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Q:
Excel - Index/Match returns 0 for blanks, want to skip blanks
I have the below excel formula that takes input from sheet1, indexes and matches information on sheet2, and gives a sheet2 value on sheet1. Sorry if that is confusing. This works, but it seems to choose 0 when indexing column C on Sheet2 when it is blank. Instead, I would like to skip the blanks. Is this possible?
=IFERROR(INDEX(Sheet2!C2:C5000,MATCH(1,INDEX((Sheet2!G2:G5000=$J2)*(Sheet2!H2:H5000=$K2)*(Sheet2!A2:A5000=$E2)*(Sheet2!Y2:Y5000<=$A2)*(Sheet2!Z2:Z5000>=$A2)*(Sheet2!X2:X5000<=$B2)*(Sheet2!W2:W5000>=$B2)*(Sheet2!AA2:AA5000>=($C2/0.9)),),0)),"Does Not Exist")
A:
Nevermind, I figured it out. I updated the formula to have &Sheet2!G2:G5000<> and it works!
=IFERROR(INDEX(Sheet2!C2:C5000,MATCH(1,INDEX((Sheet2!G2:G5000=$J2&Sheet2!G2:G5000<>"")*(Sheet2!H2:H5000=$K2)*(Sheet2!A2:A5000=$E2)*(Sheet2!Y2:Y5000<=$A2)*(Sheet2!Z2:Z5000>=$A2)*(Sheet2!X2:X5000<=$B2)*(Sheet2!W2:W5000>=$B2)*(Sheet2!AA2:AA5000>=($C2/0.9)),),0)),"Does Not Exist")
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After the 8.5% increase approved by the Government of Spain, the average retirement pension will be 1,676.68 euros, the highest in the State. Taking all pensions into account, the average will be 1474.44 euros.
Euskaraz irakurri: EAEko erretiro pentsioak 131.36 euro igoko dira batez beste
Retired people from the Basque Autonomous Community will receive on average from the next payroll 1676.68 euros per month, 131.36 euros more that this year. After the 8.5% increase approved by the Council of Ministers on December 27 —calculated with inflation—, the recipients of this type of pension will receive 1,839 euros more per year, that is, “an extra monthly payment or fifteen monthly payments per year”, in the words of Denis Itxaso.
According to data from the Delegation of the Spanish Government in the CAV, the Basque pension will continue to be the highest in the State. The Spanish average is 1368 euros per month.
In 2023, the highest pensions will be in Bizkaia (1,710 euros), followed by Álava (1,693 euros) and Gipuzkoa (1,622 euros). Since 2018, pensions have been revalued by 308.57, and the highest increase is in 2023.
The rest of the pensions will also rise in the same proportion, except for non-contributory retirement and disability pensions and the IMV, which will do so by 15%.
The delegate of the Spanish Government has celebrated that the purchasing power of retired people can be maintained while the system’s accounts are strengthened. “The Government has adopted measures to protect and improve the quality of employment, such as the labor reform, which are improving the income of the system and advancing towards budgetary balance. More measures have also been adopted, such as the assumption by the Budget of the expenses that must not be financed by Social Security”, Itxaso said.
Source: Eitb
Ricardo is a renowned author and journalist, known for his exceptional writing on top-news stories. He currently works as a writer at the 247 News Agency, where he is known for his ability to deliver breaking news and insightful analysis on the most pressing issues of the day. | https://247newsagency.com/economy/125793.html |
Book A Daughter's Inheritance [MP3 AUDIO] by Tracie Peterson Fully free!
Free download for nook. I forgot to review this when I finished it a week or so ago, but I can say this: It was extremely frustrating thinking I would get some closure on the heroine's love story, and then not getting it. I know it is part of a trilogy, each of which focuses on one of a trio of female cousins. I figured each book would somewhat bring closure to the main character, but that was not so, at least for this first one. Also, it appears that the plotline of the scheming uncle trying to gain control and ownership of her inheritance continues on into subsequent books. It was already getting old and overdone by the end of this one. I liked aspects of this book, but overall, I do not recommend it, nor do I think I will seek to read the sequels. | http://304littlebluehouse.com/17482-book-tracie-peterson.html |
Inner self or Inner Life
As the tech companies are commoditising our behaviour, what does that mean for us as individuals and are we losing our inner life which is an essential which is central and a crucial part of our character?
"...We are acting out our personas on social media as we catalogue minute details of our lives and have become more performative, we are no longer paying attention to allow more inward thoughts......we are becoming much more open to manipulation......it is not a question of education, but more about finding the right balance and having the ability to think and be more mindful of what companies are trying to do with our attention..."
Sebastien Smee as quoted by Mark Eggleton 2019
This is linked with the phenomena of attention
"... Philosophers and poets have always talked about how the power of attention goes to the very heart of which it means to be human..."
Mark Eggleton 2019
"...Love is a phenomena of attention..."
Jose Ortega y Gasset as quoted by Mark Eggleton 2019
We need to understand more the impact of what this new technology is going to do.
"...our brains are changing around the quality of content we are engaging with and we need to better understand the source of that content and what the provider's aims might be. We need to look at our digital nutrition and be the masters, not the slave. Use our brain and be mindful, meaningful and moderate..."
Joycelyn Brewer as quoted by Mark Eggleton 2019
It is felt that we are becoming more
"...shallow, and able to be pushed around, that makes us vulnerable to authoritarianism in politics and to manipulation commercially..."
Joycelyn Brewer as quoted by Mark Eggleton 2019
Some ways to handle include
- remove work e-mails from your phone
- rethink how you engage with technology at work, ie too many distractions and reaching for devices unnecessarily
- be more selective in your use of technology
NB These tech companies are profit-making and aiming to make money out of you!!! | https://billsynnotandassociates.com.au/kb/1920-inner-self-or-inner-life.html |
Setting Recovery Targets for Southeast Ecosystems
Sustainable use of military land and water resources is essential to the Department of Defense’s (DoD) continuing ability to train and test military personnel and equipment while meeting its stewardship responsibilities. In 2007, SERDP and the DoD Legacy Resource Management Program sponsored a Workshop on Southeast Region Threatened, Endangered, and At-Risk Species. As a result of this workshop, SERDP issued a Statement of Need for Fiscal Year 2009 that focused on improving our understanding of how historical land use in the Southeast United States had altered ecosystems, how to determine appropriate reference conditions (or recovery targets) for upland and aquatics systems, and how to develop frameworks for assessing the status of extant ecosystems on DoD lands and waters. Years of prior agriculture, commercial forestry, and other land uses and the introductions of non-native invasive species (NIS) had altered these ecosystems to the point they could not be restored to pre-settlement conditions (even if that was desired). In the midst of listed species recovery requirements and a management objective to manage at-risk species so as to preclude future listings, a lack of appropriate target conditions for managing the ecosystems on which these species depended created significant challenges for DoD resource managers to manage these dynamic ecosystems to support both mission and stewardship needs.
As a result, SERDP funded three research projects in 2009 to develop ecological reference models and assessment frameworks for ecological recovery in the southeastern United States. These research projects in combination considered the various constraints on the region, such as land use, regional climate shifts, presence of NIS, and extirpations of native species. Key overall findings from the three projects highlighted below are that although in many instances ecosystems on DoD lands have been altered, they are in reasonable condition overall relative to their surroundings, appropriate use of prescribed fire has aided recovery, and in many cases the extant ecosystems have achievable recovery targets where they have deviated from appropriate reference conditions. The understanding generated by the three projects should assist managers in better understanding realizable and meaningful management endpoints that support ecosystem recovery.
Programs designed to promote the recovery of degraded ecosystems require well defined indicators to clearly show the process of recovery and approach to a desired end state. These end states are embodied in reference models that specify ecosystem characteristics under relatively undisturbed conditions. Led by Dr. Michael Paller of the Savannah River National Laboratory under SERDP project RC-1694, the project team developed reference models for blackwater streams on the southeastern coastal plain. The project team sampled the least disturbed streams remaining in the region, with a focus on fish and macroinvertebrate communities as well as on stream habitat conditions. The models provided the basis for assessment frameworks based on key biological and hydrogeological characteristics that can be used to monitor the ecological health of streams in the regions and assess their progress towards recovery.
Under SERDP project RC-1695, Dr. John Orrock from the University of Wisconsin led a team that developed a set of guidelines to assist recovery of understory plant communities in longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) forests of the southeastern United States. These ecosystems support some of the most diverse plant communities in the world, but are widely degraded by factors such as past agricultural land use, reduced fire frequency, and non-ecologically based timber management. To guide recovery this research team combined large-scale surveys of intact and degraded longleaf pine forests with field experiments on DoD and Department of Energy sites in Georgia, North Carolina, and South Carolina. This approach enabled the team to quantify the impacts of various degrading factors, develop a model to guide recovery decision-making, and test the efficacy of particular management techniques for recovery of these communities across the Southeast.
Measuring success of recovery of ecosystems in response to management requires identification of target benchmark conditions. Too often such targets are themselves rare on the landscape and are seen as a static benchmark for recovery. SERDP project RC-1696 was led by Dr. Bob Mitchell from the Joseph W. Jones Ecological Research Center (JWJERC) and then by Dr. Kay Kirkman from JWJERC and Mr. J. Kevin Hiers from Sewanee: The University of the South after the passing of Dr. Mitchell. The project team presents a new conceptualization of measuring success in ecosystem management and recovery based on the temporal and spatial dynamics of reference conditions to document a fuller understanding of the range of variation that defines success. This "dynamic reference concept" offers a critical and quantitative tool to managers in defining the "possible" targets of recovery in light of rapid ecological changes and climate uncertainty. The project linked this dynamism to long-term ecological dynamics of longleaf pine forests at Eglin Air Force Base in Florida, and it demonstrated the practical application to recovery over 15 years of ecological response to hardwood removal treatments. Furthermore, the findings were incorporated into linked models of habitat and population dynamics of the endangered red-cockaded woodpecker (Picoides borealis).
For more information on these projects, including to view their Final Reports, visit SERDP and ESTCP’s Natural Resources web page. | https://serdp-estcp.org/News-and-Events/Blog/Setting-Recovery-Targets-for-Southeast-Ecosystems |
What is dementia?
Dementia is not a specific disease.
- It is a general term for a decline in mental ability severe enough to interfere with daily life.
- Diagnosis is made if two or more brain functions such as memory and language skills are significantly impaired without loss of consciousness.
Symptoms
- Dementia is the loss of mental functions involving thinking, memory, reasoning, and language to such an extent that it interferes with a person’s daily living.
- Dementia is a group of symptoms that can include:
- Language disturbances (e.g., aphasia, dysphasia, anomia)
- Problematic behaviors (e.g., repetitive questioning, wandering)
- Difficulties with activities of daily living (e.g., dressing, personal hygiene)
- Personality disorders (e.g., disengagement, aggressive behaviors)
Who can diagnose dementia?
- A complete medical workup by a physician is necessary to rule out other causes of cognitive impairment and diagnose dementia.
- A primary care doctor may refer an individual to a physician who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of Alzheimer’s disease and related dementias.
Specialists include:
- Neurologists, who specialize in diseases of the brain and nervous system
- Psychiatrists, who specialize in disorders that affect mood or the way the mind works
- Psychologists with special training in testing memory and other mental functions
- Speech language pathologists cannot diagnose dementia, however, they do play a central role in the screening, assessment, and treatment of individuals with dementia.
Treatment
An SLP plays a central role in the screening, assessment, diagnosis, and treatment of persons with dementia. SLPs manage the cognitive, communication, and swallowing deficits associated with dementia. An SLP can help the person with dementia use strategies to preserve communication and cognitive functioning for as long as possible. If the individual has swallowing problems, the SLP can work with the patient to ensure safe swallowing. This may include teaching compensatory strategies such as a chin-tuck posture or altering the person’s diet so that he or she can eat without risk of choking or illness.
Strategies to preserve communication and cognitive functioning include:
- Using written cues for completing tasks or to assist memory recall.
- Developing “memory books” to help recall personal information.
- Training family members or caregivers in how to communicate better with the person with dementia.
- To ensure safe swallowing, the SLP may teach compensatory strategies or altering the patient’s diet.
- The ultimate goal of any intervention is to preserve the patient’s quality of life.
- Be sure to make your goals meaningful to your patient by matching their abilities and drive success. | https://www.lispeech.com/dementia-3/ |
Confidence is a professional attribute linked to clinical judgment and decision making, promotes patient safety, and positively impacts patient outcomes (Lundberg, 2008; White, 2009; Blum et al., 2010). Educators are challenged by how best to support the development of self-confidence among novice nursing students. Students enter programs with various levels of self-confidence. Educators play a key role early in the nursing curriculum by creating meaningful active learning opportunities to support the development of confidence among novice students. When students experience repeated successes, their confidence builds resulting in student achievement of learning outcomes and program outcomes (Bulfone et al., 2016; Lundberg, 2008; White, 2009).
This prospective, quasi-experimental pilot study used a convenience sample to compare role-play (RP) and a newly integrated individual high-fidelity simulation (HFS) to determine the impact on the development of confidence among beginning associate degree nursing students preparing for their first patient care experience (Carter, 2020).
Grounding
The use of simulation provides rich experiential learning in a safe, realistic, and controlled environment, and has been shown to provide meaningful learning similar to the traditional clinical experience (Hayden et al., 2014; Jarvill et al., 2017; Jeffries, 2016). When introduced early in the curriculum, confidence levels can be enhanced (Kimhi et al., 2016). A gap in the literature exists in determining which confidence-building teaching strategy, RP or HFS, best enhances a novice nursing student’s confidence.
Bandura’s (1994) theory of self-efficacy supports the use of simulation in that opportunities for achieving repeated success when performing skills, observing others perform skills, receiving positive feedback, time for deliberate practice, and experiencing positive emotions during skill performance all impact the development of self-confidence.
Approach/Methods
A pre-test/post-test survey design was used to measure the perceived levels of self-confidence when performing a physical assessment. The convenience sample was assigned according to their clinical day to complete either the historically used RP simulation or a newly designed individual HFS during orientation day. Using Grundy’s (1993) Confidence Scale, a 5-point Likert scale, students were asked to answer five questions to rate how confident they felt in completing the physical assessment before the simulation activity. Students received debriefing after their simulation and opportunities to continue practicing the physical assessment skill. One week later, students completed the Confidence Scale prior to performing a physical assessment on their first assigned clinical patient.
Discussion/Lessons Learned
An independent samples t-test (p = .11) showed no statistically significant difference in post-intervention levels of total self-confidence between the RP and HFS groups (Carter, 2020). However, a paired samples t-test within groups revealed statistically significant changes in total levels of confidence from Time 1 (M =18.4, SD =2.70) to Time 2 (M = 20.3, SD = 2.30), t(15) = -3.50, p = .003 (two-tailed) in the RP group. These findings indicate the perceived level of confidence grew from moderate to high in the RP group. The HFS group maintained moderate levels of self-confidence.
Literature heavily recognizes HFS as a best practice. However, HFS is quite costly in terms of both time and financial investment in space, staffing, and equipment. This study positively affirmed that RP as a teaching/learning strategy supports a novice students’ development of confidence.
The results also echo the literature’s suggestion that introducing RP to novice students who lack knowledge, context, or experience may be more impactful in enhancing confidence whereas HFS can be integrated as students progress within the program (Goodstone et al., 2013; Thomas & Mackey, 2012).
Lessons learned from this study reiterate what has been supported in literature: deliberate practice, regardless of the type of simulation, is key in the mastery of skill and development of confidence (Jeffries et al., 2018). Educators play an essential role in supporting students’ success by creating meaningful learning opportunities, and both program outcomes and patient safety may also positively be impacted. Further investigation utilizing novice baccalaureate nursing students should be explored.
References
Bandura, A. (1994). Self-efficacy. In V. S. Ramachaudran (Ed.), Encyclopedia of human behavior (Vol. 4, pp. 71-81). Academic Press. (Reprinted in H. Friedman [Ed.], Encyclopedia of mental health. Academic Press, 1998).
Blum, C., Borglund, S., & Parcells, D. (2010). High-fidelity nursing simulation: Impact on student self-confidence and clinical competence. International Journal of Nursing Education Scholarship, 7(1), 1-14. doi:10.2202/1548-923X.2035
Bulfone, G., Fida, R., Ghezzi, V., Macale, L., Sili, A., Alvaro, R., & Paleses, A. (2016). Nursing student self-efficacy in psychomotor skills: Findings from a validation, longitudinal, and correlational study. Nurse Educator, 41(6), E1-E6. doi:10.1097/NNE.0000000000000285
Carter, A. N. (2020). Comparing Teaching Strategies Utilized to Enhance Self-Confidence Among Novice Nursing Students. Virginia Henderson Global Nursing e-Repository. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/10755/20652
Goodstone, L., Goodstone, M., Cino, K., Glaser, C., Kupferman, K., & Dember-Neal, T. (2013). Effect of simulation on the development of critical thinking in associate degree nursing students. Nursing Education Perspectives, 34(3), 159-162. https://doi.org/10.5480/1536-5026-34.3.159
Grundy, S. E. (1993). The Confidence Scale: Development and psychometric characteristics. Nurse Educator, 18(1), 6-9. https://doi.org/10.1097/00006223-199301000-00004
Hayden, J., Smiley, R., Alexander, M., Kardon-Edgren, S., & Jeffries, P. (2014). The NCSBN National Simulation Study: A longitudinal, randomized, controlled study replacing clinical hours with simulation in prelicensure nursing education. Journal of Nursing Regulation, 5(2), S3-S64. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2155-8256(15)30062-4
Jarvill, M., Jenkins, S., Jacobs, P., Schafer, K., & Pohl, C. (2017). Integration of an individual simulation-based experience into a psychomotor skills course. Nurse Educator, 43(3), 117-120. https://doi.org/10.1097/NNE.0000000000000446
Jeffries, P. R. (Ed.). (2016). The NLN Jeffries simulation theory. Wolters Kluwer.
Jeffries, P. R., Dreifuerst, K. T., & Haerling, K. A. (2018). Clinical simulations in nursing education: Overview, essentials, and the evidence. In M. H. Oermann, J. C. De Gagne, & B. C. Phillips (Eds.), Teaching in nursing and role of the educator (2nd ed., pp. 113-133). Springer Publishing Company. | https://soar.usi.edu/handle/20.500.12419/630 |
Last updated on January 3rd, 2022 at 03:19 pm
In the supermarket, there are many fruits and vegetables grown using either conventional or organic methods.
Conventionally grown produce are generally cheaper than organic options so it is more appealing to consumers.
However, organic options for some produce should be considered as high levels of pesticides are present for conventionally grown options.
Below is a list published by the Environmental Working Group (EWG), which is a non-profit research organisation, seeking to educate consumers in the correct selection and spending on produce by compiling two lists updated annually: Dirty Dozen™ and Clean Fifteen™.
Buying the correct produce is important, another consideration will be to buy green household products as well to help enjoy savings in both finance and the environment.
For produce in the Dirty Dozen™ list, the organic options should be selected. Test results from U.S. Department of Agriculture and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) have shown that conventionally grown options for these produce contain consistently high levels of pesticides. Hence, it will be safer and healthier if organically grown options are selected.
List of produce in the Dirty Dozen™ includes:
Fruits
- Peaches
- Apples
- Bell and hot Peppers
- Grapes
- Pears
- Nectarines
- Cherries
- Strawberries
Vegetables
- Lettuce
- Celery
- Spinach
- Potatoes
Whereas, the Clean Fifteen™ list contains produce with the least levels of pesticides even for conventionally grown options.
List of produce in Clean Fifteen™ includes: | https://www.greenenergyhelps.com/12-fruits-and-vegetables-that-you-should-buy-organic/ |
Guy Mannings Art Room is an informal gallery and painting room housed in an old stables in Tenby’s historic centre. Displaying and selling Guy’s paintings, prints, and cards the gallery welcomes buyers, browsers, children, dogs and wellies. Art classes, a small range of art materials, a book nook, and a friendly welcome are also here.
CLASSES
I was an art teacher in a couple of local schools for about 15 years, and I still enjoy helping people (of all levels and ages) to improve their skills where I can. Depending upon the time of year there are informal classes available at Guy Manning Art Room, including a Junior Academy (please phone or email for details).
Our dog (WJ) and his equally gifted friends are featured in profoundly intellectual ink drawings. These adventures feature online plus in the Tenby Observer and Y Carddi Bach newspapers.
About Guy Manning
Guy lives and works in Coppet Hall, in the beautiful county of Pembrokeshire, in west Wales. He is a renowned and highly respected artist. In August 2017 he completed his year-long Postcards from Pembrokeshire daily painting project
His numerous exhibitions in the UK, France, Germany and New York have been extremely popular, and his work is held in public and private collections across the world. | https://aroundtenby.co.uk/listing/guy-mannings-art-room/ |
2000 NGN per hour
Queenet E.
id: 2491
Lessons may take place
At students’ place:
At tutors' place:
Online:
Education
Education:
University of Lagos
Degree:
B.Sc Computer Science
Graduation year:
2017
Teaching levels
Tutor for children For beginners Basic level GSCE
About me
I am a proficient Mathematics teacher, I can also teach web design (html, css, php, mysql) and Basic programming.
Classes schedule
8:00
9:00
10:00
11:00
12:00
13:00
14:00
15:00
16:00
17:00
18:00
19:00
20:00
21:00
MondayMon
TuesdayTue
WednesdayWed
ThursdayThu
FridayFri
SaturdaySat
SundaySun
- possible time for classes
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Queenet E. is an experienced tutor, and has helped many students less than 1 year. Tutor lives in Lagos and does tutoring in following subject: | https://upskillstutor.com.ng/user-2491/ |
TECHNICAL FIELD
The present invention relates to an apparatus, a method and a computer program for consuming 2D visual content related to volumetric audio content.
BACKGROUND
2D visual content can be generated by mobile devices equipped with cameras and microphones. The generated 2D visual content can be consumed, e.g .viewed, on the same mobile device it is generated and/or the 2D visual content can be shared for consumption on another device such as another mobile device.
Volumetric video and audio data represent a three-dimensional scene with spatial audio, which can be used as input for virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR) and mixed reality (MR) applications. The user of the application can move around in the blend of physical and digital content, and digital content presentation is modified according to user's position and orientation. Most of the current applications operate in three degrees-of-freedom (3DoF), which means that head rotation in three axes yaw/pitch/roll can be taken into account. However, the development of VR/AR/MR applications is eventually leading to 6DoF volumetric virtual reality, where the user is able to freely move in a Euclidean space (x, y, z) and rotate his/her head (yaw, pitch, roll). 6DoF audio content provides rich and immersive experience of the audio scene.
6DoF audio content can be consumed in conjunction with 2D visual content. If a visual scene provided by the 2D visual content and an audio scene provided by the 6DoF audio content are not aligned, audio sources can be heard by the user from different directions compared with directions, where the user can see visual counterparts of the audio sources.
SUMMARY
The scope of protection sought for various embodiments of the invention is set out by the independent claims. The embodiments, examples and features, if any, described in this specification that do not fall under the scope of the independent claims are to be interpreted as examples useful for understanding various embodiments of the invention.
According to a first aspect, there is provided a method comprising, determining at least one object of interest of two-dimensional, 2D, visual content related to an audio source of volumetric audio content;
aligning a spatial position and orientation of the at least one object of interest with a spatial position and orientation of the related audio source in a presentation volume;
rendering the 2D visual content and the volumetric audio content on the basis of the aligned spatial position and orientations of the at least one object of interest and the related audio source.
According to a second aspect there is provided an apparatus comprising, means for determining at least one object of interest of two-dimensional, 2D, visual content related to an audio source of volumetric audio content;
means for aligning a spatial position and orientation of the at least one object of interest with a spatial position and orientation of the related audio source in a presentation volume; and
means for rendering the 2D visual content and the volumetric audio content on the basis of the aligned spatial position and orientations of the at least one object of interest and the related audio source.
According to a third aspect there is provided a computer program comprising computer readable program code means adapted to perform at least the following: determining at least one object of interest of two-dimensional, 2D, visual content related to an audio source of volumetric audio content;
aligning a spatial position and orientation of the at least one object of interest with a spatial position and orientation of the related audio source in a presentation volume;
rendering the 2D visual content and the volumetric audio content on the basis of the aligned spatial position and orientations of the at least one object of interest and the related audio source.
determine at least one object of interest of two-dimensional, 2D, visual content related to an audio source of volumetric audio content;
align a spatial position and orientation of the at least one object of interest with a spatial position and orientation of the related audio source in a presentation volume;
render the 2D visual content and the volumetric audio content on the basis of the aligned spatial position and orientations of the at least one object of interest and the related audio source.
According to a fourth aspect, there is provided an apparatus comprising at least one processor; and at least one memory including computer program code; the at least one memory and the computer program code configured to, with the at least one processor, cause the apparatus at least to:
According to a fifth aspect, there is provided a computer program according to an aspect embodied on a computer readable medium.
According to a sixth aspect, there is provided a non-transitory computer readable medium comprising program instructions stored thereon for performing at least the following: determining at least one object of interest of two-dimensional, 2D, visual content related to an audio source of volumetric audio content; aligning a spatial position and orientation of the at least one object of interest with a spatial position and orientation of the related audio source in a presentation volume; rendering the 2D visual content and the volumetric audio content on the basis of the aligned spatial position and orientations of the at least one object of interest and the related audio source.
obtaining information indicating spatial positions and orientations of one or more visual objects of the 2D visual content and related audio sources of the volumetric audio content; and aligning the spatial position and orientation of the at least one object of interest with the spatial position and orientation of the related audio source in the presentation volume on the basis of the obtained information
wherein the information indicating spatial position and orientation is included in metadata of at least one of the 2D visual content and the volumetric audio content
a user input; or
metadata associated with the 2D visual content
determining the at least one object of interest of the 2D visual content on the basis of:
in response to determining a misalignment of the at least one object of interest with the related audio source, re-aligning the spatial position and orientation of the at least one object of interest with the spatial position and orientation of the related audio source
adapting a visual zoom of the 2D visual content in the presentation volume;
moving a visual rendering plane of the 2D visual content in the presentation volume; and
adapting orientation of the 2D visual content in the presentation volume
wherein the re-aligning comprises at least one of:
obtaining information indicating a permissible zooming of the 2D visual content; zooming the 2D visual content within the indicated permissible zooming for aligning the at least one object of interest with the related audio source
determining an initial position of the 2D visual content in the presentation volume; and
in response to a user input indicating a subsequent position of the 2D visual content, re-aligning the spatial position and orientation of the at least one object of interest with the spatial position and orientation of the related audio source in the presentation volume, and rendering the 2D visual content and the volumetric audio content using the re-aligned spatial position and orientation.
modifying the volumetric audio content for reducing depth differences between audio sources; and
rendering the 2D visual content and the volumetric audio content using the modified volumetric audio content
wherein the 2D visual content is positioned as world locked content in the presentation volume.
According to one or more further aspects, embodiments according to the first, second, third, fourth, fifth and sixth aspect comprise one or more features of:
Apparatuses according to some embodiments comprise at least one processor and at least one memory, said at least one memory stored with code thereon, which when executed by said at least one processor, causes the apparatus to perform the above methods.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
DETAILED DESCRIPTON OF SOME EXAMPLE EMBODIMENTS
Fig. 1
illustrates an example of an application supporting consumption of volumetric audio content associated with 2D visual content, in accordance with at least some embodiments of the present invention;
Figs. 2
3
and that illustrate examples of 2D visual content and related volumetric audio content rendered in a presentation volume in accordance with at least some embodiments of the present invention;
Fig. 4
5
6
, and illustrate examples of spatial positions and orientations of 2D visual content related to volumetric audio content in accordance with at least some embodiments of the present invention;
Fig. 7
illustrates determining a spatial position and orientation of 2D visual content in a presentation volume on the basis of user input in accordance with at least some embodiments of the present invention;
Fig. 8
illustrates an example of a method in accordance with at least some embodiments of the present invention;
Fig. 9
an example of a method in accordance with at least some embodiments of the present invention;
Fig. 10
illustrates an example of a method for maintaining alignment of 2D visual content and volumetric audio in an audio-visual scene in accordance with at least some embodiments of the present invention;
Fig. 11
illustrates an example of a method for controlling zooming of 2D visual content in accordance with at least some embodiments of the present invention;
Fig. 12
illustrates an example of a method for controlling a need for changing a resolution of 2D visual content in accordance with at least some embodiments of the present invention;
Fig. 13
illustrates an example of a method for rendering volumetric audio in conjunction with visual content for playback of an audio-visual scene in a presentation volume, in accordance with at least some embodiments of the invention;
Fig. 14
shows a system for capturing, encoding, decoding, reconstructing and viewing a three-dimensional scheme, that is, for visual content and 3D audio digital creation and playback in accordance with at least some embodiments of the present invention;
Fig. 15
depicts example devices for implementing various embodiments;
Fig. 16
shows schematically an electronic device employing embodiments of the invention;
Fig. 17
shows schematically a user equipment suitable for employing embodiments of the invention; and
Fig. 18
shows an example of a system within which embodiments of the present invention can be utilized.
For a more complete understanding of example embodiments of the present invention, reference is now made to the following descriptions taken in connection with the accompanying drawings in which
In the following, several embodiments will be described in the context of rendering volumetric audio content associated with two-dimensional, 2D, visual content. It is to be noted, however, that while some of the embodiments are described relating to certain coding technologies, the invention is not limited to any specific volumetric audio or visual content technology or standard. In fact, the different embodiments have applications in any environment where volumetric audio may be consumed in conjunction with associated 2D visual content. Thus, applications including but not limited to general computer gaming, virtual reality, or other applications of digital virtual acoustics can benefit from the use of the embodiments.
In connection with two-dimensional, 2D, visual content related to an audio source of volumetric audio content, there is provided determining at least one object of interest of the 2D visual content. Spatial position and orientation of the at least one object of interest is aligned with a spatial position and orientation of the related audio source in a presentation volume. The 2D visual content and the volumetric audio content are rendered on the basis of the aligned spatial position and orientations of the at least one object of interest and the related audio source. In this way, a user may experience the object of interest and related audio source from a uniform direction.
A presentation volume may be defined as a closed region in a volumetric scene, within which a user may be able to move and view the scene content with full immersion and with all physical aspects of the scene accurately represented. Defining a presentation volume in a volumetric presentation may be useful in (limited) 6 DoF environment where the presentation volume, from where the content can be immersively consumed, may need to be restricted and decided beforehand.
The scene content may comprise 2D visual content and related volumetric audio content. The 2D visual content may be rendered for playback of a visual scene on the basis of the rendered 2D visual content. The volumetric audio content may be rendered for playback of an audio scene on the basis of the rendered volumetric audio content. Both 2D visual content and related volumetric audio content may be rendered for playback of an audio-visual scene in a presentation volume.
An example of the presentation volume is a single contained closed volumetric area or region, multiple disjoint closed regions of presentation locations, or multiple volumetric areas or regions combined together. Presentation volume representation may be useful in MPEG-I activities e.g. 3DoF+ and upcoming 6DoF areas.
The presentation volume may be of any size, very small or very large area. Often the presentation volume might only have valid locations for consuming volumetric content in some parts of the volumetric scene. Overall, the shape of the viewing volume can be very complicated in a large 6 DoF scene.
Examples of two-dimensional, 2D, visual content comprise images and video that are rendered on a 2D plane for presentation to a user. The 2D visual content may be digital content coded in a content format. Examples of the content formats comprise at least computer-readable image file formats and computer-readable video file formats.
Fig. 1
illustrates an example of an application supporting consumption of volumetric audio content associated with 2D visual content. Functionalities of the application are illustrated in views A, B and C of the application, when the application is used by a user. The application may be a gallery application for presenting the user a plurality of media items, M1,M2,M3,M4 102 for selection by the user. The gallery application may be displayed to the user on a user interface that also supports receiving input from the user.
In the view A, the media items are displayed in the gallery application for selection by the user. The media items may comprise 2D visual content and related volumetric audio content. Accordingly, by selecting one of the media items, the user may choose which of the 2D visual content and associated volumetric audio content he/she would like to consume.
In the view B, a user input 104, received by the gallery application for selecting a media item M2 is illustrated. In an example, the user may touch, e.g. long press, an area representing the media item M2 for selecting 2D visual content and related volumetric audio content. Other media items may be selected in a similar manner by the user.
In the view C, playback 106 of the selected 2D visual content and associated volumetric audio content in response to the selection of the media item in view B is illustrated. The playback comprises presenting the user an audio-visual scene formed by rendering the selected 2D visual content and related volumetric audio content in a presentation volume.
Figs. 2
3
Fig. 1
It is referred to and that illustrate examples of 2D visual content and related volumetric audio content rendered in a presentation volume 202 in accordance with at least some embodiments of the present invention. The 2D visual content and related volumetric audio content rendered may be rendered in response to a user 204 selecting a media item 206 from an application 208 supporting consumption of volumetric audio content associated with 2D visual content, in accordance with .
In an embodiment, the 2D visual content is rendered as world locked content in the presentation volume 202. In this way the 2D visual content may be positioned at a suitable distance from the user 204 in the presentation volume. The world locked 2D visual content should be understood to be positioned at a specific location within the presentation volume. It should be appreciated that the location of the world locked 2D visual content may be adapted to take into account a movement of the user or a change of the object of interest, OOI. In an example, adapting the location of the 2D visual content may comprise adapting a position and/or orientation of the 2D visual content. In an example, the world lock may be achieved by using an Augmented Reality, AR, tracking enabler such as AR Toolkit or AR core.
In accordance with at least some embodiments, the 2D visual content may comprise one or more visual objects, 1', 2',3', that may have one or more related audio sources, 1, 2, 3, in the volumetric audio content. At least one of the visual objects may be determined as the object of interest, OOI, 210 for aligning the 2D visual content and the volumetric audio content. Rendering the aligned 2D visual content and the volumetric audio content facilitates the user 204 to experience the object of interest and related audio source from a uniform direction.
According to an embodiment, an object of interest 210 of the 2D visual content is determined on the basis of a user input or metadata associated with the 2D visual content.
In an example, the 2D visual content may be world locked content that is displayed by a user device 212 on a viewfinder 218 of the user device. On the other hand the user device may be HMD or connected to HMD and the 2D visual content may be displayed by the HMD in see-through mode. The user may select one of the visual objects, 1',2',3' of the 2D visual content as the object of interest 210 by pointing on the visual object, for example by a touch operation or by a pointing device. The 2D visual content may be associated with metadata that comprises information identifying one or more visual objects in a visual scene rendered based on the 2D visual content, whereby the metadata may be used to determine the visual object selected by the user. In an example, the object of interest may be determined on the basis of the metadata associated with the 2D visual content, without necessarily any user input for indicating the object of interest. The metadata may comprise information identifying one or more visual objects of the 2D visual content and one of the identified visual objects in the metadata may be associated with information indicating the visual object as an object of interest.
The user may move from his initial position 214 in the presentation volume to another position 216. Movement of the user may cause a misalignment of the object of interest and related audio source, whereby the spatial position and orientation of the object of interest and the elated audio source need to be aligned/re-aligned for rendering an audio-visual scene based on the 2D visual content and the volumetric audio content, where the user 204 may experience the object of interest and related audio source from a uniform direction.
Fig. 4
5
6
, and illustrate examples of spatial positions and orientations of 2D visual content related to volumetric audio content in accordance with at least some embodiments of the present invention. The spatial positions and orientations may define spatial positions and orientations in an audio-visual scene rendered to a presentation volume. Accordingly, the spatial positions and orientations may define rendering positions and rendering orientations in a rendering space, i.e. the presentation volume. The volumetric audio content related to the 2D visual content 402 comprises audio sources 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 that have spatial positions in a presentation volume. Audio sources 1, 2, 3, 4 have related visual objects 1', 2',3',4' in the 2D visual content 402. A user 404 may be positioned in the presentation volume to consume an audio-visual scene rendered on the basis of the 2D visual content and the related volumetric audio content. The user experiences the visual objects and audio sources in directions 406 with respect to the user according to the spatial positions and orientations of the visual objects and audio sources. At least one of the visual objects may be determined as an object of interest for aligning a spatial position and orientation of the at least one object of interest with a spatial position and orientation of the related audio source in the presentation volume. In this way the 2D visual content and the volumetric audio content may be rendered on the basis of the aligned spatial position and orientations of the at least one object of interest and the related audio source, whereby the user 404 positioned in the presentation volume may experience the visual object and audio from the related audio source from a uniform direction. It should be appreciated that optionally the volumetric audio content may comprise one or more audio sources, e.g. 5,6, 7, that may not be related to visual objects. In an example, the audio sources 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 may be captured by a camera and microphones. Accordingly, the audio sources may be related to visual objects captured by the camera. In an example, audio objects from a person singing may be captured related to visual objects of the person formed by the camera. However, in case the camera does not capture visual objects of the person singing, e.g. due to limited field of view of the camera, audio objects may be still captured. However, in such a case the audio objects are not related to visual objects.
Fig. 4
Referring to the example of , the spatial positions of the 2D visual content and related audio sources are illustrated in the view A on the left-hand side and a more detailed example of the 2D visual content is illustrated in view B on the right-hand side. The 2D visual content 402 may be positioned at spatial positions 408 that are at different distances from the user 404, while visual objects of the 2D visual content may be maintained aligned with related audio sources. Resolution and/or dimensions of the 2D visual content may be adapted for aligning one or more of the visual objects with the audio sources. In an example, a resolution and/or dimensions of the 2D visual content may be greater at a spatial position that is at distance that is closer to the user than at another spatial position that is at a distance that is further away from the user. The dimensions of the 2D visual content may be defined by a width and height of the 2D visual content.
Fig. 5
Fig. 5
In one example, referring to the example of , orientation of the 2D visual content 402 may be adapted for aligning one or more spatial orientations of the objects of interest, e.g. 3', with one or more orientations of the related audio sources, e.g. 3, in the presentation volume. In this way, when the user 404 moves 410 from one position in the presentation volume to a subsequent position, the user may experience the visual objects and related audio sources from a uniform direction. It should be appreciated that although, the 2D visual content is illustrated in in two orientations, also further orientations are viable. In one example, the orientation of the 2D visual content may be adapted by rotating the 2D visual content. The rotation of the visual content may be caused by rotating a rendering plane of the 2D visual content, whereby the 2D visual content may be rendered on the plane that has been rotated for aligning at least one visual object, e.g. an object of interest, with related audio source.
Fig. 5
Fig. 4
In one example, referring to the example of , the 2D visual content may be positioned at spatial position, where at least one of the visual objects, 3', e.g. the visual object of interest, is aligned with the related audio source 3. In this example, the user may be moved 410 from one position to a subsequent position, where in both positions the visual object 3' and the related audio source are aligned. In the first position of the user, the 2D visual content may be positioned for example in one of the positions illustrated in , where the audio sources are aligned with related visual objects. In the subsequent position, the visual object and the related audio source may be co-located at the same spatial location, for example.
Fig. 6
Fig. 6
Fig. 6
Referring to , a misalignment of the 2D visual content 402 and related volumetric audio is illustrated. View A of the illustrates misalignment in the presentation volume and view B illustrates the misalignment. The misalignment by a skew caused by the movement 410 of the user 404. The 2D visual content has a spatial position and orientation in the presentation space arranged such that visual object 3' and related audio source 3 are co-located. At a first position of the user, the visual object of interest is item 2' that is aligned with related audio source 2. After the user has moved to a subsequent position, there is a skew, i.e. a difference between directions 406 of the audio source 2 and the related visual object 2' with respect to the user. in the skew is illustrated by Angular Difference, AD, between the directions 406 of the object of interest 2' and the related audio source 2. Accordingly, the misalignment may be determined on the basis of the skew. It should be appreciated that in practise some skew may be permitted for the sake efficiency of implementation, at least if the skew cannot be perceived by human.
Fig. 7
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
illustrates determining a spatial position and orientation of 2D visual content in a presentation volume on the basis of user input in accordance with at least some embodiments of the present invention. 2D visual content 702 may be determined at an initial position in the presentation volume 704, for example as world locked content in accordance with . The 2D visual content may be displayed to a user 710 by a user device, for example on a viewfinder or by HMD in a see-through mode. In an example, the initial position of the 2D visual content may be at default distance from a user device 706. In response to a user input indicating a subsequent position and/or orientation of the 2D visual content in the presentation space, the spatial position and orientation of the at least one object of interest may be re-aligned with the spatial position and orientation of the related audio source, e.g. audio sources 1, 2, or 3, in the presentation volume, and the 2D visual content and the volumetric audio content may be rendered using the re-aligned spatial position and orientation. The object of interest may be determined on the basis of user input or metadata from the visual objects 1',2',3' of the 2D visual content as described with reference to above.
In an example, the user device 706 may be predefined position and orientation in the presentation space of the volumetric audio scene and the 2D visual content may be at the initial position. The user 710 may enter user input on the user device 706 for indicating one or more subsequent positions and/or orientations for the 2D visual content. In an example, the user input may comprise gestures that cause traversing the presentation volume of the volumetric audio scene. For example, the gestures may comprise swiping up-down, left-right or an inverted U that may cause longitudinal movement, lateral movement and orientation change respectively, of the 2D visual connate in the presentation space.
Fig. 8
illustrates an example of a method in accordance with at least some embodiments of the present invention. The method facilitates generating an audio-visual scene, where a user experiences the object of interest and related audio source from a uniform direction.
Phase 802 comprises determining at least one object of interest of two-dimensional, 2D, visual content related to an audio source of volumetric audio content.
Phase 804 comprises aligning a spatial position and orientation of the at least one object of interest with a spatial position and orientation of the related audio source in a presentation volume.
Phase 806 comprises rendering the 2D visual content and the volumetric audio content on the basis of the aligned spatial position and orientations of the at least one object of interest and the related audio source.
Since the spatial positions and orientations of the object of interest and the related audio source are aligned in phase 804, playback of the 2D visual content and the related volumetric audio content rendered in phase 806 causes generating an audio-visual scene, where the user experiences the object of interest and related audio source from a uniform direction.
Fig. 9
an example of a method in accordance with at least some embodiments of the present invention. The method facilitates rendering 2D visual content related to volumetric audio content.
Phase 902 comprises obtaining information indicating spatial positions and orientations of one or more visual objects of the 2D visual content and related audio sources of the volumetric audio content.
Phase 904 comprises aligning the spatial position and orientation of the at least one object of interest with the spatial position and orientation of the related audio source in the presentation volume on the basis of the obtained information.
In this way the obtained information may be used for aligning objects of interest for rendering the 2D visual content and the volumetric audio content for rendering an audio-visual scene.
In an embodiment, phase 902 comprises that the information indicating spatial position and orientation is included in metadata of at least one of the 2D visual content and the volumetric audio content. The metadata may be provided together with the 2D visual content and/or the volumetric audio content. Alternatively or additionally, the metadata may be provided separately from the 2D visual content and/or the volumetric audio content. For example, the metadata may be received from a capturing device or a network accessible service in response to a user input for playback of the 2D visual content and related volumetric audio content.
In an example, the phase 902 comprises that the obtained information comprises information indicating an initial position and 3D orientation of the volumetric audio scene to correspond with at least a subset of the 2D visual scene. In this way spatial positions of one or more audio sources of the volumetric audio scene may be determined with respect to the 2D visual scene in the audio-visual scene.
aligned(8) class AudioAlignmentStruct() {
signed int(32) audio_scene_pos_x;
signed int(32) audio_scene_pos_y;
signed int(32) audio_scene_pos_z;
signed int(32) audio_scene_yaw;
signed int(32) audio_scene_pitch;
signed int(32) audio_scene_roll;
} aligned(8) class VisualAlignmentStruct() {
signed int(32) visual_scene_pos_x;
signed int(32) visual_scene_pos_y; }
An example of the information obtained in phase 902 comprises an audio-visual correspondence data structure, where positions of objects of the 2D visual content in an audio scene and positions of the audio sources of the volumetric audio content in the audio scene may be defined. An example of the audio-visual correspondence data structure is as follows:
aligned(8) class AudioVisualAlignmentStruct() {
for(i=0; i<num_OOIs_in_2DVisual; i++){
AudioAlignmentStruct();
VisualAlignmentStruct();
} }
Sample syntax for audio-visual alignment using the audio-visual correspondence data structure is as follows:
In one implementation example, for a static 2D visual content, the AudioAlignmentStruct() and the VisualAlignmentStruct() may be signaled in the header of the audio tracks representing the volumetric audio scene and the track or item for visual content respectively.
In case of dynamic scenes, the audio-visual alignment structure needs vary over time. Consequently, this information can be signaled as a time varying metadata track with 'cdsc' reference.
Fig. 10
Fig. 9
illustrates an example of a method for maintaining alignment of 2D visual content and volumetric audio in an audio-visual scene in accordance with at least some embodiments of the present invention. The 2D visual content and volumetric audio content may have been aligned in accordance with the method of .
Phase 1002 comprises determining a misalignment of the at least one object of interest with related audio source.
In an example the misalignment may be determined on the basis of a skew, i.e. a difference between directions of the audio source and the visual object with respect to the user. It should be appreciated that in practise some skew may be permitted for the sake efficiency of implementation, at least if the skew cannot be perceived by human.
In an example the misalignment may be caused by a change of the object of interest, a movement of the object of interest and/or a movement of the user.
Phase 1004 comprises in response to determining the misalignment in phase 1002, re-aligning the spatial position and orientation of the at least one object of interest with the spatial position and orientation of the related audio source. In this way the skew may be reduced such that the user may experience the object of interest and the audio source from a uniform direction. It should be appreciated that once the re-aligning is performed, the 2D visual content and the volumetric audio content may be rendered on the basis of the re-aligned spatial position and orientations of the at least one object of interest and the related audio source.
adapting a visual zoom of the 2D visual content in the presentation volume;
moving a visual rendering plane of the 2D visual content in the presentation volume; and
adapting orientation of the 2D visual content in the presentation volume.
In an embodiment, phase 1004 comprises that the re-aligning comprises at least one of:
In an example, the misalignment may be determined in phase 1002, when the object of interest is changed, or the object of interest has moved, the re-aligning in phase 1004 may be performed by adapting the visual zoom and/or by moving the visual rendering plane. On the other hand, if the user has moved, the re-aligning may be performed by adapting the orientation of the 2D visual content.
Fig. 6
<mrow><mi mathvariant="italic">AD</mi><mo>=</mo><msub><mi>sinØ</mi><mn>1</mn></msub><mo>−</mo><msub><mi>sinØ</mi><mn>2</mn></msub></mrow>
<mrow><mi>multiplier</mi><mo>=</mo><mfenced separators=""><mn>1</mn><mo>+</mo><mi>AD</mi></mfenced><mo>*</mo><mi>current_spatial_rendering_resolution</mi></mrow>
1
2
In an example of adapting the visual zoom in phase 1004, the visual zoom may be adapted on the basis of a of a skew, i.e. a difference between directions of the audio source and the visual object with respect to the user. Adapting the visual zoom provides that resolution of the 2D visual content may be increased, whereby the skew may be masked by the 2D visual content experienced by the user. Adapting the visual zoom on the basis of the skew is described with reference to the example of the skew described in view B. The skew may be defined by an Angular Difference, AD, between a direction of the object of interest and a direction of the related audio source with respect to the user and the skew may be expressed by where Ø is the angle between a reference direction and the direction of the related audio source with respect to the user and Ø is the angle between the reference direction and the direction of the object of interest. The visual zoom may be adapted by rendering the 2D visual content using a resolution determined on the basis of a multiplier based on the AD and a current spatial rendering resolution of the 2D visual content. An example of the multiplier may be expressed by
Fig. 4
Fig. 6
Fig. 6
In an example of moving the visual rendering plane in phase 1004, moving the visual rendering provides that the 2D visual content may be moved to another spatial position in the presentation volume. In one example, the 2D visual content may be positioned first at one of the positions illustrated in by rendering the 2D visual content on a rendering plane positioned at one of the illustrated positions. If the object of interest is changed from 2' to 3', the 2D visual content may be moved to a position illustrated in , where the object of interest 3' is aligned with the related audio source. Accordingly, the rendering plane may be moved to the new position illustrated in for positioning the 2D visual content at that position.
In an example of adapting orientation of the 2D visual content, the rendering orientation of the 2D visual content may be changed. The rendering orientation may be changed for example by adapting orientation of a visual rendering plane.
Fig. 11
illustrates an example of a method for controlling zooming of 2D visual content in accordance with at least some embodiments of the present invention.
Phase 1102 comprises obtaining information indicating a permissible zooming of the 2D visual content;
Phases 1104 comprises zooming the 2D visual content within the indicated permissible zooming for aligning the at least one object of interest with related audio source maintaining the 2D visual content within the indicated permissible zooming.
fig. 10
In an example, the zooming comprises that resolution of the 2D visual content is adapted, e.g. increased. In this way a user may experience the object of interest and related audio source from a uniform direction. Phase 1004 in describes an example of the zooming.
Phase 1106 comprises determining if zooming the 2D visual content further would be within the indicated permissible zooming. If the zooming would not be within the permissible zooming, the method may end 1108. In this way zooming the 2D visual content may be kept within the permissible zooming. This has the advantage that a possible loss in visual content quality caused by the zooming may be controlled. On the other hand, if the zooming would be within the indicated permissible zooming, the method may proceed to phase 1110. In phase 1110 it may be determined, if further zooming is needed. further zooming may be needed for example, if misalignment has not yet been compensated by the previous zooming. If further zooming is needed, the method may continue to phase 1104. If no further zooming is needed, e.g. there is no misalignment between the object of interest and related volumetric audio content, the method may proceed to end 1108.
Fig. 12
illustrates an example of a method for controlling a need for changing a resolution of 2D visual content in accordance with at least some embodiments of the present invention.
Phase 1202 comprises modifying the volumetric audio content for reducing depth differences between audio sources.
Phase 1204 comprises rendering the 2D visual content and the volumetric audio content using the modified volumetric audio content. Since the depth differences between audio sources are reduced in the volumetric audio content, the modified content facilitates rendering a non-pliable volumetric audio scene, whereby a need to change resolution of the 2D visual content may be reduced.
Non-pliable volumetric audio scene refers to audio representation which gives a spatial audio experience which responds to user movement with six degrees of freedom. However, the content representation is such that it cannot be modified to change the perceived user positions. For example, if the non-pliable audio content has objects 1 and 2 in positions (x1, y1) and (x2, y2), the audio source positions cannot be changed in order to make one or both of them aligned with the visual objects in 2D visuals. This inability to modify the volumetric audio scene, makes it essential to modify the rendering position/zoom/orientation of the 2D visuals.
Fig. 13
illustrates an example of a method for rendering volumetric audio in conjunction with visual content for playback of an audio-visual scene in a presentation volume, in accordance with at least some embodiments of the invention.
Phase 1302 comprises receiving 2D visual content and related volumetric audio content. In an example, the 2D visual content and the volumetric audio content may have one or more visual objects and one or more audio sources related to the visual objects. The 2D visual content and volumetric audio may be obtained by a user device.
Phase 1304 comprises determining a spatial position of the 2D visual content in a presentation volume. In an example the 2D visual content may be determined as a world locked content or with respect to a user device.
Phase 1306 and 1308 comprise determining at least one visual object of interest of the 2D visual content. A spatial position and orientation of the at least one visual object of interest may be determined in the presentation volume. In an embodiment, the 2D visual content is rendered as world locked content in the presentation volume.
In an example, phase 1306 may comprise determining coordinates of the object of interest in the 2D visual content, in a 2D plane and phase 1308 may comprise determining coordinates of the visual object of interest in the presentation volume, i.e. in a 3D space.
In an embodiment, phase 1307 comprises obtaining information indicating spatial positions and orientations of one or more visual objects of the 2D visual content and related audio sources of the volumetric audio content. The obtained information may be used for determining at least one visual object of interest of the 2D visual content in phase 1306.
In an embodiment, phase 1307 comprises that the information indicating spatial position and orientation is included in metadata of at least one of the 2D visual content and the volumetric audio content.
It should be appreciated that alternatively or additionally, phase 1307 comprises determining the information indicating spatial positions and orientations on the basis of content analysis of the 2D visual content and the volumetric audio content.
Phase 1310 comprises determining a spatial position and orientation of the volumetric audio content in alignment with the 2D visual content. In an example, a direction of the determined at least one visual object of interest is aligned with a direction of an audio source related to the determined visual object. In this way the user experiences the visual object and audio source in a uniform direction.
Phase 1312 comprises rendering an audio-visual scene from the 2D visual content and the volumetric audio. In an example, the audio-visual scene is rendered on the basis of the aligned directions of the visual object of interest and the related audio source. In this way the user may experience the object of interest and related audio source from a uniform direction.
In at least some embodiments, phases 1314 to 1320 comprise determining a misalignment of the at least one object of interest with related audio source and re-aligning the spatial position and orientation of the at least one object of interest with the spatial position and orientation of the related audio source.
In an example, phase 1314 comprises determining an object of interest on the basis of: a user input; or metadata associated with the 2D visual content. The determined object of interest may be a different object of interest than the object of interest determined in phase 1306.
Phase 1316 comprises determining a misalignment with the object of interest determined in phase 1314 and the related audio source. Accordingly, when the object of interest and the related audio source are misaligned the user may experience the audio from a different direction than the direction, where the object of interest.
adapting a visual zoom of the 2D visual content in the presentation volume;
moving a visual rendering plane of the 2D visual content in the presentation volume; and
adapting orientation of the 2D visual content in the presentation volume.
Phase 1318 comprises in response to determining the misalignment in phase 1316, re-aligning the spatial position and orientation of the at least one object of interest with the spatial position and orientation of the related audio source. In this way the user may experience the object of interest and related audio source from a uniform direction. In an embodiment, phase 1318 comprises at least one of:
Phase 1320 comprises rendering the 2D visual content and the volumetric audio content using the re-aligned spatial position and orientation. In this way the misalignment may be compensated and the user experiences the visual object and audio source in a uniform direction.
Fig. 14
Fig. 14
shows a system for capturing, encoding, decoding, reconstructing and viewing a three-dimensional scheme, that is, for visual content and 3D audio digital creation and playback in accordance with at least some embodiments of the present invention. The visual content may be 2D images or 3D images, or the visual content may be 2D video or 3D video, for example. However, in the following description of the system of the example of 3D video is used. The system is capable of capturing and encoding volumetric video and audio data for representing a 3D scene with spatial audio, which can be used as input for virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR) and mixed reality (MR) applications. The task of the system is that of capturing sufficient visual and auditory information from a specific scene to be able to create a scene model such that a convincing reproduction of the experience, or presence, of being in that location can be achieved by one or more viewers physically located in different locations and optionally at a time later in the future. Such reproduction requires more information that can be captured by a single camera or microphone, in order that a viewer can determine the distance and location of objects within the scene using their eyes and their ears. To create a pair of images with disparity, two camera sources are used. In a similar manner, for the human auditory system to be able to sense the direction of sound, at least two microphones are used (the commonly known stereo sound is created by recording two audio channels). The human auditory system can detect the cues, e.g. in timing and level difference of the audio signals to detect the direction of sound.
Fig. 14
The system of may consist of three main parts: image/audio sources, a server and a rendering device. A video/audio source SRC1 may comprise multiple cameras CAM1, CAM2, ..., CAMN with overlapping field of view so that regions of the view around the video capture device is captured from at least two cameras. The video/audio source SRC1 may comprise multiple microphones uP1, uP2, ..., uPN to capture the timing and phase differences of audio originating from different directions. The video/audio source SRC1 may comprise a high-resolution orientation sensor so that the orientation (direction of view) of the plurality of cameras CAM1, CAM2, ..., CAMN can be detected and recorded. The cameras or the computers may also comprise or be functionally connected to means for forming distance information corresponding to the captured images, for example so that the pixels have corresponding depth data. Such depth data may be formed by scanning the depth or it may be computed from the different images captured by the cameras. The video source SRC1 comprises or is functionally connected to, or each of the plurality of cameras CAM1, CAM2, ..., CAMN comprises or is functionally connected to a computer processor and memory, the memory comprising computer program code for controlling the source and/or the plurality of cameras. The image stream captured by the video source, i.e. the plurality of the cameras, may be stored on a memory device for use in another device, e.g. a viewer, and/or transmitted to a server using a communication interface. It needs to be understood that although a video source comprising three cameras is described here as part of the system, another amount of camera devices may be used instead as part of the system.
Fig.14
It also needs to be understood that although microphones uP1 to uPN have been depicted along with cameras CAM1 to CAMN in this does not need to be the case. For example, a possible scenario is that closeup microphones are used to capture audio sources at close proximity to obtain a dry signal of each source such that minimal reverberation and ambient sounds are included in the signal created by the closeup microphone source. The microphones co-located with the cameras can then be used for obtaining a wet or reverberant capture of the entire audio scene where the effect of the environment such as reverberation is captured as well. It is also possible to capture the reverberant or wet sound of single objects with such microphones if each source is active at a different time. Alternatively or in addition to, individual room microphones can be positioned to capture the wet or reverberant signal. Furthermore, each camera CAM1 through CAMN can comprise several microphones, such as two or 8 or any suitable number. There may also be additional microphone arrays which enable capturing spatial sound as first order ambisonics (FOA) or higher order ambisonics (HOA). As an example, a SoundField microphone can be used.
One or more two-dimensional video bitstreams and one or more audio bitstreams may be computed at the server SERVER or a device RENDERER used for rendering, or another device at the receiving end. The devices SRC1 and SRC2 may comprise or be functionally connected to one or more computer processors (PROC2 shown) and memory (MEM2 shown), the memory comprising computer program (PROGR2 shown) code for controlling the source device SRC1/SRC2. The image/audio stream captured by the device may be stored on a memory device for use in another device, e.g. a viewer, or transmitted to a server or the viewer using a communication interface COMM2. There may be a storage, processing and data stream serving network in addition to the capture device SRC1. For example, there may be a server SERVER or a plurality of servers storing the output from the capture device SRC1 or device SRC2 and/or to form a visual and auditory scene model from the data from devices SRC1, SRC2. The device SERVER comprises or is functionally connected to a computer processor PROC3 and memory MEM3, the memory comprising computer program PROGR3 code for controlling the server. The device SERVER may be connected by a wired or wireless network connection, or both, to sources SRC1 and/or SRC2, as well as the viewer devices VIEWER1 and VIEWER2 over the communication interface COMM3.
For viewing and listening the captured or created video and audio content, there may be one or more reproduction devices REPROC1 and REPROC2. These devices may have a rendering module and a display and audio reproduction module, or these functionalities may be combined in a single device. The devices may comprise or be functionally connected to a computer processor PROC4 and memory MEM4, the memory comprising computer program PROG4 code for controlling the reproduction devices. The reproduction devices may consist of a video data stream receiver for receiving a video data stream and for decoding the video data stream, and an audio data stream receiver for receiving an audio data stream and for decoding the audio data stream. The video/audio data streams may be received from the server SERVER or from some other entity, such as a proxy server, an edge server of a content delivery network, or a file available locally in the viewer device. The data streams may be received over a network connection through communications interface COMM4, or from a memory device MEM6 like a memory card CARD2. The reproduction devices may have a graphics processing unit for processing of the data to a suitable format for viewing. The reproduction REPROC1 may comprise a high-resolution stereo-image head-mounted display for viewing the rendered stereo video sequence. The head-mounted display may have an orientation sensor DET1 and stereo audio headphones. The reproduction REPROC2 may comprise a display (either two-dimensional or a display enabled with 3D technology for displaying stereo video), and the rendering device may have an orientation detector DET2 connected to it. Alternatively, the reproduction REPROC2 may comprise a 2D display, since the volumetric video rendering can be done in 2D by rendering the viewpoint from a single eye instead of a stereo eye pair. The reproduction REPROC2 may comprise audio reproduction means, such as headphones or loudspeakers.
Fig. 14
It needs to be understood that depicts one SRC1 device and one SRC2 device, but generally the system may comprise more than one SRC1 device and/or SRC2 device.
Fig. 14
The present embodiments relate to providing 2D visual and spatial audio in a 3D scene, such as in the system depicted in . In other words, the embodiments relate to consumption of volumetric or six-degrees-of-freedom (6DoF) audio in connection with 2D visual, and more generally to augmented reality (AR) or virtual reality (VR) or mixed reality (MR). AR/VR/MR is volumetric by nature, which means that the user is able to move around in the blend of physical and digital content, and digital content presentation is modified accordingly to user position & orientation.
It is expected that AR/VR/MR is likely to evolve in stages. Currently, most applications are implemented as 3DoF, which means that head rotation in three axes yaw/pitch/roll can be taken into account. This facilitates the audio-visual scene remaining static in a single location as the user rotates his head.
The next stage could be referred as 3DoF+ (or restricted/limited 6DoF), which will facilitate limited movement (translation, represented in Euclidean spaces as x, y, z). For example, the movement might be limited to a range of some tens of centimeters around a location.
The ultimate target is 6DoF volumetric virtual reality, where the user is able to freely move in a Euclidean space (x, y, z) and rotate his head (yaw, pitch, roll).
It is noted that the term "user movement" as used herein refers any user movement i.e. changes in (a) head orientation (yaw/pitch/roll) and (b) user position performed either by moving in the Euclidian space or by limited head movements. User can move by physically moving in the consumption space, while either sensors mounted in the environment track his location in outside-in fashion, or sensors co-located with the head-mounted-display (HMD) device track his location. Sensors co-located in a HMD or a mobile device mounted in an HMD can generally be either inertial sensors such as a gyroscope or image/vision based motion sensing devices.
Fig. 15
depicts example devices for implementing various embodiments. It is noted that capturing 2D visual content and related volumetric audio and rendering 2D visual content and related volumetric audio may be implemented either on the same device or different devices. The device performing the rendering may be referred to a rendering device 1502 and the device performing the capturing may be referred to a capturing device 1504. The capturing device may comprise at least a processor and a memory, and at least two microphones for capturing volumetric audio content and a camera for capturing 2D visual content, e.g. still images or video, operatively connected to the processor and memory. The capturing device may transmit at least part of the captured 2D visual content and related volumetric audio content to a rendering device, which renders the 2D visual content and related volumetric audio content for playback of an audio-visual scene in a presentation volume. Examples of the rendering device and capturing device comprise a user device for example a mobile device. According to at least some embodiments, the capturing device may generate information indicating spatial position and orientation of one or more visual objects of the captured 2D visual content and/or audio sources related to the visual objects. The information indicating spatial position and orientation of one or more visual objects of the captured 2D visual content and/or audio sources related to the visual objects may be included in metadata. The metadata may be transmitted to the rendering device together with the content, e.g. 2D visual content and/or related volumetric audio content, or the metadata may be transmitted to the rendering device separately. In one example the metadata may be transmitted to the rendering device on request by the rendering device. The metadata may be made available related to the captured the 2D visual content and related volumetric audio content on a server, where the rendering device may retrieve the metadata for rendering an audio-visual scene.
Figure 15
The devices shown in may operate according to the ISO/IEC JTC1/SC29/WG11 or MPEG (Moving Picture Experts Group) future standard called MPEG-I, which will facilitate rendering of audio for 3DoF, 3DoF+ and 6DoF scenarios. The technology will be based on 23008-3:201x, MPEG-H 3D Audio Second Edition. MPEG-H 3D audio is used for the core waveform carriage (encoding, decoding) in the form of objects, channels, and Higher-Order-Ambisonics (HOA). The goal of MPEG-I is to develop and standardize technologies comprising metadata over the core MPEG-H 3D and new rendering technologies to enable 3DoF, 3DoF+ and 6DoF audio transport and rendering.
Figure 16
Figure 17
The following describes in further detail suitable apparatus and possible mechanisms for implementing some embodiments. In this regard reference is first made to which shows a schematic block diagram of an exemplary apparatus or electronic device 50 depicted in , which may incorporate a rendering device according to an embodiment.
The electronic device 50 may be a user device, for example a mobile terminal or user equipment of a wireless communication system. However, it would be appreciated that some embodiments may be implemented within any electronic device or apparatus which may require transmission of radio frequency signals.
The apparatus 50 may comprise a housing 30 for incorporating and protecting the device. The apparatus 50 further may comprise a display 32 in the form of a liquid crystal display. In other embodiments the display may be any suitable display technology suitable to display an image or video. The apparatus 50 may further comprise a keypad 34. In other embodiments any suitable data or user interface mechanism may be employed. For example the user interface may be implemented as a virtual keyboard or data entry system as part of a touch-sensitive display. The apparatus may comprise a microphone 36 or any suitable audio input which may be a digital or analogue signal input. The apparatus 50 may further comprise an audio output device which in some embodiments may be any one of: an earpiece 38, speaker, or an analogue audio or digital audio output connection. The apparatus 50 may also comprise a battery 40 (or in other embodiments the device may be powered by any suitable mobile energy device such as solar cell, fuel cell or clockwork generator). The term battery discussed in connection with the embodiments may also be one of these mobile energy devices. Further, the apparatus 50 may comprise a combination of different kinds of energy devices, for example a rechargeable battery and a solar cell. The apparatus may further comprise an infrared port 41 for short range line of sight communication to other devices. In other embodiments the apparatus 50 may further comprise any suitable short range communication solution such as for example a Bluetooth wireless connection or a USB/firewire wired connection.
The apparatus 50 may comprise a controller 56 or processor for controlling the apparatus 50. The controller 56 may be connected to memory 58 which in some embodiments may store both data and/or may also store instructions for implementation on the controller 56. The controller 56 may further be connected to codec circuitry 54 suitable for carrying out coding and decoding of audio and/or video data or assisting in coding and decoding carried out by the controller 56.
The apparatus 50 may further comprise a card reader 48 and a smart card 46, for example a universal integrated circuit card (UICC) reader and UICC for providing user information and being suitable for providing authentication information for authentication and authorization of the user at a network.
The apparatus 50 may comprise radio interface circuitry 52 connected to the controller and suitable for generating wireless communication signals for example for communication with a cellular communications network, a wireless communications system or a wireless local area network. The apparatus 50 may further comprise an antenna 59 connected to the radio interface circuitry 52 for transmitting radio frequency signals generated at the radio interface circuitry 52 to other apparatus(es) and for receiving radio frequency signals from other apparatus(es).
In some embodiments, the apparatus 50 comprises a camera 42 capable of recording or detecting imaging.
Fig. 18
With respect to , an example of a system within which embodiments of the present invention can be utilized is shown. The system 10 comprises multiple communication devices which can communicate through one or more networks. The system 10 may comprise any combination of wired and/or wireless networks including, but not limited to a wireless cellular telephone network (such as a GSM (2G, 3G, 4G, LTE, 5G), UMTS, CDMA network etc.), a wireless local area network (WLAN) such as defined by any of the IEEE 802.x standards, a Bluetooth personal area network, an Ethernet local area network, a token ring local area network, a wide area network, and the Internet.
Fig. 18
For example, the system shown in shows a mobile telephone network 11 and a representation of the internet 28. Connectivity to the internet 28 may include, but is not limited to, long range wireless connections, short range wireless connections, and various wired connections including, but not limited to, telephone lines, cable lines, power lines, and similar communication pathways.
The example communication devices shown in the system 10 may include, but are not limited to, an electronic device or apparatus 50, a combination of a personal digital assistant (PDA) and a mobile telephone 14, a PDA 16, an integrated messaging device (IMD) 18, a desktop computer 20, a notebook computer 22, a tablet computer. The apparatus 50 may be stationary or mobile when carried by an individual who is moving. The apparatus 50 may also be located in a mode of transport including, but not limited to, a car, a truck, a taxi, a bus, a train, a boat, an airplane, a bicycle, a motorcycle or any similar suitable mode of transport.
Some or further apparatus may send and receive calls and messages and communicate with service providers through a wireless connection 25 to a base station 24. The base station 24 may be connected to a network server 26 that allows communication between the mobile telephone network 11 and the internet 28. The system may include additional communication devices and communication devices of various types.
The communication devices may communicate using various transmission technologies including, but not limited to, code division multiple access (CDMA), global systems for mobile communications (GSM), universal mobile telecommunications system (UMTS), time divisional multiple access (TDMA), frequency division multiple access (FDMA), transmission control protocol-internet protocol (TCP-IP), short messaging service (SMS), multimedia messaging service (MMS), email, instant messaging service (IMS), Bluetooth, IEEE 802.11, Long Term Evolution wireless communication technique (LTE) and any similar wireless communication technology. Yet some other possible transmission technologies to be mentioned here are high-speed downlink packet access (HSDPA), high-speed uplink packet access (HSUPA), LTE Advanced (LTE-A) carrier aggregation dual- carrier, and all multi-carrier technologies. A communications device involved in implementing various embodiments of the present invention may communicate using various media including, but not limited to, radio, infrared, laser, cable connections, and any suitable connection. In the following some example implementations of apparatuses utilizing the present invention will be described in more detail.
According to an embodiment, an apparatus comprises means for determining at least one object of interest of two-dimensional, 2D, visual content related to an audio source of volumetric audio content, means for aligning a spatial position and orientation of the at least one object of interest with a spatial position and orientation of the related audio source in a presentation volume, and means for rendering the 2D visual content and the volumetric audio content on the basis of the aligned spatial position and orientations of the at least one object of interest and the related audio source.
In an alternative embodiment, an apparatus comprises at least one processor; and at least one memory including computer program code; the at least one memory and the computer program code configured to, with the at least one processor, cause the apparatus at least to perform: determining at least one object of interest of two-dimensional, 2D, visual content related to an audio source of volumetric audio content;
aligning a spatial position and orientation of the at least one object of interest with a spatial position and orientation of the related audio source in a presentation volume;
rendering the 2D visual content and the volumetric audio content on the basis of the aligned spatial position and orientations of the at least one object of interest and the related audio source.
In an embodiment there is provided a computer program comprising computer readable program code means adapted to perform at least the following: determining at least one object of interest of two-dimensional, 2D, visual content related to an audio source of volumetric audio content; aligning a spatial position and orientation of the at least one object of interest with a spatial position and orientation of the related audio source in a presentation volume; rendering the 2D visual content and the volumetric audio content on the basis of the aligned spatial position and orientations of the at least one object of interest and the related audio source.
In an embodiment there is provided a non-transitory computer readable medium comprising program instructions stored thereon for performing at least the following: determining at least one object of interest of two-dimensional, 2D, visual content related to an audio source of volumetric audio content; aligning a spatial position and orientation of the at least one object of interest with a spatial position and orientation of the related audio source in a presentation volume; rendering the 2D visual content and the volumetric audio content on the basis of the aligned spatial position and orientations of the at least one object of interest and the related audio source.
A memory may be a computer readable medium that may be non-transitory. The memory may be of any type suitable to the local technical environment and may be implemented using any suitable data storage technology, such as semiconductor-based memory devices, magnetic memory devices and systems, optical memory devices and systems, fixed memory and removable memory. The data processors may be of any type suitable to the local technical environment, and may include one or more of general purpose computers, special purpose computers, microprocessors, digital signal processors (DSPs) and processors based on multi-core processor architecture, as non-limiting examples.
Embodiments may be implemented in software, hardware, application logic or a combination of software, hardware and application logic. The software, application logic and/or hardware may reside on memory, or any computer media. In an example embodiment, the application logic, software or an instruction set is maintained on any one of various conventional computer-readable media. In the context of this document, a "memory" or "computer-readable medium" may be any media or means that can contain, store, communicate, propagate or transport the instructions for use by or in connection with an instruction execution system, apparatus, or device, such as a computer.
Reference to, where relevant, "computer-readable storage medium", "computer program product", "tangibly embodied computer program" etc., or a "processor" or "processing circuitry" etc. should be understood to encompass not only computers having differing architectures such as single/multi-processor architectures and sequencers/parallel architectures, but also specialised circuits such as field programmable gate arrays FPGA, application specify circuits ASIC, signal processing devices and other devices. References to computer readable program code means, computer program, computer instructions, computer code etc. should be understood to express software for a programmable processor firmware such as the programmable content of a hardware device as instructions for a processor or configured or configuration settings for a fixed function device, gate array, programmable logic device, etc.
In general, the various embodiments may be implemented in hardware or special purpose circuits or any combination thereof. While various aspects may be illustrated and described as block diagrams or using some other pictorial representation, it is well understood that these blocks, apparatus, systems, techniques or methods described herein may be implemented in, as non-limiting examples, hardware, software, firmware, special purpose circuits or logic, general purpose hardware or controller or other computing devices, or some combination thereof.
Embodiments may be practiced in various components such as integrated circuit modules. The design of integrated circuits is by and large a highly automated process. Complex and powerful software tools are available for converting a logic level design into a semiconductor circuit design ready to be etched and formed on a semiconductor substrate.
Programs, such as those provided by Synopsys, Inc. of Mountain View, California and Cadence Design, of San Jose, California automatically route conductors and locate components on a semiconductor chip using well established rules of design as well as libraries of pre stored design modules. Once the design for a semiconductor circuit has been completed, the resultant design, in a standardized electronic format (e.g., Opus, GDSII, or the like) may be transmitted to a semiconductor fabrication facility or "fab" for fabrication.
(a) hardware-only circuit implementations (such as implementations in only analog and/or digital circuitry) and
(i) a combination of analog and/or digital hardware circuit(s) with software/firmware and
(ii) any portions of hardware processor(s) with software (including digital signal processor(s)), software, and memory(ies) that work together to cause an apparatus, such as a mobile phone or server, to perform various functions) and
(b) combinations of hardware circuits and software, such as (as applicable):
(c) hardware circuit(s) and or processor(s), such as a microprocessor(s) or a portion of a microprocessors), that requires software (e.g., firmware) for operation, but the software may not be present when it is not needed for operation.
As used in this application, the term "circuitry" may refer to one or more or all of the following:
This definition of circuitry applies to all uses of this term in this application, including in any claims. As a further example, as used in this application, the term circuitry also covers an implementation of merely a hardware circuit or processor (or multiple processors) or portion of a hardware circuit or processor and its (or their) accompanying software and/or firmware. The term circuitry also covers, for example and if applicable to the particular claim element, a baseband integrated circuit or processor integrated circuit for a mobile device or a similar integrated circuit in server, a cellular network device, or other computing or network device.
Although the above examples describe some embodiments operating within a user device, it would be appreciated that embodiments as described above may be implemented as a part of any apparatus comprising a circuitry in which 2D visual content and volumetric audio may be rendered. Thus, for example, embodiments may be implemented in a mobile phone, in a computer such as a desktop computer or a tablet computer.
The foregoing description has provided by way of exemplary and non-limiting examples a full and informative description of the exemplary embodiment of this invention. However, various modifications and adaptations may become apparent to those skilled in the relevant arts in view of the foregoing description, when read in conjunction with the accompanying drawings and the appended claims. However, all such and similar modifications of the teachings of this invention will still fall within the scope of this invention. | |
Melatonin (N-acetyl-5-methoxytryptamine) is a neurohormone associated with sleep. Although the U. S. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) questions the evidence, the five sources that deal with melatonin all recommend it for:
However, some of the evidence is tentative, and much more study is needed. Uses of melatonin to treat insomnia and maintain cognitive capacity (neuroprotection) are particularly interesting but remain unresolved. Other suggested but unproven uses include:
Melatonin is a promising treatment for jet lag and many mild to moderate sleep disorders. All other potential uses remain to be studied. Risks appear manageable, but caution is appropriate since melatonin is commonly over consumed, and, absent testing, people should "work up" to a therapeutic dose.
Drug interactions with melatonin have not been sufficiently studied, but appear manageable. Alcohol, caffeine and aspirin may affect melatonin levels. Psychotropic drugs that affect norepinephrine or serotonin levels might alter the pattern of melatonin production and that any drugs that might affect the metabolism of melatonin in the liver, such as valproic acid or methoxypsoralen, could affect blood serum levels of melatonin. Consultation with the prescribing physician is essential if any prescription drug is being taken with melatonin. Special care is appropriate for people taking:
Melatonin is classified by the FDA as "generally regarded as safe" in recommended doses for short-term use.
The most common side effect is gastric distress.
There is controversy about the effect of melatonin on seizure disorders. In the absence of better science, consultation with the health care professional providing care for an existing seizure disorder is essential if considering using melatonin.
Mood changes have been reported, both highs and lows, and even psychotic symptoms such as hallucinations and paranoia. Persons with major depression or psychotic disorders should consult with the health care professional providing care for the underlying disorder before using melatonin.
Given the lack of experimental data concerning melatonin supplementation in children, Mischoulon and Rosenbaum caution that melatonin treatment in children should be used only "very conservatively," when the benefits of melatonin treatment clearly outweigh any possible risks. There are no data concerning use during pregnancy or breastfeeding.
Overconsumption of melatonin can have significant risks. It has been suggested that millions of Americans currently consume melatonin in excessive quantities, elevating their melatonin levels many times over those that occur normally. The notion that uncontrolled use of melatonin is completely safe rests on little research and on the common public experience of lack of significant short-term toxic effects. However, disruption of the delicate mechanism of the circadian system is, in and of itself, a significant potential side effect.
Because individual rates of melatonin metabolism vary substantially, with older and smaller people disproportionately affected, adjustment of the dosage is essential to avoid decreased effects in the latter part of the night due to excessive use of "slow release" melatonin on the one hand or disturbance of circadian patterns by use of excessive amounts of "fast release" melatonin on the other.
Over-the-counter melatonin supplements typically contain 3-5 mg, but studies show that even a relatively low dose of 0.3 mg per day may induce circadian levels of the hormone well in excess of the normal level in people over 50 years old. Thus, before deciding on a therapeutic dose to deal with insomnia, people should consult with a physician to determine the precise amount of supplementation needed. Absent testing, leading researchers (Mischoulon and Rosenbaum) recommend that people "work up" to a therapeutic level, beginning with 0.1 to 0.2 mg per day.
The sources differ in their prescription for jet lag, with Mischoulon and Rosenbaum's prescription the best reasoned: If melatonin is administered to contract the effect of eastward-travel jet lag, a dose of 0.1 to 0.3 mg at the local bedtime following the flight is recommended. Such treatment will restore the deficit in melatonin that the traveler will experience due to the advance of bedtime at the destination. Following a westward flight, when the day is extended rather than shortened, it would be advisable not to take melatonin at the local bedtime, when the endogenous level of the hormone is already increased.
However, it might be helpful to take a half dose (e.g., 0.1 mg) immediately following a night or early morning awakening, as is typically experienced in westward flights. In principle, this would facilitate resumption of sleep and its maintenance, plus delaying the circadian phase and adjusting to the new location.
Jet lag and sleep problems associated with shift work are the most promising uses, but many other suggested uses remain to be studied.
Melatonin does not have significant toxic effects, but it may interfere with sleep rhythms.
Risks appear manageable so long as drug interactions are avoided, but caution is appropriate since melatonin is commonly over consumed, and, absent testing, people should "work up" to a therapeutic dose.
For detailed information on Melatonin and other treatments, download the full review. | https://www.mhanational.org/melatonin |
Bilberry is a wild berry that is very much appreciated for its acidic flavour but also for its nutritional properties, as it is a fruit that is very rich in vitamin C and antioxidants, which give it that characteristic bluish colour.
It combines with vanilla from Tahiti ice-cream and liquorice, with a red fruit salad with yogurt, or adding it to gravy. It is also perfect for topping cheese and cranberry cakes.
Ingredients: sugar, bilberries, apples and lemon juice. | https://gbech.com/en/producto/Bilberry/ |
Hubble telescope captures violent process of star formation
Story highlights
The protostar is still in its infancy but the violent process of star formation is very much visible in the image clicked by Hubble
Stars are a brilliant to look at. The specs of light adorning the black sky impart a sense of calm.
But the process of star formation is a violent one.
A mass of gas in a corner of space comes together. Dense clumps of this cloud coalesce due to processes known as local stellar wind. The gas is thus pushed together. When the density reaches a high enough point, clumps of gas collapse under their own gravity and form a spinning protostar. The material around the star forms a disc and gets attracted to the star due to its gravity therby increasing the gravity and carrying the process of star formation ahead.
At some point, the star begins to give out what is called solar wind and this in addition to several other processes limit the growth of the star and it starts on the path to become a full-fledged star!
NASA's Hubble space telescope has clicked an image of such a protostar. The protostar has been given a designation J1672835.29-763111.64
The region of space around this protostar is still dusty. That means the protistar is still in its infancy and matter is still being spooled into it making it bigger. | |
Let’s study the oldest history book in the world today. It took 1,500 years to write the Bible with 400 years of silence between the Old and New Testament. There are 66 books in the Bible.
Each author of the books only wrote down what the Holy Spirit had them write. All scripture is God-breathed. 2 Timothy 3:16
This means that the Bible was not written by the will of man. God used his hand-picked his authors through the Holy Spirit to write down his message in the Bible, and God did so in his own timing for man.
The earliest books written in the Bible is either Genesis or Job around 3,400 years ago. Did you know Moses is believed to have written the book of Genesis and maybe Job? | https://stronggirlspray.com/2020/06/26/studying-the-oldest-history-book-in-the-world/ |
Crush resistance and size distribution are two measurements to select a proppant. While standard sieve analysis provides a good quantitative value for crush resistance, detailed size measurements can provide more understanding of proppant failure and the alteration of size distribution under load. The variance in proppant crush resistance is often larger than the typically reported accuracy of ±0.1%. In many cases, specimen handling and material retention upon sieves makes a real contribution towards measurement error.
This paper documents the variation in crush resistance measurements for proppants of similar size and size distribution at constant stress. Optical measurement of the size distribution can reveal more information about proppant failure under load. The paper discusses the sensitivity of the measurement with respect to manual versus automatic load application, loading rate, cell size, and specimen mass. The accuracy and precision of the test, along with the minimum sample size, are reported. The relationship between size distribution and crush resistance for different proppant materials is also presented.
The results of this paper address expanding the technical evaluation of proppants using new tools and analysis methods to provide a greater understanding of the crush resistance measurement. Operators will be able to select an appropriate proppant for their application with a practical understanding of measurement variation.
The American Petroleum Institute (API) defines the crush resistance test for proppants.1 A cylindrical cell holds a quantity of proppant and mechanical force compresses the proppant volume uniaxially at a specific rate to a desired pressure. After release of the mechanical force, the size distribution of the crushed proppant is measured. The definition of crush resistance is the weight percent of tested proppant that passes the smallest sieve of the originally specified size distribution. Several factors influence this measurement process and generate variance in the crush resistance value. The brittle materials comprising most proppants have a statistical rather than discrete mechanical strength. Each proppant will have a unique stress state that is a function of the local arrangement of proppants within the cell and this local arrangement will continuously change during compaction. Human factors, such as specimen handling and cell loading, can significantly affect the measurement process.
