinate the Columbia recovery operation, which involved over 450 federal, state, and local government agencies, private companies, and non-profit organizations, most of which had not worked together before, and many of which had no experience with incident command procedures. There were some agencies had engaged in common planning and training and, thus, had already developed trust. Overall, she attributes the success to the high level of cohesion among participants, shared goals, systematic planning, and flexibility that focused on problem solving instead of rules. Donahue (2006, 142), characterizes large incidents as sudden, idiosyncratic, and dynamic, requiring managers to understand problems and devise 75 solutions in real time. Therefore, she recommends flexible guidelines rather than rigid rules. The fact that this incident involved organizations that are outside the first responder community and had no experience with ICS presents a challenge to the argument that ICS cannot work well outside beyond the trained-responder community. It spite of examples of successful use of ICS in complex incidents, it seems unlikely that the adoption of ICS, in and of itself, will produce effective multi- jurisdictional response. ICS is a form of temporary or contingent bureaucracy and, as other bureaucracies, is likely susceptible to the tendency for the rules and procedures to become ends in themselves. But it appears that it is a framework that can be used to manage an effective response. However, success may depend on the cultures of the organizations involved (eg., flexible versus rigid or collaborative versus strictly hierarchical), as well as the skills and attitudes of individual managers. The voices of scholars who have been critical of command-and-control models have not gone unheard in the practitioner community. In recent years collaboration and cooperation have become a focus of FEMA training programs (Waugh and Streib 2006). FEMA courses, such as the Social Dimensions of Disasters (Drabek 2004), contribute to dispelling some of the myths about disaster behavior, and ICS training courses stress collaboration and open communication as well as unity of command and ICS processes. 76 Drabek and McEntire (2003) note that practitioners favor command-and- control models for coordinating disaster response. However, as we shall see in the next section, what emergency managers do in practice to achieve success may be different from what command-and-control models would indicate, or what classic management theory would suggest. Additional theory and research on coordination of disaster response. Past research on coordination has identified several broad approaches that contribute to success in disaster response, including planning and preparedness, effective leadership, a functional emergency operations center, adaptable interorganizational structures, and contact, cooperation, and communication (Drabek and McEntire 2002). Since Drabek (1983) first identified emergent multiorganizational networks as a different type of organization requiring different coordination strategies, the coordination and functioning of emergent multiorganizational networks in disasters have received considerable attention (e g., Comfort 2002, 2005; Drabek 2003; Drabek and McEntire 2002; Harrald 2006; McEntire 2002). In his study of the response to a tornado in Fort Worth, Texas, McEntire (2002) found the following specific factors contributed to the coordination of the response: supportive political leadership; preparation for disaster, networking and cooperation among key players in emergency management; experience from previous incidents; communications technology; the emergency operations center and its management; and daily planning meetings. While some of these, such as 77 planning, emergency operations centers, communications technology, and daily planning meetings may be replicated straightforwardly, supportive political leadership and previous experience may be idiosyncratic. McEntire (2002, 377) observed that the key players had high levels of respect for each others professional responsibilities, but also were familiar with each others personal lives. Certainly, emergency managements can strive to develop working relationships and social capital through joint training and other cooperative undertakings, and can even encourage the development of experience through assisting other jurisdictions. However, when personnel with standardized training are used interchangeably across jurisdictions and, thus, outside of local networks (as envisioned by NIMS and ICS), only the social capital associated with positions and organizations is available as a resource to facilitate cooperation, a least initially. In a different vein, Comfort (2002, 2005) has focused attention on access to information as the key to successful integration of multiple organizations in response to terrorist attacks. She notes (2002, 30) that [rjeliable performance of information functions under stress is a critical factor in achieving coordination among a large and varied group of actors engaged in crisis response. Comfort has identified three sets of conditions that affect the interaction of agents involved in the response: the technical structure for information search and exchange; the organizational policies and procedures within and among the participating organizations; and the cultural 78 openness to new information, new strategies for addressing an unimaginable set of problems; and willingness to adapt to extraordinarily difficult conditions (30). From these three sets of conditions Comfort (2002) has constructed a conceptual model with four types of complex adaptive systems in disaster response. Non-adaptive systems (low on technical structure, organizational flexibility, and cultural openness, to new information) and emergent-adaptive systems (low on technical structure and medium on organizational flexibility and cultural openness) develop modes of organization and action during disaster operations but are not able to sustain collective action after the crisis has passed. Operative-adaptive systems are medium on all three dimensions and function well but cannot move into new modes of operation easily. Auto-adaptive systems, when they can be achieved, are high on all three dimensions and are characterized by mutual adjustment among organizations in a network based on shared understanding of shared goals and the respective organizations capacities and vulnerabilities. Auto-adaptive systems are not only able to respond to the immediate crisis but to translate experience from a crisis situation to a sustained effort to reduce threat or risk. Comforts typology (2002) directs attention to the flaws of hierarchical control systems and suggests auto-adaptation as an alternative model to strive for, with interacting units, each performing at its own rate, but adjusting performance to that of its near-neighbors in response to incoming information from the environment (48). 79 Using a simulation platform, Comfort, Ko, and Zagorecki (2004) examined the effects of demand and capacity on response systems. The simulation suggests that when a spatial disaster area is divided into multiple jurisdictions, the efficiency of response activities increases and that smaller jurisdictions that operate somewhat independently are more effective in managing recovery efforts than a centralized authority. The exchange of core information is identified as influencing the efficiency of the response. The authors stress the importance of key actors through which core information is exchanged. Drabek (2003) conducted detailed studies of strategies used to coordinate emergent multiorganizational networks in actual disasters in ten communities, and surveyed fifty-two communities in less detail. He documented five broad categories of strategies and twenty-six specific ones and concluded that emergency managers who used the largest number of coordination strategies guided the most effective responses. Control strategies were used by all the emergency managers in his study, but managers who were most successful did not micro-manage. Rather, they engaged in activities such as identifying problems, obtaining commitments, and identifying where additional resources were needed. They also made appeals to prior legitimacy, referred to planning documents and prior experience, and implemented mutual-aid agreements. Some of the control strategies Drabek identified, such as the use of self-managed work teams, emergent collaborative planning, and emergent community-government partnerships, are not associated with command-and-control 80 structures. Based on his findings, Drabek (2003) concluded that local emergency managers use strategies similar to those of network coordinators in other settings. Drabeks work shows what Kettl (2003, 2006) and Donahue have observed (2006) that the use of command-and-control models does not necessarily exclude other coordination strategies. Effective coordination may require blending many different strategies Improvisation. Many researchers argue that improvisation is inevitable in complex disaster situations, and, in fact, successful improvisation is often noted in disasters. Kendra and Wachtendorf (2003) even argue that an event that can be managed with routine procedures and does not require improvisation is precluded from the definition of a disaster. The need for improvisation may arise for a variety of reasons including contingencies that are not anticipated by plans, complexity that requires organizations to combine plans in new ways, information deficits, and the unavailability of planned-for resources (Mendonga and Wallace 2004). As used in common speech, improvisation means creating something out of what is available utilizing existing skills and knowledge. In disaster response, both planning and prior experience are important forms of knowledge. Kendra and Wachtendorf (2003) argue that effective improvisation in disaster response requires that creativity build on planning and preparedness. For example, when the City of New York lost its Emergency Operations Center (EOC) at the World Trade Center on 9-11, an alternative EOC was improvised quicklyeven though there was no specific plan 81 for a back-up facilitybecause of prior experience with the equipment and other requirements of an EOC (Kendra and Wachtendorf 2003). While some improvisation may be inevitable, Drabek (2003) found that more effective disaster responses exhibited lower levels of improvisation. In the responses he studied, improvisation occurred most often where there was the least consensus about domain, the lowest frequency of training exercises or prior responses, and the lowest frequency of interagency contact. However, the disasters included in Drabeks research were on a much smaller scale than Katrina and the flooding of New Orleans. Bigley and Roberts (2001) offer an important distinction between improvisation and freelancing. They found that improvisation was considered legitimate by the fire department whose ICS implementation they studied, as long as it fit with the organizational goals and was not likely to cause harm. Freelancing, however, was behavior not directed at, or supportive of, ICS goals, objectives, and approaches at a particular incident (1289). Such behavior was considered illegitimate and was discouraged.	http://digital.auraria.edu/AA00004044/00001
