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In the first chapter of Judges, God instructs Israel, to send Judah first because “I have given him the land.” To me this sounds like a sure thing. Judah can surely expect to gain the advantage, take the land, drive out the Canaanites.
But that is not what happened. God was with Judah but Judah didn’t succeed. I don’t understand, Judah lost, he could not drive out the inhabitants. But if God was with them, why couldn’t they execute the plan, gain the promise and win the day?
The Lord was with Joseph in the pit when he was dragged out and sold as a slave, when Joseph was accused of rape and when he was a servant to pharaoh in a strange land. In fact there is no person in the bible of whom it is said more then Joseph that God was with him, yet Joseph was not in paradise with God. For a lot of years Joseph was not free at all. What does it mean that God is with us? Doesn’t that mean we “win”? God was with Joseph yet Joseph was imprisoned, accused, suffered and forgotten. Even after his rise to the throne, the pain of betrayal no doubt overshadowed Joseph’s life.
The fact that God was with Joseph but Joseph still suffered, doesn’t prove that God is weak, it merely proves that the presence of God doesn’t guarantee our success. The Father was with Jesus in the garden too, but Jesus was arrested, there was a greater good. When Jesus left his disciples he said , lo I am always with you and further more he left the Holy Spirit with them, but even the indwelling of the Holy spirit, didn’t eliminate the suffering and failure the disciples experienced post ascension.
So is God weak in his delivery or do we need to redefine what we believe about Immanuel. What does Immanuel, God with us mean for us? If we don’t adjust our thinking about how we are to interact with the idea that God is with us we might feel like God has let us down.
I suggest the phrase and name God with us, first is true. He is “with us.” but i believe it is the purpose that we need to explore. God is not with us to give us the win. He has come down from his throne to sit with us in the prisons, in fears, in losing battles, in hospital rooms, in the places of life where we are alone to be with us. He comforts, he encourages, he sings to us, he cries with us, he speaks shalom over us.
Judah did not drive out the inhabitants of the valley, but God was with him, just not for the reason I expected. Those inhabitants eventually became a snare to Israel, eventually turning Israel away from God. Do we know for certain this wasn’t God’s plan? We know from scripture God is not in the habit of preventing sin. Adam and Eve sinned with God’s “permission”, but not his blessing. This tells us something about God. It tells us that God is concerned about something greater than us not sinning. His goal is not sinlessness, his object is not to produce perfect people. He is not threatened by sin. He is not overcome by sin. He is not driven by it’s presence. We are, but he is not. the fact that we see and experience God allowing us to sin, tells me that God is anticipating the opportunities that sin uncovers. Which means there is something even greater than sinless, flawless men.
This also tells us that God expects human beings, made in his image to take action in our own lives. He is with us, he is for us, but he is not us. This idea of God being beside us reveals that he is other, and it gives us a great push to work along side God, rather than try to be God. We are invited to live out, walk out and speak out in his presence. that is awesome. God’s presence encourages the human heart to be alive and animated.
What ought Immanuel to truly mean to us. God’s presence is the victory. His presence is evidence that God has provided reconciliation. Man is no longer locked outside the garden gate away from our creator, but he is with us. He opened the way to join us.
God doesn’t remove difficulties from around us, but his presence in the midst of our difficulties is a victory over the sin inside us. Sometimes we gain victory sometimes we do not. Some of that relies on us. But regardless if we win or lose, God’s presence remains. The Father doesn’t wax and wane he doesn’t remain beside us only when we are successful, but when we are sitting in prison or unable to drive out enemies. He is with us because of Christ in us. He is faithful simply because he is faithful.
whether we take the land or not, whether we conquer sin or not, whether we are faithful or not, God is with us. If we win great and when we lose, we can remember God is still with us, and he may have a bigger purpose than “winning”, he may want to show you that he is faithful and will remain even when you fail. That is love. a love that is slowly disappearing in the world today.
If your in prison, if your on the battle field if your alone in your world right now and you have placed your trust in Jesus Christ, God is with you!
He isn’t afraid of your losses and your failures, he isn’t in it for the win, for the land, for the promise, he is in it for you. He wants to be with you. | https://myfaithplace.blog/2020/09/21/immanuel-redefined/ |
MANILA, Nov. 14, 2014—With the number of enrollees in its parochial schools dropping at an alarming rate, the Archdiocese of Manila (RCAM) has decided to mount a Christmas benefit show at the Meralco Theater, Pasig City on Dec. 12 to offer poor, but deserving students Catholic school scholarships.
Dubbed “Patron of the Arts”, the charity event organized by the Jesuit Communications Foundation Inc. (JesCom) on the Feast of Our Lady of Guadalupe aims to raise funds that will enable students of RCAM schools to continue enjoying the best Catholic education.
High cost of education
“Although it has been our joy and privilege to be serving and forming these young people, the financial cost of maintaining our schools has been a heavy burden for the Archdiocese,” Manila Archbishop Luís Antonio G. Cardinal Tagle shares in a circular.
The prelate notes enrolment in RCAM’s parochial schools has gone down by three percent for the last five years with poor students opting to transfer to public schools.
“We are afraid that this trend would continue and would therefore deprive many of our young people good Catholic education and formation. We can however stem the tide. With your help, we can raise funds to provide students with scholarships or financial aid,” he says.
RCAM runs 27 schools that offer basic to tertiary education, with a third of its roughly 30,000 students receiving scholarship or financial assistance.
According to Tagle, Catholic education is one of the primary works of the Catholic Church.
Growth in virtue, faith
Through her schools, he explains young people learn about the faith and grow in Christian virtue.
“By teaching young men and women, the future of the Church and our country, the Catholic Church is undeniably following the footsteps of our Lord who came as our great teacher and prophet; we are also merely following His commission to “Go into all the world and preach the gospel to all creation (Mark 16:15),” he adds.
In obedience to Christ’s commandment, the Catholic Church in the Philippines has for many centuries been at the forefront, not only of providing education to the Filipino, but Christian formation youth as well.
“It is no exaggeration to say that the emergence of a modern Philippines would not have been possible apart from the establishment and growth of our schools,” Tagle stresses.
“I am thus appealing for your help. Please join us in The Patron of the Arts, our yearly Christmas benefit show. Through this concert…we can jumpstart a fund campaign for our schools,” he adds.
Sponsorship packages are as follows:
Packages Sponsorhip Benefitsin souvenir program Complimentary tickets
Royal Platinum: ?1,000,000 Full color, 2-page spread 25
Premium: ?800,000 Full color, inside cover or inside back cover 20
Gold: ?500,000 Full color, full page ad 15
Silver: ?250,000 Black and white, half page ad 10
Bronze: ?100,000 Black and white, one fourth page ad 5
Sponsors are entitled to the following:
• Live acknowledgement during the event
• Opportunity to distribute your company flyers
• Logos in all poster and event collaterals
Other amounts will be accepted and will be duly acknowledged on a special recognition page of the souvenir program.
Sponsorship payments may be deposited to the following bank details:
Account Name: JESUIT COMMUNICATIONS – PATRON OF THE ARTS
Or: JESCOM – PATRON OF THE ARTS
Bank Accounts:
• BPI Account Number 3081-1145-19
• Eastwest Bank Account Number 27-02-00387-6
Sponsors may fax the deposit slip with their name to (02)426-5970.
Sponsor must provide their company ad and logo as desired via email at [email protected] and [email protected].
Deadline for submission is on November 25, 2014. | https://cbcponlineradio.com/concert-to-fundraise-for-catholic-school-scholarships/ |
Assessing the Energy Expenditure of Elite Female Soccer Players: A Preliminary Study.
The aim of this study was to assess the total and exercise energy expenditure of elite female soccer players during a training week. Eight elite female soccer players wore SenseWear Mini Armbands (SWAs) for 7 consecutive days during the preseason phase of a national league competition. In addition, players wore 15-Hz GPSports tracking devices during 4 training sessions and a friendly game. Total energy expenditure, exercise energy expenditure, and training and game demands were collected from the SWA and GPSports devices. Mean daily energy expenditure for the game day, training days, and rest days were 12,242 kJ (SD = 603 kJ), 11,692 (SD = 274 kJ), and 9,516 (SD = 369 kJ), respectively, with significant differences shown between activities (p < 0.001, partial η2 = 0.357), as well as between individual days (p < 0.001, partial η2 = 0.517). Mean values for energy expenditure during the friendly game (mean = 2,695 kJ, SD = 301 kJ) and training sessions (mean = 2,538 kJ, SD = 316 kJ) were similar (p = 0.278, Cohen's d = 0.5). However, there were significant differences found between individual training sessions (p = 0.001-0.035). Total and exercise energy expenditure differs throughout the week in female soccer players. Nutritional intake should be adjusted accordingly to avoid energy imbalances for optimal performance and recovery.
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All types of athletes rely on the muscles of their bodies to perform. Whether they are running down the field, swinging a tennis racket, or dribbling a basketball, muscles are what allow you to move with the desired control and intensity. Strength, flexibility, and endurance training help keep muscles in good shape and give athletes better resistance to injuries. In spite of their best efforts, many athletes experience muscle injuries that may be mild to debilitating. Many of these injuries result in the need for pain management, in addition to medical treatment.
Knee injuries, or patellofemoral syndrome, account for approximately 55% of sports-related injuries, making them the leading reason that athletes go to the pain management doctor. It often takes weeks for the athlete to heal, during which time the athlete will often be advised to continue low impact exercise to prevent muscles from weakening. Knee injuries can occur in almost any sport, but are most common in basketball, where the athlete is constantly running and pivoting, along with cycling, volleyball, football, and other sports that require running.
Shoulder injuries account for about 1/5th of all sports-related injuries and occur most frequently among athletes in basketball, weightlifting, tennis, and other sports that rely on overhead movement. This type of injury is typically treated with anti-inflammatories and ice packs to eliminate swelling.
Both of these terms refer to the same condition of epicondylitis: inflammation of the ligaments in the elbow due to repetitive use. The associated pain is most often on the outside of the elbow. Since the cause of the injury is from tiny tears in the ligaments of the elbow joint, rest and reducing inflammation are the best ways to treat this type of injury.
The hamstring is made up of three muscles behind the knee. A strain occurs when the athlete either over-stretches the muscles or over uses them. This results in tears of the tendons or muscles. Sports in which the athlete moves forward, such as skiing, can cause these injuries.
Sciatica is pain which comes from the sciatic nerve that runs down the lower back and into the backs of the legs. Bulging discs often occur, along with sciatica, and may be the cause of pain. If spasms occur from an injury, ice and anti-inflammatories can be used for relief. For sciatica pain and herniated disc, the athlete should seek immediate treatment from a medical specialist. Immediate and ongoing pain from these conditions will often require additional treatment from a pain management doctor.
In many cases, these and other sports-related injuries can be prevented with proper training, warmups, use of safety equipment, and applying the proper techniques. When every precaution fails to prevent injury, call us at 212-757-0222 for an evaluation of your injury and the most modern solutions in pain management. | http://www.painphysiciansnyc.com/tag/pain-management-for-sports-injuries/ |
This is an interesting new way of generalising directions. How about an Alibaba interpreted as leaping to the second perimeter but ending up on a square of the same colour?
I didn't get the big picture the first time I read the rules, but now I do and this game has tremendous opening variety. I think the game would be more challenging if players placed 'both a piece and a color' during their turn. This would allow players to try to weaken color-bound pieces, or strengthen their own color-bounds. Also, with 40 dark squares and 41 white squares, we have a light-dark balance. I think the game would be much more dynamic if there were only 17 dark squares per-side (or some other value below 20). Or perhaps each player gets 15 dark squares and 5 orange squares (orange being a square which no piece can come to rest upon). This could introduce a very dynamic imbalance factor. The use of Fischer Random Setups for colors and/or pieces is a possibility (as someone else commented). Also, the use of a setup shield (like in the 3M Game of Fuedal (to allow each side to set up secretly) would be an interesting aspect. Any way, I think this game has lots of potential.
A great game with a very fresh idea! I have a small point: Having the second player mirror the first player's piece layout while allowing both to layout thie terrain (the black squares) separately give the first player a unequal advantage. Since the first player can always layout the pieces to make it difficult for the opponent. The opponent would be forced to start off at a disadvantage. The simple solution is to allow the players to lay out pieces, the way terrain is laid out, separately. No need to enforce symmetry.
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Permalink to the exact comments currently displayed. | https://www.chessvariants.com/index/listcomments.php?order=DESC&ratingsonly&itemid=MScolor-square-shogi |
Water Intake Calculator
You can use this water intake calculator to approximate the amount of water you need to consume in relation to the amount of time you will exercise and your body weight.
Calculate your water intake requirements by following four simple steps:
- 1. Select from the imperial or metric measurement systems.
- 2. Input your full body weight in kilos or pounds.
- 3. Input the workout duration in total minutes per day.
- 4. Click on the "Calculate" button to generate the results.
How Water is Beneficial for Your Health
Water makes up an estimated 60% of your body weight. It is a critical chemical component that your body depends on to survive.
The organs, tissues, and cells that form your body require water to function. If you do not consume sufficient water, you will become dehydrated, and this will impact your body's ability to work properly. Even minor cases of dehydration can leave you feeling lethargic and lacking energy.
How Much Water do you Need to Consume?
Your body uses water throughout the day. It is eliminated through perspiration, sweating, urine, bowel movements, and even breathing.
To ensure your body functions as it should, you should ensure that you replenish any water you lose by consuming drinks and food items that contain water.
But exactly how much water do you need?
According to the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, the required daily fluid intake for an adult is as follows:
- Females: 2.7 liters (11.5 cups)
- Males: 3.7 liters (15.5 cups)
The quantities outlined above include the water consumed via drinks and food. In the majority of cases, around 20% of the daily fluid intake is derived from food, and the remainder comes from drinks.
Factors That Determine Water Intake Needs
The amount of water that you need to intake will vary according to a number of different factors, including the following:
Environment. If the weather conditions are humid or hot, you will sweat more, and this will mean that you need to consume higher levels of water. Dehydration is also more common at high altitudes.
Activity levels. If you engage in any type of activity that makes you sweat, you need to consume additional water to replace any fluids that you lose. It is critical that you consume water in advance, throughout, and after working out.
Overall health. If you have a fever or are suffering from an illness, you may lose water from your body. Ensure that you adhere to your doctor's recommendations at all times to ensure you remain hydrated.
Pregnancy or breastfeeding. If you are pregnant or breastfeeding, you will need to consume extra fluids to ensure that you remain sufficiently hydrated.
Calculating Your Water Intake Requirements
You can follow a very simple process to estimate how much water you need to consume on a daily basis.
First, you need to determine your weight. Your water intake requirements will vary according to how much you weigh; specifically, the heavier you are, the more water you need to drink.
Second, you should multiply your weight by 2/3 to calculate how much water you need to drink on a daily basis. For example, if you weigh 160 pounds, the calculation will be as follows:
160 × 2/3 = 107 ounces (3.15 liters) of water per day.
Next, you will need to take into consideration how much you work out as water will leave your body through sweat when you engage in exercise. You should add an additional 12 ounces of water per day for every 30 minutes you exercise. As such, if you exercise for 75 minutes every day, the calculation is as follows:
75 / 30 × 12 = 30 ounces of additional water per day.
So, according to our example, the total amount of water you should consume if you weigh 160 pounds and exercise for 75 minutes on a daily basis is as follows:
107 ounces + 30 ounces = 137 ounces of water per day.
You should bear in mind the fact that these are not hard-and-fast numbers. You should consume water according to your thirst levels.
*Note: The calculator and information provided here are for guidance purposes only. Your water intake requirements will vary according to your health, activity levels, and whether you are pregnant or breastfeeding. | https://goodcalculators.com/water-intake-calculator/ |
January is usually the coldest month in Phoenix. Freeze warnings often occur several nights, so either protect your frost sensitive plants or just decide to let them go. Freezes are important because they kill some insects and plant diseases that would otherwise linger into the next season. They also help our deciduous fruit trees bear fruit as long as they haven’t begun to bloom.
Just remember that if the nice weather entices you to plant tender seedlings, you may have to protect them for several nights. Our traditional last frost date is February 15 after all. It’s been a lot warmer the last couple years, so we get used to planting earlier. You never know when the weather will change, however, so always hope for the best, but be prepared for the worst.
Bareroot asparagus, strawberries, and fruit trees. Also cabbage, carrots, lettuce, radishes, potatoes, artichokes, arugula, beets, broccoli raab, cilantro, collards, dill, eggplant, fennel, kale, leeks, mizuna, mustard, onion bulbs, parsley, peas, peppers, spinach, swiss chard, turnips, tomato transplants (keep protected), thyme and mint transplants.
African daisies, Ageratum, Alyssum, Bachelor Button, Calendula, California Poppy, Candytuft, Carnation, Clarkia, Delphinium, Everlastings, Gaillardia, Globe Amaranth, Godetia, Gypsophila, Helichrysum, Hollyhocks, Larkspur, Lupines, Nicotiana, Pansy, Petunia, Phlox, Pinks, Poppy, Salpiglossis, Scabiosa, Shasta Daisy, Snapdragon, Sweet Peas, Sweet Sultan, Sweet William, Verbena, Viola, Nasturtium, and Wildflower mixes.
Jerusalem artichokes, arugula, beets, bok choy, broccoli, broccoli raab, brussels sprouts, cabbage, carrots, cauliflower, cilantro, collards, dill, endive, fennel, kale, lettuce, mint, mizuna, mustard greens, onions, oregano, marjoram, parsley, peas, radishes, rosemary, spinach, thyme, turnips, spinach, sage, swiss chard, citrus, chile pequins, and chiltepins.
Don’t worry if your garden isn’t ready in January.
You may want to save your energy for next month when timing does matter. For now, you can be piling on the compost and letting the worms do their thing. If you don’t have compost, simply dig a hole in your garden and put your kitchen scraps in it and cover. Keep doing this all around your beds and you’ll have amazing soil in no time.
You can learn more about Cricket on her Garden Variety Life Blog or her Facebook page. | http://yourfarmfoods.com/index.php/2017/01/06/what-to-plant-in-phoenix-in-january/ |
Water issues: Higher demand, lower quality
OCALA - When it comes to mapping Marion County's future water use, Troy Kuphal is seeing red - not because he is angry or upset, though the situation may be considered alarming.
The red in Kuphal's sights represents tomorrow's consumers, possibly as many as one million of them. And on Kuphal's map, they will virtually blanket three-quarters of the county by 2055.
Kuphal, the county's water resource coordinator, presented that map and discussed the two top issues confronting the county's water supply - increased demand and decreased quality - during last week's Southwest State Road 200 Coalition.
Coalition President Pat Gabriel noted that the issue is of particular interest to the SR 200 area because it straddles both the Rainbow River and Silver Springs watersheds.
Gabriel said she invited Kuphal after hearing his presentation at a recent meeting of the Withlacoochee Regional Planning Council. She also said that state Sen. Nancy Argenziano plans early next year to address lingering concerns about the governor's Committee of 100 proposal to ship supplies from water-rich counties to South Florida. A similar proposal has been floated by Ocala's new mayor, Randy Ewers.
"We still have time. The quality and quantity are both sufficient," Kuphal said in outlining the county's 50-year water study and springs protection program. "Despite what you hear, South Florida isn't coming up and getting our water. It's not a reality at this time."
The study, commissioned by the county nearly two years ago, is the first and only of its kind in Florida. The initial water inventory phase has been completed, and that supply is being evaluated.
Kuphal said impact to water resources is linked to land use, and land use is triggered by population.
According to the Bureau of Economic and Business Research, the county's population is projected to range from 480,000 to 630,000 by 2030. BEBR projections for 50 years from now call for between 600,000 to 1 million people.
Industrial and recreational use, at 2.2 million gallons per day and 7.4 million gallons per day, are expected to double by 2055, while agricultural use will post an almost imperceptible increase. The expected increase in public consumption, however, is up 160 percent from 41 million gallons per day to 107 million.
All told, the county's use of its water resources is projected to jump from 65 million gallons per day to 141 million.
At the same time, however, nitrates and other pollutants continue to degrade springs and waterways.
To illustrate the potential damage, Kuphal noted that, like Silver Springs, Wakulla Springs in the Florida Panhandle also runs a glass-bottom boat attraction. However, Wakulla can operate only half the year because "the rest of the time it is too choked up with vegetation."
Kuphal said Marion County is committed to preventing the same problem here, especially given that the area's first magnitude springs are among the largest in the world and a $75 million moneymaker for the local tourism industry.
"We need to know what will happen to our groundwater table, what's available beneath us and how much can we use," Kuphal said. "Marion County is really blessed with a number of natural resources, and water is certainly one we need to protect." | https://www.ocala.com/story/news/2005/11/24/water-issues-higher-demand-lower-quality/31142065007/ |
- As we all know, Mt. Everest is the world’s tallest mountain. As only a few of you might know, both China and Nepal are its co-parents. And, they had their own respective measurements for the tallest mountain. China had it at 8844.3816 meters (29,017 feet) while Nepal had it at 8847.73 meters (29,028 feet).