The crush resistance measurement must be a valid and reliable tool to quantify and compare proppant performance. Reducing sources of variance can improve the uniformity of the measured values. There are, however, many physical similarities between an actual propped fracture and the simulated proppant environment in a cell such that reduction of all variance could remove practical value from the results. The approach taken in this study is to characterize rather than eliminate the variance present in the process and then determine the validity of the test to evaluate proppants.
Characterizing the crush resistance requires statistical methods and tools to give an unbiased interpretation of the measurements and comparison between samples.2,3 Many methods describe a set of data using a confidence interval, which quantifies how close a point estimator is to the true population parameter for a specific certainty. For a desired confidence interval, a known or reasonably estimated standard deviation determines the required number of specimens to evaluate. Figure 1 shows the relationship between a 95% confidence interval and the number of specimens for a range of standard deviations. For a normally distributed process with a standard deviation is 0.5, 95% of the observed data ranges from -1 to +1 about the mean value. To determine the mean of this process with an accuracy of ±0.1, the required number of specimens to evaluate under identical test conditions is around 100. | https://www.onepetro.org/conference-paper/SPE-102645-MS |
Happy New Year! As most of us do, the start of a new year usually brings resolutions for making positive changes in one’s life. Changes that relate to diet, exercise, discovering a new hobby. This year, when making your 2022 resolutions, consider including one of eating more plant-based meals in your diet.
Last October, we initiated a series of stories from GTN employees who have prioritized sustainability by altering their lifestyles and adopting climate-focused habits. Katie Burg kicked off this series with her personal green journey – Making Lifestyle Changes to Combat Climate Change. Our second sustainable story comes from Natalie Stine, a Manager located in Maple Grove, MN. Natalie began her green journey during the COVID-19 pandemic when her frustration with information about the pandemic grew, and she started seeking out knowledge about the current state of our abused planet.
You will be hard pressed to find someone whose life hasn’t been drastically changed over the past 20 months due to the global pandemic. While we continued to search for creative ways to maintain our “normal” day-to-day responsibilities within a myriad of barriers, we also found our eyes opened to the many cracks in our way of life. Many of us found ourselves with more agency than ever to speak up and call out for change. For some, this was enhanced by the increase in something so simple: time. Massive layoffs in 2020, slow rehiring in 2021, and encouragement to stay home provided Americans with time to reflect and see environmental and social injustices more plainly. We found ourselves pleading with our friends, neighbors, and family members to listen to science.
In 2020, as my social life dwindled and my frustration with information about the pandemic grew, I began to lean into research and documentaries. My hunger for knowledge intensified and soon I was learning about the current state of our abused planet.
Recycle. Ride your bike. Avoid plastic bags. Cut your shower time. All of these are instilled in us at a young age to help make a difference and keep our planet healthy. Although these are great ways for everyone to live more sustainably, I was looking to take it a step further. Due to the urgent state of climate change, what could I do on a personal level that would have a larger impact? There must be a more effective way to alleviate our environmental footprint and steer the country to more impactful policy changes. It was during this time I discovered that a single pound of beef takes, on average, 1,800 gallons of water to produce. Upon discovering this climate change culprit, my lightbulb moment occurred as I realized I was able to have a direct impact on carbon emissions by altering my diet.
On a global scale, second after fossil fuels, animal agriculture has a devastating toll on the environment by increasing global warming and damaging ecosystems (EPA). Greenhouse gases, such as methane, nitrous oxide, and carbon dioxide stay in the atmosphere and cause a warming effect. Their impact can last generations as they can reside in the atmosphere for hundreds of years once released. Each of these gas emissions are emitted from livestock and agriculture practices (EPA).
But what could I do regarding animal agriculture? The answer was simple—I could adopt a plant-based diet. I first made the decision to incorporate three plant-based meals a week on August 1, 2020. By August 10, I decided to completely forgo poultry, beef, and pork. I am not going to lie; the first few weeks were difficult. Since I wasn’t quite sure how to do it yet, I was hungry all the time and in turn quite irritable. Eventually I recognized the need for larger portion sizes, choosing foods high in protein and fiber, and a stocked pantry of healthy snacks like pretzels and nuts.
By the third week everything changed. I had finally mastered the portions and diversified my meals to obtain the necessary nutrients. My digestion improved in a way I didn’t know was possible. I felt energized and frankly, happy. My nights were filled with chopping vegetables, experimenting with different legumes, and learning to use new staples, such as tahini and nutritional yeast. My cravings changed. My usual reach for coffee in the morning and chocolate after dinner declined dramatically. I crammed my weekends with cooking shows. Social media platforms, such as Instagram and TikTok, were my first recipe resources and guided my makeshift cooking classes, using videos created by passionate chefs. Eventually I expanded my repertoire with plant-based recipe websites and books.
It wasn’t (and still isn’t) always easy. Navigating restaurant menus and potlucks can sometimes be difficult. I must work hard to educate myself on all the nutrients I need, a feat necessary even if on a meat-based diet. Yet, I am grateful I have the time, energy, and resources to support this dietary change. And even if the threat of climate change and damaging impacts to the environment were gone, I don’t know if I would return to a meat-heavy diet. For me, it feels like I’ve hit a home run. My health has improved, and I am minimizing my carbon footprint all in one act. We only get one planet and one body; let's treat them right.
I understand not everyone will or can go plant-based, nor do I think we all need to. My hope is that enough people will decrease their meat consumption as this will dramatically reduce emissions and slow demand. Even replacing your beef intake with chicken will help immensely. We need to communicate to our elected leaders that change is needed in how we feed our country and the world. We need to stop destroying ecosystems; the survival of all beings depends on biodiversity.
The transformation our world needs is overwhelming—it’s easy to feel helpless in this massive problem we’ve created. It’s hard to truly feel heard. I’ve wondered if this is how climate scientists from the last 50 years have felt as they watched our world become sicker while our governments and corporations stood idly by. Despite this, I know hope is on the horizon—one voice can reach many.
Recommended resources:
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- A More Sustainable Path to 2050 – The Nature Conservancy
- Plant-based recipes – Rabbitandwolves.com
- Plant-based recipes – Loveandlemons.com
- Plant-based tag on Instagram will bring up a variety of useful resources
- Before the Flood – Disney
- Cowspiracy – Netflix
- Game Changers – Netflix
- Gather – Netflix
- How to Save a Planet – Podcast
- Kiss the Ground – Netflix
References:
Giampiero Grossi, Pietro Goglio, Andrea Vitali, Adrian G Williams, Livestock and climate change: impact of livestock on climate and mitigation strategies, Animal Frontiers, Volume 9, Issue 1, January 2019, Pages 69–76, https://doi.org/10.1093/af/vfy034
EPA. “Climate Change Indicators: Greenhouse Gases.” EPA: United States Environmental Protection Agency, https://www.epa.gov
Making sustainable changes takes time, but you can start small and build from there. By being aware and incorporating eco-friendly practices into our daily lives, we can all play a part in tackling the climate crisis. You can begin by making just one small change. The new year is a great time to start! | https://www.gtn.com/blog/the-pandemic-and-sustainability-making-time-for-change |
Review and analyze business requirements and Use Cases to gain a thorough understanding of project goals.
Create test plan(s) which include any changes and/or additions to information in the approved test strategy and add detail around approved requirements, test conditions, test cases/scripts, scheduling of test execution cycles, defect management, resources, and issues.
Develop test scripts (manual or automated) to address one or more project requirement or, in the case of regression tests, one or more existing application/system requirement.
Develop test scripts (manual or automated) to address one or more Support/Maintenance (production bug fix) or, in the case of regression tests, one or more existing application/system requirement.
Execute test scripts and accurately report and document defects for any test steps that fail.
Support and facilitate Defect review/issue management meetings.
Create final quality assurance reports summarizing results, risks, and providing project recommendations based in findings.
Collaborate in developing, tracking, and reporting project level status and other performance metrics to appropriate IT leaders.
Provide input for improvements and enhancements to quality strategy. | https://www.altencalsoftlabs.com/blog/2017/08/quality-analyst-qa-tester/ |
It’s been nearly two years since Hurricane Maria swept across the Caribbean, but Puerto Rico is still coming to terms with what happened. Enhancing Puerto Rico’s resilience to better prepare the island for future disasters would entail building a more robust electricity grid to help limit the damage and impact from extreme storms in the years to come.
Energy and Health: Making the Connection
The recent Clean Energy for Health Care Conference in Nairobi, Kenya sparked much-needed, cross-sector thinking around how to deliver energy to health facilities in resource-constrained environments. A resounding takeaway was that distributed solar power and energy efficient medical devices hold great potential for creating stronger and more resilient health systems in Africa and beyond.
Project Bo: Saving lives in Sierra Leone with Solar, Batteries and Twitter
On November 19, 2017 three babies at Bo Government Hospital died when a power shortage stopped their oxygen supply. Michael Liebreich, Founder and CEO of Liebreich Associates and founding member of the High Level Advisory Group for the UN Sustainable Energy for All initiative, established Project Bo to see that this never happens again. In this blog, Michael tells his personal account of getting Project Bo off of the ground and offers advice for anyone starting a similar project and key messages for the multilateral donor community.
Vaccines Are Not Immune to Energy Poverty
Vaccine delivery falls at the intersection of health systems and energy access, as immunizations require a cold chain, or temperature-controlled supply chain, to maintain product quality during transport. The World Health Organization estimates that one quarter to half of vaccines are wasted each year, largely due to failures in the cold chain. Better vaccine storage and more reliable sources of electricity can decrease vaccine waste and increase vaccine coverage, which is especially important for clinics at the primary level of health systems.
In conversation with: HOPE Foundation for Women and Children of Bangladesh
Since mid-2017, more than 723,000 Rohingya refugees have fled from Myanmar to neighboring Bangladesh, where services are stretched beyond their limits. The massive global humanitarian response has been addressing immediate needs, such as access to clean water, shelter, and health services. To learn more, we spoke with Dr. Mahmood from the Hope Foundation, who has recently partnered with SolarKiosk and others to deploy reliable energy solutions to power up essential health services.
In conversation with: Chhattisgarh State Renewable Energy Development Agency (CREDA)
An estimated 38 million Indians rely on health facilities that are beyond the reach of India’s electric grid. Without access to regular power supply, many lifesaving interventions cannot be undertaken, posing a barrier to the attainment of universal health coverage. But thanks to organizations like the Chhattisgarh State Renewable Energy Development Agency (CREDA), this situation is beginning to change.
The Power to Save Lives
More than 1 billion people around the world live without access to electricity, and in many communities, health clinics don’t have reliable power. To achieve sustainable development, we need sustainable energy.
In recent weeks, energy has been talked about in several global conferences – including the World Health Assembly and the Sustainable Energy for All Forum – as a key to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
When Power is Life or Death
Part of achieving universal health coverage, a key element of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), means ensuring that everyone has access to quality healthcare, including maternal and child health services, yet not enough attention is being given to healthcare’s reliance on energy. Energy is a vital enabler of healthcare delivery, and clean, distributed energy solutions are particularly well-suited to address the needs of health facilities in rural and off-grid areas.
Powering Sustainable Solutions for Better Health Care
Women in developing countries are 300 times more likely to die from childbirth than women in developed countries. According to estimates by the World Health Organization (WHO), in 2015, approximately 830 women died every day due to complications during pregnancy or childbirth; 99 percent of these deaths occur in developing countries. Adding to the tragedy, most of these maternal deaths occurred in low-resource communities and could have been prevented. | https://poweringhc.org/blog/ |
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
This invention relates to an interchange system comprising a combination junction of pedestrian paths, roadways and railways. More particularly, the invention relates to an interchange system which can be safely, efficiently, and easily utilized for a combination junction of pedestrian paths, roadways and railways.
The interchange system for roads in general contemplated by the present invention is a combination junction of separate levels which permits elevated railways such as for streetcars, monorail cars and unmanned trolley cars to be passed over two or more intersecting or branching roadways laid on the ground surface. Generally, in the case of an intersection of two roadways, when the two roadways cross each other in one plane, the intersection must be provided with traffic signals designed to regulate the traffic past the intersection and, when the two roadways cross each other at separate levels, the intersection must be provided with by-passes designed to route turning traffic from one roadway to the other. The former intersection obstructs smooth flow of traffic because it is required to stop traffic intermittently for the purpose of traffic control and the latter intersection occupies much space and entails consumption of great volumes of construction materials. Further, the designs of such intersections place little or no emphasis on the safety of pedestrians or on reducing the amount of walking pedestrians must do. For example, an intersection may be provided with an overpass or underpass to increase the safety of pedestrians, but no attention is given to the fact that this will require pedestrian to climb long stairs or ramps. The strain on pedestrians is also often increased by installing stops and other facilities used for the operation of urban transportations facilities such as streetcars and buses at inconvenient locations.
An object of this invention is to provide an interchange system which ensures the safety and convenience of pedestrians and users of urban transportation facilities at a combination junction of pedestrian paths and railways, facilitates the arrival and departure of vehicles at the combination junction and, at the same time, permits traffic streams through the junction to flow continuously and smoothly.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
To attain the object described above according to this invention, there is provided an interchange system serving elevated railways, roadways and pedestrian paths formed along the opposite sides of the roadways, which interchange system comprises
a rotary constructed on a level above the ground surface and consisting of a cylindrical vacant space, an annular bus stop compound formed along the periphery of the cylindrical vacant space and an annular vehicular road formed along the circumference of the annular bus stop compound,
a platform formed above the rotary and adapted to ensure the convenience of users of railcars in entering and leaving railcars,
a circular plaza formed at the bottom of the cylindrical hollow space by removing earth to a depth slightly below the ground surface,
interconnecting passages for providing communication between the circular plaza, the annular bus stop compound and the platform for railcars, and
tunnel-like passages dug across under the rotary to reduce a level connection between the circular plaza and pedestrian paths formed along the opposite sides of the roadways.
Since a little difference exists between the level of the pedestrian paths formed along the opposite sides of the roadways, that of the tunnel- like passages and that of the circular plaza, pedestrians moving across these areas enjoy, in addition to personal safety due to perfect isolation from the traffic zones, freedom from the added burden of walking which would be involved if these areas had varying levels. Moreover, since the bus stop compound and the platform for railcars are located above the circular plaza, pedestrians on the plaza are afforded easy access to buses and railcars.
Since one circular direction is fixed for the travel of vehicles within this rotary, all vehicles entering the rotary from varying directions are allowed quite freely to merge themselves into the circular flow of vehicles and separate themselves out of the flow and turn into roadways leading to their respective destinations. Despite the fact that the traffic streams in the converging roadways meet in one common plane, therefore, as a general rule, the continuous flow of vehicles through the rotary need not be interrupted as by means of traffic signals, rendering practicable the materialization of an intersection which permits natural flow of continuous traffic streams.
The inclusion in each incoming roadway of a lane exclusively for the travel of urban buses serves the purpose of providing the urban buses easy access to the bus stop compound within the rotary while paying due respect to the community policy of attaching priority to the urban bus services.
The other objects and characteristics of the present invention will become apparent from the further disclosure of the invention to be given hereinafter with reference to the accompanying drawing.
BRIEF EXPLANATION OF THE DRAWING
FIG. 1 is a partially cut-away perpective view of one embodiment of the interchange system according to the present invention.
FIG. 2 is a plan view of the interchange system of FIG. 1.
FIG. 3 is a sectioned view taken along the lines of III--III of FIG. 2.
FIG. 4 is a sectioned view taken along the lines IV--IV of FIG. 3.
FIG. 5 is a sectioned view taken along the line V--V of FIG. 3.
DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT:
This invention relates to an interchange system formed of a combination junction of elevated railways and roadways intersecting each other on the ground surface, which interchange system is constructed so as to ensure the safety and convenience of pedestrians and users of transportation facilities at said combination junction.
The drawing attached hereto represents an embodiment of the interchange system wherein the roadways intersect perpendicularly with each other and the railways are laid in a level elevated from the plane of the roadways. Within the area of the combination junction, a rotary 1 is formed by piling earth to a level slightly higher than the ground surface. Roadways converging toward the combination junction from various directions are connected through gradual upward slopes to the junction, and they join the rotary 1 within the area of this junction. The inclination of the upward slopes of the roadways is desired to be such that the slopes offer no hindrance to the travel of vehicles. The rotary 1 comprises a cylindrical hollow space 5 of a large diameter formed at the center thereof, an annular bus stop compound 6 formed along the circumference of the cylindrical hollow space 5 and an annular vehicular road 7 formed at a level one step below the bus stop. The inner lane 8 of the annular vehicular road 7 which borders on the bus stop compound 6 is defined by guard rails 9 installed at fixed intervals on one circular line. This inner lane 8 serves as a zone for the departue and arrival of buses.
Above the cylindrical hollow space 5 of the rotary 1, an annular platform 11 formed for railcars is supported in position by a multiplicity of supporting columns 12. At the bottom of the cylindrical hollow space 5, there is formed a circular plaza 10 dug to a level below the ground surface and possessed of a diameter substantially equalling the diameter of the cylindrical hollow space. To afford pedestrians ample freedom of movement, the circular plaza 10 is required to have a depth of at least 2 meters. Since the rotary 1 is formed by piling earth above the ground surface, the required depth of the plaza can actually be secured by digging earth to depth of a little over 1 meter from the ground surface. The earth thus removed by the digging can be utilized for the formation of the rotary 1.
As shown in FIG. 4, this circular plaza 10 is provided along its circumference with an annular pedestrian path 13. At a proper position on the outer edge of this annular pedestrian path 13 are installed a lavatory 14, a warehouse (or a store) 15, etc. Inside the circular plaza 10, a promenade 16, flower beds and ponds, spiral staircases 17 and elevators 18 are suitably laid out and trees are planted at a proper density.
Along the inner circular wall of the annular pedestrian path 13, there is formed a helically sloped ramp 19 so constructed that about one half of the total ascent on the ramp reaches the level of the annular bus stop 6 compound of the rotary. Further along the circular inner wall of the annular bus stop compound 6, there is formed a helically sloped ramp 20 so constructed that one complete ascent on this ramp reaches the level of the annular platform 11 of the elevated railway 3. These helically sloped ramps are supported in position by a multiplicity of supporting columns 21.
On both sides of each roadway 2, pedestrian paths 4 are formed one each at a level even with the ground surface. The roadways 2 and their adjoining pedestrian paths 4 are divided each by a lateral edge 22. Within the area of the combination junction, walls 23 are installed at fixed intervals in the pedestrian paths along the lateral edges 22. Pedestrian decks 24 which are formed between the lateral edges 22 and the walls 23 are gradually sloped downwardly from the opposite ends to the center thereof. The terminals of these downward slopes of the pedestrian decks 24 are substantially flush with the surface of the circular plaza 10 and communicate with the annular pedestrian path 13 of the circular plaza 10 via tunnel-like passages 26 formed across under the rotary 1. Consequently, pedestrians on the pedestrian path 4 have ready access to the circular plaza 10 through the pedestrian deck 24 and the tunnel-like passage 26. Through the helically sloped ramps 19, 20, they can also reach the annular bus stop compound 6 or the platform 11 for railcars. By 25 is denoted a flight of stairs which affords communication between the pedestrian path 4 and the lower ends of the downward slope of the pedestrian deck 24.
A lane 27 running along the center of each roadway 2 is exclusively intended for buses headed toward the combination junction. In the exclusive bus lanes 27, supporting columns 28 adapted to support in position the railways 3 for railcars are serially planted in such a manner as to avoid interfering with the smooth travel of buses on the lane. In the illustrated preferred embodiment, only one bus lane 27 is included in each roadway 2. The buses departing from their bus stops made a right turn into the roadways leading to their respective destinations in the same way as other ordinary vehicles. As occasion demands, however, there may be included two bus lanes to afford traffic of buses in the opposite directions.
Examples of railcars which the railways may serve include streetcars, trolley buses, monorail cars and unmanned computerized cars. Thus, the railways 3 are constructed so as to suit the particular kind of railcars to be actually operated thereon and the annular platform 11 is constructed so as to facilitate the movement of users from the platform of the railcar interior and vice versa.
In the combination junction constructed as described above, when a pedestrian on the pedestrian path 4 wishes to ride on a bus or railcar, for example, he has only to proceed from the roadway 4 to the lower end of the downward slope of the pedestrian deck 24 through the pedestrian deck or the flight of stairs 25, then walk through the tunnel- like passage 26 to the annular pedestrian path 13 of the circular plaza 10, and ascend the helically sloped ramp 19 to reach the bus stop 6.
Buses running on the center lane 27 of the roadway 2 enter the area of the junction and advance toward the lane 2 intended exclusively for the departure and arrival of buses. When other ordinary vehicles traveling on the righthand lanes enter the area of the junction, they are required to cover one quarter of the complete circle of the rotary 1 for a right turn, one half of the complete circle of the rotary to continue straight or three quarters of the complete circle of the rotary for a left turn before they enter the roadways they are expected to follow past the junction. The buses, therefore, can travel quite readily from the center lanes 27 to the innermost lane in the area of the junction to arrive at the designated bus stops. The buses departing from their fixed bus stops are required to run along the outer lanes of the rotary in the same way as other ordinary vehicles and make a left turn into the roadways leading to their destinations. Along the annular bus stop compound 6, an area may be reserved exclusively for the departure and arrival of taxi cabs at a point selected so that the travel of buses from and to the annular bus stop compound will remain obstructed.
When a pedestrian on the annular bus stop compound 6 further ascends the helically sloped ramp 20 by nearly one complete circle thereof, he reaches the platform 11 for railcars. As he stands on this platform which is annular in shape, he can look down at the circular plaza through the cylindrical hollow space which forms the center of the rotary.
To reach the bus stop or the platform for railcars from the annular pedestrian path 13, the pedestrian is only required to ascend the helically sloped ramps 19, 20. Otherwise, access may be obtained by the pedestrian by utilizing either the spiral staircase 17 or the elevator 18.
When the passenger of a railcar or a bus wishes to change cars or to go to the pedestrian path 4, he has to reverse the aformentioned procedure, i.e. to descend the helically sloped ramps 19, 20 and proceed from the annular pedestrian path 13 via the tunnel-like passage 26 to the pedestrian path 4. In this case, when there are provided two each of the helically sloped ramps 19, 20 instead of just one each thereof as described above, possible congestion of traffic of pedestrians on the ramps may be avoided by designating one of each pair of ramps for ascending pedestrians and the other for descending pedestrians.
For the sake of bicyclists, a lane for exclusive use by bicyclists may be built along the roadway side edge of the pedestrian path 4. Similarly to the pedestrian mentioned above, a bicyclist on the bicycle lane can obtain access to a desired path by traveling from the pedestrian deck 24 through the nearest tunnel-like passage 26, the annular pedestrian path 13 and another tunnel- like passage 26 opening into the path he has selected.
As is clear from the description given above, the interchange system of the present invention enjoys notable simplicity of structure such that a pedestrian wishing to go to a given bus stop or to the platform for railcars can proceed safely and quickly to the bus stop or platform. Further since most of the interconnecting passages followed in this case by the pedestrian are chiefly slopes of gentle inclinations, they can be traveled easily even by aged persons and persons confined in wheelchairs. A park abounding with a green of trees and built in the middle of the junction overlooking constant traffic streams serves the purpose of mentally relaxing passers-by. Since this circular park is formed on a semi-underground level, it receives natural sunshine. Since the earth dug out in building this park is conveniently utilized for raising the rotary above the ground level, the park proves to be simple to make and inexpensive and contributes much to structural fortification of the junction itself. Moreover, the location of a bus lane along the center line of each of the roadways converging toward the junction facilitates the departure and arrival of buses in the bus stops installed within the rotary and, at the same time, serves the purpose of smoothening the flow of ordinary vehicles through the rotary.
Even when the number of roadways converging toward the junction is three or five, the interchange system of this invention can be formed in the same construction as described above by simply decreasing or increasing the number of tunnel-like passages communicating with the semiunderground circular plaza accordingly. | |
One of the biggest Russian film distribution companies Central Partnership will release the film in Russia. Artcam Films will distribute it in the Czech Republic after its screening at Prague International Film Festival Febiofest (21-29 March 2019).
The Humorist is a coproduction between Metrafilms (Russia) in association with SAGA Film Production (Russia), Tasse film (Latvia) and Sirena film (Czech Republic).
The film was co-financed by the Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation, the National Film Centre of Latvia, the Riga Film Fund, the Czech Film Fund and Eurimages.
The Humorist follows a week in the life of Boris Arkadiev, a fictional Soviet stand-up comedian, who is tormented not only by external oppression and censorship, but also by his own insecurities that poison all his relationships.
The film is not only the director’s debut feature, but also the first main role for Aleksey Agranovich, whose performance as Boris Arkadiev was already awarded at the main Russian debut film festival Dvijenie with the best actor in leading role award.
M-appeal is handling the sales. | https://www.filmneweurope.com/news/latvia-news/item/117692-the-humorist-to-be-released-in-its-countries-of-origin |
Nearly 100 Canadian fire experts have been sent to Australia to help battle one of the worst wildfire seasons the country has ever seen.
Foreign Affairs Minister Francois-Philippe Champagne says Canada is willing to do more to help, but a spokesman from his office says all Australia has requested so far is more people.
“I have communicated with my Australian counterpart to reiterate that we are prepared to consider further assistance as necessary,” Champagne said in a written statement. ”When wildfires spread through Canadian communities, Australia answered our call for help. We are proud to do the same.”
Canada has offered money and equipment to aid other countries in the past, including a $15-million offer of cash and temporary use of some water-bombers when the Amazon rain forest was on fire in Brazil and Bolivia last summer. Global Affairs Canada has not yet said whether any of that money flowed or if the water-bombers were deployed.
University of British Columbia biology professor Karen Hodges said it is common for the international firefighting community to share resources and expertise in times of need.
“Whenever there are catastrophic wildfires other countries are willing to help,” she said.
Australian firefighters, alongside Americans, Mexicans, and New Zealanders, came to Canada in 2018 to help British Columbia beat back the worst fire season that province has ever seen.
The Australian national council for fire and emergencies said Wednesday 97 Canadians have deployed to Australia to help this season along with 159 Americans and others from New Zealand. One group of Canadians arrived to cheers and applause as they pushed through the doors into the airport arrivals area in Sydney on Jan. 6.
Angela Bogdan, the Canadian consul general in Australia, greeted the group and told them the Australians are extremely grateful for their help.
“I cannot underscore enough that in making this long journey you’ve brought hope and reassurance to these people,” said Bogdan.
The first group of 21 experts who arrived in early December headed home Wednesday, as another group of eight arrived. New South Wales Premier Gladys Berejiklian tweeted a thank-you to them Wednesday, saying “NSW won’t forget what you have done.”
Most of the Canadians are there to help with aviation, logistics and fire behaviour, while Australia relies heavily on local volunteer firefighters to battle the blazes.
Widespread drought and multiple heatwaves are creating perfect conditions for fires, which have scorched millions of hectares of bushland since October. Australian sources seem to differ on how much land has burnt.
Fire agencies in New South Wales and Victoria, the two most populated states in Australia, reported on their websites that there were 3.9 million hectares and 1.2 million hectares of fires, respectively, burning on their territories right now. In New South Wales, 136 fires are being tracked, 36 of them out of control.
Officials in Australia say 25 people have been killed in the fires.
Last year was a bad year for fires in many parts of the world including in Russia, Angola, Indonesia and California. Environment experts say climate change is largely to blame for an increase in fire risk.
Hodges said in Australia, there are often many small, cooler-burning fires that take out dead scrub brush and grasses but don’t destroy the tree canopy. She said the difference this year is that because of drought and heat, the fires are burning hotter and far more trees are succumbing to the flames.
More than half a billion animals are believed to have perished in the fires.
Hodges said it will take Australia “decades” to recover the trees that have been lost. | https://www.ominecaexpress.com/news/canada-will-consider-more-aid-for-australia-as-bushfires-burn-across-country/ |
State of Decay 2 Review
There is two things in life that are certain, and that’s death and taxes. Now thanks to State of Decay 2, only one of these is true. Civilisation as we know it has fallen and not even the military could stop the zombie hordes from taking over. So it’s now fallen on you to gather and band together with other survivors and build a community in this new post-apocalyptic world. While there not much back story to the game or even throughout, there’s not much need for it, as you set about trying to survive.
When starting State of Decay 2, you can choose where to build your base or new home for the community. There are three locations on offer and each with their own terrain and layout. So it’s down to you where you want to state your claim and make your stand. Each map is open and they are also the same size of the original map from the first game. Once you have chosen your location, it’s now down to what happens next. First thing to do is get to your safe house and from there find a watch tower so you can survey the land and make a plan. It’s here where you can manage resources and choose how you want to live in this new world. Do you choose to go all out and fight and take what’s yours or try and build relationships and form alliances with other communities?
With State of Decay 2, you have to scavenge the map for resources so your small community can survive. So where do you start? The best option would be to find a tower or look-out point and then survey the area to find what is around you and what resources are available. Once you have established what resources are around, you can start to journey out and gather what you need. Resources are food, fuel, ammo, meds and materials for building. When you are running about the map for resources, always be weary of your surroundings as while you search for those valuable resources, zeds can sneak up on you, especially at night, especially while searching, as it can take some time. You are often tempted to fast search by holding LB, but in doing so can create too much noise and alert Zeds to your location, which you then have to stop your search to eradicate them before you can safely start searching again.
When searching for all important resources you will come across these rucksacks, these are vital resources that come in large rucksacks that you need to bring back to your home and store them. Storing these rucksacks gives your community the vital resources they need to survive and it’s what you need to be searching for the most! If you plan to go out for long stints at a time, a vehicle is your best bet, since you can store multiple packs in the boot.
Once you have the necessary resources back at your community, you can now set about constructing facilities that will help the survival of your “family”. You can build all manner of facilities, like a power generator, an infirmary, a farm and much more. Each one has their own advantages and disadvantages, for instance with a power generator, you will have power and electricity, but at the cost of making more noise. This extra noise coming from your community will increase the risk of a zombie attack. So it makes you choice that more important and which facilities you want to choose first, a risk verses reward choice.
State of Decay 2 offers only a morsel of new building options in terms of basic administration and doesn’t offer much in change compared to the first title. There are no options to let other survivors do certain jobs or even send them out on scavenger hunts. However, each survivor you do meet when out and about can either be an ally or an enemy. Especially when you meet other Enclaves or communities will out there. If you can trade with them and their groups you can form friendships and alliances. These can be useful for grabbing those extra resources for your community. You can also do small missions for them and you can even include them in your group as you venture out. Some of these however may not want to share any resources and it’s up to you to either walk away from them or take it all. It’s a real sense of Walking Dead territory when it happens. If you are lucky enough as well, certain survivors you come across will have special traits or skills. These can become invaluable for you and you can even invite them to become part of your community to improve your chance of survival.
Another new innovation in State of Decay 2 is the blood disease. The blood disease is spread across certain parts of the map thanks mostly to Plague Hearts. These hearts are made up of twisted lump of gore and bone and they have a nasty surprise. As soon as you start attacking one of these hearts, all nearby zombies in the vicinity will swarm in and attack you. They can also spew out gas into the area, infecting anyone caught in it to contract the blood plague. It’s a wise choice to have plenty of firepower when confronting these hearts as with each one you destroy, they become increasingly harder. It’s as if they are connected to one another and get stronger with each one you eliminate.
Not only do we have these Plague Hearts to remove and fight off the blood plague. But we get some particularly nasty and dangerous special zombies such as the massive Juggernaut which `charge at you and can handle almost anything you throw at them, even your vehicles will have a hard time with them. You also have to deal with Bloaters, which like to explode a toxic green-yellow looking gas, that if inhaled can cause you some serious damage. Lastly, you get to meet the Ferals, these are quick and run on all fours and can pounce on you. These nasty little buggers can keep chewing on you until it chews you in half. So be quick and take them down with your car or a rifle.
When it comes to the weapons, State of Decay 2 does have quite a few on offer. From pistols, shotguns to sub-machine guns and rifles. Each weapon has their own stats and their uses and it gives you more options and choice on when and where to use them. Then you have your standard melee weapons that you can find about the map. With all weapons, they can become damaged and even broken. Unfortunately, they can’t be repaired directly in the inventory and in order to do so, you need to place them back at your base first, providing you have your workshop up and running. What you can also repair at your community home is vehicles. These can also become damaged over time from zombies attacking you or by you smashing into them and obstacles like fences etc…
In regards to the vehicles; you have to regularly refuel and repair them as they are vitally important to you when you have to travel large distances to meet up with an ally or find those important resources. With a garage in the base, you can not only repair your vehicles, but you can also provide them with upgrades. You can kit out your car with armour and more to protect you against the zombie masses. The only issue I found with the vehicles is that sometimes you can become stuck on small rocks or in ditches and it can often happen a little too frequently. Which can become a bit of a headache, especially if you have a trunk full of rucksacks, and have no means of getting them all home!
When you are travelling across State of Decay 2’s post-apocalypse world and whether you are going solo or playing with friends, it can be really be a lot of fun, but nerve wracking at the same time. This is due to each of your characters’ perma-death. Any mishap or mistake can very well be your very last one. As your survivors improve their skills over time and you can choose between two upgrades at each level up. When you have been using a survivor for quite some time and built them up in the community, it can hurt when that survivor dies. I lost one of my survivors that I’d had right from the start and to say that I was upset, was a bit of an understatement. Never did a game make me regret the mistakes that I made, when my hero died on me. Not only that, he had plenty of vital resources that would have significantly helped the community survive for days. It all adds to the atmosphere and your overall experience when playing through each character.
In State of Decay 2, you can choose to play solo or play as a team in co-op. For the first time, we get a chance to team up with friends or other gamers to explore an open world and find the resources and valuable gear that is necessary to keep your community alive. Whichever you choose, you will need to survive, protect and kill if the need arises… However, there are two major drawbacks to this; first is that you cannot venture too far away from the host player, as doing this will see you teleported back to them. Secondly, while you can collect items and influence points, the mission progress is counted only for the host and changes to their base. While it may sound good, it’s a shame that you can venture out further and have that extra risk factor of do you stay home will your friends go out to look for resources. Do you all go out and try to grab what you can, but then venturing too far may get you surrounded and helpless. While this restrictive co-op feature does become a nuisance at times, it’s worth noting that you can normally do better when working together and gather more resources quicker. To some, it may not be a factor, but to others, this could be something of a problem and become too frustrating than anything else.
Undead Labs have really made something amazing with State of Decay 2. The game really brings home a sense of fear and dread when you are out scavenging for resources. With each journey out you run the risk of death by zombie and human alike, plus having to contend with your own community not ripping each other apart! It’s a perfect blend of despair and hope and something that you need to experience to understand what was achieved. While it’s not a perfect game and does have its flaws, it’s something that must not be missed.
Summary:
State of Decay 2 is a zombie survivalist dream and probably one of the best that’s available to date. There is so much to do in the game that you never feel bored or wondering what to do next. It is a shame about the co-op mode as it feels like it was thrown in at the last minute, but I’m hoping in future instalments it can be improved on. While the game won’t break any records for graphical achievement, the world that Undead Labs has created is well designed and beautiful in its own right. I can’t wait to get back in there and smash more zombie hordes with my car door. | http://www.guardianofgamers.com/reviews/xbox-game-reviews/state-of-decay-2-review/ |
The new IRBA Code of Professional Conduct for Registered Auditors (Revised November 2018) (IRBA Code) came into effect recently, but not all registered auditors understand the practical implications thereof. This article sets out important practical areas to consider to ensure ethical compliance.
When does what apply?
The effective dates relevant to the new IRBA Code are as follows:
• Parts 1 & 3: 15 June 2019
• Part 4A & 4B: Periods beginning on or after 15 June 2019
• Section 321 amendments: Engagements commencing on or after 15 January 2020
Just because some parts of the new IRBA Code will only become effective next year doesn’t mean that it can be left for then. Firms should already start with preparations now to be able to fully comply at that time.
Changes to the conceptual framework
The new IRBA Code clarifies the definition of a reasonably informed third party (RITP) and requires that the RITP test should be applied to all three stages of applying the conceptual framework. Professional judgement should also be exercised throughout the entire process. The registered auditor should remain alert for new information and changes in facts and circumstances, since this may influence conclusions drawn.
The new IRBA Code further brought in a stand back requirement to consider the overall conclusion made and whether actions taken are appropriate to resolve the issue. Safeguards are no longer the only means to address threats and it should be thoroughly considered whether safeguards are actually effective or whether further steps need to be taken.
All of these changes should be considered and documentation of ethical considerations should clearly reflect how these new requirements were brought in. This therefore requires an update to ethical considerations working papers and registers of the firm.
Independence
Some of the changes to the independence provisions of the new IRBA Code requires firms to change policies, update forms and registers and create awareness among staff to ensure that these are correctly applied and complied with. The following are areas requiring action by firms ahead of the effective date to ensure that everyone is ready for implementation:
• Inducements: The previous definition of gifts and hospitality has been expanded significantly, a new intent test was introduced and inducements relating to immediate or close family members should be considered. Firms should therefore update gifts registers, related forms and working papers to cater for this.
• Recruitment: Reference checks for senior positions at audit clients are no longer allowed, and searching for candidates are also prohibited. This means that firms should review services provided to clients and inform clients accordingly.
• Long association: The extension of the cooling off period for audit engagement partners of public interest entities was already brought in during 2018 with transitional provisions, but not all firms have started planning for this yet. The firm’s rotation plan and strategy for continuity must be revised in line with the new requirements.
• Networks: Many requirements previously only referred to firms and the vast majority of requirements now refer to both firms and network firms. Policies and procedures of network firms may require updating in this regard to ensure full compliance.
NOCLAR
Non-compliance with laws and regulations (NOCLAR) provisions were already effective from 2017 as a separate pronouncement from the extant IRBA Code. When these requirements were brought into the new IRBA Code, a few modifications were made in terms of the NOCLAR response framework but the overarching principles remained the same.
The biggest practical challenge to date, however, is that not all firms have documented their consideration of the NOCLAR response framework, since many believed that it was addressed through considering reportable irregularities. Firms should consider implementing separate NOCLAR considerations working papers and registers, or combine this with their existing forms and processes to ensure that it also caters for NOCLAR requirements.
Audit report
The IRBA issued a communication in March 2019 about the impact of the effective dates of the new IRBA Code on audit reports. The illustration below sets this out clearly. Auditors should be mindful of this when issuing audit reports during this transitional period. South African Auditing Practice Statement 3 (SAAPS 3) was revised and the updated version was issued by the IRBA in May 2019, therefore it should be easy enough to check against this whether audit reports are worded correctly.
Conclusion
The new changes coming into effect require revision of existing practices, forward planning and communication to staff and other affected parties. Don’t be left behind or caught off guard – take action now to ensure that your firm is compliant. If you have any questions or need a helping hand, you are welcome to contact LEAF for expert technical advice and practical guidance.
References
1. IRBA Code of Professional Conduct for Registered Auditors (Revised November 2018), November 2018
2. IRBA: Final amendments to the IRBA Code of Professional Conduct for Registered Auditors (Revised November 2018) in respect of Section 321 Second Opinions, June 2019
3. IRBA: Alert: Implications of the effective dates of the IRBA Code of Professional Conduct for Registered Auditors (Revised November 2018) on the Auditor’s and Assurance Provider’s Reports, March 2019
4. IRBA: South African Auditing Practice Statement 3 – Illustrative Reports, May 2019
Need help?
If you need advice, guidance, assistance or training, our experienced specialists at LEAF are ready to help your firm to push above and beyond the norm. | https://leafexcellenceinauditingforum.com/practical-implications-of-the-new-irba-code/ |
The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) approved an updated Strategic Enforcement Plan (SEP) for Fiscal Years 2017-2021, reaffirming the agency's commitment to efforts that have strategic impact in advancing equal opportunity in America's workplaces.
EEOC's Strategic Enforcement Plan for Fiscal Years 2017-2021 continues to prioritize the areas identified in its previous SEP, with some modifications:
-Eliminating barriers in recruitment and hiring;
-Protecting vulnerable workers, including immigrant and migrant workers, and underserved communities from discrimination;
-Addressing selected emerging and developing issues;
-Ensuring equal pay protections for all workers;
-Preserving access to the legal system; and
-Preventing systemic harassment.
Notable updates made by this SEP are the addition of two areas to the emerging issues priority:
1) issues related to complex employment relationships in the 21st century workplace; and
2) backlash discrimination against those who are Muslim or Sikh, or persons of Arab, Middle Eastern or South Asian descent, as well as persons perceived to be members of these groups, as tragic events in the United States and abroad have increased the likelihood of discrimination against these communities. The lack of diversity in technology and the increasing use of data driven screening tools, highlighted by recent Commission meetings, are also recognized as focus areas within the priority on barriers to recruitment and hiring.
As the Commission reinforces its efforts to address pay discrimination based on sex, this SEP also includes combatting pay discrimination that persists based on race, ethnicity, age, and for individuals with disabilities.
The SEP also emphasizes coordinated strategies across the EEOC to leverage the agency's resources and promote good government. An integrated approach promotes broad sharing and consideration of ideas, strategies, and promising practices and furthers collaboration and coordination throughout the agency. | https://www.hrcare.com/article.aspx/195/3757/ |
About the I-CARE project
Professional interventions and relationships between health and social care workers and their clients can be complex, and differences in attitudes and approaches can at times give rise to misunderstandings or even the isolation of specific groups of staff and groups of clients or patients.
I-CARE will develop learning and training opportunities that enable social and health care workers to deal proficiently with clients with a migration background, with the aim of:
- promoting communication and social skills in their interaction with clients with a migration background
- supporting social diversity, and
- reducing prejudices and xenophobia
Specifically, the I-CARE project will develop:
- Intercultural Competence Guidelines: for HR managers, trainers and decision makers on the benefits and importance of cultural competence for health professionals working in cross-cultural situations.
- Action Sheets for Intercultural Competence: for staff working in the social and healthcare sector, covering all issues of intercultural communication with clients with migrants.
- The I-CARE Toolbox: a range of learning modules and training materials to support the development of Intercultural Competence in the Social and Healthcare sector.
- The I-CARE App: providing mobile access to a range of learning materials and helpful information designed to help people working in the sector to be more informed and to learn wherever and whenever.
I-CARE will be put into practice through national pilots with at least 120 trainers involved in continuous education, training, HR departments etc. and at least 120 members of the target group (employees in the social and healthcare sector).
At least 150 more vocational education and training providers, HR managers and in-house trainers will be informed about the project outputs and instructed in how to use them via multiplier events held in each of the partner countries. | https://www.i-care-project.net/about-icare/ |
DNA fingerprinting, also known as DNA profiling, serves as a standard procedure in forensics to identify a person by the short tandem repeat (STR) loci in their DNA. By comparing the STR loci between DNA samples, practitioners can calculate a probability of match to identity the contributors of a DNA mixture. Most existing methods are based on 13 core STR loci which were identified by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). Analyses based on these loci of DNA mixture for forensic purposes are highly variable in procedures, and suffer from subjectivity as well as bias in complex mixture interpretation. With the emergence of next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies, the sequencing of billions of DNA molecules can be parallelized, thus greatly increasing throughput and reducing the associated costs. This allows the creation of new techniques that incorporate more loci to enable complex mixture interpretation. In this paper, we propose a computation for likelihood ratio that uses NGS (next generation sequencing) data for DNA testing on mixed samples. We have applied the method to 4480 simulated DNA mixtures, which consist of various mixture proportions of 8 unrelated whole-genome sequencing data. The results confirm the feasibility of utilizing NGS data in DNA mixture interpretations. We observed an average likelihood ratio as high as 285,978 for two-person mixtures. Using our method, all 224 identity tests for two-person mixtures and three-person mixtures were correctly identified.
Research Area(s)
- Forensics, Mixture interpretation, Statistics
Citation Format(s)
NGS-based likelihood ratio for identifying contributors in two- and three-person DNA mixtures. / Chan Mun Wei, Joshua; Zhao, Zicheng; Li, Shuai Cheng; Ng, Yen Kaow.In: Computational Biology and Chemistry, Vol. 74, 06.2018, p. 428-433. | https://scholars.cityu.edu.hk/en/publications/ngsbased-likelihood-ratio-for-identifying-contributors-in-two-and-threeperson-dna-mixtures(3963aca4-2958-4c4f-bd7d-2b02db5d737a).html |
Let’s go back in time, two years to be precise the Nigerian economy was rebased in April 2014 after a 24 year hiatus. The GDP was rebased from a 1990 base year to a 2010 one. This rebasing placed the value of the economy at USD 509.97 billion from USD 270 billion a whooping 90% increase.
This made it the largest economy in Africa toppling South Africa which had been for a longtime stood as the African Powerhouse. Furthermore, this very increase propelled it to capture 26th position globally.
So you may ask, why rebase? What’s GDP? Why the sudden growth in the economy yet the situation on the ground remains the same? All of these shall be answered in this very piece.
GDP is the Gross Domestic Product which can be defined in layman’s terms as the final value of all officially recognized final goods and services produced within a country over a given period of time usually a year. However, it can be assessed quarterly.
GDP is therefore computed in three ways. The Income approach, the Output approach as well as the Expenditure Approach.
The Income approach places emphasis on incomes generated from engaging factors of production namely labour, capital, entrepreneurship and land. Incomes generated from this engagement are wages, interest, profits and rent respectively. A summation of these rewards informs this approach
Expenditure Approach is the most commonly used approach the world over and it is computed as a summation of consumption, investments, government expenditure and net exports.
Finally, the output approach sums the value of the sales of goods in an economy and adjusting the purchase of the intermediate goods to produce the goods sold.
Nations need to rebase their economies every five years according to the United Nations Statistical Committee. This is in order to capture true picture of sectors that may have otherwise been ignored and have grown in leaps and bounds. It is important to note that there are certain countries in Africa who have not rebased their economies for slightly over three decades. Case in example, Democratic Republic of Congo and Equatorial Guinea are just but a few of those that have not.
The Nigerian rebasing was informed by certain sectors in the economy that had for a long time been overlooked or grossly under-reported . Furthermore, certain sectors contributed hugely to the GDP and these include : Entertainment (Nollywood which employs a staggering one million people) , Telecommunication which grew from 0.89%-8.69%, Services industry’s capacity expanded from 29.04%-51.59%, Manufacturing’s ground shifted from 1.9%-6.83%. This is as per the Nigerian Bureau of Statistics.
The statistics may have changed but the situation on the ground remains the same. This is because a growth in the GDP (economic growth) does not always translate into Economic Development. The latter is a function of the growth coupled with social welfare for instance affordable healthcare, quality education, reduction of unemployment, excellent sanitation among other qualitative aspects that contribute to the wellness of a populace.
So what ails the Nigerian economy or better yet African states? They are commodity driven economies and have a chronic lack of diversified ‘portfolios’. The Nigerian economy heavily relies on the oil industry and with the weakening of the global prices of crude it goes without saying that their economy would take a big hit. 70% of the Government’s income comes from crude and the global prices having taken a dip by more than a half from USD 112 a barrel a few years back to less than USD 50.
The dependency of oil coupled with the allure it generated of great wealth through government contracts, fed into other economic distortions. The country’s high propensity to import means roughly 80% of government expenditures is recycled into foreign exchange. Cheap consumer imports, resulting from a chronically overvalued local currency, with an extremely high domestic consumption due in part to erratic electricity and fuel supply, suppressed utilization of industrial capacity to less than 30%. Many more Nigerian factories would have closed except for relatively low labor costs (10%–15%). Domestic manufacturers, especially pharmaceuticals and textiles, have lost their ability to compete in traditional regional markets. However, there are signs that some manufacturers have begun to improve competitiveness.
The country then plunged into an all time high inflation the highest in 11 years of 17.1% as their GDP and economy at large shrunk by 2.06% and 0.36% respectively. To make matters worse production of oil in this large nation has taken a toll, a decline from 2.11 million barrels a day to 1.69 million barrels a situation contributed by militia at the Niger Delta the very source of crude. It is dangerous to have a commodity driven economy because it can be held ransom by a few people alias cartels.
It goes without question that African economies need to have a paradigm shift on structuring their economies. If the largest of its kind is already in recession what of the rest?
Essentially a component of GDP being trade i.e the net exports shows how African States are at a disadvantage because of exporting agricultural products in their raw form and fetch rather low foreign exchange as opposed to more had value been added. In other words, governments should aim at growing agro-processing plants that aim at adding value to exports. Such that we do not import what we already grow. An example is Kenya’s coffee which is grown locally and happens to be amongst the chief exports but the irony being so many international brands of the same product have a larger market share here. This shows then that there’s indeed a market for processed coffee within and without. Therefore , it is incumbent upon any government to ensure that the key exports especially agricultural produce have value addition. That’s how manufacturing sector gets to expand from the pre-existing traditional setup
The SMEs cannot go unmentioned. In the Kenyan case for instance, they constitute about 90% of the businesses, contribute 30% of jobs in the population and about 3% of the GDP. They also absorb up to 50% of new non-farm employment seekers as well as an employment growth rate of 12-14 % annually. If this sector can be streamlined and well incentives pumped their way, it’ll be able to tackle the issue of unemployment and also increase the tax revenue.
The creative industry is another industry that has yet to be fully exploited. It is arguably a dollar billion industry with a potential of engaging the youth and the old alike in gainful employment. Hollywood, Bollywood and our very own Nollywood are just but examples of successful tapping into diversification of an economy.
A lot needs to be done to achieve an economy that is diversified and like every journey, it begins with one step. The above are just but sectors that can be looked into when diversification of economies is put into perspective. | https://tote.co.ke/rebased-economy-in-recession/ |
“Cleopatra's nose, had it been shorter, the whole face of the world would have been changed”. This famous quote of French mathematician Blaise Pascal suggests that even small details and events can have powerful repercussions. Did Martin Luther, an obscure priest from the Holy Roman Empire, imagine his coming impact on the Catholic Church, when he nailed his Ninety-five Theses to the door of All Saints’ Church in Wittenberg, 500 years ago? The Reformation he impulsed deeply shaped the religious landscape in Europe in the last centuries.
2017 is not only the 500th anniversary of the Reformation. Throughout Europe, we celebrate other events that had a significant impact on the history of Europe: the 100 year anniversary of the First World War and the Russian Revolution, the 60 years of the Treaty of Rome, the 40th anniversary of the Charter 77… Each of these events deeply transformed the path of Europe in religious, cultural or political ways.
We celebrate these events as they are still meaningful for us today. They are part of a so-called “collective memory”, a concept developed by Maurice Halbwachs. For Halbwachs, collective memory is the reconstruction of past events with present social and cultural frames. Going past the individual remembrance, a group reconstruct its past to give it a specific meaning. Other authors have shown the multiple forms of collective memory. Also, collective memories of different groups can be in conflict and may lead to heated disputes. This multiplicity of collective memories and their forms is the issue we try to tackle in this dossier. Building upon solid academic works, we hope to offer diverse and thought-provoking articles.
This dossier is organised as follows.
First, an interview of French sociologist Georges Mink conducted by Francis Masson provides a strong and deep overview of the issues around the concept of collective memory. Discussing effects and conflicts on collective memory, Georges Mink also expose his view on the place of collective memory by the prism of European political dynamics.
Svetlana Kim offers a narrative of a pilgrimage to the Russian Far East by descents of the Koryo-saram minority, with and underlying question: how to remember people that suffer? Are they only victims?
Balázs Gyimesi analyses the issue of the Germans of Transylvania. Retracing the history of German settlement in the region and its exodus in the 20th century, he relates the recent actions of governments towards the remaining minority.
Pauline Maufrais explores the concept of collective memory through the architecture of Prague, a city that combines old central-European architecture with the modernist soviet one. How do the inhabitants and the Czech government reflect upon this situation?
Andreas Pacher examines the comprehension of collective memory of a contested state, the Donetsk People’s Republic through an original source: the diplomatic notes. Connecting the concept of collective memory with a contested statehood helps to understand how political the understanding of events might be.
Inga Chelyadina studies in depth the political sensitiveness of collective memory with the example of the 100th anniversary of the Russian Revolution. Using schoolbooks and a film, she shows how controversial the Revolution still is, especially for the powerful.
Finally, Eric Crozon looks upon the recent House of European History in Brussels. Why is such a projet difficult to achieve? What to include in the exposition? Answers are not obvious, in a time where several European countries try to create a transnational common polity.
This dossier is based on the following readings:
Bazin, A. (2006). Effets et usages de l'intégration européenne sur la transformation des relations conflictuelles: le cas germano-tchèque. Politique européenne, (1), 127-154. https://doi.org/10.3917/poeu.018.0127
Judt, T. (1992). The past is another country: myth and memory in postwar Europe. Daedalus, 83-118. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400832057-013
Ludwig, A. (2011). Representations of the Everyday and the Making of Memory: GDR History and Museums. In Remembering the German Democratic Republic (pp. 37-53). Palgrave Macmillan UK. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230349698_3
Mink, G. (2008). Between Reconciliation and the Reactivation of Past Conflicts in Europe: Rethinking Social Memory Paradigms. Czech Sociological Review, 44(3), 469-491. | http://www.nouvelle-europe.eu/en/thematic/collective-memory-europe |
By Melanie Walker, Elaine Unterhalter
This compelling publication introduces Nobel laureate Amartya Sen's strength procedure and explores its value for conception, coverage and perform in schooling. The booklet appears to be like really at questions about the schooling of kids, gender equality, and better schooling. individuals hail from the united kingdom, united states, Australia, Italy and Mexico.
Read Online or Download Amartya Sen’s Capability Approach and Social Justice in Education PDF
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Extra info for Amartya Sen’s Capability Approach and Social Justice in Education
Sample text
Brighouse, Harry, and Adam Swift. 2003. Defending liberalism in education theory. Journal of Education Policy 18:355–373. Comim, Flavio. 2003. Capability dynamics: The importance of time to capability assessments. Paper read at the Third International Conference on the Capability Approach, September, University of Pavia, Italy. Dreze, Jean, and Amartya Sen. 1995. India: Economic development and social opportunity. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Gallacher, Jim, Beth Crossan, John Field, and B.
Inequality re-examined. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ———. 1993. Capability and well being. In Nussbaum and Sen, The quality of life. ———. 1999. Development as freedom. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ———. 2002. Rationality and freedom. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ———. 2004a. Capabilities, lists and public reason: Continuing the conversation. Feminist Economics 10:77–80. ———. 2004b. What Indians taught China. The New York Review of Books 19:61–66. Stromquist, Nelly. 1998. Empowering women through knowledge: Politics and practices in international cooperation in basic education.
With regard to education and children, Sen emphasizes the importance of schooling to nurture future capabilities (Saito 2003). Nussbaum, too, is clear that children should be required to remain in compulsory education (schooling) until they have developed the capabilities that are important in enabling them to have genuine and valued choices, such as the choice to exit from a traditional, religious community. She concedes that we cannot develop a mature adult capability without having some practice of it. | http://tasteofheavenbk.com/library/amartya-sens-capability-approach-and-social-justice-in-education |
Apache named Gary T. Clark as vice president of investor relations. He joins Apache from Chesapeake Energy, where he was the vice president of investor relations and research. Before joining Chesapeake in 2012, Clark worked as a senior securities analyst at the State Teachers Retirement System of Ohio and as a co-portfolio manager at Dynamis Advisors. He also worked as a senior explorati on and production coverage research analyst at Stifel, Nicolaus & Company. Clark began his career in Apache's treasury department in the early 1990s.
Creating sufficient and sustained fracture conductivity contributes directly to the success of acid-fracturing treatments. The permeability and mineralogy distributions of formation rocks play significant roles in creating nonuniformly etched surfaces that can withstand high closure stress. Previous studies showed that, depending on the properties of formation rock and acidizing conditions (acid selection, formation temperature, injection rate, and contact time), a wide range of etching patterns (roughness, uniform, channeling) could be created that can dictate the resultant fracture conductivity. Insoluble minerals and their distribution can completely change the outcomes of acid-fracturing treatments. However, most experimental studies use homogeneous rock samples such as Indiana limestone that do not represent the highly heterogeneous features of carbonate rocks. This work studies the effect of heterogeneity and, more importantly, the distribution of insoluble rock on acid-fracture conductivity.
In this research, we conducted acid-fracturing experiments using both homogeneous Indiana limestone samples and heterogeneous carbonate rock samples. The Indiana limestone tests served as a baseline. The highly heterogeneous carbonate rock samples contain several types of insoluble minerals such as quartz and various types of clays along sealed natural fractures. These minerals are distributed in the form of streaks correlated against the flow direction, or as smaller nodules. After acidizing the rock samples, these minerals acted as pillars that significantly reduced conductivity-decline rate at high closure stresses. Both X-ray diffraction (XRD) and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) tests were performed to pinpoint the type and location of different minerals on the fracture surfaces. A surface profilometer was also used to correlate conductivity as a function of mineralogy distribution by comparing the surface scans from after the acidizing test to the scans after the conductivity test. Theoretical models considering geostatistical correlation parameters were used to match and understand the experimental results.
Results of our study showed that insoluble minerals with higher-strength mechanical properties were not crushed at high-closure stress, resulting in a less-steep conductivity decline with an increasing closure stress. If the acid etching creates enough conductivity, the rock sample can sustain a higher closure stress with a much lower decline rate compared with Indiana limestone samples. Fracture surfaces with insoluble mineral streaks correlated against the flow direction offer the benefit of being able to maintain conductivity at high closure stress, but not necessarily high initial conductivity. Using a fracture-conductivity model with correlation length, we matched the fracture-conductivity behavior for the heterogeneous samples. Fracture surfaces with mineral streaks correlated with the flow direction could increase acid-fracturing conductivity significantly as compared to the case when the streak is correlated against the flow direction.
The results of the study show that fracture conductivity can be optimized by taking advantage of the distribution of insoluble minerals along the fracture surface and demonstrate important considerations to make the acid-fracturing treatment successful.
Because of the higher cost of scale management for subsea (SS) operations compared with platform or onshore fields, and because of the more limited opportunities for interventions, it is becoming increasingly important to obtain and use real production data from wells rather than estimated zone flow contribution from simple permeability (k) and height (h) models for scale-squeeze-treatment design.
In this paper I discuss how scale-squeeze treatments were designed (coreflood evaluation of inhibitor retention/release) and deployed for three SS heterogeneous production wells. A permeability model and a layer-height model were initially developed for each well using detailed geological log data, estimated water/oil-production rates, and the predicted water-ingress location within the wells. Two wells were each treated three times using bullhead scale-squeeze treatments, with effective scale control being reported over the designed lifetime. A production log was acquired before the fourth squeeze campaign of these two wells. This information was incorporated into the squeeze simulation to allow review of the ongoing third squeeze and enhance design accuracy for the upcoming fourth squeezes. A third well was treated twice before production-logging data became available, and the performance of treatments to this well is also assessed.
The production-logging-tool (PLT) data proved very important in changing the understanding of fluid placement and the water-ingress location during production, resulting in changes to the isotherm values used to achieve effective history match to the inhibitor returns (with PLT data incorporated in all three wells), and most significantly affecting the squeeze lifetimes. It was possible to significantly extend the treatment lifetime of two of the wells (cumulative produced water to minimum inhibitor concentration), while the treatment life of one well was greatly reduced because of the PLT-data-modified model predictions.
In this paper I outline the process of reservoir/near-wellbore modeling that is used for most initial squeeze-treatment service companies deployed in the North Sea. I will highlight in detail the value that PLT data can provide to improve the effectiveness of squeeze treatments in terms of understanding of fluid placement during squeeze deployment and water-ingress location within heterogenous production wells. The intention of this paper is to highlight the value that these types of data can provide to improve scale management (squeeze treatment and water shutoff) such that the value created more than offsets the cost of acquiring such information for SS production wells.
Gowida, Ahmed (King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals) | Elkatatny, Salaheldin (King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals) | Abdulraheem, Abdulazeez (King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals)
Formation density plays a central role to identify the types of downhole formations. It is measured in the field using density logging tool either via logging while drilling (LWD) or more commonly by wireline logging, after the formations have been drilled, because of operational limitations during the drilling process that prevent the immediate acquisition of formation density.
The objective of this study is to develop a predictive tool for estimating the formation bulk density (RHOB) while drilling using artificial neural networks (ANN). The ANN model uses the drilling mechanical parameters as inputs and petrophysical well-log data for RHOB as outputs. These drilling mechanical parameters including the rate of penetration (ROP), weight on bit (WOB), torque (T), standpipe pressure (SPP) and rotating speed (RPM), are measured in real time during drilling operation and significantly affected by the formation types. A dataset of 2,400 data points obtained from horizontal wells was used for training the ANN model. The obtained dataset has been divided into a 70:30 ratio for training and testing the model, respectively.
The results showed a high match with a correlation coefficient (R) between the predicted and the measured RHOB of 0.95 and an average absolute percentage error (AAPE) of 0.71%. These results demonstrated the ability of the developed ANN model to predict RHOB while drilling based on the drilling mechanical parameters using an accurate and low-cost tool. The black-box mode of the developed ANN model was converted into white-box mode by extracting a new ANN-based correlation to calculate RHOB directly without the need to run the ANN model. The new model can help geologists to identify the formations while drilling. Also, by tracking the RHOB trends obtained from the model it helps drilling engineers avoid many interrupting problems by detecting hazardous formations, such as overpressured zones, and identifying the well path, especially while drilling horizontal sections. In addition, the continuous profile of RHOB obtained from the developed ANN model can be used as a reference to solve the problem of missing and false logging data.
Petrophysical analysis of downhole logs requires accurate knowledge of matrix properties, commonly referred to as matrix adjustments. In organic-rich shale, the presence of abundant kerogen (solid and insoluble sedimentary organic matter) has a disproportionate impact on matrix properties because kerogen is compositionally distinct from all inorganic minerals that comprise the remainder of the solid matrix. As a consequence, matrix properties can be highly sensitive to kerogen properties. Moreover, the response of many downhole logs to kerogen is similar to their response to fluids. Relevant kerogen properties must be accurately known to separate tool responses to kerogen (in the matrix volume) and fluids (in the pore volume), to arrive at accurate volumetric interpretations. Unfortunately, relevant petrophysical properties of kerogen are poorly known in general and nearly always unknown in the formation of interest.
A robust method of “thermal maturity-adjusted log interpretation” replaces these unknown or assumed kerogen properties with a consistent set of relevant properties specifically optimized for the organic shale of interest, derived from only a single estimate of thermal maturity of the kerogen. The method is founded on the study of more than 50 kerogens spanning eight major oil- and gas-producing sedimentary basins, 300 Ma of depositional age, and thermal maturity from immature to dry gas (vitrinite reflectance, Ro, ranges from 0.5 to 4%). The determined kerogen properties include measured chemical (C, H, N, S, O) composition and skeletal (grain) density, as well as computed nuclear properties of apparent log density, hydrogen index, thermal- and epithermal-neutron porosities, macroscopic thermal-neutron capture cross section, macroscopic fast-neutron elastic scattering cross section, and photoelectric factor. For kerogens relevant to the petroleum industry (i.e., type II kerogen with thermal maturity ranging from early oil to dry gas), it is demonstrated that petrophysical properties are controlled mainly by thermal maturity, with no observable differences between sedimentary basins. As a result, universal curves are established relating kerogen properties to thermal maturity of the kerogen, and the curves apply equally well in all studied shale plays. Sensitivity calculations and field examples demonstrate the importance of using a consistent set of accurate kerogen properties in downhole log analysis. Thermal maturity-adjusted log interpretation provides a robust estimate of these properties, enabling more accurate and confident interpretation of porosity, saturation, and hydrocarbon in place in organic-rich shales.
A new acoustic tool has been developed to measure formation acoustic properties through casing. This measurement is important for oil and gas production in mature fields, and for wells that are cased without logging due to borehole stability issues. Conventional acoustic logging through casing in poorly bonded boreholes has been a difficult task due to the presence of overwhelming casing waves that mask the formation acoustic signal. To overcome this difficulty, we developed an acoustic tool using dual-source transmitters and the processing technique for the data acquired by the tool. This paper elaborates the operating principle of the new dual-source technology and demonstrates its application to casedhole acoustic logging. By using the dual-source design, the overwhelming casing waves from the poorly bonded casing are largely suppressed. On the basis of the casing-wave suppression and the condition that the formation is acoustically slower than casing, the formation acoustic-wave amplitude is significantly enhanced in the dual-source data-acquisition process. Subsequent processing of the data reliably obtains the acoustic velocity of the formation. The new tool has been tested in many cased wells with proven performance for various cement-bond conditions. The success of this technology makes casedhole acoustic logging an effective operation that can be routinely used to obtain reliable formation information through casing for slow to moderately fast formations.
Depth matching well logs acquired from multiple logging passes in a single well has been a longstanding challenge for the industry. The existing approaches employed in commercial platforms are typically based on classical cross-correlation and covariance measures of two signals, followed by manual adjustments. These solutions do not satisfy the rising demand to minimize user intervention to proceed towards automated data interpretation. We aimed at developing a robust and fully automatic algorithm and workflow for depth matching gamma-ray logs, which are commonly used as a proxy to match the depth of other well logs measured in multiple logging passes within the same well. This was realized by a supervised machine-learning approach through a fully connected neural network. The training dataset was obtained by manually labeling a limited set of field data. As it is unrealistic to expect a perfect model from the initial training with limited manually labeled data, we developed a continuously self-evolving depth-matching framework. During the use of depth-matching service, this framework allows taking the user input and feedback to further train and improve the depth-matching engines. This is facilitated by an automatic quality-control module for that we developed a dedicated metric by combining a few different algorithms. We use this metric to assess the quality of the returned results from the depth-matching engine. The users review the results and do manual adjustments if some intervals are not ideally depth matched by the engine. Those manual adjustments can be used to further improve the machine-learning model. A well-designed framework enables automatic and continuous self-evolving of the depth-matching service.
A key aspect of the developed framework is its generalization potential because it is independent of the signal type. It could be easily extended for other log types, especially when the correlation thereof is not obvious, provided that a sufficiently large volume of labeled data is available. This framework has been prototyped and tested on field data.
Borehole measurements are often subject to uncertainty resulting from the effects of mud-filtrate invasion. Accurate interpretation of these measurements relies on properly understanding and incorporating mud-filtrate invasion effects in the calculation of petrophysical properties. Although attempts to experimentally investigate mud-filtrate invasion and mudcake deposition have been numerous, the majority of published laboratory data are from experiments performed using linear rather than radial geometry, homogeneous rock properties, and water-based (WBM) rather than oil- or synthetic oil-based drilling mud (OBM or SOBM).
We introduce a new experimental method to accurately reproduce conditions in the borehole and near-wellbore region during, and shortly after the drilling process, when the majority of wellbore measurements are acquired. Rather than using a linear-flow apparatus, the experiments are performed using cylindrical rock cores with a hole drilled axially through the center. Radial mud-filtrate invasion takes place while injecting pressurized drilling mud into the hole at the center of the core while the outside of the core is maintained at a lower pressure. During the experiments, the core sample is rapidly and repeatedly scanned using high-resolution X-ray microcomputed tomography (micro-CT), allowing for visualization and quantification of the time-space distribution of mud filtrate and mudcake thickness. Because of the size of the core sample, the developed experimental method allows for accurate evaluation of the influence of various rock properties, such as the presence of spatial heterogeneity and fluid properties, including WBM versus OBM, on the processes of mud-filtrate invasion and mudcake deposition. Results indicate that our experimental procedure reliably captures the interplay between the spatial distributions of fluid properties and rock heterogeneities during the process of mud-filtrate invasion.
The solid skeleton of the mudcake consists of fine-grain particles; therefore, a mudcake plug is expected to have a very low permeability and a very good ability to isolate the fracture from wellbore pressure. This requires a relatively permeable formation for two reasons: Mudcake buildup requires fluid loss into the formation, and fracture pressure needs to dissipate after being isolated from the wellbore (Kumar et al. 2010).
Assaad, Wissam (Shell Global Solutions International B.V.) | Di Crescenzo, Daniele (Shell Exploration & Production Company) | Murphy, Darren (Shell Exploration & Production Company) | Boyd, John (Shell Exploration & Production Company)
In this paper, we present a method of modeling surge pressures and wave propagation that can occur during well execution. The surge pressures have an effect on formations [i.e., formation fracture resulting in mud losses and nonproductive time (NPT)]. Knowing the amplitude of surge pressure in advance can lead to operation redesign to avoid losses. Swab- and surge-pressure waves can occur at numerous events during well execution. For example, during liner operations, pressure waves can occur at dart landing or plug shearing, liner-hanger setting, or clearing a plugged shoe-track component. It is possible for surge-pressure waves to create fractures in shale and sand layers (i.e., when surge-pressure-wave amplitude exceeds formation fracturing resistance).
A transient-state physical model is built to compute pressure-wave propagation through drillstring, casing, and open hole to predict the amplitude of a surge-pressure wave and to warn when a fracture might occur in the formation, to avoid mud losses and NPT.
In the model, continuity and energy partial-differential equations (PDEs) are built for a cylindrical fluid element contained in an elastic hollow cylinder. The method of characteristics is applied to convert the PDEs to ordinary-differential equations (ODEs). The ODEs are solved numerically to compute pressure distribution along well depth and in time. The model is implemented as a graphical-user-interface (GUI) tool to be used by drilling engineers at the design phase of a well to avoid losses. The GUI tool is targeted to address different scenarios that take place during the cementation process. To date, the transient-state physical model has been applied successfully in various applications, such as monodiameter technology, running casing, and perforating operations. Two cases are studied, one for a well in the Gulf of Mexico (GOM) where mud losses have been reported, and the other for a well in Malaysia where no mud losses have occurred. Pressure-wave computations are performed with the GUI tool for the two cases. The results of both cases are presented in this paper and show that formation fracture can be predicted by the GUI tool and subsequent losses can be avoided. | https://search.spe.org/i2kweb/SPE/search?filters=taxnodes%3ACountry%7CNorth+America%7CUnited+States&%3Bstart=72210 |
The major research interest of Dr. Radovick's laboratory is to determine the mechanism of the onset of puberty and reprodutive cyclicity. Her research is focused on determining the regulation of the gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) gene, which has a central role in reproduction by controlling pituitary secretion of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), which in turn regulate the synthesis of gonadal estrogen and androgen. Her group was one of the first to generate GnRH-expressing neuronal cell-lines and map GnRH cell-specific gene promoter elements in vivo. This is a major step in the ability to investigate the detailed control of the regulation of this component of the reproductive system. Laboratory manipulation of these cell lines with growth factors and sex steroids has further increased knowledge of the relationship between growth and puberty. Dr. Radovick's laboratory demonstrated that the GnRH gene is the target of growth factor and nuclear hormone signaling pathways, which link nutrition and growth with pubertal development and reproduction. She has progressed to development of genetically modified mouse models to elucidate mechanisms of pulsatile and modulated secretion of (GnRH) in response to neuroendocrine and growth factor stimulation and sex steroid feedback regulation. Of particular interest has been to determine the roles of neurotransmitter/hormone receptors in mediating the large increase in GnRH secretion to adult levels at puberty, which results in the attainment of fertility. These studies will provide insights into human reproductive disorders well as future therapies for infertility.
The other major area of this research has been to characterize the transcription factors important for normal pituitary development. Her initial studies provided the first description in man of the molecular genetic mechanism for combined pituitary hormone deficiency; this involved a mutation in the Pit-1 gene that is necessary for the differentiation of the somatotroph (growth hormone-producing cell), lactotroph (prolactin), and thyrotroph (thyrotropin) lineages. She has gone on to describe the mechanisms by which novel mutations in other pituitary-specific transcription factors responsible for anterior pituitary hormone deficiencies in man.
Dr. Radovick has authored or co-authored over 100 peer-reviewed scientific publications, and has been continually funded by the NIH since 1990. Dr. Radovick's most notable teaching efforts have been in training individuals for scientific research. She has trained over 50 predoctoral students and postdoctoral fellows and junior faculty. | https://molbiosci.rutgers.edu/faculty-research/faculty/faculty-detail/87-q-r/240-radovick-sally |
Voices of Children Key to Stopping the Global Scourge of Violence against them, says global report by Educo and ChildFund
Global survey of almost 5,500 children from 15 countries, including India, Thailand and Vietnam, reveals children feel poorly protected and unheard. Only 18 percent of children think that politicians protect children from violence.
More than 40 percent of children across the globe believe they are not adequately protected from violence, with girls expressing a higher perception of insecurity, and one in two believe adults do not listen to their opinions on important matters, according to this new report which features one of the largest child surveys of its kind.
Small Voices Big Dreams 2019, released September 4, by Educo and ChildFund Alliance, includes a survey of almost 5,500 children aged between 10 and 12 years old from 15 different countries, as well as 21 group interviews, and provides startling insights into the perceptions of children and adolescents throughout the world about violence, and the efforts of adults to protect them from it.
“Every year more than a billion children around the world experience violence and exploitation – that’s more than one in three. It’s a global scourge that cuts across borders, class, culture, ethnicity, race, gender, and socioeconomic status,” said ChildFund Alliance Secretary General Meg Gardinier.
According to the report, children highlighted three main causes of violence: their own defenselessness, the cycle of violence, and adults’ loss of self-control due to substance use.
Children also reported that there was almost always a power imbalance between victim and aggressor in violent situations, and more than half said that violence occurred because children could not defend themselves from adults or older children.
Some of the key findings of the survey are:
- Only 18 % of children think that politicians and the people who govern protect children from violence.
- One in two children say adults in their country do not listen to their opinions on issues that matter to them;
- More than 40% believe that children are not sufficiently protected against violence in the country they live in;
- More than two-thirds of children (69%) reject violence as an educational tool;
- Nine in 10 believe the most important thing adults can do to end violence against children is to love children more and listen to what they have to say;
- Nine in 10 say recognizing child rights is key to preventing violence.
José Maria Faura CEO of Educo, a member of the Alliance, said: “Sadly, no matter where they live, and no matter who they are, no child is immune to violence. In many parts of the world, violence against children is occurring at epidemic levels. We know that when children experience violence, whether it be physical, sexual, or emotional, it can have a catastrophic impact on their sense of self-worth, their cognitive development, and their ability to achieve their full potential.”
For children surveyed in Asia and other regions, the study revealed that:
- Of the children surveyed in India, only 32.8% of the youth believe that their rights are respected by adults. The figure is lower compared to Brazil (40.8%). The children who live in South Korea, Sweden, Spain and Canada are more satisfied about the way in which their rights are respected and how they are protected from violence, with 80% of young people surveyed in these countries think that adults know about and respect their rights.
- More than half of children (58.4%) surveyed in India consider depriving a child of the means or resources to live as a form of violence
- In countries including Thailand, Burkina Faso, Honduras and, one in every two children suggests the idea that a family’s need for money can lead to situations of violence and mistreatment.
Jose Maria Faura of Educo added: “Often, they [children] are targeted because they are physically smaller, and are perceived as being easy prey. That’s why we need to empower children to be part of the decision-making process. Children should be involved when it comes to developing any policy or action aimed at helping children.”
Meg Gardinier of the Childfund Alliance added: “Yet rarely do decision makers take into account the opinions, experiences, and expectations of children,” she added. “This report provides insights into the voices of children who talk about suffering from fear, low self-esteem, and loneliness because of the adults around them, and who are often left feeling unprotected and unheard. Today we are calling for children to be part of the decision-making process on issues that affect them. Children have so much to contribute toward global efforts to end violence against children, and the success of any policy or action aimed at children depends on our ability to engage and respond to their voices.”
Just weeks away from the 30th anniversary of the Convention on the Rights of the Child, the report calls for far greater involvement of children in decision-making on issues affecting them, particularly the prevention of violence, and urges world leaders to listen to children and take action based on their recommendations.
Society should give a voice to children, so that they feel safe and protected.”, said Rimpal, 12 years old from India.
To read the full Small Voices Big Dreams 2019 report in English, Spanish or French, click here: www.smallvoicesbigdreams.org.
ENDS
For media inquiries contact: April Sumaylo-Tesz, Educo Asia Regional Communications Coordinator via email: [email protected] or +639171791240
About Small Voices Big Dreams
Small Voices Big Dreams is an initiative involving all the members of ChildFund Alliance. Our aim is to elevate the voices of children on issues that directly affect them. The 2019 edition compiles the opinions of nearly 5,500 children on violence against children. Children surveyed are from diverse geographical origins, living conditions, and cultural traditions, and from countries including Brazil, Burkina Faso, Canada, Ecuador, Ghana, Honduras, India, Mexico, Nicaragua, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, New Zealand, Thailand and Vietnam.
About Educo
Educo is a global development and humanitarian action NGO with over 25 years’ experience working in 13 countries to defend children and their rights, and especially the right to an equitable and quality education. We work with children and their communities to promote just and equitable societies which guarantee their rights and wellbeing. We envision a world where all children fully enjoy their rights and lead a life of dignity.
About ChildFund Alliance
Founded in 2002, ChildFund Alliance is a global network of 11 child-focused development organizations that helps nearly 13 million children and their families in more than 60 countries. It works to end violence and exploitation against children and to overcome poverty and the underlying conditions that prevent children from achieving their full potential. ChildFund Alliance works in partnership with children and their communities to create lasting change and to facilitate the meaningful participation of children in decisions that affect them. | https://alliancecpha.org/en/child-protection-news/small-voices-big-dreams-2019-violence-against-children-explained-children |
A Jurassic graveyard in Patagonia, Argentina, holds greater than 100 fossilized eggs and the bones of 80 Mussaurus patagonicus dinosaurs ranging in age from hatchling to grownup. The trove of dinosaur stays means that these paleo-beasts lived in herds as early as 192 million years in the past, a brand new examine finds.
The discovering is the oldest proof on report that dinosaurs lived in herds and means that dinosaurs displayed socially advanced, gregarious conduct 40 million years sooner than beforehand thought, the researchers stated.
The graveyard additionally reveals that the herd had inner construction; as an example, younger dinosaurs frolicked (and died) collectively in cliques.
It is uncommon to search out indicators of conduct preserved in dinosaur bones, however “now now we have proof of a posh social conduct construction inside the herd,” stated examine lead researcher Diego Pol, a paleontologist on the Museo Paleontológico Egidio Feruglio and the Nationwide Scientific and Technical Analysis Council in Argentina (CONICET).
“I might say this is among the prime paleontological discoveries of the 12 months,” stated Michael D’Emic, an affiliate professor within the Division of Biology at Adelphi College in New York, who was not concerned with the examine. “It’s so thrilling to have so many people of 1 fossil species, from embryos to adults.”
Associated: Photographs: College-bus-size dinosaur found in Egypt
Since 2002, Pol and his colleagues have spent a part of their area seasons excavating a comparatively small outcrop, about 0.3 sq. miles (1 sq. kilometer), on the Laguna Colorada Formation in southern Patagonia.
The formation is understood for holding the fossils of M. patagonicus, which, primarily based on tiny fossilized hatchling specimens present in 1979, was inappropriately given a scientific title meaning “mouse lizard”.
Over time, Pol’s crew found greater than 100 eggs and the fossils of dozens of latest M. patagonicus people. The specimens embrace dinosaurs from six totally different life levels, starting from embryos to adults.
Earlier research have revealed that M. patagonicus laid eggs with smooth, leathery shells and certain walked on all fours as infants, transitioning to bipedal strolling shortly after their first birthday.
However now, Pol and his colleagues have sufficient proof to indicate that this sauropodomorph – a gaggle of herbivorous, long-necked dinosaurs – lived in herds.
His crew hypothesizes that herd dwelling started as sauropodomorphs transitioned from small to colossal dinosaurs. For a lot of the Triassic interval (252 million to 201 million years in the past) dinosaurs had been small, concerning the measurement of horses.
However between 227 million and 208 million years in the past, sauropodomorphs received huge, altering their physique measurement by two orders of magnitude, the researchers wrote within the examine. However they nonetheless laid tiny eggs. Within the case of M. patagonicus, hatchlings cracked out of chicken-size eggs and grew to about 3,300 kilos (1,505 kilograms) as adults, or concerning the weight of a hippo.
In different phrases, M. patagonicus hatchlings needed to develop to huge sizes in only a few years.
“It is a time when they should eat rather a lot to develop, however they do not have the dimensions to have the ability to defend themselves they usually haven’t got the experience and the data,” Pol instructed Reside Science.
“So, dwelling in a herd really protects you throughout these very weak, fragile levels of your life.”
Nests and cliques
On the web site, the paleontologists discovered eggs organized in clusters, a clue that M. patagonicus males or females dug holes that females then used as nests. These nests had between eight and 30 eggs, Pol stated. X-ray computed tomography (CT) imaging of 5 of those nests revealed that the eggs had been organized in two to 3 layers and that they contained embryonic bones of M. patagonicus.
The large variety of egg clusters on the web site signifies it was a typical breeding floor for the dinosaurs, he famous.
Associated: Gallery: Huge new dinosaur found in sub-Saharan Africa
The positioning had different clusters of dinosaurs at totally different life levels, together with a gaggle of 11 juveniles below 1 12 months outdated, two adults that had been discovered collectively and 9 nearly-mature adults. Maybe M. patagonicus lived collectively in herds, however dinosaurs of various ages tended to hang around collectively, Pol stated.
These dinosaurs possible died due to a drought. “We all know this place was seasonal, and there are indications of droughts within the sediment,” Pol stated. Lots of the animals died in a resting pose, that means they died laying down after which had been lined by windblown mud.
It is “extraordinarily uncommon” to search out so many properly preserved dinosaurs in a single place, D’Emic instructed Reside Science in an electronic mail.
“It’s much more attention-grabbing and essential that these animals appeared to stay in social teams. Individuals have a tendency to think about extinct teams like these sauropodomorphs as evolutionary ‘useless ends,’ however that does not imply they did not have superior behaviors like sociality.”
Actually, “sociality might have been essential within the evolutionary success of sauropods, the biggest animals that ever walked the Earth,” D’Emic stated.
The examine was revealed on-line Thursday (Oct. 21) within the journal Scientific Experiences.
Associated Content material:
Photographs: Huge titanosaur invades New York museum
Photographs: Large sauropods plodded alongside in Scottish lagoon
Photographs: Meet Wade, the long-necked dinosaur from Down Below
This text was initially revealed by Reside Science. Learn the unique article right here. | https://worldzznews.com/this-jurassic-graveyard-holds-the-oldest-recognized-proof-of-complicated-dinosaur-herds/ |
In earlier times term paper writers would frequently write and also become angry at those whose work they had created. This was part of this natural sequence of things. Nowadays, writing for the web college essay writers has come to be far less antagonistic and competitive.
Naturally, even though this is accurate, there might nevertheless be a few conflicts. The truth is, good authors need to select the ideal way to provide their opinions to their subscribers. This means that the sort of language employed by web writers will vary from traditional document authors.
Essentially, there are two sorts of term paper writing: using conventional sentence discrimination essay structure and using the more expressive designs. There are also sub-types, which I will mention later on. In this guide, we will focus on the expressive styles. Those will be the sorts of writing that you ought to be doing when you are working on a particular task.