Drawn from our work over several years with a number of partners, these 10 radical actions are meant to guide donors and local organizations in moving from promises of supporting locally-led social change to action. The actions embody the work of the Fund by bringing together leaders and innovators from different parts of the donor and social change fields to demonstrate that there are more effective alternatives to the current system of funding. These actions are based on the pillars of the Fund’s mission: using funding tools that are more flexible, more inclusive and more sustainable than grants; deciding on the allocation of resources in participatory ways with a focus on innovative technologies; supporting communities to create their own priorities and define for themselves the impact of their work; and encouraging funders to be accountable to the communities they serve. These actions have not been undertaken systematically, but could be. Under each one, we provide guiding questions for those concerned with these issues—government and multilateral donors, foundations, private sector, civil society, grassroots organizations and individuals committed to social change. Those within these organizations who hold power must commit to finding ways to change the current system. While it is hard for those outside these opaque institutions to know how to change them, we hope these ideas will encourage local organizations to exercise agency through shifting the current power dynamic. Each institution and context is different—for some, addressing just one of these questions could lead to important shift away from top-down, paternalistic practices towards centering those on the frontlines in the work of social change. Taken together, these ideas represent a radical and transformative approach to the status quo. If you read some or all of these 10 Radical Actions and are also excited about these ideas and questions, please reach out to us. Use a broader range of financial instruments. Most donor support to local civil society organizations... Most donor support to local civil society organizations comes in the form of grants, but as currently structured, they are akin to analog technology to support change in a digital world. To achieve goals long pursued, we must re-envision the “donor industrial complex” and current system of “piping” restricted project funds through international NGO and multilateral recipient organizations. Such reforms must include increasing general operating support grants, but it is even more important to use and develop new financing solutions that shift power to locally-led initiatives. Photo Credit: Riva Kantowitz Impact investing and innovative finance approaches such as outcomes funds are exciting models because they have the potential to bring in new sources of funding, provide a financial return and focus on impact versus onerous reporting. Other promising approaches include giving seed funding to community foundations and supporting giving circles or community philanthropy in places where such approaches do not exist or are informal. Increasing attention is being drawn to regional philanthropy and foundations and the role of the national private sector in funding social change; these trends offer opportunities to attract new funders who understand the cultural context and have a stake in the well-being of their own societies. Grants are not our only funding tools—we must invest in and scale new and better tools. These ideas for reform are currently scattered across the development and donor fields; one of the goals of Radical Flexibility Fund is to define and compare them in one place so that we may better understand their advantages and disadvantages and support local organizations to use them effectively. Questions to consider Funders: - Why does your organization use grants as the primary mode of financial support for your partners? - What percentage of the funding you provide is allocated to general operating support and what percentage to restricted project funding? Does this meet recipients’ needs? - Do you know what financial tools beyond grants are available to you, and how to use them? - Are there strategic, legal or financial obstacles to using other financial tools to support local organizations, and can these be overcome? Local Organisations: - Can you diversify funding sources? - Have you looked for community-led funding or other financing solutions, rather than relying on Western donor-funded grants as a first step? - Have you considered collaborating with other local actors to design and catalyze new funding approaches, such as outcome funds to support an organization’s objectives or seed funding for a community foundation? - If so, have you brought these ideas to funders? Prioritize flexibility, inclusivity and sustainability. Grant funding—often short-term, inflexible and... Grant funding—often short-term, inflexible and project-specific—neither suits the changing situation on the ground nor enables local organizations to prioritize their own solutions and develop financial sustainability for the longer term. Because grants are the most common funding vehicle, many funders are not structured or willing to use other funding tools even if they can support greater flexibility, greater inclusivity, greater impact and greater sustainability. These include approaches that focus on communities generating their own assets through support to social entrepreneurship, direct cash transfers or seeding community foundations; innovative finance tools, like impact bonds and outcome-based funding; and increasing use of new technologies like Blockchain to help local communities shape and define the impact of their work. These tools allow communities and organizations to generate their own assets, enabling them to determine their own priorities. They also expand access to finance from a more diverse set of funders, including private equity, that are not always bound by the same constraints as traditional philanthropic and government donors. Community-led approaches also lead to better outcomes. By bringing together people from a variety of groups in stratified and divided societies, participatory funding—where many people get to decide what to spend money on—strengthens relationships between individuals, within communities and with institutions. Creating flexible pots of money both allows resources to be deployed rapidly and enables local partners to tailor programming priorities to changing situations. In areas affected by escalating tensions, being able to react quickly to defuse tensions and respond to early warning signs of unrest or closing democratic spaces ensures action instead of reaction, minimizing negative impacts on the community. Questions to consider Funders: - Is helping organizations to become more sustainable and less dependent on external grant funding a key part of our strategy? - How do we define “flexible” funding within our institution? (For example, providing scholarships, seed funding, unrestricted or emergency funds, small grants, in-kind materials, support without time frames or burdensome administrative requirements, using other funding tools such as impact investing, concessional loans, outcomes fund, and so on.) - Do the types of funding mechanisms available to support partner and community efforts vary according to the above qualities and take into account the needs of different contexts? If it's not possible to provide fully flexible funds, can we provide a package with some flexible components? - Are there types of support other than money that can be provided more flexibly? Local Organisations: - Can we seek out, learn from, and amplify the approaches of organizations that have managed to avoid restrictive grant funding while sustaining their work? Invest in innovative approaches. In contrast to established philanthropy efforts,... In contrast to established philanthropy efforts, innovative finance involves adapting new tools (including outcome-based financing tools such as social impact bonds and outcome funds) and emerging technologies (such as Blockchain) to countries and communities. While innovative finance does not have a precise definition, it does have several key signatures: changing existing financing tools to make them more effective; filling gaps in funding, particularly by using flexible, not project-specific, funding; integrating new tools into existing funding approaches; providing efficient funding at the national level, thereby enabling each country to identify its own priorities; and finding and funding creative approaches to social change. These hold the possibility of radically disrupting traditional funding models, thereby improving sustainable and impactful development, peacebuilding and humanitarian work. Photo Credit: Riva Kantowitz Several tools that have been developed in other sectors could be applied more widely and tested in new areas such as peacebuilding: social or development impact bonds, community bonds and outcome funds. A bond is a public-private partnership that allows private (impact) investors to provide capital for public projects that deliver social and environmental outcomes. If the project succeeds, the investors are repaid by the government (social impact bonds) or an aid agency or other philanthropic funder (development impact bonds) with capital plus interest. If the project fails, the interest and part of the capital is lost. Community bonds are an instrument designed to attract small-scale, grassroots investors to a "loan fund" that will provide affordable, micro, unsecured loans to social enterprises. Outcome funds are structured on a framework in which payments are made to a grantee only if or when pre-agreed societal outcomes are achieved. Social impact bonds and outcome funds typically fund large-scale development or humanitarian projects and have not been structured or adapted to fund locally-led efforts; however, any type of activity that can be measured through outcomes could be funded this way. One problem with impact bonds is they require a verifiable causal relationship between intervention and specific outcome, and thus may not be suited for processes that involve complex constellations of variables where it is harder to discern whether one specific intervention directly led to the proposed impacts. Innovation need not be restricted solely to funding instrument or methodology, and, in fact, the most radical and productive innovations may be concerned with donor organizations themselves. Advances in distributed ledger technologies like Blockchain make it possible for donor organizations to make funding decisions based on recipient organizations’ decisions and priorities. For example, instead of relying on limited information to make decisions, donors can rely on experts chosen for their past performance in allocating funds or selected by voters in the communities they serve. Questions to consider Funders: - Are you exploring or investing in innovative approaches to financing social change? If not, could you? - Could your institution commit funds to the research and development of innovative approaches, and to their application to new problems? Can you ensure that research and development strive to specifically support community-level organizations? Local Organisations: - Could you build partnerships, particularly outside your network and/or with organizations working on innovative technologies or approaches, to create new opportunities for supporting social change and bring these to donors? Prioritize support to community-led funding and participatory programming approaches. People lead social change. Local leaders are in the best... People lead social change. Local leaders are in the best position