Anyways, after years – more than 170 to be exact – of doubts about the correct height of this mountain, the world has finally agreed on a measurement. It is all thanks to the geologists who carried out the most thorough survey of Mount Everest to date. Obviously, cutting edge technology made these accurate calculations possible. In truth, it goes without saying that measuring mountains is not an easy task.
So, the new height of Mount Everest is 8,848.86 meters (29,031.69 feet) above sea level. This is according to a report from NPR. Interestingly, this new height is also the first time that both co-parents decided to agree on one height for Mount Everest.
Anyways, recent Mount Everest graduates, are you worried whether your climbs to the summit are still valid? Well, what we can guess is, probably. The reason being, Mount Everest anyways grows taller each year by like roughly 5 millimeters. This is owing to moving tectonic plates.
What about climbers expecting to climb Mount Everest? Well, the waiting times are longer, because the popularity is higher. Tour companies require high-altitude experience or alpine climbing experience to climb Mount Everest. So, brace yourselves! | https://www.powerofpositivespirit.com/mount-everest-height/ |
Hello i need to recive unix timestamp (1554957709) over modbus which are stored in 2 registers dint datatype, how can i convert this in controller?
I assume the first Dint of Unix timestamp holds number of second since 1 January 1990. The second Dint likely gives fraction of second.
On the other hand it is possible that number of seconds is split into two 16-bit numbers sent through two Dints. In this case just multiply higher dint by 65536 and add lower dint.
ok, so you found these 2 registers hold timestamp split by 5 decimal positions .
Rather use formula (100000 * register1) + register2 to avoid string concatenation since it takes a lot of CPU load. | https://forum-controlsystems.abb.com/20208117/How-to-read-64bit-data-from-modbus-reciving-2-registers-with-dint |
Elddis Autoquest 155 couple’s motorhome with rear fixed bike rack and awning.
Lounge:
2 bench style seats in an abstract modern beige and black upholstery with matching driver and passenger seats that both swivel, large opening rooflight and a large amount of cupboard storage.
Kitchen:
Fridge, oven, grill, 3 gas burner hob with glass lid, stainless steel sink with glass lid and large drop down flap that when closed helps to hide bedroom, opposite is a large wardrobe.
Bedroom:
Large fixed double bed with storage underneath, headboard in matching upholstery to lounge, opposite is sink with mirror and storage.
Washroom:
Combined toilet and shower, handbasin is outside opposite the bed. | http://www.venture-caravans.com/vehicle/autoquest-155 |
- This view involves the denial of force as a cause, and the assertion that all we know about force is that the acceleration of one mass depends on that of another, as in mathematics a function depends on a variable; and that even Newton's third law of motion is merely a description of the fact that two material points determine in one another, without reciprocally causing, opposite accelerations.
- No real advance in metaphysics can take place, and natural science itself is in some danger, until the true history of the evidences of the laws of mechanical force is restored; and then it will soon appear that in the force of collision what we know is not material points determining one another's opposite accelerations, but bodies by force of impenetrable pressure causing one another to keep apart.
- The Galileo-Newton theory of motion is that, relative to a suitably chosen base, and with suitable assignments of mass, all accelerations of particles are made up of mutual (so-called) actions between pairs of particles, whereby the two particles forming a pair have accelerations in opposite directions in the line joining them, of magnitudes inversely proportional to their masses.
- The total acceleration of any particle is that obtained by the superposition of the component accelerations derived from its association with the other particles of the system severally in accordance with this law.
- It is defined by the property that relative to it all accelerations of particles correspond to forces.Advertisement
- These are needed only so far as they introduce differences of accelerations of the several particles.
- If u be the acceleration at unit distance, the component accelerations parallel to axes of x and y through 0 as origin will be ux, uy, whence ~ = ~sy.
- It is sometimes convenient to resolve the accelerations in directions having a more intrinsic relation to the path.
- The component accelerations at P in these directions are therefore du do dir /dO\f dv do idfdO\ .14
- These expression~ therefore give the tangential and normal accelerations of P; cf.Advertisement
- The directions of the radial and tangential accelerations of the point B are always known when the position of the link is assigned, since these are to be drawn respectively parallel to and at right angles to the link itself.
- In applying this principle to the drawing of an acceleration diagram for a mechanism, the velocity diagram of the mechanism must be first drawn in order to afford the means of calculating the several radial accelerations of the links.
- * To find the force competent to produce the instantaneous acceleration of any link of a meclianism.In many practical problems it is necessary to know the magnitude and position of the forces acting to produce the accelerations of the several links of a mechanism.
- When the link forms part of a mechanism the respective accelerations of two points in the link can be determined by means of the velocity and acceleration diagrams described in 82, it being understood that the motion of one link in the mechanism is prescribed, for instance, in the steam-engines mechanism that the crank shall revolve uniformly.
- Moreover, Galileo recognized, to some extent at any rate, the principle of simple superposition of velocities and accelerations due to different sets of circumstances, when these are combined (see Mechanics).Advertisement
- Instead of the operation of superposing accelerations, we may compound the several forces acting on a particle by the parallelogram law (see Mechanics) into what may be called the resultant force, the total acceleration of the particle being the same as if this alone acted.
- The PEM is the conduit between your gear shifts or accelerations and the motor.
- The NST indirectly provides information about fetal status by the observation of FHR accelerations that occur with fetal movement.
- If a fetus is not receiving adequate oxygen from the placenta, the FHR will not accelerate, but if the oxygen supply is sufficient, accelerations will be noted.
- During those 20 minutes, there must be two accelerations in the FHR that are 15 beats above the baseline FHR and last for 15 seconds, often called the 15 by 15 rule.Advertisement
- The contraction stress test (CST) is similar to the NST except the FHR is evaluated for accelerations, 15 beats higher than baseline lasting 15 seconds, and in response to contractions as well.
- For an extremely preterm fetus, a normal NST is reported as being reactive for gestational age, which indicates the FHR demonstrated two accelerations of 10 beats per minute above baseline for 10 seconds over a 20-30 minute period. | https://sentence.yourdictionary.com/accelerations |
Richard Dugas Jr. has about a year left in his tenure as chairman and CEO of Atlanta-based PulteGroup Inc., formerly headquartered in Bloomfield Hills.
The homebuilder announced Monday that Dugas, who has been with the company since 1994, will retire his post in May 2017 "to avoid a contested public battle that would not be in the interest of shareholders."
A press release filed with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission as part of the formal announcement says that his decision to retire is in part due to William J. Pulte, who now lives in Florida and founded the company in 1950; James Grosfeld, the former PulteGroup chairman and CEO; and a grandson of Pulte.
Bill Pulte, managing partner of Bloomfield Hills-based Pulte Capital Partners and the founder and chairman of the Detroit Blight Authority, confirmed Monday morning that he is the grandson referenced in the press release.
"These individuals recently demanded an immediate CEO change and a different direction for the Company," the release says. The PulteGroup board has formed a special committee of independent directors, aided by an executive recruitment firm, to search for the company's successor.
William Pulte said in a letter to the board of directors after the news broke Monday morning that "Richard Dugas' lack of performance and repeated bad decision-making has led me to conclude that the company needs new leadership."
“Under Richard’s direction and with the implementation of the Company’s Value Creation strategy, PulteGroup has made tremendous progress in generating significantly higher profitability and strong shareholder returns by strengthening the Company’s balance sheet, improving its fundamental operations and more effectively allocating capital,” James Postl, the lead independent director for the search committee, said in a statement.
Postl is a past president and CEO of Nabisco Inc. and Pennzoil-Quaker State Co. He will serve on the search committee with Cheryl Grise, former executive vice president of Northeast Utilities, a public utility holding company; and Patrick O’Leary, former executive vice president and CFO of Charlotte, N.C.-based manufacturer SPX Corp.
The company's press release says Dugas "positioned PulteGroup to succeed in the future." It says the company has had a $1.1 billion increase in reported pretax revenue, from a $310 million loss in 2011 to income of $816 million last year.
Its debt-to-capital ratio has fallen from 60 percent at the end of 2011 to 30 percent at the end of last year, the release says. The company announced three years ago that it was moving from Bloomfield Hills to Atlanta. The move was completed in 2014.
Dugas said at the time that the company was moving south "to bring us closer to our customers and a larger portion of our investment portfolio."
PulteGroup formed in 1950 when William Pulte, then 18, built a five-room home near Detroit City Airport; that home sold for $10,000. In 1969, William J. Pulte Inc. became Pulte Home Corp. and went public. Dugas, 50, has been CEO since July 2003 and has been chairman of the board since August 2009.
William Pulte said in his letter that one of his concerns was that since Dugas was appointed CEO, the company's "stock price has not appreciated significantly, even when many peers have performed strongly since the Great Recession."
In addition, he said, without elaborating, that Dugas laid off "key and irreplaceable homebuilding talent that have left the Company."
William Pulte also said Dugas spent "tens of millions of dollars" moving the company to Atlanta at shareholder expense "with no apparent benefit" to them.
He also said Dugas' timeline for departure in May 2017 is too slow.
"This falls far short of the short-term leadership change that PulteGroup shareholders and PulteGroup employees need," he wrote.
Grosfeld was appointed to the PulteGroup board in December. William Pulte said in his letter that the board has decided not to renominate Grosfeld to his post, which "reflects an attempt to stifle any differing views on management and business strategy matters, which is contrary to good corporate governance."
"The departure of Richard Dugas from PulteGroup will mean a strong and vibrant future for PulteGroup, its employees, and its shareholders," Bill Pulte said in a statement emailed to Crain's. "We are proud of the business that our family founded in Detroit in 1950, and we look forward to future growth and success of Pulte once Richard Dugas is replaced with a seasoned and succcessful homebuilding executive."
For the calendar year that ended Dec. 31, the company reported $5.79 billion in revenue on 17,127 home sales, an increase from $5.66 billion in revenue on 17,196 home sales in 2014. In 2013, it reported $5.42 billion in revenue on 17,766 home sales, while in 2012 it reported $4.55 billion on 16,505 sales.
PulteGroup had $3.95 billion in revenue on 15,275 home sales, according to SEC filings.
PulteGroup's (NYSE: PHM) shares fell 6.57 percent to $17.21 Monday. | https://www.crainsdetroit.com/article/20160404/NEWS/160409949/pultegroup-chairman-ceo-dugas-to-retire-under-pressure |
BASICS OF LINEAR PERSPECTIVE
I need to make some notes in my learning log, and being mindful that we will look at perspective in Part Four again.
There are many types of perspective. To name but a few: aerial perspective, frontal perspective (or 1-point perspective), angular perspective (or 2-points perspective or oblique view), perspectives with 3, 4, 5 and even 6 vanishing points. In the second half of the XVth century, Renaissance artists and mathematicians developed the linear perspective theory; – by now the laws of perspective were discovered. Brunelleschi, Alberti, Masaccio, Ghiberti, Piero della Francesca introduced the use of perspective, and, in doing so, forever changed further development of art.
I have now looked at interior genre painting and are mostly reminded to apply the basic linear perspective rule, namely the vanishing point to create a sense of depth and my two dimensional canvas. I am busy preparing for my sister’s visit over Christmas time – might at well give the guest room a good look. There is a big king size bed with headrest, small bedside cabinets, a loose carpet and an Ikea rocking chair in the room, which has grey curtains in front of the windows and medium dark veneer floorcovering. There is a sliding door facing North, a small window facing West and and a normal size window facing South. The room also as an extra door opening out to a small patio to the South, which connects to my working space. The door into the bedroom leads from a long corridor. The bedroom is on the first floor of this villa. ( in dubai we call our homes a villa)
I quickly learn that I have to find the horizon line first, and add two perspective points on the outer edges of my horizon line. I know that I will need to line up any lines with the vanishing point. I decide to create a picture plane template with 45′ lines drawn from the two vanishing points and in this way ensure that all the lines reach the vanishing points. The idea is to have all the angles facing the right side of the picture plane will be drawn form the left vanishing point, and vice versa for the other side. For the rest I will be working with vertical and diagonal lines. | https://karenstanderart.com/research-point-5/ |
In order to make your stay as safe as possible we may need to make changes in our cleaning procedures. We ask for your patience and flexibility as we work through this process.
Currently, CDC guidance suggests that surface transmission of Covid-19 is highly unlikely, therefore extra sanitizing is not necessary above our normal cleaning and disinfecting.
Our cleaners have not needed extra time, but we still cannot offer early check-in or late check-out when we have a same day changeover. We have also tried to determine how best to deal with items like pillows, blankets and comforters. There isn’t a safe and timely way to disinfect things like pillows between guests in addition to cleaning blankets and comforters. Due to storage limitations, we are asking our guests to bring their own pillows. We will have pillows available in each closet, but advise guests to use them at their own risk. We are also asking guests to please wash the blankets in the morning before leaving. If you don’t have time to dry them before you go our cleaners will put them in the dryer for the next guest. We realize this is far from ideal and we are doing our best to address it, but we wanted to prepare you for our “new normal”.
Thank you all for your patience and understanding in this confusing time. We are looking forward to another great summer at the Jersey Shore and we hope you are too. If you have any questions or concerns, please don’t hesitate to reach out to me. You can contact me by phone or email by using the “Contact Us” information at the bottom of every page. | https://www.beachhaven7.com/hrf_faq/how-are-we-handling-covid-19/ |
One of the great things about mathematics is its ability to bring together apparently completely unrelated phenomena, and explain them all with the same simple concept. It turns out that a very basic mathematical idea — power laws — describes the economics of pizza, limitations on the sizes of insects, income inequality, and countless other things.
We recently looked at why it makes sense to buy a large pizza rather than a small. As mentioned in that post, the area of a pizza increases as a function of the square of the radius. Formally, the area of a pizza with radius R is, as we all saw in high school, given by the formula A = πR2.
The area of the pizza — the actual amount of pizza you get — grows much more quickly than the width. As the NPR piece on pizza prices points out, a 12 inch pizza is 50% wider than an 8 inch pizza. Plug those values into the area formula, and the 8 inch pie gives you about 50 square inches of pizza, but the 12 inch pie gives you about 113 square inches of pizza — a 125% increase, or more than twice as much pizza.
The relationship between the area and width of a circle is an example of a power law: the area is proportional to the width raised to some power, in this case the power of 2.
The Power Law
Power laws are somewhat counterintuitive at first, because we are used to linear relationships. If you work for an hourly wage, you get paid the same amount of money for each hour you work, and so the total amount of money you make in a week is linearly proportional to the number of hours you work in that week.
Power laws grow non-linearly. If you were paid according to a power law, you would get more money per hour for each hour you work, just as you get more pizza per inch of width the wider the pizza is.
8 feet 3 inch tall Sultan Kosen (C) from Turkey, walks at the Golden Bauhinia Square outside the Hong Kong Convention and Exhibition Centre in Hong Kong June 7, 2012.
Power laws show up in many different contexts. Just as the area of a circle is proportional to the width of the circle squared, the volume of a sphere is proportional to the width cubed, or raised to the third power. The formula for the volume of a sphere with radius R is V = (4/3)πR3.
Suppose you have two balls, both made out of the same material, but with one ball twice as wide as the other. Then the larger ball will not weigh twice as much as the smaller ball, but will instead weigh eight times as much.
This has serious implications in biology. Take a six foot tall human, and double his height to twelve feet, keeping all of his other proportions the same. His mass, which has a cubic power relationship to his height, will be eight times more than when he was six feet tall. However, the cross-sectional area of the muscles and bones in his legs is proportional to the square of his height, and so at twelve feet tall, he will have only four times as much bone and muscle area, putting far more pressure on his legs.
So, in nature, we see differently sized animals developing different proportions for anatomical features. Rhinoceroses have disproportionately larger leg bones and muscles than do mice. The study of these differences, which tend to follow power laws, is called allometry.
Allometry and the Six-Foot Long Arthropleura
Allometry can help explain one of the stranger moments in the history of life on Earth. In theCarboniferous period, a little over 300 million years ago, the planet was covered with vast rain forests. This caused the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere to be far higher than it is today.
The Carboniferous also featured enormous insects and other arthropods, like the six foot long centipede-like Arthropleura to the left.
Scientists have long speculated that the gigantic arthropods and plentiful oxygen of this period are related. Arthropods do not breathe using lungs and transferring oxygen with blood the way vertebrates do. Instead, they have a series of small breathing tubes, or trachea, running along their bodies, directly bringing air to internal tissues.
A 2007 study of modern beetles showed that the sizes of these breathing tubes grows following a non-linear power law with the size of the insects. As the bugs get bigger, they have to dedicate proportionally more and more of their internal volume to their respiratory systems.
This limits the size of modern insects — at some point, they get so big that, if they kept following the power law governing breathing tube size, they would run out of room for other muscles and organs. Back in the oxygen-rich Carboniferous period, arthropods might have been able to get away with relatively smaller breathing tubes, following a more forgiving power law relationship between overall size and the amount of internal space needed for breathing. This might have allowed them to grow to the absurd sizes the fossil record shows.
Income Inequality
Power laws also show up in economics and sociology. The Pareto distribution, which shows, among other things, how wealth and income in a society are distributed, follows a power law. The percentage of the population that makes more than a particular amount of money is proportional to the reciprocal of that amount, raised to some power. This means, as you go up the income scale, you very quickly get fewer and fewer people making at least that much money.
This explains the wide inequalities we see in income and wealth — the largest part of the population falls on the lower end of the income spectrum.
Power laws — relationships between two quantities where one quantity is proportional to the other, raised to some power — describe a huge number of phenomena in our universe. In addition to the examples above, power laws describe the sizes of cities, the strength of gravity on other planets, the frequencies of earthquakes of different magnitudes, and much more. | https://bambooinnovator.com/2014/03/26/how-a-powerful-mathematical-principle-spelled-doom-for-absurdly-large-centipedes/ |
Dec. 16, 2020
Data collection is the first step in the process of generating a dataset for use in machine learning and computer vision training. Performing good data collection is essential to success: the quality of an AI model can only be as good as the quality of the dataset it’s trained on.
For example, suppose that we want to train a computer vision AI model to recognize images of different dog breeds. To do so, we would need to collect a robust dataset of image data for each breed we want to recognize. After being acquired, each image needs to be labeled with the correct category. Images may also require post-processing, such as cropping or resizing, to prepare them for use in training. (In fact, the Chooch AI app recognizes many things, including dogs.)
When performing data collection, we should keep the following guidelines in mind:
Once the data is collected, it needs to be separated into three sets: the training set, the validation set, and the test set:
Data should be randomly divided into each of the sets to ensure that each category is adequately represented in the AI training process. The training set is usually between 60-80% of the dataset’s total size, leaving 10-20% for each of the validation and test sets. | https://chooch.ai/computer-vision/what-is-data-collection-why-is-it-important-in-ai-training-and-ai-models/ |
Several Illinois lawmakers want to improve patient outcomes through legislation that would limit the number of people nurses can care for at any given time
The Illinois Nursing Association said the bill will improve results for both patients and nurses who are overworked.
Alice Johnson, the executive director for INA, said that the more patients nurses have, the less likely they are to catch mistakes, and the risks for patients experiencing complications increases.
“The body of evidence shows that safe patient-nurse ratios is better for patients,” she said.
A study done by the Illinois Health and Hospital Association, which is opposed to this legislation, estimates the staffing requirements would drive up healthcare costs by $2 billion per year.
Johnson said the staffing costs would be offset by long-term savings from reduced patient readmissions, lower nurse turnover, and fewer injuries to nurses.
Johnson also believes the legislation would help reduce the nursing shortage. She said nurses who have left hospital positions would be more likely to return to the field with these kind of limits in place, and people would be more likely to consider nursing as a profession.
The limits set in the Safe Patient Limits Act vary by the type of care needed. A nurse working in pediatrics would have a maximum of three patients, for example, while a nurse in an intensive care unit would only have two, and an acute rehabilitation nurse could have up to four, according to the proposed legislation.
Current law does not mandate how many patients a nurse can care for. Hospitals are required to have a nursing care committee that develops a staffing plan. Fifty percent of the members of those committees must be nurses who provide direct patient care. Hospitals are also required to have a plan that allows staffing to be adjusted based on the severity of patients.
But Johnson said surveys done by her organization show many nurses aren’t even aware these committees exist.
It’s also difficult to determine exactly how many patients the average nurse cares for because hospitals aren’t required to track patient ratios and they can vary widely from hospital to hospital.
“Currently, I’ve heard of nurses having as many of 12 patients assigned to them,” she said. “Which is very unsafe in a medical surgical unit.”
While sponsors of the legislation say it’s intended to help patients, the Illinois Health and Hospital Association opposes it, calling it unnecessary.
Danny Chun, a spokesperson for the organization, said hospitals need flexibility to assign nurses to different areas based on patient needs.
“It will not improve care or quality,” he said. “On the surface, it sounds good but when you actually look at the details of how it would work there are all kinds of problems.”
He pointed to the fact that hospital care teams include more than just registered nurses, and that other licensed professional nurses and certified nurses assistants also help provide care.
Chun added that implementing the bill would also be expensive, which could hit rural hospitals especially hard.