In the very first phase of a writing project, writing a term paper is composed of starting from the first page and working up to the last page. However, the notion isn’t to go to another page before finishing the present. This usually means that the author needs to render the page with the most info and ideas as it is in the onset of the webpage. Therefore, the writer may use a different word here.
The second sort of writing is referred to as a phrase paper. This means that a word will show up on the previous page of the term paper. This has to be carefully written. The same rules that apply to writing a sentence apply to writing a term. Because there are a number of phrases in every single paragraph, you have to stick to the same principles that apply to phrases.
Additionally, there are computer applications which may help writers in this. These composing programs make it possible for authors to track the meaning of each paragraph. The program will help you decide if it’s the paragraph is part of the primary subject or whether it is only an adverb or adverbial expression. Consequently, you can write fewer paragraphs.
Ultimately, there is a concise form of writing which makes it a lot easier to write on line documents. In this style, sentences are brief and easily understood by the viewers. The main benefit of this design is that it’s simple to read. There’s no need to refer to other resources, since the language is relatively brief.
Writing for the web is not so tense and competitive that term paper writers get angry with each other. Very good writers can now combine the best parts of composing term papers and writing for phrases and send their own messages in a means that is not only going to be understood but also understood that the moment they read the document. | https://www.oxyprash.com/term-paper-writers-and-their-writing-styles/ |
In this study, the “rally effect”—the propensity for the American public to put aside political differences and support the president during international crises—is measured by considering the changes in presidential popularity following all 193 Militarized Interstate Disputes (MIDs) between 1933 and 1992 as identified by the Correlates of War project. Summary analyses find minor, statistically insignificant rallies associated with uses of force, although sizable rallies are associated with particular subcategories of military crises. However, larger rallies are associated with the United States as both revisionist and originator of the dispute, with the initiation of a full interstate war, and with prominent headline placement in the New York Times . Regression analyses indicate that rallies are more likely when they are associated with White House statements and bipartisan support for the administration's policies. Findings suggest that the size and appearance of a rally depends primarily on how the crisis is presented to the public in terms of media coverage, bipartisan support, and White House spin.
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Cash dividends affect two areas on the balance sheet: the cash and shareholders’ equity accounts. … When the dividends are paid, the effect on the balance sheet is a decrease in the company’s retained earnings and its cash balance. In other words, retained earnings and cash are reduced by the total value of the dividend.
Do cash dividends go on the income statement?
Cash or stock dividends distributed to shareholders are not recorded as an expense on a company’s income statement. Stock and cash dividends do not affect a company’s net income or profit. Instead, dividends impact the shareholders’ equity section of the balance sheet.
Where are cash dividends on financial statements?
Investors can view the total amount of dividends paid for the reporting period in the financing section of the statement of cash flows. The cash flow statement shows how much cash is entering or leaving a company. In the case of dividends paid, it would be listed as a use of cash for the period.
How are dividends reported on financial statements?
Dividends that were declared but not yet paid are reported on the balance sheet under the heading current liabilities. … However, dividends on preferred stock will appear on the income statement as a subtraction from net income in order to report the earnings available for common stock.
How does declaring and paying a cash dividend affect the income statement?
The income statement is not affected by the declaration and payment of cash dividends on common stock. (However, the cash dividends on preferred stock are deducted from net income to arrive at net income available for common stock.)
Is common stock reported on an income statement?
Earnings available for common stock is reported on the income statement. It is also used to calculate the common stock’s earnings per share.
How are dividends treated in financial statements?
If a company pays stock dividends, the dividends reduce the company’s retained earnings and increase the common stock account. Stock dividends do not result in asset changes to the balance sheet but rather affect only the equity side by reallocating part of the retained earnings to the common stock account.
What are examples of dividends?
For example, if a company pays a $1 dividend, the shareholder will receive $0.25 per share four times a year. Some companies pay dividends annually. A company might distribute a property dividend to shareholders instead of cash or stock. Property dividends can be any item with tangible value.
What financial statement is ending cash balance on?
The ending balance of a cash-flow statement will always equal the cash amount shown on the company’s balance sheet. Cash flow is, by definition, the change in a company’s cash from one period to the next. Therefore, the cash-flow statement must always balance with the cash account from the balance sheet.
Where are distributions on balance sheet?
For the business, distributions show up on the balance sheet section of your tax return (total distributions since the company started) and in Section M-1, which shows distributions that have been made through the year.
Are dividends shown on P&L?
A dividend is a distribution to shareholders of retained earnings that a company has already created through its profit-making activities. Thus, a dividend is not an expense, and so it does not reduce a company’s profits. Because a dividend has no impact on profits, it does not appear on the income statement.
Where are dividends paid to?
The most common type of dividend. Companies generally pay these in cash directly into the shareholder’s brokerage account. Stock dividends. Instead of paying cash, companies can also pay investors with additional shares of stock.
How do you account for dividends?
Accounting for Cash Dividends When Only Common Stock Is Issued. The journal entry to record the declaration of the cash dividends involves a decrease (debit) to Retained Earnings (a stockholders’ equity account) and an increase (credit) to Cash Dividends Payable (a liability account).
Is dividend received an income?
As per the provisions of the Income Tax Act, final dividend is taxable in the year in which it is declared, distributed or paid, whichever is earlier and interim dividend is taxable in the year when such dividend is received by the shareholders.
What rate is dividend income taxed at?
What is the dividend tax rate? The tax rate on qualified dividends is 0%, 15% or 20%, depending on your taxable income and filing status. The tax rate on nonqualified dividends the same as your regular income tax bracket. In both cases, people in higher tax brackets pay a higher dividend tax rate.
What happens when a business receives cash in advance from a customer?
When collecting cash in advance from customers, the company receives cash (which increases its assets) and increases its liabilities (the liability account is called unearned revenues). Thus, assets increase and liabilities increase by the same amount. | https://crossroadsmyanmar.com/how-to-invest/how-do-cash-dividends-affect-the-financial-statements.html |
The #1 Way to Mentally Recharge
Something I have learned in the past and had to re-learn recently is that there are different ways to relax and HOW you relax impacts directly on the level of energy recharge that you get from the activity.
My reminder came at a ‘Day on the Green’ concert. My usual form of weekend relaxation recently has been very low-key – pottering around the house, going out for lunch etc. These weekends have been restorative yet this day at the concert was exponentially more energising – even though it was a 12 hour excursion with a lot of time on a bus.
The increased energy I felt from one long but enjoyable day was much higher than it would have been from a quiet weekend with no commitments at home.
So what was the difference? It was the mental rest.
Pottering at home was physically, emotionally and socially restful, but often I was not resting mentally. Reading, researching, tweeting, and pondering solutions to work challenges might help you prepare and reduce stress during the week. They are NOT mentally restful.
Mental rest allows you to relax your body and mind, to connect with the world around you. According to rest expert Matthew Edlund, it can lower your blood pressure, lead you to feel joy even in stressful situations and to reacquire a sense of understanding and purpose in situations.
Action Steps
One of the important things about relaxing and recharging effectively, that many people are not aware of – and I needed reminding of – is that to get the maximum benefit from your relaxation time, you need to relax actively.
That doesn’t necessarily mean going jogging or playing tennis (though it could do if you enjoy it). It means doing something that is going to absorb you. Something where you are not passively sitting on the sidelines watching others but are involved to the extent that you lose track of time. This state is called ‘flow’ and it is through the state of flow that your energy will really begin to recharge.
What Activities to Choose
Flow activities will be different for all of us but there are three common characteristics:
1. It must be enjoyable.
2. It helps you to lose your sense of time because you’re so absorbed in it.
3. It must give more energy than it takes.
As energy expert Tony Schwartz writes in his book The Power of Full Engagement, “we need energy to perform, and recovery is more than the absence of work.”
What flow activities can you do to make sure you recharge actively and achieve that often-needed mental rest? | https://wellnessatwork.com.au/2012/11/ |
We’re glad you’re here and hope you’ve brought along a friend or two to talk with as we continue to go deeper into Respect.
Father God, You are our ultimate authority. Bless us with the faith to trust Your power and goodness, and to obey You as You teach us to love.
Read Reflection Scripture:
Our Father in heaven, may your name be kept holy. May your Kingdom come soon. May your will be done on earth, as it is in heaven.
– Matthew 6:9-10 NLT
The Reflection Scripture is one familiar to most of us. Did spending time reflecting on the beginning of the Lord’s Prayer give new meaning to the way Jesus taught us to pray?
Did you gain insights from the Reflection Scripture and Reflection Thoughts which helped you process respecting authority?
May your name be kept holy.
The Greek translated as holy, or hallowed in other translations, means “to render or acknowledge, or to be venerable or hallow” (ESL). Venerable meaning “deserving regard with reverential respect” and hallow meaning “respect greatly” (Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary 11th Ed.).
Jesus taught us to pray for His Father’s name or character to be greatly respected.
Why do you think we are to pray for Father God to be greatly respected?
May your kingdom come soon.
We considered the definition of kingdom as the right or authority to rule, not a physical realm. If He is a sovereign God, isn’t His rule already in place? Why do we need to pray for His rule to come soon?
At the Fall in the garden of Eden, we handed over the rule of creation, which God originally gave us, to Satan by obeying him instead of God. We showed more respect for the serpent than for God when we chose to listen to him instead of follow God’s one rule.
Adam and Eve did not greatly respect God, or they would have obeyed. However, God respected our choice and allows Satan to rule for the time being. Asking for God’s rule to return soon is a way we acknowledge things are not as they should be. We need to return to greatly respecting His authority.
When Father God’s authority is greatly respected the enemy does not have near the influence he would otherwise.
In your mind, what does it look like for His Kingdom or Rule to come soon?
May your will be done on earth, as it is in heaven.
Jesus calls us to pray for Father God’s rule to be respected and obeyed on earth as well as in heaven, where He is clearly seen and known. May His presence and authority be obeyed here as if His throne and glory were seated before us.
How would His Kingdom or Rule on earth express itself when it comes to our respect of others?
If all came under His authority as King, we would all serve His purpose in loving others into His Kingdom. His entire rule is love.
How are you when it comes to dealing with the authority over you?
Ultimately, how are we to deal with authority over us?
All authority belongs to God. We are to respect all authority the same way we are to respect Him.
Did you see Him from a new perspective by praising Him as Author?
Read Matthew 6:9-13
Looking at the Lord’s Prayer in its entirety, what type of relational authority is established in the way Jesus taught His disciples to pray?
Father to child. What are the dynamics of this relationship?
- The child only exists because of the father.
- Children come under their father’s authority.
- Children are dependent on their father for care and provision.
- The father has a responsibility to nurture the child: physically, emotionally, spiritually, intellectually, morally.
- The father is greater than the child in experience, wisdom, strength, and knowledge.
- Love.
The Greek translated as father is pater. The metaphorical meaning of the word is: the authors of a family or society of persons animated by the same spirit as himself; one who has infused his own spirit into others, who actuates and governs their minds (Enhanced Strong’s Lexicon).
The Father through the obedience of the Son animated, brought to life, those who believe by the power of His own Spirit, which now infuses us and rules in our hearts.
Jesus brought God’s authority into our being in an intimate way. Father to child. And under His authority by the power of the Holy Spirit we desire Him to rule and depend on Him for all our needs. We have a heart for what He has a heart for. As Father and King.
Read Matthew 21:23-27
What are the religious leaders questioning Jesus about?
His authority. Who gave Him permission to do the things He was doing: cleaning out the money changers from the temple, healing, teaching. By what authority?
Does He tell them?
He answered their question with a question meant to reveal the authority they were serving. Which turned out to be their own. Afraid of disagreeing with the crowd and losing their reputation they said they didn’t know the answer to Jesus’s question.
In response to this questioning of authority, Jesus tells a series of three parables.
Jesus uses these parables to reveal something about what it looks like to respect authority in the Kingdom of God.
In the first, He told about two sons whose father asked each to go work in the vineyard. One said he would but didn’t. The other said he wouldn’t but did.
Who did the will of the father?
The one who actually did. Respecting the authority of God begins with obedience to His Word.
The second parable He told was about a landowner who built a vineyard, leased it to tenants, and then moved out of the country. At the time of harvest, he sent servants to collect his produce from the ones leasing his property. The tenants refused to give what was owed. They beat, killed, and stoned the owner’s servants.
He sent more servants, and the tenants did the same. Finally, the owner sent his son, because he was sure those leasing his fields would respect his son. Only they didn’t. They saw it as an opportunity to steal the property out and out. If the owner had no one to inherit the property it would come to them.
Jesus asked the Pharisees who questioned His authority, “When the owner returns, what will he do to the tenants?”
They quickly answered this question, “Put them to a miserable death and lease the vineyard to others who will give him his crop.”
What do we learn about respecting authority in the Kingdom of God?
We are not owners. We are tenants who are working for Him. We are to honor Him by bearing fruit for Him, not ourselves.
The third parable was about a wedding feast. Jesus began by saying, “The kingdom of heaven is like a king who gave a wedding feast for his son…” The king sent servants to tell those invited it was time for the celebration. None who were invited came. They had their own interests to take care of. Some were so disrespectful, they beat and killed the servants who were sent to tell them it was time.
In anger, the king killed those murderers and destroyed their cities. Then he sent his servants to gather any they could find to come to the feast. It was prepared. The food wouldn’t keep. It was time.
They gathered all they could find and the wedding hall was filled with guests.
What is Jesus saying about God’s Kingdom and respecting His authority?
Those who were invited and refused were self-interested. Those who were gathered were probably surprised by the call to come to the feast. Something they may never have imagined, sitting at the wedding feast of the king’s son.
Coming under authority involves connecting with the interests of the one over you. Your interests become their interests.
The three main points in these parables involved in respecting the authority of the Kingdom of God:
- Obedience to the Father.
- A heart of stewardship and willingness to work for the Master.
- Sharing the same interests: God-interest vs. Self-interest.
A time is coming when He will call. Call us to work, give, or take part in what’s important to Him.
Who are you currently serving? Is your interest in serving Him? or serving yourself?
Do you live as if nothing is yours and all belongs to Him? Do you have an owner or tenant mentality?
Do you like to spend time with the King? Do you share His interests? Does your heart rejoice over what He rejoices? grieve over what He grieves?
At the heart of respecting God’s authority is a right relationship with Him as Father and King.
Read Lamentations 3:37-39
The most audacious thing about this passage is God taking responsibility for EVERYTHING that happens in the world. He does not beat around the bush. Is it not from the mouth of the Most High that good and bad come?
What is your initial reaction to this truth? How do feel about God authorizing all that happens?
How are you at reconciling it to His goodness? and His power to work all things for the good of those who love Him and are called to His purpose as we read in Romans 8:28?
Do you trust Him with this kind of authority? How do we go about working this out in our hearts?
Carol says:
For me this is one of those questions I answer with Yes, but then add, Help my unbelief!
I don’t believe we can trust His absolute authority without the gift of faith. He is an unseen King in heaven, while we are bombarded daily by difficult things we see and feel and experience in the world.
I went back to the biblical definition of faith to wrestle with this concept…
Now faith is the assurance of things hoped for, the conviction of things unseen.
Hebrews 11:1
I’ve studied these words before, looked into this verse in both English and the original Greek. But I went again…
What I found was, the first definition of the Greek translated as assurance is: a setting or placing under; thing put under, substructure, foundation (Enhanced Strong’s Lexicon).
So the verse might literally read: Now faith is the setting under of things hoped for…
What came to mind was a picture of an umbrella. God’s authority is what we place our umbrella of faith under and under that umbrella is where we set our hopes.
All faith is based on setting ourselves firmly under the confidence of God’s authority and goodness. Being under His authority makes for a good foundation.
Going to the next part of the faith definition, the original for what’s translated as conviction means: a proof, that by which a thing is proved or tested (Enhanced Strong’s Lexicon).
A literal translation could be: The proving or testing of things unseen.
Faith is the constant testing and proving of what we do not see through obedience and the exercising of our faith. We have to taste and see that He is good (Psalm 34:8).
Coming to grips with His absolute authority in a world where too often things seem more bad than good takes constant steps of faith.
When we trust God’s authority and goodness by faith, continually testing our faith with obedience, we grow in our ability to love others without fear, even when they are unjust authorities over us.
Read Matthew 17:24-27
Peter was asked by religious authorities about the temple tax, not a government tax, and he responded with a yes when asked whether Jesus paid the tax or not.
Why do you think Peter answered this way?
Jesus gave Peter a lesson on taxes when he came in the house. What was Jesus saying about Himself and whether He should pay the tax or not? Why did Jesus pay?
Jesus made it clear to Peter, sons of the king are exempt from paying taxes, something Peter already knew. Jesus’s Father was King of the temple, He was the Son and therefore exempt. The message between the lines to Peter was: Why did you say I would pay a tax I’m exempt from. But in order to not offend those who didn’t believe He paid the tax.
How did the unusual way He paid the taxes for Himself and Peter respect His Father’s authority?
- He didn’t take money out of their ministry fund, which was dedicated to the teaching of the gospel and helping the poor.
- He sent Peter to fish for it. In a way Peter worked to pay their taxes.
- He paid their taxes with a previously lost coin which was found. His mission on earth was reflected in this paying of the temple tax: Find what was lost and return it to His Father.
Jesus did what He needed to do to respect the governing authorities He came under on earth, yet did it in a manner which ultimately honored His Father’s authority over Him.
What does it look like for us to respect those in authority like Jesus did?
Turn to Matthew 22:36-40
We read what Jesus said the greatest commandments are:
- Love God with all your heart, soul and mind.
- Love your neighbor as yourself.
And we looked at the connection between law and authority. Laws establish the conduct of a community and are enforced by a controlling authority.
Read Matthew 5:17-20
The original Greek translated as abolish has a figurative meaning of travelers on a journey stopping for the night and unstrapping the loads off their donkeys.
What picture does this paint when Jesus said He did not come to abolish or remove the burden of the law but to fulfill the Law and the Prophets?
The burden of the law would remain. It was not being set down. His arrival didn’t mark the end of the journey. He came to fulfill it in its entirety.
Jesus carried out every particular of the law, including the punishment for breaking the Law. He is also the fulfillment of every prophecy and promise.
How do we live in a manner which respects Jesus’s fulfillment of the law and the Authority behind it?
Respecting Jesus’s fulfilling of the law means coming into agreement with Him about where we fail to fulfill the law and acknowledge our need for His work on the cross. He took our burden on Himself. We can now come under His yoke, no longer bearing the weight of the law alone, and He equips us to serve alongside Him in following the letter of the law: Loving God and loving others (Matthew 11:28-30).
In light of what the law is about, what can’t we help but do when we obey His law?
Love. We can’t help but love God and others when we respect His Ultimate Authority.
Read Mark 10:42-45
Not only are we called to come under authority with respect, we are also to be respect-full of the authority we’ve been given. How did Jesus view godly authority?
According to Jesus, God-given authority is a means by which to serve others, not your own purpose.
Historically, how have you wielded authority He has given you?
What are some things which make it hard to be a servant-leader?
- Pride.
- Arrogance.
- Judgment.
- Insecurity.
Authority issues can be boiled down to two things: pride and insecurity (fear of man). Both interfere with our relationship with God and others.
Stacy says:
Last week we began reading 1Samuel in our Friday morning study. As I read about God leading Samuel to anoint Saul as king, Saul’s response caught my attention.
Saul answered, “Am I not a Benjaminite, from the least of the tribes of Israel? And is not my clan the humblest of all the clans of the tribe of Benjamin? Why then have you spoken to me in this way?”
1 Samuel 9: 21 ESV
It was clear Saul didn’t think much of himself. His story is riddled with insecurity. I see the opposite in David. Though he was “a man after God’s own heart,” a season of pride got him into trouble with another man’s wife.
Two kings with no greater earthly authority over them. One prideful for a time, the other insecure. Neither chose to come under God’s authority which caused a great divide in their relationship with God. It wreaked havoc in the lives of those around them and drove both to great extremes.
Pride and insecurity brought rebellion against God’s law, squashed the potential of those under their authority and eventually led each to murderous ways.
I’ve experienced both pride and insecurity in my life. At one point I decided no one would tell me what to do. Other times my insecurity kept me from encouraging others in leadership. I couldn’t love God or anybody else the way I was supposed to.
I’ve come to the place where I recognize respecting those in authority over us and the ones we have authority over authentically flows when I am humbly secure in God’s love for me and the unique way He calls me to follow Him.
When we have authority issues rooted in pride and/or insecurity, then we are no different in the way we treat others when to comes to respect.
In the book Grit by Angela Duckworth, she sites purpose as inspiration for perseverance and success. One of the individuals she highlights is Kat Cole who became president of the Cinnabon bakery chains at age 35.
She did not get to this position through education, but through working her way up in another restaurant chain, from waitress, to manager, to opening international branches of the restaurant. She became a vice-president in the company by the age of 26. Angela shares a post from Kat’s blog in her book:
“When I am around people,” Kat wrote, “my heart and soul radiate with the awareness that I am in the presence of greatness. Maybe greatness unfound, or greatness underdeveloped, but the potential or existence of greatness nevertheless. You never know who will go on to do good or even great things or become the next great influencer in the world – so treat everyone like they are a person.”
Kat Cole has the heart and attitude we all need when wielding authority. Humility and eyes which see the unseen potential God has placed in everyone He’s created.
As Believers respecting authority means coming under God’s authority through obedience, an attitude of steward not owner, and with a heart interested in what He’s interested in. And when we do, we can’t help but love.
Our next week of study on Respect is respecting God’s Unique Love. [Click link for a PDF of the homework: Respect Week 5_ God’s Unique Love – Homework]
Open our hearts to Your unique love for us and all You’ve created, Lord. Teach us to love like You and not the world. | https://sistertalkfaith.com/2018/02/27/going-deeper-respect-session-5/ |
PROJECT DESCRIPTION:
The M.H. de Young Museum is located in San Francisco's Golden Gate Park and is comprised of several interconnected buildings. The West Wing, constructed in 1965, currently houses the Asian Art Museum of San Francisco. Although functionally connected to the adjacent buildings, it is physically separated by a one-inch joint. Faye Bernstein & Associates was retained to perform a seismic evaluation and prepare a report to convey our findings and recommendations. As prime consultant, FBA's responsibilities included a site inspection, preliminary structural analyses, and the development of conceptual mitigation schemes necessary for a cost estimate. The report outlined the structural deficiencies, suggested remedial measures and determined their related cost.
OWNER: Golden Gate Park
|THE MOTHERS BUILDING
|
SAN FRANCISCO ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS
SAN FRANCISCO, CA
PROJECT DESCRIPTION:
The Mothers Building, located in the San Francisco Zoological Gardens, is listed in the National Register of Historic Places. In addition to being a landmark building, the interior walls have frescos of historical significance. Throughout the years the Mothers Building has evidenced cracking, spalling, rusting and general wear and tear. In order to ascertain the extent of distress and possible loss in structural integrity and to determine structural adequacy under seismic loading, the City and County of San Francisco engaged Faye Bernstein and Associates to conduct a structural investigation. The investigation included numerous site inspections, preliminary structural analyses, and material testing of the major structural elements. A report was prepared outlining the structural deficiencies and suggesting remedial measures and cost estimates.
ARCHITECT: | http://fbaengineering.com/exp_bui1.html |
COLUMBUS, GA (WTVM) – Tuesday, Nov. 15 marks National Healthy Lunch Day and 66 percent of working Americans buy their lunch instead of packing it.
However, for every meal eaten away from home, it translates around two extra pounds of body weight each year.
Four components of a healthy lunch include protein, vegetables, fruits and a calorie-free beverage.
If you decide to eat out for lunch, here are some tips for eating healthy at restaurants:
- Choose restaurants with healthier menu options and order these dishes
- Try vegetarian options e.g. grilled vegetable panini; wrap with fresh vegetables and hummus
- Opt for fish/chicken that is grilled (rather than fried)
- Opt for salad, steamed fresh vegetables, fresh fruit or low-fat yogurt as side dishes
- Order a salad with dressing on the side; use a vinaigrette/olive oil + vinegar
- Choose sugar-free drinks
- Eat smaller portions
By packing your own lunch every day, you can save up to $2,500 a year.
Copyright 2016 WTVM. All rights reserved. | http://www.wtvm.com/story/33712371/health-with-dr-paula-nov-15-marks-national-healthy-lunch-day/ |
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abstract: 'We prove a strong exponential lower bound of ${\mathcal{O}}\big((3+k)2^{N/2-3}\big)$ on simple policy iteration for a family of $N$-state $k$-action MDP.'
author:
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bibliography:
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title: |
Analysis of Lower Bounds for Simple Policy Iteration\
[^1] [^2] [^3] [^4]
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lower bound, policy iteration
**Introduction**
================
Policy iteration is a family of algorithms that are used to find an optimal policy for a given Markov Decision Problem (MDP). Simple Policy iteration (SPI) is a type of policy iteration where the strategy is to change the policy at exactly one improvable state at every step. Melekopoglou and Condon \[1990\] [@Melekopoglou1994OnTC] showed an exponential lower bound on the number of iterations taken by SPI for a 2 action MDP. The results have not been generalized to $k-$action MDP since.
In this paper we revisit the algorithm and the analysis done in [@Melekopoglou1994OnTC]. We generalize the previous result and prove a novel exponential lower bound on the number of iterations taken by policy iteration for $N-$state, $k-$action MDPs. We construct a family of MDPs and give an index-based switching rule that yields a strong lower bound of ${\mathcal{O}}\big((3+k)2^{N/2-3}\big)$. In section 2 we describe the relevant background and in section 3 we present the important notations. In section 4 we show the MDP construction and in section 5 we describe the index based switching rule. This is followed by various experiments in section 6 and a proof in section 7.
**Background**
==============
A Markov Decision Process (MDP) [@Bellman:1957],[@Puterman:1994] represents the environment for a sequential decision making problem. An MDP is defined by the tuple $(S,A,T,R, \gamma)$. $S$ is the set of states and $A$ is the set of actions. $|S|$ is denoted as n and $|A|$ is denoted as k. $T:S\times A \times S \rightarrow [0,1]$ is a function which gives the transition probability. Specifically $T(s,a,s')= $ Probability of reaching state $s'$ from state $s$ by taking action $a$. $R:S\times A \rightarrow \mathbb{R}$ is the reward function. $R(s,a)$ is the expected reward that the agent will get by taking action $a$ from state $s$. $\gamma$ is the discount factor, which indicates the importance given to future expected reward. Policy $\pi:S\times A \rightarrow \mathbb{R}$ is defined as the probability that agent will choose action $a$ from state $s$. If the policy is deterministic, then $\pi(s)$ is the action that the agent takes when it is on state $s$. For a given policy $\pi(s)$, we define the value function $V^\pi(s):S \rightarrow \mathbb{R}$ as the total expected reward that the agent receives by following the policy from state $s$. The state-action value function $Q^\pi(s,a):S\times A \rightarrow \mathbb{R} $ for a policy $\pi(s)$ is defined as the total expected reward that the agent receives if it takes action $a$ from state $s$, and then follows the policy $\pi$.
**Policy Iteration**
--------------------
Policy Iteration (PI) is an iterative algorithm that is used to obtain the optimal policy of a MDP, Let $(S,A,P,R,\gamma)$ describe a MDP and let $\Pi$ be the set of all policies. It has been proved that there exists an optimal policy $\pi^{*}$ such that $\forall \pi \in \Pi, s \in S, V^{\pi^{*}}(s)\geq V^{\pi}(s) $. PI consists of two fundamental steps performed sequentially in every iteration:\
*Policy Evaluation:* This step is used to evaluate the state values of the MDP under a particular policy. Given a deterministic policy $\pi$ that maps $S \to A$, the state values satisfy the following relation $\forall s \in S$: $$V^{\pi}(s) = \Sigma_{s' \in S} T(s,\pi(s),s')(R(s,\pi(s),s')+\gamma V^{\pi}(s'))$$ The state values can be computed by solving the system of linear equations.\
*Policy Improvement:* The state-action value function can be found using: $$Q^{\pi}(s,a) = \Sigma_{s' \in S} T(s,a,s')(R(s,a,s')+\gamma V^{\pi}(s'))$$ A state is defined as improvable state under a policy $\pi$ if $\exists a \in A \text{ such that }Q^{\pi}(s,a) > Q^{\pi}(s,\pi(s))$. One or more improvable states are switched to an improvable action under the policy improvement step and the resultant policy can be denoted as $\pi^{'}$. There can be many choices for the “locally improving” policies $\pi^{'}$ and different PI variants follow different switching strategies.
**Notation**
============
Starting from time $t=0$, policy iteration would update the policy to $\pi^t(s)$. The value function and Q-value corresponding to this $\pi^t(s)$ is denoted as $V^t(s)$ and $Q^t(s,a)$ respectively.
The policy $\pi^t(s)$, for the n-states for any general t is expressed as $S_n S_{n-1}\ldots S_1$.
**MDP Construction**
====================
In this section we formulate a method of constructing a family $\mathcal{F}$ of MDPs, that give the lower bounds for the switching procedure. Our MDP construction builds over the formulation given by Melekopoglou and Condon \[1990\]. For a MDP having $N$ states, $k$ ($\geq 2$) actions the MDP graph is as follows:
- The graph has $n$ ($1, \ldots ,n$) “state" vertices
- The graph has $n$ ($1', \ldots ,n'$) “average" vertices
- The graph has 2 sink (terminal) vertices with sink value $(\alpha,\beta)$ =$ (-1,0)$.
where $n=N/2-1$.\
The transitions for actions ($0 \ldots k-1$) on the MDP graph are constructed as follows:
- Every action taken on an average vertex $s'$ results into an equally likely transition to the state vertex $s-2$ and average vertex $(s-1)'$
- Action 0 on a state vertex $s$ results into a deterministic transition to the state vertex $s-1$
- Action 1 on a state vertex $s$ results into a deterministic transition to the average vertex $s'$
- In a MDP having $k>$2: An action $\mathcal{A}\in \{2,3, \ldots, k-1\}$ on the state vertex $n$ results into a deterministic transition to the average vertex $n'$.
- In a MDP having $k>$3: The action $k-1$ on a state vertex $x$ $\in (1, \cdots ,n-1)$ results into a deterministic transition to the average vertex $(x+1)'$.
- In a MDP having $k>$3: An action $\mathcal{A}\in \{2,3, \ldots, k-2\}$ on a state vertex $x \in (1, \ldots ,n-1)$ results in a stochastic transition to the average vertex $(x+1)'$ with a probability $p_{\mathcal{A}}\in (0,1)$ and to the average vertex $x'$ with a probability $1-p_{\mathcal{A}} = q_{\mathcal{A}}$. An increasing order is maintained over the transition probabilities, that is $p_{\mathcal{A}} > p_{\mathcal{A}-1}$.\
Every transition into the sink states gives a reward equal to the sink value. Every other transition gives a reward of 0. The MDP is undiscounted and $\gamma$ is set to 1. Note that setting $k$ equal to 2 gives the family of MDPs described by Melekopoglou and Condon [@Melekopoglou1994OnTC]. We shall denote the $n$ states, $k$ actions MDP belonging to this family as $\mathcal{F}(n,k)$ henceforth.
Clearly, PI will never update the policy at the average vertices as due to the equivalence of all the actions for the average vertices and so their policy will always be their initial policy. Thus for all subsequent analysis, the only the policy of the state vertices $S_n S_{n-1}\ldots S_1$ are considered.
Note that the optimal policy for this MDP is ($S_n S_{n-1}\ldots S_1 =00 \ldots 01$).
Figures \[fig:mdp\_2\_3\], \[fig:mdp\_3\_3\] and \[fig:mdp\_3\_5\] show the MDP graph for $(n=2,k=3)$, $(n=3,k=3)$ and $(n=3,k=5)$ respectively.
**Simple Policy Iteration**
===========================
In Simple Policy Iteration (SPI), the policy of an arbitrary improvable state is switched to an arbitrary improving action. Specifically, the improvable state with the highest index is selected and its policy is switched to the improvable action with the highest index.
We denote the number of iterations taken by SPI for the a $n$-state, $k$-action MDP from the above family with an initial policy of $S_n S_{n-1}\ldots S_2 S_1 = 00\ldots00$ to converge to the optimum policy as $\mathcal{N}(n,k)$. We shall experimentally show and later prove that: $$\mathcal{N}(n,k) = (3+k)2^{n-2} -2$$
**Experiments**
===============
Figure \[fig:plot\_nk\] shows a plot of the number of iterations against the number of states and actions. Table \[tab:nk\] in the appendix contains number of iterations for for all $n,k$ pairs upto $n=k=10$.
![(Top) Variation of number of iterations with number of states for fixed number of actions. The vertical scale is in logarithm with base 2. The line is almost linear which justifies the exponential dependence with number of states. (Bottom) Variation of number of iterations with number of action for fixed k. This dependence is linear with an increasing slope.[]{data-label="fig:plot_nk"}](images/num_states_vs_iterations.png "fig:"){width="\linewidth"} ![(Top) Variation of number of iterations with number of states for fixed number of actions. The vertical scale is in logarithm with base 2. The line is almost linear which justifies the exponential dependence with number of states. (Bottom) Variation of number of iterations with number of action for fixed k. This dependence is linear with an increasing slope.[]{data-label="fig:plot_nk"}](images/num_actions_vs_iterations.png "fig:"){width="\linewidth"}
We next describe how the switching happens for the MDP graph $(n=2,k=3)$ shown in Figure 1. Initially both vertices 1 and 2 are switchable because:\
$$\begin{aligned}
Q(2,1) = Q(2,2) = -\frac{1}{2} > Q(2,0) = -1\\
Q(1,1) = 0 > Q(1,2) = -\frac{1}{2} > Q(1,0) = -1 \end{aligned}$$
According to the switching rule, state 2 switches to action 1. At this point only state 1 is improvable. So state 1 switches to the highest indexed improvable action which is 2. After this switch state 1 is again the only improvable state and it switches to action 1. This switch causes state 1 to attain its best possible value (0) and also makes state 2 improvable because: $$Q(2,0) > Q(2,2) = Q(2,1) -\frac{1}{2}$$ Hence state 2 switches to action 0 and SPI converges to the optimal policy. The switching has been shown in the table below.
t $\pi(2) \quad \pi(1)$ $ V^t(2) $ $ V^t(1)$
------------- ----------------------- ----------------- ------------------
0 $0\quad 0 $ $-1 $ $-1 $
\[0.1cm\] 1 $2\quad 0 $ $-\frac{1}{2} $ $ -1 $
\[0.1cm\] 2 $2\quad 2 $ $-\frac{1}{2} $ $ -\frac{1}{2} $
\[0.1cm\] 3 $2\quad 1 $ $-\frac{1}{2} $ $ 0 $
\[0.1cm\] 4 $0\quad 1 $ $ 0$ $ 0 $
\[0.1cm\]
: Switching sequence for $n=2,k=3$
\[tab:switch\_seq\_n2\]
**Proof**
=========
The proof of the recursive relation requires the construction of a complementary family of MDPs, $\mathcal{F}_C$, which have the same structure and transition probabilities as $\mathcal{F}$ but sink values of the opposite relative order. We shall denote the $n$ states, $k$ actions MDP belonging to this complementary family as $\mathcal{F}_C(n,k)$ henceforth. By Corollary \[lem:sink\_val\], the complementary MDP is set to have sink rewards of (1,0). Note that the optimal policy for $\mathcal{F}_C(n,k)$ is $S_n S_{n-1}\ldots S_2 S_1 = 00\ldots00$. We denote the number of iterations taken by SPI for a $n$-state, $k$-action complementary MDP beginning with a policy of $S_n S_{n-1}\ldots S_2 S_1 = 00\ldots01$ as $\mathcal{N}_C(n,k)$.
\[lem:sink\_invariant\] Policy iteration for the n-state, k-action MDP from family $\mathcal{F}$ and $\mathcal{F}_C$ is invariant to the actual value of sink values, and only depends on their relative values
Let sink values be $(\alpha,\beta)$ = ($k_1$,$k_2$).\
The transformation of the sink reward maintaining the relative order can be expressed as by a linear transform: $$\mathcal{T}: (k_1,k_2)\rightarrow (A\times k_1+B,A\times k_2+B)$$ where $A\in \mathbb{R}^+, B\in \mathbb{R}$.\
The linear transformation of the sink rewards would result in the same transformation to the $Q$ and $V$ values. As $A>0$, the relative orders in Q-values do no change and so the switches do not change.\
\[lem:sink\_val\] Sink values for the MDPs from family $\mathcal{F}$ can be set to $(\alpha,\beta)$ = (-1,0) and those for the complementary MDPs can be set to $(\alpha,\beta)$ =(1,0) without loss of generality.
\[lem:Q\_1\] At any time t, for $\mathcal{F}(n,k)$, $$Q^{t}(1, 1) > Q^{t}(1, 2) > Q^{t}(1, 3) > \ldots > Q^{t}(1, k-1)> Q^{t}(1, 0)$$
By the structure of the MDP, $V^t(2')=-\frac{1}{2}$ and $V^t(1')=0$\
This results in $$Q^t(1,i) = \begin{cases}
-1, & \text{ if } i=0\\
0, & \text{ if } i=1\\
-1/2, & \text{ if } i=k-1\\
\end{cases}$$ By the construction of $\mathcal{F}$, $$\begin{aligned}
p_i &\in (0,1) \quad \forall i \in \{2,3,..k-1\}\\
p_j &> p_i \quad \forall j>i, i,j \in \{2,3,..k-1\}\end{aligned}$$ Plugging the values of $Q^t(1,\cdot)$ will yield the desired relation.
\[lem:QC\_1\] At any time t, for $\mathcal{F}_C(n,k)$, $$Q^{t}(1, 0) > Q^{t}(1, k-1) > Q^{t}(1, k-2) > \ldots > Q^{t}(1, 2)> Q^{t}(1, 1)$$
p_i/2 ,& \forall i>1
\end{cases}$$ By the construction of $\mathcal{F}_C$, $$\begin{aligned}
p_i &\in (0,1) \quad \forall i \in \{2,3,..k-1\}\\
p_j &> p_i \quad \forall j>i, i,j \in \{2,3,..k-1\}\end{aligned}$$ Plugging the values of $Q^t(1,\cdot)$ will yield the desired relation.
\[lem:baseline\] $$\mathcal{N}(2,k) = k+1 \quad \forall k\geq 3$$
We have the initial policy $\pi^0 = S_{2} S_{1} = 00$ and $$Q^{0}(2,0)=-1 \text{ and } Q^0(2, a)=-\frac{1}{2} \quad \forall a>0$$ As per our definition of SPI, policy with highest improvable action will be chosen. Consequently, $$\pi^1 = S_{2} S_{1} = k-1, 0$$ Next we have $Q^{1}(2, k-1) \geq Q(2, a) \quad \forall a$, we focus on improving state 1. We observe $$Q^{1}(1, 0)=-1 \text{ and } Q^{1}(1, k-1)=-\frac{1}{2}$$ Hence, $$\pi^2 = S_{2} S_{1} = k-1, k-1$$ Even now, state 2 is not improvable and we have $$Q^{2}(1, k-2)=\frac{-p_{k-2}}{2} \geq \frac{-1}{2}$$ by our choice of $p_{k-2}$. Hence, $$\pi^3 = S_{2} S_{1} = k-1, k-2$$ Now, $$Q^{3}(2, 0) = V^3(1) = \frac{-p_{k-2}}{2} > \frac{-1}{2} = Q^{3}(2, a) \quad \forall a \neq 0$$ So, $$\pi^4 = S_{2} S_{1} = 0(k-2)$$ For all consequent $i^{th}$ iteration, $$Q^{i}(2, 0) = V^i(1) > \frac{-1}{2} \text{ but } Q^{i}(2, a) = V^i(2') = \frac{-1}{2}$$ and hence only $S_{1}$ is improvable. From Lemma \[lem:QC\_1\], we have $$Q^{4}(1, 1) > Q^{4}(1, 2) > \ldots Q^{4}(1, k-2)$$ Thus, the next $k-3$ iterations are required to reach $$\pi^{k+1} = S_{2} S_{1} = 01$$ thus giving a total of $k+1$ iterations.
\[lem:FC\_1\] For the $\mathcal{F}_{C}(n,k)$ with initial policy: $S_n S_{n-1}\ldots S_2 S_1 = 00\ldots01$ it takes exactly $\mathcal{N}(n-1,k)$ iterations before policy at the first state vertex changes.
Due to the switching rule of SPI, $S_1$ will only change when all the other state vertices are not improvable. Until all the higher states finish improving, the current sinks and state 1 can be effectively reduced to new sinks with $(\alpha,\beta) = (0,\frac{1}{2})$. This reduction is shown in Figure \[fig:Fc\_red\]. Using Lemma \[lem:sink\_invariant\] the resultant MDP is equivalent to $\mathcal{F}(n-1,k)$ having initial policy $S_n S_{n-1}\ldots S_2 = 00\ldots00$. This MDP takes $N(n-1,k)$ iterations to converge to the optimal policy $S_n S_{n-1}\ldots S_2 = 00\ldots01$. By this logic after the $\mathcal{N}(n-1,k)$ iterations, the policy would be $S_n S_{n-1}\ldots S_2 S_1 = 00\ldots11$
![ Reducing $\mathcal{F}_C(n,k)$ to $\mathcal{F}(n-1,k)$ with respect to its initial policy[]{data-label="fig:Fc_red"}](images/lemma7-5.png){width="\linewidth"}
\[lem:FC\_2\] If $\pi^t = S_n S_{n-1}\ldots S_2 S_1 = 00\ldots11$ for $\mathcal{F}_{C}(n,k)$, the next 2 switches of simple policy iteration occur at state 1
Using Lemma \[lem:FC\_1\] the policy $\pi^t$ is optimal with respect to the states $n,n-1 \ldots 3,2$ and is $S_n S_{n-1}\ldots S_2 = 00\ldots01$. Vertex 1 is the only improvable state and according to Lemma \[lem:QC\_1\] it switches to its highest indexed improvable action $k-1$. Hence the policy becomes $S_n S_{n-1}\ldots S_2 S_1 = 0,0\ldots1,k-1$. With respect to the current policy the sinks and state 1 can be effectively reduced to new sinks with $(\alpha,\beta) = (\frac{1}{2},\frac{1}{2})$. This reduction is shown in Figure \[fig:Fc\_red\_2\]. The action values are equal for equal sink values and hence the policy for states $n,n-1 \ldots 3,2$ is still optimal. State 1 is still the only improvable state and according to Lemma \[lem:QC\_1\] it switches to the next improvable action 0. This completes the proof. The policy would now be $S_n S_{n-1}\ldots S_2 S_1 = 00\ldots10$
![Reducing $\mathcal{F}_{C}(n,k)$ with respect to the policy $S_n S_{n-1}\ldots S_2 S_1 = 0,0\ldots1,k-1$[]{data-label="fig:Fc_red_2"}](images/lemma7-7.png){width="\linewidth"}
\[lem:FC\_3\] If $\pi^t = S_n S_{n-1}\ldots S_2 S_1 = 00\ldots10$ for $\mathcal{F}_{C}(n,k)$, it takes $\mathcal{N}_C(n-1,k)$ iterations to converge to optimal policy.
With respect to $\pi^t = S_n S_{n-1}\ldots S_2 S_1 = 00\ldots10$ the sinks and state 1 can be effectively reduced to new sinks with $(\alpha,\beta) = (1,\frac{1}{2})$. This reduction is shown in Figure \[fig:Fc\_red\_3\]. Invoking Lemma \[lem:sink\_invariant\] this MDP is equivalent to $\mathcal{F}_{C}(n-1,k)$ with initial policy $S_n S_{n-1}\ldots S_2 = 00\ldots01$ and hence takes $\mathcal{N}_{C}(n-1,k)$ iterations to converge to optimal policy $S_{n-1}\ldots S_2 = 00\ldots00$. The complete policy is now $S_{n-1}\ldots S_2 S_1 = 00\ldots00$ which is also the optimal policy for $F_{C}(n,k)$
![Reducing $\mathcal{F}_{C}(n,k)$ to $\mathcal{F}_{C}(n-1,k)$with respect to policy $S_n S_{n-1}\ldots S_2 S_1 = 0,0\ldots1,0$[]{data-label="fig:Fc_red_3"}](images/lemma7-8.png){width="\linewidth"}
$$\label{eq:NC}
\mathcal{N}_C(n+1,k) = \mathcal{N}(n,k) +2+\mathcal{N}_C(n,k)$$
This can be proved by sequentially applying Lemmas 7.6-7.8
\[lem:F\_1\] For t $\mathcal{F}(n,k)$ having initial policy $S_n S_{n-1}\ldots S_2 S_1 = 00\ldots00$, it takes exactly $\mathcal{N}(n-1,k)$ iterations before policy at the first state vertex changes.
Due to the switching rule of SPI, $S_1$ will only change when all the other state vertices are not improvable. Until the higher states improve, the current sinks and state 1 can be effectively reduced to new sinks with $(\alpha,\beta) = (-1,-\frac{1}{2})$. This reduction is shown in Figure \[fig:F\_red\]. Using Lemma 7.1 the resultant MDP is equivalent to $\mathcal{F}(n-1,k)$ having initial policy $S_n S_{n-1}\ldots S_2 = 00\ldots00$. This MDP takes $N(n-1,k)$ iterations to converge to the optimal policy $S_n S_{n-1}\ldots S_2 = 00\ldots01$. By this logic after the $\mathcal{N}(n-1,k)$ iterations, the policy would be $S_n S_{n-1}\ldots S_2 S_1 = 00\ldots10$
![ Reducing $\mathcal{F}(n,k)$ to $\mathcal{F}(n-1,k)$ with respect to its initial policy[]{data-label="fig:F_red"}](images/lemma7-6.png){width="\linewidth"}
\[lem:F\_2\] If $\pi^t = S_n S_{n-1}\ldots S_2 S_1 = 00\ldots10$, the next 2 switches of simple policy iteration occur at vertex 1
Using Lemma \[lem:Q\_1\] the policy $\pi^t$ is optimal with respect to the states $n,n-1 \ldots 3,2$ and is $S_n S_{n-1}\ldots S_2 = 00\ldots01$. Vertex 1 is the only improvable state and according to Lemma \[lem:Q\_1\] it switches to its highest indexed improvable action $k-1$. Hence the policy becomes $S_n S_{n-1}\ldots S_2 S_1 = 0,0\ldots1,k-1$. With respect to the current policy the sinks and state 1 can be effectively reduced to new sinks with $(\alpha,\beta) = (-\frac{1}{2},-\frac{1}{2})$. This reduction is shown in Figure \[fig:F\_red\_2\]. The action values are equal for equal sink values and hence the policy for states $n,n-1 \ldots 3,2$ is still optimal. State 1 is still the only improvable state and according to Lemma \[lem:Q\_1\] it switches to the next improvable action k-2. This completes the proof. The policy would now be $S_n S_{n-1}\ldots S_2 S_1 = 00\ldots1,k-2$
![Reducing $\mathcal{F}(n,k)$ with respect to policy $S_n S_{n-1}\ldots S_2 S_1 = 0,0\ldots1,k-1$[]{data-label="fig:F_red_2"}](images/lemma7-11.png){width="\linewidth"}
\[lem:F\_3\] If $\pi^t = S_n S_{n-1}\ldots S_2 S_1 = 00\ldots1,k-2$ for $\mathcal{F}(n,k)$, it takes $\mathcal{N}_C(n-1,k)$ iterations before policy at the first state vertex changes.
With respect to $\pi^t = S_n S_{n-1}\ldots S_2 S_1 = 00\ldots1,k-2$ the sinks and state 1 can be effectively reduced to new sinks with $(\alpha,\beta) = (-\frac{p_{k-2}}{2},-\frac{1}{2})$. This reduction is shown in Figure \[fig:F\_red\_3\]. Invoking Lemma \[lem:sink\_invariant\] this MDP is equivalent to $\mathcal{F}_{C}(n-1,k)$ with initial policy $S_n S_{n-1}\ldots S_2 = 00\ldots01$ and hence takes $\mathcal{N}_{C}(n-1,k)$ iterations to converge to optimal policy $S_{n-1}\ldots S_2 = 00\ldots00$. The complete policy is now $S_{n-1}\ldots S_2 S_1 = 00\ldots0,k-2$
![ Reducing $\mathcal{F}(n,k)$ to $\mathcal{F}_c(n-1,k)$ with respect to policy $S_n S_{n-1}\ldots S_2 S_1 = 0,0\ldots1,k-2$ []{data-label="fig:F_red_3"}](images/lemma7-12.png){width="\linewidth"}
\[lem:F\_4\] If $\pi^t = S_n S_{n-1}\ldots S_2 S_1 = 0, 0, \ldots, k-2$ for $\mathcal{F}(n,k)$, it takes $k-3$ iterations to converge to optimal policy.
With respect to $\pi^t = S_n S_{n-1}\ldots S_2 S_1 = 0, 0, \ldots, k-2$ for $\mathcal{F}(n,k)$ the sinks and state 1 can be effectively reduced to new sinks with $(\alpha,\beta) = (-\frac{p_{k-2}}{2},-\frac{1}{2})$. Invoking Lemma \[lem:sink\_invariant\] this MDP is equivalent to $\mathcal{F}_{C}(n-1,k)$ with initial policy $S_n S_{n-1}\ldots S_2 = 00\ldots00$ and hence this is already optimal. This means that only change that will happen is at state 1. Using Lemma \[lem:Q\_1\] we get an incremental change in the improvable policy. Also, at any subsequent stage $i$ the value of sink is $(\alpha,\beta) = (-\frac{p_{i}}{2},-\frac{1}{2})$, which again implies only state 1 can be improved. Hence it would take $k-3$ iterations to converge to the optimal policy $S_n S_{n-1}\ldots S_2 S_1 = 00\ldots01$
$$\label{eq:N}
\mathcal{N}(n+1,k) = \mathcal{N}(n,k) +2+\mathcal{N}_C(n,k)+(k-3)$$
This can be be proven by sequentially applying Lemmas \[lem:F\_1\]-\[lem:F\_4\].
\[thm:recursive\] $$\mathcal{N}(n+1,k) = 2\times\mathcal{N}(n,k)+2$$
Subtracting eq.(\[eq:NC\]) from eq.(\[eq:N\]), we get the relation: $$\label{eq:diffN}
\mathcal{N}(n+1,k) - \mathcal{N}_C(n+1,k) = (k-3)$$ As the RHS of the above is independent of $n$, we can replace $n+1$ with $n$ to get $$\label{eq:diffN}
\mathcal{N}_C(n,k) = \mathcal{N}(n,k) - (k-3)$$ Substituting $\mathcal{N}_C(n,k)$ from the above equation into eq.(\[eq:N\]) completes the proof.
$$\mathcal{N}(n,k) = (3+k)2^{n-2} -2$$
For a fixed k, use the baseline from lemma \[lem:baseline\] and apply the recursive relation described by theorem \[thm:recursive\] to complete the proof. $$\begin{aligned}
\mathcal{N}(2,k) &= k+1\\
\mathcal{N}(3,k) &= 2(k+1)+2\\
\mathcal{N}(4,k) &= 2^2(k+1)+2^2+2\\
&\;\;\vdots \notag \\
\mathcal{N}(n,k) &= 2^{n-2}(k+1)+\sum_{i=1}^{n-2}2^i\\
&= (3+k)2^{n-2} -2\\
&= (3+k)2^{N/2-3} -2\end{aligned}$$
**Conclusion**
==============
In this work, we established a generalized lower bound on the number of iterations for a $N$ state, $k$ action MDP. We demonstrated the MDP formulation and proved a lower bound of ${\mathcal{O}}\big((3+k)2^{N/2-3}\big)$. However, we do not reject the existence of an MDP with a tighter lower bound, say, ${\mathcal{O}}\big(k^{N}\big)$. Out of all of family of MDP that we constructed and verified, most of them were ${\mathcal{O}}\big(2^{N} + k\big)$ and a few were ${\mathcal{O}}\big(k.{2}^{N}\big)$. Considering the switching rule employed by our construction, and the family of other MDPs we tested, finding an MDP with a tighter lower bound would be an interesting extension to our work.
**Additional Result**
=====================
We observed that the pattern used to define multiple actions was not being followed in very last states, which had scope of improvement. A simple modification to the actions from the final state improve the baseline from $$\mathcal{N}(2,k) = k+1 \quad \forall k\geq 3$$ to $$\mathcal{N}(2,k) = 2k \quad \forall k\geq 3$$ which futher increases the lower bound from ${\mathcal{O}}\big((3+k)2^{N/2-3}\big)$ to ${\mathcal{O}}\big((1+k)2^{N/2-2}\big)$ which was confirmed experimentally. Since the change is only at the final state, we believe that the rest of the proof will remain the same. The variation in the MDP has been shown in the Appendix Fig.\[fig:mdp\_new\]. $k1,k2$ are actions with probability $p1,p2$ respectively and $k1>k2 \implies p1>p2$.
Appendix
========
We present the simulation results for all actions and states upto ten in the table below. The experimental results are in coherence with the theoretical values derived and proved.
**n=2** **n=3** **n=4** **n=5** **n=6** **n=7** **n=8** **n=9** **n=10**
---------- --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- ----------
**k=3** 4 10 22 46 94 190 382 766 1534
**k=4** 5 12 26 54 110 222 446 894 1790
**k=5** 6 14 30 62 126 254 510 1022 2046
**k=6** 7 16 34 70 142 286 574 1150 2302
**k=7** 8 18 38 78 158 318 638 1278 2558
**k=8** 9 20 42 86 174 350 702 1406 2814
**k=9** 10 22 46 94 190 382 766 1534 3070
**k=10** 11 24 50 102 206 414 830 1662 3326
: Number of Iterations for family of MDP
\[tab:nk\]
[^1]: 1\. Department of Electrical Engineering, IIT Bombay, India. {sconsul, bhishma, kumar.ashutosh, parthasarathi.k}@iitb.ac.in
[^2]: \# Equal Contribution.
[^3]: Guided by Prof. Shivaram Kalyanakrishnan
[^4]: This work was undertaken as a part of a course project in CS 747, Autumn 2019, at IIT Bombay. Another team (N. Joshi, S. Shah, N. Jain, S. Balasubramanian) independently came up with a similar lower bound and analysis
| |
The existed important cultural landmarks in Pudong District are distributed on the axis where Century Avenue is located. Pudong Cultural Park will bring new vitality for the cultural life of Pudong as a significant culture node situated out of the main axis. In relation to the dynamic and high dense networks of Puxi District, the cultural facilities and green parks of Pudong are distributed in a low dense and high-grade wide road network, which becomes isolated urban nodes within the city. It is a challenge to prevent Pudong Culture Park, an enormous urban facility in scale with the quality of heterogeneity, from being isolated by the surrounding urban arterial road and enclosed residential quarters while it is an opportunity to make Pudong Culture Park an indication of new-Shanghai life style.
Cultural Park is the carrier of cultural activities in the city; therefore urban quality and park characteristic are attributed to it at the same time. City and nature superpose and mix together in terms of multiple dimensions such as density, space, feature and events etc., “Urbanity”, the characteristic of a city, is introduced to the design of Pudong Cultural Park in order to bring rich and diverse experience to people to activate the 75 hectares park area.. Furthermore, the lively urban quality of the park becomes a powerful complement to the monotonous lifestyle of the surroundings. The design of the center of the park is inspired by the traditional water and plowing culture, which offers distinct scenery from other parks in Shanghai.
The proposal of the design attempts to maximize the ability to share within public space and have the concept of the cultural-park urban design extending to every building of the park. In addition to the shared resource on the ground floor of Citizen Art Center and the Youth Activity Center, a special connection between them is also created. One of the auditoriums of the two centers is open to each other sharing one stage. The ability to share a show for both adults and youths creates a platform for them to interact and an opportunity for them to communicate. The volume of the Youth Activity Center is divided into four small buildings with pleasant scale. The exterior and interior has distinct expression while the four themes of morality, intelligence, physique and aesthetics are presented. A suspended cross street goes through the core of the Youth Activity Center in order to attract people and outdoor activities to the central courtyard. The surrounding large and continuous space on the ground floor allows various public activities to take place such as reading, exhibitions, skating, lectures and thematic art performing etc. Bookstores, cafes, galleries and creative shops beneath the cross street continuously provide the city with vitality.
Credits and Data:
Location: Pudong, Shanghai
Design: 2015-2016
Project Status: Proposal
Park Area: 74.7 ha. | http://www.urbanus.com.cn/projects/shpdyouth/?lang=en |
The oil yield is a matter of great concern to oil producers and affects their profits. The oil yield of a screw oil press is directly related to the oil content and the pretreatment of raw materials, oil extraction methods, and operation methods. In the process of operating a screw oil expeller, there are many factors affecting the oil yield. Here are several major factors for reference.
Table of Contents
The quality & cleanliness of raw materials
The state of raw oil-bearing materials, including plumpness, impurity rate, and variety, directly affects the overall oil yield. According to the situation of raw oil-bearing materials, a series of treatments need to be done in advance, such as selecting raw materials with full particles and screening out impurities in the materials. All these will improve the oil extraction rate of oil plants.
Raw material moisture
If the water content of the oil-bearing materials before pressing is not regulated in place during proper operation of the screw oil expeller, the oil production will be affected. It is possible to develop lumps and hinder oil output if the moisture level is too high. On the contrary, the water content is too low, and the material is prone to become powdery while pressing, causing the press chamber to become clogged. The oil is squeezed optimally when the water content of the pressed material reaches a particular degree. There is an ideal water range for various pressed materials, which is also connected to other elements such as temperature and protein denaturation degree.
Raw Materials Temperature and pressing Temperature
The temperature of raw material and pressing temperature not only affect the oil production but also affect the quality of oil and oil cake. Therefore, the temperature also has an “optimal range”. Similarly, if the raw material temperature is too high, the oil color becomes darker, which affects the quality of the oil. On the contrary, when the temperature is too low, normal physical and chemical reactions cannot be formed. In addition, when operating the screw oil expeller, the corresponding temperature should be set reasonably according to the characteristics of specific materials. Therefore, controlling the temperature of raw materials and pressing can effectively improve the oil output.
Pressing duration and times of screw oil expeller
Pressing time can affect the oil yield. The pressing time should not be too long, otherwise, more heat loss will affect the oil production capacity. After pressing, consider whether to press multiple times by checking the thickness of the oil cake. Generally, the thickness reaches about 0.8-2mm.
In addition to the above points, other factors may also affect the oil yield of a screw oil press machine, such as unsmooth screw shaft or cake outlet, hot press or cold press methods, etc. If you have any questions or requirements about the screw oil press, welcome to get in touch with us. | https://www.oilpressing.org/factors-affect-oil-yield-of-screw-oil-expeller.html |
Dr. Raycheck earned her Doctorate degree in Audiology from A.T. Still University, her master?s degree from the University of Cincinnati, and her undergraduate degree from Miami University. She is a Fellow of the American Academy of Audiology and is licensed to practice Audiology in Ohio.
Dr. Raycheck has over two decades of experience in Audiology. She has helped diagnose and treat hearing loss for patients in hospitals, medical facilities, ENT offices, schools, long-term care facilities,and private practices. Dr. Raycheck expanded the Hill Hear Better Clinic to provide visits and training within several retirement communities. Dr. Raycheck also serves as an Audiology Preceptor with the University of Cincinnati College of Allied Health Sciences, a mentorship program that provides clinical placement for audiology doctoral candidates.
Dr. Raycheck provides professional, compassionate and individualized care to every patient she sees, focusing on finding the right solution to improve the patient?s hearing ability. When not treating patients, Dr. Raycheck enjoys spending time with her husband and two children.
Certifications: | https://hillhearbetter.com/team/brandi-raycheck-au-d/ |
Ripple Stands To Win Fair Notice Battle With SEC• February 11, 2022 9:56 pm • Comments
Ripple has recently filed its Sur-Reply as a response to the SEC’s Motion to Strike the Fair Notice Affirmative Defense in order to bring to the light the inconsistency of the SEC’s prior enforcement actions.
In the past, the SEC had made claims that Ripple’s fair notice defense fails because the SEC had apparently filed similar lawsuits in the past that debated whether a digital asset was considered a security or not.
The SEC also describes these actions as cryptocurrency enforcement actions and uses a report that was released by Cornerstone Research as a document to support that view.
In response to these claims, Ripple stated that the report actually does not support the SEC’s claims.
BREAKING NEWS!!!
RIPPLE STANDS TO WIN BATTLE OVER FAIR NOTICE AMID SEC’S BACKFIRE!
The enforcement actions cited in the report do not actually support the SEC’s argument in the first place, Ripple argued. #XRP
— JackTheRippler🤫🐻🏦 (@RippleXrpie) February 10, 2022
FinanceFeeds reports:
In response, Ripple stated that a “sur-reply is amply justified here” in order to tackle “the SEC’s inappropriately premature request for this Court to conclude, as a factual matter, that market participants had fair notice that XRP would be considered a security.”
The enforcement actions cited in the report do not actually support the SEC’s argument in the first place, the Ripple counsel argued, adding that “not one of those cases alleged a violation of Section 5’s registration requirements for a sale of digital assets outside the context of an ICO.”
“The Court should deny the SEC’s request for judicial notice and disregard the SEC’s attempt to rely on disputed facts to foreclose a legally cognizable defense.”
In conclusion, Ripple argues that the court may not properly take judicial notice of the Cornerstone Report, the facts it contains are not undisputed; and if the Court were to consider the cases cited in the report, they support Ripple, not the SEC.
So essentially the @SECGov doesn’t know it’s own case history and just pointed at the volume of cases as evidence of having given @Ripple fair notice….and as @Ripple lawyers are professionals, they read them
— Generation XRP (@Marksie05) February 9, 2022
Attorney Jeremy Hogan shared his thoughts on Twitter and mentioned that he thinks that the fair notice defense will probably be accepted by the court
For charges against the founders of Ripple, the defendants stated that the SEC can’t plausibly make the assumption that the company was violating Section 5 registration requirements which categorizes 75 different cryptocurrency enforcement actions.
CryptoLandia shares:
The movement additionally argues that the SEC’s first declare fails as a result of it doesn’t allege that their private gives or gross sales of XRP occurred in america.
Even when their conduct within the US had been related, the transactions in query are predominantly international and accordingly outdoors the scope of Part 5.
Certainly, the Chris Larsen email thread refers to an overseas sale of XRP. It’s unclear if the SEC has materials towards Ripple and the person defendants that’s related to the SEC’s jurisdiction.
In addition to this Fair notice defense, the unsealing of several documents by Judge Torres’s ruling recently may eventually help the lawsuit progress in Ripple’s favor and accelerate the timeline to sometime later in the year.
As the lawsuit continues to unfold, XRP currently leads the recent in the recent crypto recovery and has increased in 18% over the past week with a current price of $0.77 at the time of this writing.
Ripple’s XRP Shoots 20% after SEC’s ‘Fair Notice Defense’ Permission https://t.co/pNzPSssUU4
— Martin Valk (@martincpvalk) February 8, 2022
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Familicides have received relatively little attention and are mostly discussed in studies with broader aims. Here, we reviewed 67 studies from 18 countries on familicides, in which an offender killed or attempted to kill their current or former spouse/intimate partner and one or more of their biological or stepchildren. We conducted a systematic literature search in PubMed, PsycINFO, and Google Scholar. Eight studies investigated familicide specifically, while the remaining reported on familicide cases as a subsample. We retrieved data on offenders’ gender, age, and background as well as on victims and their relationship to the offender. We also retrieved data on contextual factors and offense characteristics (i.e., modus operandi, offense location, premeditation, and whether or not the offender had committed suicide). We also coded methodological aspects of the studies. Familicides were almost exclusively committed by men and about half of the familicide cases led to the suicide of the offender. Mental health problems, relationship problems, and financial difficulties were prevalent. Because few studies reported population base rates of the investigated characteristics, it is difficult to draw conclusions about specific risk factors. Future research should further investigate typologies of familicide and examine risk factors for different types of familicides. | https://research.abo.fi/en/publications/familicide-a-systematic-literature-review |
From November 2 to 6, we celebrated Media Literacy Week. The purpose of this annual event is to make students, parents and education stakeholders aware of media issues, including those relating to digital media.
In a society where the population is more and more exposed to the media and advertisements and where the sources of information are multiple, media education is essential. Added to this is the rise in the use of social media, particularly among young people, which raises questions relating to the protection of digital identity and privacy.
This year Media Literacy Week took place under the theme Respect in a digital world and aimed to encourage young people to act responsibly, ethically and with integrity in virtual environments. In addition to media education, the annual event is also an opportunity to reflect on the digital literacy. In the end, we want to make students digital citizens who are engaged, respectful and endowed with a sharp critical sense.
To do this, different resources and activity ideas are offered to teachers, parents and workers who work with children and adolescents. For example, there are educational scenarios to address the issue of reputation, respect and privacy on social networks. There are also proposals for workshops and activities to develop students' critical thinking vis-à-vis the media, including projects calling on them to create an advertisement themselves, to analyze the media coverage of a given subject or to reflect on the question of the right to information and to censorship on the Internet. The resources developed will remain available throughout the year.
Media Literacy Week is a joint initiative of Habilomedia, an organization dedicated to media education and the promotion of digital literacy, and Canadian Teachers' Federation. | https://ecolebranchee.com/english/semaine-education-medias-2016-le-respect-dans-un-monde-numerique/ |
Yoga, herbal medicines, mineral or metal supplementation (rasa shastra), surgical techniques, meditation and application of oil by massages.
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Balancing doshas and encouraging healthy behavior/self-awareness prevents or treats illness.
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Traditional Vedic medical system dating to 3000 BCE. Widely accepted in Indian medical institutions, though still controversial in some American medical institutions.
Definition
Ayurveda (Sanskrit ayur, “life,” or “longevity”; veda, “knowledge,” or “science”; see etymological significance below) or ayurvedic medicine, along with Siddha medicine, are the two primary indigenous medical systems of the Indian subcontinent, Ayurveda principally developing in the north of India, Siddha principally in the south. In the interest of comprehensiveness, it should also be mentioned that the originally Graeco-Arabic-Persian medical system known as Unani (or Yunani; see entry) has had a major influence on the domain of medicine and health in India since the 12th century CE, after being introduced during the period of Islamic rule; and mention should also be made of the original prehistoric influence of the “archaic” healing systems associated with shamanism and related modalities on the domain of health and healing in India. Ayurveda, Siddha, and Unani are all literary or writing-based medical systems, while shamanism is not; however, shamanism likely had a major influence on the development of Yoga in India, which is also considered to be a major branch within both the Ayurveda and Siddha systems. The archaeological and historic record suggests that Ayurveda began to develop from its oral origins between 2000 and 5000 years ago.
Premise
Historians of Indian medicine have shown that before the written records of the classical concepts of the fundamental physiological system of Ayurveda and its relationship to health and disease, the historical practice of Indian medicine expresses primary concerns with what many would consider to be “supernatural” factors in health and disease; namely, malicious magic such as curses, “the evil eye,” the intervention of disembodied spirits, and others.
In contrast, the “classical” physiological and pathophysiological principles of Ayurveda is based on the concept of a vital life force, or prana, operating through and on basic material existence or prakirti, which is the body in the realm of organisms (this is a necessarily simplified schematic, for an excellent, more extensive, detailed, and informed overview, see Benner 2005). The relationship of prana and prakirti is species-dependent, but even within species is very specific to each individual. The individuality in these terms is understood in what may be considered humoral-like categories or doshas, the three primary system-organizing ones being vata (air and ether), pitta (fire and water), and kapha (water and earth); these categories and their interactional dynamics are the basis for what might be considered both an individual’s psychological and physiological “personality.” In health the doshas are in a state of balance with each other, within certain parameters, but also unique for each individual; the disturbance from this balance causes disease and the reestablishment of balance, through proper diagnosis and treatment, restores health. Moreover, health in Ayurveda is not merely considered the absence of pathology, but the attainment of optimal health, which is critically indexed by longevity. Proper diagnosis involves extensive observation of the patient (pulse, eyes, tongue, fingernails, skin, other key tissues), sometimes over days, and extensive questioning and history taking. Treatment – again, highly individualized – involves an extensive range of treatment techniques, including pharmacological, surgical (note there was an gap in ayurvedic surgery in the historical record for an extended period of time, possibly due to Buddhist influence), bodily therapies (massage, chiropractic-style manipulations, others), and an emphatic and extensive promotion of dietary and lifestyle improvement – ie, behavioral medicine. This is combined with a focus on prevention and optimal health/longevity, achieved through stimulating the body’s own innate healing potential.
Research Summary
The ayurvedic system of describing the body and its functional dynamics in predictable and observable ways can be seen in terms of modern systems theory and the new systems biology. This has been presented as accurately capturing essential features of the body and its functions on a valid, confirmable macro-molecular level. These are the criteria for constituting a scientific system, and a recent major paper on both Ayurveda and Siddha medicine has identified these “systems of systems” of medicine as valid examples of successful scientific systems according to contemporary state-of-the-art scientific and engineering principles (Ayyudai 2014, not yet listed in ISHAR due to copyright); the deciding factor being empirical verification, in other words evidence-based verification. Indeed, this is often considered the “gold standard” for Western medicine, and the history of Western medicine shows that orthodox explanations for successful (and even unsuccessful) clinical outcomes have been not only incomplete, but inaccurate, and must continuously revised by new, succeeding causal explanations (Scripps 1988 ref, others). Ayurveda has been presented as a medical system that can address some of those gaps, though this is still a controversial concept in some American institutions.
A great deal of specific and general scientific activity has been pursued in the formation, development, and advancing of Ayurvedic medicine throughout human history, incorporating the principles described above and many others. According to leading historian of Ayurveda, Professor Dominik Wujastyk of the University of Vienna recounts:
“Great encyclopedias of medicine were composed in India during the centuries before and after the time of Christ, and these works brought together not only treatises on anatomy, including embryology, diagnosis, surgery, epidemics, pharmacology, and so forth, but many reflective philosophical passages discussing, for example, the origin of the human being, the rules of medical debate, methods for the interpretation of technical terminology and scientific expression, and so forth” (New Dictionary of the History of Ideas, 2007).
The result of this extensive investigation, analysis, discussion and debate about Ayurveda has been a recognition that it addresses key principles that Western medicine has only recently been exploring. These include an emphasis on prevention and the achievement of optimal health, particularly through means based on behavioral medicine, including diet, with an emphasis on personalized treatment. Ayurveda boasts an extensive pharmacopeia based on a wide-ranging materia medica, including an enormous corpus of botanical resources, due in turn to the fact of the subcontinent’s wide-ranging geographical, geological, and eco-variation, which naturally produces a broad range of plant species. In the form of food plants, herbs, and spices, these botanicals offer significant and often surprising medical potential, and recent, accumulating evidence from modern, contemporary studies of "folk" medicine is scientifically verifying many of Ayurveda’s claims.
As efficacy is one of the keys to a successful medical system, this introduction concludes with a very brief review of three recent examples of peer-reviewed studies of successful ayurvedic treatments, in three categories of treatment: herbal, dietary, and behavioral medicine. In the first example, a 2013 study found that an herbal ayurvedic medicine traditionally used for the treatment of malaria, Pluchea lanceolata, was highly successful in terms of countering the disease in infected mice (Mohanty et al 2013). The second example is a recent example of the recent discovery that many spices may in fact possess not only flavor value, but at the same time act as extremely potent medicines (nutraceuticals), and in a 2014 systematic review of the Indian/Ayurvedic culinary spice, curcumin, by one of the preeminent researchers and pioneers of the field, BB Agarwal:
“More than 6000 articles published within the past two decades have discussed the molecular basis for the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, and anticancer activities assigned to the nutraceutical curcumin. Over sixty five clinical trials conducted on this molecule, have shed light on the role of curcumin in various chronic conditions, including autoimmune, cardiovascular, neurological, and psychological diseases, as well as diabetes and cancer” (Prasad et al 2014).
Finally, the third example is from a major branch of the behavioral medicine dimension of Ayurveda, Yoga/Meditation, and offers highly compelling evidence for the Ayurvedic focus on the achievement of longevity in a state of optimal health through this modality. In a pioneering peer-reviewed study from 1992, Chopra and colleagues (Glaser et al 1992) showed that a form of meditation specifically linked historically to Ayurveda could significantly enhance an endogenous steroid hormone with potent antiaging effects, DHEA. Not only did the meditation enhance the levels of DHEA, but it actually restored them to optimal youthful ranges, in effect reversing the decline of circulating levels by approximately 5-10 years. It has since been found that one of the mechanisms by which DHEA may produce its antiaging effects is through increasing levels of telomerase in cells, telomerase being an enzyme which controls the aging of cells, the discovery of which led to the award of the 2009 Nobel Prize in Medicine to Elizabeth Blackburn. Dr. Blackburn has recently focused much of her research on meditation, seeking to demonstrate that meditation enhances this cell-immortalizing enzyme, possibly through multiple molecular pathways (Epel et al 2009; Jacobs et al 2011).
Perspectives:
ISHAR strives to present all of our data in an impartial, informative manner. Nonetheless, there are always different viewpoints on various topics, and ISHAR encourages users to review the perspectives on other informational sites, then come to their own conclusions regarding what they consider the least biased. The sites below were chosen to represent a wide spectrum of approaches to this topic, and none are endorsed or promoted by ISHAR itself. | https://isharonline.org/content/ayurveda-0/ |
What Is a Hopper Conveyor?
A hopper conveyor is a system used in industrial settings to collect fine raw materials and sort those materials for transport across a conveyor belt or other movement system. The specific structure of the hopper conveyor can vary depending on the intended purpose, but generally the system will feature a large pyramid-shaped container known as a hopper that is used to collect materials, and a conveyor belt or other conveyor system that moves the raw materials after they have been funneled through the hopper. The hopper itself is usually made of steel, though other materials may be used for specific applications.
One common application for the hopper conveyor is sorting and transporting raw materials in mines. Small rocks, sand, and other particulate matter can be dumped into the hopper in bulk; the materials will then funnel down through the pyramid-shaped container to the open bottom, which will help control the flow of materials into the conveyor system. Once the materials fall from the hopper portion of the hopper conveyor, they will land on the conveyor belt for sorting or transport. The belt may be slanted upward or downward to facilitate loading into trucks or other long-term containment systems.
The size of the hopper conveyor will vary significantly according to its application. Systems that are used in mining settings or other outdoor industrial applications tend to be quite large so the conveyor belt can be positioned above a large truck or storage unit. A larger hopper is also able to handle more materials at once, as well as larger pieces of raw materials. These tend to be made of thick, durable steel to prevent damage. Smaller systems meant for factory or warehouse use may be smaller, though they, too, are likely to be made from steel for durability and, in some cases, sanitation. Other materials that can be used include plastic and composites.
Sometimes the hopper conveyor will not feature a belt system at all; instead, an auger conveyor may be used. This system features a long, screw-like shaft enclosed within a metal frame or tube. Small particulate matter can be transported upward or downward as the screw rotates and the auger blades push the materials in one direction or another. This system is most appropriate for exceptionally fine materials such as sand, and it is sometimes used in food processing settings, in which materials such as sugar or flour require transport. | https://www.aboutmechanics.com/what-is-a-hopper-conveyor.htm |
Australians are currently experiencing a whole lot of stuff that doesn’t reflect the suggested consequences of the economic tack that the West has taken, over the last two-hundred years. As time moves forward, we increasingly see that technological advancement alone cannot solve society’s problems: we need to also understand how to function collectively to benefit broadly from those capacities.
Conquest; progress; expansion; advancement are words that we associate primarily with the nineteenth century and early twentieth, in this rhetoric. More recently, arising out of US political discourse, the verbs deployed by our government in Australia are militarised. In this vein, the imagery that we see in Prime Minister Scott Morrison’s ‘informational’ videos, this week has drawn out the objections of the Australian Defense Association. The ADA has emphatically articulated the importance of the convention of not involving our defense force in political posturing. Click here for a Guardian article on this.
I am interested, though, to recall what people were getting at when they first articulated these ideas of progress and advancement, in association with early scientific inquiry. In the first half of the nineteenth century, Church and State were closely intertwined across Europe, in various configurations. In Germany, particularly, in the 1830s and early 1840s, Hegelian theologians like David Strauss and Ludwig Feuerbach were writing about what faith was, in light of scientific progress at the time. Both posited that any belief needed to be grounded in perception, and that science was an important means of honing our perceptions in our understanding of the world. Contemporary thinkers are mostly on board with these assertions, now.
More controversially, both also ventured to make statements that–indirectly but fundamentally–weakened the social legitimacy of leaders who leaned hard on religious doctrine as the established, exclusive framework for perceiving the world. We see an emphatic resistance to this tendency in contemporary Australian culture, which unfortunately sees faith groups drawn in to conflation with political leveraging of faith statements. These conflations alienate us from one another. Readers will have diverse positions about this (with my blessing), but the fact remains that we Australians are culturally resistant, for the most part, to having our leaders decide on our behalf that a particular set of doctrines is that of our whole nation.
In contrast, in 19th century Germany, both Strauss and Feuerbach, as theologians and therefore custodians of Church doctrine, were Staatsdiener, or public servants. At that time in Germany, theologians were part of State mechanisms for social cohesion and regulation. Feuerbach, in particular, was inadvertently quite influential on the young Karl Marx, and so it went, that these theological standpoints became enmeshed with political shifts that permanently changed the political landscape on the world stage. There were far more moderate responses to Feuerbach in the mix, and it shouldn’t be assumed that this was Feuerbach’s expectation in any way.
Both Strauss and Feuerbach studied G.W.F. Hegel’s work, gleaning from him the idea that community beliefs and values shift over time, adapting themselves to each cultural moment. This adaptation is how society grows and adapts… How we progress, you could say.
Marx’s revolutions were a violently abrupt shift to draw the disenfranchised and oppressed working classes back into conversations about what cultural beliefs constituted progress. While I wouldn’t presume to press Marx’s contribution onto my readers as some gold standard of social outcome, Marx does, nonetheless, serve as a strong warning about what can happen when the experiences of the community come to be at odds with what their leaders ask them to accept in their day-to-day lives (for the record, in my own work, I gravitate more towards George Eliot’s contribution of social regeneration via peacefully connected and collaborative community).
Let’s take a brief beard appreciation break:
The reception of these theologians in England occurred in the same circles as the early evolutionists that led up to Charles Darwin’s 1859 book, On the Origin of the Species. The idea that we respond to the conditions within which we find ourselves, and over time we adapt and change to flourish, resonates with the theologians who also spoke about progress and growth as attributes of the very basis of existence.
Returning to the Australian context, we are again finding ourselves out of step with what we are being asked for by our leaders, in many sectors of the community. We are, as Europeans in the 1830s and 1840s were, contemplating what it means to grow as a society at a time with no precedent. Many of us are dissatisfied with the deteriorating quality of public healthcare, wages have stagnated, towns are being vacated because their water supplies have been given/sold, instead, to large corporations that are not being held accountable. We also have the very distressing experiences of fire refugees who have been displaced. We bear a heavy burden of collective trauma. As a nation, we need to make some decisions.
It’s at odds with my values system to suggest that violence can be the solution under these conditions. I see that our community discourse is fundamentally uncoupled from the values of our current Prime Minister, and the (rapidly shrinking) collective who have supported these transgressive decisions about our collective well-being. A rift is developing in the community, as decisions are made that don’t serve the full community, but only those who the government has decided are well-enough resourced to fight back if they’re left out. Speculations about another Libspill are wafting through the rafters. Either way, we remain as a community, empowered to decide our collective values and culture for ourselves.
It’s simply historical fact that hungry people, burned people, displaced people, people dying of preventable health conditions… people in impossible circumstances, being asked for impossible things… eventually disengage from collaboration with the leaders creating those conditions, and there is always a proportion that get very angry. It is also a historical fact that leaders that are sufficiently out of step with the people they lead/rule, don’t get to keep being the leaders unless they engage in Really Nasty Behaviour. But society rights itself over time: the mechanisms for this vary between systems, ranging from the guillotines of the French, to the preferable mechanisms of elections and the like.
To use the latter in Australia, we’ve got a bit of a wait to go… a few years. In the meantime, progress and advancement actually belongs to us, just as it will after the next election. If I’ve noticed anything in the responses to Prime Minister Morrison’s recent pyro-bumbling, it’s that we, as a nation, are coming together to articulate what is and isn’t acceptable in how we respond to our collective needs. We are, together, stating our beliefs, in the legacy of thinkers like Strauss and Feuerbach who (somewhat inadvertently) helped initiate some of the cultural shifts that have led to the separation of Church and State. We get to choose what we believe (the history of our democratic system is peripheral to those guys, but not completely uncoupled), and we make fairly unencumbered choices about living out those beliefs, in community.
So, what do you believe you need to do now? What do you need? What do the people you live alongside need? It is up to you, and it is definitive of what happens next. Our systems, relationships, and processes consist of us, not our leaders. We survive; we grow; we rebuild; we learn. And we decide what we believe in, and what constitutes progress. Let’s evolve. | https://tenuoussensorium.com/ |
The Observer Effect, a fundamental premise of quantum theory, raises an open question regarding the nature of existence. Numerous experiments over the past century allude to the role of consciousness in the construct of reality; it has been shown time and again that it is the act of observation itself that causes a wave function to collapse out of either/or uncertainty into what we experience as a particular reality... My reality. Your reality. Everybody's reality.
As Niels Bohr once famously remarked, "Anyone who is not shocked by quantum theory has not understood it."
Featuring Jim Al-Khalili, David Bohm, Anton Zeilinger, John Hagelin, Lynne McTaggart, Fred Alan Wolf, Dean Radin, Amit Goswami, Gregg Braden,
Joe Dispenza and Dattatreya Siva Baba.
Compiled and narrated by Kelly Neill.
No comments: | https://www.philosophicalanthropology.net/2010/04/conscious-universe-observer-effect.html |
We created a scenario of light and sound concept for an itinerant dinner for a French famous brand of luxury watch. A tricky meal where menu, sound and light combine to disturb the notion of time of the attendees. This original and iconic project was imagined for celebrity guests and has been carried out in many countries for brand promotion.
At each new dish, we change the time of the day. Every dish out of 5 represents a type of meal of the day (lunch, afternoon tea, breakfast etc.) but served in disorder. For example, the breakfast menu with coffee and croissants could be served at the end of the meal, accompanied with the birds’ sing and the golden sunrise.
For this new collaboration, just like the previous ones, the brand gives a great place to creativity and it’s a pleasure to imagine their lighting scheme. The exercise was very exciting for the creator, to "manipulate" the time of the day, especially when you think of the magical experience for the guests.