to choose priorities and make decisions on funding mechanisms and their outcomes. Participatory grantmaking, trust-based philanthropy, and community philanthropy are all approaches to the relationships between funders and funding recipients. Further when regional and national actors fund social issues in their own countries, important opportunities for dialogue and evolution of social norms are created. These approaches should also curb the worst neo-colonial tendencies of external funders to impose values and priorities, while diminishing the likelihood that external actors will be seen as or blamed for imposing their own outside values. Local change makers bring expertise in a range of fields that can solve community challenges. Instead of the default approach of sending in international consultants to build capacities determined by outsiders, funders should first ask communities and organizations what skills they have, what they need and the challenges they face to acquire these skills. Then they should fund local experts who have these skills to train others, creating long term sustainable change. International experts can add value but should not be the default. Questions to consider Funders: - Do we work in a participatory way with the recipients of your funding? Why not? - Do the participatory approaches being used allow a wide range of local organizations to participate? - Do we support local experts to provide capacity building? Local Organisations: - How should funders design processes and approaches to be more participatory? - Do we have a roster of local experts? - Do we have processes in place to assess our strengths, weaknesses and needs? Are we honest with funders about this? Measure what matters. Donors and intermediaries often define priorities and... Donors and intermediaries often define priorities and metrics. While identifying and being accountable to priorities helps donors justify spending by ensuring money is spent as promised, this process is not designed to measure impact for the community itself. Photo Credit: Lauren Bradford Measuring outcomes to show progress is not inherently negative; however, the current bureaucratic measurement exercises use indicators that reinforce imbalanced power dynamics. These indicators are often based on knowledge, norms and metrics created in and used by the Global North. As various sectors have been increasingly driven by results, donors have focused disproportionately on those things that are easiest to measure, regardless of their importance. If an organization must prove to a funder that it achieved certain goals, it is likely to pick those that are specific and more easily quantifiable. These may not be the most important to improving the quality or impact of social change work and can undermines the work of systems thinkers and visionaries who see fundamental social change in big picture terms. Local organizations need to define their own metrics that can be shared with donors, and their communities, and have the resources to track them. One idea of participatory goal setting is to change the evaluation methodology to community reporting, whereby the effectiveness of an intervention would be judged not by a donor-designed metric but by the community’s view of it. By putting communities and implementing organizations at the center of priority setting, those communities can define their own outcomes, needs and what impact means, which will also ensure the donor achieves its outcomes. Furthermore, the measurement process often puts a great burden on the implementing organizations’ capacities, siphoning off scarce resources to respond to donor-imposed requirements. Donors also use significant resources to monitor grants and it is common that they can neither keep up with vast piles of traditional quarterly reports nor use their findings. Because they are not designed around local priorities, requiring grantees to give primacy to donors’ ideas and projects, or to devote time to superficial and repetitive demands by donors, diminishes the effectiveness of donors’ funds. Furthermore, many grantees have multiple donors, each of which might have different priorities and administrative requirements including measuring impact. Grantees therefore may have to contend with conflicting donor priorities and needs, some of which might also conflict with community priorities. As a result of this structure, we see duplication of reporting efforts and an absence of standardized reporting formats. Both local and international NGOs are therefore forced to hire employees solely to meet the reporting and administrative demands of even just one funder, taking scarce resources from program work and partnership development. Many INGOs would like to better fund local organizations but are locked into this system with its administrative demands. General operating support is already underfunded. Donors don’t provide enough resources for organizations to meet donor requirements, carry out programming, and do the work of building equitable partnerships. Questions to consider Funders: - Are the organizations we are funding defining their own priorities If not, why is this and how can it be overcome? - What is the purpose of reporting in our organization? Does our current reporting structure achieve our goals and our grantee’s priorities? Is this an equitable donor-grantee partnership? - Are the impact metrics developed by people in the communities where the intervention takes place? Do they consist of a mixture of qualitative and quantitative measures? - Can the format and frequency of reporting be altered, and can it be aligned with other donors? - How can we better measure network building and the development of horizontal and vertical social capital, dignity and trust? - Do the data being collected serve the us? Are they the right data for the community? Does this information allow systemic and visionary big-picture goals to be accounted for? Local Organisations: - Does the donor provide us enough funds to cover the cost of generating community led knowledge? - Are we designing our own metrics which will be used by the donor for both reporting and knowledge building? - Does that data being collected serve our own organization and community? - Are we increasing our own skills and expertise to understand impact and generate knowledge? - Are the metrics both quantitative and qualitative and do they understand processes such as community members working together as outcomes? Fund people and partnerships, not projects. Social change funding is most often viewed as the... Social change funding is most often viewed as the provision of money to an organization to implement a project or deliver a service. However, these funds, in fact, are going to people with ideas and enabling partnerships. Why is it that the narrative about funding focuses on projects? The international “donor industrial complex” has systematically underinvested in people and organizations working in their own communities. Between 2011 and 2015 the largest 1,000 U.S.-based foundations made $35 billion in international grants, only 12% of which went directly to local organizations based in the country where programming occurred. It is well documented that small pools of unrestricted funding—that is, not project focused—can be critical for organizational resilience, especially in difficult environments; in recent years, however, only 1% of the value of international grants has been for general operating support to local organizations. The United Nations has noted—and research has demonstrated—that supporting civil society to create its own solutions can be the most constructive path toward sustainable social change. A 2019 report examining more than 70 external evaluations found that local peacebuilders demonstrated significant impact in preventing, reducing or stopping violence; improving relationships among citizens (i.e., horizontal relationships); and improving relationships between citizens and those who govern them (i.e., vertical relationships). These data demonstrate that when you shift resources away from projects to invest in people, relationships and communities, you transform power dynamics. Community members become participants, not recipients, as donors facilitate locally generated priorities and solutions. This creates more effective and durable responses to social change problems. Interventions focused at the project level which may be more transactional in nature are not necessarily bad. However, in order to contribute strategically to social change, they need to be understood as part of a larger transformative set of goals. In funding people and networks instead of projects, donors can support a “movement mindset”; that is, they can work in partnership with civil society to achieve larger transformational goals such as combatting global trends that run counter to human rights, peacebuilding and humanitarian work. This has been seen to be true in the human rights field, where donors are more likely to fund activists and movements. These donors do this by supporting collective actions such as campaigns, individuals, coalitions and movements that aim to empower grassroots actors (which are not always the same as “civil society”), as well as linking communities to national institutions. Funding groups or networks across sectors builds bridges and enhances collaboration. It also strengthens civic trust, which is both one of the most essential qualities for stable societies. Finally, donors that extend funding to groups of individuals or organizations have taken the time to build trust in and understanding of existing networks, which allows them to build more authentic partnerships. Only through recognizing the interconnectivity of people will we create safe, healthy and just communities and societies. Questions to consider Funders: - What does the narrative of funding projects versus people and partnerships do for our mission? - If our mission is to fund service delivery, how does this achieve transformational change? - How can we use our resources to invest in people, networks and movements and not solely projects? Local Organisations: - Are we only asking for project funding or can we articulate the importance of partnerships, and investing in them? - Are we asking donors to invest in leadership and talent development? - Do we track data and examples of where funders have made these types of investments which have had impact on our work and community? Confront assumptions about risk. Donors hold a number of assumptions regarding control,... Donors hold a number of assumptions regarding control, due diligence and risk. Risk for whom? Donors talk about appetite for risk, but not appetite for trust – in reality local organizations and people are assuming the real risk including to their jobs and sometime their lives. The risk to funders can be fiduciary and is often reputational. Photo Credit: Riva Kantowitz The funding system has developed in such a way that funding intermediaries (or re-grantors—funders that distribute foreign aid usually in small(er) grants) and international NGOs exist in part to absorb risk. This extra layer may not increase the effectiveness of grants but instead channels money away from the problems those grants seek to fix. Inscrutable layers of rules that might once have fulfilled the bureaucratic intent to provide oversight or combat corruption have increasingly served to tick donor boxes. Donors would better use their money through an examination of the assumptions related to risk, a more nuanced understanding