“It’s not feasible. It’s not necessary. Our quality is good with the nursing staff we have now,” said Randy Dauby, CEO of the Pinckneyville Community Hospital District, located in Southern Illinois.
He also noted that while hospitals are graduating nurses as quickly as they can, Illinois still can’t train enough nurses to meet demand. He worries this law would lead to large hospitals raising salaries and offering bonuses to recruit nurses, at the expense of smaller, rural hospitals that would not be able to compete.
Dauby said nurse staffing needs to remain flexible, allowing nurses to move between areas as patient needs demand.
California is the only state that has mandated nurse staffing ratios. Chun pointed to several studies that indicate staffing mandates don’t result in improved outcomes.
However, other studies do show a link, including those conducted by the Agency on Healthcare Research and Quality, the federal agency tasked with examining the nation’s healthcare systems. Those studies conclude that patients are at greater risk of death and other complications as the number of patients per nurse increases.
A report from the Illinois Economic Policy Institute suggests the ratios proposed in the bill would improve patient outcomes and help retain nurses. Insufficient staffing levels and high patient to nurse ratios, in addition to workplace violence, are cited in the report as factors that lead to an estimated 30% to 50% of all new registered nurses changing positions or leaving the field within the first three years of their practice.
Lawmakers have until the end of this month to vote on the bill. | https://news.wsiu.org/post/how-many-patients-should-nurse-care |
Four hundred years earlier the great spaceships had departed from Terra to colonize distant planets. Few ships reached their destinations; their sporadic signals waned and disappeared. No one knew whether the colonists survived. Now, construction of a new generation of hyperdrive ships was scheduled at one every five years. Planet Delta was selected as the next target for survey because the arrival of a brief signal suggested the descendants of the colonists were alive.
Tiger Lily longs for freedom. In her fight to escape the subterranean slums of Terra, Lily competes to join the scout team selected for the next spaceship along with a new set of prospective colonists. Their mission to discover the lost colony faces the challenges posed by the voracious predators of the planet. In the mountains, they encounter Conley, a grim warrior who longs to escape the confines of his isolated valley. Has Tiger Lily met her match in this tortured warrior? But, where is he leading them? Danger lies ahead, and conflicts between humans and aliens. Can they ensure the safety of the new human colonists, or must they retreat to Terra?
A Tale of Two Colonies
Cover in category: 'Fiction' > '
- Romance
- Science Fiction
User reviews
The Cover Contest 2015 is closed. Please submit your vote in the current year. | https://authorsdb.com/2015-cover-contest-results/18948-a-tale-of-two-colonies |
The utility model belongs to the technical field of garbage classification, and particularly relates to garbage can collection and garbage classification equipment, which comprises a garbage truck forconveying garbage cans and compressing the garbage cans, and a deformable garbage can for collecting garbage, the garbage can is placed at the garbage terminal to collect garbage; when the garbage can is full of garbage; after the garbage truck collects the garbage cans at the garbage terminal and places the garbage cans on the garbage truck in the collecting process, the second oil hydraulic cylinder is driven to drive the rear baffle to move, the garbage cans in the truck hopper are compressed through movement of the rear baffle, and the storage amount of the garbage cans in the garbage truck is increased; after garbage in the garbage cans is conveyed to the garbage transfer station to be treated, the multiple garbage cans are sequentially stacked up and down to be placed in the garbagetruck to be sent back, the number of empty garbage cans returned by the special return truck at a time can be increased through stacking treatment of the garbage cans, and the garbage can return efficiency is improved. | |
Arts & Crafts Pair of oak stools each carved with a hand painted crest, red leather, pegged joints, carved details each 44cm x 24cm, 42cm high ...
Arts & Crafts Oak dresser finished with carved rose motifs, brass handles, stylised cut-outs 55cm x 125cm, 195cm high
Arts & Crafts Occasional table square top, turned legs and single shelf 43cm x 43cm, 70cm high
Attributed to Liberty & Co Child's settee, circa 1900 stained wood, lattice back over cane seat and turned lets 65cm high, 75cm wide, 35cm deep
Arts & Crafts Ironwork and copper lamp blown glass shade 180cm high
Arts & Crafts Metalwork fender decorated with a sun pattern 150cm x 35cm
Arts & Crafts Pair of oak armchairs one a recliner, stylised cut-outs, upholstered Morris style seats each 95cm high
Manner of Simpson of Kendal Oak corner cupboard panels carved with flowers and fruits, finished with brass handle 104cm high
Mid 20th Century Teak bureau cabinet over two shelves and tapering legs 76cm x 43cm, 100cm high
Arts & Crafts style Adjustable table top mirror single drawer, heart cut- outs, carved details 57cm x 38cm
Arts & Crafts Three book thrones, circa 1910 largest 46cm across
Arts & Crafts Firescreen, circa 1890 inset embroidered panel attributed to Leek Embroidery Society 87cm high
Art Deco Walnut veneered side table round top with two tone veneer over two shelves 60cm diameter, 59cm high
Pugin style Red painted oak table carved legs and supports, pegged construction 92cm x 61cm, 75cm high
Apprentice of Barnsley Pair of upholstered oak armchairs each 90cm high
Émile Gallé (1846-1904) Inlaid marquetry occasional table decorated with a landscape with tree inlaid Galle signature to top 44cm x 51cm, 72cm...
In the manner of Morris & Co Stained wood stool, late 19th Century plywood curved seat over turned legs 34cm high
In the manner of Liberty & Co Small mahogany bookshelf heart cut out, four shelves 86cm high
Liberty & Co Stained oak/beech side table hexagonal top, six turned legs, cut out supports 51cm high
Liberty & Co Pair of stained wood armchairs rush seats, carved back supports, turned legs 85cm high (2)
Early 20th Century Pair of walnut armchairs curved arms, carved details, fabric seats each 93cm high (2)
1930's Bentwood chair cushion seat, ladder back 87cm high
Gordon Russell Elm side table plank top over a single drawer, pegged joints 86cm x 53cm, 79cm high
Stanley W. Davis Stained wood log bin plank sides, fan cutouts, studded details 41cm across
In the manner of Liberty & Co Oak drop leaf table carved to the ends with rose decoration, pegged supports, round plank top 120cm x 120cm, 78cm...
In the manner of Romney Green Square occasional table octagonal carved legs, cross braced, carved repeating pattern 50cm x 50cm, 64cm high
In the manner of Philip Webb Oak round table sloping turned legs and supports around a central leg, the top detailed with two carved lines 127c...
Liberty & Co Dressing table swing mirror over a single drawer and turned legs 84cm x 50cm, table 76cm high
Neville Neal Ash rocking chair, circa 1960 ladder-back with stylised supports, rush seat stamped to leg 105cm high
In the manner of Morris & Co Stained wood armchair curved arms and legs, red upholstered seat 79cm high
Cotswold School Pair of ash armchairs ladder-back, rush seats and turned supports and legs each 106cm high
Art Deco Triptych dressing mirror part shagreen, ivory finials and feet, bevelled mirror 68cm high, 98cm across
Country House painted pine carrying case handwritten 'Lord Hindlip, Hindlip Hall, Worcester, England' to side, two doors to the top finished wit...
Liberty & Co Pair of stained beech child's chairs, circa 1905 from the nursery rhyme range with rush seats 72cm high (2)
In the Manner of Edward William Godwin (1833-1886) Arts & Crafts armchair ebonised with heart motif pierced to top rail, Morris style fabric sea...
Hendrik Wouda for Pander & Son (1885-1946) Set of six oak Art Deco chairs, circa 1920 with drop in leather seats 88cm high (6)
Attributed to William Birch Arts & Crafts oak dining table, circa 1900 round plank top overturned crossed braced legs 110cm diameter, 71cm high
Liberty & Co Arts & Crafts stained wood stick stand finished with heart cut-outs, inset metal tray, Liberty London label to base 28cm x 22cm, 6...
In the Manner of Ernest Gimson Armchair rush seat, ladder back, turned details 98cm high
Cotswold School Ash ladder back highchair rush seat, bentwood legs 92cm high
Cotswold School Ash child's chair rush seat, ladder back 64cm high
Cotswold School Oak coffee table carved legs and supports 134cm x 57cm, 58cm high
Cotswold School Oak bedside cabinet two drawers, squared legs 48cm x 30cm, 68cm high
Cotswold School Oak side table single drawer, squared finish, carved handle 50cm x 34cm, 77cm high
Cotswold School Small side table carved repeating pattern, square legs and supports 40cm x 31cm, 40cm high
Cotswold School Small oak bookshelf carved repeating pattern, two shelves, pegged joints 40cm high
Cotswold School Walnut book rack dark wood inlay to handles and drawers 43cm across
Cotswold School Oak drop-leaf small table octagonal top 56cm x 56cm, 48cm high
Cotswold School Oak throne chair, circa 1960 pegged joints, ski shaped legs, carved arm rests, Harris Tweed upholstery seat 50cm x 49cm, 120cm ...
Cotswold School Set of three fire irons, circa 1910 carved linear design, twisted form, tongs finished with a moulded rose shovel 75cm across
Cotswold School Oak stool, circa 1910 attributed to Edward Gardiner, rush seat, turned legs and supports 30cm x 46cm, 49cm high
Cotswold School Ash child's chair, circa 1905 designed by Ernest Gimson, made by Edward Gardiner, ladder-back and rush seat 35cm x 31cm, 63cm h...
Ambrose Heal for Heals Painted chest of drawers, circa 1900 five drawers and two cupboards, pair of 'owls eye' cabinet doors (original Heals pa... | https://www.the-saleroom.com/en-gb/auction-catalogues/mallams-ltd-cheltenham/catalogue-id-srmall10064 |
Title: Gene regulation in the intraerythrocytic cycle of Plasmodium falciparum.
MOTIVATION: To date, there is little knowledge about one of the processes fundamental to the biology of Plasmodium falciparum, gene regulation including transcriptional control. We use noisy threshold models to identify regulatory sequence elements explaining membership to a gene expression cluster where each cluster consists of genes active during the part of the developmental cycle inside a red blood cell. Our approach is both able to capture the combinatorial nature of gene regulation and to incorporate uncertainty about the functionality of putative regulatory sequence elements. RESULTS: We find a characteristic pattern where the most common motifs tend to be absent upstream of genes active in the first half of the cycle and present upstream of genes active in the second half. We find no evidence that motif's score, orientation, location and multiplicity improves prediction of gene expression. Through comparative genome analysis, we find a list of potential transcription factors and their associated motifs. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online. | https://repository.ubn.ru.nl/handle/2066/80608 |
We recently received a request on how to calculate the weight of structural members in Revit.
Research
According to the info in the link below Revit cannot provide weight info as the parameters are not added currently.
https://knowledge.autodesk.com/support/revit-products/troubleshooting/caas/sfdcarticles/sfdcarticles/Setting-up-a-parameter-to-calculate-weight-for-structural-members-in-Revit.html
So, you will have to calculate it. There might be other methods but the one I used is according to the formula in the link below which is that you’ll need to know the Density of the steel used ( Kg/m3) and multiply it by the Volume of the member.
https://sciencing.com/calculate-weight-steel-5127389.html
Revit Calculations
The Volume field is a standard one found as a parameter in the Structural Framing Schedule.
To add the Structural Material Density you’ll have to change the Available Field at the top of the dialogue box to “Structural Material” and then add it.
If these members do not have a Density listed you need to attach a Material to them that contains a Physical Asset. In the process below we have (1) selected the element and then in its Properties the (2) Material selection. The Material dialogue will appear and you’d select the appropriate material. In this case we selected Steel 43-265 and then click the Physical asset tab on the right panel. It will list the Density of the Steel.
Also it seems that if the Density is not listed in the schedule you need to just go through the steps as above and select the Physical Tab again to ‘wake’ up the Material and when you open the schedule the Densities wil be shown.
If the material does not have a Physical Asset Tab in the Materials dialogue Box then it means that an Asset is not assigned to selected material and you would have to assign the Physical asset as shown in the example below.
A dialogue box will appear listing all the Assets and you can then add the appropriate steel assets as shown in the example.
This will then add the Physical asset to the Material and will show in the Schedule.
Calculation
Then we use the Calculated Value option in the Revit Schedules to calculate the Weight. In the formula area your add the formula as follows: (Density/1)*(Volume/1)
We divide each of the parameters by 1 so as to render them unitless. Then the answer will be in KGs.
Conclusion
Using these calculated values, it allows you to calculate various useful deliverable from costs to weights as shown. | https://mgfx.co.za/blog/building-architectural-design/how-to-calculate-structural-members-weight-in-revit/ |
Centre will create new jobs and energy in Clay Cross
New jobs will be created in Clay Cross after councillors passed plans for a controversial energy centre.
Derbyshire County Council has given Clay Cross Biomass Ltd permission to build the £50million facility off Bridge Street.
The centre will create up to 30 new jobs when it opens and also convert enough waste wood to power 18,000 homes.
A spokesman for Clay Cross Biomass Ltd said: “We are delighted to have received planning permission for this development.
“We will now be working with our partners on detailed project development for the financing, construction and operation of this facility which will help to create local employment, reduce the amount of waste that goes to landfill and contribute to tackling global environmental issues.
“Once commissioned, the facility is expected to create up to 30 new jobs and there will be about 150 to 200 jobs during the construction phase.
“It will convert around 80,000 tonnes of waste wood, currently sent to landfill, to generate up to 12 megawatts of electricity, enough to power about 18,000 homes, plus 14 megawatts of thermal energy a year.”
In an objection letter, Clay Cross Parish Council said it had ‘grave reservations’ about the building and operation of the centre.
It voiced concerns about an increase in noise, extra traffic and possible contamination and said the facility would ‘add little to the regeneration of Clay Cross and the health and wellbeing of its residents’. | https://www.thestar.co.uk/news/centre-will-create-new-jobs-and-energy-clay-cross-457938 |
The search found 234 results in 0.022 seconds.
Household labor is commonly defined as a set of physical tasks such as cooking, cleaning, and shopping. Sociologists sometimes reference non-physical activities related to “household management,” but these are typically mentioned in passing, imprecisely defined, or treated as equivalent to physical tasks. Using 70 in-depth interviews with members of 35 couples, this study argues that such tasks are better understood as examples of a unique dimension of housework: cognitive labor.
This figure describes the distance from meritocracy in 36 European countries between 2002 and 2017. Following Krauze and Slomczynski, the author defines meritocratic allocation of individuals by education to occupational status groups as a situation when more educated persons do not have jobs with lower status than less educated persons.
The authors examine the organizational construction of an interdisciplinary brain care center via ethnographic observation of vision and mission-building meetings and semistructured interviews with organizational leaders.
The classroom climate shapes students’ learning and instructors’ teaching experience in profound ways. This study analyzes classroom climate statements in syllabi from various sociology courses to understand the extent that sociology instructors highlight climate issues and how climate is conceptualized in their syllabi. Drawing from data from two different times periods (pre-2005 and post-2010), the current study examines the frequency of classroom climate statements, the factors that may contribute to the presence of a statement, and themes within these statements.
Research on workplace discrimination has tended to focus on a singular axis of inequality or a discrete type of closure, with much less attention to how positional and relational power within the employment context can bolster or mitigate vulnerability. In this article, the author draws on nearly 6,000 full-time workers from five waves of the General Social Survey (2002–2018) to analyze discrimination, sexual harassment, and the extent to which occupational status and vertical and horizontal workplace relations matter.
The author argues that behind the apparent randomness of interactions between cabdrivers and their fares in Warsaw is a temporal structure. To capture this temporal structure, the author introduces the notion of a linking ecology. He argues that the Warsaw taxi market is a linking ecology, which is structured by religious time, state time, and family time. The author then focuses on waiting time, arguing that it too structures the interactions between cabdrivers and their fares.
Although previous research has examined associations among masculinity, sexual orientation, minority stress, and mental health, these studies focused exclusively on individuals as units of analysis. This study investigates how men in same-sex relationships uniquely experience minority stress associated with their perceptions and performances of masculinity, as individuals and as couples.
This paper describes an experimental study (N = 184) that investigated influence and social distance consequences of a number of attributes in interpersonal interactions. The attributes included race, education, panic disorder, depression, and schizophrenia. Participants interacted with fictitious partners whom they believed were real and who represented the attributes studied. Participants had opportunities to be influenced by and seek distance from their interaction partners. Results showed that low educational attainment and schizophrenia significantly reduced the influence of partners. | https://www.asanet.org/search?f%5B0%5D=node%253Afield_related_topics_term%3A99&f%5B1%5D=node%253Atype%3Aresearch_brief&f%5B2%5D=node%253Atype%3Ajournal_article&f%5B3%5D=node%253Atype%3Aresearch_trend&f%5B4%5D=node%253Afield_related_topics_term%3A198&order=desc&page=4&sort=node%3Acreated |
The Argentine Network for International Cooperation (RACI) is an organization made up of 99 Civil Society Organizations (CSO) from Argentina. The organization seeks to be a link between CSO, which work or want to do so with the support of the International Cooperation and International Cooperation Agents, who perform social investment for development in the country. Its main objective is to create a space for exchange and dialogue between both actors in order to strengthen the institutions in their access to the International Cooperation, and, subsequently, to contribute to the social transformation of Argentina.
RACI wants to democratize the access to the funding sources, generate and disseminate information related to foreign help, develop and optimize the capabilities and resources of CSO, and collaborate with the agents of the International Cooperation for the optimization of their actions and the search for solutions to various problems.
Through its areas and programs, the network contributes with the institutional strengthening of CSO through seminars, workshops, lectures and discussions, in order to develop new resources and capabilities that facilitate access to International Cooperation. Among the tools that it gives to the civil society, there are several studies and publications on trends and statistics of international aid, such as the Handbook to facilitate access to International Cooperation- A tool of strengthening for civil society organizations, the Directory of International Cooperation – A resource guide for civil society organizations, and the System of Information on Cooperation for Development (SICAD). | http://fundeps.org/en/networks/argentine-network-international-cooperation |
From the Perspective of Whom?
The more I come across the blatant lies, distortions of the truth and examples of the success that ongoing manipulations by the media and others have had with regard to getting the "masses" in a number of counties to accept things as being "the gospel truth", the more it confirms the fact that history certainly is written by the victors. Without going to the ultimate view of "Trust no-one, Question everything, Believe nothing!", at least ponder the questions of "who can one believe?" or "what is the truth?"
My first exposure to this subject was when I read "After the Reich" by Giles MacDonogh. It opened up a whole new history as far as I was concerned; a case of revealing a history that has been ignored or hidden for what may be many reasons. I then began reading more books on this subject. The more I read the more I realised that there was so much more that remained unread and untold. The authors, whose books I have read, all seem to have wanted people to know "what really happened". I humbly wish to support their objectives by creating this website which I hope will point other people into searching for the truth in a currently largely ignored part of history.
The more I have read about what happened between 1945 and 1950, the more I found I needed to know to understand what led to this. Firstly I found myself reading about events that happened towards the end of the war; then to events occuring during the war and then to the events that led up to the beginning of hostilities in 1939. But it didn't stop there! There were things that had occured after the end of World War One that seemed to have a direct bearing on later events e.g. The Treaty of Versailles. Surprisingly, to me anyway, I was then drawn back to earlier history! I do not know what period I need to read further about now and therefore do not know what period this website will eventually cover. My aim is still to focus on the period 1945 to 1950; but I do not apologise if I relate to books and other websites that I feel may have a direct or indirect reference to that period in question.
Having read and researched a fair bit since my first exposure to what actually happened between 1945 and 1950, I now look at Germany from the beginning of the 20th century up to the present day with a whole new perpective. What has really surprised me the most is the manner in which Germany has been and continues to be treated.
My greatest regret with this website remains the almost total "non-use" of the Forum on it. That of course means….. | http://peopleinglasshouses.wikidot.com/background |
Our multidisciplinary team focuses on two main areas, namely intra-tumor genetic heterogeneity, its causes, consequences and therapeutic vulnerabilities, and on the identification of novel genotypic-phenotypic correlations in human cancers, by focusing on extremes of phenotype.
We have developed wet lab and computational approaches to address fundamental questions on the impact of specific types of DNA repair defects in cancer, their impact on cancer genomes and how to explore the therapeutic vulnerabilities caused by these DNA repair defects. In particular, we are seeking to define the impact of homologous recombination (HR) DNA repair deficiency (HRD) in human cancers, including a characterization of the basis of HRD, the impact of mutations affecting different components of the HR pathway and the therapeutic strategies to target HRD above and beyond PARP inhibitors. We have developed novel methods for single cell DNA sequencing that can be applicable to formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded samples, as well as innovative approaches for the sequencing of circulating cell-free DNA (cfDNA) to characterize the entire repertoire of genetic alterations in metastatic cancer patients.