Dates
: 2019
Missions : | https://www.icon-lighting.com/en/projet/dinner-with-manipulated-time-p-179 |
A bird’s droppings reflect its state of health. Therefore, it is a good idea to pay close attention to them. A bird’s digestive, urinary and reproductive tracts empty into a common receptacle called the cloaca and the products from them are expelled through the vent, which is the opening at the birds “south end”.
A normal dropping may contain excretory products form the intestinal tract, urinary tract or both. The fecal (stool) portion of the dropping should be green or brown. The color is influenced by the bird’s diet. Normal droppings are formed into a coil, reflecting the size and diameter of the intestine. Along with the fecal portion is a variable amount of uric acid or urate (“whitewash”) and urine (“water”). The urates are usually in a blob or mixed in with the feces and should be white or beige. The urine portion soaks the papers on the cage bottom for a variable distance beyond the perimeter of the dropping. It is important to regularly observe the amount of urine being excreted in the droppings. For this reason, such material as crushed corncobs or walnut should not be used on the cage bottom. It is impossible to evaluate each dropping when these materials cover the cage bottom. They also tend to promote rapid growth of disease causing fungi on the cage bottom, especially when wet with urine or water. Newspapers or paper towels are preferable.
Smaller caged birds (finches, canaries, parakeets) tend to have an individual blob of fecal material with an accompanying amount of urate. The amount of urine excreted is usually quite small. A bird has diarrhea when the fecal portion of the dropping lacks form (“pea soup”). Diarrhea is not very common in birds. A dropping with a normal fecal portion but a large amount of urine around it represents a watery dropping (polyuria), not diarrhea! A11 diarrheic droppings appear loose, but not all loose or watery droppings constitute diarrhea. This is a very important distinction. Polyuric droppings may indicate disease (diabetes or kidney disease), but more often they result from increased water consumption or consumption of large amounts of fleshy fruits and vegetables.
The color, consistency and amount of each component of the droppings of normal caged birds frequently change, depending on the type of food consumed, amount of water consumed, amount of stress experienced, mood changes, and other factors. Abnormal droppings typically remain abnormal in appearance during the entire course of a bird’s illness. | https://www.rentonvet.com/pet-health/caged-birds/droppings-can-reflect-illness/ |
Despite its austere beauty, the Atacama Plateau in Chile is one of the least hospitable places on Earth.
It is a 1,000-kilometre strip of land west of the Andes Mountains.The plateau is high enough for altitude sickness (basically the consequences of lack of oxygen) to be a hazard for anyone working there.
It is very dry; the average rainfall is maybe a few millimetres a year in some locations, while at others, rainfall has never been recorded. It is very, very dry. The terrain looks just like the surface of Mars, and has been used for testing Mars rovers and filming Mars movies.
There is even a valley called the Valley of Mars. It is also known as the Valley of Death. There are volcanoes and frequent earthquakes. So, of course, we chose the Atacama Plateau to be the site of one of the largest radio telescopes we have made so far.
The Atacama Large Millimetre Array, or ALMA, consists of 66 movable dish antennas forming an array about 16 km across. It was built and is operated under an international partnership including Europe, the United States, Canada, Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, and Chile.
The instrument is located at an altitude of about five km. At that height, the air is too thin for people to do precise work for long periods, so the workshops and other support facilities are located at a lower altitude, about 2.9 km above sea level.
The antennas are moved to the telescope site by huge, specially designed transporters. Installing the telescopes on-site or moving them to different locations, is precision work, and the transporter drivers have oxygen cylinders in their cabs to prevent altitude sickness affecting their concentration.
Considering all the challenges involved in building and operating such a large and technically complex instrument at such a location, we cannot help asking an obvious question: why?
The universe is awash with electromagnetic waves. There are radio waves with lengths of metres or longer, which tell us about cosmic electrons and galactic magnetic fields, exploding stars and strange goings-on in the solar corona.
There are centimetre waves that tell us about quasars, black holes and the chemical processes going on in the clouds of gas and dust between the stars. Then there are millimetre waves, given off by asteroids, planets, comets and the clouds of gas and dust in the process of forming new planets and stars.
The millimetre emissions reveal an important chapter in the story of how we got to be here. The big problem is that millimetre radio waves are absorbed by our atmosphere, in particular, by water vapour.
One day we will be able to put big radio telescopes on the moon or in space, where these things won't be a problem. However, for the foreseeable future, our large-scale radio astronomical activities will be confined to the surface of the Earth.
We chose to build the radio telescope at the highest, driest place we could find, above a good fraction of the atmosphere and above most of the water vapour.
This instrument posed other technical challenges. High-sensitivity millimetre-wavelength radio receivers, previously built as one-offs, had to be produced in quantities, one set per antenna, and a custom-made signal processor had to be developed to deal with the tsunami of data coming out of the instrument.
ALMA has imaged planetary systems in the process of being born. In some cases it has revealed gaps in the disc of collapsing material, showing where new planets are growing.
It is imaging the material involved in forming stars and planets in galaxies other than our own, and it was one of the radio telescopes used to make the first ever image of a black hole.
- Mars lies very low, getting lost in sunset glow as it approaches the other side of the sun.
- Jupiter, shining like a searchlight, rises before midnight.
- Saturn rises at 1 a.m.
- The moon will be new on June 3. | https://www.castanet.net/news/Skywatching/256995/ALMA-is-a-winner |
It's no secret that teams who work remotely can be at a disadvantage when it comes to company goals. Not only do they lack the companionship of colleagues working side by side, but there is also an increased risk of isolation and burnout.
So how can you get remote teams on board with company goals?
Team alignment is important for organization success. Individuals on a team need to be aligned in their goals, as well as understand the organization’s strategic objectives.
In this blog, we will discuss how to increase remote team alignment with Goals.
In most organizations, managers and employees are expected to share the same goals and work towards achieving those goals together. This ensures that all of the people working at an organization are on the same page and working towards an ultimate goal.
This is much more important in remote teams, where everybody works from different locations. It is those remote teams that are most common nowadays, and the majority of all teams work remotely at least part-time (and many 100% of the time).
Goals as a Tool for Increasing Team Alignment
Imagine how difficult it would be for employees to stay aligned when working together on a project if they were not sure what the goals were.
But goals can be built into almost any process, which increases their value and means that they become essential to functioning organizations. This is as true for virtual teams as it is for other kinds of teams.
In fact, according to recent research, lack of clarity on company goals leads to:
Confusion about ongoing projects and where to focus and work according to the given deadline.
Lack of team motivation and enthusiasm drive.
Struggle to work with team members and lack of overall alignment with the team.
Luckily you can bring clarity and association to your team with Goals with Time Champ:
There are three key steps - these are all DIY!
1) Clarify company goals to the team
2) Provide a framework for individual goal setting and tracking
3) Celebrate daily successes
Your team must understands the goals that they're working towards. This is true when they're working from home anyway, but it's even more important when remote teams are disconnected and must rely on information from headquarters.
One way to avoid miscommunication is by having clear company goals both at the top and the bottom of the planning process.
The first step to building a successful company goal is understanding that goals are not one-size-fits-all. For example, some companies may have their employees drive revenue; others may have them develop new products. While this should be fairly obvious, it's often a good idea to spend some time clarifying what that means for your team.
Every team member of a different department has a clear idea of the goal and their role to accomplish that goal on time.
The main challenge to remote team alignment is knowing what your team and organizational priorities are. Without a unified goal management system, some teams might have their goals in a spreadsheet, others might track them in a slide deck.
When information is unclear, it can be nearly impossible for team members to know what work to prioritize.
With project management, all of these priorities live in Time Champ. In the project management, you can see any public company goal or filter by relevant ongoing project.
The project management tab gives you a high-level picture of the goal title, owner, due date, and progress.
If company goals change or team members need to check in on a goal for whatever reason, they can do so right from the project management sections. That way, remote teams can stay associated no matter where they’re working.
Further than viewing Goals at the project level, it can also be helpful to connect goals to specific tasks, deliverables, and indicators.
Bringing big-picture and clear objectives into your team’s current work can help your team associate and work effetely on your company’s most important priorities.
But when all the team members work on a spreadsheet, getting that context can be difficult and time-consuming. That’s why you can @-mention any task comment or status update in the project management sections.
By @-mentioning the right people who are working on that particular project, you can reduce the gap between company priorities and daily work, so your team always has the framework and transparency they need to excel—then the location become irrelevant.
Giving a clear idea of company goal team can also know how their work contributes to company objectives. And collaboration software like Time Champ helps teams get there.
Employees using a productive work management tool are nearly twice as likely to say they have a clear understanding of how their work relates to their company-wide goals.
Time Champ helps companies unlock productivity potential with AI enable time tracking and productivity measurement software.
Time Champ helps you to identify where they are spending their time during the working day, allowing you to ensure their time is being spent productively.
Time Champ collects various metrics, KPIs and presents them in beautifully laid out analytical charts and reports. With the ability to drill down into problem areas, Time Champ makes life much easier to analyze and find solutions for the problems quickly.
See Time Champ in action! Watch our on-demand demo webinar
Want to know more? Book a Demo
Don’t have Time Champ? Sign up for a free account in minutes , no credit card required
NO CREDIT CARD REQUIRED. | https://timechamp.io/How-to-Improve-Remote-Team-Association-with-Company-Goals.html |
The Dead Sea Scrolls
The ancient Roman writer Pliny (1st century C.E.) mentions a community of Jewish holy men who lived on the western shore of the Dead Sea. Not long after the discovery of the scrolls near the ruins known as Khirbet Qumran, scholars suggested that the scrolls had belonged to the community to which Pliny referred. The settlement was apparently connected with a larger religious movement known as the Essenes, a group described by the Jewish historian Josephus and by the Jewish philosopher Philo. The community, which was organized as a religious sect, probably arose as a reform movement during the first half of the second century B.C.E. Its members were concerned to live a life of strict obedience to the will of God as disclosed through their interpretation of the law. The Qumran community's interpretation differed in important respects from that of many other Jewish groups, especially concerning the calendar that should be used in observing Sabbaths and holy days. These differences caused the Qumran community to reject the validity of the sacrifices as they were carried out by the priests in charge of the Jerusalem temple. They believed that their own lives of obedience, prayer, and praise would be an acceptable offering to God until such time as the temple service could be reformed. The Qumran community expected that God would soon intervene decisively to overthrow the gentile powers and other forces of evil and to allow for the reformation of Israel according to the sect's beliefs.
The scrolls that belonged to the Qumran community can be divided into three groups: (1) copies of biblical books; (2) sectarian texts, i.e., writings composed by and for the sect; and (3) nonsectarian texts, i.e., various religious writings that were of interest to the sect but not composed by them. Among the nonbiblical texts it is difficult to be certain in some cases whether a text was written by the community, although there is a general consensus concerning most of the major writings. The question is important because those texts that are not sectarian give us insight into the type of literature that circulated in a variety of circles in ancient Judaism.
COPIES OF BIBLICAL BOOKS. Every book of the Hebrew Bible with the exception of Esther is represented among the scrolls and fragments. The relatively large number of copies of Deuteronomy, Isaiah, and Psalms suggests that these books were especially influential. Biblical manuscripts from Qumran and other ancient sites (Muraba‘at, Nahal Hever, and Masada) are important because they are almost a thousand years older than the earliest of the medieval manuscripts that provide the basis for modern editions and translations.
SECTARIAN TEXTS Several of the texts that scholars call “Rules” were perhaps written as manuals of instruction for teachers and/or new members. The most important of these is the Community Rule (designated 1QS; sometimes called the Manual of Discipline). It describes the purposes for which the community was formed, gives an account of the yearly covenant renewal ceremony, and explains some of the distinctive religious beliefs of the sect. It also sets out procedures for the conduct of community meetings, for the admission of new members, and for disciplining those who break the society's rules. An appendix to the Community Rule describes the ideal organization of the community as it will exist in the end of days and gives the blessings to be pronounced over the community and its leaders.
Another Rule, usually called the Damascus Covenant (CD), seems to have been written not for the particular community that lived at Khirbet Qumran but for related groups that lived in towns and villages elsewhere in Judea. Although the Damascus Covenant contains a number of tantalizing references to the history of the sect, they are frustratingly obscure. It does appear, however, that the sect was in conflict with other Jewish groups about the proper interpretation of the law and the conduct of the temple service. The Damascus Covenant contains laws governing general behavior (e.g., concerning vows, Sabbath observance) as well as regulations relating to the internal life of the community.
The most unusual of the Rules is the War Rule (1QM). It describes the war of the end time, when the Children of Light will defeat the Children of Darkness and the proper forms of service will be restored in the temple. A considerable amount of this complex work is devoted to a minute description of the equipment to be used in the battles (banners, trumpets, weapons), military formations, the organization of the camp, and the leading role of the priests and Levites. The War Rule is not a scroll of practical instructions but a work of the imagination describing an event believed to be predetermined.
Not many of the scrolls found at Qumran deal primarily with the sect's distinctive interpretation of the law. One important text, entitled by its modern editors Matters of the Law (4QMMT; in Hebrew, Miqsat Ma‘aseh Ha-Torah), appears to have been a letter sent by the sect to its opponents, outlining their differences in calendar and legal interpretation. Another legal text, the lengthy and well-preserved Temple Scroll (11Q Tem), presents itself as God's instructions to Moses. In large part the Temple Scroll is a systematic reworking of legal material from Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy, with particular emphasis on laws pertaining to temple service. Extensive regulations are given concerning the construction of the temple and the procedures required to ensure its purity. The latter part of the scroll, drawn largely from Deuteronomy, concerns more general legal issues. Although the Temple Scroll was probably not written by a member of the Qumran community (its style and language are quite different from the sectarian writings), it has important similarities with the Damascus Covenant and the War Rule.
The Qumran community engaged in intensive study of scripture, not only in order to clarify the commandments but also to understand the history of the end time, in which the community believed it was then living. According to the Qumran community, the Psalms and the ancient writings of the prophets contained cryptic references to their sect, its struggles with its opponents, and the anticipated vindication of their community in the end of days. The results of their interpretations of scripture were embodied in a series of commentaries called “Interpretations” (in Hebrew, Pesharim). For the most part these Pesharim cite the text of a prophetic book section by section, accompanying each brief citation with an interpretation. In a few instances the sect wrote topical interpretations, selecting biblical texts from various books and interpreting them as prophetic references to the end time. The Midrash on the Last Days (4Q Flor; also called the Florilegium) and the Melchizedek Midrash (11Q Melch) are the best examples of these topical Pesharim.
An important part of the life of the Qumran community consisted of acts of worship. Prayers, blessings, religious poetry, and liturgical texts of various kinds are abundantly represented among the scrolls. One large collection of hymns, the Thanksgiving Scroll (1QH), contains psalms of thanksgiving spoken by an individual. Most of the hymns could represent the religious experience of any member of the sect, but a few seem to be written from the perspective of a persecuted leader. Although the members of the Qumran community were to offer prayers to God at set times every day, it is not known whether they used prayers specially composed by someone within the sect. There are several collections of apparently nonsectarian prayer texts that may have served these purposes, including the Daily Prayers, The Words of the Heavenly Lights, and the Prayers for the Festivals. A text called Blessings and Curses may contain part of the annual ceremony of covenant renewal to which the Community Rule refers. Having separated themselves from participation in worship at the Jerusalem temple, the Qumran community developed a strong interest in the heavenly temple and its angelic priesthood, an interest reflected in the Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice. Preoccupation with heavenly and demonic forces is also represented in a collection of songs of exorcism known as the Songs of the Sage.
NONSECTARIAN TEXTS. A type of literary activity that flourished during the second temple period was the practice of using a biblical character or narrative as the basis for a new composition. Some of these writings (often termed Pseudepigrapha) stick rather closely to the biblical text, while others have only a loose relationship to it. Many of the nonsectarian texts found in the Dead Sea caves are examples of this type of literary activity.
One fairly well preserved text, the Genesis Apocryphon (1Qap Gen) is a retelling and elaboration of narratives from Genesis, some of which are told in the first person. The book of 1 Enoch, which is actually a compilation of various compositions, is an example of apocalyptic literature. In addition to expanding the biblical traditions about Enoch with additional legendary material, it presents this biblical character as a recipient of revelations concerning astronomical lore, the relationship between rebellious angels and the Flood, and the history of the world until its appointed end when the rebellious angels and other evildoers will be punished. The interest in the heavenly world and in the end time are prominent themes in apocalypses. Although only fragments of 1 Enoch have been found in the Qumran caves, the complete text is known from medieval manuscripts in Greek and Ethiopic. Also found among the caves are very fragmentary copies of texts that appear to be testaments (i.e., death-bed farewell speeches) of Kohath and Amram, the great-grandfather and grandfather of Moses, respectively. All of these texts are written in Aramaic.
Several texts written in Hebrew are directly associated with Moses. One of these, the book of Jubilees, is preserved only in fragments at Qumran but was previously known from medieval manuscripts in Ethiopic and fragments in other languages. Although presented as an address to Moses by the angel of the Presence, the content of Jubilees is a reworking of the biblical material from Genesis 1 to Exodus 12 . The author is very much concerned with calendar and chronology, advocating a calendar based on a solar rather than a lunar reckoning. Chronology is calculated on forty-nine year jubilee periods. The proper celebration of festivals and the importance of Levi, the ancestor of Israel's priests, are also major themes of the book.
Among the more fragmentary texts associated with Moses is one called The Words of Moses. Strongly influenced by the language and style of Deuteronomy, it appears to contain a speech by God and an address by Moses to the Israelites. Another text, also in the style of Deuteronomy, provides instructions for a ritual for distinguishing between true and false prophets (the so-called Liturgy of the Three Tongues of Fire). As mentioned above, the Temple Scroll also takes the form of a divine revelation to Moses. The various texts that are associated with Moses probably do not come from a single community. Their styles and contents are too different. They point to the relatively widespread literary technique of writing in the name of a famous figure of the past.
In addition to texts associated with Moses, there are rewritings of biblical narrative featuring Joshua (the so-called Psalms of Joshua), Samuel (published as The Vision of Samuel), and perhaps David. A very different adaptation of biblical material is characteristic of the work known as Second Ezekiel. That text, which presents itself as a series of dialogues between God and the prophet Ezekiel, appears to be concerned in part with the fate of the righteous in the end time. In this respect it has much in common with 1 Enoch. Similarly, the fragmentary text of Pseudo-Daniel recounts history from the time of Noah to the end of days. Also related to the Daniel literature is the Prayer of Nabonidus, an Aramaic text that contains numerous parallels with the story of Daniel and Nebuchadnezzar in Daniel 4 .
In addition to narratives and apocalyptic revelations, nonbiblical psalms and wisdom writings have been found in the Qumran caves. Although the proverb collections have not yet been published, several sermon-like compositions or admonitions and a poem based on Proverbs 7 have been. One well-preserved psalms scroll from Cave 11 contains both canonical and noncanonical psalms, all of which are attributed to David. Two other collections of noncanonical psalms, unfortunately very fragmentary, appear to have contained psalms attributed to various biblical figures, including Obadiah, Manasseh, a “man of God,” and an unnamed king of Judah. As mentioned above, several collections of prayers and blessings that have been found in the caves were probably also of nonsectarian origin. The richness and variety of this literature is a clue to the wealth of literary production in the late second temple period. | http://oxfordbiblicalstudies.com/article/book/obso-9780195290004/obso-9780195290004-div1-47 |
White Home,
Puniya Bhumi Bengaluru,
Magadhi karnataka State,
Prabuddha Bharat International.
Gītassara Sutta
— A melodic intonation —
[gīta+sara]
in 29) Classical English,Roman
Critique of melodious chanting Edit
Ghitassara Sutta Edit
In the Ghitassara Sutta (Anguttara Nikaya 5.209), the Buddha teaches:
Bhikkhus, there are five dangers of reciting the Dhamma with a musical intonation. What five?
Oneself gets attached to the sound, others get attached to the sound, householders are annoyed, saying, “Just as we sing, these sons of the Sakyan sing”, the concentration of those who do not like the sound is destroyed, and later generations copy it.
These, monks, are the five dangers of reciting the Dhamma with a musical intonation.
To understand this non-dual relationship experientially, one is told to
practice liturgy intimately. In distinguishing between ceremony and
liturgy, Dōgen states, “In ceremony there are forms and there are
sounds, there is understanding and there is believing. In liturgy there
is only intimacy.” The practitioner is instructed to listen to and speak
liturgy not just with one sense, but with one’s “whole body-and-mind”.
By listening with one’s entire being, one eliminates the space between
the self and the liturgy. Thus, Dōgen’s instructions are to “listen with
the eye and see with the ear”. By focusing all of one’s being on one
specific practice, duality is transcended. Dōgen says, “Let go of the
eye, and the whole body-and-mind are nothing but the eye; let go of the
ear, and the whole universe is nothing but the ear.” Chanting intimately
thus allows one to experience a non-dual reality. The liturgy used is a
tool to allow the practitioner to transcend the old conceptions of self
and other. In this way, intimate liturgy practice allows one to realize
emptiness (sunyata), which is at the heart of Zen Buddhist teachings.
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_chant
There are, bhikkhus, these five drawbacks of reciting the Dhamma with a
sustained melodic intonation.
Which five?
1. Oneself gets attached to that intonation,
2. others get attached to that
intonation,
3.householders get angry:
4. ‘Those ascetics who are followers of the Sakyans’ son sing in the
same way that we do!’,
5. there is a break in concentration for those striving [to produce]
musicality, and the
upcoming generations imitate what they see.
These, bhikkhus, are the five drawbacks of reciting the Dhamma with a
sustained melodic intonation.
Those monks who are followers of the Sakyans’ son chant in the same
way that Buddha and monks do
Traditional chanting Edit
In Buddhism, chanting is the traditional means of preparing the mind for
meditation, especially as part of formal practice (in either a lay or
monastic context). Some forms of Buddhism also use chanting for
ritualistic purposes.
While the basis for most Theravada chants is the Pali Canon, Mahayana
and Vajrayana chants draw from a wider range of sources.
Theravada chants Edit
Buddhist monks chanting
In the Theravada tradition, chanting is usually done in Pali, sometimes
with vernacular translations interspersed. Among the most popular
Theravada chants are:
Buddhabhivadana (Preliminary Reverence for the Buddha)
Tiratana (The Three Refuges)
Pancasila (The Five Precepts)
Buddha Vandana (Salutation to the Buddha)
Dhamma Vandana (Salutation to his Teaching)
Sangha Vandana (Salutation to his Community of Noble Disciples)
Upajjhatthana (The Five Remembrances)
Metta Sutta (Discourse on Loving Kindness)
Reflection on the Body (recitation of the 32 parts of the body).
The traditional chanting in Khmer Buddhism is called Smot.
Mahayana sutra chants Edit
Chanting in the sutra hall
Since Japanese Buddhism is divided in thirteen doctrinal schools, and
since Chan Buddhism, Zen and Buddhism in Vietnam – although sharing a
common historical origin and a common doctrinal content – are divided
according to geographical borders, there are several different forms of
arrangements of scriptures to chant within Mahayana Buddhism.:
Daily practice in Nichiren buddhism is chanting the five character of
Namu Myōhō Renge Kyō (homage to the true dharma of the Lotus Sutra). A
Mahayana sutra that reveals the true identity of Shakyamuni as a Buddha
who attained enlightenment numberless kalpas ago. Kumarajiva’s
translation, which is widely honoured, is entitled the Lotus Sutra of
the wonderful law (Myoho Renge Kyo). The mystic relationship between the
law and the lives of the people courses eternally through past,
present, and future, unbroken in any lifetime. In terms of space, the
Nichiren proclaims that the heritage of the ultimate law flows within
lives of his disciples and lay supporters who work in perfect unity for
the realization of a peaceful world and happiness for all humanity.
Nichiren practitioners will chant Nam Myoho Renge Kyo - the true aspect
of all the phenomena and recite certain chapters from the Lotus Sutra,
in particular the 2nd and 16th chapters.
Pure Land Buddhists chant nianfo, Namu Amida Butsu or Namo Amituofo
(Homage to Amitabha Buddha). In more formal services, practitioners will
also chant excerpts from the Larger Sutra of Immeasurable Life or
occasionally the entire Smaller Sutra of Immeasurable Life (a sutra not
unique for Pure Land Buddhism, but chanted in the evening by
Chan-buddhists and Tendai-buddhists as well).
Popular with Zen, Shingon or other Mahayana practitioners is chanting
the Prajñāpāramitā Hridaya Sūtra (Heart Sutra), especially during
morning offices. In more formal settings, larger discourses of the
Buddha (such as the Diamond Sutra in Zen temples and the Lotus Sutra in
Tendai temples) may be chanted as well.
Particularly in the Chinese, Vietnamese and the Japanese traditions,
repentance ceremonies, involving paying deep reverence to the buddhas
and bodhisattvas, as well as executing rituals to rescue and feed hungry
ghosts, are also occasionally practiced. There is no universally used
form for these two practices, but several different forms, the use of
which follows doctrinal and geographical borders. Within Chan, it is
common to chant Sanskrit formulae, known as dhāraṇīs, especially in the
morning.
Vajrayana chants Edit
In the Vajrayana tradition, chanting is also used as an invocative
ritual in order to set one’s mind on a deity, Tantric ceremony, mandala,
or particular concept one wishes to further in themselves.
For Vajrayana practitioners, the chant Om Mani Padme Hum is very popular
around the world as both a praise of peace and the primary mantra of
Avalokitesvara. Other popular chants include those of Tara,
Bhaisajyaguru, and Amitabha.
Tibetan monks are noted for their skill at throat-singing, a specialized
form of chanting in which, by amplifying the voice’s upper partials,
the chanter can produce multiple distinct pitches simultaneously.
Japanese esoteric practitioners also practice a form of chanting called
shomyo.
Non-canonical uses of Buddhist chanting Edit
There are also a number of New Age and experimental schools related to
Buddhist thought which practise chanting, some with understanding of the
words, others merely based on repetition. A large number of these
schools tend to be syncretic and incorporate Hindu japa and other such
traditions alongside the Buddhist influences.
While not strictly a variation of Buddhist chanting in itself, Japanese
Shigin (詩吟) is a form of chanted poetry that reflects several principles
of Zen Buddhism. It is sung in the seiza position, and participants are
encouraged to sing from the gut - the Zen locus of power. Shigin and
related practices are often sung at Buddhist ceremonies and
quasi-religious gatherings in Japan.
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gautama_Buddha
Gautama Buddha
Language
Watch
Edit
Not to be confused with the Chinese monk Budai (the “laughing Buddha”)
or Budha in Hindu astrology.
For the film, see Gautama Buddha (film).
“Buddha” and “Gautama” redirect here. For the Buddhist title, see Buddha
(title). For other uses, see Buddha (disambiguation) and Gautama
(disambiguation).
The Buddha (also known as Siddhattha Gotama or Siddhārtha Gautama[note
3] or Buddha Shakyamuni) was a philosopher, mendicant, meditator,
spiritual teacher, and religious leader who lived in Ancient India (c.
5th to 4th century BCE).[note 4] He is revered as the founder
of the world religion of Buddhism, and worshipped by most Buddhist
schools as the Enlightened One who has transcended Karma and escaped the
cycle of birth and rebirth. He taught for around 45 years and
built a large following, both monastic and lay. His teaching is
based on his insight into duḥkha (typically translated as “suffering”)
and the end of dukkha – the state called Nibbāna or Nirvana.
Gautama Buddha
Buddha in Sarnath Museum (Dhammajak Mutra).jpg
A statue of the Buddha from Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh, India, circa 475 CE.
The Buddha is depicted teaching in the lotus position, while making the
Dharmacakra mudrā.
Sanskrit name
Sanskrit
Siddhārtha Gautama
Pali name
Pali
Siddhattha Gotama
Other names
Shakyamuni (”Sage of the Shakyas”)
Personal
Born
Siddhartha Gautama
c. 563 BCE or 480 BCE
Lumbini, Shakya Republic (according to Buddhist tradition)[note 1]
Died
c. 483 BCE or 400 BCE (aged 80)
Kushinagar, Malla Republic (according to Buddhist tradition)[note 2]
Religion
Buddhism
Spouse
Yasodharā
Children
Rāhula
Parents
Śuddhodana (father)
Maya Devi (mother)
Known for
Founder of Buddhism
Other names
Shakyamuni (”Sage of the Shakyas”)
Senior posting
Predecessor
Kassapa Buddha
Successor
Maitreya
The Buddha was born into an aristocratic family in the Shakya clan but
eventually renounced lay life. According to Buddhist tradition, after
several years of mendicancy, meditation, and asceticism, he awakened to
understand the mechanism which keeps people trapped in the cycle of
rebirth. The Buddha then traveled throughout the Ganges plain teaching
and building a religious community. The Buddha taught a middle way
between sensual indulgence and the severe asceticism found in the Indian
śramaṇa movement. He taught a spiritual path that included ethical
training and meditative practices such as jhana and mindfulness. The
Buddha also critiqued the practices of Brahmin priests, such as animal
sacrifice.
A couple of centuries after his death he came to be known by the title
Buddha, which means “Awakened One” or “Enlightened One”. Gautama’s
teachings were compiled by the Buddhist community in the Suttas, which
contain his discourses, and the Vinaya, his codes for monastic practice.
These were passed down in Middle-Indo Aryan dialects through an oral
tradition. Later generations composed additional texts, such as
systematic treatises known as Abhidharma, biographies of the Buddha,
collections of stories about the Buddha’s past lives known as Jataka
tales, and additional discourses, i.e, the Mahayana sutras.
Names and titles
Besides “Buddha” and the name Siddhārtha Gautama (Pali: Siddhattha
Gotama), he was also known by other names and titles, such as Shakyamuni
(”Sage of the Shakyas”).[note 5]
In the early texts, the Buddha also often refers to himself as Tathāgata
(Sanskrit: [tɐˈtʰaːɡɐtɐ]). The term is often thought to mean either
“one who has thus gone” (tathā-gata) or “one who has thus come”
(tathā-āgata), possibly referring to the transcendental nature of the
Buddha’s spiritual attainment.
A common list of epithets are commonly seen together in the canonical
texts, and depict some of his spiritual qualities:
Sammasambuddho – Perfectly self-awakened
Vijja-carana-sampano – Endowed with higher knowledge and ideal conduct.
Sugato – Well-gone or Well-spoken.
Lokavidu – Knower of the many worlds.
Anuttaro Purisa-damma-sarathi – Unexcelled trainer of untrained people.
Satthadeva-Manussanam – Teacher of gods and humans.
Bhagavathi – The Blessed one
Araham – Worthy of homage. An Arahant is “one with taints destroyed, who
has lived the holy life, done what had to be done, laid down the
burden, reached the true goal, destroyed the fetters of being, and is
completely liberated through final knowledge.”
Jina – Conqueror. Although the term is more commonly used to name an
individual who has attained liberation in the religion Jainism, it is
also an alternative title for the Buddha.
The Pali Canon also contains numerous other titles and epithets for the
Buddha, including: All-seeing, All-transcending sage, Bull among men,
The Caravan leader, Dispeller of darkness, The Eye, Foremost of
charioteers, Foremost of those who can cross, King of the Dharma
(Dharmaraja), Kinsman of the Sun, Helper of the World (Lokanatha), Lion
(Siha), Lord of the Dhamma, Of excellent wisdom (Varapañña), Radiant
One, Torchbearer of mankind, Unsurpassed doctor and surgeon, Victor in
battle, and Wielder of power.
Historical person
Scholars are hesitant to make unqualified claims about the historical
facts of the Buddha’s life. Most people accept that the Buddha lived,
taught, and founded a monastic order during the Mahajanapada era during
the reign of Bimbisara (c. 558 – c. 491 BCE, or c. 400 BCE),
the ruler of the Magadha empire, and died during the early years of the
reign of Ajatashatru, who was the successor of Bimbisara, thus making
him a younger contemporary of Mahavira, the Jain tirthankara.
While the general sequence of “birth, maturity, renunciation, search,
awakening and liberation, teaching, death” is widely accepted, there
is less consensus on the veracity of many details contained in
traditional biographies.
The times of Gautama’s birth and death are uncertain. Most historians in
the early 20th century dated his lifetime as c. 563 BCE to 483
BCE. Within the Eastern Buddhist tradition of China, Vietnam,
Korea and Japan, the traditional date for the death of the Buddha was
949 B.C. According to the Ka-tan system of time calculation in the
Kalachakra tradition, Buddha is believed to have died about 833 BCE.
More recently his death is dated later, between 411 and 400 BCE, while
at a symposium on this question held in 1988, the majority
of those who presented definite opinions gave dates within 20 years
either side of 400 BCE for the Buddha’s death.[note 4] These
alternative chronologies, however, have not been accepted by all
historians.[note 6]
Historical context
Historical context
Ancient kingdoms and cities of India during the time of the Buddha
(circa 500 BCE)
According to the Buddhist tradition, Gautama was born in Lumbini, now in
modern-day Nepal, and raised in Kapilavastu, which may have been either
in what is present-day Tilaurakot, Nepal or Piprahwa, India.[note 1]
According to Buddhist tradition, he obtained his enlightenment in Bodh
Gaya, gave his first sermon in Sarnath, and died in Kushinagar.
One of Gautama’s usual names was “Sakamuni” or “Sakyamunī” (”Sage of the
Shakyas”). This and the evidence of the early texts suggests that he
was born into the Shakya clan, a community that was on the periphery,
both geographically and culturally, of the eastern Indian subcontinent
in the 5th century BCE. The community was either a small republic,
or an oligarchy. His father was an elected chieftain, or oligarch.
Bronkhorst calls this eastern culture Greater Magadha and notes that
“Buddhism and Jainism arose in a culture which was recognized as being
non-Vedic”.
The Shakyas were an eastern sub-Himalayan ethnic group who were
considered outside of the Āryāvarta and of ‘mixed origin’
(saṃkīrṇa-yonayaḥ, possibly part Aryan and part indigenous). The laws of
Manu treats them as being non Aryan. As noted by Levman, “The
Baudhāyana-dharmaśāstra (1.1.2.13–4) lists all the tribes of Magadha as
being outside the pale of the Āryāvarta; and just visiting them required
a purificatory sacrifice as expiation” (In Manu 10.11, 22). This is
confirmed by the Ambaṭṭha Sutta, where the Sakyans are said to be
“rough-spoken”, “of menial origin” and criticised because “they do not
honour, respect, esteem, revere or pay homage to Brahmans.” Some of
the non-Vedic practices of this tribe included incest (marrying their
sisters), the worship of trees, tree spirits and nagas. According to
Levman “while the Sakyans’ rough speech and Munda ancestors do not
prove that they spoke a non-Indo-Aryan language, there is a lot of other
evidence suggesting that they were indeed a separate ethnic (and
probably linguistic) group.” Christopher I. Beckwith identifies the
Shakyas as Scythians.
Apart from the Vedic Brahmins, the Buddha’s lifetime coincided with the
flourishing of influential Śramaṇa schools of thought like Ājīvika,
Cārvāka, Jainism, and Ajñana. Brahmajala Sutta records sixty-two
such schools of thought. In this context, a śramaṇa refers to one who
labors, toils, or exerts themselves (for some higher or religious
purpose). It was also the age of influential thinkers like Mahavira,
Pūraṇa Kassapa, Makkhali Gosāla, Ajita Kesakambalī, Pakudha Kaccāyana,
and Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta, as recorded in Samaññaphala Sutta, whose
viewpoints the Buddha most certainly must have been acquainted
with.[note 8] Indeed, Śāriputra and Moggallāna, two of the
foremost disciples of the Buddha, were formerly the foremost disciples
of Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta, the sceptic; and the Pali canon frequently
depicts Buddha engaging in debate with the adherents of rival schools
of thought. There is also philological evidence to suggest that the two
masters, Alara Kalama and Uddaka Rāmaputta, were indeed historical
figures and they most probably taught Buddha two different forms of
meditative techniques. Thus, Buddha was just one of the many śramaṇa
philosophers of that time. In an era where holiness of person was
judged by their level of asceticism, Buddha was a reformist within
the śramaṇa movement, rather than a reactionary against Vedic
Brahminism.
Historically, the life of the Buddha also coincided with the Achaemenid
conquest of the Indus Valley during the rule of Darius I from about
517/516 BCE. This Achaemenid occupation of the areas of Gandhara and
Sindh, which lasted about two centuries, was accompanied by the
introduction of Achaemenid religions, reformed Mazdaism or early
Zoroastrianism, to which Buddhism might have in part reacted. In
particular, the ideas of the Buddha may have partly consisted of a
rejection of the “absolutist” or “perfectionist” ideas contained in
these Achaemenid religions.
Earliest sources
Main article: Early Buddhist Texts
The words “Bu-dhe” (𑀩𑀼𑀥𑁂, the Buddha) and “Sa-kya-mu-nī ” (
𑀲𑀓𑁆𑀬𑀫𑀼𑀦𑀻, “Sage of the Shakyas”) in Brahmi script, on Ashoka’s
Lumbini pillar inscription (circa 250 BCE)
No written records about Gautama were found from his lifetime or from
the one or two centuries thereafter. But from the middle of the 3rd
century BCE, several Edicts of Ashoka (reigned c. 269–232 BCE) mention
the Buddha, and particularly Ashoka’s Lumbini pillar inscription
commemorates the Emperor’s pilgrimage to Lumbini as the Buddha’s
birthplace, calling him the Buddha Shakyamuni (Brahmi script: 𑀩𑀼𑀥
𑀲𑀓𑁆𑀬𑀫𑀼𑀦𑀻 Bu-dha Sa-kya-mu-nī, “Buddha, Sage of the
Shakyas”). Another one of his edicts (Minor Rock Edict No. 3)
mentions the titles of several Dhamma texts (in Buddhism, “dhamma” is
another word for “dharma”), establishing the existence of a written
Buddhist tradition at least by the time of the Maurya era. These texts
may be the precursor of the Pāli Canon.[note 9]
Bharhut inscription: Bhagavato Sakamunino Bodho (𑀪𑀕𑀯𑀢𑁄
𑀲𑀓𑀫𑀼𑀦𑀺𑀦𑁄 𑀩𑁄𑀥𑁄 “The illumination of the Blessed Sakamuni”),
circa 100 BCE.
“Sakamuni” is also mentioned in the reliefs of Bharhut, dated to circa
100 BCE, in relation with his illumination and the Bodhi tree, with the
inscription Bhagavato Sakamunino Bodho (”The illumination of the Blessed
Sakamuni”).
The oldest surviving Buddhist manuscripts are the Gandhāran Buddhist
texts, found in Afghanistan and written in Gāndhārī, they date from the
first century BCE to the third century CE.
On the basis of philological evidence, Indologist and Pali expert Oskar
von Hinüber says that some of the Pali suttas have retained very archaic
place-names, syntax, and historical data from close to the Buddha’s
lifetime, including the Mahāparinibbāṇa Sutta which contains a detailed
account of the Buddha’s final days. Hinüber proposes a composition date
of no later than 350–320 BCE for this text, which would allow for a
“true historical memory” of the events approximately 60 years prior if
the Short Chronology for the Buddha’s lifetime is accepted (but he also
points out that such a text was originally intended more as hagiography
than as an exact historical record of events).
John S. Strong sees certain biographical fragments in the canonical
texts preserved in Pali, as well as Chinese, Tibetan and Sanskrit as the
earliest material. These include texts such as the “Discourse on the
Noble Quest” (Pali: Ariyapariyesana-sutta) and its parallels in other
languages.
Traditional biographies
One of the earliest anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha, here
surrounded by Brahma (left) and Śakra (right). Bimaran Casket, mid-1st
century CE, British Museum.
Biographical sources
The sources which present a complete picture of the life of Siddhārtha
Gautama are a variety of different, and sometimes conflicting,
traditional biographies. These include the Buddhacarita, Lalitavistara
Sūtra, Mahāvastu, and the Nidānakathā. Of these, the
Buddhacarita is the earliest full biography, an epic poem
written by the poet Aśvaghoṣa in the first century CE. The
Lalitavistara Sūtra is the next oldest biography, a
Mahāyāna/Sarvāstivāda biography dating to the 3rd century CE. The
Mahāvastu from the Mahāsāṃghika Lokottaravāda tradition is another major
biography, composed incrementally until perhaps the 4th century CE.
The Dharmaguptaka biography of the Buddha is the most exhaustive, and
is entitled the Abhiniṣkramaṇa Sūtra, and various Chinese
translations of this date between the 3rd and 6th century CE. The
Nidānakathā is from the Theravada tradition in Sri Lanka and was
composed in the 5th century by Buddhaghoṣa.
The earlier canonical sources include the Ariyapariyesana Sutta (MN 26),
the Mahāparinibbāṇa Sutta (DN 16), the Mahāsaccaka-sutta (MN 36), the
Mahapadana Sutta (DN 14), and the Achariyabhuta Sutta (MN 123), which
include selective accounts that may be older, but are not full
biographies. The Jātaka tales retell previous lives of Gautama as a
bodhisattva, and the first collection of these can be dated among the
earliest Buddhist texts. The Mahāpadāna Sutta and Achariyabhuta
Sutta both recount miraculous events surrounding Gautama’s birth, such
as the bodhisattva’s descent from the Tuṣita Heaven into his mother’s
womb.
Nature of traditional depictions
Nature of traditional depictions
Māyā miraculously giving birth to Siddhārtha. Sanskrit, palm-leaf
manuscript. Nālandā, Bihar, India. Pāla period
In the earliest Buddhist texts, the nikāyas and āgamas, the Buddha is
not depicted as possessing omniscience (sabbaññu) nor is he
depicted as being an eternal transcendent (lokottara) being. According
to Bhikkhu Analayo, ideas of the Buddha’s omniscience (along with an
increasing tendency to deify him and his biography) are found only
later, in the Mahayana sutras and later Pali commentaries or texts such
as the Mahāvastu. In the Sandaka Sutta, the Buddha’s disciple
Ananda outlines an argument against the claims of teachers who say they
are all knowing while in the Tevijjavacchagotta Sutta the Buddha
himself states that he has never made a claim to being omniscient,
instead he claimed to have the “higher knowledges” (abhijñā). The
earliest biographical material from the Pali Nikayas focuses on the
Buddha’s life as a śramaṇa, his search for enlightenment under various
teachers such as Alara Kalama and his forty-five-year career as a
teacher.
Traditional biographies of Gautama often include numerous miracles,
omens, and supernatural events. The character of the Buddha in these
traditional biographies is often that of a fully transcendent (Skt.
lokottara) and perfected being who is unencumbered by the mundane world.
In the Mahāvastu, over the course of many lives, Gautama is said to
have developed supramundane abilities including: a painless birth
conceived without intercourse; no need for sleep, food, medicine, or
bathing, although engaging in such “in conformity with the world”;
omniscience, and the ability to “suppress karma”. As noted by
Andrew Skilton, the Buddha was often described as being superhuman,
including descriptions of him having the 32 major and 80 minor marks of a
“great man,” and the idea that the Buddha could live for as long as an
aeon if he wished (see DN 16).
The ancient Indians were generally unconcerned with chronologies, being
more focused on philosophy. Buddhist texts reflect this tendency,
providing a clearer picture of what Gautama may have taught than of the
dates of the events in his life. These texts contain descriptions of the
culture and daily life of ancient India which can be corroborated from
the Jain scriptures, and make the Buddha’s time the earliest period in
Indian history for which significant accounts exist. British author
Karen Armstrong writes that although there is very little information
that can be considered historically sound, we can be reasonably
confident that Siddhārtha Gautama did exist as a historical figure.
Michael Carrithers goes a bit further by stating that the most general
outline of “birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and
liberation, teaching, death” must be true.
Previous lives
The legendary Jataka collections depict the Buddha-to-be in a previous
life prostrating before the past Buddha Dipankara, making a resolve to
be a Buddha, and receiving a prediction of future Buddhahood.
Legendary biographies like the Pali Buddhavaṃsa and the Sanskrit
Jātakamālā depict the Buddha’s (referred to as “bodhisattva” before his
awakening) career as spanning hundreds of lifetimes before his last
birth as Gautama. Many stories of these previous lives are depicted in
the Jatakas. The format of a Jataka typically begins by telling a
story in the present which is then explained by a story of someone’s
previous life.
Besides imbuing the pre-Buddhist past with a deep karmic history, the
Jatakas also serve to explain the bodhisattva’s (the Buddha-to-be) path
to Buddhahood. In biographies like the Buddhavaṃsa, this path is
described as long and arduous, taking “four incalculable ages”
(asamkheyyas).
In these legendary biographies, the bodhisattva goes through many
different births (animal and human), is inspired by his meeting of past
Buddhas, and then makes a series of resolves or vows (pranidhana) to
become a Buddha himself. Then he begins to receive predictions by past
Buddhas. One of the most popular of these stories is his meeting
with Dipankara Buddha, who gives the bodhisattva a prediction of future
Buddhahood.
Another theme found in the Pali Jataka Commentary (Jātakaṭṭhakathā) and
the Sanskrit Jātakamālā is how the Buddha-to-be had to practice several
“perfections” (pāramitā) to reach Buddhahood. The Jatakas also
sometimes depict negative actions done in previous lives by the
bodhisattva, which explain difficulties he experienced in his final life
as Gautama.
Biography
Birth and early life
Map showing Lumbini and other major Buddhist sites in India. Lumbini
(present-day Nepal), is the birthplace of the Buddha,[note 1] and is
a holy place also for many non-Buddhists.[note 10]
The Lumbini pillar contains an inscription stating that this is the
Buddha’s birthplace
The Buddhist tradition regards Lumbini, in present-day Nepal to be the
birthplace of the Buddha.[note 1] He grew up in Kapilavastu.[note
1] The exact site of ancient Kapilavastu is unknown. It may have
been either Piprahwa, Uttar Pradesh, in present-day India, or
Tilaurakot, in present-day Nepal. Both places belonged to the Sakya
territory, and are located only 15 miles (24 km) apart.
The earliest Buddhist sources state that the Buddha was born to an
aristocratic Kshatriya (Pali: khattiya) family called Gotama (Sanskrit:
Gautama), who were part of the Shakyas, a tribe of rice-farmers living
near the modern border of India and Nepal.[note 11] the
son of Śuddhodana, “an elected chief of the Shakya clan”, whose
capital was Kapilavastu, and who were later annexed by the growing
Kingdom of Kosala during the Buddha’s lifetime. Gautama was the family
name. According to later biographies such as the Mahavastu and the
Lalitavistara, his mother, Maya (Māyādevī), Suddhodana’s wife, was a
Koliyan princess. Legend has it that, on the night Siddhartha was
conceived, Queen Maya dreamt that a white elephant with six white tusks
entered her right side, and ten months later Siddhartha
was born. As was the Shakya tradition, when his mother Queen Maya became
pregnant, she left Kapilavastu for her father’s kingdom to give birth.
However, her son is said to have been born on the way, at Lumbini, in a
garden beneath a sal tree.
The early Buddhist texts contain very little information about the birth
and youth of Gotama Buddha. Later biographies developed a
dramatic narrative about the life of the young Gotama as a prince and
his existential troubles. They also depict his father Śuddhodana as
a hereditary monarch of the Suryavansha (Solar dynasty) of Ikṣvāku
(Pāli: Okkāka). This is unlikely however, as many scholars think that
Śuddhodana was merely a Shakya aristocrat (khattiya), and that the
Shakya republic was not a hereditary monarchy. Indeed,
the more egalitarian gana-sangha form of government, as a political
alternative to Indian monarchies, may have influenced the development of
the śramanic Jain and Buddhist sanghas, where monarchies tended toward
Vedic Brahmanism.
The day of the Buddha’s birth is widely celebrated in Theravada
countries as Vesak. Buddha’s Birthday is called Buddha Purnima in
Nepal, Bangladesh, and India as he is believed to have been born on a
full moon day.
According to later biographical legends, during the birth celebrations,
the hermit seer Asita journeyed from his mountain abode, analyzed the
child for the “32 marks of a great man” and then announced that he would
either become a great king (chakravartin) or a great religious
leader. Suddhodana held a naming ceremony on the fifth day and
invited eight Brahmin scholars to read the future. All gave similar
predictions. Kondañña, the youngest, and later to be the first
arhat other than the Buddha, was reputed to be the only one who
unequivocally predicted that Siddhartha would become a Buddha.
Early texts suggest that Gautama was not familiar with the dominant
religious teachings of his time until he left on his religious quest,
which is said to have been motivated by existential concern for the
human condition. According to the early Buddhist Texts of several
schools, and numerous post-canonical accounts, Gotama had a wife,
Yasodhara, and a son, named Rāhula. Besides this, the Buddha in the
early texts reports that “‘I lived a spoilt, a very spoilt life, monks
(in my parents’ home).”
The legendary biographies like the Lalitavistara also tell stories of
young Gotama’s great martial skill, which was put to the test in various
contests against other Shakyan youths.
Renunciation
See also: Great Renunciation
The “Great Departure” of Siddhartha Gautama, surrounded by a halo, he is
accompanied by numerous guards and devata who have come to pay homage;
Gandhara, Kushan period
While the earliest sources merely depict Gotama seeking a higher
spiritual goal and becoming an ascetic or sramana after being
disillusioned with lay life, the later legendary biographies tell a more
elaborate dramatic story about how he became a mendicant.
The earliest accounts of the Buddha’s spiritual quest is found in texts
such as the Pali Ariyapariyesanā-sutta (”The discourse on the noble
quest,” MN 26) and its Chinese parallel at MĀ 204. These texts
report that what led to Gautama’s renunciation was the thought that his
life was subject to old age, disease and death and that there might be
something better (i.e. liberation, nirvana). The early texts also
depict the Buddha’s explanation for becoming a sramana as follows: “The
household life, this place of impurity, is narrow - the samana life is
the free open air. It is not easy for a householder to lead the
perfected, utterly pure and perfect holy life.” MN 26, MĀ 204, the
Dharmaguptaka Vinaya and the Mahāvastu all agree that his mother and
father opposed his decision and “wept with tearful faces” when he
decided to leave.
Prince Siddhartha shaves his hair and becomes a sramana. Borobudur, 8th
century
Legendary biographies also tell the story of how Gautama left his palace
to see the outside world for the first time and how he was shocked by
his encounter with human suffering. The legendary biographies
depict Gautama’s father as shielding him from religious teachings and
from knowledge of human suffering, so that he would become a great king
instead of a great religious leader. In the Nidanakatha (5th
century CE), Gautama is said to have seen an old man. When his
charioteer Chandaka explained to him that all people grew old, the
prince went on further trips beyond the palace. On these he encountered a
diseased man, a decaying corpse, and an ascetic that inspired
him. This story of the “four sights” seems to be adapted
from an earlier account in the Digha Nikaya (DN 14.2) which instead
depicts the young life of a previous Buddha, Vipassi.
The legendary biographies depict Gautama’s departure from his palace as
follows. Shortly after seeing the four sights, Gautama woke up at night
and saw his female servants lying in unattractive, corpse-like poses,
which shocked him. Therefore, he discovered what he would later
understand more deeply during his enlightenment: suffering and the end
of suffering. Moved by all the things he had experienced, he
decided to leave the palace in the middle of the night against the will
of his father, to live the life of a wandering ascetic. Accompanied
by Chandaka and riding his horse Kanthaka, Gautama leaves the palace,
leaving behind his son Rahula and Yaśodhara. He traveled to the
river Anomiya, and cut off his hair. Leaving his servant and horse
behind, he journeyed into the woods and changed into monk’s robes
there, though in some other versions of the story, he received the
robes from a Brahma deity at Anomiya.
According to the legendary biographies, when the ascetic Gautama first
went to Rajagaha (present-day Rajgir) to beg for alms in the streets,
King Bimbisara of Magadha learned of his quest, and offered him a share
of his kingdom. Gautama rejected the offer but promised to visit his
kingdom first, upon attaining enlightenment.
Ascetic life and Awakening
Ascetic life and Awakening
See also: Enlightenment in Buddhism
Main articles: Moksha and Nirvana (Buddhism)
All sources agree that the ascetic Gautama practised under two teachers
of yogic meditation. According to MN 26 and its Chinese
parallel at MĀ 204, after having mastered the teaching of Ārāḍa Kālāma
(Pali: Alara Kalama), who taught a meditation attainment called “the
sphere of nothingness”, he was asked by Ārāḍa to become an equal leader
of their spiritual community. However, Gautama felt
unsatisfied by the practice because it “does not lead to revulsion, to
dispassion, to cessation, to calm, to knowledge, to awakening, to
Nibbana”, and moved on to become a student of Udraka Rāmaputra (Pali:
Udaka Ramaputta). With him, he achieved high levels of
meditative consciousness (called “The Sphere of Neither Perception nor
Non-Perception”) and was again asked to join his teacher. But, once
more, he was not satisfied for the same reasons as before, and moved
on.
Majjhima Nikaya 4 also mentions that Gautama lived in “remote jungle
thickets” during his years of spiritual striving and had to overcome the
fear that he felt while living in the forests.
The gilded “Emaciated Buddha statue” in an Ubosoth in Bangkok
representing the stage of his asceticism
After leaving his meditation teachers, Gotama then practiced ascetic
techniques. An account of these practices can be seen in the
Mahāsaccaka-sutta (MN 36) and its various parallels (which according to
Analayo include some Sanskrit fragments, an individual Chinese
translation, a sutra of the Ekottarika-āgama as well as sections of the
Lalitavistara and the Mahāvastu). The ascetic techniques described
in the early texts include very minimal food intake, different forms of
breath control, and forceful mind control. The texts report that he
became so emaciated that his bones became visible through his skin.
According to other early Buddhist texts, after realising that
meditative dhyana was the right path to awakening, Gautama discovered
“the Middle Way”—a path of moderation away from the extremes of
self-indulgence and self-mortification, or the Noble Eightfold
Path. His break with asceticism is said to have led his five
companions to abandon him, since they believed that he had abandoned his
search and become undisciplined. One popular story tells of how he
accepted milk and rice pudding from a village girl named Sujata.
The Mahabodhi Tree at the Sri Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya
Following his decision to stop extreme ascetic practices, MĀ 204 and
other parallel early texts report that Gautama sat down to meditate with
the determination not to get up until full awakening (sammā-sambodhi)
had been reached. This event was said to have occurred under a
pipal tree—known as “the Bodhi tree”—in Bodh Gaya, Bihar.
Likewise, the Mahāsaccaka-sutta and most of its parallels agree that
after taking asceticism to its extremes, the Buddha realized that this
had not helped him reach awakening. At this point, he remembered a
previous meditative experience he had as a child sitting under a tree
while his father worked. This memory leads him to understand that
dhyana (meditation) is the path to awakening, and the texts then depict
the Buddha achieving all four dhyanas, followed by the “three higher
knowledges” (tevijja) culminating in awakening.
Miracle of the Buddha walking on the River Nairañjanā. The Buddha is not
visible (aniconism), only represented by a path on the water, and his
empty throne bottom right. Sanchi.
Gautama thus became known as the Buddha or “Awakened One”. The title
indicates that unlike most people who are “asleep”, a Buddha is
understood as having “woken up” to the true nature of reality and sees
the world ‘as it is’ (yatha-bhutam). A Buddha has achieved
liberation (vimutti), also called Nirvana, which is seen as the
extinguishing of the “fires” of desire, hatred, and ignorance, that keep
the cycle of suffering and rebirth going. According to various
early texts like the Mahāsaccaka-sutta, and the Samaññaphala Sutta, a
Buddha has achieved three higher knowledges: Remembering one’s former
abodes (i.e. past lives), the “Divine eye” (dibba-cakkhu), which allows
the knowing of others’ karmic destinations and the “extinction of mental
intoxicants” (āsavakkhaya).
According to some texts from the Pali canon, at the time of his
awakening he realised complete insight into the Four Noble Truths,
thereby attaining liberation from samsara, the endless cycle of
rebirth. [note 12]
As reported by various texts from the Pali Canon, the Buddha sat for
seven days under the bodhi tree “feeling the bliss of deliverance.”
The Pali texts also report that he continued to meditate and
contemplated various aspects of the Dharma while living by the River
Nairañjanā, such as Dependent Origination, the Five Spiritual Faculties
and Suffering.
The legendary biographies like the Mahavastu and the Lalitavistara
depict an attempt by Mara, the Lord of the desire realm, to prevent the
Buddha’s nirvana. He does so by sending his daughters to seduce the
Buddha, by asserting his superiority and by assaulting him with armies
of monsters. However the Buddha is unfazed and calls on the earth
(or in some versions of the legend, the earth goddess) as witness to his
superiority by touching the ground before entering meditation.
Other miracles and magical events are also depicted.
First sermon and formation of the saṅgha
Dhamek Stupa in Sarnath, India, site of the first teaching of the Buddha
in which he taught the Four Noble Truths to his first five disciples
According to MN 26, immediately after his awakening, the Buddha
hesitated on whether or not he should teach the Dharma to others. He was
concerned that humans were overpowered by ignorance, greed, and hatred
that it would be difficult for them to recognise the path, which is
“subtle, deep and hard to grasp.” The Nyingma scholar Khenchen Palden
Sherab Rinpoche states the Buddha spent forty-nine days in meditation to
ascertain whether or not to begin teaching. However, the god
Brahmā Sahampati convinced him, arguing that at least some “with little
dust in their eyes” will understand it. The Buddha relented and agreed
to teach. According to Analayo, the Chinese parallel to MN 26, MĀ 204,
does not contain this story, but this event does appear in other
parallel texts, such as in an Ekottarika-āgama discourse, in the
Catusparisat-sūtra, and in the Lalitavistara.
According to MN 26 and MĀ 204, after deciding to teach, the Buddha
initially intended to visit his former teachers, Alara Kalama and Udaka
Ramaputta, to teach them his insights, but they had already died, so he
decided to visit his five former companions. MN 26 and MĀ 204 both
report that on his way to Vārānasī (Benares), he met another wanderer,
called Ājīvika Upaka in MN 26. The Buddha proclaimed that he had
achieved full awakening, but Upaka was not convinced and “took a
different path”.
MN 26 and MĀ 204 continue with the Buddha reaching the Deer Park
(Sarnath) (Mrigadāva, also called Rishipatana, “site where the ashes of
the ascetics fell”) near Vārānasī , where he met the group of five
ascetics and was able to convince them that he had indeed reached full
awakening. According to MĀ 204 (but not MN 26), as well as the
Theravāda Vinaya, an Ekottarika-āgama text, the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya,
the Mahīśāsaka Vinaya, and the Mahāvastu, the Buddha then taught them
the “first sermon”, also known as the “Benares sermon”, i.e. the
teaching of “the noble eightfold path as the middle path aloof from the
two extremes of sensual indulgence and self-mortification.” The
Pali text reports that after the first sermon, the ascetic Koṇḍañña
(Kaundinya) became the first arahant (liberated being) and the first
Buddhist bhikkhu or monastic. The Buddha then continued to teach
the other ascetics and they formed the first saṅgha: the company of
Buddhist monks.
Various sources such as the Mahāvastu, the Mahākhandhaka of the
Theravāda Vinaya and the Catusparisat-sūtra also mention that the Buddha
taught them his second discourse, about the characteristic of
“not-self” (Anātmalakṣaṇa Sūtra), at this time or five days
later. After hearing this second sermon the four remaining ascetics
also reached the status of arahant.
The chief disciples of the Buddha, Mogallana (chief in psychic power)
and Sariputta (chief in wisdom).
The first vassana was spent at Varanasi when the sangha was formed.
According to the Pali texts, shortly after the formation of the sangha,
the Buddha traveled to Rajagaha, capital of Magadha, and met with King
Bimbisara, who gifted a bamboo grove park to the sangha.
The Buddha’s sangha continued to grow during his initial travels in
north India. The early texts tell the story of how the Buddha’s chief
disciples, Sāriputta and Mahāmoggallāna, who were both students of the
skeptic sramana Sañjaya Belaṭṭhiputta, were converted by
Assaji. They also tell of how the Buddha’s son, Rahula, joined
his father as a bhikkhu when the Buddha visited his old home,
Kapilavastu. Over time, other Shakyans joined the order as
bhikkhus, such as Buddha’s cousin Ananda, Anuruddha, Upali the barber,
the Buddha’s half-brother Nanda and Devadatta. Meanwhile, the
Buddha’s father Suddhodana heard his son’s teaching, converted to
Buddhism and became a
stream-enterer.https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Buddha_mit_Mogallana_und_Sariputta.JPGhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Buddha_mit_Mogallana_und_Sariputta.JPG
The remains of a section of Jetavana Monastery, just outside of ancient
Savatthi, in Uttar Pradesh.
The early texts also mention an important lay disciple, the merchant
Anāthapiṇḍika, who became a strong lay supporter of the Buddha early on.
He is said to have gifted Jeta’s grove (Jetavana) to the sangha at
great expense (the Theravada Vinaya speaks of thousands of gold
coins).
Formation of the bhikkhunī order
Mahāprajāpatī, the first bhikkuni and Buddha’s stepmother, ordains
The formation of a parallel order of female monastics (bhikkhunī) was
another important part of the growth of the Buddha’s community. As noted
by Analayo’s comparative study of this topic, there are various
versions of this event depicted in the different early Buddhist
texts.[note 13]
According to all the major versions surveyed by Analayo, Mahāprajāpatī
Gautamī, Buddha’s step-mother, is initially turned down by the Buddha
after requesting ordination for her and some other women. Mahāprajāpatī
and her followers then shave their hair, don robes and begin following
the Buddha on his travels. The Buddha is eventually convinced by Ānanda
to grant ordination to Mahāprajāpatī on her acceptance of eight
conditions called gurudharmas which focus on the relationship between
the new order of nuns and the monks.
According to Analayo, the only argument common to all the versions that
Ananda uses to convince the Buddha is that women have the same ability
to reach all stages of awakening. Analayo also notes that some
modern scholars have questioned the authenticity of the eight
gurudharmas in their present form due to various inconsistencies. He
holds that the historicity of the current lists of eight is doubtful,
but that they may have been based on earlier injunctions by the
Buddha. Analayo also notes that various passages indicate that
the reason for the Buddha’s hesitation to ordain women was the danger
that the life of a wandering sramana posed for women that were not under
the protection of their male family members (such as dangers of sexual
assault and abduction). Due to this, the gurudharma injunctions may have
been a way to place “the newly founded order of nuns in a relationship
to its male counterparts that resembles as much as possible the
protection a laywoman could expect from her male relatives.”
Later years
Procession of King Prasenajit of Kosala leaving Sravasti to meet the
Buddha. Sanchi
Ajatasattu worships the Buddha, relief from the Bharhut Stupa at the
Indian Museum, Kolkata
According to J.S. Strong, after the first 20 years of his teaching
career, the Buddha seems to have slowly settled in Sravasti, the capital
of the Kingdom of Kosala, spending most of his later years in this
city.
As the sangha grew in size, the need for a standardized set of monastic
rules arose and the Buddha seems to have developed a set of regulations
for the sangha. These are preserved in various texts called “Pratimoksa”
which were recited by the community every fortnight. The Pratimoksa
includes general ethical precepts, as well as rules regarding the
essentials of monastic life, such as bowls and robes.
In his later years, the Buddha’s fame grew and he was invited to
important royal events, such as the inauguration of the new council hall
of the Shakyans (as seen in MN 53) and the inauguration of a new palace
by Prince Bodhi (as depicted in MN 85). The early texts also speak
of how during the Buddha’s old age, the kingdom of Magadha was usurped
by a new king, Ajatasattu, who overthrew his father Bimbisara. According
to the Samaññaphala Sutta, the new king spoke with different ascetic
teachers and eventually took refuge in the Buddha. However, Jain
sources also claim his allegiance, and it is likely he supported various
religious groups, not just the Buddha’s sangha exclusively.
As the Buddha continued to travel and teach, he also came into contact
with members of other śrāmana sects. There is evidence from the early
texts that the Buddha encountered some of these figures and critiqued
their doctrines. The Samaññaphala Sutta identifies six such sects.
The early texts also depict the elderly Buddha as suffering from back
pain. Several texts depict him delegating teachings to his chief
disciples since his body now needed more rest. However, the Buddha
continued teaching well into his old age.
One of the most troubling events during the Buddha’s old age was
Devadatta’s schism. Early sources speak of how the Buddha’s cousin,
Devadatta, attempted to take over leadership of the order and then left
the sangha with several Buddhist monks and formed a rival sect. This
sect is said to have also been supported by King Ajatasattu.
The Pali texts also depict Devadatta as plotting to kill the Buddha, but
these plans all fail. They also depict the Buddha as sending his
two chief disciples (Sariputta and Moggallana) to this schismatic
community in order to convince the monks who left with Devadatta to
return.
All the major early Buddhist Vinaya texts depict Devadatta as a divisive
figure who attempted to split the Buddhist community, but they disagree
on what issues he disagreed with the Buddha on. The Sthavira texts
generally focus on “five points” which are seen as excessive ascetic
practices, while the Mahāsaṅghika Vinaya speaks of a more comprehensive
disagreement, which has Devadatta alter the discourses as well as
monastic discipline.
At around the same time of Devadatta’s schism, there was also war
between Ajatasattu’s Kingdom of Magadha, and Kosala, led by an elderly
king Pasenadi. Ajatasattu seems to have been victorious, a turn of
events the Buddha is reported to have regretted.
Last days and parinirvana
Metal relief
This East Javanese relief depicts the Buddha in his final days, and
Ānanda, his chief attendant.
The main narrative of the Buddha’s last days, death and the events
following his death is contained in the Mahaparinibbana Sutta (DN 16)
and its various parallels in Sanskrit, Chinese, and Tibetan.
According to Analayo, these include the Chinese Dirgha Agama 2,
“Sanskrit fragments of the Mahaparinirvanasutra”, and “three discourses
preserved as individual translations in Chinese”.
The Mahaparinibbana sutta depicts the Buddha’s last year as a time of
war. It begins with Ajatasattu’s decision to make war on the Vajjian
federation, leading him to send a minister to ask the Buddha for
advice. The Buddha responds by saying that the Vajjians can be
expected to prosper as long as they do seven things, and he then applies
these seven principles to the Buddhist Sangha, showing that he is
concerned about its future welfare. The Buddha says that the Sangha will
prosper as long as they “hold regular and frequent assemblies, meet in
harmony, do not change the rules of training, honor their superiors who
were ordained before them, do not fall prey to worldly desires, remain
devoted to forest hermitages, and preserve their personal mindfulness.”
He then gives further lists of important virtues to be upheld by the
Sangha.
The early texts also depict how the Buddha’s two chief disciples,
Sariputta and Moggallana, died just before the Buddha’s death. The
Mahaparinibbana depicts the Buddha as experiencing illness during the
last months of his life but initially recovering. It also depicts him as
stating that he cannot promote anyone to be his successor. When Ānanda
requested this, the Mahaparinibbana records his response as
follows:
Ananda, why does the Order of monks expect this of me? I have taught the
Dhamma, making no distinction of “inner” and “ outer”: the Tathagata
has no “teacher’s fist” (in which certain truths are held back). If
there is anyone who thinks: “I shall take charge of the Order”, or “the
Order is under my leadership”, such a person would have to make
arrangements about the Order. The Tathagata does not think in such
terms. Why should the Tathagata make arrangements for the Order? I am
now old, worn out . . . I have reached the term of life, I am turning
eighty years of age. Just as an old cart is made to go by being held
together with straps, so the Tathagata’s body is kept going by being
bandaged up . . . Therefore, Ananda, you should live as islands unto
yourselves, being your own refuge, seeking no other refuge; with the
Dhamma as an island, with the Dhamma as your refuge, seeking no other
refuge. . . Those monks who in my time or afterwards live thus, seeking
an island and a refuge in themselves and in the Dhamma and nowhere else,
these zealous ones are truly my monks and will overcome the darkness
(of rebirth).
Mahaparinibbana scene, from the Ajanta caves
After traveling and teaching some more, the Buddha ate his last meal,
which he had received as an offering from a blacksmith named Cunda.
Falling violently ill, Buddha instructed his attendant Ānanda to
convince Cunda that the meal eaten at his place had nothing to do with
his death and that his meal would be a source of the greatest merit as
it provided the last meal for a Buddha. Bhikkhu and von Hinüber
argue that the Buddha died of mesenteric infarction, a symptom of old
age, rather than food poisoning.
The precise contents of the Buddha’s final meal are not clear, due to
variant scriptural traditions and ambiguity over the translation of
certain significant terms. The Theravada tradition generally believes
that the Buddha was offered some kind of pork, while the Mahayana
tradition believes that the Buddha consumed some sort of truffle or
other mushroom. These may reflect the different traditional views on
Buddhist vegetarianism and the precepts for monks and nuns. Modern
scholars also disagree on this topic, arguing both for pig’s flesh or
some kind of plant or mushroom that pigs like to eat.[note 14] Whatever
the case, none of the sources which mention the last meal attribute the
Buddha’s sickness to the meal itself.
As per the Mahaparinibbana sutta, after the meal with Cunda, the Buddha
and his companions continued traveling until he was too weak to continue
and had to stop at Kushinagar, where Ānanda had a resting place
prepared in a grove of Sala trees. After announcing to the
sangha at large that he would soon be passing away to final Nirvana, the
Buddha ordained one last novice into the order personally, his name was
Subhadda. He then repeated his final instructions to the sangha,
which was that the Dhamma and Vinaya was to be their teacher after his
death. Then he asked if anyone had any doubts about the teaching, but
nobody did. The Buddha’s final words are reported to have been:
“All saṅkhāras decay. Strive for the goal with diligence (appamāda)”
(Pali: ‘vayadhammā saṅkhārā appamādena sampādethā’).
He then entered his final meditation and died, reaching what is known as
parinirvana (final nirvana, the end of rebirth and suffering achieved
after the death of the body). The Mahaparinibbana reports that in his
final meditation he entered the four dhyanas consecutively, then the
four immaterial attainments and finally the meditative dwelling known as
nirodha-samāpatti, before returning to the fourth dhyana right at the
moment of death.
Piprahwa vase with relics of the Buddha. The inscription reads:
…salilanidhane Budhasa Bhagavate… (Brahmi script:
…𑀲𑀮𑀺𑀮𑀦𑀺𑀥𑀸𑀦𑁂 𑀩𑀼𑀥𑀲 𑀪𑀕𑀯𑀢𑁂…]) “Relics of the Buddha
Lord”.
Posthumous events
See also: Śarīra and Relics associated with Buddha
According to the Mahaparinibbana sutta, the Mallians of Kushinagar spent
the days following the Buddha’s death honoring his body with flowers,
music and scents. The sangha waited until the eminent elder
Mahākassapa arrived to pay his respects before cremating the body.
The Buddha’s body was then cremated and the remains, including his
bones, were kept as relics and they were distributed among various north
Indian kingdoms like Magadha, Shakya and Koliya. These relics were
placed in monuments or mounds called stupas, a common funerary practice
at the time. Centuries later they would be exhumed and enshrined by
Ashoka into many new stupas around the Mauryan realm. Many
supernatural legends surround the history of alleged relics as they
accompanied the spread of Buddhism and gave legitimacy to rulers.
According to various Buddhist sources, the First Buddhist Council was
held shortly after the Buddha’s death to collect, recite and memorize
the teachings. Mahākassapa was chosen by the sangha to be the chairman
of the council. However, the historicity of the traditional accounts of
the first council is disputed by modern scholars.
Teachings
Main article: Buddhist philosophy § The Buddha and early Buddhism
Tracing the oldest teachings
One method to obtain information on the oldest core of Buddhism is to
compare the oldest versions of the Pali Canon and other texts, such as
the surviving portions of Sarvastivada, Mulasarvastivada, Mahisasaka,
Dharmaguptaka, and the Chinese Agamas. The
reliability of these sources, and the possibility of drawing out a core
of oldest teachings, is a matter of dispute.
According to Tilmann Vetter, inconsistencies remain, and other methods
must be applied to resolve those inconsistencies.[note 15]
According to Lambert Schmithausen, there are three positions held by
modern scholars of Buddhism:
“Stress on the fundamental homogeneity and substantial authenticity of
at least a considerable part of the Nikayic materials.”[note 16]
“Scepticism with regard to the possibility of retrieving the doctrine of
earliest Buddhism.”[note 17]
“Cautious optimism in this respect.”[note 18]
Regarding their attribution to the historical Buddha Gautama
“Sakyamuni”, scholars such as Richard Gombrich, Akira Hirakawa,
Alexander Wynne and A.K. Warder hold that these Early Buddhist Texts
contain material that could possibly be traced to this
figure.
Influences
The Bodhisattva meets with Alara Kalama, Borobudur relief.
According to scholars of Indology such as Richard Gombrich, the Buddha’s
teachings on Karma and Rebirth are a development of pre-Buddhist themes
that can be found in Jain and Brahmanical sources, like the
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. Likewise, samsara, the idea that we are
trapped in cycle of rebirth and that we should seek liberation from this
through non-harming (ahimsa) and spiritual practices, pre-dates the
Buddha and was likely taught in early Jainism.
In various texts, the Buddha is depicted as having studied under two
named teachers, Āḷāra Kālāma and Uddaka Rāmaputta. According to
Alexander Wynne, these were yogis who taught doctrines and practices
similar to those in the Upanishads.
The Buddha’s tribe of origin, the Shakyas, also seem to have had
non-Vedic religious practices which influenced Buddhism, such as the
veneration of trees and sacred groves, and the worship of tree spirits
(yakkhas) and serpent beings (nagas). They also seem to have built
burial mounds called stupas.
Tree veneration remains important in Buddhism today, particularly in the
practice of venerating Bodhi trees. Likewise, yakkas and nagas have
remained important figures in Buddhist religious practices and
mythology.
In the Early Buddhist Texts, the Buddha also references Brahmanical
devices. For example, in Samyutta Nikaya 111, Majjhima Nikaya 92 and
Vinaya i 246 of the Pali Canon, the Buddha praises the Agnihotra as the
foremost sacrifice and the Gayatri mantra as the foremost meter.[note
19]
The Buddhist teaching of the three marks of existence[note 20] may also
reflect Upanishadic or other influences according to K.R. Norman.
According to Johannes Bronkhorst, the “meditation without breath and
reduced intake of food” which the Buddha practiced before his awakening
are forms of asceticism which are similar to Jain practices.
The Buddhist practice called Brahma-vihara may have also originated from
a Brahmanic term; but its usage may have been common in the
sramana traditions.
Teachings preserved in the Early Buddhist Texts
Teachings preserved in the Early Buddhist Texts
Gandharan Buddhist birchbark scroll fragments
Main article: Early Buddhist Texts
The Early Buddhist Texts present many teachings and practices which may
have been taught by the historical Buddha. These include basic doctrines
such as Dependent Origination, the Middle Way, the Five Aggregates, the
Three unwholesome roots, the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path.
According to N. Ross Reat, all of these doctrines are shared by the
Theravada Pali texts and the Mahasamghika school’s Śālistamba
Sūtra.
A recent study by Bhikkhu Analayo concludes that the Theravada Majjhima
Nikaya and Sarvastivada Madhyama Agama contain mostly the same major
doctrines. Likewise, Richard Salomon has written that the doctrines
found in the Gandharan Manuscripts are “consistent with non-Mahayana
Buddhism, which survives today in the Theravada school of Sri Lanka and
Southeast Asia, but which in ancient times was represented by eighteen
separate schools.”
These basic teachings such as the Four Noble Truths tend to be widely
accepted as basic doctrines in all major schools of Buddhism, as seen in
ecumenical documents such as the Basic points unifying Theravāda and
Mahāyāna.
Critique of Brahmanism
Buddha meets a Brahmin, at the Indian Museum, Kolkata
In the early Buddhist texts, the Buddha critiques the Brahmanical
religion and social system on certain key points.
The Brahmin caste held that the Vedas were eternal revealed (sruti)
texts. The Buddha, on the other hand, did not accept that these texts
had any divine authority or value.
The Buddha also did not see the Brahmanical rites and practices as
useful for spiritual advancement. For example, in the Udāna, the Buddha
points out that ritual bathing does not lead to purity, only “truth and
morality” lead to purity.[note 21] He especially critiqued animal
sacrifice as taught in Vedas. The Buddha contrasted his teachings,
which were taught openly to all people, with that of the Brahmins’, who
kept their mantras secret.[note 22]
He also critiqued numerous other Brahmanical practices, such astrology,
divination, fortune-telling, and so on (as seen in the Tevijja sutta and
the Kutadanta sutta).
The Buddha also attacked the Brahmins’ claims of superior birth and the
idea that different castes and bloodlines were inherently pure or
impure, noble or ignoble.
In the Vasettha sutta the Buddha argues that the main difference among
humans is not birth but their actions and occupations. According to
the Buddha, one is a “Brahmin” (i.e. divine, like Brahma) only to the
extent that one has cultivated virtue.[note 23] Because of this the
early texts report that he proclaimed: “Not by birth one is a Brahman,
not by birth one is a non-Brahman; - by moral action one is a
Brahman”
The Aggañña Sutta explains all classes or varnas can be good or bad and
gives a sociological explanation for how they arose, against the
Brahmanical idea that they are divinely ordained. According to
Kancha Ilaiah, the Buddha posed the first contract theory of
society. The Buddha’s teaching then is a single universal moral
law, one Dharma valid for everybody, which is opposed to the Brahmanic
ethic founded on “one’s own duty” (svadharma) which depends on
caste. Because of this, all castes including untouchables were
welcome in the Buddhist order and when someone joined, they renounced
all caste affiliation.
Analysis of existence
The early Buddhist texts present the Buddha’s worldview as focused on
understanding the nature of dukkha, which is seen as the fundamental
problem of life. Dukkha refers to all kinds of suffering, unease,
frustration, and dissatisfaction that sentient beings
experience. At the core of the Buddha’s analysis of dukkha is
the fact that everything we experience is impermanent, unstable and thus
unreliable.
A common presentation of the core structure of Buddha’s teaching found
in the early texts is that of the Four Noble Truths. This teaching
is most famously presented in the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta (”The
discourse on the turning of the Dharma wheel”) and its many
parallels. The basic outline of the four truths is as
follows:
There is dukkha.
There are causes and conditions for the arising of dukkha. Various
conditions are outlined in the early texts, such as craving (taṇhā), but
the three most basic ones are greed, aversion and delusion.
If the conditions for dukkha cease, dukkha also ceases. This is
“Nirvana” (literally ‘blowing out’ or ‘extinguishing’).
There is path to follow that leads to Nirvana.
According to Bhikkhu Analayo, the four truths schema appears to be based
“on an analogy with Indian medical diagnosis” (with the form: “disease,
pathogen, health, cure”) and this comparison is “explicitly made in
several early Buddhist texts”.
In another Pali sutta, the Buddha outlines how “eight worldly
conditions”, “keep the world turning around…Gain and loss, fame and
disrepute, praise and blame, pleasure and pain.” He then explains how
the difference between a noble (arya) person and an uninstructed
worldling is that a noble person reflects on and understands the
impermanence of these conditions.
The Buddha’s analysis of existence includes an understanding that karma
and rebirth are part of life. According to the Buddha, the constant
cycle of dying and being reborn (i.e. saṃsāra) according to one’s karma
is just dukkha and the ultimate spiritual goal should be liberation from
this cycle. According to the Pali suttas, the Buddha stated that
“this saṃsāra is without discoverable beginning. A first point is not
discerned of beings roaming and wandering on hindered by ignorance and
fettered by craving.”
The Buddha’s teaching of karma differed to that of the Jains and
Brahmins, in that on his view, karma is primarily mental intention (as
opposed to mainly physical action or ritual acts). The Buddha is
reported to have said “By karma I mean intention.” Richard Gombrich
summarizes the Buddha’s view of karma as follows: “all thoughts, words,
and deeds derive their moral value, positive or negative, from the
intention behind them.”
For the Buddha, our karmic acts also affected the rebirth process in a
positive or negative way. This was seen as an impersonal natural law
similar to how certain seeds produce certain plants and fruits (in fact,
the result of a karmic act was called its “fruit” by the Buddha).
However, it is important to note that the Buddha did not hold that
everything that happens is the result of karma alone. In fact when the
Buddha was asked to state the causes of pain and pleasure he listed
various physical and environmental causes alongside karma.
Dependent Origination
Schist Buddha statue with the famed Ye Dharma Hetu dhāraṇī around the
head, which was used as a common summary of Dependent Origination. It
states: “Of those experiences that arise from a cause, The Tathāgata has
said: ‘this is their cause, And this is their cessation’: This is what
the Great Śramaṇa teaches.”
In the early texts, the process of the arising of dukkha is most
thoroughly explained by the Buddha through the teaching of Dependent
Origination. At its most basic level, Dependent Origination is an
empirical teaching on the nature of phenomena which says that nothing is
experienced independently of its conditions.
The most basic formulation of Dependent Origination is given in the
early texts as: ‘It being thus, this comes about’ (Pali: evam sati idam
hoti). This can be taken to mean that certain phenomena only arise
when there are other phenomena present (example: when there is craving,
suffering arises), and so, one can say that their arising is “dependent”
on other phenomena. In other words, nothing in experience exists
without a cause.
In numerous early texts, this basic principle is expanded with a list of
phenomena that are said to be conditionally dependent.[note 24]
These phenomena are supposed to provide an analysis of the cycle of
dukkha as experienced by sentient beings. The philosopher Mark Siderits
has outlined the basic idea of the Buddha’s teaching of Dependent
Origination of dukkha as follows:
given the existence of a fully functioning assemblage of psycho-physical
elements (the parts that make up a sentient being), ignorance
concerning the three characteristics of sentient existence—suffering,
impermanence and non-self—will lead, in the course of normal
interactions with the environment, to appropriation (the identification
of certain elements as ‘I’ and ‘mine’). This leads in turn to the
formation of attachments, in the form of desire and aversion, and the
strengthening of ignorance concerning the true nature of sentient
existence. These ensure future rebirth, and thus future instances of old
age, disease and death, in a potentially unending cycle.
The Buddha saw his analysis of Dependent Origination as a “Middle Way”
between “eternalism” (sassatavada, the idea that some essence exists
eternally) and “annihilationism” (ucchedavada, the idea that we go
completely out of existence at death). This middle way is
basically the view that, conventionally speaking, persons are just a
causal series of impermanent psycho-physical elements.
Metaphysics and personal identity
Closely connected to the idea that experience is dependently originated
is the Buddha’s teaching that there is no independent or permanent self
(Sanskrit: atman, Pali: atta).
Due to this view which (termed anatta), the Buddha’s teaching was
opposed to all soul theories of his time, including the Jain theory of a
“jiva” (”life monad”) and the Brahmanical theories of atman and
purusha. All of these theories held that there was an eternal unchanging
essence to a person which transmigrated from life to
life.
While Brahminical teachers affirmed atman theories in an attempt to
answer the question of what really exists ultimately, the Buddha saw
this question as not being useful, as illustrated in the parable of the
poisoned arrow.