of the capacities local organizations need to carry out their work and a commitment to support those organizations’ development. These assumptions about risk exacerbate inequality, further ingrain power dynamics and, ultimately, impede the work these funds are meant to enable in the first place. These assumptions perpetuate donors’ lack of understanding about the impact of local organizations’ work and their tendency to privilege “known” organizations (usually national or international-level organizations) when making funding decisions. Donors can better support local organizations to accurately assess their strengths and weaknesses, including accounting systems, security challenges and political posture. This could in turn assist the donor in committing resources to helping organizations address their weaknesses—which exist in every organization, no matter the country—and finding ways to plan for perceived risks to the funder’s work or reputation. Funders need to start turning towards a venture capital mentality. We know that the usual funding bureaucracy is not a good fit for innovating, particularly in complex operating environments. We need to reach beyond mechanisms like pooled funds that generally serve the needs of donors by pooling risk. A much more dynamic approach—which is part of what the Radical Flexibility Fund sets out to catalyze—is needed. If we apply the ethos of venture capitalism, for example, we would expect 30% of a funding portfolio to fall short of its goals. Instead of seeing that as a failure, we would see it as the natural consequence of pushing boundaries. This ethos is particularly well suited for private philanthropy, as such donors can more easily be the vanguard of innovative, bottom-up and democratic approaches to funding than can governments. Questions to consider Funders: - What are the assumptions underlying our funding? - Who is assuming the risk in the funded programs or interventions? What are the specific, perceived risks to the donor? To the funding recipient? - What are the recipient’s weaknesses or areas for growth? Who has determined these? - Do we have ways to help local organizations assess their strengths and weaknesses? - Do we have support mechanism and resources in place to bolster those that may need attention? - Do you have ways of assessing your own strengths and weaknesses? How do these affect your funding practices, and particularly may or may not strengthen partnerships with local organizations? Local Organisations: - Are you honest with funders about the organization’s needs, the realities of implementing any required assessment frameworks and the accomplishments their support can (and cannot) achieve? - How do you stay true to your mission? Can you learn to say no to funders and negotiate for better terms? Be accountable to local communities. Donors tend to think about accountability first in terms... Donors tend to think about accountability first in terms of the people who contribute the funds that they disburse—that is, taxpayers for government donors, trustees and boards of directors for private funders. In order to effectively and ethically support social change efforts, donors should also think of themselves as being accountable to the local communities they seek to assist. Money from outside the community or country can often corrupt or distort grassroots, mission-driven movements. The influx of development aid, which can flow in massive amounts in crisis-affected settings, can fundamentally change incentive structures, commodifying movements and introducing competition for resources that did not exist before. In the U.S., private philanthropy is accountable only to the Internal Revenue Service, meaning accountability is limited to whether tax laws were followed. In contrast, accountability to communities and partners is almost non-existent or certainly not uniform. Community-led financing can be a powerful antidote to the distortional effects of external resources. The inherent accountability among community members has been demonstrated by approaches such as the community savings and loan movement. Donors could also improve accountability by incorporating more regular internal evaluations of their assumptions (by asking, for example, “Did we help communities engage and solve their own problems? If not, why not?”), committing to community-led evaluation of impact and regular assessing international donors’ effects on a certain context. In 2020, the UN Peacebuilding Fund published a guide on “community-based monitoring and perception” that could help donors incorporate this type of regular assessment. Finally, donors could improve accountability by using different criteria for judging success. Boards, donors and governments are unlikely to surrender either the control they have over how and by whom their funding is used, or the associated need for reporting, but this focus on control and accountability could be redirected to more beneficial ends. When a donor that has adopted community-defined metrics to gauge project success requires reporting and accountability from a recipient organization, that accountability serves both the donor and the affected community. When the community has the power to identify the goals of an intervention, donors become charged with enforcing the rules and standards of the community rather than imposing their own standards. Questions to consider Funders: - Are the people directly affected by a particular issue regarded as experts in addressing it? If a grassroots issue is being addressed by an actor outside the local community, what are the assumptions behind this decision? What is the role of outside experts and external actors? - What type of processes do we have in place to listen to partners, local voices, and especially to those communities least heard to amplify their experiences, expertise and feedback to inform public discourse and decision-making? How do we hold ourselves accountable to these actions? - How might external actors exacerbate the problems we are trying to solve, or inhibit success? - Is our funding supporting the development and incorporation of evaluation indicators that capture the impact donors have on communities and whether a donor’s funding has increased a community’s capacity to articulate their own needs and achieve their own goals? - Do we conduct or commission research on whether the work we support is more effective when funded through locally led grantmaking or similar strategies involving community empowerment? Local Organisations: - Do you work with your donors to understand to whom they are accountable and how to support them, including providing information that helps in their own reporting needs to their decision makers? Do you help your donors make the case for you? - Do you have examples of whether funding has increased a community’s capacity to articulate their own needs and achieve their own goals? Develop and commit to longer-term funding strategies. Social transformation rarely happens in the one-, two-... Social transformation rarely happens in the one-, two- and five-year cycles used by donors. As one person in RFF’s research noted “Impact is often clearest at the generational level. The impact of the women’s rights movement around the world is very clear, we can talk about it in both a policy context—there are now 40 countries where domestic violence is illegal—and in our lived experience in our families in the ways our grandmothers’ lives are different than ours.” Local organizations need sustainable, long-term funding in order to work effectively. Some such funders exist. For example, the NoVo Foundation has committed to seven years of core support. Thousand Currents started with three years of support, realized this was insufficient, agreed to provide another three years and then increased this to ten. Photo Credit: Lauren Bradford Many funders have noted that despite decades of discussion about how such policies are the way forward, little has changed. Reasons for this include: inertia; deeply vested interests; the donor industrial complex that focuses on hard skills, projects, and measurable outcomes that need to be accomplished in certain time-frames; and the fact that interventions related to certain economic, social, cultural and political rights – such as freedom of expression or due process -- are often subject to the same expectations applied to agricultural development or water and sanitation issues, despite the vastly different processes and time horizons involved. Intangible goals, such as making more resilient those networks that are vulnerable to erosion in conflict settings, also take longer to achieve than the time usually allowed by donors Resolving grievances stemming from human rights abuses is another such intangible goal and is very important to ending conflicts. To achieve such goals, funders must either change their timelines or create strategies that can be funded in shorter time increments. Questions to consider Funders: - Do we commit to long-term funding support? If not, could we? - How could we develop a 10-year strategy with regard to social change objectives that could be funded in smaller increments, which may better match our funding cycle? - How has support to social change efforts aided (or failed to aid) progress over the long term, as in the women’s rights example above? How could a clearer understanding of the effect of such support over time inform donor strategies? Local Organisations: - Are you communicating realistic time horizons to funders? - Do you work according to long-term strategies that could be funded in smaller increments? Talk less, act more – Support Radical Flexibility Fund. If you have read this far, thank you for already... If you have read this far, thank you for already undertaking your first action. If you too are frustrated by a system that has thwarted the ability of those who best understand their challenges to resolve them, then let’s work together to change that system. Through these Radical Actions, we at the Radical Flexibility Fund have suggested ways in which you can act, allowing us together to change the status quo. We would love your support to help achieve that goal. Power lies in people and movements. Our role is to connect the currently scattered puzzle of people, organizations, networks and innovative approaches to funding local social change. We aim to make ourselves irrelevant by making these more sustainable approaches commonplace. In order to achieve that goal, we will facilitate connections between local organizations looking for new ways to resource their work; funders who seek to support those local organizations and know that in order to do so, they must invest in new funding approaches; and the financing, peacebuilding, humanitarian, development and social change experts who can develop those new approaches. Our goal is to use our tools and networks to bring together those best positioned to create and test new financing solutions—and to ensure that is done through a process driven by the organizations those resources serve. For now, these connections don’t exist. One of Radical Flexibility Fund’s essential purposes is to forge them. The Fund will work with stakeholders and clients to gather information about new funding approaches and “diagnose” how funders can improve their efforts; use that information to design and facilitate processes to effectively fund locally-led social change; and monitor and disseminate the learning and impact of these new approaches. Through Radical Flexibility we will demonstrate to other decision makers that it is possible to #ShiftThePower through new funding approaches to achieve true social change. As we close out the second decade of the 21st century and embark on the third, we are experiencing a reimagining of power, a reckoning with power, and a shifting in power. Funders, as holders of power, now find themselves in a world where perhaps the only way to survive is to responsibly tear down and reform the power structures that they helped build. One way to do this is by engaging with us at Radical Flexibility Fund. Be a part of the movement and join us as a thought partner and as a funder—lets invest in people, the real currency of social change. What radical actions do you think it would take to catalyze a donor movement?	https://www.radicalflexibility.org/10-radical-actions