Our laboratory has a track record in the identification of novel genotypic-phenotypic correlations in rare tumors. Following the hypothesis that rare tumor types would constitute extremes of phenotype, we have employed sequencing approaches that resulted in the identification and functional characterization of novel pathognomonic genetic alterations (e.g. PRKD1 E710D hotspot mutations), novel cancer genes (e.g. ATP6AP1 and ATP6AP2) and new combinations of genetic alterations resulting in specific phenotypes in the context of breast cancer (e.g. HRAS Q61 hotspot mutations in conjunction with PIK3CA or PIK3R1 mutations in adenomyoepitheliomas of the breast). | https://www.sloankettering.edu/research-areas/labs/jorge-reis-filho/overview |
=-45pt =-65pt
**[ THE MAXIMUM PRINCIPLE OF THE NAVIER - STOKES EQUATION[^1]$^)$]{}**
Akysh Abdigali Shoiynbaiuly
[Institute of Mathematics of the Ministry of Education and Science\
of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Almaty,]{} akysh41@[g]{}mail.com
[**Abstract.** In the work of Navier-Stokes (NSE) equation, derived a nonlinear parabolic equation for kinetic energy density, and identified an important property of this equation - the maximum principle. The latter shows the validity of the maximum principle and the NSE. On the basis of what, the unique solvability of the weak and the existence of strong solutions for NSE was proved wholly in time $t\in[0,T],$ $\forall{T}<\infty$.]{}
[**1 Introduction.**]{} The current state of the mathematical theory of Navier-Stokes equation appears, for example, in [@lad]–[@Akm], etc. Major unresolved problems of the theory of the Navier-Stokes equation of a homogeneous fluid are given in [@lad]–[@FF]. In particular, in the monograph of Ladyzhenskaya ([@lad]; p.13), we formulate some unsolved problems in mathematical theory of Navier-Stokes equation. Apparently, among them the principal is:
[*1) Is there a unique solution in general, the general three-dimensional initial boundary value problem in a class of generalized solutions without any assumptions about the smallness of known functions and areas filled with fluid?*]{}
In several papers [@Ash2]-[@Ash15] and others of the author, some basic statements were received in order to study the maximum principle for the NSE. The system of nonlinear parabolic equation for kinetic energy density, and important property of this equation - the maximum principle was derived from NSE. With the last the validity of the maximum principle for the NSE was shown, which from a mathematical point of view is the key. In this paper, these results are summarized and linked to the mathematical rigor and, based on them the unique solvability of the weak and the existence of strong solutions to the NSE wholly in time $t\in[0,T],$ $\forall{T}<\infty$ was proved. In this paper, these results are summarized and linked to the mathematical rigor.
[**2 A statement of the problem.**]{} Consider the initial-value problem for NSE [@lad] regarding the velocity ${\mathbf U}=(U_1,U_2,U_3)$ and pressure $ P $ in the domain $Q=(0,T]\times \Omega $:
\[is1\] $$\begin{aligned}
&& \frac{\partial\mathbf{U}}{\partial t}-\mu\Delta\mathbf{U}
+(\mathbf{U},\nabla){\mathbf U}+\nabla P=\mathbf{f}(t,\mathbf{x}),\label{is1a}\\
&&\text{div}\mathbf{U}=0,\label{is1b}\\&&\mathbf{U}(0,\mathbf{x})=\mathbf{\Phi}(\mathbf{x}),\quad \label{is1c}\\ &&
\mathbf{U}(t,\mathbf{x})\bigl{|}_{\partial\Omega}=0,\quad\mathbf{x}\in\partial\Omega, \label{is1d}
\end{aligned}$$
where $\mathbf{x}\in\Omega\subset R_3;$ $\Omega$ – the convex region filled with a homogeneous liquid, and $\partial\Omega$ –its boundary $\Omega$, $ t\in [0,T],\,T<\infty;$ $\mathbf{f}$ ¨ $\mathbf{\Phi}$ – vector-functions accordingly to the external forces and initial data; $0<\mu$ – dynamic viscosity coefficient; $\Delta$ ¨ $\nabla$ –operators of Laplace and Hamilton, respectively. Let $\mbox{\bf\r{J}}(\Omega)$ – the space of solenoidal vectors, and ${\mathbf G}(\Omega)$ consists of $\nabla\eta,$ where $\eta$ is single-valued function in $\Omega$. It is known [@lad], [@We] orthogonal resolution ${\mathbf L}_2(Q)={\mathbf G}(Q)\oplus \mbox{\bf\r{J}}(Q),$ moreover the elements of $\mbox{\bf\r{J}}(Q)$ at $\forall t$ belong to $\mbox{\bf\r{J}}(\Omega),$ and the elements $\mathbf{G}(Q)$-to subspace $\mathbf{G}(\Omega);$ $W_{2,0}^k(\Omega)$ is Sobolev space of vanishing functions on $\partial\Omega$; the following will be used – $L_2\bigl{(}0,T; W_{p,0}^k(\Omega)\bigr)\equiv L_2(0,T)\cap{W_{p,0}^k(\Omega)};$\
$W_{2,0}^{2,1}(Q)$ – the Hilbert space of space of vanishing functions on $[0,T]\times\partial\Omega$ and having generalized derivatives of $\big{\{} U_t,\> U_{x_\alpha},\>U_{x_\alpha x_\beta},{\small(\alpha,\beta=\overline{1,3})}\big{\}}$ from $L_2(Q)$;\
Assume that input data of problem (\[is1\]) are $\mathbf{f}$, $\mathbf{\Phi}$ satisfied following requests:\
$${\bf i})\> {\mathbf f}(t,\mathbf{x})\in\mathbf{C}(\bar{Q})\cap\mbox{\bf\r{J}}(Q)
; \quad {\bf ii})\> {\mathbf\Phi}(\mathbf{x})\in \mathbf{C}(\bar{\Omega})\cap{\mathbf W}_{2,0}^1(\Omega)
\cap\mbox{\bf\r{J}}(\Omega).$$ We will use the well-known Holder inequality $$\Bigl|\int\limits_\Omega UV\,\mathbf{dx}\Bigr|\leq
\Bigl(\int\limits_\Omega|U|^p\,\mathbf{dx} \Bigr)^\frac{1}{p}
\Bigl(\int\limits_\Omega|V|^q\,\mathbf{dx}\Bigr)^\frac{1}{q}\label{H1}$$ and Young for the paired products $$UV\leq\frac{1}{\epsilon p}|U|^p
+\frac{\epsilon}{q}|V|^q,\quad \epsilon>0,\quad \frac{1}{p}+\frac{1}{q}=1, \label{Y1}$$ Moreover, the formula for integration by parts $$\int\limits_{\Omega} V\Delta U\,\mathbf{dx}=-\int\limits_{\Omega}\nabla V\,\nabla U\,\mathbf{dx}+
\int\limits_{\partial\Omega}V\frac{\partial U}{\partial\rm\mathbf{n}}\,\mathbf{dx}\label{ip}$$ and well-known theorem on the solvability of the Neumann problem for Poisson equation, for example, [@Mh].
[**Theorem 1.**]{} [*In order to have a generalized solution of problem to be existed $$-\Delta V= \varphi, \quad \frac{\partial V}{\partial{\rm{\mathbf n}}}\Bigm|_{\partial\Omega}=0, \label{npn}$$ is necessary and sufficiently that $$\varphi\in L_2(\Omega)\wedge\int\limits_\Omega \varphi\,\mathbf{dx}= 0.$$ In this supposition there exists a unique generalized solution of $V$, which satisfies the condition $$V\in W_2^1(\Omega)\wedge\int\limits_\Omega V\,\mathbf{dx}=0.$$ Any other generalized solution $V^\prime$ of this problem can be written in the from $V^\prime=V+c,$ where $c - $is an arbitrary constant.*]{}
[**3 The Principle of maximum.** ]{} The vector equation (\[is1a\]) put $\mathbf f=0$, and multiply by the velocity vector $\mathbf{U}$,and then using the formula $$\Delta{E}=(\mathbf{\Delta{U}},\mathbf{U})+\sum\limits_{\alpha=1}^3|\nabla{U_\alpha}|^2,\label{ms12}$$ obtain a nonlinear parabolic equation for the density of kinetic energy (k. e.) $E=\frac{1}{2}(U_1^2+U_2^2+U_3^2)$: $$\mathbb{L}E\equiv\frac{\partial E}{\partial t}-\mu\Delta E+\mu\sum\limits_{\alpha=1}^3|\nabla U_\alpha|^2
+(\nabla E,{\mathbf U})+(\nabla P,{\mathbf U})=0,\label{ms2a}$$ where $\mid\mathbf{U}\mid$ is a module of the velocity vector, $(\cdot\,,\,\cdot)$-scalar product of vectors.
[**Theorem 2**]{}[@Ash12].[*Suppose $\bar{Q}=[0,T]\times\bar{\Omega}$ - a cylindrical domain with boundary $[0,T]\times{\partial\Omega}$ in the space of variables $t,\mathbf{x}$ and function $(\mathbf{U},E)\in C(\bar{Q})\cap C^2(Q)\wedge P\in{C^1(Q)}$satisfy the equations (\[is1a\]), (\[ms2a\]). Then the function $E(t,\mathbf{x})$ takes its maximum in the cylinder $\bar{Q}$ on its lower base $\{0\}\times\bar{\Omega}$ or on lateral area $[0,T]\times\partial\Omega$ , i.e.,*]{} $$E(t,\mathbf{x})\leq\max\bigl{\{}\sup\limits_{t=0\bigwedge\mathbf{x}\in\bar{\Omega}}E(t,\mathbf{x}),
\sup\limits_{t\in[0,T]\bigwedge{\mathbf{x}\in\partial\Omega}}E(t,\mathbf{x})\bigr{\}}=C-const.\label{ms4}$$
[**Definition 1.**]{} [*Let’s say that the vector of velocity $\mathbf{U}(t,\mathbf{x})$ at the point $M_1(t^\prime,\mathbf{x}^\prime)$ of domain $Q$ extreme, if each component of the velocity vector $U_\alpha(t,\mathbf{x}),$ $\alpha=\overline{1,3}$ at that point $M_1$ reaches a local extremum (either a local maximum or local minimum).*]{}
For the proof of theorem 1 we need to have auxiliary conclusion[^2]$^)$[**.**]{}
[**Lemma 1**]{}[@Ash17; @Ash16]. [*Scalar product of a vector of speed $\mathbf{U}$ and its derivative $\frac{\partial\mathbf{U}}{\partial{x_\beta}}$ **directed on vector** $\mathbf{U}$ generates derivative of density k. e. $\frac{\partial{E}}{\partial{x_\beta}}$ on $x_\beta$, i.e. $$\label{mms1}
\frac{\partial{E}}{\partial{x_\beta}}=
(\mathbf{U},\frac{\partial\mathbf{U}}{\partial{x_\beta}});
\Longrightarrow
\frac{\partial{E}}{\partial{x_\beta}}=|\mathbf{U}|\,|\frac{\partial\mathbf{U}}{\partial{x_\beta}}|\cos\gamma,\>
\text{moreover} \> \cos\gamma\neq 0, \>\forall\mathbf{x}\in\Omega,\>
\beta=\overline{1,3},$$ where $\gamma-$ the angle between vectors $\mathbf{U}$ and $\frac{\partial\mathbf{U}}{\partial{x_\beta}}.$*]{}
[**The proof**]{}. Vector $\mathbf{U}$, following [@Kog], we will present in a kind $$\label{mms2} \mathbf{U}=|U|\mathbf{e},$$ where an $\mathbf{e}(\mathbf{x})-$identity vector.
From here differentiating on $x_\beta$, we will find $$\label{m1}
\frac{\partial\mathbf{U}}{\partial{x_\beta}}=\frac{\partial|U|}{ \partial{x_\beta}}\mathbf{e}+|U|\frac{\partial\mathbf{e}}{\partial{x_\beta}}.$$ Have as a result received expansion of a derivative of vector $\mathbf{U}$ on two components from which the first is directed on vector $\mathbf{U}$, and the second is directed on a perpendicular to $\mathbf{U}$.
We will multiply scalar expansion (\[m1\]) by the vector $\mathbf{U}$ and taking account of (\[mms2\]), we will write down in a kind $$(\mathbf{U},\frac{\partial\mathbf{U}}{\partial{x_\beta}})=(|U|\mathbf{e},\frac{\partial|U|}{ \partial{x_\beta}}\mathbf{e})+(|U|\mathbf{e},|U|\frac{\partial\mathbf{e}}{\partial{x_\beta}}),
\>\forall\mathbf{x}\in\Omega.$$
From here $$(\mathbf{U},\frac{\partial\mathbf{U}}{\partial{x_\beta}})=\frac{\partial{E}}{\partial{x_\beta}}(\mathbf{e}, \mathbf{e})+ |U|^2(\mathbf{e},\frac{\partial\mathbf{e}}{\partial{x_\beta}}), \>\forall\mathbf{x}\in\Omega;\> \beta=\overline{1,3} .$$ Of which the perpendicular part of vector$\frac{\partial\mathbf{U}}{\partial{x_\beta}}$ $\mathbf{U}$ falls out (the second summand in the right part) and as a result it is found $$\frac{\partial{E}}{\partial{x_\beta}}=(\mathbf{U},\frac{\partial\mathbf{U}}{\partial{x_\beta}}),\>
\beta=\overline{1,3},\> \forall\mathbf{x}\in\Omega.$$
Whence we deduce that when the vector changes both on length, and in a direction perpendicular complement to derivative $\frac{\partial\mathbf{U}}{\partial{x_\beta}}$, falls out the scalar product, and by that $\cos{\gamma}\neq{0},$ $\forall\mathbf{x}\in\Omega$, Q.E.D.
[**Lemma 2**]{}[@Ash12]. [*Let the density k.e. $E(t,\mathbf{x})$ has in any point $M_1(t,\mathbf{x})$ in the domain $\bar{Q}=[0,T]\times\Omega$ is a local maximum, then the point $M_1$ is a stationary point of the velocity vector $\mathbf{U}$, i.e. $$\nabla U_\alpha(M_1)=0,\quad \alpha=\overline{1,3}.\label{mssq}$$ and $\mathbf{U}$ in the point $M_1$ reaches a local extremum. Moreover at least at this point $M_1$ one of the components of the velocity $\mathbf{U}$ reaches a positive maximum or negative minimum, and the rest - a negative maximum (positive low).*]{}
[**Proof**]{}.[^3]$^)$ We expand the composite function $E(\mathbf{U})=\frac{1}{2}\sum\limits_{\alpha=1}^3U_\alpha^2(t,\mathbf{x})$ in the vicinity of point $ M_1(t,\mathbf{x})$ of the Taylor formula and the records, omitting time $t$. We obtain in this case that, $$\Delta{E}\equiv E(\mathbf{x+dx})-E(M_1)=dE\big{|}_{M_1}+\frac{1}{2}d^2E\big{|}_{M_1}+o(|\mathbf{dx}|^2),$$ where the symbol $o(|\mathbf{dx}|^2)$ denotes an infinitesimal function of higher order than that, $|\mathbf{dx}|^2$.
By the previous formula, we substitute the expression differentials $dE$, $d^2E$ computed, following [@ISS], and neglecting the small value, we obtain $$\begin{gathered}
\label{mssd}
\Delta{E}=\sum\limits_{\alpha=1}^3U_\alpha\sum\limits_{\beta=1}^3\frac{\partial{U_\alpha}}{\partial{x_\beta}}\Big{|}_{M_1}dx_\beta+\\
+\frac{1}{2}\bigg{[}\sum\limits_{\beta=1}^3\sum\limits_{\gamma=1}^3\sum\limits_{\alpha=1}^3U_\alpha\frac{\partial^2U_\alpha}
{\partial{x_\beta}\partial{x_\gamma}}dx_{\beta}dx_{\gamma}
+\sum\limits_{\alpha=1}^3\Big(\sum\limits_{\beta=1}^3\frac{\partial{U_\alpha}}{\partial{x_\beta}}dx_\beta\Big)^2\bigg{]\Bigg{|}_{M_1}}.
\end{gathered}$$ By hypothesis, the point $M_1$ function $E$ has a local maximum. Then the necessary and sufficient conditions for local extremum $dE\big{|}_{M_1}=0$ and is $ d^2E\big{|}_{M_1}<0$ , i. e. in the point $M_1$ at first differential of the function $E$ is zero, while the second is negative.
Let see the additives from (\[mssd\]) $$\label{mssb}
dE=\sum\limits_{\alpha=1}^3U_\alpha\sum\limits_{\beta=1}^3\frac{\partial{U_\alpha}}
{\partial{x_\beta}}\Big{|}_{M_1}dx_\beta=0,\quad
S(M_1)=\sum\limits_{\alpha=1}^3\Big(\sum\limits_{\beta=1}^3\frac{\partial{U_\alpha}}{\partial{x_\beta}}\Big{|}_{M_1}dx_\beta\Big)^2.$$
The first differential by $dE$ (\[mssb\]), interchanging the sums, we rewrite $$\sum\limits_{\beta=1}^3\sum\limits_{\alpha=1}^3U_\alpha\frac{\partial{U_\alpha}}
{\partial{x_\beta}}dx_\beta\Big{|}_{M_1}=0,$$
Whence, by virtue of the arbitrariness of the differentials of the independent variables $dx_\beta$, we obtain $$\label{m0}
\frac{\partial{E}}{\partial{x_\beta}}\biggm{|}_{M_1}=\big{(}\mathbf{U},\>\frac{\partial\mathbf{U}}{\partial{x_\beta}}\big{)}\Big{|}_{M_1}=0, \quad\beta=\overline{1,3}.$$
Further, noting that relation (\[mms1\]) at the point $M_1$ coincides with the conditions (\[m0\]), we write $$\frac{\partial{E}}{\partial{x_\beta}}(M_1)= \bigl{|}\mathbf{U}(M_1)\bigl{|}\,\Bigl{|}\frac{\partial\mathbf{U}}{\partial{x_\beta}}(M_1)\Bigr{|}\cos\gamma=0,\>
\beta=\overline{1,3}, \label{ms2q}$$
where $\gamma-$ is the angle between $\mathbf{U}(M_1)$ and $\frac{\partial\mathbf{U}}{\partial{x_\beta}}(M_1).$
From (\[ms2q\]), we conclude that $\bigl{|}\mathbf{U}(M_1)\bigl{|}\neq 0$, because $E$ has a local maximum at point $M_1$ and $\cos\gamma=1$ on the basis of proved assertion.
From this it follows that $\frac{\partial{E}}{\partial{x_\beta}}(M_1)=0$ if and only if $\Big{|}\frac{\partial\mathbf{U}}{\partial{x_\beta}}(M_1)\Big{|}=0.$ As a result, from (\[ms2q\]) we obtain the chain $$\sum\limits_{\alpha=1}^3\Big{(}\frac{\partial{U_\alpha}}{\partial{x_\beta}}(M_1)\Big{)}^2=0;\>\beta=\overline{1,3}; \Rightarrow\nabla{U_\alpha}(M_1)=0, \> \alpha=\overline{1,3}.$$ The first part of the lemma is proved.
[**Corollary 1**]{}[@Ash17]. *When the function $E(\mathbf{U})$ at the point $M_1$ has a local maximum, whereas for (\[m0\]), it is necessary and sufficient that the equality* $$\label{md}
\frac{\partial\mathbf{U}}{\partial{x_\beta}}\biggm{|}_{M_1}=0,\quad\forall\beta=\overline{1,3}.$$
[The necessity.]{} Let $\frac{\partial\mathbf{U}}{\partial{x_\beta}}\big{|}_{M_1}\neq0$ and satisfy (\[m0\]), whereas $\mathbf{U}$ and $\frac{\partial\mathbf{U}}{\partial{x_\beta}}$ are perpendicular at the point $M_1$, since $\mathbf{U}\neq 0$ by hypothesis Lemma 2. Which is impossible by Lemma 1, the vector $\mathbf{U}$ and $\frac{\partial\mathbf{U}}{\partial{x_\beta}}$ from (\[m0\]) are not perpendicular at $\forall\mathbf{x}\in\Omega$.
[The sufficiency.]{} Let $\frac{\partial\mathbf{U}}{\partial{x_\beta}}\big{|}_{M_1}=0$ if the point $M_1$ satisfies (\[m0\]) and from (\[md\]) it follows that $\nabla{U}_\alpha(M_1)=0,\>\alpha=\overline{1,3}.$
[**Remark 1.**]{} From $\nabla{U_\alpha}(M_1)=0, \> \alpha=\overline{1,3}$ follows, that $S\Big{|}_{M_1}=0$. It is easy to show justice of the converse that from $$S(M_1)=0, \Longrightarrow dE(M_1)=0,$$ whence their equivalence.
Really, we will notice from (\[mssd\]), that for performance sufficient conditions of a local maximum $$d^2E\big{|}_{M_1}<0,$$ necessary is $$S_\alpha(M_1)=\Big(\sum\limits_{\beta=1}^3dx_\beta\frac{\partial{U_\alpha}}
{\partial{x_\beta}}\Big{|}_{M_1}\Big)^2=0,\>\forall\alpha=\overline{1,3}.$$
From here $$\frac{\partial{U_\alpha}}{\partial{x_1}}dx_1+\frac{\partial{U_\alpha}}{\partial{x_2}}dx_2+\frac{\partial{U_\alpha}}{\partial{x_3}}dx_3\Big{|}_{M_1}=0
.$$ From it by virtue of the arbitrariness of the independent differentials variable $dx_\beta$ we obtain $\nabla{U_\alpha}(M_1)=0, \> \alpha=\overline{1,3}$. Which confirms the correctness of the proof of the lemma given in [@Ash12].