For the Buddha’s contemporaries, the atman was also seen to be the
unchanging constant which was separate from all changing experiences and
the inner controller in a person. The Buddha instead held that all
things in the world of our experience are transient and that there is
no unchanging part to a person. According to Richard Gombrich, the
Buddha’s position is simply that “everything is process”. However,
this anti-essentialist view still includes an understanding of
continuity through rebirth, it is just the rebirth of a process (karma),
not an essence like the atman.
Perhaps the most important way the Buddha analyzed individual experience
in the early texts was by way of the five ‘aggregates’ or ‘groups’
(khandha) of physical and mental processes. The Buddha’s
arguments against an unchanging self rely on these five aggregate
schema, as can be seen in the Pali Anattalakkhaṇa Sutta (and its
parallels in Gandhari and Chinese).
According to the early texts, the Buddha argued that because we have no
ultimate control over any of the psycho-physical processes that make up a
person, there cannot be an “inner controller” with command over them.
Also, since they are all impermanent, one cannot regard any of the
psycho-physical processes as an unchanging self. Even mental
processes such as consciousness and will (cetana) are seen as being
dependently originated and impermanent and thus do not qualify as a self
(atman).
As noted by Gombrich, in the early texts the Buddha teaches that all
five aggregates, including consciousness (viññana, which was held by
Brahmins to be eternal), arise dependent on causes. That is,
existence is based on processes that are subject to dependent
origination. He compared samsaric existence to a fire, which is dynamic
and requires fuel (the khandas, literally: “heaps”) in order to keep
burning.
As Rupert Gethin explains, for the Buddha:
I am a complex flow of physical and mental phenomena, but peel away
these phenomena and look behind them and one just does not find a
constant self that one can call one’s own. My sense of self is both
logically and emotionally just a label that I impose on these physical
and mental phenomena in consequence of their connectedness.
The Buddha saw the belief in a self as arising from our grasping at and
identifying with the various changing phenomena, as well as from
ignorance about how things really are. Furthermore, the Buddha held
that we experience suffering because we hold on to erroneous self
views.
Worldly happiness
As noted by Bhikkhu Bodhi, the Buddha as depicted in the Pali suttas
does not exclusively teach a world transcending goal, but also teaches
laypersons how to achieve worldly happiness (sukha).
According to Bodhi, the “most comprehensive” of the suttas that focus on
how to live as a layperson is the Sigālovāda Sutta (DN 31). This sutta
outlines how a layperson behaves towards six basic social relationships:
“parents and children, teacher and pupils, husband and wife, friend and
friend, employer and workers, lay follower and religious guides.”
This Pali text also has parallels in Chinese and in Sanskrit
fragments.
In another sutta (Dīghajāṇu Sutta, AN 8.54) the Buddha teaches two types
of happiness. First, there is the happiness visible in this very life.
The Buddha states that four things lead to this happiness: “The
accomplishment of persistent effort, the accomplishment of protection,
good friendship, and balanced living.” Similarly, in several other
suttas, the Buddha teaches on how to improve family relationships,
particularly on the importance of filial love and gratitude as well as
marital well-being.
Regarding the happiness of the next life, the Buddha (in the Dīghajāṇu
Sutta) states that the virtues which lead to a good rebirth are: faith
(in the Buddha and the teachings), moral discipline, especially keeping
the five precepts, generosity, and wisdom (knowledge of the arising and
passing of things).
According to the Buddha of the suttas then, achieving a good rebirth is
based on cultivating wholesome or skillful (kusala) karma, which leads
to a good result, and avoiding unwholesome (akusala) karma. A common
list of good karmas taught by the Buddha is the list of ten courses of
action (kammapatha) as outlined in MN 41 Saleyyaka Sutta (and its
Chinese parallel in SĀ 1042).
Good karma is also termed merit (puñña), and the Buddha outlines three
bases of meritorious actions: giving, moral discipline and meditation
(as seen in AN 8:36).
The Path to Liberation
Gandharan sculpture depicting the Buddha in the full lotus seated
meditation posture, 2nd-3rd century CE
Buddha Statues from Gal Vihara. The Early Buddhist texts also mention
meditation practice while standing and lying down.
Liberation (vimutti) from the ignorance and grasping which create
suffering is not easily achieved because all beings have deeply
entrenched habits (termed āsavas, often translated as “influxes” or
“defilements”) that keep them trapped in samsara. Because of this, the
Buddha taught a path (marga) of training to undo such habits.
This path taught by the Buddha is depicted in the early texts (most
famously in the Pali Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta and its numerous
parallel texts) as a “Middle Way” between sensual indulgence on one hand
and mortification of the body on the other.
One of the most common formulations of the path to liberation in the
earliest Buddhist texts is the Noble Eightfold Path.[note 25] There
is also an alternative formulation with ten elements which is also very
commonly taught in the early texts.
According to Gethin, another common summary of the path to awakening
wisely used in the early texts is “abandoning the hindrances, practice
of the four establishments of mindfulness and development of the
awakening factors.”
The early texts also contain many different presentations of the
Buddha’s path to liberation aside from the Eightfold Path.
According to Rupert Gethin, in the Nikayas and Agamas, the Buddha’s path
is mainly presented in a cumulative and gradual “step by step” process,
such as that outlined in the Samaññaphala Sutta.[note 26] Early
texts that outline the graduated path include the
Cula-Hatthipadopama-sutta (MN 27, with Chinese parallel at MĀ 146) and
the Tevijja Sutta (DN 13, with Chinese parallel at DĀ 26 and a
fragmentary Sanskrit parallel entitled the
Vāsiṣṭha-sūtra). Other early texts like the Upanisa sutta
(SN 12.23), present the path as reversions of the process of Dependent
Origination.[note 27]
Some common practices which are shared by most of these early
presentations of the path include sila (ethical training), restraint of
the senses (indriyasamvara), mindfulness and clear awareness
(sati-sampajañña) and the practice of jhana (meditative
absorption). Mental development (citta bhāvanā) was central to the
Buddha’s spiritual path as depicted in the earliest texts and this
included meditative practices.
Regarding the training of right view and sense restraint, the Buddha
taught that it was important to reflect on the dangers or drawbacks
(adinava) of sensual pleasures. Various suttas discuss the different
drawbacks of sensuality. In the Potaliya Sutta (MN 54) sensual pleasures
are said by the Buddha to be a cause of conflict for all humans
beings. They are said to be unable to satisfy one’s craving, like a
clean meatless bone given to a dog. Sensuality is also compared to
a torch held against the wind, since it burns the person holding on to
it. According to the Buddha, there is “a delight apart from sensual
pleasures, apart from unwholesome states, which surpasses even divine
bliss.” The Buddha thus taught that one should take delight in the
higher spiritual pleasures instead of sensual pleasure. This is
explained with the simile the leper, who cauterizes his skin with fire
to get relief from the pain of leprosy, but after he is cured, avoids
the same flames he used to enjoy before (see MN 75, Magandiya
Sutta).
Numerous scholars such as Vetter have written on the centrality of the
practice of dhyāna to the teaching of the Buddha. It is the
training of the mind, commonly translated as meditation, to withdraw the
mind from the automatic responses to sense-impressions, and leading to a
“state of perfect equanimity and awareness
(upekkhā-sati-parisuddhi).” Dhyana is preceded and supported by
various aspects of the path such as seclusion and sense restraint.
Another important mental training in the early texts is the practice of
mindfulness (sati), which was mainly taught using the schemas of the
“Four Ways of Mindfulness” (Satipatthana, as taught in the Pali
Satipatthana Sutta and its various parallel texts) and the sixteen
elements of “Mindfulness of Breath” (Anapanasati, as taught in the
Anapanasati Sutta and its various parallels).[note 28]
Because getting others to practice the path was the central goal of the
Buddha’s message, the early texts depict the Buddha as refusing to
answer certain metaphysical questions which his contemporaries were
preoccupied with, (such as “is the world eternal?”). This is because he
did not see these questions as being useful on the path and as not being
“connected to the goal”.
Monasticism
The early Buddhist texts depict the Buddha as promoting the life of a
homeless and celibate “sramana”, or mendicant, as the ideal way of life
for the practice of the path. He taught that mendicants or
“beggars” (bhikkhus) were supposed to give up all possessions and to own
just a begging bowl and three robes. As part of the Buddha’s
monastic discipline, they were also supposed to rely on the wider lay
community for the basic necessities (mainly food, clothing, and
lodging).
The Buddha’s teachings on monastic discipline were preserved in the
various Vinaya collections of the different early schools.
Buddhist monastics, which included both monks and nuns, were supposed to
beg for their food, were not allowed to store up food or eat after noon
and they were not allowed to use gold, silver or any
valuables.
Socio-political teachings
The early texts depict the Buddha as giving a deflationary account of
the importance of politics to human life. Politics is inevitable and is
probably even necessary and helpful, but it is also a tremendous waste
of time and effort, as well as being a prime temptation to allow ego to
run rampant. Buddhist political theory denies that people have a moral
duty to engage in politics except to a very minimal degree (pay the
taxes, obey the laws, maybe vote in the elections), and it actively
portrays engagement in politics and the pursuit of enlightenment as
being conflicting paths in life.
In the Aggañña Sutta, the Buddha teaches a history of how monarchy arose
which according to Matthew J. Moore is “closely analogous to a social
contract.” The Aggañña Sutta also provides a social explanation of how
different classes arose, in contrast to the Vedic views on social
caste.
Other early texts like the Cakkavatti-Sīhanāda Sutta and the
Mahāsudassana Sutta focus on the figure of the righteous wheel turning
leader (Cakkavatti). This ideal leader is one who promotes Dharma
through his governance. He can only achieve his status through moral
purity and must promote morality and Dharma to maintain his position.
According to the Cakkavatti-Sīhanāda Sutta, the key duties of a
Cakkavatti are: “establish guard, ward, and protection according to
Dhamma for your own household, your troops, your nobles, and vassals,
for Brahmins and householders, town and country folk, ascetics and
Brahmins, for beasts and birds. let no crime prevail in your kingdom,
and to those who are in need, give property.” The sutta explains
the injunction to give to the needy by telling how a line of
wheel-turning monarchs falls because they fail to give to the needy, and
thus the kingdom falls into infighting as poverty increases, which then
leads to stealing and violence.[note 29]
In the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta, the Buddha outlines several principles
that he promoted among the Vajjian tribal federation, which had a
quasi-republican form of government. He taught them to “hold regular and
frequent assemblies”, live in harmony and maintain their traditions.
The Buddha then goes on to promote a similar kind of republican style of
government among the Buddhist Sangha, where all monks had equal rights
to attend open meetings and there would be no single leader, since The
Buddha also chose not to appoint one. Some scholars have argued
that this fact signals that the Buddha preferred a republican form of
government, while others disagree with this position.
Scholarly views on the earliest teachings
Main article: Presectarian Buddhism
The Buddha on a coin of Kanishka I, c. 130 CE.
Numerous scholars of early Buddhism argue that most of the teachings
found in the Early Buddhist texts date back to the Buddha himself. One
of these is Richard Gombrich, who argues that since the content of the
earliest texts “presents such originality, intelligence, grandeur
and—most relevantly—coherence…it is hard to see it as a composite
work.” Thus he concludes they are “the work of one genius.”
Peter Harvey also agrees that “much” of the Pali Canon “must derive from
his [the Buddha’s] teachings.” Likewise, A. K. Warder has written
that “there is no evidence to suggest that it [the shared teaching of
the early schools] was formulated by anyone other than the Buddha and
his immediate followers.”
Furthermore, Alexander Wynne argues that “the internal evidence of the
early Buddhist literature proves its historical authenticity.”
However, other scholars of Buddhist studies have disagreed with the
mostly positive view that the early Buddhist texts reflect the teachings
of the historical Buddha. For example, Edward Conze argued that the
attempts of European scholars to reconstruct the original teachings of
the Buddha were “all mere guesswork.”
Other scholars argue that some teachings contained in the early texts
are the authentic teachings of the Buddha, but not others. For example,
according to Tilmann Vetter, the earliest core of the Buddhist teachings
is the meditative practice of dhyāna.[note 30] Vetter argues that
“liberating insight” became an essential feature of the Buddhist
tradition at a later date. He posits that the Fourth Noble Truths, the
Eightfold path and Dependent Origination, which are commonly seen as
essential to Buddhism, are later formulations which form part of the
explanatory framework of this “liberating insight”.
Lambert Schmithausen similarly argues that the mention of the four noble
truths as constituting “liberating insight”, which is attained after
mastering the four dhyānas, is a later addition. Also, according to
Johannes Bronkhorst, the four truths may not have been formulated in
earliest Buddhism, and did not serve in earliest Buddhism as a
description of “liberating insight”.
Physical characteristics
Main article: Physical characteristics of the Buddha
In early sources
Buddhist monks from Nepal. According to the earliest sources, the Buddha
looked like a typical shaved man from northeast India.
Early sources depict the Buddha’s as similar to other Buddhist monks.
Various discourses describe how he “cut off his hair and beard” when
renouncing the world. Likewise, Digha Nikaya 3 has a Brahmin describe
the Buddha as a shaved or bald (mundaka) man. Digha Nikaya 2 also
describes how king Ajatasattu is unable to tell which of the monks is
the Buddha when approaching the sangha and must ask his minister to
point him out. Likewise, in MN 140, a mendicant who sees himself as a
follower of the Buddha meets the Buddha in person but is unable to
recognize him.
The Buddha is also described as being handsome and with a clear
complexion (Digha I:115; Anguttara I:181), at least in his youth. In old
age, however, he is described as having a stooped body, with slack and
wrinkled limbs.
The 32 Signs
Various Buddhist texts attribute to the Buddha a series of extraordinary
physical characteristics, known as “the 32 Signs of the Great Man”
(Skt. mahāpuruṣa lakṣaṇa).
According to Analayo, when they first appear in the Buddhist texts,
these physical marks were initially held to be imperceptible to the
ordinary person, and required special training to detect. Later though,
they are depicted as being visible by regular people and as inspiring
faith in the Buddha.
These characteristics are described in the Digha Nikaya’s Lakkhaṇa Sutta
(D, I:142).
Gautama Buddha in other religions
Buddha depicted as the 9th avatar of god Vishnu in a traditional Hindu
representation
Buddha as an avatar at Dwaraka Tirumala temple, Andhra Pradesh
Gautama Buddha, Buddhist temple, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India.
Main article: Gautama Buddha in world religions
Some Hindus regard Gautama as the 9th avatar of Vishnu.[note
10] However, Buddha’s teachings deny the authority of the
Vedas and the concepts of Brahman-Atman. Consequently
Buddhism is generally classified as a nāstika school (heterodox,
literally “It is not so”[note 31]) in contrast to the six orthodox
schools of Hinduism. In Sikhism, Buddha is mentioned as
the 23rd avatar of Vishnu in the Chaubis Avtar, a composition in Dasam
Granth traditionally and historically attributed to Guru Gobind
Singh.
Classical Sunni scholar Tabari reports that Buddhist idols were brought
from Afghanistan to Baghdad in the ninth century. Such idols had been
sold in Buddhist temples next to a mosque in Bukhara, but he does not
further discuss the role of Buddha. According to the works on Buddhism
by Al-Biruni (973–after 1050), views regarding the exact identity of
Buddha was diverse. Accordingly, some regarded him as the divine
incarnate, others as an apostle of the angels or as an Ifrit and others
as an apostle of God sent to human race. By the 12th century,
al-Shahrastani even compared Buddha to Khidr, described as an ideal
human. Ibn Nadim, who was also familiar with Manichean teachings, even
identifies Buddha as a prophet, who taught a religion to “banish Satan”,
although not mention it explicitly. However, most Classical scholars
described Buddha in theistic terms, that is apart from Islamic
teachings.
Nevertheless the Buddha is regarded as a prophet by the minority
Ahmadiyya sect, generally considered deviant and rejected as
apostate by mainstream Islam. Some early Chinese
Taoist-Buddhists thought the Buddha to be a reincarnation of Laozi.
Disciples of the Cao Đài religion worship the Buddha as a major
religious teacher. His image can be found in both their Holy See
and on the home altar. He is revealed during communication with Divine
Beings as son of their Supreme Being (God the Father) together with
other major religious teachers and founders like Jesus, Laozi, and
Confucius.
The Christian Saint Josaphat is based on the Buddha. The name comes from
the Sanskrit Bodhisattva via Arabic Būdhasaf and Georgian
Iodasaph. The only story in which St. Josaphat appears, Barlaam and
Josaphat, is based on the life of the Buddha. Josaphat was
included in earlier editions of the Roman Martyrology (feast day 27
November)—though not in the Roman Missal—and in the Eastern Orthodox
Church liturgical calendar (26 August).
In the ancient Gnostic sect of Manichaeism, the Buddha is listed among
the prophets who preached the word of God before Mani.
In the Baháʼí Faith, Buddha is regarded as one of the Manifestations of
God.
Artistic depictions
Main article: Buddhist art
Some of the earliest artistic depictions of the Buddha found at Bharhut
and Sanchi are aniconic and symbolic. During this early aniconic period,
the Buddha is depicted by other objects or symbols, such as an empty
throne, a riderless horse, footprints, a Dharma wheel or a Bodhi
tree. The art at Sanchi also depicts the Jataka narratives of the
Buddha in his past lives.
Other styles of Indian Buddhist art depict the Buddha in human form,
either standing, sitting crossed legged (often in the Lotus Pose) or
laying down on one side. Iconic representations of the Buddha became
particularly popular and widespread after the first century CE.
Some of these depictions of the Buddha, particularly those of Gandharan
Buddhism and Central Asian Buddhism, were influenced by Hellenistic art,
a style known as Greco-Buddhist art.
These various Indian and Central Asian styles would then go on to
influence the art of East Asian Buddhist Buddha images, as well as those
of Southeast Asian Theravada Buddhism.
Gallery showing different Buddha styles
A Royal Couple Visits the Buddha, from railing of the Bharhut Stupa,
Shunga dynasty, early 2nd century BC.
Depictions of Gautama Buddha in film
Language
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The life of Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha, has been the subject of
several films.
History Edit
The first known film about the life of Buddha was Buddhadev (English
title: Lord Buddha) which was produced by the well-known Indian
filmmaker Dadasaheb Phalke (1870–1944) in 1923.
Two years later, another important Buddha film was released, The Light
of Asia (Hindi title: Prem Sanyas). This movie was made by the German
filmmaker Franz Osten (1875–1956). Himansu Rai (1892–1940) played the
Buddha. Its title suggests that the script was based on the book The
Light of Asia composed by the British poet Sir Edwin Arnold, which was
issued by the Theosophical Society in 1891. In fact, its contents
deviate deliberately from Arnold’s book. The film was a greater success
in Europe than in India. It gives a somewhat romantic picture of the
life of Buddha. Buddhadev as well as The Light of Asia were silent
films.
On March 20, 1952, a Japanese feature film representing the life of
Buddha had its premiere, Dedication of the Great Buddha. Director
Teinosuke Kinugasa (1896–1982) directed the picture under the Japanese
film company Daiei Eiga. It was nominated for the 1953 Cannes Film
Festival.
Another film about Buddha was a documentary film entitled Gotama the
Buddha. It was released by the government of India in 1957 as part of
the Buddha’s 2500th birthday celebration. Rajbans Khanna acted as
director and Bimal Roy as producer. It got an honorable mention at the
Cannes film festival in 1957. It is a black-and-white film consisting of
beautiful images of natural environments, archeological sites, reliefs
and paintings, ancient ones from Ajanta as well as modern ones
accompanied by a voice over relating the history of Buddha.
The film Angulimal (1960) was not directly based on the life of Buddha,
but on the life of a dacoit and killer who used to loot and kill
innocent people and cut off their fingers and who made a garland of such
fingers to wear around his neck, thus he got the name Angulimal
(Angluli: finger, mala: garland). The film depicts an incident where the
dreaded dacoit once met the Buddha when Buddha was passing by a forest
and goes ahead to kill him, but was corrected by the compassion of
Buddha.
The fifth film about Buddha was a Japanese one, Shaka, produced by Kenji
Misumi in 1961. It was shown in the USA in 1963 under the title Buddha.
On February 13, 1964 a Korean film about the life of the Buddha had its
premiere, Seokgamoni, the Korean translation of the Sanskrit
Shakyamuni, which in Mahayana Buddhism is the term for the historical
Buddha.
In 1997 the Indian producer G.A. Sheshagiri Rao made a Buddha film. It
was simply entitled Buddha. This one did not roll in cinemas, but it was
only sold on DVD. This one is also the longest movie about Buddha, as
it consists of five DVDs with approximately 180 minutes film each.
In 2008, K. Raja Sekhar produced another Buddha film entitled Tathagata
Buddha. The original film was in Telugu, but later it was dubbed in
Hindi. This film relates Buddha’s life story until its end, his
parinirvana. The film is available on DVD.
It is known that Buddhists in countries like Sri Lanka and Burma abhor
the very idea of any human being impersonating the Buddha in a film.
After its release in 1925 The Light of Asia was banned in Sri Lanka and
the Malay States (contemporary West Malaysia).
List of films on the life of Buddha Edit
Date English title Original title Country Notes IMDB
1923 Lord Buddha Buddhadev India Silent film by Dadasaheb Phalke
1925 The Light of Asia Prem Sanyas Germany/India Silent film by Franz
Osten
1952 Dedication of the Great Buddha Daibutsu kaigen (大仏開眼) Japan Film by
Teinosuke Kinugasa
1957 Gotoma the Buddha India Documentary produced by Bimal Roy.
Director was Rajbans Khanna
1960 Angulimaal India
1961 Buddha Shaka Japan Film by Kenji Misumi
1964 Shakyamuni Buddha Seokgamoni South Korea Film by Il-ho Jang
1967 Gautama the Buddha India Rerelease of Bimal Roy’s documentary
1980 The Story of Buddha 釋迦牟尼 (佛祖降臨) Hong Kong/Taiwan
1989 Buddha India Short documentary
1993 Little Buddha France/Italy/Liechtenstein/United Kingdom Film by
Bernardo Bertolucci, where the life of Buddha is enacted as a
story-within-a-story
1997 Buddha India Serial produced by G. Adi Sheshagiri Rao. Director
was P.C. Reddy
2001 Life of Buddha La Vie de Bouddha France/India Documentary produced
by Martin Meissonnier
2004 The Legend of Buddha India 2D animation film
2007 The Life of Buddha Phra Phuttajao Thailand 2D animation film
produced by Wallapa Phimtong
2008 Tathagatha Buddha: The Life & Times of Gautama Buddha India
Hindi film on DVD produced by K. Raja Sekhar
2009 The Rebirth of Buddha Buddha Saitan (仏陀再誕) Japan Happy
Science-sponsored film
2010 The Buddha US Produced and directed by David Grubin
2011 Buddha: The Great Departure 手塚治虫のブッダ－赤い砂漠よ！美しく－ Japan Anime film
based on the manga series Buddha by Osamu Tezuka
2013 Siddhartha The Buddha Sri Siddhartha Gautama (ශ්රී සිද්ධාර්ථ ගෞතම)
Sri Lanka Directed by Saman Weeraman
2013 A Journey of Samyak Buddha अ जर्नी आफ सम्यक बुद्ध India
Screenplayed and directed by Praveen Damle, based on Dr. Babasaheb
Ambedkar’s book The Buddha and His Dhamma.
2013 Biography of Buddha 釋迦牟尼佛傳 Hong Kong directed by Kwok Fai Lee
2014 Buddha: The Inner Warrior India et al. To be directed by Indian
film maker Pan Nalin, official website of the movie
2014 Buddha 2: The Endless Journey BUDDHA 2: 手塚治虫のブッダ～終わりなき旅 Japan
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_precepts
Five precepts
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This article is about the five precepts in Buddhism. For Taoism, see
Five Precepts (Taoism).
The Five precepts (Sanskrit: pañcaśīla; Pali: pañcasīla) or five rules
of training (Sanskrit: pañcaśikṣapada; Pali: pañcasikkhapada)[note
1] is the most important system of morality for Buddhist lay people.
They constitute the basic code of ethics to be undertaken by lay
followers of Buddhism. The precepts are commitments to abstain from
killing living beings, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying and
intoxication. Within the Buddhist doctrine, they are meant to develop
mind and character to make progress on the path to enlightenment. They
are sometimes referred to as the Śrāvakayāna precepts in the Mahāyāna
tradition, contrasting them with the bodhisattva precepts. The five
precepts form the basis of several parts of Buddhist doctrine, both lay
and monastic. With regard to their fundamental role in Buddhist ethics,
they have been compared with the ten commandments in Abrahamic
religions or the ethical codes of Confucianism. The precepts have
been connected with utilitarianist, deontological and virtue approaches
to ethics, though by 2017, such categorization by western terminology
had mostly been abandoned by scholars. The precepts have been compared
with human rights because of their universal nature, and some scholars
argue they can complement the concept of human rights.
Stone plaque with five precepts shortly described in English, engraved
in the stone.
Plaque with the five precepts engraved, Lumbini, Nepal
Translations of
five precepts
Sanskrit
pañcaśīla (पञ्चशील), pañcaśikṣapada (पञ्चशिक्षपद)
Pali
pañcasīla, pañcasīlani, pañcasikkhāpada, pañcasikkhāpadani
Burmese
ပဉ္စသီလ ငါးပါးသီလ
(IPA: [pjɪ̀ɰ̃sa̰ θìla̰ ŋá bá θìla̰])
Chinese
五戒
(Pinyin: wǔjiè)
Japanese
五戒
(rōmaji: go kai)
Khmer
បញ្ចសីល, និច្ចសីល, សិក្ខាបទ៥, សីល៥
(UNGEGN: Sel)
Korean
오계
五戒
(RR: ogye)
Mon
သဳ မသုန်
([sɔe pəsɔn])
Sinhala
පන්සිල්
(pan sil)
Thai
เบญจศีล, ศีล ๕
(RTGS: Benchasin, Sin Ha)
Vietnamese
五戒
Ngũ giới
Indonesian
Pancasila
Glossary of Buddhism
The five precepts were common to the religious milieu of 6th-century BCE
India, but the Buddha’s focus on awareness through the fifth precept
was unique. As shown in Early Buddhist Texts, the precepts grew to be
more important, and finally became a condition for membership of the
Buddhist religion. When Buddhism spread to different places and people,
the role of the precepts began to vary. In countries where Buddhism had
to compete with other religions, such as China, the ritual of
undertaking the five precepts developed into an initiation ceremony to
become a Buddhist lay person. On the other hand, in countries with
little competition from other religions, such as Thailand, the ceremony
has had little relation to the rite of becoming Buddhist, as many people
are presumed Buddhist from birth.
Undertaking and upholding the five precepts is based on the principle of
non-harming (Pāli and Sanskrit: ahiṃsa). The Pali Canon recommends one
to compare oneself with others, and on the basis of that, not to hurt
others. Compassion and a belief in karmic retribution form the
foundation of the precepts. Undertaking the five precepts is part of
regular lay devotional practice, both at home and at the local temple.
However, the extent to which people keep them differs per region and
time. People keep them with an intention to develop themselves, but also
out of fear of a bad rebirth.
The first precept consists of a prohibition of killing, both humans and
all animals. Scholars have interpreted Buddhist texts about the precepts
as an opposition to and prohibition of capital punishment, suicide,
abortion and euthanasia. In practice, however, many Buddhist
countries still use the death penalty. With regard to abortion, Buddhist
countries take the middle ground, by condemning though not prohibiting
it. The Buddhist attitude to violence is generally interpreted as
opposing all warfare, but some scholars have raised exceptions found in
later texts.
The second precept prohibits theft and related activities such as fraud
and forgery.
The third precept refers to adultery in all its forms, and has been
defined by modern teachers with terms such as sexual responsibility and
long-term commitment.
The fourth precept involves falsehood spoken or committed to by action,
as well as malicious speech, harsh speech and gossip.
The fifth precept prohibits intoxication through alcohol, drugs or other
means. Early Buddhist Texts nearly always condemn alcohol, and
so do Chinese Buddhist post-canonical texts. Buddhist attitudes toward
smoking is to abstain from tobacco due to its severe addiction.
In modern times, traditional Buddhist countries have seen revival
movements to promote the five precepts. As for the West, the precepts
play a major role in Buddhist organizations. They have also been
integrated in mindfulness training programs, though many mindfulness
specialists do not support this because of the precepts’ religious
import. Lastly, many conflict prevention programs make use of the
precepts.
Role in Buddhist doctrine Edit
Wheel with eight spokes, with the different aspects of the Buddhist
eight-fold written on them
The Noble Eightfold Path, of which the five precepts are part.
Buddhist scriptures explain the five precepts as the minimal standard of
Buddhist morality. It is the most important system of morality in
Buddhism, together with the monastic rules. Śīla (Sanskrit; Pali:
sīla) is used to refer to Buddhist precepts, including the five.
But the word also refers to the virtue and morality which lies at the
foundation of the spiritual path to enlightenment, which is the first of
the three forms of training on the path. Thus, the precepts are rules
or guidelines to develop mind and character to make progress on the path
to enlightenment. The five precepts are part of the right speech,
action and livelihood aspects of the Noble Eightfold Path, the core
teaching of Buddhism.[note 2] Moreover, the practice of the five
precepts and other parts of śīla are described as forms of merit-making,
means to create good karma. The five precepts have been
described as social values that bring harmony to society, and
breaches of the precepts described as antithetical to a harmonious
society. On a similar note, in Buddhist texts, the ideal, righteous
society is one in which people keep the five precepts.
Comparing different parts of Buddhist doctrine, the five precepts form
the basis of the eight precepts, which are lay precepts stricter than
the five precepts, similar to monastic precepts. Secondly, the
five precepts form the first half of the ten or eleven precepts for a
person aiming to become a Buddha (bodhisattva), as mentioned in the
Brahmajala Sūtra of the Mahāyāna tradition. Contrasting these
precepts with the five precepts, the latter were commonly referred to
by Mahāyānists as the śrāvakayāna precepts, or the precepts of those
aiming to become enlightened disciples (Sanskrit: arhat; Pali: arahant)
of a Buddha, but not Buddhas themselves. The ten–eleven bodhisattva
precepts presuppose the five precepts, and are partly based on them.
The five precepts are also partly found in the teaching called the ten
good courses of action, referred to in Theravāda (Pali:
dasa-kusala-kammapatha) and Tibetan Buddhism (Sanskrit:
daśa-kuśala-karmapatha; Wylie: dge ba bcu). Finally, the first
four of the five precepts are very similar to the most fundamental rules
of monastic discipline (Pali: pārajika), and may have influenced their
development.
In conclusion, the five precepts lie at the foundation of all Buddhist
practice, and in that respect, can be compared with the ten commandments
in Christianity and Judaism or the ethical codes of
Confucianism.
History Edit
The five precepts were part of early Buddhism and are common to nearly
all schools of Buddhism. In early Buddhism, the five precepts were
regarded as an ethic of restraint, to restrain unwholesome tendencies
and thereby purify one’s being to attain enlightenment. The five
precepts were based on the pañcaśīla, prohibitions for pre-Buddhist
Brahmanic priests, which were adopted in many Indic religions around 6th
century BCE. The first four Buddhist precepts were nearly
identical to these pañcaśīla, but the fifth precept, the prohibition on
intoxication, was new in Buddhism:[note 3] the Buddha’s emphasis on
awareness (Pali: appamāda) was unique.
In some schools of ancient Indic Buddhism, Buddhist devotees could
choose to adhere to only a number of precepts, instead of the complete
five. The schools that would survive in later periods, however, that is
Theravāda and Mahāyāna Buddhism, were both ambiguous about this
practice. Some early Mahāyāna texts allow it, but some do not; Theravāda
texts do not discuss this practice at all.
The prohibition on killing had motivated early Buddhists to form a
stance against animal sacrifice, a common ritual practice in ancient
India. According to the Pāli Canon, however, early Buddhists did
not adopt a vegetarian lifestyle.
In Early Buddhist Texts, the role of the five precepts gradually
develops. First of all, the precepts are combined with a declaration of
faith in the triple gem (the Buddha, his teaching and the monastic
community). Next, the precepts develop to become the foundation of lay
practice. The precepts are seen as a preliminary condition for the
higher development of the mind. At a third stage in the texts, the
precepts are actually mentioned together with the triple gem, as though
they are part of it. Lastly, the precepts, together with the triple gem,
become a required condition for the practice of Buddhism, as lay people
have to undergo a formal initiation to become a member of the Buddhist
religion. When Buddhism spread to different places and people, the
role of the precepts began to vary. In countries in which Buddhism was
adopted as the main religion without much competition from other
religious disciplines, such as Thailand, the relation between the
initiation of a lay person and the five precepts has been virtually
non-existent. In such countries, the taking of the precepts has become a
sort of ritual cleansing ceremony. People are presumed Buddhist from
birth without much of an initiation. The precepts are often committed to
by new followers as part of their installment, yet this is not very
pronounced. However, in some countries like China, where Buddhism was
not the only religion, the precepts became an ordination ceremony to
initiate lay people into the Buddhist religion.
Map marking part of China
In 8th-century China, people held strict attitudes about abstinence of
alcohol.
In China, the five precepts were introduced in the first centuries CE,
both in their śrāvakayāna and bodhisattva formats. During this time,
it was particularly Buddhist teachers who promoted abstinence from
alcohol (the fifth precept), since Daoism and other thought systems
emphasized moderation rather than full abstinence. Chinese Buddhists
interpreted the fifth precept strictly, even more so than in Indic
Buddhism. For example, the monk Daoshi (c. 600–683) dedicated large
sections of his encyclopedic writings to abstinence from alcohol.
However, in some parts of China, such as Dunhuang, considerable evidence
has been found of alcohol consumption among both lay people and
monastics. Later, from the 8th century onward, strict attitudes of
abstinence led to a development of a distinct tea culture among Chinese
monastics and lay intellectuals, in which tea gatherings replaced
gatherings with alcoholic beverages, and were advocated as such.
These strict attitudes were formed partly because of the religious
writings, but may also have been affected by the bloody An Lushan
Rebellion of 775, which had a sobering effect on 8th-century Chinese
society. When the five precepts were integrated in Chinese society,
they were associated and connected with karma, Chinese cosmology and
medicine, a Daoist worldview, and Confucian virtue ethics.
Ceremonies Edit
In Pāli tradition Edit
Asian person holding hands in prayer, facing two monks in brown robes.
In Thailand, a leading lay person will normally request the monk to
administer the precepts.
In the Theravāda tradition, the precepts are recited in a standardized
fashion, using Pāli language. In Thailand, a leading lay person will
normally request the monk to administer the precepts by reciting the
following three times:
“Venerables, we request the five precepts and the three refuges [i.e.
the triple gem] for the sake of observing them, one by one, separately”.
(Mayaṃ bhante visuṃ visuṃ rakkhaṇatthāya tisaraṇena saha pañca
sīlāniyācāma.)
After this, the monk administering the precepts will recite a
reverential line of text to introduce the ceremony, after which he
guides the lay people in declaring that they take their refuge in the
three refuges or triple gem.
He then continues with reciting the five precepts:
“I undertake the training-precept to abstain from onslaught on breathing
beings.” (Pali: Pāṇātipātā veramaṇī sikkhāpadaṃ samādiyāmi.)
“I undertake the training-precept to abstain from taking what is not
given.” (Pali: Adinnādānā veramaṇī sikkhāpadaṃ samādiyāmi.)
“I undertake the training-precept to abstain from misconduct concerning
sense-pleasures.” (Pali: Kāmesumicchācāra veramaṇī sikkhāpadaṃ
samādiyāmi.)
“I undertake the training-precept to abstain from false speech.” (Pali:
Musāvādā veramaṇī sikkhāpadaṃ samādiyāmi.)
“I undertake the training-precept to abstain from alcoholic drink or
drugs that are an opportunity for heedlessness.” (Pali:
Surāmerayamajjapamādaṭṭhānā veramaṇī sikkhāpadaṃ samādiyāmi.)
After the lay people have repeated the five precepts after the monk, the
monk will close the ceremony reciting:
“These five precepts lead with good behavior to bliss, with good
behavior to wealth and success, they lead with good behavior to
happiness, therefore purify behavior.” (Imāni pañca sikkhāpadāni. Sīlena
sugatiṃ yanti, sīlena bhogasampadā, sīlena nibbutiṃ yanti, tasmā sīlaṃ
visodhaye.)
In other textual traditions Edit
Ancient Asian library with manuscripts
The format of the ceremony for taking the precepts occurs several times
in the Chinese Buddhist Canon.
See also: Buddhist initiation ritual
The format of the ceremony for taking the precepts occurs several times
in the Chinese Buddhist Canon, in slightly different forms.
One formula of the precepts can be found in the Treatise on Taking
Refuge and the Precepts (simplified Chinese: 归戒要集; traditional Chinese:
歸戒要集; pinyin: Guījiè Yāojí):
As all Buddhas refrained from killing until the end of their lives, so I
too will refrain from killing until the end of my life.
As all Buddhas refrained from stealing until the end of their lives, so I
too will refrain from stealing until the end of my life.
As all Buddhas refrained from sexual misconduct until the end of their
lives, so I too will refrain from sexual misconduct until the end of my
life.
As all Buddhas refrained from false speech until the end of their lives,
so I too will refrain from false speech until the end of my life.
As all Buddhas refrained from alcohol until the end of their lives, so I
too will refrain from alcohol until the end of my life.
Similarly, in the Mūla-Sarvāstivāda texts used in Tibetan Buddhism, the
precepts are formulated such that one takes the precepts upon oneself
for one’s entire lifespan, following the examples of the enlightened
disciples of the Buddha (arahant).
Principles Edit
Precept Accompanying virtues Related to human rights
1. Abstention from killing living beings Kindness and compassion Right
to life
2. Abstention from theft Generosity and renunciation Right of property
3. Abstention from sexual misconduct Contentment and respect for
faithfulness Right to fidelity in marriage
4. Abstention from falsehood Being honest and dependable Right of human
dignity
5. Abstention from intoxication Mindfulness and responsibility Right of
security and safety
Dark beings throw men with mustaches into a large cauldron with a huge
fire underneath it.
Living a life in violation of the precepts is believed to lead to
rebirth in a hell.
The five precepts can be found in many places in the Early Buddhist
Texts. The precepts are regarded as means to building good
character, or as an expression of such character. The Pāli Canon
describes them as means to avoid harm to oneself and others. It
further describes them as gifts toward oneself and others. Moreover,
the texts say that people who uphold them will be confident in any
gathering of people, will have wealth and a good reputation, and
will die a peaceful death, reborn in heaven or as a human
being. On the other hand, living a life in violation of the precepts is
believed to lead to rebirth in an unhappy destination. They are
understood as principles that define a person as human in body and
mind.
The precepts are normative rules, but are formulated and understood as
“undertakings” rather than commandments enforced by a moral
authority, according to the voluntary and gradualist standards
of Buddhist ethics. They are forms of restraint formulated in
negative terms, but are also accompanied by virtues and positive
behaviors, which are cultivated through the practice of the
precepts.[note 4] The most important of these virtues is non-harming
(Pāli and Sanskrit: ahiṃsa), which underlies all of the five
precepts.[note 5] Precisely, the texts say that one should keep the
precepts, adhering to the principle of comparing oneself with
others:
“For a state that is not pleasant or delightful to me must be so to him
also; and a state that is not pleasing or delightful to me, how could I
inflict that upon another?”
In other words, all living beings are alike in that they want to be
happy and not suffer. Comparing oneself with others, one should
therefore not hurt others as one would not want to be hurt. Ethicist
Pinit Ratanakul argues that the compassion which motivates upholding
the precepts comes from an understanding that all living beings are
equal and of a nature that they are ‘not-self’ (Pali: anattā).
Another aspect that is fundamental to this is the belief in karmic
retribution.
Two pendants of amber
A layperson who upholds the precepts is described in the texts as a
“jewel among laymen”.
In the upholding or violation of the precepts, intention is
crucial. In the Pāli scriptures, an example is mentioned of a
person stealing an animal only to set it free, which was not seen as an
offense of theft. In the Pāli commentaries, a precept is understood
to be violated when the person violating it finds the object of the
transgression (e.g. things to be stolen), is aware of the violation, has
the intention to violate it, does actually act on that intention, and
does so successfully.
Upholding the precepts is sometimes distinguished in three levels: to
uphold them without having formally undertaken them; to uphold them
formally, willing to sacrifice one’s own life for it; and finally, to
spontaneously uphold them. The latter refers to the arahant, who is
understood to be morally incapable of violating the first four
precepts. A layperson who upholds the precepts is described in the
texts as a “jewel among laymen”. On the other hand, the most serious
violations of the precepts are the five actions of immediate
retribution, which are believed to lead the perpetrator to an
unavoidable rebirth in hell. These consist of injuring a Buddha, killing
an arahant, killing one’s father or mother, and causing the monastic
community to have a schism.
Practice in general Edit
Lay followers often undertake these training rules in the same ceremony
as they take the refuges. Monks administer the precepts to the
laypeople, which creates an additional psychological effect.
Buddhist lay people may recite the precepts regularly at home, and
before an important ceremony at the temple to prepare the mind for the
ceremony.
Asian monk smiling
Thich Nhat Hanh has written about the five precepts in a wider scope,
with regard to social and institutional relations.
The five precepts are at the core of Buddhist morality. In field
studies in some countries like Sri Lanka, villagers describe them as the
core of the religion. Anthropologist Barend Terwiel found in his
fieldwork that most Thai villagers knew the precepts by heart, and many,
especially the elderly, could explain the implications of the precepts
following traditional interpretations.
Nevertheless, Buddhists do not all follow them with the same
strictness. Devotees who have just started keeping the precepts will
typically have to exercise considerable restraint. When they become
used to the precepts, they start to embody them more naturally.
Researchers doing field studies in traditional Buddhist societies have
found that the five precepts are generally considered demanding and
challenging. For example, anthropologist Stanley Tambiah found
in his field studies that strict observance of the precepts had “little
positive interest for the villager … not because he devalues them but
because they are not normally open to him”. Observing precepts was seen
to be mostly the role of a monk or an elderly lay person. More
recently, in a 1997 survey in Thailand, only 13.8% of the respondents
indicated they adhered to the five precepts in their daily lives, with
the fourth and fifth precept least likely to be adhered to. Yet,
people do consider the precepts worth striving for, and do uphold them
out of fear of bad karma and being reborn in hell, or because they
believe in that the Buddha issued these rules, and that they therefore
should be maintained. Anthropologist Melford Spiro found that
Burmese Buddhists mostly upheld the precepts to avoid bad karma, as
opposed to expecting to gain good karma. Scholar of religion Winston
King observed from his field studies that the moral principles of
Burmese Buddhists were based on personal self-developmental motives
rather than other-regarding motives. Scholar of religion Richard Jones
concludes that the moral motives of Buddhists in adhering to the
precepts are based on the idea that renouncing self-service, ironically,
serves oneself.
In East Asian Buddhism, the precepts are intrinsically connected with
the initiation as a Buddhist lay person. Early Chinese translations such
as the Upāsaka-śila Sūtra hold that the precepts should only be
ritually transmitted by a monastic. The texts describe that in the
ritual the power of the Buddhas and bodhisattvas is transmitted, and
helps the initiate to keep the precepts. This “lay ordination” ritual
usually occurs after a stay in a temple, and often after a monastic
ordination (Pali: upsampadā); has taken place. The ordained lay person
is then given a religious name. The restrictions that apply are similar
to a monastic ordination, such as permission from parents.
In the Theravāda tradition, the precepts are usually taken “each
separately” (Pali: visuṃ visuṃ), to indicate that if one precept should
be broken, the other precepts are still intact. In very solemn
occasions, or for very pious devotees, the precepts may be taken as a
group rather than each separately. This does not mean, however,
that only some of the precepts can be undertaken; they are always
committed to as a complete set. In East Asian Buddhism, however, the
vow of taking the precepts is considered a solemn matter, and it is not
uncommon for lay people to undertake only the precepts that they are
confident they can keep. The act of taking a vow to keep the
precepts is what makes it karmically effective: Spiro found that someone
who did not violate the precepts, but did not have any intention to
keep them either, was not believed to accrue any religious merit. On the
other hand, when people took a vow to keep the precepts, and then broke
them afterwards, the negative karma was considered larger than in the
case no vow was taken to keep the precepts.
Several modern teachers such as Thich Nhat Hanh and Sulak Sivaraksa have
written about the five precepts in a wider scope, with regard to social
and institutional relations. In these perspectives, mass production of
weapons or spreading untruth through media and education also violates
the precepts. On a similar note, human rights organizations in
Southeast Asia have attempted to advocate respect for human rights by
referring to the five precepts as guiding principles.
First precept Edit
Textual analysis Edit
Mayfly on human finger
The first of the five precepts includes abstention from killing small
animals such as insects.
The first precept prohibits the taking of life of a sentient being. It
is violated when someone intentionally and successfully kills such a
sentient being, having understood it to be sentient and using effort in
the process. Causing injury goes against the spirit of the
precept, but does, technically speaking, not violate it. The first
precept includes taking the lives of animals, even small insects.
However, it has also been pointed out that the seriousness of taking
life depends on the size, intelligence, benefits done and the spiritual
attainments of that living being. Killing a large animal is worse than
killing a small animal (also because it costs more effort); killing a
spiritually accomplished master is regarded as more severe than the
killing of another “more average” human being; and killing a human being
is more severe than the killing of an animal. But all killing is
condemned. Virtues that accompany this precept are respect
for dignity of life, kindness and compassion, the latter
expressed as “trembling for the welfare of others”. A positive
behavior that goes together with this precept is protecting living
beings. Positive virtues like sympathy and respect for other living
beings in this regard are based on a belief in the cycle of rebirth—that
all living beings must be born and reborn. The concept of the
fundamental Buddha nature of all human beings also underlies the first
precept.
The description of the first precept can be interpreted as a prohibition
of capital punishment. Suicide is also seen as part of the
prohibition. Moreover, abortion (of a sentient being) goes against
the precept, since in an act of abortion, the criteria for violation are
all met. In Buddhism, human life is understood to start at
conception. A prohibition of abortion is mentioned explicitly in
the monastic precepts, and several Buddhist tales warn of the harmful
karmic consequences of abortion. Bioethicist Damien Keown
argues that Early Buddhist Texts do not allow for exceptions with regard
to abortion, as they consist of a “consistent’ (i.e. exceptionless)
pro-life position”. Keown further proposes that a middle way
approach to the five precepts is logically hard to defend. Asian
studies scholar Giulo Agostini argues, however, that Buddhist
commentators in India from the 4th century onward thought abortion did
not break the precepts under certain circumstances.
Traditional painting with the Buddha at the center and numerous animals
around him, illustrating different tales
Buddhist tales describe the karmic consequences of abortion.
Ordering another person to kill is also included in this
precept, therefore requesting or administering euthanasia can be
considered a violation of the precept, as well as advising another
person to commit abortion. With regard to euthanasia and assisted
suicide, Keown quotes the Pāli Dīgha Nikāya that says a person upholding
the first precept “does not kill a living being, does not cause a
living being to be killed, does not approve of the killing of a living
being”. Keown argues that in Buddhist ethics, regardless of
motives, death can never be the aim of one’s actions.
Interpretations of how Buddhist texts regard warfare are varied, but in
general Buddhist doctrine is considered to oppose all warfare. In many
Jātaka tales, such as that of Prince Temiya, as well as some historical
documents, the virtue of non-violence is taken as an opposition to all
war, both offensive and defensive. At the same time, though, the Buddha
is often shown not to explicitly oppose war in his conversations with
political figures. Buddhologist André Bareau points out that the Buddha
was reserved in his involvement of the details of administrative policy,
and concentrated on the moral and spiritual development of his
disciples instead. He may have believed such involvement to be futile,
or detrimental to Buddhism. Nevertheless, at least one disciple of the
Buddha is mentioned in the texts who refrained from retaliating his
enemies because of the Buddha, that is King Pasenadi (Sanskrit:
Prasenajit). The texts are ambiguous in explaining his motives
though. In some later Mahāyāna texts, such as in the writings of
Asaṅga, examples are mentioned of people who kill those who persecute
Buddhists. In these examples, killing is justified by the
authors because protecting Buddhism was seen as more important than
keeping the precepts. Another example that is often cited is that of
King Duṭṭhagāmaṇī, who is mentioned in the post-canonical Pāli Mahāvaṃsa
chronicle. In the chronicle, the king is saddened with the loss of life
after a war, but comforted by a Buddhist monk, who states that nearly
everyone who was killed did not uphold the precepts anyway.
Buddhist studies scholar Lambert Schmithausen argues that in many of
these cases Buddhist teachings like that of emptiness were misused to
further an agenda of war or other violence.
In practice Edit
See also: Religion and capital punishment § Buddhism, and Abortion in
Japan
Signals used to indicate vegetarian or non-vegetarian food
In Buddhism, there are different opinions about whether vegetarianism
should be practiced.
Field studies in Cambodia and Burma have shown that many Buddhists
considered the first precept the most important, or the most
blamable. In some traditional communities, such as in Kandal
Province in pre-war Cambodia, as well as Burma in the 1980s, it was
uncommon for Buddhists to slaughter animals, to the extent that meat had
to be bought from non-Buddhists. In his field studies in
Thailand in the 1960s, Terwiel found that villagers did tend to kill
insects, but were reluctant and self-conflicted with regard to killing
larger animals. In Spiro’s field studies, however, Burmese
villagers were highly reluctant even to kill insects.
Early Buddhists did not adopt a vegetarian lifestyle. Indeed, in several
Pāli texts vegetarianism is described as irrelevant in the spiritual
purification of the mind. There are prohibitions on certain types of
meat, however, especially those which are condemned by society. The idea
of abstaining from killing animal life has also led to a prohibition on
professions that involve trade in flesh or living beings, but not to a
full prohibition of all agriculture that involves cattle. In modern
times, referring to the law of supply and demand or other principles,
some Theravādin Buddhists have attempted to promote vegetarianism as
part of the five precepts. For example, the Thai Santi Asoke movement
practices vegetarianism.
Furthermore, among some schools of Buddhism, there has been some debate
with regard to a principle in the monastic discipline. This principle
states that a Buddhist monk cannot accept meat if it comes from animals
especially slaughtered for him. Some teachers have interpreted this to
mean that when the recipient has no knowledge on whether the animal has
been killed for him, he cannot accept the food either. Similarly, there
has been debate as to whether laypeople should be vegetarian when
adhering to the five precepts. Though vegetarianism among
Theravādins is generally uncommon, it has been practiced much in East
Asian countries, as some Mahāyāna texts, such as the Mahāparanirvana
Sūtra and the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra, condemn the eating of meat.
Nevertheless, even among Mahāyāna Buddhists—and East Asian
Buddhists—there is disagreement on whether vegetarianism should be
practiced. In the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra, biological, social and hygienic
reasons are given for a vegetarian diet; however, historically, a major
factor in the development of a vegetarian lifestyle among Mahāyāna
communities may have been that Mahāyāna monastics cultivated their own
crops for food, rather than living from alms. Already from the 4th
century CE, Chinese writer Xi Chao understood the five precepts to
include vegetarianism.
The Dalai Lama
The Dalai Lama has rejected forms of protest that are self-harming.
Apart from trade in flesh or living beings, there are also other
professions considered undesirable. Vietnamese teacher Thich Nhat Hanh
gives a list of examples, such as working in the arms industry, the
military, police, producing or selling poison or drugs such as alcohol
and tobacco.
In general, the first precept has been interpreted by Buddhists as a
call for non-violence and pacifism. But there have been some exceptions
of people who did not interpret the first precept as an opposition to
war. For example, in the twentieth century, some Japanese Zen teachers
wrote in support of violence in war, and some of them argued this should
be seen as a means to uphold the first precept. There is some
debate and controversy surrounding the problem whether a person can
commit suicide, such as self-immolation, to reduce other people’s
suffering in the long run, such as in protest to improve a political
situation in a country. Teachers like the Dalai Lama and Shengyan have
rejected forms of protest like self-immolation, as well as other acts of
self-harming or fasting as forms of protest.
Although capital punishment goes against the first precept, as of 2001,
many countries in Asia still maintained the death penalty, including Sri
Lanka, Thailand, China and Taiwan. In some Buddhist countries, such as
Sri Lanka and Thailand, capital punishment was applied during some
periods, while during other periods no capital punishment was used at
all. In other countries with Buddhism, like China and Taiwan, Buddhism,
or any religion for that matter, has had no influence in policy
decisions of the government. Countries with Buddhism that have abolished
capital punishment include Cambodia and Hong Kong.
In general, Buddhist traditions oppose abortion. In many countries
with Buddhist traditions such as Thailand, Taiwan, Korea and Japan,
however, abortion is a widespread practice, whether legal or not. Many
people in these countries consider abortion immoral, but also think it
should be less prohibited. Ethicist Roy W. Perrett, following Ratanakul,
argues that this field research data does not so much indicate
hypocrisy, but rather points at a “middle way” in applying Buddhist
doctrine to solve a moral dilemma. Buddhists tend to take “both sides”
on the pro-life–pro-choice debate, being against the taking of life of a
fetus in principle, but also believing in compassion toward mothers.
Similar attitudes may explain the Japanese mizuko kuyō ceremony, a
Buddhist memorial service for aborted children, which has led to a
debate in Japanese society concerning abortion, and finally brought the
Japanese to a consensus that abortion should not be taken lightly,
though it should be legalized. This position, held by Japanese
Buddhists, takes the middle ground between the Japanese neo-Shinto
“pro-life” position, and the liberationist, “pro-choice” arguments.
Keown points out, however, that this compromise does not mean a
Buddhist middle way between two extremes, but rather incorporates two
opposite perspectives. In Thailand, women who wish to have abortion
usually do so in the early stages of pregnancy, because they believe
the karmic consequences are less then. Having had abortion, Thai women
usually make merits to compensate for the negative karma.
Second precept Edit
Textual analysis Edit
One hand giving money to another hand, held behind a back.
Studies discovered that people who did not adhere to the five precepts
more often tended to pay bribes.
The second precept prohibits theft, and involves the intention to steal
what one perceives as not belonging to oneself (”what is not given”) and
acting successfully upon that intention. The severity of the act of
theft is judged by the worth of the owner and the worth of that which is
stolen. Underhand dealings, fraud, cheating and forgery are also
included in this precept. Accompanying virtues are generosity,
renunciation, and right livelihood, and a positive behavior
is the protection of other people’s property.
In practice Edit
The second precept includes different ways of stealing and fraud.
Borrowing without permission is sometimes included, as well as
gambling. Psychologist Vanchai Ariyabuddhiphongs did studies in
the 2000s and 2010s in Thailand and discovered that people who did not
adhere to the five precepts more often tended to believe that money was
the most important goal in life, and would more often pay bribes than
people who did adhere to the precepts. On the other hand,
people who observed the five precepts regarded themselves as wealthier
and happier than people who did not observe the precepts.
Professions that are seen to violate the second precept include working
in the gambling industry or marketing products that are not actually
required for the customer.
Third precept Edit
Textual analysis Edit
The third precept condemns sexual misconduct. This has been interpreted
in classical texts to include adultery with a married or engaged person,
fornication, rape, incest, sex with a minor (or a person “protected by
any relative”), and sex with a prostitute. In later texts, details
such as intercourse at an inappropriate time or inappropriate place are
also counted as breaches of the third precept. Masturbation goes
against the spirit of the precept, though in the early texts it is not
prohibited for laypeople.
The third precept is explained as leading to greed in oneself and harm
to others. The transgression is regarded as more severe if the other
person is a good person. Virtues that go hand-in-hand with the
third precept are contentment, especially with one’s partner,
and recognition and respect for faithfulness in a marriage.
In practice Edit
The third precept is interpreted as avoiding harm to another by using
sensuality in the wrong way. This means not engaging with inappropriate
partners, but also respecting one’s personal commitment to a
relationship. In some traditions, the precept also condemns adultery
with a person whose spouse agrees with the act, since the nature of the
act itself is condemned. Furthermore, flirting with a married person
may also be regarded as a violation. Though prostitution is
discouraged in the third precept, it is usually not actively prohibited
by Buddhist teachers. With regard to applications of the principles
of the third precept, the precept, or any Buddhist principle for that
matter, is usually not connected with a stance against
contraception. In traditional Buddhist societies such as Sri
Lanka, pre-marital sex is considered to violate the precept, though this
is not always adhered to by people who already intend to
marry.
In the interpretation of modern teachers, the precept includes any
person in a sexual relationship with another person, as they define the
precept by terms such as sexual responsibility and long-term
commitment. Some modern teachers include masturbation as a
violation of the precept, others include certain professions, such
as those that involve sexual exploitation, prostitution or pornography,
and professions that promote unhealthy sexual behavior, such as in the
entertainment industry.
Fourth precept Edit
Textual analysis Edit
Woman working behind computer.
Work that involves online scams can also be included as a violation of
the fourth precept.
The fourth precept involves falsehood spoken or committed to by
action. Avoiding other forms of wrong speech are also considered
part of this precept, consisting of malicious speech, harsh speech and
gossip. A breach of the precept is considered more serious if
the falsehood is motivated by an ulterior motive (rather than, for
example, “a small white lie”). The accompanying virtue is being
honest and dependable, and involves honesty in work,
truthfulness to others, loyalty to superiors and gratitude to
benefactors. In Buddhist texts, this precept is considered second
in importance to the first precept, because a lying person is regarded
to have no shame, and therefore capable of many wrongs.
Untruthfulness is not only to be avoided because it harms others, but
also because it goes against the Buddhist ideal of finding the
truth.
In practice Edit
The fourth precept includes avoidance of lying and harmful speech.
Some modern teachers such as Thich Nhat Hanh interpret this to include
avoiding spreading false news and uncertain information. Work that
involves data manipulation, false advertising or online scams can also
be regarded as violations. Terwiel reports that among Thai
Buddhists, the fourth precept is also seen to be broken when people
insinuate, exaggerate or speak abusively or deceitfully.
Fifth precept Edit
Textual analysis Edit
Glass of red wine
The fifth precept prohibits intoxication through alcohol, drugs or other
means.
The fifth precept prohibits intoxication through alcohol, drugs or other
means, and its virtues are mindfulness and responsibility,
applied to food, work, behavior, and with regard to the nature of
life. Awareness, meditation and heedfulness can also be included
here. Medieval Pāli commentator Buddhaghosa writes that whereas
violating the first four precepts may be more or less blamable depending
on the person or animal affected, the fifth precept is always “greatly
blamable”, as it hinders one from understanding the Buddha’s teaching
and may lead one to “madness”. In ancient China, Daoshi described
alcohol as the “doorway to laxity and idleness” and as a cause of
suffering. Nevertheless, he did describe certain cases when drinking was
considered less of a problem, such as in the case of a queen
distracting the king by alcohol to prevent him from murder. However,
Daoshi was generally strict in his interpretations: for example, he
allowed medicinal use of alcohol only in extreme cases. Early
Chinese translations of the Tripitaka describe negative consequences for
people breaking the fifth precept, for themselves and their families.
The Chinese translation of the Upāsikaśila Sūtra, as well as the Pāli
version of the Sigālovāda Sutta, speak of ill consequences such as loss
of wealth, ill health, a bad reputation and “stupidity”, concluding in a
rebirth in hell. The Dīrghāgama adds to that that alcohol
leads to quarreling, negative states of mind and damage to one’s
intelligence. The Mahāyāna Brahmajāla Sūtra[note 6] describes the
dangers of alcohol in very strong terms, including the selling of
alcohol. Similar arguments against alcohol can be found in
Nāgārjuna’s writings. The strict interpretation of prohibition of
alcohol consumption can be supported by the Upāli Sūtra’s statement that
a disciple of the Buddha should not drink any alcohol, “even a drop on
the point of a blade of grass”. However, in the writing of some
Abhidharma commentators, consumption was condemned or condoned,
depending on the intention with which alcohol was consumed.
In practice Edit
The fifth precept is regarded as important, because drinking alcohol is
condemned for the sluggishness and lack of self-control it leads
to, which might lead to breaking the other precepts. In
Spiro’s field studies, violating the fifth precept was seen as the worst
of all the five precepts by half of the monks interviewed, citing the
harmful consequences. Nevertheless, in practice it is often
disregarded by lay people. In Thailand, drinking alcohol is fairly
common, even drunkenness. Among Tibetans, drinking beer is common,
though this is only slightly alcoholic. Medicinal use of alcohol is
generally not frowned upon, and in some countries like Thailand
and Laos, smoking is usually not regarded as a violation of the precept.
Thai and Laotian monks have been known to smoke, though monks who have
received more training are less likely to smoke. On a similar
note, as of 2000, no Buddhist country prohibited the sale or consumption
of alcohol, though in Sri Lanka Buddhist revivalists unsuccessfully
attempted to get a full prohibition passed in 1956. Moreover,
pre-Communist Tibet used to prohibit smoking in some areas of the
capital. Monks were prohibited from smoking, and the import of tobacco
was banned.
Thich Nhat Hanh also includes mindful consumption in this precept, which
consists of unhealthy food, unhealthy entertainment and unhealthy
conversations, among others.
Present trends Edit
Woman giving a workshop in a classroom
Some scholars have proposed that the five precepts be introduced as a
component in mindfulness training programs.
In modern times, adherence to the precepts among Buddhists is less
strict than it traditionally was. This is especially true for the third
precept. For example, in Cambodia in the 1990s and 2000s, standards with
regard to sexual restraint were greatly relaxed. Some Buddhist
movements and communities have tried to go against the modern trend of
less strict adherence to the precepts. In Cambodia, a millenarian
movement led by Chan Yipon promoted the revival of the five
precepts. And in the 2010s, the Supreme Sangha Council in Thailand
ran a nationwide program called “The Villages Practicing the Five
Precepts”, aiming to encourage keeping the precepts, with an extensive
classification and reward system.
In many Western Buddhist organizations, the five precepts play a major
role in developing ethical guidelines. Furthermore, Buddhist
teachers such as Philip Kapleau, Thich Nhat Hanh and Robert Aitken have
promoted mindful consumption in the West, based on the five
precepts. In another development in the West, some scholars working
in the field of mindfulness training have proposed that the five
precepts be introduced as a component in such trainings. Specifically,
to prevent organizations from using mindfulness training to further an
economical agenda with harmful results to its employees, the economy or
the environment, the precepts could be used as a standardized ethical
framework. As of 2015, several training programs made explicit use of
the five precepts as secular, ethical guidelines. However, many
mindfulness training specialists consider it problematic to teach the
five precepts as part of training programs in secular contexts because
of their religious origins and import.
Peace studies scholar Theresa Der-lan Yeh notes that the five precepts
address physical, economical, familial and verbal aspects of
interaction, and remarks that many conflict prevention programs in
schools and communities have integrated the five precepts in their
curriculum. On a similar note, peace studies founder Johan Galtung
describes the five precepts as the “basic contribution of Buddhism in
the creation of peace”.
Theory of ethics
Theory of ethics Edit
Man of age 82
Peace studies founder Johan Galtung describes the five precepts as the
“basic contribution of Buddhism in the creation of peace”.
Studying lay and monastic ethical practice in traditional Buddhist
societies, Spiro argued ethical guidelines such as the five precepts are
adhered to as a means to a higher end, that is, a better rebirth or
enlightenment. He therefore concluded that Buddhist ethical principles
like the five precepts are similar to Western utilitarianism. Keown,
however, has argued that the five precepts are regarded as rules that
cannot be violated, and therefore may indicate a deontological
perspective in Buddhist ethics. On the other hand, Keown has
also suggested that Aristotle’s virtue ethics could apply to Buddhist
ethics, since the precepts are considered good in themselves, and
mutually dependent on other aspects of the Buddhist path of
practice. Philosopher Christopher Gowans disagrees that
Buddhist ethics are deontological, arguing that virtue and consequences
are also important in Buddhist ethics. Gowans argues that there is no
moral theory in Buddhist ethics that covers all conceivable situations
such as when two precepts may be in conflict, but is rather
characterized by “a commitment to and nontheoretical grasp of the basic
Buddhist moral values”. As of 2017, many scholars of Buddhism no
longer think it is useful to try to fit Buddhist ethics into a Western
philosophical category.
Comparison with human rights Edit
Keown has argued that the five precepts are very similar to human
rights, with regard to subject matter and with regard to their universal
nature. Other scholars, as well as Buddhist writers and human
rights advocates, have drawn similar comparisons. For example,
the following comparisons are drawn:
Keown compares the first precept with the right to life. The
Buddhism-informed Cambodian Institute for Human Rights (CIHR) draws the
same comparison.
The second precept is compared by Keown and the CIHR with the right of
property.
The third precept is compared by Keown to the “right to fidelity in
marriage”; the CIHR construes this broadly as “right of individuals
and the rights of society”.
The fourth precept is compared by Keown with the “right not to be lied
to”; the CIHR writes “the right of human dignity”.
Finally, the fifth precept is compared by the CIHR with the right of
individual security and a safe society.
Keown describes the relationship between Buddhist precepts and human
rights as “look[ing] both ways along the juridical relationship, both to
what one is due to do, and to what is due to one”. On a
similar note, Cambodian human rights advocates have argued that for
human rights to be fully implemented in society, the strengthening of
individual morality must also be addressed. Buddhist monk and
scholar Phra Payutto sees the Human Rights Declaration as an unfolding
and detailing of the principles that are found in the five precepts, in
which a sense of ownership is given to the individual, to make
legitimate claims on one’s rights. He believes that human rights should
be seen as a part of human development, in which one develops from moral
discipline (Pali: sīla), to concentration (Pali: samādhi) and finally
wisdom (Pali: paññā). He does not believe, however, that human rights
are natural rights, but rather human conventions. Buddhism scholar
Somparn Promta disagrees with him. He argues that human beings do have
natural rights from a Buddhist perspective, and refers to the
attūpanāyika-dhamma, a teaching in which the Buddha prescribes a kind of
golden rule of comparing oneself with others. (See §Principles, above.)
From this discourse, Promta concludes that the Buddha has laid down the
five precepts in order to protect individual rights such as right of
life and property: human rights are implicit within the five precepts. | http://sarvajan.ambedkar.org/?m=20210106 |
The wind turbines comprise a tower, a nacelle which houses the electrical generator and a rotor formed in turn by at least two blades. The tower of the wind turbine supports the nacelle and the rotor. Large wind turbines have steel, lattice, or reinforced concrete towers or even mixed-type towers, the latter comprising sections of different materials, for example, a lower section of concrete and an upper section of steel or lattice.
The larger the diameter of the rotor, the higher the rated power of the wind turbines which in turn involves the use of higher towers. The increase in tower height may necessarily require that the tower be divided into several annular sections which are stacked during the wind turbine assembly stage thus forming the full height of the tower. Dividing the tower into sections has the advantage that each section has a size such that its transport by road or rail is easier.
One of the most commonly used materials for large towers is concrete, since it involves acceptable production costs compared to those for the production of steel towers of similar characteristics. However, the weight of each concrete tower section can easily exceed one hundred tons, this fact being infrequent for metal tower sections, so stacking the concrete sections requires heavy-tonnage lifting and positioning means. The cost of using such lifting and positioning means, which may be for example a crane, is directly related to the tonnage that it is capable of handling and the time of use thereof. This high-tonnage crane is also used for lifting and positioning the nacelle, as the weight of the nacelle may also exceed 100 tons.
The design of wind turbine components and the design of the connections between them once placed, should take into account the loads they will be subjected to throughout their useful life to ensure the proper functioning thereof. In particular, the connections between different sections comprising concrete are adapted to withstand the loads induced by the rotor, these being the loads resulting from the wind falling on the surface of the rotor and the rotor weight loads.
It is known in the prior art that the procedure for assembling a wind turbine comprises the following stages: Stacking each upper annular section onto the lower annular section by using lifting and positioning means; Performing the connection between both upper and lower annular sections, connection meaning that which is adapted to withstand loads induced by the rotor; Repeating the above steps for all the sections of the tower; Stacking the nacelle onto the upper annular section; Performing the connection between the nacelle and the upper section, the connection being adapted to withstand loads induced by the rotor.
This method for the assembly of wind turbines has the disadvantage that the use of the crane involves a lot of time since the connecting of sections takes a long time, i.e. the hardening of the binding material takes time, and meanwhile the crane is inactive.
| |
Mayor Jim Watson says urgent investments from all three levels of government are needed to increase Ottawa’s affordable housing offerings and help homeless and disabled people find permanent homes that meet their needs.
The memo, signed by Watson and aldermen Jenna Sudds and Catherine McKenney, was issued at the end of Tuesday on the eve of a debate about whether or not to declare a city-wide emergency about affordable housing and homelessness.
The memo discusses the city’s six-year-old plan to tackle housing and homelessness and calls for a dramatic “refreshment” of that strategy.
Over the next 10 years, the city should create between 5,700 and 8,500 affordable housing and financial subsidies, while ensuring that 20 percent of it is spent on supportive and accessible housing. It also calls on the city to maintain its existing stock of Ottawa Community Housing units.
The proposal contains some ambitious goals: reducing total homelessness by 25 percent and eliminating “unprotected” homelessness – people living on the street.
“The renewed plan is ambitious in nature and requires the deployment of significant new funding from all levels of government to be realized,” the memo says. “Without an injection of increased, sustainable and long-term financing, the plan will not achieve its ambitious results.”
The city will spend $ 109 million on housing and homelessness this year, meaning that the cost of the renewed plan cannot be absorbed only by municipal property taxpayers, Watson said. In the past two budgets, the city has committed $ 30 million in capital for new affordable housing projects.
The province will contribute $ 43 million and the federal government $ 27 million to affordable housing and homelessness initiatives in Ottawa in 2020.
Last month McKenney informed colleagues that they would ask for their support to declare an emergency about affordable housing and homelessness. The Council will debate its motion on Wednesday.
The housing crisis of the city arose from a series of problems, according to an evaluation of the 2014 housing and homelessness plan.
Financing for new affordable homes has not kept pace with population growth in the city, bringing Ottawa’s total vacancy rate down to 1.8 percent. That supply shortage has pushed up prices: the average market rent in 2018 was $ 1,174 – an increase of 15 percent compared to 2014.
This means that more people in communal homes are holding their units longer, reducing the annual turnover. The centralized waiting list for community housing has more than 10,600 households. Families can wait years for a place, and some spend longer periods in emergency shelter.
The lack of affordable housing has exacerbated the city’s homeless problem. In the last six years, the number of people requesting emergency shelter placement has increased by 23 percent. In 2018, the emergency reception system operated on average with 108 percent of its capacity.
According to the report, family homelessness is the main cause of the increased demand for emergency rescue centers in the city, and the reason why Ottawa is increasingly dependent on hotels and motels to accommodate the landing.
More than 55,000 households in Ottawa – about 13 percent of the population – live with the kind of low income that makes housing a serious challenge. Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation says Canadians should not spend more than 30 percent of their pre-tax income on housing.
ALSO IN THE NEWS
Why do employees whistle at every LRT station? A defective camera system: sources | |
The Kern County Homeless Collaborative had their2018 Spring Membership meeting, the KCHC’s goal is to end homelessness in Kern County by collaborative planning and action. At the meeting, they discussed the Built for Zero movement, introduction to the local Cost-Benefit Analysis, and the release of the 2018 Point in Time Count (homeless census) data, on April 3.
United Way of Kern County is the fiscal agent and collaborative applicant for the Kern County Homelessness Collaborative, it is the backbone of the organization. It focuses on hunger and homelessness, financial stability, and early childhood literacy.
Built for Zero movement is a national effort created to aid a group of committed US communities terminate chronic and veteran homelessnessand iscoordinated by the Community Solutions.
On an interview conducted to the Homelessness Resources Administrative Assistant, Jessica M. Janssen, she explained that when it comes to ending homelessness the main thing to do is provide affordable housing and supportive services to the individuals who are suffering from homelessness.
Janssen also informed of an increase in homelessness this year.
“From 2017 to 2018 we are seeing a 9% overall increase in homelessness in Kern County,” she said.
There isa variousreason on why homelessness has increasedthis much over a year. Some of that reasoncan be domestic violence, substance abuse issues, mental health concerns, job loss and among others. Janssen has a different opinion about the reason why homelessness has increasedthat 9% this year.
“I believe the 9% increase is due to lack of affordable housing in Kern County and throughoutCalifornia,” said Janssen.
Janssen explained that Permanent Supportive Housing is being provided to chronically homeless over vouchers, and also by qualifying through Rapid Rehousing. Rapid Rehousing, by Alpha Project, is a program providing affordable housing to people who are homeless, and with a goal of giving them permanent housing. These programs are funded through CoC Program Competition funds from the US Department of Housing and Urban Development. | https://www.therip.com/news/2018/04/16/kchc-continues-work-to-end-homelessness-in-kern-county/ |
The Division of Early Care and Learning is responsible for the administration of health and safety rules and requirements for licensed child care facilities.
The Division of Early Care and Learning requires professionals working in child care facilities to complete training related to each health and safety requirement. Many of these trainings are currently available on-demand and free through the Colorado Shines Professional Development and Information System or other training resources.
All licensed child care providers are mandated reporters of suspected or known child abuse or neglect. Call the statewide hotline, 1-844-CO-4-KIDS, to report suspected child abuse or neglect.
Recognition and Reporting of Child Abuse and Neglect (Mandated Reporter Training) may be completed on the Colorado Shines Professional Development Information System.
Child care providers are required to complete the Online Injury Report within 24 hours of an incident. If a provider is unable to access the online system, you must use the paper form, and submit the form to the Division of Early Care and Learning within 24 hours of the incident.
Other injuries not requiring medical attention can be documented using the Accident/Injury Report Form developed by each facility. Child care providers must ensure that parents are notified of ALL injury or accident reports.
In some cases, the local Child Protective Services office should be notified when an injury occurs. Examples include unexplained injuries, injuries that were not observed by an adult, an infant receiving the incorrect breast milk, near drowning, or burns.
Falls are the number one cause of injury requiring medical care in child care facilities. With this information in mind, the Office of Early Childhood developed a resource, Injury Prevention - Falls: What Every Child Care Provider Should Know to provide child care programs with tips and other information regarding how to prevent and minimize the amount of falls that occur in child care environments.
Access an early childhood mental health consultant or other specialist, as needed.
Create and maintain a socially and emotionally respectful early learning and care environment.
Cultivate positive child, staff and family relationships.
Implement teaching strategies supporting positive behavior, pro-social peer interaction, and overall social and emotional competence in young children.
Provide individualized social and emotional intervention supports for children who need them, including methods for understanding child behavior and developing, adopting, and implementing a team-based positive behavior support plan with the intent to reduce challenging behavior and prevent suspensions and expulsions.
Child Care Centers must also have policies in place defining how decisions are made and what steps are taken prior to the suspension, expulsion or request to parents or guardians to withdraw a child from care due to concerns about the child’s behavioral issues.
Procedures must be consistent with the center’s policy on guidance, positive instruction, discipline and consequences, and include documentation of the steps taken to understand and respond to challenging behavior.
Early Childhood Mental Health Specialists can be part of the team that works together with programs to improve social and emotional environments and relationships, and support children who are exhibiting challenging behavior. | http://coloradoofficeofearlychildhood.force.com/oec/OEC_Providers?p=Providers&s=Health-Safety&lang=en |
A computed tomography (CT) scan uses X-ray technology to take multiple cross-sectional views of the inside of the body. A computer system then assembles the images into a 3-D view. A CT scan can take clearer pictures of organs, bone, soft tissue, blood vessels, and areas of the body not seen on regular X-rays, sometimes with the assistance of contrast material. As a result, it can be more accurate than other imaging studies in diagnosing certain problems.
Some of the primary uses for CT scanning include:
**A CT scan is not recommended if you are pregnant.
Preparing for a CT scan
The following tests do not require any further preparation:
For Abdomen and Pelvis, Chest and Abdomen, or Chest, Abdomen, and Pelvis studies:
For Chest-Only, Head With and Without Contrast, Urology, or Neck studies: | http://nazhacancercenter.com/medim-ct.html |
Virgo people often operate in some sort of personal and emotional auto-pilot. They really do.
They turn on their own axis. There’s a certain internal rule they follow.
You can’t tell just by looking at them. They look like everybody else. On the surface, they look normal.
However, deep down, they have all these ideas that work to leave them feeling unfulfilled and disappointed.
You see, the Virgo is one of the most idealistic signs of the horoscope. They’re not content with living in the world as it exists. They’re not focused on the world the way it is.
Instead, they’re constantly hoping, praying, and wishing that the world would conform to their ideal. That’s right.
They’re focused on the way things should be.
The worst part of all this ‘conscious daydreaming’ is that Virgos feel bad when these impossible standards are met.
It is somehow everybody else’s fault or the world’s fault that it doesn’t fit their standards, principles, and ideals. Of course, Virgos do this on a subconscious level.
Anybody over the age of eight knows that the world has its own axis. The world turns based on its own agenda.
The world doesn’t revolve around you. It has its own thing.
Unfortunately, many Virgos can intellectually grasp this, but emotionally reject it. While they can function pretty normally in the real world, deep down in an emotional level, they’re often disappointed. They’re often frustrated.
How can they not?
If you are always constantly judging the way the world is based on principles and standards found in a world that doesn’t exist, you’d be disappointed too.
As much as Virgos try, these unrealistic expectations and perfectionism seep into their relationships. It’s not uncommon for Virgos to go from one failed relationship to the other, thanks to all these unrealistic ideals and temptations.
It is very hard for them to shake free of these unconscious biases which are undermining their relationships and happiness.
While there is a lot to recommend in Virgo idealism, taken to extremes, it can lead to serious issues.
At the very least, it can lead to a deep, profound, and long-lasting level of discontentment.
It’s not uncommon for otherwise successful Virgos to make a lot of money, live in great houses, work around amazing people, live otherwise amazing lives, and still feel incomplete and unhappy.
They really need to let go of that impossible ideal and start living in the moment. They need to stop measuring the way things are based on principles and standards found in a world that doesn’t exist.
With this said, if you are a Virgo and you want a successful relationship and love that you deserve, you should stay away from the following actions.
These actions are rooted in the mindset I thoroughly explained above.
Don’t Compare Your Current Relationship to a Past Relationship
The funny thing about Virgos is they tend to exaggerate the past.
They have a past experience, and they would always compare their current experiences with that past experience. They would look for things that are missing in the current experience and read those in to the past experience.
This is a serious problem because, nine times out of ten, the past wasn’t as awesome as you imagine it to be.
You are only comforting yourself with your idealization of the past because the present is so threatening or so unfulfilling to you. This is a very common Virgo mind game, and it is very harmful.
You have to understand that the best way to be unhappy is to constantly compare yourself to other people. Similarly, the best way to be unhappy in your relationship is to constantly compare it with a previous relationship.
By idealizing things that may not have happened in your past relationship and lording that over your current relationship, you’re not doing yourself any favors. If anything, you’re harming your current relationships.
Your current relationships should be based on reality.
It should be based on the way things are. Let go of the past. The past is the past.
It’s never going to come back. Focus on what exists now.
Don’t Get Too Caught Up in Your Ideal Relationship
Even if you were to focus on your current relationship and avoid comparing it with your previous relationships, you can still stumble. Why?
You can get so caught up in your ideas of how the right relationship should look like.
You can get so overly involved in your expectations of how your partner should act that you fail to see their beauty in the here and now. You fail to see the things that they are doing right in the here and now.
Accordingly, things can deteriorate to the point where your partner can’t seem to do anything right. Things can get so bad that you might be tempted to turn your back on your relationship because it’s not as perfect as the ideals you have in mind.
This is simply the wrong way to go. This is completely unnecessary, and it’s only going to harm your relationship.
Don’t hold up an imaginary picture of an ideal relationship to your current relationship.
Instead, compare your current relationship to itself.
Communicate clearly with your partner, and figure out your common ideals and your common goals. That’s what you should be focusing on.
Instead of imposing your own unrealistic expectations on the relationship, work on making your current relationship live up to its fullest potential.
You have to remember that all relationships are works in progress. All of us human beings are works in progress.
There is no such thing as a perfect relationship in the same way as there is no such thing as perfect people.
You have to understand this. You have to accept it and move on.
Otherwise, your relationships will continue to fall into a certain pattern. Otherwise, your relationships will continue to fail.
At the very least, you will continue to feel unfulfilled and unhappy in your relationships. You owe it to yourself to be happy. Let go of ideals that don’t do you any good.
What do you think? | https://trustedpsychicmediums.com/virgo-star-sign/virgo-if-you-want-a-successful-relationship-dont-do-this/ |
ISLAND OF KRK is one of the largest islands in the Adriatic Sea. With its area of 405.78 km2 it is geographically the closest to Central Europe.
It is connected to the mainland by the 1,430 m long bridge called Krčki most, built in 1980. With its impressive construction it perfectly fits in the picturesque island landscape.
Therefore the island of Krk is close, accessible, interesting, full of beautiful and historic tales, of interesting past that makes it magical and mysterious but also most visited!
You can explore this Golden Island (as it used to be called in ancient times) in all seasons. It is particularly advisable to come in spring when the nature awakes and seduces you with the aromas of medicinal herbs or in autumn when you can still bathe in the sea, the smell of freshly picked grapes prevails and the olive groves are full of golden olives.
Island settlements hide a thousand- yea r- old cultural monuments, churches, museums, galleries. Each historic period has left traces in the way of life and in the island culture and language.
Island towns are therefore little oases of rich heritage of natural, cultural, historic and spiritual values whose remains are visited by more and more tourists.
For nature lovers, the island of Krk offers various possibilities: walks along the romantic paths by the sea or along the wild rocky shepherds' paths o ffering splendid views of the nearby hills or islands in Kvarner Bay: Rab, Cres and Lošinj.
One can enjoy the tastes of renowned Krk cuisine, exquisite wine Vrbnièka žlahtina and unique sparkling wine Valomet. Of course, there are also products based on vi rgin olive oil.
Take advantage of the island as a whole, its rich and varied possibilities of accommodation, its touristic, cultural, wellness, outdoor and gastronomic offer. | http://demo2015.krk.hr/en/news?itemID=190 |
MICHR's annual Mock Study Section is an opportunity to learn how NIH grant reviewers, or “study sections,” think. As one of six grant reviewers participants will discuss actual twelve-page K and R grants (already submitted in some version to the NIH). Learn what happens behind the closed doors in a real K or R grant review. This true-to-life simulation will take place October 5, 3-5:30 pm.
This event is ideal for fellows and early career faculty who are writing career development and R01 grants. It simulates an NIH Study Section in every detail. Participants will be assigned a grant to review in either clinical and translational research or health services research.