Resilience is the ability to bounce back, and even bounce forward, in times of adversity. Individual attributes can be developed to strengthen one’s resilience, but a group of resilient individuals does not equate to a resilient organization. There are different factors at play once you consider resilience within a system of interrelatedness and interdependencies. As it turns out, it is the interrelations and interdependencies that matter most in building resilience. Within any organization, there are many forms of capital: economic capital, human capital, physical capital, and social capital. Social capital has been shown above any other form of capital to be critical in building resilience. Social capital refers to the resources embedded within one’s network. At your last strategic planning session or SWOT analysis, did you actually identify a pandemic as a likely threat to your organization? Or did you even consider that some other health epidemic could become a reality? Planning and anticipating will only get us so far. We need to learn how to be agile and pivot in challenging times. This is difficult on an individual level, but even more so on an organizational level. How, then, do you develop the ability to bounce back? The simple answer is that you build resilience. Organizational Bounce is a unifying framework to build organizational resilience against disruption and dysfunction. External threats to an organization, such as market shifts, technological advances, and competitive landscapes, are considered disruptors that can take down an organization that lacks resilience. Similarly, internal threats within an organization, typically related to dysfunctional dynamics, can also take down an organization that lacks resilience. Although we always want to plan for and anticipate threats, there are many times we are impacted by a threat that we had never considered. You’ve heard the saying, “it’s not what you know, but it’s who you know.” Well, that is true. Your connections, interactions, values, trust, leadership, and engagement are all related to social capital. Specifically, social capital is mobilized through three dynamics: (a) bonding; (b) bridging; and (c) linking. Bonding refers to the connections you have with those who are similar and with whom you are close. Within an organization, this would be the people who are on your team and closely situated to you. Bridging refers to the connections with those who are dissimilar from you, a heterogeneous group. This could be people who work in different departments and are diverse in terms of age, gender, income, and race. Lastly, linking refers to the people who can be supportive in hierarchical structures, the decision-makers and influencers who can link you to other resources and supports. In order to build social capital and strengthen the interrelationships, key levers that support connections, clarity, capacity, and commitment are crucial. We know that working in silos and not having team cohesion or organizational alignment can cause toxic environments with higher turnover and a loss of productivity. It is within this dynamic that an organization is most vulnerable to further disruptions and dysfunctions. Proactively building resilience (and managing the toxicity) through social capital offers the solution to achieve optimal organizational performance and profitability.	https://www.surpassyourgoals.com/2020/07/how-social-capital-builds-organizational-resilience/
Social capital—the trust, reciprocity and cooperation among members of a community who aim to achieve common goals—may help explain differences in teen pregnancy rates between states. Social capital has also recently been shown to affect child welfare, violent behavior, AIDS, diabetes and even the common cold. “Generally, the more social capital an area has, the better the public health outcome. As it relates to adolescent teen pregnancy, social capital measurement tends to capture the environment in which teens live, such as how many nonprofit organizations there are in a state and whether adults report heavy involvement in such organizations,” said David R. Holtgrave, PhD, study co-author and chair of the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health’s Department of Health, Behavior and Society. The study authors compared the levels of social capital, income inequality and poverty to state-level rates of pregnancy for 15-19-year-old girls in 28 states. They used previously developed social capital levels for each of the states, which were determined by surveying residents on fourteen variables, such as involvement in public affairs, volunteerism, informal sociability and social trust. The researchers also examined poverty and income inequality. Study co-author Richard A. Crosby, PhD., with the University of Kentucky, said, “In order to identify ways to reduce teen pregnancy, it is important to understand the social context in which unprotected sex occurs. Additional research is necessary in order to identify how to create social capital in communities and states with relatively low levels of such social connects.” “The protective value of social capital against teen pregnancy: a state-level analysis” was written by Richard A. Crosby, PhD, and David R. Holtgrave, PhD. The study was published in the May 2006 issue of the Journal of Adolescent Health.Public Affairs media contacts for the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health: Kenna Lowe or Tim Parsons at 410-955-6878 or [email protected].	https://www.jhsph.edu/news/stories/2006/holtgrave-social-capital.html
Resilience starts within the organisation. Through awareness comes better staff engagement, improved visioning, higher motivation and morale, as well as, greater focus and direction for developing culture. It is only by understanding and recognising the challenges ahead can move to a place of action and engagement. A resilient mindset is not only important for understanding the challenges ahead, it helps build better communication across teams and employees. 2. Robust and Resilient Financial Structures By establishing a baseline from which to envision the future, it is possible to re position assets and financial instruments before any significant headwinds take effect. Strategic capital allocation is crucial in being able to manage potential risk and vulnerabilities. By managing resources and capital accordingly, organisations and communities can allocate key resources and financial instruments to weather and thrive in the face of adversity. Through collaborative design, innovation and implementation, synergies in service delivery and infrastructure can be managed appropriately, helping ensure return on investment is maintained or maximised. 3. Increased Diversity Diversity breeds resilience and empowers people to make positive change. Diversity offers opportunity for greater innovation and adaptive capacity while reducing risks and strengthening community ties. A resilient community brings varied backgrounds and interests together. This mix of cultures, ideas, and perspectives helps solve problems and creates a platform for creating economically, environmentally and culturally diverse interactions and outcomes. 4. Positioning for Changes and Shocks It is far easier and less stressful to pre-empt potential disasters than to wait for crisis to occur. Once a crisis occurs it becomes more difficult to coordinate people and resources. It can be overwhelming to make sense of dramatic changes and shifts when access to resources, knowledge and infrastructure are limited. It is better to have strategic preparedness plan than to be caught off guard. 5. Enhanced Social Capital The power to envision the future as a collective by addressing challenges head on, leads to a greater level of resilience within communities. Only by taking responsibility for our own future can we respond in an empowered and intelligent way. Building networks and social structures helps improve social capital. This social capital is built by developing cooperation, reciprocity and trust among members of the community. 6. Creative Innovation Shifting the paradigm breeds innovation and diversity. When we accept the status quo we resign to mediocrity. However, when we are engaged and start questioning the current systems and models we start to explore new opportunities. By questioning the capacity of current systems and understanding their vulnerabilities we establish new opportunities and innovations to drive future long-term strategy. Through learning, exploration and development of new and innovative ways of doing things resilience can be fostered and developed. 7. Synergies and Solutions By examining the relationships and connections between the components that comprise a system, we can establish a broader understanding of what makes a system complete. By identifying dynamics of how variables interact with other components of the system we can develop synergies and solutions that suit organisations and/or regions. Taking a holistic perspective enables us to make socially, environmentally and economically rigorous decisions over the short, medium and long term. 8. More Efficient Allocation of Resources Building resilience helps reduce redundancy. By anticipating existential threats and potential risks we can identify potential opportunities. This enables us the time and space to redeploy resources and allocate capital, time and effort into appropriate projects and investments. Underutilised resources and assets can be reconfigured to maximise efficiency while inefficient and stranded assets can be either decommissioned or sold to reduce cost pressures. 9. Better Environmental Outcomes Our economy and way of life is a sub-set of the natural world. Our communities are completely reliant on the surrounding environment for their continued survival. It is far better to understand our connection, reliance and dependence upon the natural world than to disregard the warning signals nature gives when stressed. A resilient mindset and community manages ‘externalities’ and accounts for potential impacts which may affect ecosystems. Building resilient communities helps foster and deliver healthy environmental outcomes by working with, and integrating with natural systems. Increased biodiversity, better use of water, regenerative farming practices, and reduced erosion and carbon emissions help build ecosystems which thrive. 10. Increased Community Engagement Building resilience helps foster increased community engagement. Converging economic, environmental and social challenges are increasingly evident today. By engaging a cross section of community we can develop valuable links, networks and synergies. These networks will ultimately build a robust framework for handling shocks, disasters and potential challenges. The knowledge base of every community is diverse; hence it is crucial for these relationships to be developed and nurtured. It is only when community members take ownership and responsibility for their future can real change and progress be made.	https://rethinkenterprises.co.nz/articlesblog/resilience/10-benefits-of-building-resilience/