[**Remark 2.**]{} [*We have proved that the stationary points of function $E(\mathbf{U})$ coincide with stationary points of the velocity components $\mathbf{U}$. However, this result is not sufficient for approval that, at least one component of the velocity at this point should reach a supremum.* ]{}
In this connection, we prove the second part of the lemma. For this we consider a sufficient condition for local maximum $E$ in point $M_1$ with respect to the principal minors of a symmetric matrix corresponding to the second differential in (\[mssd\]) $$\mathbf{E}(M_1)=
\begin{Vmatrix}\sum\limits_{\alpha=1}^3U_\alpha\frac{\partial^2U_\alpha}
{\partial{x_1^2}}&\sum\limits_{\alpha=1}^3U_\alpha\frac{\partial^2U_\alpha} {\partial{x_1}\partial{x_2}}&
\sum\limits_{\alpha=1}^3U_\alpha\frac{\partial^2U_\alpha}{\partial{x_1}\partial{x_3}}\\\\
\sum\limits_{\alpha=1}^3U_\alpha\frac{\partial^2U_\alpha}
{\partial{x_2}\partial{x_1}}&\sum\limits_{\alpha=1}^3U_\alpha\frac{\partial^2U_\alpha} {\partial{x_2^2}}&
\sum\limits_{\alpha=1}^3U_\alpha\frac{\partial^2U_\alpha}{\partial{x_2}\partial{x_3}}\\\\
\sum\limits_{\alpha=1}^3U_\alpha\frac{\partial^2U_\alpha}
{\partial{x_3}\partial{x_1}}&\sum\limits_{\alpha=1}^3U_\alpha\frac{\partial^2U_\alpha} {\partial{x_3}\partial{x_2}}&
\sum\limits_{\alpha=1}^3U_\alpha\frac{\partial^2U_\alpha}{\partial{x_3^2}}\\
\end{Vmatrix}\quad$$ in the form: $ E_1(M_1)<0; \quad E_2(M_1)>0; \quad E_3(M_1)<0,$ and that means negative definite matrix $\mathbf{E}$, where the principal minors are denoted by $E_\beta$ and $\beta$ indicates the order of the minor. Furthermore in the computation we won’t $M_1$ indicate the point of entry.
We write the inequality for the first principal minor of the matrix $$E_1=\sum\limits_{\alpha=1}^3U_\alpha\frac{\partial^2U_\alpha}{\partial{x_1^2}}<0.\label{er1}$$ This inequality is possible if and only if at least one component of the velocity satisfies the sufficient condition for a positive maximum or negative minimum on the variable $x_1$ at the point $M_1$, and the rest - a negative maximum (positive low) and the vector $\mathbf{U}$ reaches the extreme of a variable $x_1$.
Indeed, let’s in any $\alpha$ component $U_\alpha$ is satisfied the sufficient condition of positive maximum (negative minimum) in variable $x_1$, then $$U_\alpha >0\wedge\frac{\partial^2U_\alpha}{\partial{x_1^2}} <0 \quad
\Bigl(U_\alpha <0\wedge\frac{\partial^2U_\alpha}{\partial{x_1^2}} >0 \Bigr),$$ then so that $$U_\alpha \frac{\partial^2{U_\alpha}}{\partial{x_1^2}} <0. \label{er2a}$$
When this inequality (\[er2a\]) be fulfilled at $\forall\alpha$, then all components $U_\alpha$ are satisfied the sufficient condition of positive maximum (negative minimum) in variable $x_1$ be fulfilled (\[er1\]). However, this can’t be in a the best accident only one of the components can be satisfied the sufficient condition of positive maximum(negative minimum), but the rest - components are satisfied the sufficient condition of negative maximum (positive minimum) and inequality (\[er1\]) be fulfilled, there is inequality $$\Bigl{|}U_\alpha \frac{\partial^2U_\alpha}{\partial{x_1^2}} \Bigr{|}>
\sum\limits_{\beta\neq\alpha}U_\beta \frac{\partial^2U_\beta}{\partial{x_1^2}} ,$$ i.e. module of left-hand side of inequality (\[er2a\]) must exceed the sum of the remaining two terms in (\[er1\]). If this is not the case, then together with it and inequality (\[er1\]). Then there remains the case that any two velocity components satisfy the sufficient condition for a positive maximum or negative minimum, and the last component satisfies the sufficient condition for the maximum negative (positive low) and probably the inequality (\[er1\]). Vector $\mathbf{U}$ reaches the extreme of a variable $x_1$.
Now consider the inequality of the principal minor of second order at: $$E_2 =\begin{vmatrix} &E_1 &\sum\limits_{\alpha=1}^3U_\alpha\frac{\partial^2U_\alpha}{\partial{x_1}\partial{x_2}}\\\\
&\sum\limits_{\alpha=1}^3U_\alpha\frac{\partial^2U_\alpha}{\partial{x_1}\partial{x_2}}
&\sum\limits_{\alpha=1}^3U_\alpha\frac{\partial^2U_\alpha}{\partial{x_2^2}}\\ \end{vmatrix}>0.$$ Whence $$E_2 =
E_1\sum\limits_{\alpha=1}^3U_\alpha\frac{\partial^2U_\alpha}{\partial{x_2^2}}
-\Bigl(\sum\limits_{\alpha=1}^3U_\alpha\frac{\partial^2U_\alpha}{\partial{x_1}\partial{x_2}}\Bigr)^2>0.$$ Taking into account (\[er1\]), the minor $E_2$ will be positive if and only if $$\sum\limits_{\alpha=1}^3U_\alpha\frac{\partial^2U_\alpha}{\partial{x_2^2}}<0.$$ Whence, arguing as in the case of (\[er1\]), we show that the velocity vector $\mathbf{U}$ reaches an extremum at variable $x_2$ with respect and at least one component satisfies the sufficient condition for a positive maximum (negative minimum) at variable $x_2$ with respect to (note that this is the component that reached a positive maximum (negative minimum) on $x_1$), and the rest - a negative maximum (positive minimum).
Finally, let’s consider the minor of third order. Inequality for $E_3 $ to be written as $$E_3 =\begin{vmatrix}E_1&
\sum\limits_{\alpha=1}^3U_\alpha\frac{\partial^2U_\alpha}{\partial{x_1}\partial{x_2}}&
\sum\limits_{\alpha=1}^3U_\alpha\frac{\partial^2U_\alpha}{\partial{x_1}\partial{x_3}}\\
\sum\limits_{\alpha=1}^3U_\alpha\frac{\partial^2U_\alpha}{\partial{x_1}\partial{x_2}}
&\sum\limits_{\alpha=1}^3U_\alpha\frac{\partial^2U_\alpha}{\partial{x_2^2}}&
\sum\limits_{\alpha=1}^3U_\alpha\frac{\partial^2U_\alpha}{\partial{x_2}\partial{x_3}}\\
\sum\limits_{\alpha=1}^3U_\alpha\frac{\partial^2U_\alpha}{\partial{x_1}\partial{x_3}}
&\sum\limits_{\alpha=1}^3U_\alpha\frac{\partial^2U_\alpha}{\partial{x_2}\partial{x_3}}&
\sum\limits_{\alpha=1}^3U_\alpha\frac{\partial^2U_\alpha}{\partial{x_3^2}}\\
\end{vmatrix}\equiv$$ $$\begin{gathered}
\equiv\frac{1}{E_1} \begin{vmatrix}E_1&
\sum\limits_{\alpha=1}^3U_\alpha\frac{\partial^2U_\alpha}{\partial{x_1}\partial{x_3}}\\\\
\sum\limits_{\alpha=1}^3U_\alpha\frac{\partial^2U_\alpha}{\partial{x_1}\partial{x_3}}
&\sum\limits_{\alpha=1}^3U_\alpha\frac{\partial^2U_\alpha}{\partial{x_3^2}}\\
\end{vmatrix}E_2-\\ -\frac{1}{E_1} \begin{vmatrix}E_1&
\sum\limits_{\alpha=1}^3U_\alpha\frac{\partial^2U_\alpha}{\partial{x_1}\partial{x_3}}\\\\
\sum\limits_{\alpha=1}^3U_\alpha\frac{\partial^2U_\alpha}{\partial{x_1}\partial{x_2}}
&\sum\limits_{\alpha=1}^3U_\alpha\frac{\partial^2U_\alpha}{\partial{x_2}\partial{x_3}}\\
\end{vmatrix}^2<0.\label{er7}\end{gathered}$$ Validity of (\[er7\]) can be verified by direct calculation of determinants.
Taking into account signs $E_1$ and $E_2$ from (\[er7\]) we do conclusion that $E_3$ will be negative if and only if, when $$\begin{vmatrix}E_1&
\sum\limits_{\alpha=1}^3U_\alpha\frac{\partial^2U_\alpha}{\partial{x_1}\partial{x_3}}\\
\sum\limits_{\alpha=1}^3U_\alpha\frac{\partial^2U_\alpha}{\partial{x_1}\partial{x_3}}
&\sum\limits_{\alpha=1}^3U_\alpha\frac{\partial^2U_\alpha}{\partial{x_3^2}}\\
\end{vmatrix}>0.$$ From here, $$E_1\Bigl(\sum\limits_{\alpha=1}^3U_\alpha\frac{\partial^2U_\alpha}{\partial{x_3^2}}\Bigr)-
\bigl(\sum\limits_{\alpha=1}^3U_\alpha\frac{\partial^2U_\alpha}{\partial{x_1}\partial{x_3}}\bigr)^2>0.$$ This inequality is possible if and only if $$\sum\limits_{\alpha=1}^3U_\alpha\frac{\partial^2U_\alpha}{\partial{x_3^2}}<0.$$
As in previous cases, this inequality holds if and only if the velocity vector $\mathbf{U}$ reaches an extremum with respect $x_3$ to at least one component satisfies the sufficient condition for a positive maximum (negative minimum) with respect to $x_3$ (again, note that this is the component that has reached positive maximum (negative minimum) with respect $x_1$ and $x_2$), and the rest - a negative maximum (positive low). Lemma 2 is proved.
For the pressure function $P$ is an analogous lemma.
[**Lemma 3** ]{}[@Ash14]. [*If the density k.e. $E(t,\mathbf{x})$ reaches its maximum at some point $M_1(t^\prime,\mathbf{x}^\prime)$ of domain $Q=[0,T]\times\Omega$, then the point $M_1$ is a stationary point for the pressure function $P,$ i.e. equalities are correct $\nabla P(M_1)=0$.*]{}
[**Proof.**]{} We write the well-known formula of vector analysis $$(\mathbf{U},\nabla)\mathbf{U}=\nabla E-[\mathbf{U},\mathbf{\omega}],\quad{\omega}=\rm{rot}\mathbf{U}. \label{ms8}$$ where $[\cdot,\cdot]-$ vector product.
Under the hypotheses of Theorem 2 the vector-function $[\mathbf{U},\omega]$ is continuous in a bounded domain $\Omega$ for all $t\in[0,T]$, then so that $[\mathbf{U},\omega]\in \mathbf{L}_2(\Omega)$, $\forall{t}\in[0,T]$. Then, following [@lad], vector-function $[\mathbf{U},\omega]$ in the form of an orthogonal sum $$=\nabla{R}+\mathbf{V}^{(\mathbf{J})},
\>\>\text{where}\>\> \nabla{R}\in\mathbf{G}(Q),\> \mathbf{V}^{(\mathbf{J})}\in\mbox{\bf\r{J}}(Q).
\label{ms9}$$
Where, at the same time, we calculate the bounded condition for $R$ $$\frac{\partial{R}}{\partial\rm\mathbf{n}}\Bigm|_{\partial\Omega}=0.
\label{ms10}$$ because $\mathbf{V}^{({\mathbf J})}{\rm{\mathbf n}}\Bigm|_{\partial\Omega}=0$ and $[\mathbf{U},\mathbf{\omega}]{\rm{\mathbf n}}\Bigm|_{\partial\Omega}=0$ correspondingly by virtue of $\mathbf{V}^{(\mathbf{J})}\in \mbox{\bf\r{J}}(\Omega)$ and (\[is1d\]), where ${\rm{\mathbf n}}$ is the identity vector of external normal in the point $x$ of boundary $\partial\Omega.$ The validity of relation (\[ms9\]) is followed from solvability of corresponding problem of Neumann for $R$ with right part ${\rm div}[\mathbf{U},\omega]$ and bounded condition (\[ms10\]) on based Theorem 1.
Applying the operator $\it{div}$ on the vector-function $(\mathbf{U},\nabla)\mathbf{U}$, we find $$\text{div}\bigl((\mathbf{U},\nabla)\mathbf{U}\bigr)=\sum\limits_{\alpha,k=1}^{3}\frac{\partial
U_\alpha}{\partial x_k}\frac{\partial{U_k}}{\partial x_\alpha}. \label{mi1}$$ And formula (15) taking into account the expansion (16) rewrite $$(\mathbf{U},\nabla)\mathbf{U}=\nabla E-\nabla{R}-\mathbf{V}^{(\mathbf{J})}. \label{bmi}$$ Apply to both sides (19) operation $\it{div}$ , and using (18), we obtain $$\sum\limits_{\alpha,\beta=1}^{3}\frac{\partial U_\alpha}{\partial x_\beta}\frac{\partial{U_\beta}}{\partial x_\alpha} = \Delta{E}-\Delta{R}.\label{ms10a}$$ Hence, for the point $M_1$ of maximum function $E$ we find $$\Delta{E}(M_1)-\Delta{R}(M_1)=0,$$ since the left side of (\[ms10a\]) vanishes at a point $M_1$ on the basis of (\[mssq\]).
Whence $\Delta{R}(M_1)\leq 0$, since under the hypotheses of Lemma $\Delta{E}(M_1)\leq 0$, i.e. for a function $R$ in point $M_1\in Q$ at the necessary condition of a local maximum. Thus, the point $M_1$ is a stationary point and for the function $R(t,\mathbf{x})$. From which it follows that $\nabla{R}(M_1)=0. $
Next, equation (\[is1a\]), we multiply the gradient of an arbitrary single-valued function $\eta(t,\mathbf{x})\in L_\infty\bigl(0,T; C^\infty(\Omega)\bigr)$. And then, using the orthogonality of subspaces $\mathbf{G}(\Omega)$, $
\mbox{\bf\r{J}}(\Omega)$, we integrate over the domain $\Omega$, and as a result we $$\int\limits_\Omega\Bigl(\nabla{P}
+(\mathbf{U},\mathbf{\nabla})\mathbf{U}\Bigr)\nabla\eta\,\mathbf{dx}=0, \quad \forall t\in[0,T].\label{ip3}$$
Hence, by replacing the integrand $(\mathbf{U},\mathbf{\nabla})\mathbf{U}$ corresponding value of formula (\[bmi\]) and, given the orthogonality of subspaces $\mathbf{G}(\Omega)$, $ \mbox{\bf\r{J}}(\Omega)$, we find $$\int\limits_{\Omega}\nabla(P+E-R)\nabla\eta\mathbf{dx}=0,\quad \forall{t}\in[0,T].$$ Where, due to the arbitrariness $\nabla{\eta}$, we have $$\nabla{P}(t,\mathbf{x})+\nabla{E}(t,\mathbf{x})-\nabla{R}(t,\mathbf{x})=0,\quad \forall{(t,\mathbf{x})}\in
Q.\label{ms15}$$ This identity can be written the point $M_1\in Q$ of maximum function $E$ $$\nabla{P(M_1)}+\nabla{E(M_1)}-\nabla{R(M_1)}=0.$$ Whence $ \nabla{P(M_1)}=0$, since $\nabla{E(M_1)}=0$ and $\nabla{R(M_1)}=0$ at the point $M_1\in Q$ of maximum function $E$, or extreme velocity $\mathbf{U}$. Lemma 3 is proved
[**Proof of Theorem 2.**]{} For this we use the well-known method ([@VS]; p.511). Assume the contrary, i.e. the function $E(t,\mathbf{x})$ reaches its maximum value at some point $M_0(t^0,\mathbf{x}^0)$ within the domain $Q=(0,T]\times\Omega$ . $$E(M_0)>\max\bigl{\{}\sup\limits_{t=0\bigwedge\mathbf{x}\in\bar{\Omega}}E(t,\mathbf{x}),
\sup\limits_{t\in[0,T]\bigwedge{\mathbf{x}\in\partial\Omega}}E(t,\mathbf{x})\bigr{\}}=C\geq 0.
\label{ms16}$$ Denote $m=E(M_0)-C>0$ and introduce $H(t,\mathbf{x})=E(t,\mathbf{x})+\frac{m}{2}(1-\frac{t}{T})$. The function $H(t,\mathbf{x})$ also takes its maximum value at some point $M_1\in Q$, and $H(M_1)\geq H(M_0)\geq m$. Now, using results of lemmas 1, 2 we’ll copy all necessary conditions of maximum of function $H$ in point $M_1$ $$\frac{\partial H}{\partial t}\geq 0;\quad\Delta H\leq 0;\Longrightarrow\bigl{\{}\nabla{U_\alpha}=0,\>
\alpha=\overline{1,3};\quad\nabla{H}=0;\quad \nabla P=0 \bigl{\}}. \label{ms16a}$$ From the equation (\[ms2a\]), using the conditions (\[ms16a\]), for the point $M_1$, we can find a chain of inequalities $$\mathbb{L}H(M_1)\equiv\frac{\partial H}{\partial
t}-\mu\Delta{H}+\mu\sum\limits_{\alpha=1}^3(\nabla{U_\alpha})^{2}+(\nabla{H},\mathbf{U})+
(\nabla{P},\mathbf{U})+\frac{m}{2T}\geq\frac{m}{2T}>0. \label{ms17}$$ This means that inequality (\[ms16\]) is false. Consequently, we have (\[ms4\]). Theorem 2 is proved. Theorem 2 and Lemmas 1 and 2 allow the following maximum principle for equation (\[is1a\]):
[**Corollary 2.**]{}[ *Let $\bar{Q}=([0,T]\times\bar{\Omega})-$ the cylindrical domain in the space of variables $\>t,\mathbf{x}$ with boundaries of $[0,T]\times\partial\Omega$ and the function $ \mathbf{U}\in C(\bar{Q})\cap C^2(Q)\wedge{P}\in{C^1(Q)}$ satisfy the equation (\[is1a\]).Then the vector-function $\mathbf{U}$ attains a local extremum in the cylinder $\bar{Q}$ on the lower ground $\{0\}\times\bar{\Omega}$ or on its side surface $[0,T]\times\partial\Omega$ and at least one of the function ${U_\alpha}$ reaches a positive maximum or negative minimum, i.e.*]{}
\[ms19\] $$\begin{aligned}
&& U_\alpha(t,\mathbf{x})\leq\max\bigl{\{}\sup\limits_{t=0\bigwedge\mathbf{x}\in\bar{\Omega}}U_\alpha(t,\mathbf{x}),
\sup\limits_{t\in[0,T]\bigwedge{\mathbf{x}\in\partial\Omega}}U_\alpha(t,\mathbf{x})\bigr{\}},\quad
(t,\mathbf{x})\in\bar{Q}
\label{ms19a}\\
&&\Bigl(U_\alpha(t,\mathbf{x})\geq
\min\bigl{\{}\inf\limits_{t=0\bigwedge\mathbf{x}\in\bar{\Omega}}U_\alpha(t,\mathbf{x}),
\inf\limits_{t\in[0,T]\bigwedge{\mathbf{x}\in\partial\Omega}}U_\alpha(t,\mathbf{x})\bigr{\}},\quad
(t,\mathbf{x})\in\bar{Q}\Bigr),
\label{ms19b} \end{aligned}$$
where $\alpha=\overline{1,3}. $
[**The proof** ]{} follows from Theorem 2 and Lemma 2, since the lemma, starting from the implementation of the necessary and sufficient condition for local maximum $E$, and therefore also true. Whence (\[ms19\]).