Learn more and register
Rachel Wallace, PhD, Research Development Officer, OVPR
Researchers communicate the same information about their work in many different formats–publications, grant proposals, conference posters, etc. However, recycling text verbatim is generally discouraged and may in fact be labeled “self-plagiarism.”
Plagiarism is a sensitive and serious topic in academia, and researchers and editors often go to great lengths to avoid the perception of misconduct. Despite this, forcing authors to rewrite their own words, if only to avoid plagiarism detection software, can sometimes cause more harm than good. Some researchers spend decades working on the same topic with similar experimental methods across studies; they should be able communicate their work as clearly and accurately as possible. Rewriting may not allow for the best description of the research and can mislead about the novelty of the work.
Ethical questions aside, reusing text from journal publications raises issues of copyright infringement because publishers, not the authors, usually own the copyright. There may be exceptions for reusing text under “fair use” in copyright law, but authors should consult journal editors and legal experts and refer to their contract with the journal.
Attempting to provide guidance on these issues, Cary Moskovitz (Duke) created the Text Recycling Research Project (TRRP). The TRRP contains advice and resources for researchers on reusing text ethically and transparently in a variety of contexts. The project addresses issues such as recycling text from unpublished work (e.g., proposals, posters); repeating experimental methods across publications; and copying language across papers without the same author list. Based on the TRRP, Evan Kharasch (Duke) launched a new editorial policy in Anesthesiology allowing authors to reuse text if they cite the original source.
Read more:
All currently open U-M campus-wide internal funding programs are posted in Research Commons. | https://us12.campaign-archive.com/?u=0547bd3e60f5be7f7e6e380f4&id=4033aff684 |
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From experiencing different cultures to meeting new people, and learning new languages, studying internationally for college is a great opportunity to see the world. Although most students choose to go to American schools, WHS seniors Ben Tremblay and Leah LeBaron will be studying overseas for college.
Tremblay will be studying at ESCP Business School starting this upcoming fall as part of their Bachelor in Management program. The program entails three campuses in three different countries including Paris, France; Madrid, Spain; and Berlin, Germany respectively.
“I’m really looking forward to immersing myself in the cultures of those cities and countries. I’m excited to face the challenge of learning a new language once again and conversing with the native speakers of those languages on a level that translation could never accomplish,” Tremblay said.
Tremblay explained his continued desire to travel after his past experience as an exchange student in Cali, Colombia for most of his junior year.
“My exchange in Colombia was one of the best experiences of my life, and so I knew I needed to continue exploring new places and having different experiences to be happy,” Tremblay said. “I realized how much I love exploring new cultures, learning new languages, and meeting different people. Studying abroad for college seemed like a logical step in my educational journey.”
Math teacher Aaron Gacs talked about his impression of Tremblay when he first returned from Colombia.
“It was clear that he had been changed by his experience. The friends he’d made and the language and culture that he’d experienced had a huge impact on him as a person. I’m sure it was the hunger for more such experiences that led him to want to travel again,” Gacs said.
Leah LeBaron plans to attend University of St. Andrews in Scotland for a new and diverse experience.
“I’ve lived in Weston my whole life, so I wanted to try a school system that was different from what I’m used to. Plus, I am really interested in history, but each country definitely has biases when retelling history, so I’m hoping to get another perspective,” LeBaron said.
LeBaron also explained the key differences and similarities in the application process for international schools.
“I applied using the Common App, so writing and submitting my application was pretty similar to my friends. St. Andrews has rolling admissions which meant I had more freedom time wise, which was nice,” LeBaron said. “Some international schools have different rules regarding the ACT, SAT and AP tests, so it’s always good to check that.”
Despite a more complex application process, Gacs explained that international study can have a great impact on a student.
“I think global travel for a lengthy period of time, and really immersing oneself in the local culture, is one of the best things a young person can do to expand his or her horizons.” Gacs said.
Tremblay further noted the importance of building a global connection.
“I believe developing an international understanding is crucial to create career opportunities in the globally connected world we live in today,” Tremblay said. | http://wildcattracks.weston.org/2855/features/whs-seniors-planning-international-college-experiences/ |
As Pennsylvania's response to the Covid-19 pandemic winds down, nearly two-thirds of low- and middle-income respondents to a United Way of Pennsylvania poll say they are worried about paying their rent or mortgage.
And more individuals across the income spectrum are reporting mental health issues as one of their top concerns over the next two months.
Those findings come from the state United Way's second Covid-19 Impact Survey, released this morning.
Kristen Rotz, the United Way of Pennsylvania's president, said the organization is releasing the survey results "to help policymakers make decisions about strategic investments in pandemic recovery to support Pennsylvania’s workers and their families."
Stimulus checks, expanded unemployment insurance and the nationwide eviction moratorium all enabled lower-income households to survive during the pandemic.
However, the United Way warned, "As these safeguards come to an end, many households may become financially unstable."
The survey is a follow-up to one conducted last fall. The new one reflects voluntary responses from more than 2,700 individuals, collected between March 15 and April 5, 2021.
The responses came from all 67 counties and a wide range of income levels. They were self-selected however, and no attempt was made to adjust the sample to reflect Pennsylvania's demographics. Therefore, "it is not possible to make statements on the overall population," the United Way said.
The United Way analyzed the results separately for households at or below "ALICE" income levels, and those above it.
"ALICE" refers to "Asset Limited, Income Constrained, Employed." ALICE families are working families who earn more than the federal poverty level, but less than the "household survival budget" needed to make ends meet.
Among the findings (Here, "ALICE households" refers to those at or below the ALICE threshold):
- 65% of ALICE households lost a job or changed jobs due to the pandemic;
- 68% of ALICE households have no more than one month of savings;
- 52% of ALICE households and 39% of non-ALICE households say mental health is a major concern;
- 64% of ALICE households are worried about meeting housing expenses, but only 25% have sought assistance
- 45% of all families with children adjusted their work due to child care needs;
- Due to stay-at-home orders or remote schooling, 70% of ALICE households made a major technology acquisition such as a tablet, laptop or mobile phone.
The findings show the need to bolster access to mental health resources and child care, United Way leaders said said.
"Stresses around housing instability, and general uncertainty mean every part of our society suffers," said Kevin Ressler, president and CEO of the United Way of Lancaster County. "From the economy to spiritual wellness and emotional stability, left unaddressed these crisis spillover in myriad ways."
Better mental health services, Rotz said, "will help many individuals improve their quality of life.”
As for child care, "public investment is essential," she said: A robust child care system will help parents enter the work force and offset the hiring shortages that employers are reporting.
"Paying childcare providers more sustainable wages shouldn't be a question," Ressler said. Chronic low wages make it difficult to staff child care facilities, leading to lower capacity and closures.
"There are few workers more essential than childcare employees, who are too often living below or just around the poverty line," he said. | https://oneunitedlancaster.com/coronavirus-alice-stories-lancaster/united-way-of-pas-2nd-covid-19-impact-survey-shows-ongoing-housing-mental-health-concerns/ |
Joe Biden: ‘Release the emails for the whole world to see’
Vice President Biden looked incredulous in an interview that aired Saturday when asked about Anthony Weiner, the estranged husband of a top Clinton aide suddenly thrust back into the spotlight.
“Well, oh God, Anthony Weiner,” Biden said in the interview with CNN that was taped Friday at a stop in St. Louis for Democratic Senate candidate Jason Kander.
“I should not comment on Anthony Weiner. I’m not a big fan; I wasn’t before he got in trouble. So I shouldn’t comment,” Biden told CNN’s Michael Smerconish.
On Friday, FBI Director James Comey jolted Hillary Clinton's campaign by announcing newly found emails related to the bureau’s previously closed inquiry would restart the probe.
Those emails were discovered in an ongoing and separate investigation into the sexually charged communications between Weiner, a former New York congressman, and a 15-year-old girl.
New emails under review in Clinton case emerged from Weiner probe
Attorney General Lynch objected to FBI director going public with email review
Biden called the situation “unfortunate” just over a week from Election Day.
“I think Hillary, if she said what I’m told she said, is correct. Release the emails for the whole world to see,” Biden said. “They’ll continue their investigation and it won’t be prejudice the investigation.”
Comey, in a letter to senior lawmakers, said “the FBI cannot yet assess” whether the information is “significant” nor could he offer a timetable for how long it will take investigators to make an assessment. Officials familiar with the matter told USA TODAY that decision is not likely to be completed by Election Day.
Clinton made her own call to release the information at a news conference in Iowa on Friday. | https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/elections/2016/10/29/joe-biden-anthony-weiner-m-not-big-fan/92945128/ |
Mass spectrometry software is software used for data acquisition, analysis, or representation in mass spectrometry. Contents. 1 Proteomics software. mMass presents an open source multi-platform software for precise mass spectrometric data analysis. Simplify your MS and MS/MS analyses with our mass spectrometry software platforms, which feature intuitive and user-friendly interfaces that easily acquire.
OpenMS uses modern software engineering concepts with an emphasis on .. Processing of more than 55 million tandem mass spectra from. Our software helps mass spec labs identify spectra (NIST), convert MS data files, and control scientific instrumentation. Our SIMION software help engineers. It offers an infrastructure for the rapid development of mass spectrometry related software. OpenMS is free software available under the three.
Program: mMass presents an open source and multi-platform package of many tools for mass spectrometric data analysis, mainly in proteomics. ACD/Labs' Mass Spectrometry software offers efficient and effective ways to handle small spectra, chromatograms, and structures—from LC/MS data analysis. In addition to instrument control, you need software for data processing and interpretation, Accurate, fast, and comprehensive evaluation of mass spectra is of. This is a list intended to facilitate comparison of open source software for analyzing mass spectrometry data. The list comprises R packages. | http://ottolinostudio.com/adventure/mass-spectrometry-analysis-software.php |
Multifaceted Intervention to Improve Medication Adherence and Secondary Prevention Measures After Acute Coronary Syndrome Hospital Discharge: A Randomized Clinical Trial.
JAMA Intern Med. 2013 Nov 18;:1-8
Authors: Ho PM, Lambert-Kerzner A, Carey EP, Fahdi IE, Bryson CL, Melnyk SD, Bosworth HB, Radcliff T, Davis R, Mun H, Weaver J, Barnett C, Barón A, Del Giacco EJ
Abstract
IMPORTANCE Adherence to cardioprotective medication regimens in the year after hospitalization for acute coronary syndrome (ACS) is poor. OBJECTIVE To test a multifaceted intervention to improve adherence to cardiac medications. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS In this randomized clinical trial, 253 patients from 4 Department of Veterans Affairs medical centers located in Denver (Colorado), Seattle (Washington); Durham (North Carolina), and Little Rock (Arkansas) admitted with ACS were randomized to the multifaceted intervention (INT) or usual care (UC) prior to discharge. INTERVENTIONS The INT lasted for 1 year following discharge and comprised (1) pharmacist-led medication reconciliation and tailoring; (2) patient education; (3) collaborative care between pharmacist and a patient's primary care clinician and/or cardiologist; and (4) 2 types of voice messaging (educational and medication refill reminder calls). MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES The primary outcome of interest was proportion of patients adherent to medication regimens based on a mean proportion of days covered (PDC) greater than 0.80 in the year after hospital discharge using pharmacy refill data for 4 cardioprotective medications (clopidogrel, β-blockers, 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase inhibitors [statins], and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers [ACEI/ARB]). Secondary outcomes included achievement of blood pressure (BP) and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) level targets. RESULTS Of 253 patients, 241 (95.3%) completed the study (122 in INT and 119 in UC). In the INT group, 89.3% of patients were adherent compared with 73.9% in the UC group (P = .003). Mean PDC was higher in the INT group (0.94 vs 0.87; P< .001). A greater proportion of intervention patients were adherent to clopidogrel (86.8% vs 70.7%; P = .03), statins (93.2% vs 71.3%; P < .001), and ACEI/ARB (93.1% vs 81.7%; P = .03) but not β-blockers (88.1% vs 84.8%; P = .59). There were no statistically significant differences in the proportion of patients who achieved BP and LDL-C level goals. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE A multifaceted intervention comprising pharmacist-led medication reconciliation and tailoring, patient education, collaborative care between pharmacist and patients' primary care clinician and/or cardiologist, and voice messaging increased adherence to medication regimens in the year after ACS hospital discharge without improving BP and LDL-C levels. Understanding the impact of such improvement in adherence on clinical outcomes is needed prior to broader dissemination of the program. TRIAL REGISTRATION clinicaltrials.gov Identifier: NCT00903032. | https://journalclub.wustl.edu/2013/11/20/multifaceted-intervention-to-improve-medication-adherence-and-secondary-prevention-measures-after-acute-coronary-syndrome-hospital-discharge-a-randomized-clinical-trial/ |
Series:
Joanna Wawrzyniak
Preface
In the half century of communist rule in Poland, public memory of the Second World War played a substantial role in the transmission and legitimization of power. At the same time, it was open to reinterpretations, both spontaneous and planned, which were the results of international changes, generational turns, and activities of memory groups. Still, in the vast literature on how the Second World War has been remembered in Europe, research into what happened in Poland, one of the countries most affected by the war, is surprisingly scarce. This book fills this gap by giving an account of the emergence of the core Polish narrative about the war out of two embodiments of memory: the communist state’s revolutionary story on the one hand, and various memory groups’ initiatives on the other. It argues that the official patterns of war memory, which evolved from revolutionary rhetoric towards patriotic narratives of collective heroism and sacrifice, were to a surprising extent the results of negotiation between the state and memory groups.
Important features of those patterns of heroism and sacrifice are still present in Poland. Their long gestation, explored in this book, might help to understand why the country often finds itself in a ‘mnemonic standoff’, to use James Werstch’s term,1 with Western Europe, which tends to favour imagining the war in a civil, post-Holocaust, human rights-oriented way. The specific focus of this book is the organized movement of war veterans and former prisoners of Nazi camps from the 1940s until the end of the 1960s, when the core narrative became well established. The book tells the story of how certain social categories (including social entitlements for veterans and victims) were created or contested over the course of time.
Applying concepts from sociology and anthropology (including memory, myth and organization) to the history of veterans and victims, the book provides answers to three broad research questions. In what ways was the public memory of the Second World War shaped in communist Poland? How did the state and social groups interact in order to create this memory? And finally, what was the relationship between the memory of the war and the state’s social policies? By tracing the construction of ‘imagined communities’ of veterans and victims of the war at a time when the communist system was being formed and consolidated, the author advances two main arguments. First, that the memory politics of the Second World War in communist Poland is best understood in terms of three principal narratives: the myth of victory against fascism, the myth of the unity ← 13 | 14 → of the resistance movement, and the myth of national innocence. The myth of victory was the most fundamental of these three, and it was complemented by the two other narratives in the aftermath of the 1956 Thaw as a result of limited compromise with society aimed at cementing the state’s internal legitimacy. Second, it was at this time that there changed the social and political roles of the veterans and camp victims: whilst in the early post-war years they carried out largely symbolic functions, after the Thaw they came to represent group interests within the framework of a clientelistic state.
The chronological boundaries employed in this study (1945–1969) cover a specific and significant period in the evolution of political ideology in Poland: the dominant narrative changed from revolutionary internationalism to national communism. They also correspond to the years of the most fundamental changes in the development of the veterans’ and victims’ movement. The first post-war decade was a time when the Polish communist party gradually obtained a monopoly of power over public memory of the war. In 1949, the main collective protagonist of this book, a monopolistic union of veterans and victims of the war, the Union of Fighters for Freedom and Democracy (Związek Bojowników o Wolność i Demokrację, ZBoWiD) was formed. After the era of Stalinist rule (1949–1955), the mid-1950s brought a Thaw, during which the communists underwent a major re-evaluation of their attitude towards the traditions of the inter-war Polish state, including its wartime defenders (the soldiers of the 1939 defensive war, the Home Army and the Polish Armed Forces in the West). The second half of the 1960s was both the apogee of the myth of a unified Polish resistance movement and the period when anti-Semitic tendencies featured most explicitly in the discourse of the state. In the following decades, the veterans’ and victims’ movement was granted more solid foundations in law. At the same time, the veterans were aging. They continued to play an important ritual role, but their presence in the corridors of power was diminishing. The role of veterans in the Solidarity movement (1980–81) was less significant than their role in the 1960s. After 1989, the memory of the Second World War was affected much more by people born after the war than by those who had actually experienced it.
The book is divided into five chapters. The introductory Chapter 1 presents the general framework of this study; it argues for a memory studies approach in analysing veterans’ and victims’ movements, draws attention to some features of these movements in Europe since the nineteenth century, and discusses the role of mass organizations under communism. Chapter 2 shows that in the first years after the war the activity of Polish veterans and former political prisoners was pluralistic and varied, and that after 1947 the state authorities began to suppress autonomous social initiatives. Centralization imposed a monolithic interpretation of recent history, implied a denial of the need for different associations, and yielded ← 14 | 15 → one of the peculiar features of communist memory politics by merging victims and veterans of the war under a single organizational roof. Chapter 3 examines the myth of victory over fascism in the Stalinist period. This dominant myth served the politics of the Cold War by deploying a narrative of the military glory of the Red Army and the Polish Armed Forces in the East, and sought to mobilize the masses into participating in state rituals at former Nazi camps. Simultaneously, the proponents of this myth excluded many individuals and groups by labelling them as traitors of their fatherland. Despite declaring ‘unity’, the myth atomized veterans’ and victims’ groups. Chapter 4 shows the results of the rejection of the Stalinist politics of memory by various social groups in 1956–57 and the negotiation of a new legitimizing narrative, the myth of the unity of the anti-Nazi resistance. The new myth rang in harmony with the patronage functions of the state towards former partisans and soldiers. Chapter 5 analyses the myth of the innocence of the Polish victims of Nazism in the light of both international politics within the German-Israeli-Soviet triangle and the anti-Semitic currents in Polish society in the 1960s. Finally, the Afterword explores the peculiarities of the Polish politics of the Second World War in the context of the Eastern Bloc as a whole, as well as presents some common threads of the communist politics of memory when compared with Western Europe; it also demonstrates the long-lasting effects of the communist politics of memory in present-day Poland.
This book was initially written for Polish readers.2 At the time it was conceived as having three principal purposes: to stimulate memory studies in Polish historiography; to bring history into sociology and vice versa; and to write a bottom-up history of communist Poland, which was still a rare approach at the time. When working on this project in the early 2000s, I was very much influenced by earlier rewritings of the histories of post-war (Western) European states.3 Even though important shifts in the study of both Poland and Europe have taken place since the book was published (memory studies and histories from below have become ubiquitous also in Eastern Europe, and European history now favours transnational treatments over studies of single states), it still remains the case that Poland’s internal mnemonic conflicts in the aftermath of the war are largely unknown to international readers. For this reason, I have decided to introduce only minor revisions to the English edition. ← 15 | 16 →
The English version has been shortened and slightly amended. It omits some facts, names, metaphors and quotations that could have seemed too detailed to non-Poles (such as various specifics of the wartime partisan movement). It also leaves out the literature review on memory studies in Poland. Instead, the English edition contains explanations of wartime and post-war events and organizations that would have been transparent to Polish readers. The original introduction has been replaced by this preface, and the epilogue by a new afterword that sheds a comparative light on the results of this study and invites readers to link the research findings on Poland with those in other European countries.
*
I am indebted to many individuals and organizations for the opportunity I have had to carry out this research. The book is based on my doctoral dissertation, defended at the Institute of Sociology at the University of Warsaw in 2007. The initial idea was conceived in 2000 when I attended a seminar course on ‘Bad Memories’ by István Rév at the Department of History at Central European University in Budapest. Further refinement of the study would have been impossible without the stimulating and generous support of my dissertation supervisor, Marcin Kula (Institute of History, University of Warsaw), a doctoral scholarship at the Institute of Sociology at the University of Warsaw, and regular contact with the Department for the Sociology of Work and Organizations at the Institute of Sociology. I was able to elaborate the theoretical foundations of the work and improve my knowledge of Polish-Jewish relations thanks to a fellowship at the Transregional Center for Democratic Studies at the New School for Social Research in New York (2001). The sociologist Barbara Szacka, one of the pioneers of memory studies in Poland, helped me greatly in getting acquainted with scholarship on collective and cultural memory. The staff of Polish state and regional archives provided indispensable assistance in finding source materials, and the individuals who agreed to share their experiences with me via interviews gave me fresh insights into the realities of the times.
In the course of writing, fragments of the eventual book were listened to by the participants of a doctoral seminar run by Włodzimierz Borodziej, Jerzy Kochanowski and Marcin Kula at the Institute of History at the University of Warsaw. I am grateful to these three professors and to all of my seminar colleagues for their many comments, criticisms and suggestions. I would particularly like to thank Błażej Brzostek, Małgorzata Mazurek, Zofia Wóycicka and Marcin Zaremba for in-depth discussions on specific topics. I also received kind assistance at numerous conferences in Poland and abroad and through written correspondence with numerous individuals. I am especially grateful to Krzysztof Ruchniewicz (Willy Brandt Centre for German and European Studies in Wroclaw) for providing ← 16 | 17 → me with a wealth of materials. When working on the final version of the Polish edition of the book, I was helped by the comments supplied to my doctoral thesis by its reviewers, Wiesława Kozek (University of Warsaw) and Dariusz Stola (Polish Academy of Sciences). Yet above all, I am indebted and thankful to my parents and husband for their continuing support.
The English version would have been impossible without the tremendous work of its translator, Simon Lewis, himself a scholar of Eastern Europe, who also drew my attention to many unclear formulations in the original. Further editorial work was undertaken by my husband Jan Wawrzyniak and final proofreading by Jan Burzyński. I would also like to express my sincere thanks to Dariusz Stola (again) and Machteld Venken (University of Vienna), who agreed to publish this book in their series ‘Studies in Contemporary History’ and offered valuable help and criticism in completing the manuscript. My thanks also go to historian Winson Chu (University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee) for his helpful suggestions on the English title. The generous support of Imre Kertész Kolleg in Jena (Germany), where I was a fellow in the academic year 2013/2014, allowed me to work on the manuscript and to consult recent literature on the topic. My thanks finally go to Łukasz Gałecki and Richard Breitenbach of Peter Lang for making this project feasible and for their patience. The English edition of this book was funded by a grant from the National Programme for the Development of Humanities of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education in Poland in 2013–15. ← 17 | 18 → ← 18 | 19 →
1 James V. Wertsch, ‘A Clash of Deep Memories’, Profession (2008), pp. 46–53.
2 The Polish edition appeared as Joanna Wawrzyniak, ZBoWiD i pamięć drugiej wojny światowej. 1949–1969, Warszawa 2009.
3 Such as István Deák, Jan T. Gross, and Tony Judt (eds), The Politics of Retribution in Europe: World War II and its Aftermath, Princeton 2000; Pieter Lagrou, The Legacy of Nazi Occupation: Patriotic Memory and National Recovery in Western Europe, 1945–1965, Cambridge 2000; Henry Rousso, The Vichy Syndrome: History and Memory in France since 1944, transl. A. Goldhammer, Cambridge, MA 1991. | https://www.peterlang.com/view/9783653996814/Preface.xhtml?print |
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|Author||Topic: Introduction To Geology|
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JonF
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Some interesting applications of U-Th disequilibrium include Radio-dating backs up biblical text: Siloam Tunnel located and dated to 700 BC wherein they carbon dated a leaf in the plaster and a speleotherm growning from the plaster. Also The diffusion-adsorption model dating bone that's been exposed to groundwater.
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Dr Adequate
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Foreveryoung has pointed out that most cosmic rays do not in fact come from the Sun, and I have amended the relevant articles accordingly.
I will now write out a hundred times "I have never actually studied astronomy, and should not presume that I know anything about it."
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Dr Adequate
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Paleomagnetic dating
Introduction
In this article we shall discuss how we can use the paleomagnetism in rocks to attach dates to them (paleomagnetic dating). The reader may find it useful to go back and read the main article on paleomagnetism before continuing.
Polar wander and dating
One we have dated a sufficient number of rocks and measured the orientation of the magnetism they contain, we can build up a picture of how the position or apparent position of the poles over time.
So if we are then faced with a rock the date of which we do not know, then we do know (of course) the latitude and longitude at which we found it, and we can measure the orientation of its magnetism, and so we can look at the global picture we've built up of continental drift, and so figure out when the rock must have formed in order to have its magnetism oriented in just that direction.
Magnetic reversals and dating
Once we have dated a sufficient number of rocks and found out whether they have normal or reverse polarity, we can likewise build up a timeline for the occurrence of the reversals.
As noted in a previous article, magnetic reversals come at irregular intervals. This means that the pattern of normal and reverse polarity in an assemblage of rocks can be distinctive in the same way (though for a completely different reason) that growth rings in a tree can be distinctive. We might, for example, see a long period of reverse polarity, followed by six very quick switches of polarity, followed by a long period of normal polarity; and this might be the only time that such a thing occurs in our timeline.
So if we are presented with an undated rock, and we find a really distinctive pattern of paleomagnetic reversals within it, we may be able to identify the one time at which such a sequence of magnetic reversals took place.
Strengths and weaknesses of the method
The reader will observe that it is necessary to be able to date some rocks, in fact a lot of rocks, before paleomagnetic dating can be brought into play. You may therefore be wondering why, if we have perfectly good dating methods already, we don't just use them.
However, the advantage of paleomagnetic dating is that we can use it on different rocks from those susceptible to our ordinary methods of absolute dating: while most radiometric methods usually require igneous rocks, paleomagnetism can be measured in sedimentary rocks.
One problem which may arise is that the direction of the poles from a given location, or the pattern of magnetic reversals, may repeat over a long enough period of time, so that the paleomagnetic data we get when we measure these factors is not unique to a single time in the history of the Earth.
It is possible to get round this problem if we can find an approximate date of the rocks by other means. For example, if by considering their stratigraphic relationship to a datable igneous rock, we can establish that they are (for example) less than 20 million years old, then it may turn out that the paleomagnetic data, though not unique over the whole history of the Earth, are unique over the course of the last 20 million years, and then we can go ahead and use paleomagnetic dating.
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AZPaul3
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Dr. A,
Just a little love.
An excellent set of articles. Lots of information concisely presented.
The feedback from the others strengthens the whole piece still more.
Great stuff.
Thank you.
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petrophysics1
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This was not deposited by wind.
Take your cursor/arrow and put it in the lower left corner of the picture. Now slide it up the left side of the picture to the base of the reddish brown conglomerate. Look at the size of the rocks just above your cursor/arrow. Do you really think the wind blew those in there?
Move about 20% to the right, see those holes. Well rocks like the ones on the left used to be there but fell out.
Go to the center, does that stuff look well sorted to you? It looks poorly sorted to me which means there is no way this is wind blown.
See the cross-beds along the bottom, those are trough cross-beds. They form in fluvial deposits.
Geology is about the careful, accurate, objective (unbiased) description and identification of minerals, rocks and fossils and their position in 3 dimensional space. Without this nothing else is possible in geology. If you understood that you would have looked at the photo, instead of believing an interpretation.
Rock descriptions are reproducible scientific data, they never include someone's interpretation of how it was deposited.
Edited by Adminnemooseus, : Added source for quoted material, since the "reply to message" was not used.
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Dr Adequate
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Those are good reasons, thank you.
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Dr Adequate
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Sclerochronology
Introduction
In this article we shall discuss the basis of sclerochronology, a method of dating shells and corals by analysis of their growth patterns.
Growth patterns in shells and corals
When shelly organisms grow, many types lay down bands of new growth in a way that regularly reflects the passage of time: for example, laying down one growth band per day (as many corals do), or one growth band every low tide, as mussels do.
Some corals lay down distinct bands of skeletal calcium carbonate on a daily basis and also display seasonal patterns, so that they keep count both of days and of years. In the same way, mussels deposit their growth bands every low tide, but also show variations according to the phase of the moon, so that they keep count both of low tides and of lunar months. The photograph below shows the clam Arctica islandica, a popular species with sclerochronologists.
It is possible to use these growth patterns to date recent sediments in a manner analogous to dendrochronology. However, there is a more interesting way of using this data, which we shall discuss in the remainder of this article.
Tidal braking
the friction of tides that the Moon causes on the Earth slows down the Earth's rotation: this is known as tidal braking. The effect, though small, is measurable by the high-precision clocks used by astronomers, and so can be established directly as well as on theoretical grounds: at present, the effect amounts to a day getting shorter by 2.3 milliseconds over the course of a century (see here for more details). This may not sound like much, but it adds up: over the course of 100 million years, that would add up to a change in the length of a day of 38 minutes.
This means that in the past days must have been shorter. As the length of a year is constant, this means that in the past there must have been more days per year: using the present rate of slowing as a basis, there would have been about ten more days per year a 100 million years ago.
We should note that in fact scientists do not simply extrapolate the present rate of slowing in a linear manner to calculate past rates of rotation, but rather calculate this from the physics of the Earth-Moon system. For the purposes of this article, it is not necessary to go into the details of the calculation.
Tidal braking and sclerochronology
This immediately suggests a way of dating corals and shellfish. Take corals as an example. As I have said, they lay down daily bands, and the way in which they do so displays seasonal fluctuations. This means that by counting the number of daily bands per year, we can find out how many days there were per year at the time when they were formed. In the same way, by looking at mussels we can find out how many low tides there were per lunar month when they grew.
So by calculating how tidal braking has changed the number of days in a year or a lunar month, we can put a date on the organisms: for example, a coral showing 375 daily growth bands per year must have grown around 100 million years ago.
Weaknesses of the method
The number of days per year or per lunar month changes so slowly over time that we cannot expect sclerochronology to be as precise as radiometric methods such as U-Pb. If a change of one day per year corresponds to the passage of 10 million years, then this limits the precision with which we can resolve the age of a shell or coral.
What is more, the change in day length is not as predictable as the decay of radioactive isotopes. The graph below shows changes in day length from 1860 to 1980.
As you can see, although there is a general tendency for the Earth to slow down, occasionally it has sped up.
Over the longer term, the magnitude of tidal braking will depend on the exact interaction of the Earth and Moon. Such things as the position of the continents and of mid-ocean ridges will affect tidal patterns, and these change over time as we have seen in our discussion of plate tectonics. Then again, the formation of polar ice-caps, and the concomitant fall of sea-levels would speed up the Earth's rotation as a consequence of the law of conservation of angular momentum.
Because of these considerations, geologists prefer to use radiometric methods rather than sclerochronology where it is possible to do so, even though radiometric dating is rather more expensive. However this sclerochronological technique, even if it is rarely used in practice, has a distinct theoretical significance: it acts as an check on the validity of radiometric methods. When we find approximately 400 days per year in the Devonian period and about 390 in the Carboniferous (see J. Wells (1963) Coral Growth and Geochronometry, Nature 197(4871), 948-950) then this is in line with the dates put on these periods by radiometric methods. Since the mechanisms of coral and shell growth are completely unrelated to the process of radioactive decay, this provides a completely independent check on radiometric dating. The agreement between sclerochronology and radiometric dating is therefore a good reason to have confidence in both.
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RAZD
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Well done again Dr Adequate
There is additional material on this at Age Correlations and An Old Earth, Version 2 No 1 Message 10
That curve would show a theoretical smoothed out running average days per year, without the spin up spin down effects of the magnetic core (and major earthquakes).
We also see similar layering in fossil brachiopods, such as are found on Mt Everest and other locations, showing the length of time that each organism lived. These would also show climate variations, and should be able to be aligned into a Sclerochronology (shell chronology) extending back millions of years ... if some grad student was looking for a research project ...
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Tidal rhythmites and dating
Introduction
In this article we shall explain what tidal rhythmites are, how they are formed, and their implications for dating.
As this article re-uses ideas introduced in the previous article on sclerochronology, the reader will need to have read that article first.
Rhythms and rhythmites
Rhythmites are sedimentary rocks which display a repetitive vertical succession of types of sediment. We have already discussed varves, which are a kind of rhythmite. In this article we shall be interested in rhythmites produced by the action of the tide.
Tidal cycles include:
* A semidiurnal cycle. In most locations the moon produces two high tides and two low tides a day.
* A diurnal cycle. Some locations, such as the Gulf of Mexico, get only one high tide and one low tide per day.
* A mixed cycle. This can be seen in many locations on the west coast of America. In a mixed cycle, there are two high tides and two low tides per day, but one high tide is higher than the other, and one low tide is lower than the other.
* A fortnightly cycle. The highest high tides and lowest low tides (spring tides) occur at new moons and full moons, when the moon is either in line with or opposite the sun.
* Tidal cycles such as the apsidal cycle (presently lasting 8.85 years) and the nodal cycle (18.6 years) can also be distinguished; for the purposes of this article we may overlook them.
In additional to these tidal cycles, the rhythm of the seasons can also have their effect on sedimentary deposition. Varves are a special case of this, though typically varves are so thin that cycles of shorter duration are not discernible. Some sediments, however, will display a full range of cycles from semidiurnal to annual.
Rhythmites and dating
Any or all of the cycles mentioned above can be recorded in nearshore sediments. So it is possible to look at nearshore sedimentary rocks and, depending on which rhythms are recorded in the rock, to find out how many days there were in a month, or days in a year, or months in a year, or all of these facts, at the time when the rhythmite was deposited.
This allows us to subject these rhythmites to the same analysis as is used in sclerochronology, except that we can look at days in a month and months in a year as well as days in a year. The fact that there is close agreement between the number of days in a year as calculated on the basis of rhythmites and by the use of sclerochronology is a reason to have confidence in both methods, since it is hard to see how both could be wrong and yet coincidentally in agreement.
The same caveats apply to the use of this type of rhythmite for dating as apply to sclerochronology, and for just the same reasons. Also as with sclerochronology, the agreement of data from rhythmites with dates produced by radiometric dating is a reason to have confidence in radiometric methods.
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RAZD
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At Victoria BC (Canada ... used to live there) the tides go through a cycle from two highs and two lows to one high high and one low low and back over a two week period. This is due in part to the geography affecting the tides coming around Vancouver Island in two directions.
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Fossils and absolute dating
Introduction
In this article we shall discuss how fossils can be used for the purposes of absolute dating.
Fossils and dating
We have already discussed the construction of the geological column. If our stratigraphic methods show that fossil A was always deposited below fossil B whenever we are in a position to compare their dates of deposition, then we can conclude that species A is older than species B. We can apply the same sort of reasoning to the stratigraphic relationships of fossils and datable rocks.
For example, suppose that using stratigraphic methods, we can show that a particular fossil is always older than rocks which are 14 million years old or less, and always younger than rocks which are 16 million years old or more, whenever we are in a position to make a comparison.
Now, it is a fundamental principle of science --- arguably, the only fundamental principle of science --- that a rule that works every time we can test it must be taken as true unless and until we find a counterexample. So in this case we would have to conclude that this fossil species is between 14 and 16 million years old wherever we find it, even in those cases where there are no datable rocks that we can compare it to.
But this means that we can now use the fossil species to date the sedimentary rocks in which it is found; and we can say that those fossils found in the same strata as this species must be the same age; those species which stratigraphy tells us are older than it is must be more than 16 million years old; and those species which stratigraphy tells us are younger than it is must be less than 14 million years old.
Hence we can use datable rocks to put dates on fossil species; and then we can use the fossil species to put dates on other rocks which would otherwise be difficult to date.
Those fossils we have described as "index fossils" are particularly suitable for this purpose, since they have a wide geographical distribution but only inhabit a thin slice of time.
Advantages of the method
There are three main advantages of using fossils for dating in this manner.
First of all, we may want to date a stratum which is a long way up or down from any rocks we can date using radiometric methods. In this case, the use of fossils will be absolutely the best method available.
Second, it is much faster than any more technical method. Why send a rock to a laboratory and wait for a reply when you can just glance at the fossils it contains and say: "Ah yes, Early Ordovician"?
Third, by the same token, it's much cheaper. Radiometric dating requires specialized equipment: lasers, spectrometers, or in the case of Ar-Ar dating a small nuclear reactor. Even the humblest items of equipment come at a price: laboratories that carry out U-Pb dating wash the bottles they use for two years continuously to eliminate contamination. Rather than employ the services of such a laboratory, it is so much cheaper for the geologist to recognize a well-known species of ammonite, trilobite, foraminiferan, or whatever, the age of which is already known.
Edited by Dr Adequate, : No reason given.
Edited by Dr Adequate, : No reason given.
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RAZD
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Hi again Dr Adequate
The typical creationist complaint is that this is circular reasoning: rocks to date the fossils that then date the rocks ...
... but it is not circular: the first rocks are dated by radiometric methods the second rocks are usually of a type that cannot be dated by radiometric methods, sedimentary rocks, which is where the fossils are found.
It's linear:
dated rocks → date range for fossils → date range for undated rocks
The layers can also be tracked across the countryside and sometimes found between date-able rocks.
And diatoms among others.
Enjoy
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Dr Adequate
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Well, as I said:
This "circular reasoning" thing has always struck me as one of the odder creationist fantasies. They are surely not actually imagining some geologist saying: "I know this rock is ten million years old because I know the fossils in it are ten million years old; and I know the fossils are ten million years old because I know the rock they're in is ten million years old." I think as usual they aren't imagining anything at all, they're merely reciting words; if they tried to attach meaning to them they'd realize that what they're saying can't really be true.
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Dr Adequate
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Absolute dating: an overview
Introduction
In this article, we shall take a look back at the methods of absolute dating, and see how we know that they can be relied on.
Basis of the methods
One argument in favor of the absolute dating methods presented in the preceding articles is that they should work in principle. If they don't, then it's not just a question of geologists being wrong about geology, but of physicists being wrong about physics and chemists being wrong about chemistry; if the geologists are wrong, entire laws of nature will have to be rewritten. Science, since it concerns just one universe with one set of laws, constitutes a seamless whole; we cannot unpick the single thread of absolute dating without the whole thing beginning to unravel.
Still, it has happened in the past that scientists have thought they'd got hold of a law of nature and then found out it was false. There is no particular reason to suspect that this will turn out to be the case when it comes to the laws underlying absolute dating; nonetheless, an argument from principle alone can never be entirely convincing. Let us therefore turn to the evidence.
Sea-floor spreading
You will recall from our discussion of sea-floor spreading that the sea-floor spreads out from mid-ocean rifts, and so ought to be younger nearer the rifts and progressively older further away from them.
What is more, we can measure the rate of spreading directly by GPS, SLR, and VLBI. This means that if we didn't have any other way of doing absolute dating, we would as a first approximation take the age of basalt on a spreading sea floor to be the distance from the rift divided by the rate of spreading.
Now if we estimate the age of the sea-floor like that, then we get a good agreement with the dates produced by radiometric methods. It is hard to think that this is a coincidence; it is also hard to think of any mechanism that could produce this agreement other than that the rocks are as old as radiometric methods tell us.
Marine sediment
We began our discussion of absolute dating by saying that sedimentation rates could not be relied on for absolute dating. If there is one possible exception to this, it would be the deposition of marine sediment, since it is not subject to erosion, and since we would expect the rates of deposition of the various sediments to be, if not actually constant, then not subject to such a degree of variation as (for example) glacial till. Based on the known rates of deposition, we may therefore at least say that the depths of marine sediment found on the sea floor are consistent with the ages of the igneous rocks beneath them as produced by radiometric dating.
Radiometric dating and paleomagnetism
The polarity of the Earth's magnetic field is a global phenomenon: at any given time it will either be normal everywhere or reversed anywhere. So if our methods of radiometric dating are correct, then we would predict that rocks dated to the same age would have the same polarity, which they do.
If this does not completely prove that radiometric dating is correct, it does at least show that (barring a wildly improbable coincidence) there is at least a one-to-one relationship between the dates produced by radiometric methods and the true dates, and so it must be taken as an argument in favor of these methods.
Comparison with historical dates
It is possible to test radiocarbon dating by using it to put a date on historical artifacts of known date, and to show that it is usually very accurate.
It has also been possible to test Ar-Ar dating against the historical record, since it is sufficiently sensitive to date rocks formed since the inception of the historical record. For example, Ar-Ar dating has been used to give an accurate date for the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 A.D, as recorded by Roman historians at the time. (See Lanphere et al., 40Ar/39Ar ages of the AD 79 eruption of Vesuvius, Italy, Bulletin of Volcanology, 69, 259–263.)
Radiocarbon dating, varves, and dendrochronology
Because varves contain organic material, it is possible to compare the dates from varves with the dates produced by radiocarbon dating, and see that they are in good agreement. We also see close agreement between dendrochronology and uncalibrated radiocarbon dates.
Now, each of these three methods relies on a different underlying physical process: radioactive decay, outwash from glaciers, the growth of trees. We can hardly suppose that there is some single mechanism which would interfere with all three of these very different processes in such a way as to leave the dates derived from them still concordant.
But it is equally far-fetched to imagine that three different mechanisms interfered with the three processes in such a way as to leave the dates concordant; that would require either a preposterous coincidence, or for natural processes to be actually conspiring to deceive us: an idea which is, if anything, even more preposterous.
Now, preposterous things do happen occasionally. But in this case there is a perfectly reasonable and straightforward explanation for why the dates are concordant, namely that they are correct.
Radiometric dating, sclerochronology and rhythmites
Similar remarks may be made about the agreement between radiometric dating of rocks, sclerochronology, and dating by rhythmites.
Are we to believe that one single mechanism interfered with the decay of radioactive isotopes, the secretion of calcium carbonate by molluscs, and the action of the tide? Absurd. But are we instead to believe that three separate mechanisms interfered with these processes in such a way as to leave all the dates concordant? That would be equally absurd. The straightforward explanation for the concordance of the dates is that they are in fact correct.
Consider the following analogy: a clockmaker sells us an electric clock, a pendulum clock, and a spring-driven clock, and guarantees that they are shockproof. Skeptical of the clockmaker's claim, we subject the clocks to shock: we shake them, drop them, hit them with hammers and shoot them out of a cannon. Throughout this process, they all go on showing exactly the same time. Is it plausible that we have damaged their very different internal mechanisms in such a way that they are all running fast or slow but still in perfect synchrony? Or is it more likely that they are synchronized because nothing that's happened to them has affected their working?
Agreement with relative dating
Relative dating by definition does not produce actual dates, but it does allow us to put an order on the rocks, and so if absolute dating is to be trusted, it should agree with this order, telling us, for example, that Ordovician rocks are older than Triassic rocks; and it does.
It is hard to see this as a coincidence; it is equally hard to think of some alternate explanation of why we can correlate isotope ratios or sclerochronological data with the relative order of rocks as deduced from stratigraphic methods --- other than the straightforward explanation that absolute dating is producing the right dates.
Internal consistency of radiometric dates
In our discussion of radiometric dating, we have seen that many, indeed most, radiometric methods are self-checking.
So in the U-Pb method, we check that the two uranium isotopes produce concordant dates. In the Ar-Ar method, we check that step heating yields the same date at every step. In Rb-Sr, Sm-Nd, Lu-Hf, Re-Os, La-Be, La-Ce and K-Ca dating, we check that the data we plot on the isochron diagram lies on a straight line.
These precautions allow us to throw out most data that have been produced by confounding factors such as atmospheric contamination, weathering, hydrothermal events, metamorphism, metasomatism, etc.
It is, as we have explained, possible for the occasional incorrect date to slip through this filter, since it is possible for some of these confounding factors to accidentally change the isotope ratios in such a way as to produce something that looks like a good date: apparently concordant dates for Ar-Ar or U-Pb, or a false isochron for the various isochron methods.
It would indeed be remarkable if this never happened, since one-in-a-thousand chances do in fact occur one time in a thousand. But by the same token, the other 999 times they don't, and so although any particular date produced by these methods might be called into question, it must be the case that the vast majority of dates that pass through these filters must be good; for we can hardly suppose that the confounding factors are actively conspiring to deceive us, and so these long-shot events must be as rare as statistical considerations would lead us to expect.
Mutual consistency of radiometric dates
You might perhaps suggest that if some unknown factor, contrary to our present understanding of physics existed that sped up or slowed down radioactive decay in the past, then we would expect the radiometric dates to be concordant whether they were right or wrong.
This is, as I say, contrary to our present understanding of physics, and so is mere unfounded speculation. What is more, the reader should recollect that "radioactive decay" is not the name of one process; it is the name of any process that rearranges the nucleus. So to leave dates produced by different radiometric methods still concordant, nature would somehow have to conspire to fool us by changing the rate of alpha decay, of beta decay, of electron capture, in such a way that the different dating methods based on these different modes of decay come up with the same dates.
Another point to bear in mind is that a change in the rate of radioactive decay, even if it was carefully coordinated in this way, would still not change every radiometric date in the same direction: if, for example, radioactive decay sped up at some time in the past then this would make U-Pb or Ar-Ar dates older than they should be, but it would make the dates produced by cosmogenic surface dating younger than they should be.
Summary
It is possible to doubt any particular date obtained by absolute dating methods. But it would be bizarre to doubt the general picture they paint. For what we see is a massive agreement between the different radiometric methods, varves, dendrochronology, sclerochronology, rhythmites, paleomagnetic data, sedimentation rates, sea-floor spreading, and relative dating methods.
For the dates obtained by absolute dating to be wrong in general and yet wrong in such a way as to be in agreement with one another and with other observations, we would have to suppose either that we are looking at an inconceivably massive coincidence, or that the whole Earth is a fraud designed to deceive us.
Ideas to the latter effect have actually been proposed from time to time; most notably by the nineteenth century religious zealot Philip Gosse, whose eccentric work Omphalos proposed that the Earth was a mere few thousand years old, but that God had created it to look much older. To this the Reverend Charles Kingsley memorably answered: "I cannot believe that God has written on the rocks one enormous and superfluous lie for all mankind". That of course would be a theological rather than a geological question, and so is outside the scope of this textbook. What can be said is that geology is a science, and that in science it is necessary to proceed on the basis that the universe is not a lie; because if we believed that, we could believe that anything at all was the case and disregard all evidence to the contrary. The scientific method compels us, then, to disregard the possibility of divine malice; and mere natural processes, being mindless, cannot be actually malevolent.
What, then, of coincidence? Well, there are limits to the degree of coincidence we can believe in, otherwise again we could believe nearly anything. The scientific method requires us to discard such remote possibilities unless there is at least a hint of a shred of evidence for them.
We are left with the conclusion that the great majority of the dates produced by absolute dating methods must be reasonably accurate.
Edited by Dr Adequate, : No reason given.
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AZPaul3
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Dr. A,
Not bad for a math teacher.
Congrats.
And thanks. | https://evcforum.net/dm.php?control=page&t=15906&mpp=15&p=17 |
Friends of the Nation (FoN), a socio-environmental research and advocacy non-governmental organisation (NGO) based in Takoradi in the Western Region, has challenged the government to enact laws on fisheries, especially illegal fishing activities, which infraction should attract stiff punishment to deter others from engaging in same.
It has been argued that those who violate fisheries laws and regulations do not only harm the resources and put the economy at risk, but are also unfair to the majority of resource users who comply.
Programmes Manager of FoN, Kyei Kwadwo Yamoah, yesterday told the media during a briefing themed “Effective Fisheries Enforcement, the Voices of the Fishers and Civil Society Organisations (CSOs)”, in Accra, that the laws should have no respect for whoever got involved in any illegal engagement.
“Those who abide by the laws deserve to know that others would be held to the same standards, and that the standards will be consistent nationwide,” he noted. Experience had made him appreciate the fact that businessmen in the industry, other than the artisanal, regularly violated the laws on fishing, but always found their ways out when caught, simply because they had the support of some men at the helm of affairs.
“For the achievement of effective results, selective enforcement should be avoided if possible, because communities’ perception of biases is amplified, as they see themselves as victims, but not perpetrators or breakers of the law,” he explained.
Key challenges confronting the fishing sector, for which punitive measures would have to be put in place to cure, Mr. Yamoah noted, included declining marine fisheries resources as a result of weak governance which had targeted over-capacity, conflicts and widespread illegal unreported and unregulated fishing, adding that “concerns have been raised over weak enforcement of fisheries laws and low compliance by fishers.”
He also made mention of widespread use of unsustainable and harmful fishing methods, contributing to over-fishing and degradation of the critical coastal fisheries habitats.
“It is against this background that Friends of the Nation (FoN), in collaboration with the Ghana National Canoe Fishermen’s Council, W/R, and with the support of the BUSAC Fund, is engaging stakeholders…to discuss key recommendations to addressing the challenges in fisheries governance in Ghana,” he remarked.
And, as part of the recommendations, the Civil Society Organisation suggested that deterrence, which is one of the two strategies to ensure compliance, would suffice. “Considering the Ghanaian situation, it would be appropriate to apply deterrence (measured enforcement of the law), and, to a large extent, employ the principle of voluntary compliance to reduce the high cost of enforcement,” Mr. Yamoah indicated.
Deterrence, as a technique, is expected to embrace conducting regular inspections of fishing vessels at landing sites and increasing at-sea patrols. It will also involve the application of proactive measures to decentralise the enforcement process by promoting collaborative fisheries management systems and the avoidance of selective enforcement. | https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/regional/Friends-of-Nation-calls-for-stiffer-fisheries-laws-420535 |
Clive Neal perched his 2-year-old grandson on his shoulders. The boy pointed toward the night sky.
“Moon, moon, moon.”
“When you’re older,” Neal said, “maybe you’ll go there and get your granddad some rocks.”
Despite never having visited himself, and reluctantly resigned to the fact that he never will, Neal knows the moon better than most earthlings. “That’s my field area,” the Notre Dame engineering professor tells his grandkids when the sight of it captures their attention.
He’s a planetary geologist, studying samples retrieved from the lunar surface to understand how the Earth’s only natural satellite originated and evolved — and how its resources might help launch the future of space exploration. He’s an advocate for reviving human missions to the moon that have been dormant since the cancellation of the Apollo program in 1975.
Political support in the United States is tepid. There’s a “been there, done that” attitude, a sentiment Neal counters with slides illustrating just how little has been done there.
When Apollo 11 — “one giant leap for mankind” — traversed the surface in 1969, the astronauts covered an area only a fraction of the size of the National Mall in Washington. Three years later, a rover allowed the Apollo 17 crew to extend its exploration to the equivalent of a Paris sightseeing tour. There’s much more ground to cover and knowledge to unearth (unmoon?).
Beyond U.S. borders, there is more support for the prospect of going back to the moon. At an international conference last year, scientists expressed enthusiasm in European Space Agency director Johann-Dietrich Woerner’s call to create international “moon villages.”
As envisioned, astronauts and robotic systems at the villages would conduct research on the moon, which also could provide a base for further solar system exploration, including sending humans to Mars.
The first step is to establish that resources available on the moon are sufficient to fuel those ambitions. At the moment, that’s the essential question.
“How do we make human space exploration sustainable?” Neal asks. “You do it by living off the land.”
A program like Apollo, requiring a payload of everything the astronauts needed to survive for the duration of their journey in space, could not be reproduced today. Too expensive. Each pound of cargo, NASA estimates, costs $10,000 just to put into low-Earth orbit.
Most of the fuel necessary for any mission is burned just leaving the gravitational pull of Earth’s atmosphere. If the resources on the moon support human needs, that would decrease the weight on board and make the journey fuel-efficient enough to afford.
“Your launch costs go down tremendously,” Neal says, “because the mass you have to get off this planet is much reduced.”
Once on the moon, the astronauts would need oxygen, water and fuel. Research on samples from the moon dating back to the Apollo missions, which Neal has been studying since 1986, shows how oxygen and water can be produced from lunar material. Apply heat in a vacuum to dust, soil and broken rock — the regolith covering the moon’s hard surface — and, like sweat on a glass, water drips from it.
“Sort of neat, because it’s completely devoid of water. That reaction happens because the solar wind keeps putting little hydrogen atoms in there,” Neal says. “There’s a lot of oxygen bound up in the rock. That then facilitates the reaction, so we can generate it. Basically, we can generate water anywhere on the moon.”
Solar energy, virtually unlimited at the moon’s poles, can be harnessed to separate water into its component parts. That process of electrolysis creates oxygen to breathe and hydrogen to heat the regolith and produce more water.
Scientists already know that’s possible. The issue is whether adequate reserves of the known resources exist to support human life and scientific exploration at lunar villages and beyond.
Neal, a member and past chair of the Lunar Exploration Analysis Group, has been arguing for moon-prospecting missions for years to find out. Private investment could help make them a reality.
Moon Express, for example, plans to launch from Cape Canaveral next year, ferrying robotic instruments “for ongoing exploration and commercial development,” the company says on its website. On a panel at a Federal Aviation Administration space commercialization conference earlier this year, Neal expressed excitement about how such missions could help advance science, comparing it to the commercial satellite business.
“NASA can pay for a ride, basically,” he says. “They get [the company] to assume most of the risk, and they’re now buying a service rather than providing everything. It’s a paradigm shift in terms of how space exploration is done.”
And maybe, he goes on, a private-sector moon landing could be an “Apollo moment” for a new generation, a contemporary version of his experience as a boy in England rustled from bed to witness history in 1969. Investment fueling inspiration and vice versa in the creation of a new extraterrestrial economy with jobs “that are very Buck Rogers in scope,” Neal says. “It should capture the imagination.”
Like a 2-year-old’s view of the moon from granddad’s shoulders.
Jason Kelly is an associate editor of this magazine. | https://magazine.nd.edu/stories/having-coffee-with-clive-neal-to-the-moon-and-beyond/ |
EPSRC Reference:
EP/J012521/1
Title:
Human-Autonomous Systems Collective Capability (HASCC)
Principal Investigator:
Johnson, Professor P
Other Investigators:
Hourizi, Dr R
Researcher Co-Investigators:
Project Partners:
Department:
Computer Science
Organisation:
University of Bath
Scheme:
Standard Research
Starts:
31 March 2012
Ends:
30 April 2016
Value (£):
669,334
EPSRC Research Topic Classifications:
Human-Computer Interactions
Robotics & Autonomy
EPSRC Industrial Sector Classifications:
Aerospace, Defence and Marine
Related Grants:
Panel History:
Panel Date
Panel Name
Outcome
15 Dec 2011
Autonomous and Intelligent Systems Meeting
Announced
18 Aug 2011
Autonomous and Intelligent Systems Sift
Announced
Summary on Grant Application Form
Human-Autonomous Systems (HAS) are collections of human and autonomous agencies of great importance to, defence, disaster and emergency response, transport, and energy services (especially in hostile/inhospitable environments). However, current reality is that HAS do not provide the right information at the right time to the right agent (human or autonomous); cause information overload; and produce rigid, inflexible and ineffective rule bound behaviours. The current state-of the art in Human-Autonomous Systems is that they often involve disparate, incompatible, and 'stove-piped' communication and information structures with conflicting technologies. This has resulted in failures, ineffectiveness and inefficiency, costing resources and even lives. Improving the collective capability of human-autonomous systems requires agile and flexible behaviour in the face of complex and rapidly changing situations. Developing the collective capability of HAS requires and leads to improving; i) the levels of local and global awareness and utility of information and knowledge, ii) the quality and trustworthiness of decision-making and consideration of alternatives, iii) the ability to increase the level of "command by intent" through the development of lightweight but richer reporting and monitoring mechanisms; and iv) the ability to globally exploit and learn from local initiatives. Underlying all of these lies the importance of the, representation, interactive manipulation and communication of information and knowledge.
This 36 month research project will achieve improvements in HAS performance through novel breakthroughs in important areas of Collective Capability for Human-Autonomous Systems (HASCC0. Those breakthroughs will enable improved levels of shared awareness, collective decision-making, agile, responsive command, and collective learning. To achieve this we will develop protocols and technologies for information and knowledge abstraction and representation, argumentation, rationale, command and reporting structures.
Our approach is to develop protocols and technologies to support the interactions and knowledge manipulations needed to enhance HAS collective awareness and decision-making and capable of representing and interacting with;
- the (rich but lightweight) Argumentation, Rationale, Command and Reporting Structures,
- which influence local and global and include strategic, tactical and operational decision-making.
Enabling HAS collectives to be agile and responsive.
Our investigations comprise two cycles corresponding to different application domain scenarios. Each application domain will present different information and decision-making requirements, and will require different strategic, tactical and operational deployments of HAS. In this way we will seek to assess the generality and wider applicability of our research findings. In the first cycle, we will focus on the situation awareness and decision-making required of HAS for "Multiple Vehicle Cooperative Autonomy". In the second, we will expand our research to investigate HAS for "investigation and repair of defective infrastructure". In each cycle, we will undertake scenario development, modelling, prototyping, evaluation and revision. At the end of each cycle we will produce versions of Protoypes, Models and Principles of HASCC.
The research will directly contribute to several EPSRC strategic priority themes by providing science and technology that strengthens critical national infrastructure in:
Global Uncertainties - Collective Capability to underpin agile, coherent and integrated HAS, in Defence and Disaster Emergency Response Services
Digital Economy - the development of novel Collective Capability Technologies to advance Autonomous Systems,
Energy - Collective Capability to underpin HAS enabling safe and reliable energy provision.
Transport - Collective Capability for HAS to provide reliable, safe and efficient Transport Services.
Key Findings
This information can now be found on Gateway to Research (GtR) http://gtr.rcuk.ac.uk
Potential use in non-academic contexts
This information can now be found on Gateway to Research (GtR) http://gtr.rcuk.ac.uk
Impacts
Description
This information can now be found on Gateway to Research (GtR) http://gtr.rcuk.ac.uk
Summary
Date Materialised
Sectors submitted by the Researcher
This information can now be found on Gateway to Research (GtR) http://gtr.rcuk.ac.uk
Project URL:
Further Information:
Organisation Website: | https://gow.epsrc.ukri.org/NGBOViewGrant.aspx?GrantRef=EP/J012521/1 |
With the USA, Canada and Mexico hosting the 2026 FIFA World Cup, with Los Angeles hosting the 2028 Olympic and Paralympic Games and with Santiago hosting the 2023 Pan and Parapan American Games, all eyes are on the Americas. And as digitalisation is revolutionizing the design, delivery and experience of live events, Host City Americas brought insights from the heartland of the tech industry.
Participants in Host City events include IOC Members, Sports Ministers, Mayors, International Federations and Organizing Committee leaders. Host City Americas connects rights holders, organisers and hosts with the suppliers, investment and tech they need to succeed
AT A GLANCE
300+
EVENT PROFESSIONALS
40
INFLUENTIAL SPEAKERS
18
SESSIONS ON KEY TOPICS
Global
AUDIENCE REPRESENTED
KEY THEMES
VIEW AGENDA »
Challenges and opportunities of technology in the design, delivery and consumption of major events
Can online gaming and other fan engagement schemes reduce the financial risk for hosts?
What do the event platforms and networks of the future look like?
What are the opportunities for investment in major events
What do technology trends mean for audiovisual content creators?
What are the implications of Big Tech buying into gaming and traditional sports partnering with esports? | https://www.hostcity.com/events/host-city-americas |
This application claims the benefit of U.S. provisional application No. 60/897,365 filed Jan. 25, 2007, which is incorporated herein in its entirety by reference.
The present invention relates to attachments for furniture, such as chair and/or table legs, which are used to protect the surface underneath. In particular the invention relates to devices that cover glides on the furniture leg and are securely attached to further protect the floor surface.
The general disclosure of various chair devices used to protect a floor surface are known in the prior art. Representative patents are listed below.
U.S. Pat. No. 1,903,609 to Uhl discloses a chair glide in FIGS. 1 and 6 comprising a cup shaped body 1 made of rubber or elastic material having a bottom plate 4 made of steel that is attached to an embedded anchoring disc 5 (see FIG. 5). The glide is manufactured by molding the material of the cup around the glide embedded disc. The neck portion of the glide is elastic and the glide is attached to the furniture by stretching the elastic portion.
U.S. Pat. No. 2,799,287 to Wagner discloses an anti-slipping attachment for the bottom of crutches that is attached to the crutch with a strap 19 that is trained around the upper ends of arms 13, 15 with pegs extending through holes in the strap, with the strap being secured to its buckle. (See FIGS. 1-3 and col. 2, lines 39-44). The strap 19 can be easily opened.
U.S. Pat. No. 2,865,133 to Hoven et al. discloses a plastic or rubber foot 13 for a furniture leg in FIG. 4 with a toroidal cavity 16 with a restricted opening 17 extending from the cavity to the bottom of the furniture leg. The rubber foot 13 is assembled by forcing the furniture leg 14 through restricted opening 17.
U.S. Pat. No. 4,964,430 to Janis discloses an apparatus for attaching to a walking cane to prevent slippage. The device is attached to the bottom of the cane in FIGS. 1 and 2 with an adjustable strap 5 by a conventional nut and bolt assembly or an externally threaded member or matching slots (col. 3 lines 1-14). FIG. 9 is connected with bolts that can be threaded into a nut and threaded orifice.
U.S. Pat. No. 5,377,710 to Laser discloses a temporary crutch tip assembly for preventing lateral slippage of ground. The engaging tip of the crutch comprises a stud plate with a plurality of sharp teeth projecting downwardly perpendicularly to the stud plate, said plate having a diameter corresponding to outside diameter of the crutch tip and surrounding straight wall sections defining a cup shaped receptacle for the crutch tip. The plate is attached to the crutch by two resilient flexible bands securing the plate to the crutch.
U.S. Pat. No. 6,164,306 to Townsend discloses an attachment to crutches, canes and other walking devices for primary use in soft terrain. A pad of several layers of flexible material is adhered together with adhesives. The pad is attached to crutches and canes by an adjustable strap system having side straps stitched to the top of the pad and an adjustable strap attached to the top of the side straps and being attachable to itself and having a grip tab for easy attaching and detaching.
U.S. Pat. No. 6,324,725 to Green discloses a furniture glide 16 comprising an upper portion 18 of a generally tubular shape for fitting over the bottom of a chair leg made of steel and a lower portion 20 attached to the upper portion and having a bottom surface 22 containing a plurality of stipples 24 (hemispherical or cubic or rectilinear shaped protrusions). The patent also discloses in FIG. 3 a replacement chair glide 16 containing a rim 30 that fits over the rim 36 of existing chair glide. This patent also describes the method of repairing an article of furniture having a defective glide comprising (a) forming a cap with a bottom surface and an inner surface opposed to said bottom surface and (b) attaching the cap to the defective glide whereby the inner surface of the cap contacts the bottom surface of the defective glide and the bottom surface of the cap contacts the floor.
U.S. Pat. No. 6,405,982 to Ferencz discloses a self attaching sliding support 10 for elastic engagement with a leg of an article to be supported comprising (a) and elastomeric element 12 having a base portion 16 and a circumferential inwardly extending rim 18 defining a cup-shaped cavity and (b) a second cup shaped, sliding element 14 made of low friction plastic or metal that is joined to the bottom of the elastomeric element 12. According to Col. 2 lines 6-10, the rim 18 of the elastomeric element 12 elastically engages the leg of the chair and is capable of accommodating legs of various sizes and shapes. As described the sliding support is easily removable.
U.S. Pat. No. 6,527,001 to Saldan et al. discloses a stabilizing cane attachment 10 in FIGS. 1, 2 and 3 that comprises a conically shaped support member 11 having a bore 13 extending there through a first stopper comprising a hose clamp with a fastening member 17 mounted above the support member 11 and second stopper member 18 made of rubber adapted to mount over the bottom end of the cane 26 to attach the cane attachment 10 to the bottom end of the cane 26 comprising a bottom 19 with a bore 20 extending through the top of said second stopper and an annular groove 22 containing washer member 21 at the bottom of the bore 20.
U.S. Pat. No. 6,669,221 to Leppke et al. discloses an apparatus attachable to a motorcycle kickstand having a base plate to prevent the kickstand from sinking into the ground. The stand comprises a supporting pad 2 with a diameter preferably 2-3 times the diameter of the base plate preferably made of reinforced rubber with one, preferably two, flexible supporting tabs 3 and 3′ being bendable to about the leg of the kickstand and being fastened to the leg with a tightener band 12. The tightener band comprises any suitable looped device that may be tightened and locked, e.g. a toothed nylon strip and ratchet clasp or a conventional screw actuated metal strip hose clamp as seen in FIG. 6. (Col. 4, lines 1-66).
U.S. Pat. No. 6,754,934 to Shiffler discloses in FIGS. 1-5 a floor engaging, generally circular cap 100 made of injection-molded polypropylene that attaches to a furniture leg that has a generally planar lower surface 110 and upper surface 120 that cooperates with a cylindrical sidewall 130 to form a cup shaped receptacle that is adapted to receive a furniture leg. Lower surface 110 has a plurality evenly spaced outer protrusions 140 with a height H1 and an evenly spaced plurality inner protrusions 150 with a height H2 that is less than the height of H1. In a further preferred embodiment there are eight outer protrusions and four inner protrusions with the inner protrusions being connected to the outer protrusions by a saddle 162 with height H3 that is less than H2. The outer and inner protrusions 140, 150 and saddles 162 define channels to provide paths for dirt and debris to pass through as a chair is moved across the floor. A method of repairing furniture is also described as having a glide for contacting the floor comprising installing the above-defined glide on the leg of the chair.
U.S. Pat. No. 6,802,482 to Harris discloses in FIGS. 1-3 a cuplike overboot 24 for increasing the foot print of the foot portion of a bi-pod firearm support 22. FIGS. 2 and 3 illustrate a cylindrical wall 42 integrally formed with a toroidal base 44 in the shape of a truncated cone having a circular foot portion 46 integrally formed with a cone portion 48 consisting of a plurality of concentric ribs 60 having an outside ring 58 and an annular flange 54 that define the recess 62 and a band 64 that when tightened around the support 22 hold overboot 24 in place. The overboot 24 is made from flexible material such as rubber and are held in place by a band made of pliant material such as rubber that can be tightened and untightened.
U.S. Pat. No. 6,869,052 to Keast et al. discloses in FIGS. 1-4 a replaceable floor protector assembly 10 having a main body portion 11 that is threaded on its outer periphery 21 with a central hole 107 and two spaced holes 103 and 104 that is joined to the chair or table with a nail 12 and two spaced prongs 101 and 102. A floor protector 14 having an upper flange portion 16 and an integral downwardly extending floor protector portion 15 made of soft, rigid material, e.g. felt, is held in place by a circular retainer 17 that is threaded on its upper interior to attach to the main body portion 11 with the floor protector 14 element forming the bottom patent.
U.S. Patent Publication No. 2005/0183234 to Bushey et al. describes a pliable furniture glide 1 in FIG. 3 having a pliable retention boot 1a having an upper cavity 10 for receiving a foot 5 of a furniture leg 4 containing a nut 12 that the user can adjust the vertical spacing between the foot 5 and a bottom surface of the furniture leg. FIG. 2 shows the retention boot 1a has an upper portion 17 that defines the opening 21 of the upper cavity 10 and bottom portion of the cavity includes a thickened bottom portion 23 with the bottom of the thickened portion bonded to the upper surface of a felt disk 2 the bottom of which is bonded to the upper surface 3a of felt disk 3 whose bottom surface is in contact with the floor. This chair glide is installed by pressing over the foot of a chair leg and is removable.
U.S. Patent Publication No. 2006/0053587 to Chase discloses a furniture glide assembly 10 that is adapted to be removably mounted to the free end 16 of the chair leg 14 comprising a substantially spherical body 20 defining a coaxial bore 22 extending partially through the body 21 and an insert 28 that is adapted to contain the free end 16 of the chair leg 14 disposed and retained in said bore 22 through a ring and groove combination (FIGS. 2-4) or groove formed by a post 154 and sidewall combination (FIGS. 5-7) or by an insert 228 defining a post 254 and passageway 242 (FIGS. 8-10). The floor engaging portion has a round ball shape.
In general, known chair glides although used to protect a floor surface are deficient in that some of the devices actually scratch the floors and others are easily removable. It is known that schools have resorted to using tennis balls to keep chair glides from scratching the surface floors. As described in the patents above, felt stick on pads and special nylon caps with felt will only work on some glides and are not permanent. The present invention provides an advantage over known devices in that the specific construction of the invention device will not snap off and is permanent. The device is a laminated material made of an exterior surface of synthetic fibers a middle layer of neoprene rubber and an interior surface of a nylon web meshing. The material is either seamless or with a seam and in a tubular form which is stretched over the glide. The material is held in place with a locking tie making the application permanent.
The invention can be used on a variety of furniture both for the home as well as on outside deck furniture. In schools and institutions a preferred use of the device is on chairs, desks and tables. In homes preferred use of the device is on furniture in kitchens and dining rooms.
Another advantage over the prior art is when sand and grit accumulates under the furniture glide, the invention device will absorb the grit and sand into the synthetic felt and neoprene material and the floor will not be scratched.
Yet a further object of the invention is where the constrictive locking mechanism will not permit and individuals, particularly a student's, removal.
Another object of the invention is the flexibility of the invention glide permitting easy application to furniture legs of a variety of diameter sizes.
Yet another object of the invention is to provide a “one-size” fits all device that stretches over a variety of different size furniture glides.
In another embodiment a circular shaped rubber material with a plurality of arms, preferably four, each arm having a slit which is threaded with a fastening mechanism. This embodiment provides the same advantages over the prior art as discussed above.
In the present invention, these purposes, as well as others which will be apparent, are achieved generally by providing a furniture glide protective device comprised of a laminated material comprised of an exterior surface made of synthetic fibers, a middle neoprene portion, and an interior surface made of nylon web meshing. The laminated material is tubular-shaped having an opening on one end for insertion on the furniture leg and a surface on the opposite end to protect the floor and a fastening mechanism for securing and locking the tubular shaped material over a chair glide on the leg of a chair and/or table. The tubular shaped material can be seamless or with seams and is stretched over the furniture leg to be protected. The device is flexible enough that when stretched over the furniture glide it stays in place without having to be held in place by the installer. Because of the flexibility of the device it can fit a variety of different size furniture glides, thus providing a “one-size” fits all device.
The fastening mechanism is preferably a nylon or wire constriction tie and permanently locks and secures the tubular shaped material in place.
The exterior surface is made of synthetic fibers selected from the group consisting of nylon, polypropylene, felt and other synthetic fibers.
In an alternate embodiment of the invention, the laminated material may further include at least one slit to thread the fastening mechanism to assist in attaching the invention device to the furniture leg.
The invention also provides a method for securing a furniture glide and protecting a floor surface from scratching by furniture comprising the steps of providing the furniture glide protective device according to the invention and applying the device over each leg of the furniture. The device is secured and locked using the fastening mechanism to permanently hold said device in place to protect the floor surface.
The protective device of the invention can be applied to furniture such as tables, chairs, end tables both for exterior (outside) use or inside the home. More specifically they can be used on deck furniture, in schools and institutions of desks, chairs and tables and in homes in kitchen and dining rooms.
In an alternate embodiment a chair glide protective device is provided comprised of a circular shaped rubber material with a plurality of arms wherein each of said arms has a slit. Preferably the device has four arms. A fastening mechanism is threaded within each slit and pulled tight to lock the device in place over the chair glide.
Other objects, features and advantages of the present invention will be apparent when the detailed description of the preferred embodiments of the invention are considered with reference to the drawings, which should be construed in an illustrative and not limiting sense.
1
—Exterior Surface
2
—Seam
3
—Neoprene
4
—Interior Surface
5
—Exterior floor surface portion
6
—Furniture leg portion edge
7
—Device length
8
—Opening for furniture leg
10
—Invention device
11
—Furniture Glide
12
—Furniture Leg
13
—Nylon or wire construction tie
14
—Fastening mechanism
15
—Circular shaped rubber material with four arms (alternate embodiment)
16
—Slits
In accordance with the present invention devices attachments for chair and/or table legs used to secure a furniture glide and to protect the floor surface are provided. As described in the accompanying drawings the structures of the invention device are labeled as follows:
FIGS. 1A and 1B
In general, represent illustrations of the furniture glide protective device of the invention, without a seam and with a seam, respectively.
1
3
4
6
5
The device is made of a laminated material comprised of an exterior surface made of synthetic fibers , a middle neoprene portion , and an interior surface made of nylon web meshing ; wherein said laminated material is tubular-shaped having an opening on one end for insertion on the furniture leg and a surface on the opposite end to protect the floor. A fastening mechanism is used for securing and locking the tubular shaped material over the furniture glide on the leg of a chair and/or table.
FIGS. 2A and 2B
, respectively, illustrate a cross section of the invention device and an expanded illustration of the laminated material.
The exterior surface is made of a thin layer of protective material, preferably synthetic fibers. The synthetic fibers are selected from the group consisting of polypropylene, felt, nylon or other synthetic fibers. A portion of the exterior surface material comes in contact with the floor surface. The middle portion of the laminated material is neoprene and is preferably ⅛″ to ¼″ inch thick.
The interior nylon web meshing remains in contact with the furniture leg. The thickness of the inner material ranges from 7 mm to ¼″ of an inch, in thin applications the inner material ranges from 7 mm to 1/16 of an inch. The inner material provides structure and durability to the invention device as well as providing flexibility.
Other materials that can be used as the inner material include nitrile rubber, synthetic and natural isoprene rubber, butadiene rubber, EPM, EPDM, butyl rubber, styrene-butadiene rubber can also be used in the invention device.
FIG. 1A
FIG. 2
In the device is one piece of material without a seam and two pieces of the laminated material are stitched together and form a seam. Although the preferred material is a seamless tube, if a seam is present, the integrity of the device is not compromised. It is understood that the thicker the material the more durable the device will be.
8
5
7
The opening preferably has a diameter in the range of 1¼″ to 2″ inches wide. The surface on the opposite end of said opening has a diameter in the range of ¾″ to 1″ inch wide. The length of the laminated material is between 2″ to 2½″ inches long. Although preferred dimensions are described this is not intended to limit the invention to such, as other dimensions are included within the scope of the invention.
FIG. 3
10
11
12
illustrates the invention device prior to placement over a furniture glide attached to a furniture leg . The cylindrical or tubular shaped material is pulled over the furniture glide and held in place by the fastening mechanism (not shown here). In an alternate embodiment the invention device can be used over the furniture leg without the presence of a chair glide. In this embodiment the security of the device may be slightly diminished since the presence of that chair glide provides extra stability to keep the device in place.
The invention material can stretch to fit many size furniture glides and furniture legs. The flexibility of the invention glides permit easy application to furniture legs of a variety of diameter sizes. The device is stretched over the furniture glide and because of it's flexibility it stays in place without further assistance from the installer. Once the device is in place, the fastening mechanism, preferably a strong nylon tie or wire tie, is held in place and locked.
An optional feature of the invention is in the provision of at least one slit on the laminated material to thread the fastening mechanism. This feature is optional since as described above once the device is stretched over the furniture glide it fits snugly and the fastening mechanism can easily be tied.
FIGS. 4A TO 4E
FIG. 4A
FIG. 4B
FIG. 4C
FIG. 4D
FIG. 4E
12
11
10
11
13
6
13
12
illustrate the steps in applying the invention device to a furniture leg. shows a furniture leg with attached furniture glide . illustrates the invention device placed ontop of the furniture glide . The device is flexible and is stretched over glide to fit snugly and stays in position without further assistance from the installer. In the fastening mechanism which is preferably a nylon or wire construction tie is placed around the invention device a short distance from the edge leaving a flange portion above the tie. In the tie is pulled tight to secure the invention device to the furniture leg . Excess material of the tie can be cut off and the remaining portion, the flange, of the device above the tie is folded over to conceal the tie underneath. .
FIG. 5
15
14
11
is an illustration of an alternate embodiment of the invention in which a circular shaped rubber material with a plurality of arms , preferably four, each arm having a slit which is threaded with a fastening mechanism is placed over a furniture glide .
Other materials such as nitrile rubber, synthetic and natural isoprene rubber, butadiene rubber, EPM, EPDM, butyl rubber, styrene-butadiene rubber can also be used in the invention device.
FIG. 6
14
15
11
is a bottom view of the alternate embodiment of the invention where the fastening mechanism is locked holding the rubber material securely in place over the furniture glide .
FIG. 7
15
16
is a view of an alternate embodiment of the invention illustrating a circular shaped rubber material illustrating four arms with slits for threading the fastening mechanism.
FIG. 8
14
16
is a bottom view of the alternate embodiment of the invention where the fastening mechanism is threaded thru the slits .
FIG. 9
11
12
is an illustration of the alternate embodiment of the invention where the device is secured over a furniture glide attached to a furniture leg .
The foregoing description of various and preferred embodiments of the present invention has been provided for purposes of illustration only, and it is understood that numerous modifications, variations and alterations may be made without departing from the scope and spirit of the invention as set forth in the following claims.
FIELD OF THE INVENTION
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
FIG. 1A
FIG. 1B
is an illustration of the invention device without a seam; and is an illustration of the invention device with a seam;
FIG. 2A
FIG. 2B
is a cross section of the invention device; and is an expanded illustration of the laminated material of the invention device;
FIG. 3
is an illustration of the invention device prior to placement over the furniture glide. The device is pulled over the furniture glide and held in place by the fastening mechanism (not shown here);
FIGS. 4A to 4E
illustrate the steps in applying the invention device to a furniture leg;
FIG. 5
is an illustration of an alternate embodiment of the invention;
FIG. 6
is a bottom view of the alternate embodiment of the invention where the fastening mechanism is locked;
FIG. 7
shows an alternate embodiment of the invention illustrating a circular shaped rubber material with a plurality of arms;
FIG. 8
is a bottom view of the alternate embodiment of the invention where the fastening mechanism is threaded; and
FIG. 9
is an illustration of the alternate embodiment of the invention where the device is secured over a chair glide. | |
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abstract: 'The main goal of this work is to use the unit lower triangular matrices for solving inverse eigenvalue problem of nonnegative matrices (NIEP) and present the easier method to solve this problem. We solve the problem for any given number of the real and complex eigenvalues. Finally, we present the necessary and sufficient conditions to solve this problem with this method.'
address:
- '$^1$Department of Mathematics, Arak University, Arak, Iran. P. O. Box 38156-8943. '
- '$^2$Department of Mathematics, Arak University, Arak, Iran. P. O. Box 38156-8943.. '
author:
- Alimohammad Nazari$^1$
- Atiyeh Nezami$^2$
title: Inverse eigenvalues problem of nonnegative matrices via unit lower triangular matrices
---
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Introduction And Preliminaries
===============================
A matrix is called unit lower triangular if it is lower triangular matrix and all entries on its main diagonal are one. The inverse of these matrices also is unit lower triangular. In Gaussian elimination method and LU factorization unit lower triangular matrices play a very important roll.
The nonnegative inverse eigenvalue problem (NIEP) asks for necessary and sufficient conditions on a list $\sigma=(\lambda_1,\lambda_2, \ldots,\lambda_n)$ of real or complex numbers in order that it be the spectrum of a nonnegative matrix $A$ with spectrum $\sigma$, we will say that $\sigma$ is realizable and that it is realization of $\sigma$.
Some necessary conditions on the list of real number $\sigma=(\lambda_1,\lambda_2, \ldots,\lambda_n)$ to be the spectrum of a nonnegative matrix are listed below.\
$$\begin{aligned}
\label{JLL}
\text{(1) The Perron eigenvalue $\max \{|\lambda_i |; \lambda_i \in \sigma \}$
belongs to $\sigma$ (Perron-Frobenius theorem).}\\
\text{ (2) $s_k=\sum_{i=1}^n \lambda_i^k \ge 0.$ }\hspace{11cm}\,\, \nonumber \\
\text{(3)$s_k^m \le n^{m-1}s_{km}$ for $k,m = 1, 2, \ldots$ (JLL
inequality)\cite{18, 14M}}.\hspace{4.65cm}\nonumber \end{aligned}$$ Although many mathematicians have worked on the inverse eigenvalue problem of nonnegative matrices [@1M; @soto; @2M; @3M; @5; @6M; @7M; @10; @11; @12; @Suleimanova], our aim of this paper is solving the problem in the easier method via similarity of a matrix with upper triangular matrix.
Two matrix $A$ and $B$ is called similar if there exist an invertible matrix $P$ such that $P AP^{-1}=B$. We recall that two similar matrices have same eigenvalues and this Theorem plays a very important roll in this paper.
From now on in this paper $\lambda_1$ is the symbol of Perron eigenvalue, and assume that all of given list of real spectrum satisfy in necessary conditions (1),(2) and (3). Our method is the following, started by Guo in [@Guo] and we continue Guo’s method in this paper.
The paper is organized as follows: At first for a given real set of eigenvalues that the number of its positive eigenvalues is less than or equal the number of negative eigenvalues, we solve the NIEP via unit lower triangular matrix. In continue for a given set of eigen- values as $\sigma$ with nonnegative summation, in which the number of negative eigenvalues $\sigma$ less than the number of negative eigenvalues, we find a nonnegative matrices such that $\sigma$ is its spectrum. In the any case of problem at first we solve the problem for a finite number of eigenvalues $\sigma$ and then we provide the general solution. Finally we present a Theorem that shows the necessary and sufficient conditions for solving the problem in our way. In section 3 we consider complex spectrum with Perron eigenvalue $\lambda_1$ and nonnegative summation and again solve the NIEP.
Real spectrum
=============
Let $\sigma=\{\lambda_1,\lambda_2, \ldots,\lambda_n\}$ be a given spectrum such that $\lambda_1 \ge \lambda_2\ge \cdots \ge \lambda_k > 0 \ge \lambda_{k+1} \ge \cdots\ge \lambda_n$. We divide the problem into two parts, the first part is $k \le \frac{n}{2}$ and the another part $k > \frac{n}{2}$ and solve the problem.
The spectrum with $k \le \frac{n}{2}$
--------------------------------------
In this section we study NIEP with condition $k \le \frac{n}{2}$.
### Spectrum with one positive eigenvalues
[@Suleimanova]. Assume that given $ \sigma = \{\lambda_1, \cdots , \lambda_n \} $ such that $ \lambda_1 >0 \geq \lambda_2 \geq \cdots \geq \lambda_n $ and $ \sum_{i=1}^n \lambda_i \ge 0,$ then there exist a set of nonnegative matrix that $ \sigma $ is its spectrum.
[**Proof**]{}. Let $n=2$, then consider the upper triangular matrix $A=\left[ \begin {array}{ll} \lambda_{{1}}&\alpha_2\\ 0&
\lambda_{{2}}\end {array} \right]
$ and $L=\left[ \begin {array}{cc} 1&0\\ 1&1\end {array}
\right]$, therefore the following matrix $$C=LAL^{-1}=\left[ \begin {array}{ll} \lambda_{{1}}-\alpha_2&\alpha_2
\\\noalign{\medskip}\lambda_{{1}}-\alpha_2-\lambda_{{2}}&\alpha_2+\lambda_
{{2}}\end {array} \right],$$ has eigenvalues $\lambda_1$ and $\lambda_2$ and if $-\lambda_2 \le \alpha_2 \le \lambda_1$, then the matrix $C$ is nonnegative.