The first article of the concrete methodology for building social capital SEOUL, KOREA - K. Marx saw Capital as part of the surplus value, created through the processes of commodities production and exchange by establishing an exchange relation with low-skilled and interchangeable laborers and captured by capitalists or bourgeoisie, who are bestowed with resources (capital) to begin with and control production. But now laborers have become capitalists, not from a diffusion of the ownership of corporation stocks, but from the acquisition of knowledge and skills that have economic value. It means that capital is calculated as the added value to the laborers, not to labor or the commodity, and is seen as the investment or production of individual actors but as independent, atomized elements randomly located in society. There has been a clear shift from macro-level to micro-level capitalization. There appears Social Capital, the interplay between structure and action. We could define Capital as an investment of resources with expected returns in the marketplace, and in pursuit of a profit, as a goal in action. As mentioned in another column, Adam Smith said, "It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own interest." In addition, a human being as Homo Economicus is so "rational", that he seeks to attain very specific and predetermined goals to the greatest extent with the least possible cost which involves the hardship-avoiding predisposition of the moment. How can we overcome the predicament of the farmers The premise behind Social Capital is “investment in social relations with expected returns in the marketplace”. Why do embedded resources in social networks or relations enhance the outcomes of action There are four elements, that is, information, influence, social credentials and reinforcement. Firstly, the flow of information is facilitated. Such information would reduce the transaction cost for the organization to recruit better individuals and for individuals to find better organizations that can use their capital and provide appropriate rewards. Secondly, these social ties may exert influence on the agents, who are recruiters of supervisors of the organizations, and play a critical role in decisions involving the actor. Thirdly, social ties and their acknowledged relationships to the individual may be conceived by the organization or its agents as certifications of the individual’s social credentials, some of which reflect the individual’s accessibility to resources through social networks and relations. Lastly, social relations are expected to reinforce identity and recognition. Being assured of and recognized for one’s worthiness as an individual and a member of a social group sharing similar interests and resources not only provides emotional support but also public acknowledgement of one’s claim to certain resources. Is it possible that the profit is accrued for the group or the individuals The individuals access and use resources embedded in social networks to gain returns in instrumental actions, finding better jobs, or to preserve gains in expressive actions. Aggregation of individual returns benefits the collective. The group develops and more or less maintains the profit as a collective asset, which enhances group members’ life chance. Social Capital is investment in social relationships through which resources of other actors, embedded in social networks, can be accessed, used and borrowed by actors for actions.	http://www.koreaittimes.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=27931
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 4.0 License. Publication Date 2019 Keywords Centers and Organizations, 2019, Annual Report, International Campaign to Ban Landmines, Cluster Munition Coalition, ICBL-CMC Abstract In 2018, the International Campaign to Ban Landmines – Cluster Munition Coalition (ICBLCMC) encouraged the universalization and full implementation of the Mine Ban Treaty and Convention on Cluster Munitions, with a focus on three goals: - No more use of landmines or cluster munitions - A significant decrease in land contaminated by landmines and cluster munitions - Measurable progress in the quality of life for victims of mines and cluster munitions The ICBL-CMC’s unique advocacy value is rooted in contributions from a campaign network spanning over 100 countries, and operationalized through the Investing in Action program of support to national campaigns and the annual publication of the most comprehensive research data on landmines and cluster munitions – the Landmine and Cluster Munition Monitor reports. As we look back on 2019, we find ourselves immersed in a new operational reality and mindset that challenges the steady gains made by the mine action community, and the very well-being of key actors in that community including landmine and cluster munition survivors and those most vulnerable to the COVID-19 pandemic and other disasters. In this context, the work undertaken in 2019 takes on a special importance in that the progress made and action plans undertaken now offer us a solid ground from where to test new ways to conduct advocacy, to hold our meetings and discussions, to support communities affected by landmines and cluster munitions, and to ensure that the rights of survivors and persons with similar needs are protected. As the world confronts a challenge demanding the combined and coordinated multilateral efforts of numerous partners to ensure human security, the ICBL-CMC redoubles its commitment to achieving a world free of landmines and cluster munitions, through collective humanitarian efforts by civil society, states, intergovernmental institutions, and other experts. It is in this spirit that we worked in 2019 and will continue to do so throughout 2020 and beyond.	https://commons.lib.jmu.edu/cisr-globalcwd/1499/
This will be a decisive year for the campaign to achieve a comprehensive global ban on anti-personnel landmines. Almost 70 countries have joined an initiative spearheaded by Canada that is expected to culminate in the signing of a treaty in December. The Clinton Administration, however, has thrown its weight behind stalled negotiations in the United Nations Conference on Disarmament in Geneva. In this forum any agreement requires a consensus, and is therefore subject to veto by opponents of a ban. While the White House has not definitively rejected the Ottawa process, and the U.S. has sent a delegation to the most recent Ottawa process talks, the go-slow approach favored by most Pentagon officials still has the upper hand within the Administration. Administration officials say their preference for Geneva is justified because an agreement that does not include major producers of low-technology landmines notably Russia and China would have little effect on world production of landmines. In fact, the decision for the slow track also reflects substantial opposition from the U.S. military establishment to a comprehensive ban on anti-personnel landmines. In previous negotiations, U.S. officials have sought to exempt smart self-destructing landmines and have also argued for the continuing need to use landmines for defensive purposes in Korea. The White House, while expressing support for an eventual global ban, has in practice often deferred to the Pentagon and dragged its feet in international talks. The cost of delay will be high. Over 100 million of these deadly weapons are already in the ground, causing an estimated 25,000 civilian casualties each year. Low cost makes landmines a weapon of choice in new conflicts as well. It is estimated that for every mine cleared (at a cost of more than $300 each), twenty new ones are planted (at a cost of as little as $3 each). The momentum for comprehensive bans at global and regional levels is growing. Later this month Mozambique will host an international meeting of nongovernmental organizations engaged in the campaign, and there are proposals to declare Southern Africa a mine-free zone. There are already more countries committed to attending the Ottawa talks than the 61 countries registered at the disarmament conference in Geneva. But the Clinton Administration is unlikely to get on the bandwagon unless public pressure builds significantly. The entire world would benefit from a comprehensive ban. For Africa, which has several of the most mined countries in the world and is the scene of ongoing conflicts, the early achievement of a ban is particularly urgent. Rural People of Color Most Affected ----------------------------------- It is often noted that landmines do not discriminate between soldiers and civilians, or between children and adults. More than 80% of estimated casualties are civilians. In another sense, however, landmines do discriminate. Vulnerability to landmines is not random, but depends on who and where you are. The killed and maimed are predominantly poor people of color. Africa is the most heavily mined region in the world, followed by the Middle East, South Asia (mainly Afghanistan), and East Asia (mainly Cambodia and Vietnam). Post-Cold War conflicts--with the widespread use of landmines in the former Yugoslavia, for example--may modify the regional distribution somewhat. But new conflict zones in Africa also provide promising markets for sellers of landmines. The list of countries most victimized by landmines is headed by those that were Cold War battlefields in the 1980s. Angola and Mozambique, the most affected countries in Africa, suffered conflicts fueled by internal strife and by South African and superpower intervention. Within countries, the people most likely to encounter mines are the rural poor, especially peasant farmers and their children. The disruption of transportation and agricultural production hits hardest the economies of those countries with large rural populations and little industrial infrastructure. The Global Campaign ------------------- The International Campaign to Ban Landmines, a nongovernmental initiative which began in 1992, has gained strong momentum in only a few years. Consensus is growing around the world that these weapons should be outlawed, as chemical warfare was a generation ago. Studies such as Landmines: A Deadly Legacy (Human Rights Watch, 1993) and Hidden Killers: The Global Problem with Uncleared Landmines (U.S. Department of State, 1993) have documented the worldwide scope of the problem. The use of landmines in Bosnia has reminded the Western world that these weapons can kill people in Europe as well as in far-off Third World countries. Veterans groups and former high-ranking military officers have noted the limited military value of anti-personnel landmines in wars between armies. The International Committee of the Red Cross, notoriously reluctant to take sides in politically controversial issues, joined the call for a total ban in 1994 in light of the unique humanitarian danger landmines pose. A decade earlier, in 1983, an internationally negotiated Landmines Protocol imposed restrictions on the legal use of landmines in an effort to reduce harm to civilians. That convention has been totally ineffective. Since then, landmines have become cheaper, harder to detect, easier to disseminate, and more effective in killing