Hence, following ([@VS]; p. 513), it is easy to obtain proof of the following statements:
[**Corollary 3.**]{}[*If the vector-function $ \mathbf{f}$, $\mathbf{\Phi} $ satisfy the condition [**i)**]{} and [**ii)**]{}, then for the solution $\mathbf{U}(t,\mathbf{x})$ of problem (\[is1\]) estimate is correct:*]{}
$$\|\mathbf{U}\|_{\mathbf{C}(\bar{Q})}\leq
\|\mathbf{\Phi}\|_{\mathbf{C}(\bar{\Omega})}+T\|\mathbf{f}\|_{\mathbf{C}(\bar{Q})}\equiv A_1,\>
\forall T<\infty, \> \|\mathbf{U}\|_{\mathbf{C}(\bar{Q})}=\max\limits_{1\leq\alpha\leq
3}\sup\limits_{\bar{Q}}|U_\alpha(t,\mathbf{x})|.\label{ns13}$$
[**4 Weak generalized solution.** ]{} We multiply equation (\[is1a\]) by an arbitrary vector-function $\mathbf{Z}(t,\mathbf{x})\in\mathbf{C}(\bar{Q})\cap\mathbf{W}_2^1(Q)\cap\mbox{\bf\r{J}}(Q)$, equaled to zero at $\bigl(t=T\bigr)\wedge\bigl(\mathbf{x}\in\partial\Omega\bigr)$. We shall integrate product on domain $Q=[0,T]\times\Omega$ and with the help of an integration by parts (\[ip\]) from the first two summands we shall transfer from $\mathbf{U}$ to $\mathbf{Z}.$ As a result, shall receive $$\begin{gathered}
\int\limits_{Q}\Bigl(-\mathbf{U}\,\frac{\partial\mathbf{Z}}{\partial t}+
\mu\sum\limits_{k=1}^3\nabla U_k\nabla Z_k
+(\mathbf{U},\nabla)\mathbf{U}
\mathbf{Z}\Bigr)\,\mathbf{dx}\,dt=\\ \int\limits_\Omega\mathbf{\Phi}\mathbf{Z}(0,\mathbf{x})\mathbf{dx}
+\int\limits_{Q}\mathbf{f}\mathbf{Z}\mathbf{dx}\,dt. \label{ns7}\end{gathered}$$
Again, equation (\[is1a\]), we multiply the gradient of an arbitrary single-valued function $\eta\in L_2(0,T;W_2^1(\Omega))$. And then integrate over the domain $Q$, using the orthogonality of subspaces, in the end we find the identity $$\int\limits_{Q}\nabla P\,\nabla\eta\,\mathbf{dx}\,dt=-\int\limits_{Q}
(\mathbf{U},\nabla)\mathbf{U}\,\nabla\eta\,\mathbf{dx}\,dt. \label{np12}$$
[**Definition 2**]{}.[^4]$^)$ [*We shall call as the weak generalized solution a full initial boundary value problem of the Navier-Stokes equations (\[is1\]) vector-function ${\mathbf U}$ and function $P$ from space $$\begin{gathered}
\mathbf{U}\in\mathbf{C}(\bar{Q})\cap\mathbf{L}_\infty\bigl(0,T;\mathbf{L}_2(\Omega)\bigr)\cap
\mathbf{L}_2\bigl(0,T;\mathbf{W}_{2,0}^1(\Omega)\bigr)\cap\mbox{\bf\r{J}}(Q);\\ P\in
L_2\bigl(0,T;W_2^1(\Omega)\bigr)\wedge\bigl(\int\limits_\Omega P\mathbf{dx}=0,\,\forall t\in [0,T]\bigr)
\label{nsp}\end{gathered}$$ and satisfying the identities (\[ns7\]), (\[np12\]) for any $$\mathbf{Z}(t,\mathbf{x})\in\mathbf{C}(\bar{Q})\cap\mathbf{W}_2^1(Q)\cap\mbox{\bf\r{J}}(Q)
\wedge\bigl(\mathbf{Z}\Bigm{|}_{(t=T)\wedge(\mathbf{x}\in\partial\Omega)}=0\bigr);
\quad \eta(t,\mathbf{x})\in L_2\bigl(0,T;W_2^1(\Omega)\bigr).$$*]{} For the validity of this definition, all integrals, incoming to (\[ns7\]) and (\[np12\]), must be finite for any $\mathbf{Z}$, $\eta $ from the indicated classes.
[**Lemma 4.**]{} [*If the input data of problem (\[is1\]) satisfy the requirements [**i**]{}), [**ii**]{}), then for weak generalized solution of problem (\[is1\]) ) the following estimates are valid: $$\bigl{\|}\mathbf{U}\bigr{\|}_{\mathbf{L}_\infty(0,T;\mathbf{L}_2(\Omega))}^2\leq
2\bigl{\|}\mathbf{\Phi}\bigr{\|}_{\mathbf{L}_2(\Omega)}^2
+4T^2\bigl{\|}\mathbf{f}\bigr{\|}_{\mathbf{L}_\infty(0,T;\mathbf{L}_2(\Omega))}^2\equiv A,
\label{ns12}$$ $$\begin{gathered}
\sum\limits_{k=1}^3\int\limits_0^t\bigl{\|}\nabla
U_k(\tau)\bigr{\|}^2_{\mathbf{L}_2(\Omega)}d\tau
\leq\frac{1}{\mu}\bigl{\|}\mathbf{\Phi}\bigr{\|}_{\mathbf{L}_2(\Omega)}^2+\\
\frac{2T^2}{\mu}\bigl{\|}\mathbf{f}\bigr{\|}^2_{\mathbf{L}_\infty(0,T;\mathbf{L}_2(\Omega))}\equiv A_2, \quad \forall
t\in(0,T],\label{ns14}\end{gathered}$$ $$\Bigl{\|}\nabla P\Bigr{\|}^2_{\mathbf{L}_2(Q)}\leq
\Bigl{\|}\bigl(\mathbf{U},\nabla\bigr)\mathbf{U}\Bigr{\|}^2_{\mathbf{L}_2(Q)}\leq 9A_1^2A_2\equiv A_3.\label{ni1}$$*]{}
[**Proof**]{}.[^5]$^)$ Multiply scalar equation (\[is1a\]) by the vector-function $2\mathbf{U},$ product integrate over the domain $\Omega$ and with help of integration by parts, we transform a second term. As a result we obtain $$\begin{gathered}
\frac{d}{dt}\int\limits_\Omega\sum\limits_{k=1}^3|U_k|^2\,\mathbf{dx}+
2\mu\int\limits_\Omega\sum\limits_{k=1}^3\bigl|\nabla U_k\bigr|^2\,\mathbf{dx}
+\\
2\int\limits_\Omega\bigl(({\mathbf U},\nabla){\mathbf U}+\nabla P\bigr){\mathbf U}\,\mathbf{dx}
= 2\int\limits_\Omega\sum\limits_{k=1}^3 f_k U_k\,\mathbf{dx}, \quad t\in(0,T].
\label{ns11}\end{gathered}$$
As a consequence of the orthogonality of subspaces ${\mathbf G}(\Omega)$ and $\mbox{\bf\r{J}}(\Omega)$ find the relation $$2\int\limits_\Omega\bigl((\mathbf{U},\nabla)\mathbf{U}+ \nabla
P\bigr)\mathbf{U}\,\mathbf{dx}=\sum\limits_{k=1}^3\int\limits_\Omega\mathbf{U}\nabla{U_k^2}\mathbf{dx}+
2\int\limits_\Omega\nabla P\mathbf{U}\mathbf{dx}=0, \quad \forall t\in[0,T].$$
Taking into account the last identity,(\[ns11\])integrate over $t$ a range from $0$ to $t$. Right-hand side can be estimated by Young’s inequality with $\epsilon=\frac{1}{2T}$. As a result, we obtain for the energy norm $\mathbf U$ $$\begin{gathered}
\bigl{\|}{\mathbf U}(t)\bigr{\|}_{{\mathbf L}_2(\Omega)}^2
+2\mu\int\limits_{0}^t\sum\limits_{k=1}^3\bigl\|\nabla U_k(\tau)\bigr\|^2_{{\mathbf L}_2(\Omega)}d\tau
\leq \bigl{\|}{\mathbf\Phi}\bigr{\|}_{{\mathbf L}_2(\Omega)}^2
+\\
0.5\bigl{\|}{\mathbf U}\bigr{\|}_{{\mathbf L}_\infty((0,T];{\mathbf L}_2(\Omega))}^2+ 2T^2\bigl{\|}{\mathbf
f}\bigr{\|}_{{\mathbf L}_\infty((0,T];{\mathbf L}_2(\Omega))}^2, \quad\forall t\in(0,T]. \label{ns11a}\end{gathered}$$ Hence we have the estimate (\[ns12\]) for the squared norm of the function $\mathbf U$. Again using (\[ns12\]), from (\[ns11a\]) we find that inequality (\[ns14\]).
For proof (\[ni1\]) in the identity (\[np12\]) we put $\nabla\eta=\nabla P$, and then estimate the right-hand part at Young inequality (\[Y1\]) at $p=2\wedge\epsilon=1$ and as a result we will have the inequality $$\bigl{\|}\nabla P\bigr{\|}^2_{\mathbf{L}_2(Q)}\leq\bigl{\|} (\mathbf{U},\nabla)\mathbf{U}\bigr{\|}^2_{\mathbf{L}_2(Q)}.$$ The right-hand part of the last we estimate successively on Cauchy-Bunyakovsky inequality for vector product and Holder inequality (\[H1\]) at $p=\infty\wedge q=1$. In a result we have the chain $$\begin{gathered}
\Bigl{\|}(\mathbf{U},\nabla)\mathbf{U}\Bigr{\|}^2_{\mathbf{L}_2(Q)}\leq
3\int\limits_Q\bigl|\mathbf{U}\bigr|^2\sum\limits_{k=1}^{3} \bigl|\nabla U_k\bigr|^2\,\mathbf{dx}\,dt\leq\\
9\max\limits_k\bigl{\|}U_k\bigr{\|}^2_{L_\infty(Q)}
\sum\limits_{k=1}^{3}\int\limits_{0}^{T}\bigl\|\nabla{U_k(t)}\bigr\|^2_{\mathbf{L}_2(\Omega)}dt,
\label{ns16}\end{gathered}$$ from that, on the basis of estimates (\[ns13\]),(\[ns14\]), it follows that (\[ni1\]). Lemma 4 is proved.
From the principle of maximum and obtained a priori estimates, the uniqueness weak solutions of problems (\[is1\]) are followed:
[**Theorem 3**]{}[@Ash11; @Ashk]. [*If input data $\mathbf{f}$ and $\mathbf{\Phi}$ satisfying requirements [**i**]{}) and [**ii**]{}),then each problem has the unique weak generalized solution $\mathbf{U}$ and $P$ satisfying to identities (\[ns7\]), (\[np12\]) at any $\mathbf{Z}$ and $\eta $ from the definition 2.*]{}
[**Proof.**]{} Let couple of function $\{\mathbf{U}, P\}$ and $\{\mathbf{U}^{*}, P^*\}$ - two solutions of problems (\[is1\]). Put $\mathbf{V=U-U^*},\,$ $R= P-P^*$, them have:
\[ns19\] $$\begin{aligned}
&& \frac{\partial\mathbf{V}}{\partial t}-\mu\Delta\mathbf{V}
+(\mathbf{V},\nabla)\mathbf{U}+(\mathbf{U^*},\nabla)\mathbf{V}+\nabla R= 0,\label{ns19a}\\\nonumber\\
&&\mathbf{V}(0,\mathbf{x})=0,\quad\mathbf{V}(t,\mathbf{x})\bigl{|}_{\partial\Omega}=0,\quad\mathbf{x} \in\partial\Omega,
\label{ns19b}
\end{aligned}$$
From equation (\[ns19a\]) we pass to identity $$\int\limits_{Q_t}\bigl(\frac{\partial\mathbf{V}}{\partial t}\mathbf{V}-\mu\Delta\mathbf{V}
\mathbf{V}
+(\mathbf{V},\nabla)\mathbf{U}\mathbf{V}+ (\mathbf{U^*},\nabla)\mathbf{V}\mathbf{V}+\nabla
R\mathbf{V}\bigl)\mathbf{dx}d\tau= 0,\quad \forall t\in(0,T].
\label{ns20}$$ $\mathbf{U}\in\mbox{\bf\r{J}}(Q)$, So $\mathbf{U}\in\mbox{\bf\r{J}}(Q)$, that $\mathbf{V}\in\mbox{\bf\r{J}}(Q)$. When by virtue orthogonality of subspace $\mbox{\bf\r{J}}(Q) $ and $\mathbf{G}(Q)$, we obtain the relation $$\int\limits_{Q_t}(\mathbf{U^*},\nabla)\mathbf{V}\mathbf{V}\mathbf{dx}=0,\quad
\int\limits_{Q_t}\nabla R\mathbf{V}\mathbf{dx}=0,\quad \forall t\in(0,T],$$ all the other terms transform with help integration at parts(\[ip\]), then from (\[ns20\]) find $$\frac{1}{2}\bigl{\|}\mathbf{V}(t)\bigr{\|}^2_{\mathbf{L}_2(\Omega)}+
\mu\sum\limits_{k=1}^{3}\int\limits_0^t\|\nabla V_k(\tau)\|_{\mathbf{L}_2(\Omega)}^2d\tau=
-\int\limits_{Q_t}\sum\limits_{k,\beta=1}^{3}V_\beta\frac{\partial V_k} {\partial x_\beta}U_k\mathbf{dx}d\tau.
\label{ns21}$$ The integral in right-hand part we estimate successively on Holder’s inequality (\[H1\]) at $p=\infty\wedge q=1$ and Young (\[Y1\]) at $p=2$, as a result put the chain of inequality $$\begin{gathered}
\Bigl|\int\limits_{Q_t}\sum\limits_{k,\beta=1}^{3}V_\beta\frac{\partial V_k} {\partial
x_\beta}U_k\mathbf{dx}d\tau\Bigr|\leq \max\limits_k\|U_k\|_{L_\infty(Q)}
\sum\limits_{k,\beta=1}^{3}\int\limits_{Q_t}\Bigl|\frac{\partial V_k} {\partial
x_\beta}\Bigr|\bigl|V_\beta\bigr|\mathbf{dx}d\tau \leq\\ A_1\epsilon/2\sum\limits_{k,\beta=1}^{3}
\int\limits_0^t\Bigl\|\frac{\partial V_k} {\partial x_\beta}\Bigr\|^2_{L_2(\Omega)}d\tau+A_4
\int\limits_0^t\sum\limits_{\beta=1}^{3}\bigl\|V_\beta\bigr\|^2_{L_2(\Omega)}d\tau\leq\\
A_1\epsilon/2\sum\limits_{k=1}^{3}\int\limits_0^t\bigl\|\nabla V_k(\tau)\bigr\|^2_{\mathbf{L}_2(\Omega)}d\tau
+A_4\int\limits_0^t\bigl{\|}\mathbf{V}(\tau)\bigr{\|}^2_{\mathbf{L}_2(\Omega)}d\tau,\quad A_4=3A_1/(2\epsilon).\end{gathered}$$ Taking into account estimates (\[ns13\]), (\[ns14\]) and use the last inequality at $\epsilon=2\mu/A_1$ from (\[ns21\]), we will find $$\bigl{\|}\mathbf{V}(t)\bigr{\|}^2_{\mathbf{L}_2(\Omega)} \leq
A_4\int\limits_0^t\bigl{\|}\mathbf{V}(\tau)\bigr{\|}^2_{\mathbf{L}_2(\Omega)}d\tau, \quad A_4=3A_1^2/(4\mu),\quad\forall
t\in(0,T].$$
From here, we have $$\frac{d}{dt}\Bigl(\exp(-A_4t)\bigl{\|}\mathbf{V}(t)\bigr{\|}^2_{\mathbf{L}_2(\Omega)}\Bigr)\leq 0, \quad\forall
t\in(0,T].\label{ns22}$$ From inequality (\[ns22\]) conclude, that ${\mathbf V} \equiv 0,$ $\forall t\in(0,T],$ i.e. that solution ${\mathbf U}$ and ${\mathbf U}^*$ coincided. Now with the help of the functional equation (\[np12\]), considering only that the uniqueness $\mathbf{U}$, we obtain the integral relation for $\nabla{R}$ $$\int\limits_Q \nabla{R}\nabla{\eta}\mathbf{dx}dt=0.$$ Hence, thanks $\forall\nabla\eta$,we obtain $\nabla{R}\equiv{0}$, i.e. the pressure $P$ gradient from the definition 2 is the only way in terms of vector-function $\mathbf{U}$. Theorem 3 is proved.
[**5 Strong solution.**]{}
[**Definition 3.**]{} [*If in the domain $Q$ the weak generalized solution of initial-boundary value problem for the equations of Navier-Stokes has the every possible generalized derivatives of the same order, as the equations this solution is called as strong.*]{}
[**Theorem 4**]{}[@Ash10]. [*If input data of problem (\[is1\]) satisfy requirements [**i**]{}), [**ii**]{}) and $\partial\Omega\in{C^2}$ then each problems (\[is1\]) has unique strong generalized solution $\mathbf{U}$ and $P$ from spaces $$\mathbf{U}\in\mathbf{W}_{2,0}^{2,1}
(Q)\cap\mbox{\bf\r{J}}_\infty(Q);\quad P\in L_2\bigl(0,T;W_2^2(\Omega)\bigr) \wedge\bigl(\int\limits_\Omega
P\mathbf{dx}=0,\forall t\in[0,T]\bigr),$$ satisfying to equations (\[is1a\]) almost everywhere in $Q$, and for them estimations take place: $$\bigl{\|}\mathbf{U}_t\bigr{\|}^2_{\mathbf{L}_2(Q)}\leq
\mu\sum\limits_{k=1}^{3}\bigl{\|}\nabla\Phi_k\bigr{\|}^2_{\mathbf{L}_2(\Omega)}+
5A_3+2T\bigl{\|}\mathbf{f}\bigr{\|}^2_{\mathbf{L}_\infty(0,T;\mathbf{L}_2(\Omega))}\equiv A_5,\,\,
\label{ni2}$$ $$\bigl{\|}\Delta\mathbf{U}\bigr{\|}^2_{\mathbf{L}_2(Q)}\leq A_5/\mu^2\equiv A_6,\quad \label
{ni3}$$ $$\bigl\|\nabla U_k\bigr\|^2_{\mathbf{L}_\infty(0,T;\mathbf{L}_2(\Omega))}\leq
A_5/\mu\equiv A_7, \quad k=\overline{1,3}, \label{ni3a}$$ $$\bigl\|\nabla
P\bigr\|^2_{\mathbf{L}_\infty(0,T;\mathbf{L}_2(\Omega))}\leq 3A_1^2A_7\equiv A_{10}, \label{ni3b}$$ $$\|\mathbf{U}\|_{\mathbf{L}_2(0,T;\mathbf{W}_2^2(\Omega))}\leq
A_8\|\Delta\mathbf{U}\|_{\mathbf{L}_2(Q)},\quad A_8-const, \label{ni4}$$ $$\|P\|_{L_2(0,T;W_2^2(\Omega))}\leq A_p \|\Delta P\|_{L_2(Q)}\leq
A_c\|\mathbf{U}\|_{\mathbf{L}_2(0,T;\mathbf{W}_2^2(\Omega))}, \quad A_c,A_p-const. \label{ni5}$$*]{}
[**Proof.** ]{}For the proof of inequality (\[ni2\]) from equations (\[is1a\]) we will find identity $$\int\limits_{Q_t}\bigl( \mathbf{U}_t- \mu\Delta\mathbf{U}\bigr)^2\mathbf{dx}\,d\tau = \int\limits_{Q_t}\bigl(
\mathbf{f}-(\mathbf{U},\nabla)\mathbf{U}-\nabla P\bigr)^2\mathbf{dx}\,d\tau. \label{ng5}$$ We will build a square integrand expression. After this pair product in the left-handed part of the transform by integration by parts (\[ip\]), and the right-handed part of any efforts to Young’s inequality (\[Y1\]) at $\epsilon=1 \wedge p=2$. And then from (\[ng5\]) becomes the inequality $$\begin{gathered}
\int\limits_{Q_t}\mathbf{U}_t^2\mathbf{dx}\,d\tau+
\mu^2\int\limits_{Q_t}\bigl(\Delta\mathbf{U}\bigr)^2\mathbf{dx}\,d\tau
+\mu\sum\limits_{k=1}^{3}\int\limits_\Omega\bigl|\nabla U_k\bigr|^2\mathbf{dx}\leq\\
\mu\sum\limits_{k=1}^{3}\int\limits_\Omega\bigl|\nabla\Phi_k\bigr|^2\mathbf{dx}
+5\int\limits_{Q_t}\Bigl((\mathbf{U},\nabla)\mathbf{U}\Bigr)^2\mathbf{dx}\,d\tau
+2\int\limits_{Q_t}\mathbf{f}^2\mathbf{dx}\,d\tau. \end{gathered}$$
From the last inequality with regard for (\[ni1\]) we receive estimates (\[ni2\])–(\[ni3a\]) the strong generalized solutions of problem (\[is1\]). And (\[ni3a\]) is a better estimate than (\[ns14\]).