For $n=3$ we consider $A=\left[ \begin {array}{lll} \lambda_{{1}}&\alpha_2&\alpha_3\\ 0
&\lambda_{{2}}&0\\ 0&0&\lambda_{{3}}\end {array}
\right] $ and $L=\left[ \begin {array}{ccc} 1&0&0\\ 1&1&0
\\ 1&0&1\end {array} \right]
$, then the matrix $$C=LAL^{-1}=\left[ \begin {array}{lll}
\lambda_1-\alpha_2-
\alpha_3&\alpha_2&\alpha_3\\
\lambda_1-\alpha_2- \lambda_2-\alpha_3&\alpha_2+ \lambda_2 & \alpha_3\\
\lambda_1-\alpha_2-\alpha_3-\lambda_3&\alpha_2&\alpha_3+\lambda_3\end {array} \right],$$ is similar to the matrix $A$ and if $-\lambda_2\le \alpha_2 $, $-\lambda_3 \le \alpha_3$ and $\alpha_2 + \alpha_3 \le \lambda_1$ then the matrix $C$ is nonnegative.
In continue, we consider $$A=\left[ \begin {array}{lllll}
\lambda_{1}&\alpha_2&\alpha_3&\cdots & \alpha_n\\ 0
&\lambda_{{2}}&0&\cdots & 0 \\
&& \ddots &&\\
0&0 & 0 &\ddots &0\\
0 & 0 & 0&\cdots &\lambda_{{n}}\end {array}
\right],$$ and $$L=\left[\begin{array}{lllll}
1 & 0 & 0 & \cdots & 0 \\
1 & 1 & 0 & \cdots & 0 \\
& & \ddots & & \\
1 & 0 &0 & \ddots & 0 \\
1 & 0 & 0 & \cdots & 1
\end{array}\right],$$ then the matrix $$\label{e1}
C=LAL^{-1}=\left[ \begin {array}{lllll} \lambda_{{1}}-t &\alpha_2&\alpha_3 & \cdots & \alpha_n\\
\lambda_{1}-\lambda_2-t & \alpha_2+ \lambda_2 &\alpha_3 & \cdots & \alpha_n \\
&& \ddots &&\\
\lambda_{ 1 } -\lambda_{n-1}-t&\alpha_2& \alpha_3 &\ddots &\alpha_n\\
\lambda_{ 1 } - \lambda_n -t &\alpha_2 & \alpha_3 &\cdots &\alpha_n +\lambda_{n}
\end {array} \right],$$ that $t = \sum_{i=2}^{n} \alpha_i$ is similar to the matrix $A$, and if $$\begin{aligned}
\label{se1}
-\lambda_i & \le \alpha_i, \qquad i=2, 3, \cdots , n,\nonumber\\
t & \le \lambda_1. \end{aligned}$$ then the matrix $C$ is nonnegative and has eigenvalues $\{\lambda_1, \lambda_2, \cdots, \lambda_n\}$.
If given the spectrum $\sigma$ with zero summation, then in the above Theorem it is necessary that we lie the value $\lambda_i$ on the $(i,i)$ entry of main diagonal of the matrix $A$ for $i=1,2,\cdots,n$ and $-\lambda_i$ in the entry $(1,i)$ of this matrix for $i=1,2,\cdots,n$ and then the all elements on main diagonal of matrix $C$ are zero.
In Theorem 2.1 if $-\sum_{i=2}^n \lambda_i \le \lambda_1$ and we set $\alpha_i = - \lambda_i $ for $i= 2, 3, \cdots, n$, then we can construct a nonnegative matrix that all elements of its main diagonal are zero except elements of the first row and the fist column. For instance if $\sigma = \{10 , -2, -2, -2, -1, -1 \}$, then by the following matrix has spectrum $\sigma $, $$C=\left [ \begin{array}{cccccc}
2 & 2 & 2 & 2 & 1 & 1 \\
4 & 0 & 2 & 2 & 1 & 1 \\
4 & 2 & 0 & 2 & 1 & 1 \\
4 & 2 & 2 & 0 & 1 & 1 \\
3 & 2 & 2 & 2 & 0 & 1 \\
3 & 2 & 2 & 2 & 1 & 0
\end{array} \right ].$$ that $\alpha_i$ for $i=2, \cdots n$ satisfy in the conditions . In this case we can determine all elements that lie on the main diagonal of matrix $C$ that summation of them is equal to the summations of eigenvalues of the matrix $A$, for instance if we want the first four elements of main diagonal of matrix are $\frac{1}{2}$, we must consider $\alpha_2=2.5, \alpha_3 = 2.5, \alpha_4=2.5, \alpha_5= 1, \alpha_6 = 1$ then $t= 9.5 $ that satisfy in conditions , and and the matrix $C$ is as below $$\left[ \begin {array}{cccccc} 0.5& 2.5& 2.5& 2.5&1&1
\\ \noalign{\medskip} 2.5& 0.5& 2.5& 2.5&1&1\\ \noalign{\medskip} 2.5&
2.5& 0.5& 2.5&1&1\\ \noalign{\medskip} 2.5& 2.5& 2.5& 0.5&1&1
\\ \noalign{\medskip} 1.5& 2.5& 2.5& 2.5&0&1\\ \noalign{\medskip} 1.5&
2.5& 2.5& 2.5&1&0\end {array} \right]$$
### Spectrum with two positive eigenvalues
In this section, at first we consider $ \sigma = \{\lambda_1, \lambda_2, \lambda_3, \lambda_4 \}$ such that $ \lambda_1 \geq \lambda_2 > 0 \ge \lambda_3 \geq \lambda_4 $ and $ \sum \lambda_i \geq 0$, $ \lambda_1 \geq |\lambda_i|, i= 3,4 $ and in continue for a given set $\sigma$ with two positive eigenvalues and three negative eigenvalues solve the problem and finally for two positive eigenvalues and more than three negative eigenvalues with nonnegative summation again study the problem.
Let $ \sigma = \{\lambda_1, \lambda_2, \lambda_3, \lambda_4 \}$ such that $ \lambda_1 \geq \lambda_2 > 0 \ge \lambda_3 \geq \lambda_4 $ and let $ \sum \lambda_i \geq 0$, $ \lambda_1 \geq |\lambda_i|, i= 3,4 $, then there exist a set of nonnegative matrices that $ \sigma $ is its spectrum.
[**Proof**]{}. We start with the following matrices $$A=\left[ \begin {array}{llll} \lambda_{{1}}&\alpha_{{2}} +\alpha_{{4}
}&\alpha_{{3}}&0\\
0&\lambda_{{2}}&\alpha&\alpha_{{4}}\\
0&0&\lambda_{{3}}&0\\
0&0&0&\lambda_{{4}}
\end {array} \right],
\qquad
L=\left[ \begin {array}{cccc} 1&0&0&0\\1&1&0&0
\\ 1&0&1&0\\
1&1&0&1\end {array}
\right].$$ Then the following matrix $$\label{e2}
C=LAL^{-1}=\left[ \begin {array}{llll}
\lambda_1 - t &\alpha_2+\alpha_4 &\alpha_3&0\\
\lambda_1 - \lambda_2 - t -\alpha &\alpha_2 +\lambda_2 &\alpha_3+\alpha &\alpha_4\\
\lambda_1- \lambda_3 - t &\alpha_2 +\alpha_4 &\alpha_3 +\lambda_3 &0\\
\lambda_1 -\lambda_2 - t -\alpha &\alpha_2 +\lambda_2 -\lambda_4 &\alpha_3 +\alpha &\alpha_4 +\lambda_4
\end {array} \right],$$ that $t= \sum_{i=2}^{4} \alpha_i$ is similar to the matrix $A$. If $$\begin{aligned}
\label{se2}
-\lambda_i & \le \alpha_i, \qquad i= 2,3,4,\nonumber\\
t & \le \lambda_1 \nonumber \\
-\alpha_3 & \le \alpha \le \lambda_1 - \lambda_2 -t,\end{aligned}$$ then the matrix $C$ is nonnegative.
In above Theorem one of the interesting solution is $\alpha_i:=\lambda_i, \,\, i=1,2$ and $\alpha=\lambda_3$ that satisfies in condition with zero summation and the all another elements of matrix $C$ are zero. For instance let $\sigma = \{ 7, 3, -5, -5\}$, then $\sigma$ is realizable by following nonnegative matrices $$C =\left[ \begin {array}{cccc}
0&2&5&0 \\
2&0&0&5\\
5&2&0&0 \\
2&5&0&0
\end {array} \right],$$ this spectrum is studied in [@borobia] and we solve this problem easier.
Now we consider the set of $\sigma$ with two positive eigenvalues and three negative eigenvalues with special conditions.
Consider spectrum $\sigma = \{\lambda_1, \lambda_2, \lambda_3, \lambda_4, \lambda_5 \}$ such that $\lambda_1 \ge \lambda_2 >0 > \lambda_3 \ge \lambda_4 \ge \lambda_5$ with nonnegative summation. If $t = \sum_{i=2}^{5} \alpha_i$ and there exist a nonnegative $5 \times 5$ matrix that $\sigma $ is its spectrum.
[**Proof**]{}. In this case we consider $$A= \left[ \begin {array}{ccccc}
\lambda_1 &\alpha_2 +\alpha_4 +\alpha_5 &\alpha_3 &0&0\\
0&\lambda_2 &\alpha &\alpha_4 &\alpha_5\\
0&0&\lambda_3 &0&0\\
0&0&0&\lambda_4 &0\\
0&0&0&0&\lambda_5
\end {array} \right],$$ where $\alpha_i \ge -\lambda_i, i=4,5$ and $\alpha_5 < \lambda_2 $ and also $\alpha_4+\alpha_5 \ge \lambda_2$ and $$L= \left[ \begin {array}{ccccc}
1&0&0&0&0\\
1&1&0&0&0\\
1&0&1&0&0\\
1&1&0&1&0\\
1&1&0&0&1
\end {array} \right],$$ then $$\begin{aligned}
\label{e3}
C=&L A L^{-1}\nonumber \\ =&
\left[ \begin {array}{lllll}
\lambda_1-t&\alpha_2+\alpha_4+\alpha_5&\alpha_3&0&0\\
\lambda_1-\lambda_2-t-\alpha&\alpha_2+\lambda_2&\alpha_3+\alpha&
\alpha_4&\alpha_5\\
\lambda_1-\lambda_3-t&\alpha_2+\alpha_4+\alpha_5&\alpha_3+\lambda_3&0&0\\
\lambda_1 -\lambda_2-t-\alpha&\alpha_2+\lambda_2-\lambda_4&\alpha_3+
\alpha&\alpha_4+\lambda_4&\alpha_5 \\
\lambda_1 -\lambda_2-t-\alpha & \alpha_2+\lambda_2-\lambda_5 &\alpha_3+\alpha &\alpha_4&\alpha_5+\lambda_5
\end {array} \right].\end{aligned}$$ The matrix $C$ is similar to the matrix $A$ and if satisfy the conditions $$\begin{aligned}
-\lambda_i & \le \alpha_i, \qquad i= 2,3,4,5\nonumber\\
t & \le \lambda_1 \nonumber \\
-\alpha_3 & \le \alpha \le \lambda_1 - \lambda_2 -t,\end{aligned}$$ then this matrix is nonnegative.
Consider spectrum $\sigma = \{\lambda_1, \lambda_2, \cdots, \lambda_n \}$ such that $\lambda_1 \ge \lambda_2 >0 \ge \lambda_3 \ge \cdots\ge \lambda_n$ with nonnegative summation. If $t = \sum_{i=2}^{n} \alpha_i$ , then there exist a set of nonnegative $n \times n$ matrix that $\sigma $ is its spectrum.
[**Proof**]{}. The proof is provided as the proof of previous Theorem. In this case we consider the matrices $A$ and $L$ respectively as $$A= \left[\begin{array}{cccccccc}
\lambda_1 & \alpha_2 + (\alpha_r + \cdots +\alpha_n) & \alpha_3 & \cdots & \alpha_{r-1} & 0 & \cdots & 0 \\
0 & \lambda_2 & \beta_3 & \cdots & \beta_{r-1} & \alpha_r & \cdots & \alpha_n \\
0 & 0 & \lambda_3 & \cdots & 0 & 0 & \cdots & 0 \\
\vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots & \vdots & \cdots & \vdots \\
0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \lambda_{r-1} & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \lambda_r & 0 & 0 \\
\vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\
0 & 0 & 0 & \cdots & 0 & 0 & \cdots & \lambda_n
\end{array}
\right],$$ $$L=\left[ \begin{array}{cccccccc}
1 & 0 & 0 & \cdots & 0 & 0 & \cdots & 0 \\
1 & 1 & 0 & \cdots & 0 & 0 & \cdots & 0 \\
1 & 0 & 1 & \cdots & 0 & 0 & \cdots & 0 \\
\vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots & \vdots & \cdots & \vdots \\
1 & 0 & 0 & \cdots & 1 & 0 & \cdots & 0 \\
1 & 1 & 0 & \cdots & 0 & 1 & \cdots & 0 \\
\vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\
1 & 1 & 0 & \cdots & 0 & 0 & \cdots & 1
\end{array} \right],$$ where the values of the second row of the matrix $A$, $ \alpha_i , i=3,\cdots,n$, must be at least equal to the values of the $-\lambda_i, i=3,\cdots, n$ values in their columns respectively, and the value of $\alpha_r$ is the last value in the second row with starting of the last element on this row, such that $\sum^{n}_{i=r} \alpha_i \ge \lambda_2$.
Then we have $$\begin{aligned}
C &=LAL^{-1}\\
&=\left[ \begin{array}{lllllllll}
c_{11} & c_{12} & \alpha_{3} & \alpha_{4} & \cdots & \alpha_{r-1} & 0 & \cdots & 0 \\
c_{21}& \alpha_2 + \lambda_2 & \alpha_{3}+\beta_{3} & \alpha_{4}+\beta_{4} & \cdots & \alpha_{r-1}+\beta_{r-1} & \alpha_r & \cdots & \alpha_n \\
c_{31} & c_{32} & \lambda_{3}+\alpha_{3} & \alpha_{4}+\beta_{4} & \cdots & \alpha_{r-1}+\beta_{r-1} & 0 & \cdots & 0 \\
c_{4, 1} & c_{42} & \alpha_{3}+\beta_{3} & \lambda_{4}+\alpha_{4} & \cdots & \alpha_{r-1}+\beta_{r-1} & 0 & \cdots & 0 \\
\vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots & \vdots & \cdots & \vdots \\
c_{r-1, 1} &c_{r-1,2} & \alpha_{3}+\beta_{3} & \alpha_{4}+\beta_{4} & \cdots & \lambda_{r-1}+\alpha_{r-1} & 0 & \cdots & 0 \\
c_{r1} &c_{r2} & \alpha_{3}+\beta_{3} & \alpha_{4}+\beta_{4} & \cdots & \alpha_{r-1}+\beta_{r-1} & \lambda_r+\alpha_r & \cdots & \alpha_n \\
\vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\
c_{n1} & c_{n2} & \alpha_{3}+\beta_{3} & \alpha_{4}+\beta_{4} & \cdots & \alpha_{r-1}+\beta_{r-1} & 0 & \cdots & \lambda_n+\alpha_n
\end{array} \right] \end{aligned}$$ where $$\begin{aligned}
c_{11}=&\lambda_1 -t ,\\
c_{31} =&c_{41} = \cdots = c_{r-1, 1}=\lambda_1-\lambda_2-t,\\
c_{21}=&c_{r1}= \cdots = c_{n1}= \lambda_1-\lambda_2-t-(\beta_{3}+ \cdots + \beta_{r-1}),\\
c_{12} =& c_{32} = \alpha_2 + \alpha_r+ \cdots + \alpha_n,\\
c_{i2}=&\alpha_2 + \lambda_2 -\lambda_i, \qquad i=4 \cdots n,\end{aligned}$$ that $t = \sum_{i=2}^{n} \alpha_i$. The matrix $C$ is nonnegative matrix if hold the following conditions $$\begin{aligned}
-\lambda_i & \le \alpha_i, \qquad i= 2,\cdots ,n\nonumber\\
t & \le \lambda_1 \nonumber \\
-\alpha_i & \le \beta_{i} \le \lambda_1-\lambda_2-t, \qquad i= 3,\cdots ,r-1,\end{aligned}$$ and then $\sigma$ is its spectrum.
Let $\sigma =\{19,1,-5,-5,-3,-3,-2,-2 \}$. This spectrum is chosen form [@soto2018] and by our method we again solve this problem. We select two matrices $A$ and $L$ as: $$A=\left[ \begin {array}{cccccccc} 19&1&5&5&3&3&2&0\\\noalign{\medskip}0
&1&0&0&0&0&a_{{27}}&2\\\noalign{\medskip}0&0&-5&0&0&0&0&0
\\\noalign{\medskip}0&0&0&-5&0&0&0&0\\\noalign{\medskip}0&0&0&0&-3&0&0
&0\\\noalign{\medskip}0&0&0&0&0&-3&0&0\\\noalign{\medskip}0&0&0&0&0&0&
-2&0\\\noalign{\medskip}0&0&0&0&0&0&0&-2\end {array} \right],$$ $$L=\left[ \begin {array}{cccccccc} 1&0&0&0&0&0&0&0\\\noalign{\medskip}1&
1&0&0&0&0&0&0\\\noalign{\medskip}1&0&1&0&0&0&0&0\\\noalign{\medskip}1&0
&0&1&0&0&0&0\\\noalign{\medskip}1&0&0&0&1&0&0&0\\\noalign{\medskip}1&0
&0&0&0&1&0&0\\\noalign{\medskip}1&0&0&0&0&0&1&0\\\noalign{\medskip}1&1
&0&0&0&0&0&1\end {array} \right].$$ Then the matrix $C=LAL^{-1}$ is computed as follows: $$C= \left[ \begin {array}{cccccccc} 0&1&5&5&3&3&2&0\\\noalign{\medskip}-1
-a_{{27}}&0&5&5&3&3&2+a_{{27}}&2\\\noalign{\medskip}5&1&0&5&3&3&2&0
\\\noalign{\medskip}5&1&5&0&3&3&2&0\\\noalign{\medskip}3&1&5&5&0&3&2&0
\\\noalign{\medskip}3&1&5&5&3&0&2&0\\\noalign{\medskip}2&1&5&5&3&3&0&0
\\\noalign{\medskip}-1-a_{{27}}&2&5&5&3&3&2+a_{{27}}&0\end {array}
\right].$$ If $-2 \leq a_{27}\leq -1$, then the matrix $C$ is nonnegative and has spectrum $\sigma$.
### NIEP for spectrum three positive eigenvalues
In this section we study the NIEP for three positive eigenvalues and more than or equal three negative eigenvalues.
Consider spectrum $\sigma = \{\lambda_1, \lambda_2, \lambda_3, \lambda_4, \lambda_5, \lambda_6 \}$ such that $\lambda_1 \ge \lambda_2 \ge \lambda_3> 0 > \lambda_4 \ge \lambda_5 \ge \lambda_6$ with nonnegative summation. Then there exist a set of nonnegative $6 \times 6$ matrices that $\sigma $ is its spectrum.
[**Proof**]{}. We consider the matrix $A$ as follow $$A=\left[ \begin {array}{cccccc} \lambda_{{1}}&\alpha _{2}+\alpha _{5}+
\alpha _{6}+\alpha _{3}&0&\alpha _{4}&0&0\\
0&\lambda_{{2}}&\alpha_{6}+\alpha _{3}& a_{24} &\alpha _{5}&0\\
0&0&\lambda_{{3}}& a_{34} & a_{ 35 } &\alpha _{6}\\
0&0&0&\lambda_{4}&0&0\\
0&0&0&0&\lambda_{5}&0\\
0&0&0&0&0&\lambda_{6}
\end {array} \right].$$ The unit lower triangular matrix that solve the problem, we can find as $$L=\left[ \begin {array}{cccccc}
1&0&0&0&0&0\\
1&1&0&0&0&0\\
1&1&1&0&0&0\\
1&0&0&1&0&0\\
1&1&0&0&1&0\\
1&1&1&0&0&1
\end {array} \right].$$ In this case, the following matrix will be obtained with similarity transformations of the unit lower triangular matrix $$\begin{aligned}
C=&LAL^{-1}\nonumber \\=&
\begin{small}
\left[ \begin {array}{llllll}
\lambda_{1}- t &t- \alpha _{4}&0&\alpha _{4}&0&0\\
\lambda_{1}-\lambda_{2}-t -a_{24}&\alpha_{2}+\lambda_{2}&\alpha_{6}+\alpha_{3}&\alpha_{4}+ a_{ 24}&\alpha_{5}&0\\
\lambda_{1} -\lambda_{2}-t-a_{24} - a_{34} &\alpha_{2}+\lambda_{2}-\lambda_{3}-a_{35} &\alpha_{3}+\lambda_{
3}&\alpha_{4}+a_{ 24 } + a_{34} &\alpha _{5}+a_{ 35} &\alpha_{6}\\
\lambda_{1} -\lambda_{4} -t&t- \alpha_4 &0&\alpha _{4}+\lambda_{{4}}&0&0\\
\lambda_{1} -\lambda_{2}-t-a_{24} &\alpha _{2}+\lambda_{2}-\lambda_{5}&\alpha _{6}+\alpha _{3}&\alpha _{4}+a_{24} &\alpha _{5}+\lambda_{5}&0\\
\lambda_{1}- \lambda_{2}-t -a_{24} - a_{ 34} &\alpha _{2}+\lambda_{2}-\lambda_{3}- a_{ 35} &\alpha_{3}+\lambda_{3}-\lambda_{6}&
\alpha _{4}+ a_{ 24 } + a_{ 34} &\alpha _{5}+a_{ 35 } &\alpha _{6}+
\lambda_{6}\end {array} \right],
\end{small}\end{aligned}$$ that $t = \sum_{i=2}^{n} \alpha_i$. This matrix is nonnegative if satisfy the conditions $$\begin{aligned}
-\lambda_i & \le \alpha_i, \qquad i= 2,\cdots ,6 ,\nonumber\\
t & \le \lambda_1, \nonumber \\
-\alpha_5 & \le a_{35} \le \alpha_2+\lambda_2-\lambda_3,\\
-\alpha_4 & \le a_{24} \le \lambda_1-\lambda_2- t, \nonumber\\
-\alpha_4 & \le a_{24}+a_{34} \le \lambda_1-\lambda_2- t,\nonumber\end{aligned}$$ and by similarity $\sigma$ is its spectrum.
Consider spectrum $\sigma = \{\lambda_1, \lambda_2, \cdots, \lambda_n \}$ such that $\lambda_1 \ge \lambda_2 \ge \lambda_3> 0 > \lambda_4 \ge \cdots \ge \lambda_n$ with nonnegative summation. Then there exist a set of nonnegative $n \times n$ matrix that $\sigma $ is its spectrum.
[**Proof**]{}. The method of proof this Theorem is continue of process of previous Theorem and in general in the next subsection, we describe this process.
### The spectrum with $k$ positive eigenvalues
In this case we study NIEP with $k$ positive eigenvalues and more than or equal $k$ non-positive eigenvalues. One of the most important points that we have to consider is where non-zero values elements lie in the unit lower triangular matrix and another important point is the detection and the amount and locations of nonzero value of the upper triangular matrix $A$ which in the main its diagonal located the elements of $\sigma$.
Consider spectrum $\sigma = \{\lambda_1, \lambda_2, \cdots, \lambda_k, \cdots, \lambda_n \}$ such that $\lambda_1 \ge \lambda_2 \ge \cdots \ge \lambda_k> 0 \ge \lambda_{k+1} \ge \cdots \ge \lambda_n$ with nonnegative summation. Then there exist a set of nonnegative $n \times n$ matrix that $\sigma $ is its spectrum.
[**Proof.**]{} For construction of matrix $C$ in which is nonnegative and has eigenvalues $\sigma$, we explain that how to construct the upper triangular matrix $A$ and unit lower triangular matrix $L$.
For construction of the matrix $A$ we put $\lambda_1, \lambda_2, \cdots , \lambda_n$ on main diagonal of this matrix where $\lambda_1, \lambda_2, \cdots , \lambda_k$ are positive and $\lambda_{k+1}, \lambda_{k+2}, \cdots , \lambda_n$ are nonpositive eigenvalues and $k \le \frac{n}{2}$.
Then we start with the last row and the last column of the matrix $A$ entry $\lambda_n$. We add the value $\alpha_n \ge - \lambda_n$ on the row $k$ and column $n$ of matrix $A$ and if $ \lambda_k - \alpha_n \ge 0$, we add $\alpha_{n-1}\ge - \lambda_{n-1}$ on the row $k$ and column $n-1$ and if again $(\lambda_k - \alpha_n - \alpha_{n-1}) \ge 0$ we add the value $\alpha_{n-2} \ge \lambda_{n-2}$ on the row $k$ and column $n-2$ and continue this way until the first time $\lambda_k -\sum_{i=r}^n \alpha_i <0$, then we add the values $-(\lambda_k -\sum_{i=r}^n \alpha_i $) on the row $k$ and column $k-1$ and we add in row $k$ from column $k+1$ until $r-1$ the values $\beta_{k,j}$ for $j=k+1, \cdots r-1$ respectively. The values $\alpha_i$ help to us that the effect of the negative eigenvalues in the matrix solution to be eliminated. We select the values $\beta_{k,j}$ to obtain at last nonnegative matrix. After this step we use the second positive eigenvalue $\lambda_{k-1}$. We add the value $\alpha_{r-1}$ to the row $k-1$ and column $r-1$ and if $\lambda_{k-1} - \alpha_{r-1} >0$ we add the value $\alpha_{r-2} \ge \lambda_{r-2}$ on the row $k-1$ and column $r-2$ and similar the previous step continue. Assume that the index $m$ is the value such that for the first time $\lambda_{k-1} -\sum_{i=k+1}^{m-1} \alpha_i <0$. In this step again the values $\beta_{k-1,j}$ started from the column $k+1$ and finished $m-1$. We continue this method from $\lambda_n$ to $\lambda_{k-1}$. Then we have
$$\begin{aligned}
&\hspace{-1Cm}A=\\&\hspace{-1Cm}\left[\begin{array}{ccccccccccccccccc}
\lambda_1 & 0 & \cdots & &• & • & • & • & • & • && • & • && • & • & • \\
0 & \lambda_2 & \cdots && • & • & • & • & • & • && • & •& & • & • & • \\
• & • & \ddots & •& & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & • && • && • \\
• & • & \hspace{0.5Cm}\lambda_s&a_{s,s+1}&& • & 0 & \alpha_{k+1} & • & • & • & •& & •& & • & • \\
• & • & & \lambda_{s+1}&& • & 0 & \beta_{s+1,k+1} & • & • & • & •& & •& & • & • \\
• & • & • & \hspace{0.8Cm} \ddots && &\vdots & \vdots& • & • & • & • & •& & &• & • \\
• & • & • & • & \lambda_{m-2} &a_{k-2,k-1} &0&\beta_{k-2,k+1} & \cdots & \alpha_{m-1} & • & • & •& & &• & • \\
• & • & • & • & • & \lambda_{k-1} & a_{k-1,k} & \beta_{k-1,k+1} & \cdots&\beta_{k-1,m-1} & \alpha_m& \cdots& \alpha_{r-1} && • & • & • \\
• & • & • & • & •& • & \lambda_k & \beta_{k,k+1} & \cdots&\beta_{k,m-1} &\beta_{k,m} &\cdots & \beta_{k,r-1}& \alpha_r & \cdots & \alpha_{n-1} & \alpha_n\\
• & • & • & • & •& • & • & \lambda_{k+1} & • & •& & • & &• & • & • & • \\
• & • & • & • & •& • & • & • & \ddots & • & • & •& & • & • && • \\
• & • & • & • & • && • & • & • & \lambda_{m-1} && • & • && • & • & • \\
• & • & • & • & • && • & • & • & • & \lambda_m & • && • & • & • & • \\
• & • & • & • & •& & • & • & • & • & • & \ddots && • & •& • & • \\
• & • & • & • & •& & • & • & • & • && • & \lambda_{r-1} & •& & • & • \\
• & • & • & • & • && • & • & • & • && • & • & \lambda_r & • & • & • \\
• & • & • & • & • && • & • & • & • && • & • & • & \ddots & • & • \\
• & • & • & • & • && • & • & • & • & &• & • & • & • & \lambda_{n-1} & • \\
• & • & • & • & • && • & • & • & • && • & • & • & • & • & \lambda_n
\end{array}
\right],\end{aligned}$$
where $$\begin{aligned}
a_{s,s+1}=&-(\lambda_{s-1}-\sum_{i=k+1}^{}\alpha_i),\\
\vdots&\\
a_{k-2,k-1}=&-(\lambda_{k-1}-\sum_{i=m}^{r}\alpha_i),\\
a_{k-1,k}=&-(\lambda_k-\sum_{i=r}^{n}\alpha_i)\end{aligned}$$ For construction matrix $L$, we act the following procedure. Whereas $L$ is unit lower triangular matrix we set on the main diagonal of this matrix the number 1. For all $\alpha_j, j=n, \cdots,k+ 1$ that lies on entry $(i,j)$ of matrix $A$, we set the entry $(j,i)$ of the matrix $L$ again 1 and in this row the previous entries will be 1 or appropriate number( that help us for getting nonnegative matrix $C$ in product of three matrices $LAL^{-1}$) until the column of the last positive $\lambda_i, i=k, k-1,\cdots$ that in the construction the matrix $A$ is used. For all entries of matrix $A$ in which get positive value for $\lambda_k -\sum_{i=r}^n \alpha_i <0$, we set 1 on the transpose entry of these elements and again in its row the previous elements of these entries will be 1 or appropriate number until the column of the last positive that in the construction the matrix $A$ is used. For simplicity, we display these entries of matrix $L$ as 1. $$\begin{aligned}
L=\begin{array}{l}
• \\
• \\
• \\
\\
s^{th}row \rightarrow\\
• \\
\\
\\
k^{th}row \rightarrow\\
\\
• \\ • \\
\\
m^{th}row \rightarrow\\
• \\
\\
r^{th}row \rightarrow\\
• \\
\\
\\
n^{th}row\rightarrow
\end{array} &\left[
\begin{array}{ccccccccccccccccccc}
1 & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & • &&\\
• & 1 & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & • &&\\
• & • & \ddots & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & • &&\\
• & • & • & 1 & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & •&& \\
• & • & • & 1 & 1 & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & • &&\\
• & • & • & \vdots & • & \ddots & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & •&& \\
• & • & • & 1 & 1 & \cdots & 1 & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & • &&\\
• & • & • & 1 & 1 & \cdots & 1 & 1 & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & • &&\\
• & • & • & 1 & 1 & \cdots & 1 & 1 & 1 & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & • &&\\
• & • & • & 1 & 1 & \cdots & & & & 1 & • & • & • & • & • & • & • &&\\
• & • & • & \vdots & \vdots & \cdots & \vdots & • & • & • & \ddots & • & • & • & • & • & • &&\\
• & • & • & 1 & 1 & \cdots & 1& 0 & • & • & • & 1 & • & • & • & • & • &&\\
• & • & • & 1 & 1 & \cdots & 1& 1 & 0 & • & • & • & 1 & • & • & • & • &&\\
• & • & • & \vdots & \vdots & \cdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & • & • & • & • & \ddots & • & • & • &&\\
• & • & • & 1 & 1 & \cdots & 1 & 1 & 0 & • & • & • & • & • & 1 & • & •&& \\
• & • & • & 1& 1 & \cdots & 1 & 1 & 1 & 0 & • & • & • & • & • & 1 & •&& \\
• & • & • & \vdots & \vdots & \cdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & • & • & • & • & • & • & \ddots&&\\
• & • & • & 1 & 1 & \cdots & 1 & 1 & 1 & 0 & • & • & • & • & • & • & &1&\\
• & • & • & 1 & 1 & \cdots & 1 & 1 & 1 & 0 & • & • & • & • & • & • & &&1
\end{array}
\right],\\
&\hspace*{.8cm} \begin{array}{cccccccccccccccccccc}
• & • &• & & \uparrow s^{th}col & • & • & • & &\uparrow k^{th}col & & & • & & • & • & &&
\end{array} \end{aligned}$$ where the empty entries have value zero. By a simple induction we have $$L^{-1} = \left[
• & • & • & 0 & 0 & \cdots & -1 & 1 & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & • &&\\
• & • & • & 0 & 0 & \cdots & 0 & -1 & 1 & • & • & • & • & • & • & • & • &&\\
It is important to note that a given list of eigenvalues $\sigma$ is realizable with our method, when the value of Perron eigenvalue or the last positive eigenvalue that is used for difference between positive eigenvalues $\lambda_s$ and $\sum \alpha_i$ at least equal the minimum of negative eigenvalues. For instance the list $\sigma=\{6,1,1,1,-4,-4\}$ is solvable and the list $\sigma=\{6,1,1,1,1,-4,-4\}$ is not solvable by our method, although we add a positive amount in this list, since in the solving process we can not use the Perron eigenvalue for the last eigenvalue -4. When we put the elements of main diagonal of upper triangular matrix $A$ from up to down by decreasing order, but if we interchange the elements of main diagonal of matrix $A$ as the list $\sigma=\{6,1,1,1,-4,-4,1\}$ is solvable and we do not consider the last column in our algorithm. So far for the convenience, we assume that the values of main diagonal of matrix $A$ is decreasing and in general it is not necessary.
The spectrum with $k > \frac{n}{2}$
------------------------------------
From the beginning discussion until now we study NIEP with the number of negative eigenvalues more than or equal the number of positive eigenvalues. In this section we study in which the number of positive eigenvalues in the given spectrum $ \sigma $ more than the number of negative eigenvalues.
The spectrum with one negative eigenvalues is very simply solved. In continue we study the cases that the spectrum $ \sigma $ has more than or equal two negative eigenvalues. So there are at least $ 5 $ members in $ \sigma$. Unfortunately in this section there exist some cases that the lower triangular matrix must have some non zero-one values.
### The spectrum with two negative eigenvalues
In this subsection we solve NIEP with three positive and two negative eigenvalues that satisfies in condition and then we solve the extension of problem of NIEP with three positive eigenvalues and more than three negative eigenvalues.
Let $ \sigma = \{ \lambda_1, \lambda_2, \lambda_3, \lambda_4, \lambda_5 \} $ such that $ \lambda_1\ge \lambda_2\ge \lambda_3\ge 0 > \lambda_4\ge \lambda_5$ and satisfies in , then three exist a set of nonnegative eigenvalues in which $ \sigma $ is its spectrum.
In this case we construct the members $ A $ and $ L $ as follows.
$$A=\left[ \begin {array}{ccccc} \lambda_{{1}}&-\lambda_{{2}}-\lambda_{{4
}}-\lambda_{{3}}-\lambda_{{5}}&0&0&0\\\noalign{\medskip}0&\lambda_{{2}
}&-\lambda_{{3}}-\lambda_{{5}}&-\lambda_{{4}}&0\\\noalign{\medskip}0&0
&\lambda_{{3}}&a_{{34}}&-\lambda_{{5}}\\\noalign{\medskip}0&0&0&
\lambda_{{4}}&0\\\noalign{\medskip}0&0&0&0&\lambda_{{5}}\end {array}
\right],
\qquad
L=\left[ \begin {array}{ccccc} 1&0&0&0&0\\\noalign{\medskip}1&1&0&0&0
\\\noalign{\medskip}l_{{31}}&1&1&0&0\\\noalign{\medskip}1&1&0&1&0
\\\noalign{\medskip}l_{{51}}&1&1&0&1\end {array} \right] ,$$ so for simplicity, we use the following symbols to represent the matrix $C$: $$\begin{aligned}
C&= LA L^{-1} =\left[ \begin {array}{ccccc} s_1& \lambda_{1}-s_1 &0&0&0\\
c_{2 1} &0&-(\lambda_{{3}}+\lambda_{{5}})&-
\lambda_{{4}}&0\\
c_{31} &c_{32}&0&-\lambda_{{4}}+a_{{34}}&-\lambda_{{5}}\\
c_{41} &-\lambda_{{4}}&-(\lambda_{{3}}+
\lambda_{{5}})&0&0\\
c_{51} &c_{52}&-\lambda_
{{5}}&-\lambda_{{4}}+a_{{34}}&0\end {array} \right], \end{aligned}$$ where $$\begin{aligned}
c_{21}=c_{41}& = s_1- \lambda_{2}- ( \lambda_{3}+\lambda_{5}) ( 1-l_{ 31 } ),\\
c_{31}&= l_{{31}} s_1 - \lambda_{{2}}-\lambda_{{5}} ( 1-l_{{51}} ), \\
c_{51}&= l_{{51}} s_1 - \lambda_{{2}}-\lambda_{{5}} \left( 1-l_{{31}} \right), \\
c_{32}&=l_{ 31 } ( \lambda_{1}-s_1) +s_1-\lambda_1-\lambda_3-a_{{34}},\\
c_{52}&=l_{ 51 } ( \lambda_{1}-s_1) +s_1-\lambda_1-\lambda_3-a_{{34}}.\end{aligned}$$ The matrix $ C $ is nonnegative if all entries of this matrix will be nonnegative and then we have $$\begin{aligned}
1-\frac{\lambda_3 + a_{34}}{s_1-\lambda_1} \le & l_{31} \le 1- \frac{s_1 - \lambda_2}{\lambda_3 +\lambda_5},\\
1-\frac{\lambda_3 + a_{34}}{s_1-\lambda_1} \le & l_{51} \le 1- \frac{l_{31} s_1 - \lambda_2}{\lambda_5},\\
\lambda_4 \le & a_{34 } \le \frac{(s_1 - \lambda_1)(s_1 - \lambda_2)}{\lambda_3 +\lambda_5}- \lambda_3.
\end{aligned}$$
If the number of positive eigenvalues more than three, we can continue the above method for construction of matrices $A$ and $L$ and get nonnegative matrix $C$, for instance if for $n=6$ in spectrum $\sigma$ we have $ \lambda_1\ge \lambda_2\ge \cdots \ge \lambda_{n-2}\ge 0 > \lambda_{n-1}\ge \lambda_n $, then we assume that the matrices $A$ and $L$ as $$A=\left[ \begin {array}{cccccc} \lambda_{{1}}&-\lambda_{{3}}-\lambda_{{
4}}-\lambda_{{5}}-\lambda_{{6}}-\lambda_{{2}}&0&0&0&0
\\ \noalign{\medskip}0&\lambda_{{2}}&-\lambda_{{3}}-\lambda_{{4}}-
\lambda_{{5}}-\lambda_{{6}}&0&0&0\\ \noalign{\medskip}0&0&\lambda_{{3}
}&-\lambda_{{4}}-\lambda_{{6}}&-\lambda_{{5}}&0\\ \noalign{\medskip}0&0
&0&\lambda_{{4}}&\alpha _{45}&-\lambda_{{6}}\\ \noalign{\medskip}0&0&0
&0&\lambda_{{5}}&0\\ \noalign{\medskip}0&0&0&0&0&\lambda_{{6}}
\end {array} \right],$$ $$L=\left[ \begin {array}{cccccc} 1&0&0&0&0&0\\ \noalign{\medskip}1&1&0&0
&0&0\\ \noalign{\medskip}1&1&1&0&0&0\\ \noalign{\medskip}l_{41}&l_{42}
&1&1&0&0\\ \noalign{\medskip}1&1&1&0&1&0\\ \noalign{\medskip}l_{61}&l_
{62}&1&1&0&1\end {array} \right],$$ therefore the nonnegative matrix $C$ obtain as follows $$C=\left[ \begin {array}{cccccc} s_1&\lambda_{1}-s_1&0&0&0&0\\
s_1 - \lambda_{2}&0& \lambda_{1}+\lambda_{2}-s_1&0&0&0\\
c_{31} &c_{32}&0&-\lambda_{{4}}-\lambda_{{6}}&-\lambda_{{5}}&0\\
c_{41}& c_{42} & c_{43}&0&-
\lambda_{{5}}+\alpha _{45}&-\lambda_{{6}}\\
c_{51} &c_{52} &-\lambda_{{5}}&-\lambda_{{4}}-\lambda_{{6}}&0&0
\\
c_{61} &c_{62}&c_{62}&-\lambda_{{6}}&-\lambda_{{5}}
+\alpha _{45}&0\end {array} \right],$$ where $$\begin{aligned}
c_{31}&=s_1 - \lambda_2 + \left( -\lambda_{{4}}-\lambda_{{6}} \right) \left( -l_{41}+l_{42} \right),\\
c_{41}&=l_{41}s_1 -l_{42}\lambda_{{2}} -\lambda_{{6}} \left( -l_{61}+l_{62} \right), \\
c_{51} & =s_1 - \lambda_{2}+ \left( -\lambda_{{4}}-\lambda_{{6}} \right) \left( -l_{41}+l_{42} \right),\\
c_{61}& = l_{61}s_1 -l_{62}\,\lambda_{{2}}-\lambda_{{6}} \left( -l_{41}+l_{42} \right),\\
c_{32}&= -\lambda_{{3}}+ \left( -\lambda_{{4}}-\lambda_{{6}} \right) \left( 1-l_{42} \right), \\
c_{42}&= \left( \lambda_{1}-s_1\right) (l_{41} - l_{42})-\lambda_{{3}}-\lambda_{{6}} \left( 1-l_{62} \right), \\
c_{52}& = -\lambda_{{3}}+ \left( -\lambda_{{4}}-\lambda_{{6}} \right) \left( 1-l_{42} \right),\\
c_{62}& =l_{62}\left( \lambda_{1}+\lambda_{2}-s_1 \right) +\lambda_{{3}}+
\lambda_{{6}}+\lambda_{{5}}-\alpha _{45},\\
c_{43}& = l_{42} \left( \lambda_{1}+\lambda_{2}-s_1\right) +\lambda_{{3}}+\lambda_{{6}}+\lambda_{{5}}-\alpha _{45},\\
c_{63}&= \left( \lambda_{1}-s_1 \right) (l_{61} - l_{62}) -\lambda_{{3}}-\lambda_{{6}} \left( 1-l_{42} \right).\\\end{aligned}$$ In general case we can construct the matrices $A, L$ and $C$ as above method and the non zero-one entries of matrix $L$ is located in the row number of the last positive eigenvalues and row number of the last negative eigenvalues of matrix $A$.
Let $ \sigma = \{ 6,1,1,-4,-4 \} $. This spectrum is solved in [@5] and in [@borobia] is discussed about its C-realziabity. We can find the nonnegative matrix $C$ that has spectrum $\sigma $ by our method and simpler. For this we consider matrices $A$ and $L$ as: $$\left[ \begin {array}{ccccc} 6&6&0&0&0\\\noalign{\medskip}0&1&3&4&0
\\\noalign{\medskip}0&0&1&-4&4\\\noalign{\medskip}0&0&0&-4&0
\\\noalign{\medskip}0&0&0&0&-4\end {array} \right],
\qquad
\left[ \begin {array}{ccccc} 1&0&0&0&0\\\noalign{\medskip}1&1&0&0&0
\\\noalign{\medskip}l_{{21}}&1&1&0&0\\\noalign{\medskip}1&1&0&1&0
\\\noalign{\medskip}l_{{51}}&1&1&0&1\end {array} \right]$$ then the matrix $C$ is computed by relation $C=LAL^{-1}$ i.e. $$\left[ \begin {array}{ccccc} 0&6&0&0&0\\\noalign{\medskip}2-3\,l_{{21
}}&0&3&4&0\\\noalign{\medskip}3-4\,l_{{51}}&-3+6\,l_{{21}}&0&0&4
\\\noalign{\medskip}2-3\,l_{{21}}&4&3&0&0\\\noalign{\medskip}3-4\,l_{{
21}}&-3+6\,l_{{51}}&4&0&0\end {array} \right].$$ The interval that of $l_21$ and $l_{51}$ that by them them matrix $C$ is nonnegative very simple is computed.
### The spectrum with three negative eigenvalues
Assume that $ \sigma= \{ \lambda_1, \lambda_2, \cdots, \lambda_n \} $ where $ \lambda_1 \ge \lambda_2 \ge \cdots \ge \lambda_{n-3} \ge 0 > \lambda_{n-2} > \lambda_{n-1} > \lambda_n $ with $ \sum_{i=1}^{n} \lambda_i \ge 0$, then there exist a set of nonnegative matrix $C$ such that $\sigma $ is its spectrum.
. The proof process is the same as before, and we only need to give an example to illustrate this process.
Let $\sigma =\{\lambda_1,\lambda_2,\lambda_3,\lambda_4,\lambda_5,\lambda_6,\lambda_7,\lambda_8 \}=\{8,2,2,2,1,-5,-5,-5 \}$ that $\sigma$ satisfies in conditions special $\sum \lambda_i = \sum \lambda_i^3 =0$, and $\sum_{k=4} \lambda_i^k > 0$. By our method we consider $$A=\left[ \begin {array}{cccccccc} \lambda_{{1}}&-s_1+\lambda_1 &0&0&0&0&0&0\\\noalign{\medskip}0&\lambda_{{2}}&-s_1+\lambda_1+\lambda_2&0
&0&0&0&0\\\noalign{\medskip}0&0&\lambda_{{3}}&-\lambda_{{8}}-\lambda_{
{5}}-\lambda_{{4}}-\lambda_{{7}}&0&-\lambda_{{6}}&0&0
\\\noalign{\medskip}0&0&0&\lambda_{{4}}&-\lambda_{{8}}-\lambda_{{5}}&a
_{{46}}&-\lambda_{{7}}&0\\\noalign{\medskip}0&0&0&0&\lambda_{{5}}&a_{{
56}}&a_{{57}}&-\lambda_{{8}}\\\noalign{\medskip}0&0&0&0&0&\lambda_{{6}
}&0&0\\\noalign{\medskip}0&0&0&0&0&0&\lambda_{{7}}&0
\\\noalign{\medskip}0&0&0&0&0&0&0&\lambda_{{8}}\end {array} \right],$$ where $s_1=\sum_{i=1}^n\lambda_i$ and $$L= \left[ \begin {array}{cccccccc} 1&0&0&0&0&0&0&0\\\noalign{\medskip}1&
1&0&0&0&0&0&0\\\noalign{\medskip}l_{{31}}&1&1&0&0&0&0&0
\\\noalign{\medskip}l_{{41}}&l_{{42}}&1&1&0&0&0&0\\\noalign{\medskip}l
_{{51}}&l_{{52}}&l_{{53}}&1&1&0&0&0\\\noalign{\medskip}l_{{61}}&l_{{62
}}&1&0&0&1&0&0\\\noalign{\medskip}l_{{71}}&l_{{72}}&l_{{73}}&1&0&0&1&0
\\\noalign{\medskip}l_{{81}}&l_{{82}}&l_{{83}}&l_{{84}}&1&0&0&1
\end {array} \right].$$ If we select $a_{46}=-5,a_{56}=\frac{20}{7}, a_{57}=-5$ and also select $l_{31}=\frac45, l_{41}=\frac14, l_{42}=\frac{33}{70}, l_{51}=\frac{1}{20}, l_{61}=\frac{23}{70}, l_{62}=\frac12, l_{71}=l_{41}, l_{72}=l_{42}, l_{81}=l_{51}, l_{82}=\frac{9}{70},\l_{83}=\frac37 $ the matrix $C$ is solution of problem is computed as follows: $$C=\left[ \begin {array}{cccccccc} 0&8&0&0&0&0&0&0\\\noalign{\medskip}0&0
&10&0&0&0&0&0\\\noalign{\medskip}{\frac {57}{140}}&{\frac {13}{5}}&0&7
&0&5&0&0\\\noalign{\medskip}{\frac {67}{140}}&\frac{1}{14}&0&0&4&0&5&0
\\\noalign{\medskip}{\frac {19}{140}}&{\frac {1}{70}}&0&0&0&0&0&5
\\\noalign{\medskip}{\frac {11}{20}}&{\frac {23}{70}}&0&7&0&0&0&0
\\\noalign{\medskip}{\frac {67}{140}}&\frac{1}{14}&0&5&4&0&0&0
\\\noalign{\medskip}{\frac {19}{140}}&{\frac {1}{70}}&0&0&5&0&0&0
\end {array} \right].$$ Now we present another solution for this problem. If we consider the matrix $$A=\left[ \begin {array}{cccccccc} \lambda_{{1}}&-\lambda_{{7}}-\lambda_
{{3}}-\lambda_{{2}}&0&-\lambda_{{8}}-\lambda_{{5}}-\lambda_{{4}}&0&-
\lambda_{{6}}&0&0\\\noalign{\medskip}0&\lambda_{{2}}&-\lambda_{{7}}-
\lambda_{{3}}&a_{{24}}&a_{{25}}&a_{{26}}&0&0\\\noalign{\medskip}0&0&
\lambda_{{3}}&a_{{34}}&a_{{35}}&a_{{36}}&-\lambda_{{7}}&0
\\\noalign{\medskip}0&0&0&\lambda_{{4}}&-\lambda_{{8}}-\lambda_{{5}}&a
_{{46}}&a_{{47}}&0\\\noalign{\medskip}0&0&0&0&\lambda_{{5}}&a_{{56}}&a
_{{57}}&-\lambda_{{8}}\\\noalign{\medskip}0&0&0&0&0&\lambda_{{6}}&0&0
\\\noalign{\medskip}0&0&0&0&0&0&\lambda_{{7}}&0\\\noalign{\medskip}0&0
&0&0&0&0&0&\lambda_{{8}}\end {array} \right],$$ and the matrix $$L=\left[ \begin {array}{cccccccc} 1&0&0&0&0&0&0&0\\\noalign{\medskip}1&
1&0&0&0&0&0&0\\\noalign{\medskip}l_{{31}}&1&1&0&0&0&0&0
\\\noalign{\medskip}1&0&0&1&0&0&0&0\\\noalign{\medskip}l_{{51}}&l_{{52
}}&l_{{53}}&1&1&0&0&0\\\noalign{\medskip}1&0&0&0&0&1&0&0
\\\noalign{\medskip}l_{{71}}&l_{{72}}&1&0&0&0&1&0\\\noalign{\medskip}l
_{{81}}&l_{{82}}&l_{{83}}&l_{{84}}&1&0&0&1\end {array} \right],$$ again if we select $a_{24}=-2,a_{34}=a_{25}=a_{35}=a_{47}=a_{57}=0, a_{46}=-5,a_{56}=-2,a_{26}=a_{26}=-5$ and $l_{31}=l_{51}=2, l_{52}=\frac14, l_{53}=0, l_{71}=\frac43,l_{72}=\frac{-2}{3},l_{81}=2,l_{82}=l_{83}=0,l_{84}=1$, then the nonnegative matrix $$C=\left[ \begin {array}{cccccccc} 0&1&0&2&0&5&0&0\\\noalign{\medskip}2&0
&3&0&0&0&0&0\\\noalign{\medskip}0&{\frac {22}{3}}&0&2&0&0&5&0
\\\noalign{\medskip}0&0&0&0&4&0&0&0\\\noalign{\medskip}1/2&7/4&3/4&1/2
&0&7/4&0&5\\\noalign{\medskip}5&1&0&2&0&0&0&0\\\noalign{\medskip}5/3&0
&0&4&0&5&0&0\\\noalign{\medskip}5/4&3/4&0&1&5&3&0&0\end {array}
\right] ,$$ is solution of problem.
### The spectrum with $k$ negative eigenvalues
In this subsection we consider the extended of problem.
Consider $ \sigma = \{ \lambda_1, \lambda_2, \cdots , \lambda_n \} $ where $ \lambda_1 \ge \lambda_2 \ge \cdots \ge \lambda_{n-k} \ge 0 > \lambda_{n-k+1} \ge \cdots \ge \lambda_k $, then there exist a set of nonnegative matrices that $ \sigma $ is its spectrum.
For construction of matrix $A$ and $C$ we will do as follows.\
In main diagonal elements of upper triangular matrix $ A $, the all elements of $ \sigma$ in order $ \lambda_1 \ge \lambda_2 \ge \cdots \ge \lambda_n $, we put the entries $ (n-k, n), (n-k-1, n-1), \cdots , (n-2k, n-k) $ the real numbers $ \alpha_i \ge -\lambda_i $ that $ i= n-k, \cdots, n-2k $ respectively. In addition the entries $ (n-j-1, n-j) $ for $ j=k, \cdots 2k-1 $ we set $ -(\alpha_{n-j} -\lambda_{n-j}) $ respectively, and another element between rows $1$ and $n-k$ and between $\alpha_i$ and $ \lambda_i $ we put appreciate real numbers whereas the matrix $ C= LAL^{-1} $ be nonnegative.\
We choose the matrix $ L $ a lower unit triangular matrix and in the last row of $ L $ we consider $ 0 \le l_{r1}, l_{r2}, \cdots, l_{rk} $ that $ \sum_{i=1}^{k} l_{ni} =k $ and element of row $ n-1 $ all be $ 1 $ for $ j=1, 2, \cdots, k-1$, and row $ n-2 $ all element from $ j=1$, to $ n-2 $ be $ 1 $, and the row $ n-k $ we have $ n-k+1 $ element $ 1 $ and another element be zero. We repeat above method with less that one element for row $n-k-1$, i.e. in row $n-k-1$ we set $0 \le l_{n-k-1, 1}, l_{n-k-1, 2}, \cdots , l_{n-k-1, n-k-1}$, with $\sum_{j=1}^{k-1}l_{n-k-1,j}=k-1$ with choosing above method then the matrix $ C = LA L^{-1} $ is nonnegative.
Complex spectrum
================
In this section we assume that $\sigma \in \mathbb{C}$. We recall that $\sigma = \bar{\sigma}$ is necessary condition for solvable problem. At first we consider the case $n=3$, this case has two complex conjugate eigenvalues and a Perron eigenvalue $\lambda_1 \ge | \lambda_2 \pm i \mu_2 | $ and for $n=4$ we have two real eigenvalues and a pair complex conjugate eigenvalue. For $n=5$ or more then we have several case that in continue we study all of them.
In this case we introduce the complex unit lower triangular matrix as follows:
The elements of main diagonal unit lower triangular matrix $L$ in this case are $ i$ or $1$.
The case $n=3$
--------------
We consider this case in two parts. At first we assume that $\lambda_2 > 0$ in $\sigma = \{ \lambda_1, \lambda_2\pm i \mu_2 \}$ and in another case $\lambda_2 <0$.
***Case 1. $\lambda_2>0$***: Now we bring an important Theorem from [@soto] and by helping unit lower triangular matrix in complex case, we find a nonnegative matrix for this Theorem.
Let σ$\sigma=\{\lambda_1, -\lambda_2 \pm i \mu_2\} $, with $ \lambda_2>0 $, $ \mu_2>0 $ and $\lambda_1 \ge \sqrt{\lambda_2^2+\mu_2^2} $. Then, $ \sigma $ is realizable by a nonnegative matrix $ A $ if and only if $$\lambda_1 \ge 2 \lambda_2 + 3 \max \{0, \frac{\mu_2}{\sqrt{3}}-\lambda_2\}.$$
Now we present solution of this Theorem by our method. We consider the matrix $A$ and $L$ as follows: $$A= \left[ \begin {array}{ccc}
\lambda _{1}&i \mu _{2}&0\\
0&\lambda _{2}-i\mu _{2}&-i\mu _{2}\\
0&0&\lambda _{2}+i\mu _{2}\end {array} \right], \qquad
L=\left[ \begin {array}{ccc} 1&0&0\\
l_{{21}}&i&0\\
1&1&1\end {array} \right],$$ then we have $$C=\left[ \begin {array}{ccc}
-l_{21}\mu _{2}+\lambda_{1}&\mu _{2}&0\\
-\mu _{2}({l_{21}}^{2}+1)+l_{21}(\lambda _{1}-\lambda _{2})&l_{21}\mu _{2}+\lambda _{2}&\mu _{2}\\
-\lambda _{2}+\lambda _{1}&0&\lambda _{2}
\end {array} \right],$$ and if $\frac{(\lambda_1-\lambda_2)-\sqrt{(\lambda_1-\lambda_2)^2-4\mu_2^2}}{2\mu_2}\le l_{21}\le \frac{(\lambda_1-\lambda_2)+\sqrt{(\lambda_1-\lambda_2)^2-4\mu_2^2}}{2\mu_2}$ then $C$ is real nonnegative matrix.
***Case 2. $\lambda_2<0$***: In this case the matrices $A$ and $L$ present as $$A=\left[ \begin {array}{ccc} \lambda _{1}&i\mu _{2}&0
\\ 0&\lambda _{2}-i\mu _{2}&-i\mu _{2}
\\ 0&0&\lambda _{2}+i\mu _{2}\end {array} \right],
\qquad
L=\left[ \begin {array}{ccc} 1&0&0\\ \noalign{\medskip}l_{21}&i&0
\\ \noalign{\medskip}{\frac {{\lambda _{2}}^{2}}{{\mu _{2}}^{2}}}+1&{
\frac {-\lambda _{2}}{\mu _{2}}}i+1&1\end {array} \right],$$ then the matrix $C=LAL^{-1}$ find as $$\left[ \begin {array}{ccc} -l_{21}\,\mu _{2}+\lambda _{1}&\mu _{2}&0
\\ \noalign{\medskip}-{\frac {{\mu _{2}}^{2}{l_{21}}^{2}-l_{21}\,
\lambda _{1}\,\mu _{2}+2\,\mu _{2}\,l_{21}\,\lambda _{2}+{\mu _{2}}^{2
}+{\lambda _{2}}^{2}}{\mu _{2}}}&l_{21}\,\mu _{2}+2\,\lambda _{2}&\mu
_{2}\\ \noalign{\medskip}{\frac { \left( {\mu _{2}}^{2}+{\lambda _{2}}
^{2} \right) \lambda _{1}}{{\mu _{2}}^{2}}}&0&0\end {array} \right].$$ If $l_{21}$ lies in the interval $$\frac {\lambda _{1}-2\,\lambda _{2}-\sqrt {-4\,{\mu _{2}}^{2}+{
\lambda _{1}}^{2}-4\,\lambda _{1}\,\lambda _{2}}}{2\mu _{2}}
\le l_{21}
\le \frac {\lambda _{1}-2\,\lambda _{2}+\sqrt {-4\,{\mu _{2}}^{2}+{
\lambda _{1}}^{2}-4\,\lambda _{1}\,\lambda _{2}}}{2\mu _{2}},$$ then the matrix $C$ is nonnegative.
The case n=4
------------
The case $n=4$ very similar to the previous case. Let $\sigma = \{ \lambda_1, \lambda_2, \lambda_3 \pm \mu_3 i\}$ with nonnegative summation. If $\lambda_2>0$ and $\lambda_1$ is the Perron eigenvalue, then by the cases 2 of subsection 6.1, we construct the $3 \times 3$ nonnegative matrix $C_1$ and we add the value of $\lambda_2$ on the main diagonal and find $4 \times 4$ matrix $C= \left ( \begin{array}{cc}
C_1 & 0 \\
0 & \lambda_2
\end{array} \right ).$ The matrix $C$ is solution of problem and has spectrum $\sigma$.
If $\lambda_2 <0$, we construction the matrix $C$, by combination of subsection 6.1 and some of the related real above sections i.e. we add the value $-\lambda_2$ in the first row of matrix $A$ in the same column that the value $\lambda_2$ lies on the main diagonal of matrix $A$, and the another entries of matrix $A$ and the matrix $L$ are the combination of above real sections and above complex subsection is constructed.
Consider $\sigma=\{6, -2, -2-i, -2 +i\}$. Since the sum of $\lambda_i$ equal zero, then by our method we find a nonnegative matrix with zero trace. For this we consider two matrices $A$ and $L$ as follows: $$A=\left[ \begin {array}{cccc} 6&2&i&0\\\noalign{\medskip}0&-2&0&0
\\\noalign{\medskip}0&0&-2-i&-i\\\noalign{\medskip}0&0&0&-2+i
\end {array} \right], \qquad
L=\left[ \begin {array}{cccc} 1&0&0&0\\\noalign{\medskip}1&1&0&0
\\\noalign{\medskip}l_{{31}}&0&i&0\\\noalign{\medskip}5&0&1+2\,i&1
\end {array} \right],$$ then the matrix $C$ equals $$C=LAL^{-1}=\left[ \begin {array}{cccc} 4-l_{{31}}&2&1&0\\\noalign{\medskip}6-l_{
{31}}&0&1&0\\\noalign{\medskip}8\,l_{{31}}-{l_{{31}}}^{2}-5&2\,l_{{31}
}&l_{{31}}-4&1\\\noalign{\medskip}20&10&0&0\end {array} \right],$$ if $4-\sqrt{11} \leq l_{31} \leq 4$, then the matrix $C$ is solution of problem.
The case $n \ge 5$
------------------
For $n\ge 5$ we combine the above complex case and above real cases and find solution. We will give some examples that already are solved and again solve them by our method.
[@Robiano2018] Let $\sigma=\{12, i\sqrt{3}, -i\sqrt{3} , 4+3i, 4-3i\}$, with nonnegative real part of complex eigenvalues, then there exist a nonnegative matrix that $\sigma$ is spectrum.
For solving this problem we consider two m matrices $A$ and $L$ as follows: $$A=\left[ \begin {array}{ccccc} 12&i\sqrt {3}&0&3\,i&0
\\\noalign{\medskip}0&-i\sqrt {3}&-i\sqrt {3}&0&0\\\noalign{\medskip}0
&0&i\sqrt {3}&0&0\\\noalign{\medskip}0&0&0&4-3\,i&-3\,i
\\\noalign{\medskip}0&0&0&0&4+3\,i\end {array} \right], \qquad
L=\left[ \begin {array}{ccccc} 1&0&0&0&0\\\noalign{\medskip}l_{{21}}&i&0
&0&0\\\noalign{\medskip}1&1&1&0&0\\\noalign{\medskip}l_{{41}}&0&0&i&0
\\\noalign{\medskip}1&0&0&1&1\end {array} \right],$$ then the following matrix $C$, $$C=\left[ \begin {array}{ccccc} 12-l_{{21}}\sqrt {3}-3\,l_{{41}}&\sqrt {
3}&0&3&0\\\noalign{\medskip}-{l_{{21}}}^{2}\sqrt {3}+ \left( 12-3\,l_{
{41}} \right) l_{{21}}-\sqrt {3}&l_{{21}}\sqrt {3}&\sqrt {3}&3\,l_{{21
}}&0\\\noalign{\medskip}12-3\,l_{{41}}&0&0&3&0\\\noalign{\medskip}8\,l
_{{41}}-l_{{41}}\sqrt {3}l_{{21}}-3-3\,{l_{{41}}}^{2}&l_{{41}}\sqrt {3
}&0&3\,l_{{41}}+4&3\\\noalign{\medskip}8-l_{{21}}\sqrt {3}&\sqrt {3}&0
&0&4\end {array} \right].$$ is nonnegative and has spectrum $\sigma$, if satisfies the conditions $$\begin{aligned}
&0\le l_{41}\le 4-\frac{2}{3}\sqrt{3}, \\
&-1/2\,\sqrt {3}l_{41}+2\,\sqrt {3}-1/2\,\sqrt {3\,{l_{41}}^{2}-24\,l_{
41}+44}
\le l_{21}, \\
& -1/2\,\sqrt {3}l_{41}+2\,\sqrt {3}+1/2\,\sqrt {3\,{l_{41}}^{2}-24\,l_{
41}+44}\ge l_{21}.\end{aligned}$$
Let $\sigma=\{6, -2-3i , -2 +3i , -1 -i , -1 +i\}$, with negative real part of complex eigenvalues, then there exist a nonnegative matrix that $\sigma$ is spectrum.
For this problem the matrices $A$ and $L$ will be as: $$A=\left[ \begin {array}{ccccc} 6&3\,i&0&i&0\\\noalign{\medskip}0&-2-3\,
i&-3\,i&0&0\\\noalign{\medskip}0&0&-2+3\,i&0&0\\\noalign{\medskip}0&0&0
&-1-i&-i\\\noalign{\medskip}0&0&0&0&-1+i\end {array} \right],
L=\left[ \begin {array}{ccccc} 1&0&0&0&0\\\noalign{\medskip}l_{{21}}&i&0
&0&0\\\noalign{\medskip}{\frac {13}{9}}&1+2/3\,i&1&0&0
\\\noalign{\medskip}l_{{41}}&0&0&i&0\\\noalign{\medskip}2&0&0&1+i&1
\end {array} \right]$$ then the matrix $C$ is computed as: $$C=LAL^{-1} =\left[ \begin {array}{ccccc} 6-3\,l_{{21}}-l_{{41}}&3&0&1&0
\\\noalign{\medskip}10\,l_{{21}}-3\,{l_{{21}}}^{2}-13/3-l_{{21}}l_{{41
}}&3\,l_{{21}}-4&3&l_{{21}}&0\\\noalign{\medskip}{\frac {26}{3}}-{
\frac {13}{9}}\,l_{{41}}&0&0&{\frac {13}{9}}&0\\\noalign{\medskip}8\,l
_{{41}}-3\,l_{{21}}l_{{41}}-2-{l_{{41}}}^{2}&3\,l_{{41}}&0&l_{{41}}-2&
1\\\noalign{\medskip}12-6\,l_{{21}}&6&0&0&0\end {array} \right].$$ To obtain the nonnegative matrix $C$ it is necessary that $l_{21} =\frac43$ and $l_{41}=2$, then the matrix $C$ is nonnegative and has spectrum $\sigma$ and the values of $l_{21}$ and $ l_{41}$ are unique in this example.
[XX]{} , [Row stochastic matrices similar to doubly stochastic matrices]{}, Linear and Multilinear Algebra 10 (2) (1981) 113-130.
, [A note on an inverse problem for nonnegative matrices]{}, Linear and Multilinear Algebra 6 (1978) 83–90.
, On the inverse eigenvalue problem for nonnegative matrices of order two to five, Linear Algebra and its Applications, 436, (2012) 1771-1790.
, [Existence and construction of nonnegative matrices with complex spectrum]{}, Linear Algebra and its Applications 368 (2003) 53–-69.
, Eigenvalues of nonnegative symmetric matrices, Linear Algebra Appl. 9 (1974) 119-142.
, [The inverse eigenvalue problem for nonnegative matrices]{}, Linear Algebra and its Applications 393(2004)365–374.
, [An inequlity for nonnegative matrices and the inverse eigenvalue problem]{}, Linear and Multilinear Algebra 41(1996)367-375.
, [A characterization of trace zero nonnegative $5\times 5$ matrices]{}, Linear Algebra Appl. 302–303(1999)295–302.
, An inverse eigenvalue problem for symmetric and normal matrices, Linear Algebra Appl. 248 (1996) 101-109.
, [Construction of nonnegative matrices and the inverse eigenvalue problem]{}, Linear and Multilinear Algebra, Vol. 53, No. 2, March 2005, 85–-96.
, [The nonnegative inverse eigenvalue problem from the coefficients of the characteristic polynomial. EBL digraphs]{}, Linear Algebra and its Applications 426 (2007) 729–-773.
, [Some Results On Matrix Spectra]{}, PhD thesis, University College Dublin, 1998.
, [Eigenvalues of nonnegative matrices]{}, Linear Algebra Appl. 266 (1997) 261–-270.
, [A unified view on compensation criteria in the real nonnegative inverse eigenvalue problem]{}, Linear Algebra and its Applications 428 (2008) 2574–-2584.
, [A characterization of trace zero nonnegative $5\times 5$ matrices]{}, Linear Algebra and its Applications 302-303 (1999) 295-302.
, [Universal realizability of spectra with two positive eigenvalues]{}, Linear Algebra and its Applications 545 (2018) 226–-239.
, [Realizable lists via the spectra of structured matrices]{}, Linear Algebra and its Applications 534 (2017) 51-72. , [Stochastic matrices with real characteristic values]{}, Dokl. Akad. Nauk. SSSR, 66(1949), 343–345. , [Existence and construction of nonnegative matrices with complex spectrum]{}, Linear Algebra and its Applications 368 (2003) 53-–69.
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Hi, I am using flotran to simulate a 2-d model of a cylinder rotating in a flow field. With a fine mesh on the rotating cylinder in could take hours to input the VX and VY componants of each node, is there a simpler way or a macro that can input the values for me?? Any help is much appriciated..
|December 5, 2004, 16:53||
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Re: Rotating cylinder
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Are you actually doing Cartesian coordinates (x - y) or cylindrical (radial-angular)?
Are you wanting to define velocity components as initial conditions for a transient or iterative solution? That is, every node on your mesh. Or are you defining velocities ot be used as boundary conditions on the boundary of your computational domain only?
Is your problem specific to flotran and its input mechanism - or would you have the same problem if you were writing a fortran or c++ code to solve it?
|December 6, 2004, 05:01||
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Re: Rotating cylinder
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I can use either co-ordinate system although I believe cylindrical to be a better option. My domain is an annulus I want to define an x and y velocity componant for every node on the surface of the inner cirle. I believe if I use 360 nodes it will make the macro simpler.I have calculated the values of these componants for a speed of 100rpm and could input them individually,but this would take hours and would have to be repeated for any other speed i wish to investigate. This is specifically a flotran problem
|December 6, 2004, 11:46||
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Re: Rotating cylinder
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I don't know the nomenclature for flotran.
If you're using cylindrical coordinates, I'd expect the velocities on the inner circle (the boundary conditions for that boundary) to be given as a radial and a cylindrical velocity component at each node node (not x and y components at each node).
In fact, wouldn't the angular velocity on that boundary be the same at every node (the angular velocity in radians/sec x the radius of the inner boundary)? The radial velocity at the inner boundary might be a function of angle, depending on your particular problem.
If it's stictly a flotran problem, this is as far as I can go. Surely they've made something like this easy?
|December 6, 2004, 12:44||
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thanks for your help, but i dont think its possible to enter a velocity load in flotran as angular velocity. Another problem i have is finding lift and drag coefficents from the solution I think it has something to do with the pressure integral at the inner boundary? | https://www.cfd-online.com/Forums/main/8414-rotating-cylinder.html |
The reliefs and sculptures of these souls, their grace and mystery caught my eye. Thinking more about what linked these characters to each other, I learned that they share deep historical and cultural roots.
In many ways, Medusa and mermaids are kindred spirits. Both are mythical, hybrid creatures. Being part human, they feel and think like us. Being part another animal and in some cases even a goddess, they have powers and abilities of this being. The strongest link between Medusa and mermaids is their connection to the ocean.
Although Medusa was mortal, her parents (Keto, Phorcys) were ancient Greek sea deities. Her grandparents were Gaia (Earth) and Pontus (Ocean). The stories vary about the origin of Medusa’s head of live snakes. One myth places part of the blame on the Greek sea god Poseidon. Depending on the version of this myth that you may find — in a temple of Athena, Poseidon and Medusa acted on their mutual attraction or Poseidon forced himself upon her. In revenge, Athena turned Medusa’s hair into snakes and made her so ugly that all who gazed upon her turned into stone.
About the origin of certain mermaids, there is a common theme of transformation: they cross the line between being mortal or divine and being a mermaid. Han’s Christian Andersen’s Little Mermaid was from the sea. With the help of a sea witch, she became human, with tragic consequences. The Greek mermaid Thessalonike was once Alexander the Great’s sister. After learning about her brother’s death, she tried to end her life by jumping into the sea. Instead, she turned into a mermaid. The Assyrian goddess Atargatis turned herself into a mermaid after unintentionally killing her mortal lover.
As you can see, there’s a lot of grief and doom in these stories. Although these days, we read stories about and see representations of mermaids who are beneficent, loving, beautiful, and even cute (Disney’s mermaid Ariel), there are older tales about malevolent mermaids. Some were omens of disaster and dangerous weather. In Italian, mermaid is “sirena”, in French “sirène”. Both words derive from the mythical Greek Sirens. Some myths describe the Sirens as women with wings who lived on a mythical island and had beautiful voices. The beauty of the their voices lured sailors to bring their ships close to their island, where the reefs wrecked their ships and sometimes brought sailors to their deaths. When angered, the Greek mermaid Thessalonike turned into a Gorgon, a dreadful female creature, who destroyed sailors and their ships.
Medusa was also a Gorgon. One myth explains the origins of the coral reefs in the Red Sea. After slaying Medusa, Perseus unintentionally spilled some of her blood onto the seaweed in the Red Sea. Her blood petrified the seaweed into coral reefs, areas where sailors need to navigate with care. Similar to some of the older mermaid tales, the more ancient representations of Medusa show her as a true Gorgon, a monster with huge eyes, tongue sticking out, and snake hair standing on end. More modern representations show her as a beautiful young woman.
The stories of Medusa and mermaids share common themes. The power and danger of female beauty, ugliness, love, and rage. The ocean as a place of both origin and destination. Travels on the ocean as a journey with unfortunate, sometimes deadly, endings and also as a passage with smooth waters and fair weather. Medusa and mermaids reveal our complex relationship with the sea. | http://hjsdesigns.com/2013/11/16/medusa-mermaids/?replytocom=93 |
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Overview of South Dakota Labor Market
See an overview of the labor market in South Dakota, including newly released statewide labor force and nonfarm worker data for February 2017.
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A real time labor market Information line graph, "LMI Barometer," graphically monitors fluctuations in the state's labor market, comparing the number of South Dakota residents seeking employment with the number of available jobs and the number of New Hires reported, using the most current data possible. See the LMI Barometer.
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We took a look at the Retail Trade industry in South Dakota, analyzing employment trends and pay since 2001. Read the Retail Trade article.
2016 annual average labor force data available
The virtual labor market data system has been updated to include 2016 annual average labor force data for statewide South Dakota and the United States. Additionally, 2012-2016 monthly and annual average data for both those areas has been revised. Both the seasonally adjusted and not seasonally adjusted series have been updated. Use our menu for labor force data to retrieve the data.
Revised substate data will be published April 21, 2017.
Seasonally adjusted December labor force data for metro areas available
Seasonally adjusted labor force data for South Dakota's Metropolitan Statistical Areas (MSA) of Rapid City and Sioux Falls for January 2017 were released March 17 by the U.S. Department of Labor's Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). See the BLS news release or view the data specifically for South Dakota's MSAs.
February 2017 data will be released April 5, 2017. Historical data back to 1990 for all metro areas nationwide is available to download in a .txt file from BLS website.
Release dates
Click here to find out when the next data release from LMIC will be. | http://dlr.sd.gov/lmic/whats_new.aspx |
Q:
python regular expression pattern * is not working as expected
As per online python google class, I found the following documentation.
'*' -- 0 or more occurrences of the pattern to its left
But, When I tried the following, it is not giving expected result.
I am expecting 'iiiiiiiiiiiiii' as output. But it is giving '' as output.
May I know the reason please?
re.search(r'i*','biiiiiiiiiiiiiig').group()
A:
* means 0 or more but re.search would return only the first match. Here the first match is an empty string. So you get an empty string as output.
Change * to + to get the desired output.
>>> re.search(r'i*','biiiiiiiiiiiiiig').group()
''
>>> re.search(r'i+','biiiiiiiiiiiiiig').group()
'iiiiiiiiiiiiii'
Consider this example.
>>> re.search(r'i*','biiiiiiiiiiiiiig').group()
''
>>> re.search(r'i*','iiiiiiiiiiiiiig').group()
'iiiiiiiiiiiiii'
Here i* returns iiiiiiiiiiiiii because at first , the regex engine tries to match zero or more times of i. Once it finds i at the very first, it matches greedily all the i's like in the second example, so you get iiiiiiii as output and if the i is not at the first (consider this biiiiiiig string), i* pattern would match all the empty string before the every non-match, in our case it matches all the empty strings that exists before b and g. Because re.search returns only the first match, you should get an empty string because of the non-match b at the first.
Why i got three empty strings as output in the below example?
>>> re.findall(r'i*','biiiiiiiiiiiiiig')
['', 'iiiiiiiiiiiiii', '', '']
As i explained earlier, for every non-match you should get an empty string as match. Let me explain. Regex engine parses the input from left to right.
First empty string as output is because the pattern i* won't match the character b but it matches the empty string which exists before the b.
Now the engine moves to the next character that is i which would be matched by our pattern i*, so it greedily matches the following i's . So you get iiiiiiiiiiiiii as the second.
After matching all the i's, it moves to the next character that is g which isn't matched by our pattern i* . So i* matches the empty string before the non-match g. That's the reason for the third empty string.
Now our pattern i* matches the empty string which exists before the end of the line. That's the reason for fourth empty string.
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What’s the best way to walk on ice to minimize the risk of falling? To safely traverse ice from the most recent inclement weather, follow the advice below:
MOVE SLOWLY AND STEADILY.
Clearly, instinct and common sense kicks in the moment you approach the slick surface, telling us it’s virtually impossible (and not really wise) to sprint across an ice-covered driveway. Slow and easy wins the proverbial race, right?
Yes, minimizing forward and backward force is indeed essential when walking on ice.
TAKE SHORTER STEPS.
What does reducing forward-and-backward force mean practically? Taking shorter steps. When we do so, the forces applied against the ground in forward and backwards directions are reduced.
AVOID MELTING ICE.
How slippery ice becomes can vary by temperature—so being aware of temperatures can help you figure out how easy or challenging it may be to cross ice. Ice is more slippery as it is melting so be extra careful when you encounter ice with warmer temperatures.
GO AROUND SLOPES AND STAIRS WHEN YOU CAN.
You should also be mindful of the surface you’re about to set foot on. A flat surface is one thing, but a slant will probably leave a score of Ice 1, Human 0 as gravity will take over.
Stairs can make navigating ice even more treacherous, but we know it’s not always possible to avoid them. When dealing with icy steps, be sure to use handrails, keeping your hands out of your pockets, and continue to move slowly.
KEEP AN EYE OUT FOR CHANGING SURFACES.
Then there are circumstances where the surface characteristics can change without us realizing it. Don’t fret if you’re walking on a straight, dry surface and suddenly encounter an icy patch you weren’t expecting. We pay closer attention to surface characteristics than we may consciously realize, and we adjust our stride patterns automatically.
WEAR THE RIGHT SHOES.
And don’t forget the benefits of appropriate footwear. Consider a shoe’s material properties, noting that a rigid leather sole is far from ideal as it offers a significantly weaker grip compared to a rubber sole. Of course, traction-improving treads, cleats, or spikes can help too.
WHEN ALL ELSE FAILS, WADDLE.
Consider taking an ice-walking cue from those waddling tuxedoed ice pros: Walk like a penguin. Shuffling helps keep your weight in a straight-down stance, allowing your feet to carry your weight carefully and minimize slipping.
Advice found from “7 Science-Approved Tips for Walking Across Ice” at mentalfloss.com by Jennifer Lea Reynolds on February 16, 2018. | https://www.raleighortho.com/blog/roc-news/preventing-slips-falls-on-the-ice/ |
The problem of intersymbol interference resulting from transmission of data on dispersive communication channels is known and an equalization process is effected on the received signal in order to estimate the individual data symbols which were originally transmitted. Various types of equalizer are know but of particular interest in the present context are so-called Viterbi equalizers based on the Viterbi algorithm, which are a form of maximum likelihood (ML) detector.
Furthermore, for the purpose of forward error correction, data may be convolutionally encoded before it is transmitted. (Forward error correction means that the data is corrected at the receiver without the need for retransmission). A Viterbi detector may also be used for decoding convolutionally encoded data.
In the context of ML detection, a trellis diagram is commonly used to represent the progression of states with the passage of time. It is noted here that the number of states S is given by the equation S=N.sup.c where N is the number of symbols in the data alphabet used and C is the constraint length (i.e. extent of intersymbol interference). Thus for a 2-symbol alphabet and a constraint length of 4 there are 16 possible states.
The term `node` is usually used to designate a particular state at a particular time on a trellis diagram.
The arc or path representing the transition between two states (nodes) adjacent in time is known as a `branch` and the associated `branch metric` is an indication of the likelihood of the particular transition occurring. The `partial path metric` represents the overall probability that a particular partial path to the left of the node under consideration represents the correct sequence of state transitions. The term `partial path` is construed accordingly. This is the meaning of the terms partial path and partial path metric as they are used in the present specification, but the terms `path` and `path metric` may also be used to convey the same meaning. The overall path i.e. the path between the beginning and the end of the trellis which has the maximum path metric is the maximum likelihood path which essentially represents the best estimate of the data symbols actually transmitted.
For the avoidance of doubt, it is emphasized here that the path metric is a numerical value indicating the relative likelihood (probability) of a particular transition taking place. Throughout this specification the convention has been adopted that the maximum path metric represents the maximum likelihood, but depending on the manner in which the path metric is determined the converse may equally hold true, namely that the maximum likelihood may be represented by a minimum path metric. Therefore the term `maximum` as used in this specification must be understood to include `minimum` and likewise the words `larger` and `smaller` (and like terms) must be understood to include their converse meanings, viz `smaller` and `larger` respectively.
In theory a maximum likelihood (ML) or maximum a-posteriori (MAP) detector may be used to calculate the branch metrics for every branch in the trellis diagram and then determine the path metric for every path in the trellis diagram, and finally choose the path for which the overall path metric is a maximum. The sequence of symbols corresponding to this path is the estimate of the symbols actually transmitted. The difficulty with this approach is that the number of paths increases exponentially as the trellis diagram is traversed from left to right.
The Viterbi detector (mentioned earlier) is a computationally more efficient version of a ML detector which exploits the special structure of the detector to achieve a complexity that grows linearly rather than exponentially along the trellis. Hence, a Viterbi detector has the advantage that it requires a constant computation rate per unit time. For each node, the Viterbi detector selects the path having the largest partial path metric, called the `survivor path` for that node. All partial paths other than the survivor path are discarded because any other partial path has by definition a smaller partial path metric, and hence if it replaced the survivor path in any overall path, the path metric would be smaller.
At each stage of the trellis it is not known which node the optimal path must pass through and so it is necessary to retain one survivor path for each and every node. The symbol associated with the survivor path, called the `survivor`, and the associated path metric have to be stored in memory for each node at a stage representing a particular time in order for the algorithm to proceed to the next stage at time increment t+1.
Only when the terminal node of the trellis has been reached is it possible to determine the unique path of maximum likelihood representing the estimation of the symbols actually transmitted. It is only at this stage that the estimated data symbols can be read off by effecting a "trace-back" along the identified maximum likelihood path.
The decisions made by a conventional Viterbi detector are `hard` decisions in the sense that the estimated data symbols are restricted to correspond exactly to the data symbols of the particular alphabet used. For example, in the case of a 2-symbol alphabet the estimated data symbols are in strict binary digitized form (i.e. expressed in terms of only two levels, e.g. 0 and 1).