and maiming. Military planners in late Cold War and post-Cold War conflicts have often explicitly targeted civilians and the civilian economy. They have found landmines to be effective weapons in damaging these targets. The result is not only increased civilia casualties, but also rapidly escalating costs for supplying humanitarian relief and reconstructing war-torn areas once peace is restored. According to some estimates, ridding the world of all existing mine fields would cost at least $33 billion and take more than 1,000 years. Forty-five countries, including the United States and South Africa, have already declared moratoria or permanent bans on landmine exports. In 1995 and 1996 international conferences in Vienna and Geneva reviewed the 1983 protocol, but failed to make progress toward a total ban on landmines. Instead, agreement was reached on limited new restrictions, such as requiring parties to keep maps of planted landmines and to use only smart mines built to self-destruct. Yet enforcing such restrictions would be far more difficult in practice than enforcing an unambiguous comprehensive ban. In October 1996 the Canadian government convened a conference in Ottawa bringing together 50 full participant countries and 24 observers to plan for adoption of a total ban by the end of 1997. The International Campaign, now consisting of more than 650 nongovernmental organizations in more than three dozen countries, is working to gain the support of as many governments as possible for a comprehensive ban. Landmines in Africa ------------------- According to the U.S. State Department's 1993 study, Africa is the most mined region in the world, with 18 million to 30 million mines laid in 18 countries. Of the 17 countries around the world most severely affected by landmines, seven are in Africa. By far the most seriously affected country is Angola, with estimates ranging from 9 million to as high as 20 million mines. Next is Mozambique, with more than a million, followed by four countries in the Horn of Africa (Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea and Sudan) with half a million to a million each. Every country in Southern Africa, with the exception of Lesotho and Mauritius, has had people killed or injured by landmines. The Great Lakes region, previously not significantly affected, now has more than 250,000 mines in Rwanda, and there are fears that the ongoing conflict in the region may lead to much wider use of landmines. Other areas with significant numbers of mines include the Western Sahara and Liberia. An estimated 70,000 Angolans have become amputees as a result of landmines, including both civilian and military victims. In Mozambique the National Mine Clearance Commission estimates that at least 40 people are killed by landmines each month. South Africa, with an existing landmine production capacity, announced in October 1996 that it supported a global landmine ban and would ban export of mines. Alhough veterans groups across the political spectrum in South Africa have called for a ban on production and stockpiling as well, the South African Defense Force has proved reluctant to take this additional step. South Africa has an estimated stockpile of about 300,000 anti-personnel landmines. The International Campaign to Ban Landmines, which held its annual conference last year in Cambodia, will hold this years meeting later this month in Maputo, Mozambique. The conference is being hosted by the Mozambican Campaign Against Landmines, which has 17 nongovernmental organizations as members, and is supported by parallel campaigns in other countries in the Southern African region. National movements, which have been established in Angola, Mozambique, South Africa, Zambia, and Zimbabwe, recently sent a joint letter to Southern African heads of state asking them to declare the region a mine-free zone, to adopt a permanent ban and to destroy all stockpiles. U.S. Bans Exports, But Not Use ------------------------------ The U.S. Congress, spear-headed in its efforts by Sen. Patrick Leahy (D-Vt.), has taken a leading role in advancing the cause of a total ban on landmines. The response of the Clinton Administration has been ambivalent. In a message to the United Nations in 1993, and most recently in January of this year, President Clinton has expressed verbal support for a global ban. The United States has adhered to a moratorium on the export of landmines since 1992, and the President announced in January that the export ban would become permanent. The United States has allocated almost $15 million a year for research on new demining technologies, and the budget to support demining operations in other countries has risen from $18 million in 1994 to $60 million in 1996. The U.S. government has been unwilling, however, to abandon its own use of landmines in Korea. Internal Pentagon studies show that a combination of alternative measures could replace the defensive use of landmines in Korea within the three-year phase-out period the Canadian treaty would allow. In international negotiations, nevertheless, the Administration has sought to find alternatives to an immediate ban, advocating more gradual measures that might result in a total ban by the year 2010. By opting for the Geneva slow track rather than the Ottawa fast track this year, the President is giving up an opportunity for quick progress toward a ban by the majority of the worlds countries. Instead, he is pegging advance on the issue to measures that will be acceptable to hold-out countries such as Russia and China. This negotiating course adopted by President Clinton, wrote Sen. Leahy in The New York Times (Jan. 19, 1997) risks delaying achievement of a real landmine ban well beyond his final four years in office. If the Geneva process does not show real progress by June, the Senator added, the United States should become an active participant in the Ottawa process. WHAT YOU CAN DO [Note to non-U.S. readers: This posting is provided both for your background information and for possible forwarding to those of your U.S. contacts you think would be interested.] 1. Contact The Administration -------------------------------- Write the White House and the State Department. Urge them to give wholehearted U.S. support to the Ottawa process aimed at achieving a total ban on anti-personnel landmines this year. Parallel slower negotiations should continue with countries still unwilling to give up landmine production and use. Send your letter to: Mr. Samuel Berger National Security Advisor The White House Washington, DC 20500 Fax: (202) 456-2883 Secretary of State Madeleine Albright U.S. Department of State Washington, DC 20520 Fax: (202) 647-6434 2. Contact Congress -------------------- Write to Sen. Patrick Leahy (D-Vt.), thanking him for his leadership in working for a total ban on landmines. Encourage him to continue his efforts and to push strongly for U.S. participation in the Ottawa process. Honorable Patrick Leahy 433 Russell Senate Office Building Washington, DC 20510 Fax: (202) 224-3595 E-mail: [email protected] Send copies of your letters (or separate messages) to: Honorable John Ashcroft Chair, Senate Africa Subcommittee 170 Russell Senate Office Building Washington, DC 20510 Honorable Edward Royce Chair, House Africa Subcommittee 1133 Longworth House Office Building Washington, DC 20515 Fax: (202) 226-0335 Honorable Maxine Waters Congressional Black Caucus 2344 Rayburn House Office Building U.S. House of Representatives Washington, DC 20515 Fax: (202) 225-7854 And of course, send copies to your own two Senators and to your House member. ************************************************************ For more information, or to submit an endorsement to the campaign, contact: US Campaign to Ban Landmines (Mary Wareham, Coordinator), Vietnam Veterans of America Foundation, 2001 S St, NW, Suite 740, Washington, DC 20009, Ph: +202-483-9222, Fax: +202-483-9312, E-mail: [email protected]. Much additional information is available on the International Campaign's web site at http://www.vvaf.org/landmine.html and on the UN's demining database (http://www.un.org/Depts/Landmine/index.html).	http://www.africa.upenn.edu/Urgent_Action/dc_21697.html
Formed by two French doctors in 1982 to help Cambodians seriously injured by landmines, Handicap International now provides crucial assistance to those disabled due to armed conflict, natural disasters, injury, disease and poverty. Presently working in over sixty countries worldwide, the organization has been responsible for a discernible shift in the way the humanitarian community, including donors, deals with a previously under-served constituency. Guided by a rights-based approach, Handicap International runs projects in six main areas: emergency relief, humanitarian de-mining and risk education, rehabilitation, prevention of disabling diseases, social inclusion and disability rights and discrimination. Eschewing a top-down model, the organization uses local resources to work with community partners, with whom it shares knowledge, builds systems to prevent disability, treats those in need and advocates for inclusive development. At the international level, Handicap International has been especially effective in raising awareness of critical issues facing the disabled and advocating for policies that address their specific needs. The organization was instrumental in the conclusion of the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and co-founded the International Campaign to Ban Landmines that led to the adoption of the Mine Ban Treaty.	https://olbios.org/the-story-of-two-french-doctors/
Every year from 8,000 to 10,000 children are victims of a mine. Many of them die, many others will always carry the memory of that day. Every year The International Campaign to Ban Landmines (ICBL) commemorates March 1, the day it entered into force on the Mine Ban Treaty and the April 4, International Day to raise awareness on the problem of landmines and support to the Mine Action issued by the United Nations. The Italian Campaign to Ban Landmines in partnership with You Able Onlus and Life Line Consultancy and Rehabilitation, Jordan association chaired by a victim of antipersonnel mine, are working together to support a workshop for prostheses to respond to the emergency represented by the large number of people with disabilities on the rise especially among Syrians refugees and Palestinians. “The realization of this project is our dream, as is the ability to dedicate it to a dear friend and supporter of the Campaign to Ban Landmines – Paola Biocca, disappeared November 12, 1999 “- says Giuseppe Schiavello director of the Italian Campaign to mine -” to be clear and avoid misunderstandings – it has not the aim to collect funds in her name, but dedicate a concrete solidarity project honoring her way of understanding and interpret the humanitarian efforts. I think I speak on behalf of those of us who knew her and appreciated her as a person and as a professional, stating that the best way to remember her is to take practical action and continue to fight for a better world always”. The Cartagena Action Plan (Action Plan 2010-2014), signed by 100 countries in December 2009 during the Second Review Conference of the Ottawa Convention for the banning of landmines held in Colombia, had emerged as a priority assistance the victims, and their socio-economic reintegration. “The International Campaign to Ban Landmines (ICBL) was officially launched in 1992 by six NGOs – Handicap International, Human Rights Watch, Vietnam Veterans of America Foundation, Physician for Human Rights, Mines Advisory Group and Medical International – involved in the field of human rights and humanitarian action. it was born on the basis of an appeal seeking the definitive banning of landmines, weapons of mass destruction, claiming the establishment of an ad hoc fund for demining and assistance to the victims and calls for the commitment of mine-producing countries in favor of the remediation of contaminated territories of the planet. Having promoted the Treaty for putting the anti-personnel mines, signed in Ottawa in December 1997, the International Campaign has been working strenuously to obtain the entry into force in March 1999. Today it calls for the universalization quickly. At the same time, he has developed a monitoring mechanism on the implementation of the Treaty by the member countries and the commitment of the international community against landmines, the Landmine Monitor Report. More than 120 researchers from around the world are engaged in compiling a comprehensive report on this mine. When it tells the story of a child victim of a mine it is not important to know which country it belongs. A child more than any other human being has the ability, through his eyes, to represent all the world’s children. The campaign will take place in 90 countries. Takes part in the Italian Campaign!	http://www.youable.org/campagne/?lang=en