Equation (\[is1a\]) we multiply the gradient of an arbitrary function $\eta\in L_\infty(0,T;W_2^1(\Omega))$ and integrate on domain $\Omega$ $$\int\limits_{\Omega}\nabla
P\,\nabla\eta\,\mathbf{dx}=-\int\limits_{\Omega} (\mathbf{U},\nabla)\mathbf{U}\,\nabla\eta\,\mathbf{dx}.$$ Location, setting $\nabla\eta=\nabla{P}$, go to the inequality $$\int\limits_\Omega\mid\nabla{P}\mid^2\mathbf{dx}\leq
\int\limits_\Omega\mid\mathbf{U}\mid^2\sum\limits_{k=1}^3\mid\nabla{U_k}\mid^2\mathbf{dx}.$$ Right-hand part, evaluated by the Holder inequality (\[H1\]), at $p=1\wedge q=\infty$, we have $$\int\limits_\Omega\mid\nabla{P}\mid^2\mathbf{dx}\leq 3\bigl{\|}\mathbf{U}(t)\bigr{\|}^2_{\mathbf{L}_\infty(\Omega)}
\int\limits_\Omega\sum\limits_{k=1}^3\mid\nabla{U_k}\mid^2\mathbf{dx},\>\forall t\in{[0,T]}.$$
Hence, using (\[ni3a\]) we arrive at (\[ni3b\]).
Since the boundary of domain $\partial\Omega\in C^2$ we find the estimate (\[ni4\]), using inequality from $\bigl($[@lad]; p.26$\bigr)$, valid for any function $U(x)\in{ W}_2^2(\Omega)\cap{ W}_{2,0}^2(\Omega)$: $$\|\mathbf{U}\|_{\mathbf{W}_2^2(\Omega)}\leq A_8\|\Delta\mathbf{U}\|_{\mathbf{ L}_2(\Omega)},\quad \quad \forall
t\in[0,T],\quad A_8-const.\label{lg1}$$
Find an estimate for $\Delta{P}$ from relation $$-\Delta{P}=\sum\limits_{\alpha,\beta=1}^{3}\frac{\partial U_\alpha}{\partial
x_\beta}\frac{\partial{U_\beta}}{\partial x_\alpha}.$$ found from the vector equation (\[is1a\]) with the operation of div based (\[is1b\]) and (\[mi1\]).
We square both parts the last equation and we will integrate on domain $\Omega$. Then, estimating in a right-hand part, we obtain a inequality $$\int\limits_\Omega\bigl(\Delta P\bigr)^2\mathbf{dx}\leq
9\sum\limits_{\alpha,\beta=1}^{3}\int\limits_\Omega\Bigl|\frac{\partial
U_\alpha}{\partial x_\beta}\Bigr|^4\mathbf{dx},
\quad \forall t\in[0,T].\label{lg2}$$
Owing to embedding theorems of Sobolev we have ${W}^2_2(\Omega)\subset{W}^1_{6-\epsilon}(\Omega),\,\forall\epsilon>0$. From here when $\epsilon=2$ following inequality $$\|U_\alpha\|_{W_4^1(\Omega)}\leq A_9 \|U_\alpha\|_{W_2^2(\Omega)},\quad \forall t\in[0,T],$$ where $A_9$–is vague constant.
On the basis of the last inequality and (\[ni3\]), (\[ni4\]) from (\[lg2\]) we will find an estimate (\[ni5\]).
The vector-function $\mathbf{U}$ and function of pressure $P$ subjects to estimates (\[ni2\])-(\[ni5\]) satisfies the equations (\[is1a\]) almost everywhere in $Q$. Theorem 4 is proved.
[**Remark 3.**]{} Theorem 3 about uniqueness of weak generalized solutions problems (\[is1\]) are valid for their strong and classical solutions.
Moscow, Nauka, 1970.
The 6th problem of millennium: the Navier-Stokes equation, existence and smoothness// UMN, 2003, 58:2 (350), P 45-78.
//http: //claymath.org/Millenium Prize Problems/Navier-Stokes Equations. Cambridge, MA:Clay Mathematics Institute, 2000, P.1-5.
Moscow, Mir, 1972. 580 p.
Leningrad: Izd. Hydromet, 1967.
Moscow, Nauka, 1973.
Moscow, Nauka, 1981.
Moscow, Mir, 1981.
-Novosibirsk, Nauka, 1983.
// Abstracts. Intern. Conf. Dedicated. 100 years old. Sobolev, Novosibirsk, 5-12 October. 2008, p.91.
//Vestnik KazNU, ser. mathem., mech., infor., Almaty, 4, 2008 £. -‘. 28-30.
//Works of 6th conference of Russian-Kazakh working group of computing and informational technologies (16-18 Marth 2009). Almaty, Kasakh University, 2009, P. 54-61.
//Materials III of International scientific conference “Actual problems of mechanics and buildingmashine” (17-19 June 2009 £.), Almaty, 2009, V.3, -P. 209-213.
//Transactions of the international conference “Modern problems of applied mathematics and information technologies–Al Khorezmiy 2009” (Tashkent 18-21 september 2009), Tashkent, 2009, V.1, -P. 43-47.
//Vestnik KarSU, Ser. Mathematic, 2010, 4(60). P. 16-24.
About Lemm of theory of the Navier-Stokes Equations//Vestnik KarSU, Ser. Mathematic, 2011, 3(63). P. 3-7.
On a maximum principle for Nabier-Stokes equations// Izvestia NAN RK, 2011. 3. -C.69-72.
//Duke Math. J. 7 (1940), p. 411-444.
Moscow, Nauka, 1983. 421 p.
-Moscow, Nauka, 1965.
Mathematical analysis. -Moscow, Nauka, 1979.
- Moscow, Nauka, 1971.
[^1]: $^)$ The work of the Committee on Intellectual Property Rights, Ministry of Justice of the Republic of Kazakhstan registered. CERTIFICATE 039, 12.01.2011£. [ˆ‘]{} 0006098
[^2]: $^)$ Lemma will be proved in the assumptions regarding the function $E,\>P$ of Theorem 2.
[^3]: $^)$ In [@Ash12], Lemma 2 is proved on the basis of the requirement that the sufficient conditions on the major minor of the matrix quadratic forms, where the function $E(\mathbf{U})$ has a local maximum.
[^4]: $^)$ Here, thanks to the principe of maximum, weak solution be regarded in more the restricted class of function, than in [@lad].
[^5]: $^)$The analogous estimates (\[ns12\]), (\[ns14\]) are all-known, for example, from [@lad1].
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How to Delete Phone Number on iPhone
How to remove dialed phone number from iPhone history?
If you only have one or two calls that you want to get rid of. tell them that you are planning a surprise and do not want your Partner to accidentally see you chatting with your old friends. then it is a very simple process.
On the main screen, click on the green phone icon, then click on the “Recents” button at the bottom of the screen and click on “Edit”, in the upper right part of the screen.
As in the previous section, after clicking on the “Change” button, additional functions for deleting numbers appear. Select the phone number you don’t need and click “Delete”.
How to remove a phone number from iPhone notebook?
You can delete contacts one at a time directly in the Contacts app on your device. Detailed steps:
Open the Phone app on your Apple iPhone;
On your phone, go to the Contacts app. It is centered at the bottom of the screen.
In the upper right corner of the screen, click on the “Change” button.
Scroll down to the bottom of the contact menu that opens. At the bottom of the screen, you will find the Delete button. Click it to delete the selected contact from iPhone.
Quickly remove numbers from iPhone: bulk or selective
Deleting contacts from iPhone is not an easy process for those who do not know how to do it. Our guide is suitable for devices such as iPhone 7, iPhone 6, iPhone X and older.
Remove numbers from favorite contacts
Quite often, situations occur when the phone number of a loved one has changed, or you simply stop communicating with a close relative, friend. What if his phone number is added to favorites and you do not know how to delete it? This is very easy to do. Follow our instructions:
Go to the “Favorites” section (in the lower left corner) and click “Change” (in the upper right corner)
After you clicked “Change”, “minus signs” will appear to the left of the contact icons. Click on each of them to remove contacts from your favorites list. Don’t forget to save your edits by clicking on the “Finish” button.
How to Delete All Numbers on iPhone?
This can be done via a PC or Mac. Go to the official iCloud website. https://www.iCloud.com/. Go to the “Contacts” section.
Using the hotkeys CTRLA (selection of all contacts) or Shift left click of the mouse (selective selection), mark the contacts that need to be deleted. All selected numbers will appear to the right of the main phone book.
After highlighting the contacts, pay attention to the lower left corner of the monitor. A gear icon appears there.
Click on the gear and delete all selected contacts from Apple iPhone.
Using our instructions, you can easily delete phone numbers and contacts from Apple iPhone of various models and modifications. If you have any questions, we will be happy to answer them in the comments to this article.
How to Quickly Delete Unwanted Contacts from iPhone?
How to Delete Contacts from iPhone (on iCloud.com)
- Go to iCloud.com from your computer.
- Go to the Contacts web app.
- Find the contact you need to delete and click the Edit button.
- Scroll down the page and click the “Remove Contact” button.
- Confirm deletion.
How to get rid of favorite contacts and recent calls from multitasking menu in iOS 13?
In fact, everything is simple and implemented in three simple steps:
- We go to “Settings” “Mail, addresses, calendars”.
- We find the item “Show in Switch. programs “(brilliant?).
- Here you can choose: to turn off the display of favorite contacts or recent calls. You can disable both.
How to delete featured messages?
- We go to the application “Messages”.
- Open the folder “Favorites”.
- To remove a message from favorites, press and hold it, and then select “Remove from favorites”.
- You can also delete a message from favorites in the original folder: item “”. “From the chosen ones”.
Where are Favorites on iPhone?
Open the Settings app → Safari. Then press the line “Favorites” and select the desired folder from the list.
How to Transfer Contacts from One iPhone to Another?
On the iPhone from which you want to transfer contacts, go to the menu: 1) “Settings” → iCloud and make sure the “Contacts” switch is active. 2) Go to Settings → iCloud → Backup and click the Create Backup button. Wait for the process to finish.
How to see recently added contacts on iPhone?
everything under the inscription Your contacts on the left. In the Sort drop-down list above the contact list, select the Recently Added option (usually selected by default).
How To Delete Contacts On iPhone
How to delete contacts from a SIM card
Some owners of mobile devices save phone contacts on the SIM card so that in case of replacement of equipment, the necessary numbers are saved. In such a situation, problems may appear with the removal of old phones.
To delete data, you first need to display it on the smartphone. The process is as follows:
- Launch “Contacts” and press the “Menu” key.
- After that, the settings will open, where you should select the “Display” tab.
- Set the checkbox on the line “SIM-card contacts” to the enabled state.
- Return to the phone book, where all data from the SIM card will be shown in the list of mobile phones. Often they are distinguished by a special mark. You need to select them and do the usual deletion, as in the method described above.
Almost all modern SIM cards include a set of service phone numbers that include a lock icon. When using the gadget, they can cause some inconvenience that will interfere with work, but you cannot physically remove them. Such phones are needed to call emergency services, check mobile accounts and other operations. If such contacts get in the way and are displayed in the phone book, you can hide them. Disable display is used for this. Go to the settings menu, remove the display of service numbers.
Batch delete contacts
When filtering mobile phones from the address book, it is very difficult and time-consuming to process each number. In this case, the Android operating system makes it possible to use batch cleansing of information. Especially useful for people who have a lot of stored data. For the operation you will need:
- Enter the phone book of a mobile device.
- Go to the settings menu and click on the “Advanced” button.
- In a new window, select a batch removal category.
- Return to the contacts directory, after which it will be possible to select the checkbox in front of the desired name, and after that, by pressing the delete button, clear several contacts from memory at once.
There is an easier way to process information. This will require:
- Go to the phone book, find the contact you want to delete and hold your finger on it.
- A special cell will appear on the left, on which you can put markers by short pressing. Checkboxes are set in front of all numbers that you plan to delete.
- At the end, you need to look up, where there will be an inscription “Delete” or the corresponding icon in the form of an urn. Tap on the designation and confirm your intentions.
These methods are the main ones that help to perform bulk deletion of mobile numbers in the phone book. However, it is not always convenient to use them. If you need to completely delete the directory on your smartphone, then the process will be different from those described.
How to remove a number from your phone
Every mobile operating system is not ideal. As a result, smartphone users may experience various problems, including stored numbers. This article will talk about how to remove a number from an Android phone, remove duplicate contacts, and also get rid of other possible phone book problems.
Why do double contacts appear
Sometimes smartphone users are faced with the problem of double contacts. This can appear as a result of installing certain firmware that require further synchronization. As a result, the directory can grow significantly, and the owner of the phone has to increase the time to find the desired number. The problem is solvable, you can partially cope with the situation using the option for combining takes. For this you need:
- Activate the guide on your mobile device.
- Press the menu key, then tap on the “Advanced” line.
- Select the key to combine takes.
- The operating system will make a proposal to combine repeated numbers, confirming the action, a partial solution to the problem will occur.
In addition to the described advice, there are other options for working with duplicates of mobile phones.
Google Contacts
To remove duplicates using this method, follow a simple guide:
- On a mobile device or PC, go to the browser, specify the path com / contacts in the address bar.
- Register personal data for a Google account.
- Press the key corresponding to the search for similar mobile phones.
- Select duplicate numbers from the list and delete them.
In the case when a small portion of the data was synchronized through, then you need to perform similar manipulations in the “Circles” section. In order for the smartphone to display the directory correctly after performing all the operations, you will need to finish editing by synchronization. It is performed through the settings menu, and the user needs to carefully monitor that his account is activated. Certain companies that release firmware for mobile devices immediately disable the function.
Remove duplicate contacts on Android
To completely remove duplicate numbers in the phone book, you should use tools from the Google service or install third-party programs, among which you can highlight Duplicate Contacts and others. The main methods are described below.
Disconnecting an account
To completely delete the phone book on your Android mobile device, it is recommended to disconnect the account with which you previously synchronized. This functionality will be useful for users who prepare equipment for sale or buy a smartphone from another person after use. In this case, there is a need to completely remove personal data or other people’s contacts. To disconnect your account, you will need to do the following:
- Find in the smartphone menu a standard program for settings or a separate icon “Google Settings”.
- Having opened the software, you should find the section with personal data and go to it on the “Accounts” tab.
- Tap on the line with accounts, where several possible accounts will be presented. Often, phonebook data is synced to Google.
- You need to delete the “Contacts” section from your account, and also completely disable synchronization.
- In the event that Google accounts are not divided into several categories, then you should completely disable synchronization.
- Next, the user needs to go to the menu by clicking on 3 dots at the top of the screen. In it, tap on the “Synchronize” button, after which the smartphone will update the information from memory. Mobile number data or account information will be completely deleted from the smartphone.
The described actions help to leave only contact materials from instant messengers in the memory of the gadget, and delete the previously saved phones completely. If you need to leave saved contacts, and delete data from instant messengers, then it is important to deactivate account synchronization in them. This allows you to exclude the appearance of data in the directory about contacts from social. networks.
On Android
If you are using an Android phone, then removing a specific tag associated with your number will be as easy as shelling pears. You do not have to install additional applications or go to the official website of the service from a computer, all you need is the Internet and the Getcontact program. For clarity, we have compiled a step-by-step guide, so we suggest that you familiarize yourself with it:
- Open the application and go to the “Search” tab by clicking on the corresponding icon in the bottom panel.
We indicate the reason and click “Complain”
Within a few days, or maybe even hours, the Getcontact administration will process your application and make a decision. As a rule, moderators go to a meeting and remove any tag that the owner of the room chooses. And if you still want to hide all information about yourself, you will have to delete the profile from the service. By the way, we will talk about this a little further.
How to remove all information about yourself from Getcontact?
Experienced data security professionals have long reported that it is best not to use the Getcontact app. over, this service is officially banned in Azerbaijan and a number of other countries. If you simply delete your account through the program on your smartphone, then your personal data will still remain in the service database. To completely clear information about yourself, you will need to use the platform website. Here is an instruction that explains in detail how to do everything right:
- Go to the official web page of the service.
- We go down to the basement of the site and find the “Manage your confidential profile” hyperlink. Click on it.
- In the window that appears, fill in information about yourself, that is, select a country and enter a phone number. Also, do not forget to tick the box “I am not a robot” to move on.
- A code will be sent to the indicated mobile number, which must be entered into the opened window of the site. When everything is ready, select “Continue”.
- Click on the “Visibility Settings” button and move the slider to the left next to the corresponding item.
Please note that when you log into your account again, all information will be automatically restored!
What’s next? Nothing, just wait for your request to be processed. After that, none of the Getcontact users will be able to see who owns your phone number.
How to remove tags in Getcontact on Android and iPhone. step by step
The Getcontact app is primarily used by people who make a huge number of calls every day. These are managers, entrepreneurs and simply employees of various institutions. With the help of the program, you can get information about almost any phone number, including finding out how a particular person is recorded for different users. But there are situations when you need to remove your personal data from the service database. In this case, the question arises: how to remove tags in Getcontact on Android and iPhone? We will tell you in detail about the procedure for performing the procedure, paying particular attention to the nuances and features.!
On the iPhone
In principle, the instructions presented above can be used by the owners of iPhones, but there are still differences in the names of the tabs and items. Therefore, we have come to the conclusion that it would be nice to put together a manual for the IPhone. Well, here it is:
- Open the application and go to the “Other” tab.
- Under the name of the account, click on the button “Show profile”.
- The page will display a list of tags associated with your phone number. That is, these are the names that other users of the service indicated.
- As in the previous case, select the desired tag, and then indicate the reason for its removal. Often it is enough to choose the “Other” option, then additional questions from the administration will not arise.
- Click on the “Complain” button and send a request.
But sometimes you need to remove tags that you yourself added to a certain number. How can this be done correctly? It’s very simple by opening the corresponding section of the mobile application or website in the browser.
In front of us on the screen we see a list of added tags, and next to them are special indicators. All you need to do to delete a specific entry is to move the slider to the left. As a result, the color of the slider will turn gray.
What are tags in Getcontact?
Any user registered in the Getcontact application can add information about different people, including information that is not always reliable. Usually a name, a pseudonym, or some kind of nickname is indicated. It is clear that the administration of the service cannot verify the entered information in any way, so it immediately becomes publicly available. Also, the database may contain links to the accounts of a particular person in social networks.
So what exactly is a tag in Getcontact? And this is the very information that we talked about above, that is, most often a name or nickname. Due to the fact that the program can be used by anyone, the specified data in many cases does not correspond to reality. For example, someone sometimes likes to joke by adding an offensive nickname or even an insult as a tag.
How to remove tags from Getcontact?
As you can imagine, people do not always want their personal data to be viewed by all users of the application. Therefore, the thought comes to remove tags in Getcontact, thereby hiding information about yourself. So is it realistic to do it? Yes and no. First, the name you enter must be offensive or violate your personal rights. And secondly, you will have to wait some time while the service staff process your application. If this does not scare you, then go to the step-by-step instructions that we have compiled for both iPhone and Android smartphone.!
So, we took a close look at how to remove tags in Getcontact on Android and iPhone. The topic of getting rid of all personal data stored in the service database was also touched upon. If you have additional questions or something was not clear. write about it in the comments!
Working with the iPhone phone book
Today we will learn what the iPhone phone book is, how to work with this book, learn how to create contacts and learn some of the features that the user encounters when working with contacts on the iPhone.
All iPhone phonebook numbers are stored in the standard Contacts application. But you can also use the saved numbers using the standard “Phone” application, which serves for calls.
It is more convenient to edit the iPhone phone book in the “Contacts” application, since it supports screen rotation and allows you to work with contacts in horizontal mode, in such a screen it is more convenient to use the iPhone’s QWERTY keyboard. But if you are not going to enter your full name. completely, enter home addresses, positions and other information that the iPhone phone book supports, then you can use the “Phone” application, which is quite enough to write down the number and name of a new subscriber.
After purchasing a new device, the iPhone phonebook contains only an Apple contact. After inserting the SIM into the iPhone, the contacts stored on the SIM card will not appear on the phone until you import the contacts to the iPhone. If the phone contains contacts of the previous owner, then you can delete contacts from iPhone.
To create a new contact, click “” in the upper right corner of the iPhone phone book, enter the name and phone number. If you want, you can enter your home or work address, e-mail and other information about the subscriber. Here you can set a photo in full screen for an incoming call by selecting it from the gallery or taking a picture. In the iPhone phone book, in addition to standard data entry fields, it is possible to add an additional field with which you can specify additional information, for example, birthday or ICQ number.
If it becomes necessary to enter an additional field with a specific identifier, then you can use the creation of your own label, sometimes it can come in handy. Any number can be assigned an individual ringtone, for this, select a ringtone in the iPhone for a contact, so that with an incoming call you will understand that an identified subscriber is calling.
After you fill in all the required fields of the new entry and click “Finish”, the contact will be saved in the iPhone phonebook memory, you cannot copy contacts from iPhone to SIM, because the phone does not support this function. iPhone only works with contacts stored in the phone memory.
BlackList
With this program, you can create specific lists of subscribers, which will be automatically blocked by the system when an incoming call or message arrives. There is also the possibility of synchronizing and transferring data from databases, for example, if you have previously used it somewhere and want to transfer it to your iPhone.
- Go to the “Settings” of your iPhone, go to the “Phone” tab;
- Then click on the item “Block. and identify. call “and put a tick in front of the program. This action grants access to the application;
- Next, go to BlackList and activate both items, as in our screenshot. This completes the setup procedure;
- If you need to transfer a previously created base for the blacklist, you will need to purchase the PRO version of the program.