The known Viterbi detector has the drawback that an appreciable time delay occurs between detection and output. There are two main factors contributing to this delay. Firstly there is the so-called "truncation length" which is the temporal length of the survivor information stored in memory and secondly there is the so-called "trace-back delay" which is the time taken to process the survivor information, i.e. the time between storing the survivor information in memory and outputting the estimated data decisions. The total time delay may typically amount to, say 70 bits which, by way of example, at a bit transmission rate of 270kb/s would correspond to a significant time delay of 0.26ms. This time lag is undesirable in data receivers generally, but is especially detrimental in the case of voice communication applications.
In addition it has to be noted that a Viterbi detector requires substantial memory capacity to store the survivor information.
European patent application EP-A-0,302,330 relates to a method of evaluating metrics for Viterbi decoding of convoluted code signals in which individual path decisions are made for each state by comparing the pair of `opposing` path metrics, i.e. the path metrics associated respectively with two different symbol types [designated M.sub.A (x,k+1) and M.sub.B (x,k+1) in the present application]. For each state the first path metric [M.sub.A (x,k+1)] of the opposing pair is calculated by adding the current branch metric [b(x,k+1.vertline.x.sub.A,k)] relating to a first symbol type [A] to the respective previous partial path metric [M(x.sub.A,k)] and the second path metric [M.sub.B (x,k+1)] of the pair is calculated by adding the current opposed branch metric [b(x,k+1.vertline.x.sub.B,k)], i.e. relating to a second symbol type [B], to the respective previous partial path metric [M(x.sub.B,k)]. The two opposing path metrics are differenced [M.sub.A (x,k+1)-M.sub. B (x,k+1)] to yield a path decision for each state. Thus, in the case of sixteen states, sixteen path decisions (denoted DEC0, DEC1, . . . DEC15 in EP-A-0,302,330) will be made. Although that patent specification is not explicit in this regard, it is assumed that these path decisions are all stored in memory for selection and read back at a subsequent trace-back stage in the conventional manner of a Viterbi decoder. Also, for each state the two opposing path metrics are compared and the minimum value (MSEL0, MSEL1,...MSEL15) is selected for use as the previous partial path metric at the next transition stage of the trellis. A further stage (M-AND and PRE-MI) is provided for comparing all the minimum metrics (MSEL0, MSEL1, . . . MSEL15) and selecting the overall minimum value (MMIN) which is subtracted as an offset from each of the minimum metric values (MSEL0, MSEL1, . . . MSEL15) at each of the sixteen individual stages (viz. at subtractors SUB0, SUB1, . . . SUB15) in a process which may effectively be regarded as normalization. Additionally, the maximum of all the sixteen minimum metric values may be determined. The maximum and minimum values of the complete set of minimum metrics (SEL0, SEL1, . . . SEL15) may be differenced to provide a so-called differential metric which (as mentioned in passing in EP-A-0,302,330) may be used, for example, for synchronization or for phase ambiguity resolution during Viterbi decoding.
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#08.6 _ Other science fields and new techniques can help develop the current theories
Alone, volcanology and generically geology can’t fully explain most of the processes involved in the dynamics of Earth’s hydrosphere. For this reason, interaction with other sciences are of crucial importance. Among these, planetary science, atmospheric science, paleochemistry, astrobiology and many others.
For example, radiogenic nuclides have been widely exploited in geochronology but represent also an important tool for the exploration of this Big Idea. If compared to the quantity of the radioactive 'parent isotope' in a system, the quantity of the radiogenic 'daughter product' is used as a radiometric dating tool.
Some of the most important radiogenic isotope systems used in geology
Radiogenic isotopes tracers also permit to measure the age of a rock exploiting its “DNA like” (or “fingerprints”, if you prefer!) evidences. Variations in the abundance of these isotopes compared with the quantity of a non-radiogenic isotope of the same element, can reveal information about the age of a rock or the source of air or water.
In isotope geochemistry, the enrichment δ represent the ratio of heavy isotope to light isotope in the sample over the ratio of a standard:
In the equation, the two stable isotopes of carbon (i.e. 12C and 13C) are ratioed. Other stable isotopes exploited in geology are 14N and 15N (measure the amount of exchange of air between the stratosphere and troposphere using data from the greenhouse gas N2O) and 16O, 17O and 18O (track water movement, paleoclimate and atmospheric gases such as O3 and CO2). Examples of radiogenic isotopes of geological interest are Ar-Ar, K-Ar, Pb-Pb, U-Pb, Sm-Nd,
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- Why are animals monogamous?
As we’ve seen in previous posts (about birds, mammals and insects), monogamy is common in some parts of the animal kingdom and rare in others, but the way in which it is practised varies a great deal. But what are the advantages of being faithful to a mating partner? Generally speaking, it makes sense for animals to be promiscuous; mating with a lot of partners increases the chance of producing a large number of offspring as well as increasing the chance of having the opportunity to mate with the most desirable partner. However, monogamy does have some advantages, as demonstrated by many of the species we have already discussed. | https://inyatigamelodge.com/2014/07/30/mating-for-life-part-4-why-are-animals-monogamous/ |
Today’s blog post is a part of Bridgeworth’s year-long series on Financial Well Being. The first in the series, Four Steps to Making Your New Year’s Resolutions Last Past Valentine’s Day, was published in February.
I’m often asked what is the best financial planning advice I can give. You can tell this question is asked with the hope of a complex tax loophole or a secret investment strategy. Surely the key to building wealth is complicated, right? But my answer is almost always “spend less than you make and save more than you think you need to”. Building wealth isn’t complicated, but it is hard. It is hard to be consistent and disciplined about your spending.
What you spend is one of the most important factors in building wealth. Long-term changes in how much you spend can have huge ramifications on your ability to plan for financial goals. Not only that, but it is one of the only things you actually have control over in the financial planning process. (For example, you don’t have control over what investment returns you get, but you do have control over how much you save and spend). And how much you need to save is directly related to how much you spend! The higher your standard of living (or the more you spend) the more money you will need to save to retire.
Before you can make any changes around your spending, you have to know where your money is going. Write down all of your fixed expenses. These are things like your car payment, mortgage/rent, insurance premiums, cell phone bill, etc. While some portion of your spending is fixed expenses, you will also have a portion that varies month to month. To get an idea of these expenses, you may need to track spending over the course of a few months. If you run everything through a credit card or debit card, there are often reports available that categorize where money is going. In addition to your fixed and variable expenses, hopefully, you are able to save some amount on a regular basis. This needs to be factored into your spending plan as well.
The traditional thought is that budgets help you to be disciplined about your spending. This is mostly true. Budgeting can provide structure, consistency, and accountability with how you spend money. I emphasize can because far too often people create budgets but fail to stick with them. This is because budgets that are overly optimistic don’t necessarily help change behaviors. More important than developing a budget is developing a way to systematize spending that will influence behavior and develop good habits. We’ll call this a spending plan.
A Spending Plan vs. A Budget
What is a spending plan and how is it different than a budget? I describe a spending plan as giving every dollar a job and making sure it’s doing that job each month/pay period. To do this, I find it helpful to use a “three buckets” mentality. Think about categorizing each dollar into either “past obligations”, “current expenses”, or “future goals”. Past obligations are your fixed, reoccurring expenses. Future goals are things that you want to do or need to do someday. This means saving for retirement or college or that dream vacation. Current expenses are your variable expenses that can differ on a weekly basis. These are things like groceries, gas, home depot trips, eating out, etc.
Now that you know what a spending plan is, let’s talk about how to set it up. The key is to automating transfers and limiting your control over spending decisions. As counterintuitive as it might sound, limiting the control you have over spending decisions will keep your spending on track. So how do we accomplish this? With multiple checking accounts, savings accounts, and automatic transfers. Here’s how:
Step 1: Create a checking account that all money flows into. This is where your paychecks should be deposited. We’ll call this the Bills Account. All of your “past obligations” will be paid from here. Set up automatic drafts for these bills to come out of this account on a monthly basis (or whatever frequency is required). Don’t carry a debit card for this account as you should not be spending from here.
Step 2: Create a savings account for each of your “future goals”. This would be things like that trip to Europe or saving for a down payment on a house. It could also be to build an emergency fund. Again, you want to set up automatic transfers to go into these accounts on a regular basis. Most of the time people try to save whatever is left over (pro tip: this doesn’t always work out well), but we want you to be disciplined about setting aside money for these goals.
Step 3: Create a checking account for all your weekly variable spending. We’ll call this your Spending Account. This should be the money that is left over in your paycheck after your fixed expenses and savings amounts. You should set up a monthly/twice monthly/weekly transfer from the Bills account to the Spending account. Since this amount varies from month to month, it may take a few months to get this amount right. This is the only account you should carry a debit card for.
One of the reasons that this system works is because it helps break down your paycheck into smaller portions that are easier to manage. If you are a two-income household and get paid once a month, you may have A LOT of cash hit your account at once. The temptation when we see those big numbers is to not worry as much about spending extra on a trip to Target or date night because it doesn’t seem like a big a deal. But in reality, much of your income is already spoken for (or in the case of savings, should be spoken for). Paying yourself a spending allowance helps keep spending in check because that amount is likely a much smaller number than your total pay.
In our house, we’ve tried everything from traditional budgets to cash envelopes, but this is our favorite method. We “pay ourselves” into the Spending account twice per month. Then throughout the month, I can pull up our banking app to see how much we have left until our next spending allowance deposit. If we are running low, I know I should skip the Starbucks drive-thru or avoid buying an extra item at Home Depot.
Whether or not you choose to implement this spending plan, the important thing is to find a way of managing your spending behavior that works for you.
1-729696.0518
The opinions voiced in this material are for general information only and are not intended to provide specific advice or recommendations for any individual.
Bridgeworth, LLC is a registered investment advisor. | https://bridgeworthfinancial.com/insights/the-secret-to-building-wealth-hint-its-not-a-secret/ |
5 Common Mistakes When Saving for Retirement
Here are the top five most common mistakes many people make when saving for their retirement.
1. Starting Too Late
The best time to start saving for retirement is as soon as possible. There is no better time than the now. Even if you are in your early 20s it is still a great time to start saving for your retirement. Be sure you start saving for retirement as soon as possible to ensure you will have enough.
2. Not Saving Enough
Did you know that most financial experts recommend that you save 15-20% of your income for your retirement? It is a significant percent of your income but in the end, it will be worth it to have a large nest egg to retire on.
3. No Savings Account
It’s best to save money for retirement in a variety of places. You may have some funds set aside in your 401(k) but did you know that savings accounts are a great way to save for retirement? Community banks are known for supporting communities and looking out for their customers. The experts at Citizen’s National Bank will be there for you every step of the way and can help you create a retirement savings account. The benefit of keeping a portion of your retirement contributions in a community bank savings account is that you will gain interest on the funds.
4. Overestimating Working Years
Another common mistake is that people overestimate how long they will be in the workforce. Some people plan on working until 70 and believe they’ll have more time to save up for retirement. However, illnesses and other unexpected factors pop up around retirement age that limit how much a person can work. Try to be as realistic as possible when predicting how long you will be able to work.
5. Not Budgeting
Setting a budget is a great way to save up money for retirement. Making changes to your cost of living and creating a budget can help people make significant contributions to their retirement fund. By budgeting, you could potentially add an extra $500 a month to your retirement fund and give yourself a better retirement nest egg.
Overall, if you’re looking to save money for retirement it’s best to avoid these five common mistakes. If you want to make significant contributions to your retirement fund get started today by setting up a savings account with Citizen’s National Bank. | https://www.cnbtn.com/2018/12/09/5-common-mistakes-when-saving-for-retirement/ |
Existing research on parent carers {#sec1-1a}
==================================
There has been a growing body of research on parent carers\' mental health and well-being.^[@ref1]--[@ref3]^ The majority of research in this area has focussed on maternal carers, with little known about the mental health of fathers of children with intellectual disabilities. Of those studies that included fathers in their sample, methodological limitations were evident, including small sample size,^[@ref1],[@ref4]^ unclear information about sample (e.g. mental health not reported separately for mothers and fathers)^[@ref5]--[@ref7]^ and biased sampling (e.g. exclusion of fathers from analysis).^[@ref8],[@ref9]^ The number of fathers taking on a caregiving role with their child has increased in recent decades^[@ref10]^ and there is now a cultural expectation within the UK for father involvement.^[@ref11]^ Given this shift in parental roles, it is vital to learn more about the impact of caring on fathers.
ABCX model of stress {#sec1-1b}
====================
One model, which attempts to account for differences in father adaptation to stress, is the ABCX family crisis model.^[@ref12],[@ref13]^ This model proposes that a stressor (A) is moderated by parental resources (B) and parental cognitions or perception of the stressor (C), to result in an outcome of stress or other indicator of adjustment (X). When this model is applied to the current area of research, the stressor refers to the birth of the child with intellectual disabilities. Policy makers and service providers cannot meet fathers\' needs without reliable information on which factors affect their mental health. Therefore, a review of the literature is timely and will provide a comprehensive and up-to-date synthesis of the best evidence available on the mental health of fathers who care for a child with intellectual disabilities. A systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted to investigate the available research to date. The research questions were as follows: Does the mental health and well-being of father carers of a child with intellectual disabilities differ from fathers in the general population, or mother carers of a child with intellectual disabilities?Is the mental health and well-being of father carers of a child with intellectual disabilities moderated by paternal financial resources, paternal social support or parental perceptions of the characteristics of the child?
Method {#sec1}
======
Selection of studies {#sec1-1}
--------------------
The review was prospectively registered with the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO, registration number: CRD42017075898). The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) checklist was followed. The literature search was conducted on 1 July 2018. The specific search strategy included relevant terms for intellectual disabilities, carers and mental health (Supplementary File 1 available at <https://doi.org/10.1192/bjo.2019.75>). The following databases were searched: PsycINFO, EMBASE, Medline and CINAHL. The initial search was conducted by a single researcher, with a second researcher searching a random selection of the retrieved papers; 10% of titles and 10% of abstracts. The reasons for any discrepancies in paper selection were identified and resolved through discussion. Authors were contacted for further information where it was not clear if the study met the inclusion criteria. Reference lists and citations of included papers were also scrutinised. A PRISMA flow diagram^[@ref14]^ was completed, detailing the reasons for excluding studies ([Fig. 1](#fig01){ref-type="fig"}). Fig. 1.PRISMA flow diagram
A decision was taken by the authors to focus this systematic review and meta-analysis on papers with samples from countries of Western culture. This decision was influenced by a number of factors. Resources and services available to parents from countries in Eastern (e.g. India, Pakistan) and Western (e.g. Sweden, Australia) cultures are likely quite different. Countries with more traditional gender roles may also lead to fathers carrying out fewer caregiving activities than fathers in countries where cultural expectations lead to a more equal division of household tasks.^[@ref15]^ This difference in involvement in caregiving could lead to different stress levels among fathers. Differing attitudes toward disability could also mean that more shame, for example, is attached to intellectual disabilities in particular cultures, leading to higher stress levels for parents.^[@ref16]^ Following an examination of papers that met the initial inclusion criteria, sufficient papers were retrieved to justify separating the papers into those from Western and Eastern cultures. Papers which met the inclusion criteria and were from Eastern cultures will be reported in a separate systematic review and meta-analysis.
Strict inclusion and exclusion criteria were used to select papers.
### Inclusion criteria {#sec1-1-1}
We included studies of fathers of children who had received a diagnosis of intellectual disability. Definitions of intellectual disability were accepted as an IQ ≥2 s.d. below the population mean. In studies where no IQ was provided, we accepted fathers of children who were described as having an 'intellectual disability', 'learning disability' or any of the equivalent terms set out on our list of search strategy (terms 1--5) in Supplementary File 1. Further inclusion criteria were fathers aged 16 years and above; fathers of all ethnicities; observational studies such as cohort, case--control and cross-sectional studies; accepted measures of fathers\' mental health and well-being, including validated mental health and well-being measures (e.g. the Warwick--Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale^[@ref17]^) and validated measures of specific mental health conditions (e.g. Beck Depression Inventory^[@ref18]^); studies from peer-reviewed journals; studies from Western countries and papers written in the English language.
### Exclusion criteria {#sec1-1-2}
Exclusion criteria were studies where father carer\'s data were not separately reported, and studies where fathers of children with intellectual disabilities were among samples of fathers of children with other disabilities, but data of fathers of children with intellectual disabilities were not separately reported.
Data extraction and quality assessment {#sec1-2a}
--------------------------------------
Data from each study was extracted with a data extraction form to collect information about the author, publication year, country, setting, type of study, population characteristics, methodology, outcome measures, key findings and limitations of the study. When studies did not clearly meet the inclusion criteria, authors were contacted to request additional information or clarification.
We assessed the quality of all the selected studies in a systematic way, ensuring we covered all the domains included in a systematic review of tools to assess quality of observational studies.^[@ref19]^ This included the clarity of the stated aims, methods (including age/gender standardisation and whether group differences in disease prevalence rates were considered), design, participant selection, study size, measures used, data collected, analyses used, results, biases, generalisability, conflicts of interests and ethical procedures. Additionally, to generate a 'score', we added up the number of items on the Oxford Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) Checklist^[@ref20]^ that were addressed in each study. For example, 'the cohort was recruited in an acceptable way'. For each CASP item the authors indicated whether the study under evaluation had high, low or uncertain risk in this category. If the cohort was recruited in a suitable manner then this item was rated as low risk; if it was not or the recruitment methods were not clearly stated in the paper then the study was rated as being of high or uncertain risk. The CASP scores assigned to each included study are displayed in Supplementary Tables 1--4. The reliability of the appraisal was checked by two of the authors.
The following classification was given to rate the risk of bias for each study overall: rating A, low risk of bias for all 14 items; rating B*x*, uncertain risk of bias for *x* items and low risk of bias in all other items; and rating C*y,x*, high risk of bias in *y* items, uncertain risk of bias in *x* items and low risk of bias in all other items (e.g. a paper with high risk of bias on two items, uncertain risk of bias on three items and low risk of bias on all other items would receive a rating of C2,3).
Initially, descriptive analysis of the studies was completed. Meta-analysis was undertaken using Review Manager 5.3 (RevMan 5.3) software for Mac (The Nordic Cochrane Centre, The Cochrane Collaboration, Copenhagen, Denmark, 2014; see <https://community.cochrane.org/help/tools-and-software/revman-5/revman-5-download/installation>). All outcome measures from the included studies reported outcomes on a continuous scale. The mean, s.d. and number of individuals in the sample of father carers and the comparison group sample were extracted from each paper, and the unbiased standardised mean difference (SMD) was calculated. A negative mean difference indicated poorer mental health for the comparison group than for father carers. For papers that included more than one group of father carers (e.g. fathers of children with Down syndrome and fathers of children with fragile-X syndrome), data for these two groups were entered separately into the meta-analysis because data for these groups was reported separately, and this would allow for comparisons between groups. Effect size was interpreted as follows: SMD \< 0.40 indicated small effect size, SMD 0.40 to 0.70 indicated moderate effect size and SMD \> 0.70 indicated large effect size.
The chi-squared statistic *I*^2[@ref21]^ was used to indicate how much heterogeneity was present across the studies. It is not influenced by how many studies are in the meta-analysis, unlike some other test statistics, and can be interpreted in a similar manner regardless of the type of outcome data or effect measurement. It is therefore appropriate for this analysis as the included papers used a range of mental health measures. Higgins and colleagues propose that 0% equals no heterogeneity, 25% equals low heterogeneity, 50% equals medium heterogeneity and 75% equals high heterogeneity. Random effects models were selected for this analysis because of the different populations (e.g. fathers of children with different types of intellectual disabilities, fathers of different ages) and measures (e.g. different measures of mental health) used in the included studies. Funnel plots were used to assess the effect of publication bias.
Sensitivity analysis {#sec1-2}
--------------------
The impact of studies\' risk of bias rating on the pooled SMD was ascertained by sensitivity analysis. This was done by removing data from the meta-analysis for each included study one by one, and beginning with the lowest ranked papers, to determine the effect of each individual study on the pooled SMD.
Subgroup analysis {#sec1-3}
-----------------
The analysis was done by different subgroups based on different mental health conditions, including anxiety, depression, stress and general mental health and well-being. A further subgroup analysis was conducted after removing papers where fathers made up \<50% of the sample.
Results {#sec2}
=======
A total of 22 papers were initially retrieved with the search strategy that met the inclusion criteria. The flow chart documents the number of papers included/excluded at each stage after reading titles, abstracts and full papers, and the reasons for exclusions ([Fig. 1](#fig01){ref-type="fig"}). The first and second researchers fully agreed on all the titles and abstracts to be included at these stages, so further discussions were not required. Three authors were contacted and responded to requests for additional information.^[@ref22]--[@ref25]^ As a result of acquiring further information from the authors, the papers from Glidden and colleagues^[@ref22],[@ref23]^ were excluded from the review, bringing the total number of included studies to 20.
Of the 20 studies, 12 met the inclusion criteria,^[@ref24]--[@ref36]^ and had appropriate data for meta-analysis. The remaining eight papers met the systematic review inclusion criteria but their results were not suitable for meta-analysis and are presented descriptively. Each of the research questions are addressed below with a descriptive analysis, followed by the results of the meta-analysis, where this was possible. As the papers used different measures of mental health, the included papers which address possible differences in mental health between father carers and other populations were divided into subgroups. These subgroups were based on type of mental health condition reported in the paper: depression, stress, anxiety and general mental health. A further subgroup analysis was then conducted after removing papers where \<50% of the sample were fathers. Risk rating scores for each study included in the meta-analysis are detailed in Supplementary Table 1.
The mental health and well-being of father carers of a child with intellectual disabilities compared with fathers in the general population {#sec2-1}
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Regarding the first research question, Supplementary Table 2 presents the nine studies which report the impact of caring on fathers of children with intellectual disabilities compared with fathers in the general population.^[@ref27],[@ref29],[@ref31],[@ref35],[@ref37]--[@ref41]^ The outcome measures used in these studies were the Centre for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale,^[@ref42]^ the Swedish version of the SF-36,^[@ref43]^ the Beck Depression Inventory,^[@ref18]^ the Distress Thermometer for Parents,^[@ref44]^ the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale^[@ref45]^ and the Parental Perception Inventory.^[@ref46]^ These studies were from Australia, the UK, Ireland, the Netherlands and Sweden.
Olsson and Hwang^[@ref38]^ compared fathers of children under 16 years of age with and without intellectual disabilities. Although no difference in depression scores was found between groups, the five remaining included studies did report a significant difference in mental health scores. Hedov *et al*^[@ref37]^ measured self-reported mental health in fathers of children with and without Down syndrome aged 3.5 to 7 years of age. Fathers of children with Down syndrome reported significantly worse mental health than fathers of typically developing children. A later study by Hedov *et al*^[@ref40]^ compared responses from fathers of young children (aged 3--7 years) with Down syndrome and fathers of typically developing children on the Parental Perceptions Inventory. On three of the inventory\'s 20 items, fathers of children with Down syndrome experienced significantly higher stress levels. In Olsson and Hwang\'s^[@ref31]^ study, depression scores of fathers of children under 17 years of age with intellectual disabilities were compared with a general population comparison group in Sweden. Results of this comparison found that father carers\' depression scores were higher than fathers whose child did not have intellectual disabilities. Emerson *et al*^[@ref39]^ compared fathers of children with severe and less severe cognitive delay to fathers of children with no delay when their child was aged 3 and 5 years. Fathers of children with severe delay were more likely to have poor mental health than fathers of children with no delay only when their child was 5 years old. Fathers whose child had less severe delay were more likely to be at risk of poor mental health than fathers of children with no delay when their child was 3 and 5 years old. In MacDonald *et al*'s^[@ref41]^ study, fathers of children with Down syndrome (mean age 11 years) reported higher levels of depression and anxiety than fathers whose child did not have an intellectual disability. Norlin and Broberg^[@ref29]^ compared the mental health of fathers with young children who did or did not have intellectual disabilities. Depression and stress scores were higher for fathers whose child had intellectual disabilities. In Giallo *et al*\'s^[@ref27]^ study, fathers of children with intellectual disabilities (aged 3--15 years) reported significantly higher levels of depression and stress, but not anxiety, than normative data for the Australian adult general population. Marchal *et al*^[@ref35]^ compared outcomes on the Distress Thermometer for Parents in fathers of children (aged 11--13 years) with Down syndrome to fathers in the general population. Clinical distress was reported more frequently by fathers of children with Down syndrome than by the control group.
Data necessary for conducting a meta-analysis was not available in Hedov *et al*\'s^[@ref37]^ study, Hedov *et al*\'s^[@ref40]^ study, Olsson and Hwang\'s^[@ref38]^ study, Macdonald *et al*\'s^[@ref41]^ study, Marchal *et al*\'s^[@ref35]^ study and Emerson *et al*\'s^[@ref39]^ study. Hedov *et al*^[@ref37]^ measured general mental health whereas Olsson and Hwang^[@ref31]^ measured depression, and Norlin and Broberg^[@ref29]^ and Giallo *et al*^[@ref27]^ measured depression and stress. Therefore, it was only possible to conduct a meta-analysis of depression and stress scores reported by father carers compared with the general population. The control group in Giallo *et al*\'s^[@ref27]^ study was the general population of Australian adults, including both fathers and mothers. The mental health of fathers was not reported separately. Therefore, a meta-analysis of depression scores was conducted both with and without this study to compare the impact of this study on the meta-analysis results. The pooled SMD for depression between father carers and fathers in the general population (when including Giallo *et al*\'s^[@ref27]^ study) was −0.24 (95% CI −0.35 to −0.13, *P* \< 0.001). There was evidence of statistical heterogeneity between the studies for the meta-analyses (*I*^2^ = 0%). The pooled SMD for depression between father carers and fathers in the general population (when excluding Giallo *et al*\'s^[@ref27]^ study) was −0.22 (95% CI −0.39 to −0.04, *P* \< 0.001). There was no evidence of statistical heterogeneity between the studies for the meta-analyses (*I*^2^ = 0%), and the effect size was small. The pooled SMD for stress between father carers and fathers in the general population was 0.61 (95% CI 0.05--1.17, *P* \< 0.05). There was a moderate effect size and evidence of a high level of heterogeneity, with *I*^2^ = 89%.
The mental health and well-being of father carers compared with mother carers of children with intellectual disabilities {#sec2-2}
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The 17 studies presented in Supplementary Table 3 compared the mental health and well-being of mothers and fathers with a child with intellectual disabilities.^[@ref25]--[@ref38],[@ref40],[@ref47],[@ref48]^ The studies took place in Sweden, Australia, Poland, the UK, the USA and the Netherlands. The outcome measures used in these studies were the Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale,^[@ref49]^ General Health Questionnaire,^[@ref50]^ Hassles and Uplifts Scale,^[@ref51]^ Parenting Daily Hassles Scale,^[@ref52]^ Centre for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale,^[@ref42]^ Questionnaire on Resources and Stress,^[@ref53]^ Short Form Health Survery-36,^[@ref43]^ Beck Depression Inventory,^[@ref18]^ Perceived Stress Scale,^[@ref54]^ Distress Thermometer for Parents,^[@ref44]^ Brief Symptom Inventory^[@ref55]^ and Parental Perception Inventory.^[@ref46]^
Fourteen of these studies reported poorer mental health and well-being for mothers compared with fathers of people with intellectual disabilities. In Giallo *et al*\'s^[@ref27]^ Australian study, mothers reported significantly higher depressive, anxiety and stress scores than fathers. Mothers in Gerstein *et al*'s^[@ref26]^ study of children with intellectual disabilities reported significantly higher scores on the Parenting Daily Hassles Scale than fathers when their child was aged 48 months and 60 months. In Giallo *et al*\'s^[@ref27]^ study, mothers reported significantly higher depressive, anxiety and stress scores than fathers. Depression, but not stress scores, were significantly higher for mothers than fathers in Norlin and Broberg\'s^[@ref29]^ study. Olsson and Hwang^[@ref31]^ also reported that mother well-being was more affected than father well-being when there was a child with intellectual disabilities in the family. A number of other studies in Sweden by Olsson and Hwang also found poorer mental health in mothers than fathers.^[@ref31],[@ref32],[@ref38]^ Mothers of children aged 5 years and under with intellectual disabilities had lower levels of well-being than fathers.^[@ref32]^ Mother well-being was also more affected than father well-being when there was a young child with intellectual disabilities in the family.^[@ref31]^ A third study by the authors found that mothers of children under 16 years of age had higher depression scores than fathers.^[@ref38]^ Another Swedish study by Hedov *et al*^[@ref37]^ reported that fathers of children aged 3.5 to 7 years of age with Down syndrome had poorer mental health scores than mothers.^[@ref37]^
In Stoneman\'s^[@ref34]^ study mothers reported higher rates or depression and stress than fathers. Griffith *et al*'s^[@ref28]^ study of children aged 2--19 years with a range of intellectual disabilities also found poorer mental health for mothers than fathers, although the extent of this difference varied by type of intellectual disability and well-being measure. Dabrowska and Pisula^[@ref47]^ also reported higher stress levels for mothers than fathers of children with Down syndrome. Marchal *et al*^[@ref35]^ compared total problem scores on the Distress Thermometer for Parents of mothers and fathers of children with Down syndrome. Mothers reported significantly more problems than fathers.
A different pattern was reported by a number of other included papers. No significant difference was found between stress or general mental health scores for mothers and fathers of children with fragile-X syndrome (Mccarthy *et al*^[@ref36]^). The mean score for mothers and fathers on the psychological distress scale was not in the clinical range and so these parents may be coping better than other parents of children with fragile-X syndrome. Kózka *et al*^[@ref48]^ found no significant difference in psychological well-being between mothers and fathers of children with Down syndrome. Foster *et al*^[@ref25]^ found that mothers reported significantly poorer overall well-being than fathers of children with Smith--Magenis syndrome. Parents reported similar levels of anxiety but fathers reported significantly higher levels of depression than mothers. However, this sample contained 97 mothers and only 15 fathers as a comparison group, and so definitive conclusions cannot be drawn as these fathers may not be representative of other fathers within this population. Rowbotham *et al*'s^[@ref33]^ study found no significant difference in mental health scores between mothers and fathers of children with intellectual disabilities. Both groups reported a very high level of symptoms, with the majority of parents falling within the clinical range. As the sample size of this study was very small, it is possible that this paper differs from the other included studies as the selected group was not representative of other parents of children with intellectual disabilities in Australia. The children included in this study may also not be representative of those who exhibit challenging behaviour, a factor associated with parental well-being, as their adaptive and problem behaviour scores generally fell within the normal range. This may indicate that the children had milder intellectual disabilities than children in the other samples included in this review, although level of intellectual disabilities was not reported in this paper.
### Meta-analysis {#sec2-2-1}
All studies with the necessary data provided in the paper were included in the meta-analysis^[@ref25]--[@ref37]^ of the general mental health of father and mother carers of children with intellectual disabilities, which included measures of general mental health and well-being, depression, anxiety and stress.
As the studies focussed on different mental health conditions (depression, anxiety, stress, general mental health and well-being), separate analyses were conducted to compare studies which studies reported each of these conditions individually. The pooled SMD indicated that mothers were significantly more likely to have general mental health problems than fathers (−0.26 95% CI −0.47 to −0.06, *P* \< 0.01); this was also the case for depression (−0.47 95% CI −0.68 to −0.25, *P* \< 0.001), stress (−0.29, 95% CI −0.42 to −0.15, *P* \< 0.001) and anxiety (−0.30, 95% CI −0.51 to −0.10, *P* \< 0.001) The effect size was moderate for depression and small for general mental health, stress and anxiety. There was no evidence of statistical heterogeneity between studies in the general mental health, anxiety or stress meta-analyses, with *I*^2^ = 0% in each analysis. For the depression meta-analysis, *I*^2^ = 64%, and for the general mental health meta-analysis, *I*^2^ = 34%, and so there is a moderate level of heterogeneity between studies.
A subanalysis was conducted on studies where fathers made up 50% or more of the sample. The pooled SMD for general mental health between father and mother carers was −0.38 (95% CI −0.63 to −0.13, *P* \< 0.01). The pooled SMD for depression was −0.49 (95% CI −0.64 to −0.34, *P* \< 0.001), the SMD for stress was −0.31 (95% CI −0.48 to −0.15, *P* \< 0.001) and the SMD for anxiety was −0.36 (95% CI −0.62 to −0.11, *P* \< 0.01). There was no evidence of statistical heterogeneity between studies for any of the meta-analyses, with *I*^2^ = 0% in each analysis. The effect size was moderate for depression and small for general mental health, stress and anxiety.
See Supplementary File 2 for the meta-analysis forest and funnel plots. There was no evidence of publication bias for any of the mental health conditions included in the meta-analyses.
### Risk of bias {#sec2-2-2}
Supplementary Table 1 provides the risk of bias details for each of the 12 papers included in the meta-analysis. There were three studies with a B1 rating,^[@ref32],[@ref37],[@ref41]^ four studies with a B2 rating,^[@ref26],[@ref30],[@ref31],[@ref36]^ two with a B3 rating,^[@ref27],[@ref28]^ one with a C1,2 rating^[@ref25],[@ref33]^ and one with a C2,2 rating.^[@ref35]^ In all papers, the factors that returned a rating of 'unclear risk' were deemed to be of limited concern, as there were only an average 2.0 out of 14 items that were unclear in any one paper and all authors agreed that the unclear items did not represent high risk. All papers were therefore considered reliable evidence.
### Sensitivity analysis {#sec2-2-3}
Sensitivity analysis in relation to risk of bias was run for the 12 studies included in the meta-analysis (Supplementary File 3). Studies were removed in order of risk-of-bias rating, and studies with smaller samples were removed first where multiple studies had the same rating. The pooled SMD for depression scores changed slightly as the lowest rated studies (rated C1,3 to C1,2) were removed from the analysis (from −0.47 to −0.56). For the studies which reported stress scores, pooled SMD did not change with the removal of the included C1,3 study. The pooled SMD for anxiety scores changed slightly as the lowest rated studies were removed from the analysis (from −0.30 to −0.37). For the studies which reported general mental health scores, pooled SMD changed with the removal of the lowest rated studies (from −0.26 to −0.22).
Factors that moderate the mental health and well-being of father carers of a child with intellectual disabilities {#sec2-3}
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Supplementary Table 4 displays the studies which address the second research question as to which factors moderate the impact of caring on fathers.
### Paternal financial resources {#sec2-3-1}
Seven studies investigated whether paternal financial resources moderate the mental health and well-being of father carers of a child with intellectual disabilities.^[@ref27],[@ref29],[@ref31],[@ref32],[@ref34],[@ref39],[@ref41]^ These studies took place in Poland, the USA, Ireland, Australia and Sweden. Degree of participation in paid employment was used as a measure of financial resources in Olsson and Hwang\'s^[@ref31]^ study, which found that fathers\' well-being increased with higher involvement in paid employment. Giallo *et al*^[@ref27]^ also reported that not being in paid employment was significantly associated with increased anxiety among fathers. However, this did not significantly predict the variance in stress, or depression in fathers. These mixed results may be attributable to broad single-item measures, which may not have fully captured family economic status.
Parental financial resources or socioeconomic status were measured in the other four studies. Stoneman^[@ref34]^ also found that reports of depression by fathers of children with intellectual disabilities were predicted by lower family income. In Olsson and Hwang\'s^[@ref32]^ study, socioeconomic hardship was one of the strongest predictors of paternal mental ill-health. Emerson *et al*^[@ref39]^ found that matching fathers with and without a child with cognitive delay on the basis of socioeconomic circumstances reduced between-group differences in the prevalence of fathers\' psychiatric disorders from 45%, to 11%. In fact, differences between fathers of children with different types of intellectual disabilities disappeared after income differences between the groups were controlled. Norlin and Broberg^[@ref29]^ found that reports of poor mental health were associated with high levels of economic hardship in fathers. The age of parents in these studies ranged from early 30\'s to early 70\'s. Macdonald *et al*^[@ref41]^ reported that fathers whose partner worked outside the family home displayed lower rates of anxiety than those whose partner was not employed. It was not possible to conduct a meta-analysis with the above studies as sufficient data was only available in the Olsson and Hwang paper.^[@ref32]^
### Paternal social support {#sec2-3-2}
Supplementary Table 4 also reports the four studies that addressed the effect of social support provided by a partner or spouse.^[@ref26],[@ref29],[@ref48],[@ref56]^ These studies were from Sweden, Poland and the USA. Gerstein *et al*^[@ref26]^ reported that father reported marital adjustment when their child was 36 months old served as a protective factor for fathers\' mental health. Marital quality also predicted well-being for fathers in Norlin and Broberg\'s^[@ref29]^ study of parents in Sweden. Stress was significantly related to reported marital quality for fathers of children with Down syndrome (Norton *et al*^[@ref56]^). However, Kózka *et al*^[@ref48]^ found no significant relationship between marital quality and psychological well-being of fathers of children with Down syndrome. In contrast to the other included studies, Kózka *et al*^[@ref48]^ used a combined score of mother and father rated marital quality rather than the fathers\' marital satisfaction score alone, which may account for this difference. Again, it was not possible to conduct a meta-analysis with the above studies because of a lack of comparable data.
### Type of intellectual disabilities {#sec2-3-3}
Four studies compared fathers of different types of intellectual disabilities.^[@ref24],[@ref28],[@ref34],[@ref41]^ These studies were from the USA, the UK and Ireland. In Hartley *et al*'s^[@ref24]^ study, a significant difference was found between fathers of adolescents with Down syndrome, fragile-X syndrome and autism spectrum disorder. Fathers of children with autism spectrum disorder reported significantly higher levels of depressive symptoms than those whose child had Down syndrome or fragile-X syndrome. No significant difference was found between fathers of children with Down syndrome and fragile-X syndrome. Stoneman^[@ref34]^ reported lower levels of depression for fathers whose children had Down syndrome than those whose children had another type of intellectual disability, such as Prader--Willi syndrome and fragile-X syndrome. In the study by Griffith *et al*^[@ref28]^, the well-being of fathers whose children were aged 2--19 years and had Angelman, Cornelia de Lange, or *cri du chat* syndromes were compared. Poorest mental health was reported for fathers of children with Angelman syndrome, followed by *cri du chat* syndrome and then Cornelia de Lange syndrome. MacDonald *et al*^[@ref41]^ also found fathers of children aged 6--19 years with Down syndrome reported lower levels of stress than fathers of children with other types of intellectual disability.
### Level of intellectual disabilities {#sec2-3-4}
One study compared the impact of level of intellectual disability on fathers\' mental health and well-being.^[@ref39]^ These studies were conducted in the UK. Emerson *et al*^[@ref39]^ compared parental mental health when their child was 3 and then 5 years of age. Fathers of a child with severe cognitive delay were more likely to be at risk of poor mental health than fathers of a child with no delay only when the child was 5 years old. Fathers of a child with less severe cognitive delay were more likely to be at risk of poor mental health than fathers of a child with no delay when the child was both 3 and 5 years old.
### Challenging behaviour {#sec2-3-5}
Challenging behaviour was taken into account when assessing paternal mental health in six studies.^[@ref24],[@ref27],[@ref29],[@ref34],[@ref36],[@ref41]^ These papers were from Australia, Sweden and the USA. The study by Stoneman^[@ref34]^ reported that having a child with a more difficult temperament predicted father depression scores. Challenging behaviour also significantly contributed to well-being in fathers of young children with intellectual disabilities in Norlin and Broberg\'s^[@ref29]^ study. In Giallo *et al*\'s^[@ref27]^ study, child behaviour difficulties were identified as significantly predicting father stress and depressive and anxiety symptoms. Fathers of children with fragile-X syndrome experienced more stress when their child was exhibiting challenging behaviour (McCarthy *et al*^[@ref36]^). This factor was the strongest predictor of stress for fathers in this study. Child behaviour problems were also strongly associated with father adjustment measures in Macdonald *et al*'s^[@ref41]^ study.
However, behaviour problems were not significantly associated with paternal depressive symptoms in Hartley *et al*'s^[@ref24]^ study. In Hartley *et al*'s^[@ref24]^ study, mothers rather than fathers reported the challenging behaviour, which may account for this difference between studies. By contrast, fathers independently reported challenging behaviour in the other three papers. Because of the lack of information on challenging behaviour in the included studies, it is not possible to take this factor into consideration in this meta-analysis.
### Coping strategies {#sec2-3-6}
Four studies investigated the effect of coping strategies that fathers use.^[@ref24],[@ref41],[@ref47],[@ref48]^ The two coping strategies examined in Hartley *et al*'s^[@ref24]^ study were emotion-focused and problem-focused coping. Emotion-focused coping was defined as 'efforts to manage emotions surrounding the problem, e.g. trying to wish away negative feelings' and problem-focused coping was defined as 'efforts to alter the stressor itself, e.g. seeking information'. The well-being of fathers of children with Down syndrome, fragile-X syndrome and autism were compared. Although there was a significant difference in mental health between the groups, there was no significant difference in the use of coping strategy by diagnostic group of paternal psychological well-being. Dabrowska and Pisula^[@ref47]^ also compared coping strategies in fathers whose children had Down syndrome, autism or were typically developing. There was no significant difference in coping styles between groups.
MacDonald *et al*^[@ref41]^ reported that psychological acceptance partially mediated the impact of challenging behaviour on father stress, anxiety and depression. However, the study did not compare acceptance to other coping methods. Kózka *et al*^[@ref48]^ measured the ego resiliency of fathers of children with Down syndrome, which they define as an inner mental structure that helps people to cope with difficult situations. Fathers who demonstrated higher levels of ego resiliency reported better psychological well-being than fathers who displayed lower levels of this coping style.
### Other factors identified in the included studies {#sec2-3-7}
One study addressed the impact that the child has on the father, and its relationship to the father\'s mental health. Giallo *et al*^[@ref27]^ reported that fathers\' own needs, stress arising from child behaviour and needs, and low parenting satisfaction significantly predicted depressive, anxiety and stress symptoms. In Foster *et al*'s^[@ref25]^ study, parents were asked to indicate their level of agreement with statements about the benefits of caring for a child with intellectual disabilities. Fathers who reported more benefits were more likely to have higher levels of carer well-being. Maternal depressive symptoms were associated with fathers\' well-being in a study by Hartley *et al*^[@ref24]^. Higher levels of maternal depressive symptoms were a significant positive predictor of paternal depression. Norton *et al*^[@ref56]^ found a significant relationship between receiving regular respite and father daily stress. Fathers whose child with Down syndrome was regularly looked after by grandparents, babysitters, etc, reported lower stress levels than fathers who did not receive such respite.
Discussion {#sec3}
==========
Mental health of mothers and fathers {#sec3-1}
------------------------------------
The majority of studies that compared the mental health of father and mother carers^[@ref26]--[@ref32],[@ref34],[@ref35],[@ref37],[@ref38],[@ref47]^ indicated that there is a difference between the mental health of father and mother carers, with fathers exposed to a lower risk of depression, anxiety, stress and poor general mental health. Despite apparent changes in father\'s roles within society, the results of this review indicate that they continue to play a limited role in care. There are a number of possible reasons for the existence of this gender difference in mental health. Mothers more often work part time or give up work entirely to become the main caregiver for their child, whereas fathers who remain in the family unit are more often the main breadwinner.^[@ref57]^ Given this difference, it is important to consider whether barriers exist within the workplace that could play a role in discouraging fathers from participating in care. A recent survey of over 8000 UK residents reported that workplace attitudes and policies reduced their ability to be as involved in caring as their partner. For example, 35% of employed fathers of children under 18 years of age said that men in their workplace who take time off to care for children are not supported.^[@ref58]^ However, studies have shown that even in situations where the father is unemployed and the mother is employed, fathers often still function as the secondary caregiver and participate in fewer caregiving activities than mothers.^[@ref59]--[@ref61]^ This raises important questions about fathers\' ability or desire to take part in caregiving activities, as well as how this is shaped by public attitudes and governmental or employment policies.
Time spent outside the family home in a different role may also contribute to gender differences in parental mental health. The results of Olsson and Hwang\'s^[@ref31]^ study indicate a positive relationship between involvement in paid work and well-being for both mothers and fathers. Macdonald *et al*^[@ref41]^ also reported that partner working outside the family home was associated with lower rates of anxiety in fathers. These results are also supported by later studies that found participation in the workforce to have a protective effect on mothers of children with intellectual disabilities.^[@ref62],[@ref63]^ If mothers are less often involved in paid work following the birth of a child with intellectual disabilities, this could in part explain the difference in mental health between parents. In Olsson and Hwang\'s^[@ref31]^ study, there was no difference in well-being between mothers who worked full time and mothers who worked part time. This suggests that taking a longer break from child care activities does not affect mother mental health, but that being in paid employment to some degree does have a protective effect. Their study also found that participation in paid employment made a significant contribution to the variance in well-being between fathers and mothers, but division of child care tasks did not. Participation in paid work can serve as a protection against social isolation and life dissatisfaction,^[@ref59]^ and as fathers are more likely to work, this may contribute to their well-being.
Paternal resources {#sec3-2}
------------------
The results of papers included in this review showed support for some factors as mediators of mental health and well-being for father carers. There was support for the impact of paternal financial resources on father carer mental health.^[@ref27],[@ref29],[@ref31],[@ref32],[@ref34],[@ref39],[@ref41]^ It is not surprising that financial resources are linked to poor mental health as families on a lower income will be more limited in what they can provide for their children than families on a higher income. These findings replicate work on mothers of children with intellectual disabilities. In a study of mothers of children with severe intellectual disabilities, socioeconomic position moderated associations between child problem behaviours and maternal anxiety and depression.^[@ref64]^ Social support, as measured by marital adjustment, was another factor that was associated with better mental health in all included studies.^[@ref26],[@ref29],[@ref48],[@ref56]^ This finding is also supported by previous research on mothers of a child with intellectual disabilities, such as a large study which found that social support and parental stress had a significant negative correlation.^[@ref65]^
Child characteristics {#sec3-3}
---------------------
The effect of the characteristics of their child was also explored. Four papers reported on the effect of type of intellectual disability.^[@ref24],[@ref28],[@ref34],[@ref41]^ It has been documented that parents of children with Down syndrome have tended to score higher on well-being measures than parents of children with other types of intellectual disabilities.^[@ref66]--[@ref68]^ This pattern has been termed the Down syndrome advantage.^[@ref69]^ The paper by Stoneman^[@ref34]^ also reported lower levels of depression for fathers who had a child with Down syndrome, than those who had a child with another type of intellectual disabilities.^[@ref34]^ Various explanations have been proposed to account for this pattern, such as parents of children with Down syndrome in previous samples have been older and of a higher income bracket than parents in the comparison groups.^[@ref69],[@ref70]^ There is a well-established link between low income and mental health problems in the general population.^[@ref72]^ The Stoneman^[@ref34]^ study supports this explanation as the Down syndrome advantage disappeared after socioeconomic factors were controlled. Hartley *et al*^[@ref24]^ also found lower mental health scores for fathers of adolescents with fragile-X syndrome than fathers of adolescents with Down syndrome. However, this became non-significant once father age, child behaviour problems, mother mental health and number of children with disabilities in the family were controlled for. This finding is also supported by existing research, which documents that children with Down syndrome usually display lower levels of challenging behaviour than other types of intellectual disabilities, and that this is linked to parental well-being.^[@ref70],[@ref71]^
The impact of level of intellectual disability on father mental health was also reported. In Emerson *et al*\'s^[@ref39]^ study, British fathers of children with severe cognitive delay had poorer mental health than fathers whose child had no delay, whereas there was no difference between fathers whose child had less severe cognitive delay and had no delay. Young children with more severe intellectual disabilities have more significant support needs, and there is more of a cultural expectation for British fathers to be involved in providing support for their child and family.
The association between challenging behaviour and fathers\' mental health was only reported in six studies, five of which found a positive relationship,^[@ref27],[@ref29],[@ref34],[@ref36],[@ref41]^ and one of which found no such association.^[@ref24]^ The negative impact of challenging behaviour on parental mental health is well documented in the literature,^[@ref71]--[@ref76]^ and studies that investigate the mental health of family carers but do not take account of challenging behaviour fail to capture an important variable.
Strengths and limitations {#sec3-4}
-------------------------
This study has a number of strengths. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first meta-analysis on the mental health and well-being of father carers of a child with intellectual disabilities, and the factors that affect fathers\' mental health. A robust method was employed and the quality of the included papers is high (rated B1 to C2,2 on risk of bias).
However, there were a limited number of studies that met the inclusion criteria, which restricted the number and type of meta-analyses that could be run. There were also various difficulties with directly comparing the results of the studies in this review. For example, the studies that addressed this research question used a variety of outcome measures, making direct comparisons between the papers difficult, as measures may vary in how they define mental ill-health.
It was also not possible to generate accurate age categories as many of the included papers did not report the age of their sample, and those that did focussed predominantly on middle-aged parents. Of the studies that did report a mean age for parents and children in their sample, the mean age of the father ranged from 37.0 to 43.0 years, and the mean age of the child with intellectual disabilities ranged from 4.8 to 10.5 years of age. There is some evidence that carers experience different levels of poor mental health throughout the caregiving journey, such as after receiving a diagnosis or at times of increased child care responsibility.^[@ref77],[@ref78]^ As a result, the findings of this meta-analysis may only apply to middle-aged fathers with a young child, rather than younger or older father carers.
The majority of the studies included in this systematic review and meta-analysis recruited parents exclusively through early intervention programmes or services provided for families of children with disabilities. As a result, the majority of parents in the studies were known to services and so the results of our study may only be applicable to parents who exhibit help-seeking behaviour or have a greater level of need than other parents of a child with intellectual disabilities. A further limitation is that the vast majority of fathers in the included papers were those who had remained in the family unit. As marital/partner breakdown is common within families of children with intellectual disabilities, there is a disproportionate number of absent fathers compared with the general population. The results of this review may therefore not be representative of the mental health and well-being of absent fathers of children with intellectual disabilities.
Future research {#sec3-5}
---------------
Studies that investigate risk and protective factors for father mental health have reported that the factors they investigated were more strongly associated with the mental health of mothers than fathers. That risk factors for such studies are generally drawn from previous research partly explains this pattern, as such research has largely focussed on mothers. More research on fathers is needed to identify factors that are important for predicting paternal well-being. This review also demonstrated the tendency for previous research to focus on risk, rather than protective factors. Further research is required to learn more about factors that serve protective functions for fathers.
Despite changing gender roles and societal expectations, the results of this review indicate that fathers of children and young adults with intellectual disabilities continue to play a small role in caregiving. This finding raises important questions about whether fathers want to be involved in caring, and if so, then what barriers they experience. Such information could assist policy makers and service providers to improve services and supports for fathers. Therefore, it is important for future research to explore the mental health and well-being of father carers of people with intellectual disabilities.
Supplementary material {#sec4}
======================
For supplementary material accompanying this paper visit http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjo.2019.75.
######
click here to view supplementary material
This research was funded by a doctoral scholarship from the Baily Thomas Trust.
[^1]: **Declaration of interest:** None.
| |
Fashion Pakistan Week 2020 postponed due to Coronavirus Threat
The Fashion Pakistan Council has announced their decision to postpone fashion week 2020 amidst rising coronavirus outbreak. The three day fashion event was scheduled to take place from April 9 till 11. The Ministry of health and local authorities have asked the nation to ensue precautionary measures and avoid going out in gatherings.
The Fashion Pakistan Council chairperson; Maheen Khan regarding the event says:
“At this time of a global pandemic, we will assess the situation later during the year, with regards to the rescheduling of Fashion Pakistan Week 2020. We’ve informed our designers and sponsors who agree with our decision and together we’ll reassess later in the year.”
The Pakistan Fashion Council hosts biannual events every year in hopes to promote, enhance and facilitate emerging and established design houses to come forward and showcase their designs. The council also aims to raise funds through sponsorship in order to hold local as well as international events to promote high quality Pakistani apparel. | https://pk.mashable.com/fashion/1808/fashion-pakistan-week-2020-postponed-due-to-coronavirus-threat |
NASA is certain that humans will live and work on the moon by 2030.
NASA says it will be possible for humans to live and work on the moon by 2030. But astronauts and scientists will be actively working in space to support the mission before then. “We’re going to be sending people down to the surface and they’re going to be living on that surface and doing science,” Howard Hu who leads the Orion lunar spacecraft program for the agency told BBC News.
Elaborating on future space expeditions, HU said in this decade, NASA will have people living on the moon for durations. “They will have habitats and rovers on the ground,” he added. He also described the November 16th launch of the Artemis rocket, which carries Orion, as a historic day for human space flight. Orion is approximately 83,300 miles (or 134,000 km) from the moon.
The 100-meter-tall rocket blasted off from the Kennedy Space Center as part of NASA’s mission to take astronauts back to Earth’s satellite and pass by the moon. Sitting atop is the Orion spacecraft which doesn’t have a crew, but is equipped with three fully-suited mannequins. They are programmed to register the stresses and strains of the Artemis mission, The Guardian reports.
When Artemis I was finally launched, Hu described the moment as an unbelievable dream-like feeling. “It’s the first step we’re taking to long-term deep space exploration, not just for the United States but for the world,” he told BBC News. He added that it’s a historic day for everyone who loves the moon, human space flight, and deep space exploration.
The spacecraft will fly within 60 miles of the moon and continue 40,000 miles further before turning back around for a splashdown in the Pacific Ocean on December 11th. It will travel 1.3 miles on the 25-day mission, which is the farthest a spacecraft built for humans has ever flown. After it re-enters Earth’s atmosphere, it will travel at 25,000mph, sending the temperature of its heat shield to 5,000 Fahrenheit.
The spacecraft is expected to splash down off the coast of San Diego. Speaking to the Jerusalem Post, NASA’s Artemis mission manager Michael Sarafin said the planned path toward the moon will stress test the spacecraft since it’s meant to take humans on longer missions than previously attempted. It will be able to transport and sustain the crew in space, withstand the return velocities during re-entry from deep space, and safely abort missions in the event of emergencies.
If successful, the mission will pave the way for Artemis II and Artemis III flights which would send humans around the moon and back. The latter will return humans to the moon’s surface for the first time since Apollo 17 in December 1972. That mission would take the first woman to the moon, with a subsequent visit taking the first person of color to the lunar surface. | https://omnihanded.com/humans-expected-to-live-on-the-moon-by-2030/ |
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION(S)
BACKGROUND
1. Field
2. Description of the Related Art
SUMMARY
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS
10-2011-0120489, filed on November 17, 2011
This application claims priority under 35 U.S.C. § 119 from Korean Patent Application No. , in the Korean Intellectual Property Office, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.
The present general inventive concept generally relates to providing an image processing device using an energy value, and an image processing method and display method thereof, and more particularly, to providing an image processing device which determines a stretching area of a variable size by using an energy value to generate a target image, and an image processing method and display method thereof.
Various types of electronic devices have been developed and supplied with the development of electronic technologies. An example of the representative electronic device is a display apparatus such as television (TV). 3-dimensional (3D) display technologies have been recently developed, and thus 3D contents are viewed through a TV or the like in general homes.
A 3D display apparatus is classified into various types of apparatuses such as a glass type display apparatus, a non-glass type display apparatus etc. A plurality of images having disparities are required to view 3D contents in these 3D display apparatuses. In detail, left and right eye images are required.
A 3D display apparatus alternately arranges displays left and right eye images to sequentially display the left and right eye images or divides the left and right eye images into odd and even lines and combines the odd and even lines to display one frame.
As described above, the 3D display apparatus requires a plurality of images such as left and right eye images to display a 3D content. The plurality of images are provided from a content producer. However, since two or more images are to be provided for the same frame, a frequency using bandwidth becomes short.
Therefore, there have appeared a method of providing only one of left and right eye images to a receiving apparatus, generating the other image by using the provided image in the receiving apparatus, and combining the two images to display a 3D image. However, when generating the other image by using the provided image, stripe patterns or a blur phenomenon occurs in some areas of an image.
Accordingly, a method of preventing an image quality deterioration phenomenon and effectively generating a 3D image is required.
Exemplary embodiments address at least the above problems and/or disadvantages and other disadvantages not described above. Also, the exemplary embodiments are not required to overcome the disadvantages described above, and an exemplary embodiment may not overcome any of the problems described above.
The exemplary embodiments provide an image processing device which determines a stretching area of a variable size by using an energy value and generates a target image by using the determined area to prevent an image quality deterioration, and an image processing method and display method thereof.
According to an aspect of the exemplary embodiments, there is provided an image processing method including: shifting an object displayed in a reference image according to depth information; determining a stretching area of a variable size by using an energy value of a background area of the shifted object; and inserting a pixel of the stretching area into a hole area generated by shifting the object to generate a target image.
The determining of the stretching area may include: calculating a size of the hole area; calculating an energy value of the background area by the calculated size from a boundary of the hole area; and calculating an area of the background area having an energy value equal to or lower than a threshold value as the stretching area.
The stretching area may be an area which includes pixels that ranges from the boundary of the hole area to a pixel before a pixel exceeding the threshold value.
ξ
=
1
λ
∑
i
=
1
λ
E
i
i
th
The threshold value may be an average energy value calculated by Equation below:
wherein ξ denotes the average energy value, λ denotes a width of the hole area, and E denotes an energy value of an i pixel.
E
x
y
∂
∂
x
I
x
y
∂
∂
y
I
x
y
=
+
E
x
y
=
∂
∂
x
I
x
y
2
∂
∂
y
I
x
y
2
+
E
x
y
=
∂
∂
x
I
x
y
2
∂
∂
y
I
x
y
2
+
The energy value may be calculated by using one of Equations below:
wherein E(x,y) denotes an energy value of a pixel in coordinate (x,y), and I(x,y) denotes a linear combination of R, G, and B components of the image.
I
R
G
B
x
y
x
y
x
y
x
y
=
+
+
ω
R
ω
G
ω
B
R
G
B
The linear combination I(x,y) may be calculated by Equation below:
wherein R(x,y), G(x,y), and B(x,y) denote R, G, and B values of the pixel positioned in the coordinate (x,y), and ω, ω, and ω respectively denote weights of the R, G, and B values.
The image processing method may further include: smoothing a boundary between an object existing in an original position on the target image and the background area.
According to another aspect of the exemplary embodiments, there is provided a display method including: receiving a reference image and depth information; shifting an object displayed in the reference image according to the depth information; determining a stretching area of a variable size from the background area by using an energy value of the background area of the shifted object; inserting a pixel of the stretching area into a hole area generated by shifting the object to generate a target image; and combining the reference image and the target image to display a 3-dimenstional (3D) image.
The determining of the stretching area may include: calculating a size of the hole area; calculating an energy value of the background area by the calculated size from a boundary of the hole area; and calculating an area of the background area having an energy value equal to or lower than a threshold value as the stretching area. The stretching area may be an area which includes pixels that ranges from the boundary of the hole area to a pixel before a pixel exceeding the threshold value.
According to another aspect of the exemplary embodiments, there is provided an image processing device including: a receiver which receives a reference image and depth information; a controller which determines a stretching area of a variable size by using an energy value of a background of an object displayed in the reference image; and an image processor which shifts the object displayed in the reference image according to the depth information and inserts a pixel of the stretching area into a hole area generated by shifting the object to generate a target image.
The controller may calculate a size of the hole area and calculate an energy value of the background area by the calculated size from a boundary of the hole area to determine an area of the background area having an energy value equal to or lower than a threshold value as the stretching area. The stretching area may be an area which includes pixels that ranges from the boundary of the hole area to a pixel before a pixel exceeding the threshold value.
ξ
=
1
λ
∑
i
=
1
λ
E
i
i
th
The threshold value may be an average energy value calculated by Equation below:
wherein ξ denotes the average energy value, λ denotes a width of the hole area, and E denotes an energy value of an i pixel.
The image processor may smooth a boundary between an object existing in an original position on the target image and the background area.
The image processing device may further include a display device which combines the reference image and the target image to display a 3D image.
The image processing device may further include an interface which transmits the reference image and the target image to a display apparatus.
FIG. 1
is a block diagram illustrating a structure of an image processing device according to an exemplary embodiment of the present general inventive concept;
FIG. 2
is a view illustrating a process of shifting an object in a reference image;
FIG. 3
is a view illustrating a process of determining a stretching area;
FIG. 4
is a view illustrating a process of generating a target image by using a reference image and depth information;
FIGS. 5
6
and are block diagrams illustrating various detailed structures of an image processing device;
FIG. 7
is a flowchart illustrating a method of processing a 3-dimensional (3D) image according to an exemplary embodiment of the present general inventive concept;
FIG. 8
is a flowchart illustrating a method of determining a stretching area; and
FIG. 9
is a flowchart illustrating a method of displaying a 3D image according to an exemplary embodiment of the present general inventive concept.
The above and/or other aspects will be more apparent by describing certain exemplary embodiments with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which:
Exemplary embodiments are described in greater detail with reference to the accompanying drawings.
In the following description, the same drawing reference numerals are used for the same elements even in different drawings. The matters defined in the description, such as detailed construction and elements, are provided to assist in a comprehensive understanding of the exemplary embodiments. Thus, it is apparent that the exemplary embodiments can be carried out without those specifically defined matters. Also, well-known functions or constructions are not described in detail since they would obscure the exemplary embodiments with unnecessary detail.
FIG. 1
FIG. 1
is a block diagram illustrating a structure of an image processing device according to an exemplary embodiment of the present general inventive concept. Referring to , an image processing device 100 includes a receiver 110, a controller 120, and image processor 130.
The receiver 110 receives a reference image and depth information. The reference image refers to a 2-dimensional (2D) image that is one of left and right eye images.
The depth information refers to information which indicates 3-dimenstional (3D) distance information of an object existing in the reference image. The depth information may be referred to as a depth image or a depth map. A part brightly displayed in the dept image is a part having a high 3D effect, and a part darkly displayed in the dept image is a part having a low 3D effect. Each pixel value of the depth information indicates a depth of a corresponding pixel of the reference image.
The controller 120 determines a stretching area by using an energy value of a background area of the object displayed in the reference image. The stretching area refers to an area which is a standard for determining a pixel value for filling a hole area generated by shifting the object. The energy value refers to a value that indicates characteristics between pixels positioned in the background area and peripheral pixels. A method of determining the stretching area will be described in detail later.
The image processor 130 performs depth image-based rendering which is to shift the object displayed in the reference image by using the depth information. In detail, the image processor 130 calculates a difference of parallax values of objects of the reference image by using the depth information. The image processor 130 moves the object in a left or right direction by the difference between the parallax values to generate an image of a new time point.
p
M
x
y
1.0
-
d
x
y
256
=
The calculation of the difference between the parallax values may be performed by using Equation 1 below:
wherein p(x,y) denotes a parallax value of a pixel of position (x,y), d(x,y) denotes a depth value of the pixel of the position (x,y), and M denotes a maximum parallax value. In the present specification, an image generated from a reference image is referred to as a target image. The target image is an image for being mixed with the reference image to form a 3D image. In other words, the target image refers to an image which is formed by expressing a subject at a different time from the reference image. For example, if the reference image is a left eye image, the target image corresponds to a right eye image. If the reference image is a right eye image, the target image corresponds to a left eye image.
The hole area is generated on the target image due to shifting of the object. The image processor 130 fills the hole area with the pixel of the stretching area determined by the controller 120 to generate the target image.
The image processor 130 may smooth a boundary between an object existing in an original position on the target and the background area after generating the target image.
FIG. 2
FIG. 2
is a view illustrating a hole area generated when a target image is generated according to a DIBR method. Referring to , when a reference image 10 displaying at least one object 11 and depth information 20 are provided, a position of the object 11 of the reference image 10 is shifted by using the depth information 20 to generate a target image 30. A hole area 12 is generated in a part of the target image 30 in which an original position of the object 11 and a new position do not overlap with each other.
FIG. 3
The controller 120 determines the stretching area, which is used to fill the hole area 12, from the back ground area by using a size of the hole area 12. is a view illustrating a method of determining a stretching area.
FIG. 3
Referring to , the hole area generated on the target image has a width in a horizontal direction. The controller 120 checks depth information corresponding to a boundary of the hole area to check whether a background area 14 of the object exists on the left side of the hole area or on the right side of the hole area. The controller 120 calculates energy values of pixels around the boundary of the hole area in the background area. The controller 120 calculates a width λ of the hole area and pixels positioned within a distance of the width λ in the background area. However, only pixels within the same distance are not necessarily selected, and pixels within a range of a distance longer than the width λ may be selected.
The controller 120 calculates energy values of the selected pixels. The energy values refer to characteristic values that are obtained through comparisons between pixels and peripheral pixels. The energy values may be defined as gradients of a color image.
E
I
x
y
x
y
=
∇
In detail, the energy values may be expressed in Equation below:
wherein E(x,y) denotes an energy value of a pixel positioned in (x,y), and I(x,y) denotes a linear combination of R, G, and B components of the reference image.
E
x
y
∂
∂
x
I
x
y
∂
∂
y
I
x
y
=
+
E
x
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=
∂
∂
x
I
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2
∂
∂
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+
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x
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=
∂
∂
x
I
x
y
2
∂
∂
y
I
x
y
2
+
In more detail, the controller 120 calculates an energy value by using one of Equations 3 through 5 below.
I
R
G
B
x
y
x
y
x
y
x
y
=
+
+
ω
R
ω
G
ω
B
R
G
B
The controller 120 calculates I(x,y) by using Equation below:
wherein R(x,y), G(x,y), and B(x,y) respectively denote R, G, and B values of the pixel positioned in (x,y), and ω, ω, and ω denote weights of the R, G, and B values.
The controller 120 calculates energy values of pixels of the background area by using these Equations. After that, the controller 120 sequentially checks the energy values of the pixels to detect pixels having energy values equal to or lower than a threshold value. The controller 120 combines the detected pixels to determine a stretching area 15.
The controller 120 sequentially compares the energy values of the pixels with the threshold value from the boundary of the hole area 12 toward the background area. Therefore, if a pixel exceeding the threshold value is detected, the controller 120 determines an area ranging from a previous pixel to the boundary of the hole area 12 as the stretching area 15.
∂
∂
x
=
I
x
y
∂
∂
x
I
x
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Q
k
R
G
B
=
,
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∂
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x
=
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Q
k
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=
,
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=
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y
.
∂
∂
x
I
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y
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=
The controller 120 performs an arithmetic operation in consideration of a difference between three color components. In other words, the controller 120 performs partial differentials of image components as follows.
Partial derivatives of the image components are approximated by a Sobel or Scharr operator.
The threshold value may be determined as an average energy value.
ξ
=
1
λ
∑
i
=
1
λ
E
i
i
th
In other words, the controller 120 sets an average value of the energy values of the pixels within the distance of the width λ from the boundary of the hole area in the background area, to the threshold value. In other words, the threshold value is calculated by Equation below:
wherein ξ denotes the threshold value, E denotes an energy value of an i pixel.
As a result, a size of the stretching area is variably determined like 1≤λ'≤λ.
If the stretching area is determined by the controller 120, the image processor 130 fills the pixels of the stretching area to complete the target image.
FIG. 4
is a view illustrating a process of generating a target image by using a reference image and depth information.
FIG. 4
Referring to , if a reference image 10 and depth information 20 are input, the image processing device 100 performs projection processing to generate a target image 30 including a hole area and a target depth map 40.
The image processing device 100 also generates an energy map 50 of pixels of the reference image 10.
The image processing device 100 determines a stretching area by using the energy map 50 and fills the hole area with pixels of the stretching area to generate a final target image 60.
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An image processing method as described above reduces an image quality deterioration phenomenon. In order to secure a higher image quality, an accuracy of depth information is to be high. Therefore, the depth information may be pre-processed and used by using a local maximum filter as in Equation below:
wherein s denotes a window size, D(x,y) denotes a depth of a pixel of x,y coordinates, and () denotes a pre-processed depth. Since a maximum depth is filtered and used within a window of a particular size as described, sharpness of the depth information becomes higher. A value of the window size s may be an optimal value obtained through repeated tests. For example, 3 or 5 may be uses.
FIG. 1
The image processing device of may be realized as various types of devices. In other words, the image processing device may be realized as a display apparatus such as a TV, a portable phone, a PDA, a PC, a notebook PC, a tablet PC, an e-frame, an e-book, or the like. The image processing device may be realized as a display apparatus such as a set-top box providing a 3D image, other image converting devices, a data player, or the like.
FIG. 5
FIG. 5
is a block diagram illustrating a structure of the image processing device 100 realized as a display apparatus. Referring to , the image processing device 100 includes a receiver 110, a controller 120, an image processor 130, and a display device 140.
The display device 140 combines a reference image and a target image to display a 3D image. The display device 140 may display the 3D image according to various methods according to exemplary embodiments.
For example, in the case of shutter glass type, the display device 140 alternately arranges the reference image and the target image to sequentially the reference image and the target image. In this case, each of the reference image and the target image may be copied to be sequentially displayed as at least two or more frames. Before other images are displayed, black frames may be filled and displayed. The image processing device 100 may transmit sync signal, which is to synchronize an eyeglass whenever each frame is displayed, to the eyeglass apparatus.
As another example, in the case of polarized glass type, the display device 140 may divide each of the reference image and the target image into a plurality of lines in a horizontal or vertical direction and combine odd and even lines of each of the reference image and the target image to generate and display at least one frame.
FIG. 6
FIG. 6
is a block diagram illustrating a structure of an image processing device connected to a display apparatus. Referring to , the image processing device 100 includes a receiver 110, a controller, an image processor 130, and an interface 150.
The interface 150 transmits a reference image and a target image to a display apparatus 200.
FIG. 6
The image processing device 100 is an apparatus separated from the display apparatus 100 in but may be realized as a chip or module mounted in the display apparatus 200.
FIGS. 5
6
FIG. 1
The other elements and except the display device 140 and the interface 150 are the same as those of , and thus their repeated descriptions will be omitted.
FIG. 7
FIG. 7
is a flowchart illustrating an image processing method according to an exemplary embodiment of the present general inventive concept. Referring to , in operation S710, an object included in a reference image is shifted by using depth information to generate a target image. A hole area is included in the target image formed in this operation.
A shifted distance varies according to the depth information. In other words, a disparity of an object having a high depth value is great, and thus a shifted distance of the object becomes longer. A disparity of an object having a low depth value is small, and thus a shifted distance of the object is small.
An energy value of the reference image is calculated separately from shifting of the object. In operation S720, a stretching area is determined from a background area around the hole area by using the calculated energy value.
If the stretching area is determined, a hole-filling filling job for filling the hole area is performed by using pixels of the determined stretching area to complete the target image in operation S730.
FIG. 8
FIG. 8
is a flowchart illustrating a method of determining a stretching area according to an exemplary embodiment of the present general inventive concept. Referring to , in operation S810, a size of a hole size generated by shifting of an object is calculated. Since left and right eyes of a user are arranged side by side in a horizontal direction based on the surface of the earth, left and right eye images for forming a 3D image has a disparity in the horizontal direction. Therefore, a width of the hole area in the horizontal area is calculated and used.
If the width of the hole area is calculated, an energy value of a background area around the hole area is calculated in operation S820. In operation S830, an average value of the calculated energy values is calculated to set a threshold value . In this case, a whole part of the background area is not used, and only energy values of pixels in a part of the background area of a size corresponding to the width of the hole area may be used.
In this state, the energy values of pixels of the background area are compared with the threshold value from a boundary of the hole area in operation S840. If the energy values are equal to or lower than the threshold value according to the comparison result, an energy value of a next pixel is checked and compared with the threshold value in operation S850. This operation is performed sequentially with respect to all pixels of the back ground area having the same size as the width of the hole area.
If the energy values exceed the threshold value according to the comparison result, a stretching area is determined from a previous pixel to the boundary of the hole area in operation S860.
Therefore, a pixel value of the stretching area is inserted into the hole area to fill the hole area with the pixel value.
Since the energy value is used, if a pattern is formed in the background area or a boundary of an adjacent object is formed in the background area, the hole area may be filled. Therefore, an image quality deterioration phenomenon may be prevented.
After the hole area of the target image is filled, smoothing processing may be performed with respect to the boundary of the hole area by using a smoothing filter.
FIG. 9
FIG.9
is a flowchart illustrating a method of displaying a 3D image according to an exemplary embodiment of the present general inventive concept. Referring to , in operation S910, a display apparatus receives a reference image and depth information. The reference image and the depth information may be received from a content provider.
In detail, the reference image and the depth information may be received in a transmission stream from a broadcasting station, a web server, or the like.
The display apparatus performs processing, such as demodulating, equalizing, decoding, demultiplexing, etc., with respect to the received transmission stream to detect the reference image and the depth information. This detailed processing operation is well-known, and thus an illustration and a description thereof will be omitted.
In operation S920, the display apparatus shifts an object of the reference image by using the depth information. In operation S930, the display apparatus calculates an energy value and compares the energy value with a threshold value to determine a stretching area. In operation S940, the display apparatus inserts a pixel of the stretching area into a hole area generated by shifting of the object to form a target image.
In operation S950, the display apparatus combines the reference image and the target image to display a 3D image.
FIG. 9
FIG. 5
FIG. 9
The method of may be performed by an image processing device or a display apparatus having the same structure as that described with reference to . Detailed descriptions of operations of the method of are the same as those described in the above exemplary embodiments and will be omitted.
According to various exemplary embodiments as described above, a target image having no image quality deterioration is generated from a reference image to display a 3D image.
A program for executing methods according to the above-described exemplary embodiments of the present general inventive concept may be stored and used on various types of recording media.
In detail, a code for performing the above-described methods may be stored on various types of computer-readable recording media such as a Random Access Memory (RAM), a flash memory, a Read Only Memory (ROM), an Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM), an Electronically Erasable and Programmable ROM (EEPROM), a register, a hard disc, a removable disc, a memory card, a USB memory, a CD-ROM, etc.
The foregoing exemplary embodiments and advantages are merely exemplary and are not to be construed as limiting. The present teaching can be readily applied to other types of apparatuses. Also, the description of the exemplary embodiments is intended to be illustrative, and not to limit the scope of the claims, and many alternatives, modifications, and variations will be apparent to those skilled in the art. | |
This year, we came together to celebrate 25 years of our conference and broadening the reach of harm reduction in the islands. Mahalo for your attendance! Please find an archive of our conference program and recordings of our sessions below.
"The Future Is Harm Reduction"
Harm Reduction is a philosophy and set of strategies for working with people engaged in potentially harmful behaviors. The main objective is to reduce the potential dangers and health risks associated with such behaviors, even for those who are not willing or able to completely stop. Harm reduction uses a non-judgmental, holistic and individualized approach to support incremental change & increase the health and well-being of individuals and communities.
The 2021 conference theme is “The Future is Harm Reduction.” Our sessions will explore how current societal issues can be aided by a harm reduction approach to mitigate the complexities individuals and communities contend with as they advocate for social change.
SPONSORS
PARTNERS
Hawai'i Island HIV/AIDS Foundation
DAY 1: JANUARY 7, 2021
DAY 2: JANUARY 8, 2021
DAY 3: JANUARY 9, 2021
FREE HIV/HEPC TESTING
Rapid 20 minute free HIV/HEPC testing available Monday - Friday from 9am-4pm. Walk-ins welcome, appointments also available! | https://www.hhhrc.org/hshrc2021 |
Manchester based finance firm Davenham Group is to call in the administrators reports BusinessDesk.com.
The troubled lender has been in difficulty since the onset of the financial crisis due to major write-downs in the value of loans made against properties.
The company’s shares were suspended earlier today as it announced that a banking syndicate led by Royal Bank of Scotland had told the company that it would not renew a banking facility which expired last Friday.
“Given that the Group is unable to repay the amounts due to the banking syndicate following the expiry of the term of the facility, the board has concluded that it should appoint administrators to the company (and to the remaining members of the group),” it said in a statement earlier today.
Court documents announcing Davenham’s intention to appoint administrators were due to be filed by close of business yesterday (Monday).
Administrators are expected to be appointed by next Monday and will continue a run-off of Davenham’s loan book, which has been taking place since June last year.
Attempts were made earlier this year by rebel shareholders including former Secure Trust Bank chief David Anthony to oust the board and to embark on a rescue plan for the business, which would have involved reopening loan books within parts of the business in a bid to grow sales.
Tony Murtagh, the entrepreneur who bought a stake of more than 15% of Davenham shares in a bid to requisition an EGM to replace its board, told TheBusinessDesk.com that he was “disappointed” by the news that Davenham would seek to appoint administrators, but not entirely surprised.
“It was almost inevitable without a new board,” he said.
In March, Davenham said that the size of its loan book had reduced to £65.1m by the end of 2010, although it still owed the banking syndicate £86.3m. | https://bridgingloandirectory.co.uk/davenham-to-appoint-administrators/ |
MR technologies play an increasing role in different aspects of human-robot interactions. The visual combination of digital contents with real working spaces creates a simulated environment that is set out to enhance these aspects. This book presents and discusses fundamental scientific issues, technical implementations, lab testing, and industrial applications and case studies of Mixed Reality in Human-Robot Interaction. It is a reference book that not only acts as meta-book in the field that defines and frames Mixed Reality use in Human-Robot Interaction, but also addresses up-coming trends and emerging directions of the field.
This volume offers a comprehensive reference volume to the state-of-the-art in the area of MR in Human-Robot Interaction, an excellent mix of contributions from leading researcher/experts in multiple disciplines from academia and industry. All authors are experts and/or top researchers in their respective areas and each of the chapters has been rigorously reviewed for intellectual contents by the editorial team to ensure a high quality. This book provides up-to-date insight into the current research topics in this field as well as the latest technological advancements and the best working examples. | https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007%2F978-94-007-0582-1 |
Performing for capacity audiences at Tula’s, Egan’s, and the Fireside Room, Chip is a crooner whose style reflects what he’s absorbed over the years from singers such as Tony Bennett, Mel Torme, Billie Holliday, and Chet Baker. Comfortable with the dynamic interplay between storytelling and musical improvisation, Chip’s unique interpretations convey happiness, humor, and love lost and found, all inflected with his signature charm.
Working with Chip is Hans Brehmer, a gifted composer and arranger - one of the Pacific Northwest’s favorite local musicians and in high demand among many singers in the area. Hans is equally at home as a solo pianist or working with everything from small combos to big bands. He has been featured on numerous CD recordings in addition to his own projects. Hans has opened for The Duke Ellington Orchestra, performed with the Everett Symphony, and appeared at such venues as Seattle’s Benaroya Hall and Jazz Alley.
- This event has passed. | https://hotelsorrento.com/event/chip-parker-hans-brehmer |
Invited review: New perspectives on the roles of nutrition and metabolic priorities in the subfertility of high-producing dairy cows.
Management, nutrition, production, and genetics are the main reasons for the decline in fertility in the modern dairy cow. Selection for the single trait of milk production with little consideration for traits associated with reproduction in the modern dairy cow has produced an antagonistic relationship between milk yield and reproductive performance. The outcome is a multi-factorial syndrome of subfertility during lactation; thus, to achieve a better understanding and derive a solution, it is necessary to integrate a range of disciplines, including genetics, nutrition, immunology, molecular biology, endocrinology, metabolic and reproductive physiology, and animal welfare. The common theme underlying the process is a link between nutritional and metabolic inputs that support complex interactions between the gonadotropic and somatotropic axes. Multiple hormonal and metabolic signals from the liver, pancreas, muscle, and adipose tissues act on brain centers regulating feed intake, energy balance, and metabolism. Among these signals, glucose, fatty acids, insulin-like growth factor-I, insulin, growth hormone, ghrelin, leptin, and perhaps myostatin appear to play key roles. Many of these factors are affected by changes in the somatotropic axis that are a consequence of, or are needed to support, high milk production. Ovarian tissues also respond directly to metabolic inputs, with consequences for folliculogenesis, steroidogenesis, and the development of the oocyte and embryo. Little doubt exists that appropriate nutritional management before and after calving is essential for successful reproduction. Changes in body composition are related to the processes that lead to ovulation, estrus, and conception. However, better indicators of body composition and measures of critical metabolites are required to form precise nutritional management guidelines to optimize reproductive outcomes. The eventual solution to the reduction in fertility will be a new strategic direction for genetic selection that includes fertility-related traits. However, this will take time to be effective, so, in the short term, we need to gain a greater understanding of the interactions between nutrition and fertility to better manage the issue. A greater understanding of the phenomenon will also provide markers for more targeted genetic selection. This review highlights many fruitful directions for research, aimed at the development of strategies for nutritional management of reproduction in the high-producing subfertile dairy cow.
| |
For some, a pretty picture of a landscape or foreign city is merely good enough to be a desktop wallpaper or a cover photo on Facebook, while for others, it creates an overwhelming pull to go to that location and be a part of it. Those in the latter group know this feeling as wanderlust and know that the only way to fight it is to book a flight for their next vacation.
Humans have been on the move around the globe since our ancestors first left Africa nearly 2 million years ago. Early humans were nomadic, traveling to follow food and better living conditions. Over the years, different adaptations emerged among different groups, leaving them best suited for settled life in particular areas around the globe.
Modern culture has changed things. Humans don't have to chase sources of food anymore — it's just there thanks to agriculture. Irrigation means that people don't have seasonal water availability. Though most people have all of their biological needs met without having to leave their homes, some have never been able to overcome the desire to explore not just the far reaches of this planet, but have looked out to the stars as well.
So what is it, then, that causes that deep desire to constantly be on the move? According to a growing body of evidence, the answer could be genetic.
Dopamine receptor D4 (DRD4) is a gene that helps regulate the neurotransmitter dopamine for the pleasure and reward center of the brain. Variants of this gene can manifest in several ways, including increased instance of mental illness such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), certain addictions, Parkinson's disease, and even eating disorders such as anorexia.
One particular variant, known as DRD4-7R, is held by one-fifth of all humans and could be a large clue as to why some people are never content to stay in one place. As evolutionary biologists have found, this variant is more common among populations that travel more. These individuals also tend to be more open-minded when it comes to trying new foods, experiences, and introductions into foreign cultures, according to David Dobbs of National Geographic.
Of course, with more than 20,000 genes in the human genome, it would be overly simplistic to state that only one of them could be responsible for such a complex personality trait. There are likely many other factors that go into the curiosity that fuels wanderlust, but this is a pretty sensible start.
Traveling and exploring is so intrinsically human that learning more about how and why these processes drive us is a big part in figuring out what makes humans unique.
The science of traveling is becoming an increasingly popular area of study. Earlier this year, a group of researchers from Germany found that traveling has positive personality benefits, such as becoming more outgoing, more tolerant of others, and an increased ability to adapt in uncertain situations. Ultimately, these can have incredibly positive effects on personal and business relationships. These have not focused on the biological drive to travel, but do speak to how wanderlust affects humans on a more complete level.
There is still much to know about how globetrotting affects humans on physical, mental, and even spiritual levels, but it is clear that becoming a more global citizen is best for us.
What location would you most like to explore? Let us know in the comments! | http://aplus.com/a/genetic-cause-wanderlust |
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