4 April, 2013 - The Mine Action Support Group (MASG) is an informal grouping of 30 donor countries that have a shared vision to help countries that are affected by anti-personnel landmines, cluster munitions and other explosive remnants of war (ERW) to rid themselves of these scourges of war. It is estimated that over 80 states or areas in the world are affected by explosive devices left after conflict, and these indiscriminate devices cause thousands of civilian causalities each year. They also affect development by denying land for growing food or generating income, and for blocking roads and infrastructure developments. Landmines and explosive remnants of war also hinder efforts to improve health, education and poverty and thus prevent countries achieving the Millennium Development Goals. Each year on 4th April the MASG welcomes the International Day for Mine Awareness and Assistance in Mine Action. Mine action involves the physical removal of landmines from the ground, teaching people how to protect themselves from the threat of landmines, providing assistance for victims of mine accidents and advocating for a mine free world. Many members of the MASG are members of the Anti-Personnel Mine Ban Convention and the more recent Convention on Cluster Munitions. The MASG works closely with United Nations agencies, mine affected governments and non-governmental organizations by funding programs and projects that aim to clear landmines and explosives destroy stockpiles of banned weapons and to assist mine victims. In 2011, donor countries contributed over US$450 million for mine action in 57 states and areas. The main recipient countries were Afghanistan, Cambodia, Iraq, Sudan, Angola and Lebanon. Over the years significant progress has been made in reducing the threat from landmines and other ERW. To date, 19 previously contaminated countries have declared themselves free of landmines and clearance programs have been established in most others. The number of new landmine victims globally has dropped by about one third in the last decade. The MASG believes that through ongoing collective efforts these successes can continue and more affected countries can be assisted to complete the removal of landmines and ERW from their territory.	https://www.unmas.org/en/news/4-3-13_MASG-April4-State
We are a group of women and men, boys and girls from diverse cluster munitions and landmines affected communities. We know well what a "cluster munition" and a “landmine” means in reality, why their use must be prohibited and stockpiles destroyed, why the land should be cleared and how the victims should best be helped. We know all that because, together with other victims of cluster munitions, we have experienced the violence, exclusion and poverty caused by those indiscriminate weapons, remaining on our soil long after wars ended and threatening innocent civilians. We advocate for a ban on cluster munitions and antipersonnel landmines and for the full implementation of victim assistance obligations so to promote and ensure the respect of the rights of survivors and affected communities. We have been involved from the beginning of the “Oslo Process”, participating to the negotiations and most importantly, giving them a human face so to make sure the convention on cluster munitions would work on concretely improving the lives of people whose suffering has been caused by cluster munitions and we succeeded. Our fight has continued and grown over the years and we continue advocating for the universalization or the Oslo and the Ottawa treaties, for the full implementation of victim assistance obligations as well as for the promotion and respect of the rights of persons with disabilities, through the UNCRPD. Both internationally and in our respective countries, we aim at representing the voice of our fellows and we try hard, hand in hand with our networks and partners, to foster changes in policies so to make sure international obligations are respected and so to ensure the world we are living in becomes inclusive of persons with disabilities, including survivors. The Ban Advocates project has been initiated by Handicap International in 2007 and is supported by the Ministries of Foreign Affairs of Norway and Belgium.	https://www.handicapinternational.be/fr/banadvocates
- Conduct in-depth investigations of the facts surrounding the incident, - Provide medical treatment to the injured Lila Nepali and Naresh Pariyar and necessary assistance, - Conduct a detailed survey of the current status of landmines and explosives remnants of war (ERW). - Ensure that Nepali land is risk free from landmines and explosives and free any citizens and children from risk in the future. - Enter into a Mine Ban Treaty as soon as possible. Since its inception, the Landmine Ban Campaign Nepal has been advocating for a ban on the use, production, transportation and storage of landmines and explosives in Nepal and for Nepal to become a party to the Mine Ban Treaty.	https://naya.com.np/post/p1635070494gvr30
Home > Society > Issues > Warfare and Conflict > Weapons > Landmines This category is for issues around the use of landmines in the world, including sites concerning working for a global ban on landmines, and humanitarian demining and other work being done. http://www.apopo.org/ Non-profit organisation using detection rats technology to clear landmines and detect tuberculosis. Issues, their results, and FAQs. http://www.clearedground.org/ Not-for-profit NGO specialising in land mine clearing and demining solutions. Provide events, services, projects and contact information. http://www.guartel.com/ Design, develop and manufacture metal and mine detectors used extensively by the military and police forces. http://www.halotrust.org/ British organization specialising in the removal of the debris of war, such as mine clearing. http://www.horizon-demining.com/ An Indian NGO committed to Post Conflict Environment Management including demining. Provides activities, plans and contact information. http://www.howstuffworks.com/landmine.htm Provides a photographic tour of the different types of landmines, their basic operation and the techniques used to clear mine fields. http://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/cds/themes/landmines.html Directory of information on landmines. http://www.icbl.org/ Global network working for a ban on landmines and cluster munitions. Co-laureate of the 1997 Nobel Peace Prize. Provides campaign status, events, and current news. http://www.mineactionstandards.org/ Current UNMAS standards in force for all UN mine action operations. Resources, links and technical notes. http://www.the-monitor.org/ Civil society based reporting network for monitoring nations' compliance with the 1997 Mine Ban Treaty and other aspects of the global landmine crisis. Provides reports, database resources, fact sheets and contact information. http://www.icrc.org/eng/mines International Red Cross information on landmines. http://www.boes.org/coop/lmines/index.html Children's Rights Across the world campaign on landmines. Information about the Nobel Peace Prize and the ICBL Committee. http://www.maginternational.org/ MAG is a humanitarian organisation clearing the remnants of conflict for the benefit of communities worldwide. MAG is co-laureate of the 1997 Nobel Peace Prize. http://www.mgm.org/ Humanitarian Foundation of People Against Landmines. A German charity actively demining in Southern Africa and developing safe methods of area clearance. Provides news, MgM profiles, projects and resources. http://maic.jmu.edu/ Clearinghouse for information and resources regarding international humanitarian demining efforts and mine action issues. News. links and resources. http://www.rootsofpeace.org/ A non-profit organization aiming to remove landmines and return land to agriculture. Its first efforts have focused on exchanging mines for vines. Aims, achievements, history. http://www.uazone.net/partners/UCBL/ Provides information on campaign to ban landmines in Ukraine. http://www.mineaction.org/ Information gateway developed to support both the planning and coordination of global mine action efforts. Resources, projects, news awareness and contact information. http://www.banminesusa.org/ Affiliate of the International Campaign to Ban Landmines. Mission to urge the US President and congress to join the Mine Ban Treaty and to support legislation that promotes victim assistance and demining.	http://odp.org/Society/Issues/Warfare_and_Conflict/Weapons/Landmines
Founder, Campaign to Ban Landmines, and Nobel Laureate Jody Williams received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1997 for her work as founding coordinator of the International Campaign to Ban Landmines, which shared the Peace Prize with her that year. She’s an outspoken peace activist who struggles to reclaim the real meaning of peace — a concept that goes far beyond the absence of armed conflict and is defined by human security, not national security. Williams believes that working for peace requires dogged persistence and is not for the faint of heart. Since January of 2006, she has chaired the Nobel Women’s Initiative, which she took the lead in establishing along with her sister Nobel Dr. Shirin Ebadi of Iran. The Initiative uses the prestige of the Nobel Peace Prize and the influence and access of the women Nobel Laureates themselves to support and amplify the voices of women around the world working for sustainable peace with justice and equality. Williams continues to be recognized for her contributions to human rights and global security. She is the recipient of twenty-one honorary degrees, the Eleanor Roosevelt Val-Kill Medal, Phenomenal Women Award, Olaf Palme Award, among other recognitions. She holds the Sam and Cele Keeper Endowed Professorship in Peace and Social Justice at the Graduate College of Social Work at the University of Houston where she has been teaching since 2003. With her memoir, My Name is Jody Williams: A Vermont Girl’s Winding Path to the Nobel Peace Prize, released in 2013, she challenges “ordinary” people to be active agents of change.	https://octavianreport.com/contributor/jody-williams/

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