Blacklist on iPhone: how to add, remove, view
With the development of information technology, new automation tools began to appear, including a variety of advertising bots that can automatically call users in a selected range or send messages. over, it is often just a “dumb call”, from which, as a rule, there is no benefit. To protect himself, the owner of the smartphone can add the number to the “black list”. This is a kind of separate category of subscribers who will no longer be able to call you or send messages if you place them there.
In iOS, the ability to add to the blacklist appeared from version 7, and before that period, subscribers had to use third-party applications that appeared in the Apple Store. Actually, within the framework of this material, we decided to describe to you in detail the whole process of working with black lists and reveal a few secrets.
WhoCalls
This is the official app from Kaspersky. Who does not know, Kaspersky products are aimed at protecting information, user privacy, and recently they have a separate tool that allows you to automatically block unwanted numbers.
The essence of the program is quite simple: users initially add numbers they consider undesirable to the program list. On the company’s servers, a search for duplicates is carried out, and if certain numbers are blocked by many, a marker is assigned to them, for example, “Collectors”, “Lawyer services”. As a rule, the information is reliable.
Thanks to such a huge and constantly updated database, in the future you will see this very marker on your phone screen when a call is made. You can also see it in calls, which is very convenient. For example, even if you missed a call from an unknown number, you can see who exactly called you if it is entered in the database.
The main advantage of WhoCalls is its constantly updated database. Here, rather, you will not see the usual subscriber numbers, but you can definitely find out which organization is making a call to you. At the moment, the system contains several dozen categories and this list is constantly updated. The app’s ratings are not high, but the developers are trying to optimize their product.
To work with the program, you need to do the following:
- Also, as in the first case, download the application to your device;
- Go to “Settings”, click the item “Phone” and find there “Block. and identify. call “;
- Activate WhoCalls in the list and go to the application to update the database;
- As soon as the database is updated, you will be able to receive information about incoming calls.
Attention! Also, at any time, you can check a separate number by simply going to the “Check” tab in the application and specifying a specific combination.
Settings
You can also add any number through the settings of your device. The only drawback is that you cannot quickly attach a number from the last calls from here. Data is taken from the phone book or entered manually.
- Go to the “Settings” iPhone and go to the “Phone” tab;
- Click on “Block. and identify. call “;
- Scroll down the list and click the “Block contact” tab;
- Choose any subscriber from the phone book and enter.
Secret option in iOS 12
Apple has been fighting spam for a long time, but in iOS 13 they decided to add updated tools that will automatically block most of the spam. However, few people know that a similar option appeared in version 12. And despite the fact that it was not officially announced, you can use it now.
- Go to the “Settings” of your iPhone and go to the “Phone” tab;
- Click on the “Spam messages” item and put a check mark next to the “Yandex” item. In the future, separate widgets from other applications may appear, but at the moment in Russia it is better to use Yandex;
- The system will display an additional tab with an agreement stating that the full content of the message can be sent along with the number as a test. It is important! After all, there may be passwords, so consider this factor.
Now, if you receive a message or a call, you can swipe to the left, where the “Report” tab will appear.
Click on it and indicate that this number is “Harmful”. Here you can also block it immediately. The data is sent to Yandex, where it is processed.
What will happen next with such information is still unknown. But, most likely, such tools will allow at the test stage to create a universal option to combat various forms of spam and implement it in iOS 13 in full.
How to remove a number from the blacklist
As we said earlier, all actions are carried out in the “Phone” settings. There will be a complete list of all blocked subscribers. To remove any of them from the “unwanted” category, just swipe to the left and click “Unblock”.
Also in “Contacts” you can unblock a previously saved subscriber if you click on it and scroll down. There will be a tab “Unblock”.
Recent calls
This method is universal in its own way, since from here you can blacklist both those who are in your contacts and those who last called you.
- Find the number you need to block;
- Click on the exclamation mark on the right next to the number;
- In the menu that appears, scroll down and click “Block subscriber”, then confirm the operation.
What is a blacklist?
Blacklist is a separate category of numbers that are manually added by the iPhone owner. If they call you from this number, they will not be able to get through. over, the person at the other end is not notified of this in any way. You independently decide who to add to the list, whom to delete. There are also separate databases formed on the Internet on specialized sites and applications, but more on that later. | https://nncxv.info/how-to-delete-phone-number-on-iphone/ |
Decomposition is the process that involves the breakdown of complex organic matter or biomass from the body of dead plants and animals with the help of decomposers into inorganic raw materials such as carbon dioxide, water, and other nutrients. The various processes involved in decomposition are as follows:
(1) Fragmentation: It is the first step in the process of decomposition. It involves the breakdown of detritus into smaller pieces by the action of detritivores such as earthworms.
(2) Leaching: It is a process where the water soluble nutrients go down into the soil layers and get locked as unavailable salts.
(3) Catabolism: It is a process in which bacteria and fungi degrade detritus through various enzymes into smaller pieces.
(4) Humification: The next step is humification which leads to the formation of a dark-coloured colloidal substance called humus, which acts as reservoir of nutrients for plants.
(5) Mineralization: The humus is further degraded by the action of microbes, which finally leads to the release of inorganic nutrients into the soil. This process of releasing inorganic nutrients from the humus is known as mineralization.
Decomposition produces a dark coloured, nutrient-rich substance called humus. Humus finally degrades and releases inorganic raw materials such as CO2, water, and other nutrient in the soil.
What is menstrual cycle? Which hormones regulate menstrual cycle? | https://www.saralstudy.com/study-eschool-ncertsolution/biology/ecosystem/509-define-decomposition-and-describe-the-processes-an |
The Sky at Night looks back at the last ten years of astronomy and ponders the most significant milestones and revelations. With the help of six distinguished astronomers, Chris and Maggie consider the state of astronomy in 2020 and wonder what new, exciting discoveries await us across the rest of the decade, as a host of new ground and space telescopes come online. Astronomer Royal Lord Martin Rees is among the guests to walk along the Astronomical Wall of Discovery in this one-hour special.
Series
:
The Sky at Night
Alien Worlds
2016 Science
We are the generation of human beings that are going to know whether or not we're alone in the universe. This episode explores the search of exoplanets, from ancient Greek philosophers to the discoveries made possible with the Kepler Telescope. Unbelievable new worlds, planets made of diamond, planets of raining glass, worlds in collision, some plunging into stars, and others that just might harbor life.
Thanks to today's planet hunters, our views of the universe and of our place in it are undergoing one of the greatest revolutions in scientific history.
Series
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The Universe Season 8
Exoplanets
2017 Science HD
NASA may have just gotten one step closer to the answering the question: are we alone? The Spitzer Telescope has made a groundbreaking discovery of exoplanets that could be similar to our own. And as Kepler also continues its search, our understanding of the universe continues to be redefined.
Series
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Catalyst
1
Complete Series
History of the Eagles
2013 History
George Harrison Living in the Material World
2011 History
Inside Bills Brain: Decoding Bill Gates
2019 History
Untold
2021 Culture
Dark Net
2016 Technology
The Wehrmacht
2007 History
Earth, the Power of the Planet
2007 Nature
Himalaya with Michael Palin
2004 Culture
Follow Our Releases! | https://www.documentarymania.com/results-recent.php?search=Kepler+Telescope&genre= |
Evangelical response to Sir Knight Nelson
In last week’s Chronicle Sir Knight Drew Nelson claimed the disclosures pertaining to the underground rites of the Royal Black revealed in Inside the Royal Black Institution (a brief numbers of which were mentioned in the Banbridge Chronicle – 16/09/09) are “inaccuracies.” I would like to ask him a few important questions.
Mr Nelson testifies: “I was never asked to drink from a human skull.”
Are you denying that this custom has existed within the Royal Black Institution since its formation or are you simply saying your individual preceptory doesn’t use it? If it is the latter them I accept that certain preceptories don’t use it. In fact on p.68 of the book I acknowledge: “Whilst the mystic cup is customarily an actual human skullcap some preceptories that have no access to a skull (or are uncomfortable with using the same) use a coconut or shell as a representation of a skullcap.”
Mr Nelson also says he was “never” subjected to a degrading ritual and “was never stripped.”
The official mode of travelling the Royal Green degree involves the candidate being stripped totally naked in order to represent Adam in the Garden of Eden, literally replicating the state our first father found himself in immediately after the fall. I acknowledge in the book: “Many Black Preceptories have modified this practice, not requiring the candidate to divest all his clothes for the travel, although, again, this would be the ‘proper’ mode of travelling this degree” (p. 222). The locality in which this degree is performed and the lecturers overseeing the ceremony will normally determine the way in which a candidate does this travel. It will govern whether he must travel it naked or semi-naked. Some Preceptories keep strictly to this ancient custom, others do not.
Mr Nelson also states: “I was never asked to take a ‘blood oath’ or any other oath whatsoever.”
An informative read:
But every Black candidate is required to take a binding oath upon himself before entering his initiation, which commences: “I (full name) do most solemnly and sincerely promise that I will keep all matters and things confided to me in this Royal Black Institution and shall not by any means discover or entrust them (unless previously authorized so to do) to another person except to a Brother of the same Colour and Degree.”
If you check my quote in the Chronicle, my reference to blood oaths was on the subject of the “orders” (plural), and I was specifically referring to the Royal Arch Purple penalties (a degree every Blackman must travel to be qualified to join the Black). The three great and solemn penalties of a Royal Arch Purpleman are indeed that I “would suffer my throat cut across from ear to ear,” “my left breast torn open, my heart and vitals taken therefrom,” and finally “my body severed in two” before I would betray the Order. Did Mr Nelson take these?
Mr Nelson further claims: “The Royal Black Institution is a Christian organisation … and I am proud to be a member.”
I have to object to this frequently advanced Black boast. Surely the New Testament clearly defines what is Christian and what is not? Where does the Bible sanction highly secretive ritualistic rites (with exclusive teaching for the members alone) as part of Christian worship? True Christianity is happy to perform its worship in public and preach its message of truth to the masses. The true Church possesses a liberating message that is to be freely shared with all. The Black on the other hand keeps its teaching to a select few!
If the Royal Black Institution has nothing to hide why does it not let non-members witness its secret rites? If the teaching of the Black accords with the Bible then bring it out into the light of day and let us all view it. The Black chooses rather to hide it behind a litany of death threats, binding oaths, passwords, door knocks and funny handshakes. In fact, the Blackman is threatened in the 1st degree with the fate that befell Judas Iscariot should he ever betray the secrets of the Black Institution. Such severe warnings have ensured the secrets of the Black have remained hidden for over two centuries. Finally, the Black’s recent application for membership of an evangelical organisation was rejected for the very reasons I have given in the book and which Mr Nelson is now denying.
I would be happy to meet Mr Nelson publicly to discuss these issues if he was agreeable.
Paul Malcomson (www.evangelicaltruth.com)
Enlightening reading
Original Banbridge Chronicle article – Macabre rituals detailed in book
Royal Black response to Chronicle article by Sir Knight Drew Nelson
Newspaper articles relating to Evangelical Truth
Belfast Telegraph – Inside the Royal Arch Purple Order
Belfast Newsletter – Northern Ireland’s loyal orders ‘mirror freemasonry’
Irish News – Man lifts lid on secrets of Arch Purple Order
The Observer – Satanic secrets of the Orange Order
Irish News – Order denies links with loyalist group
The New Zealand Herald – Orange Order ‘pagan’ rites under attack!
Sunday World – Weirdo Order exposed by member
Irish Independent – Flagging Freemasons secret society admits RTE cameras in desperate bid to recruit
Irish News – Twelfth parades – tourist attraction or sad travesty?
Irish Daily Star columnist John Coulter – The best piece of anti-Protestant propaganda since the notorious Proclamation of the 1916 Easter Rising
Irish News – Secrets of Royal Black Institution revealed
Sunday World – New Book Exposes Black
Banbridge Chronicle – Macabre rituals detailed in book (Black Response) (Evangelical Truth response)
Lisburn Star – Local author embraced for controversy over book on Royal Black institution
Newry Democrat – Oaths in some groups require candidates to conceal other members’ secrets, says author
Irish News columnist Roy Garland – “Fundamentalists, not Jesuits, infiltrated the loyal orders”
Recommended reading: | https://www.evangelicaltruth.com/full-evangelical-response-to-blackman-drew-nelson |
RICHARD L. VELKLEY is the Celia Scott Weatherhead Professor of Philosophy at Tulane University and author of _Freedom and the End of Reason: On the Moral Foundation of Kant's Critical Philosophy_ and _Being after Rousseau: Philosophy and Culture in Question_ , both published by the University of Chicago Press.
The University of Chicago Press, Chicago 60637
The University of Chicago Press, Ltd., London
© 2011 by The University of Chicago
All rights reserved. Published 2011.
Printed in the United States of America
20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 1 2 3 4 5
ISBN-13: 978-0-226-85254-6 (cloth)
ISBN-10: 0-226-85254-7 (cloth)
ISBN-13: 978-0-226-85255-3 (e-book)
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Velkley, Richard L.
Heidegger, Strauss, and the premises of philosophy on original forgetting / Richard Velkley.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-226-85254-6 (cloth: alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 0-226-85254-7 (cloth : alk. paper) 1. Strauss, Leo. 2. Heidegger, Martin, 1889–1976. 3. Philosophy, Modern—20th century. 4. Political science—Philosophy—History—20th century. 5. Ontology—History—20th century. I. Title.
B945.S84V45 2011
193—dc22
2011000175
This paper meets the requirements of ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992 (Permanence of Paper).
Heidegger, Strauss, and the Premises of Philosophy
**ON ORIGINAL FORGETTING**
Richard L. Velkley
The University of Chicago Press
CHICAGO _& _LONDON
CONTENTS
_Acknowledgments _
_Parabasis _
PART 1. Repetition of Antiquity at the Peak of Modernity
1. Primal Truth, Errant Tradition, and Crisis: The Pre-Socratics in Late Modernity
2. "The Unradicality of Modern Philosophy": Thinking in Correspondence
3. On Caves and Histories: Strauss's Post-Nietzschean Socratism
PART 2. Exigencies of Freedom and Politics
4. Freedom from the Good: Heidegger's Idealist Grounding of Politics
5. Heidegger on Nietzsche and the Higher Freedom
6. The Room for Political Philosophy: Strauss on Heidegger's Political Thought
PART 3. Construction of Modernity
7. On the Roots of Rationalism: Strauss's _Natural Right and History_ as Response to Heidegger
8. Is Modernity an Unnatural Construct?
9. Strauss on Individuality and Poetry
_Epilogue: Dwelling and Exile_
_Abbreviations_
_Notes _
_Index _
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to express my gratitude to the John M. Olin Center for Inquiry into the Theory and Practice of Democracy, the LeFrak Forum, and the Symposium on Science, Reason, and Modern Democracy, and to Nathan Tarcov and Richard Zinman, conference organizers, for the invitation to participate in the conferences at the University of Chicago and Michigan State University on Leo Strauss's _Natural Right and History_ in April–May 2001, which were the occasion for a lecture that became chapter 7. Also I express my debt to Alfred Denker and Holger Zaborowski of the Heidegger-Forschungsgruppe for the opportunities to speak at the 2004, 2006, and 2008 meetings of the Forschungsgruppe in Messkirch, Germany, out of which arose chapters 5 and , and to the late Dr. Kurt Pritzl, O. P., dean of the School of Philosophy at the Catholic University of America, for his invitation to give a paper in the Fall 2007 Lecture Series on Pre-Socratic Philosophy, from which my first chapter is derived. My thanks go to various friends and colleagues with whom I have discussed parts of the book: Avner Ash, Fred Baumann, Diego Benardete, Robert Berman, Ronna Burger, Michael Davis, Patrick Goodin, Victor Gourevitch, Richard Hassing, Mark Lilla, Nalin Ranasinghe, Susan Shell, Martin Sitte, Nathan Tarcov, Holger Zaborowski, and Catherine Zuckert. To David Brent and Laura Avey at the University of Chicago Press and Brian Walters I am greatly indebted for help and support with the manuscript, technical and otherwise. It has been a great pleasure to work with Susan Tarcov in the final stage of editing.
Parts of the book have been previously published: chapter 4 in _Logos and Eros: Essays Honoring Stanley Rosen_ , ed. N. Ranasinghe (South Bend, IN: St. Augustine's Press, 2006); a shorter version of chapter 6 in German translation as "Heidegger, Strauss und der Nationalsozialismus," in _Heidegger und der Nationalsozialismus_ — _Interpretationen. Heidegger-Jahrbuch_ , vol. 5, ed. A. Denker and H. Zaborowski (Stuttgart: Alber Verlag _,_ 2009); chapter 7 in _Review of Politics_ 70, no. 2 (spring 2008): 245–59.
Parabasis
To work out the question of Being adequately, we must make an entity—the inquirer—transparent in his own Being. The very asking of this question is an entity's mode of _Being_ ; and as such it gets its essential character from what is asked about—namely, Being.
MARTIN HEIDEGGER, _Being and Time_
Now questioning has priority over answering. God does not _ask_ , but he answers. Questioning is more characteristic of the human intellect than answering. There is no answer without questioning, but there is indeed questioning without answer.
LEO STRAUSS, "Religiöse Lage der Gegenwart"
**I**
"The crisis of our time may have the accidental advantage of enabling us to understand in an untraditional or fresh manner what was hitherto understood only in a traditional or derivative manner." The time of crisis and of questioning tradition that was the twentieth century saw a number of leading thinkers seeking to reach new insight concerning the roots, the meaning, and the fate of Western rationalism. Of the figures engaged in this inquiry, Martin Heidegger and Leo Strauss were the two to develop the most searching analyses of the philosophical tradition as originating in radical questioning and as undergoing forgetting. The close linking of these thinkers will doubtless provoke resistance in many readers. Heidegger's followers are unlikely to think of Strauss as a comparably penetrating and fundamental thinker. Should they think of Strauss as having any connection with Heidegger, it is as _the_ critic of the latter's "radical historicism" and therefore as a hostile voice, not as a sympathetic reader open to the challenge of Heidegger's questioning of the metaphysical tradition. Strauss's followers commonly view Heidegger as an early stimulus to Strauss, which he left behind quickly for a more salutary philosophic endeavor, as Heidegger's philosophy expresses the ultimate decline of the tradition into extreme relativism and nihilism, whose political manifestation was Heidegger's participation in the National Socialist movement. Strauss's mature thought, accordingly, took notice of Heidegger only for critical and cautionary ends, while his own concern with recovery of the beginnings of the tradition bears only a superficial resemblance to Heidegger's effort of _Destruktion_ of the tradition. Contrary to such opinions, it will be maintained here that Strauss's reflection on the basic philosophic questions has a radicality comparable to Heidegger's, and that he was to the end of his life engaged with Heidegger as the one contemporary thinker with whom his thought was in essential dialogue.
In one of his last publications Strauss considers the place of political philosophy in three great figures of recent philosophy who helped to shape the direction of his thinking: Nietzsche, Husserl, and Heidegger. The essay contains this statement: "As far as I can see, [Heidegger] is of the opinion that none of his critics and none of his followers has understood him adequately. I believe that he is right, for is not the same true, more or less, of all outstanding thinkers?" The insertion of the personal note ("I believe that he is right") strengthens the suspicion that Strauss applies the general claim about outstanding thinkers to himself as well as Heidegger. He speaks "from experience." If this is indeed one of Strauss's rare self-referential asides, the context is striking and suggests the question of whether Strauss means that the inadequate understanding of Heidegger is related to the inadequate understanding of himself. It is not a question that many readers of Strauss have asked. Although Strauss privately in letters from his early years onward and publicly in lectures and writings of his later years spoke of Heidegger's supreme importance as thinker—"the only great thinker in our time is Heidegger"—only recently have the two figures been linked in a theoretically substantial way. The best-known writing of Strauss, _Natural Right and History_ , is now easily seen as directed at Heidegger, but at the time of its publication (1953) Heidegger was unread in the English-speaking world. Yet since Heidegger's star has risen in that world those who study Heidegger and those who study Strauss have been mostly disjunct groups. Even so, Strauss may well have meant with his seemingly casual aside that his work—and Heidegger's as well—would not be adequately understood until his readers had learned to study how his thought relates to Heidegger's.
This claim may strike many as improbable. Strauss's work does not seem to be much concerned with metaphysical questions, and Heidegger's thought lacks close attention to political matters, although notoriously at certain junctures it is politically engaged. Part of the difficulty is that Strauss's work is too often viewed through that of his students (first and second generation) who were on the whole disinclined to undertake study of metaphysical texts and thinkers, and perhaps especially not those of late modernity. Strauss's own writing encourages a certain reserve (albeit solemn and awestruck) before "first philosophy," with his refrain that philosophy begins with reflecting on "the surface" of things, the human experience of the political and moral phenomena. For Strauss, however, the surface of things is the home of problems, not of absolute principles and solutions. In its ambiguity it points beyond itself. His claim that "the problem inherent in the surface of things, and only in the surface of things, is the heart of things" is his summation of the Socratic pursuit of philosophy. But it is also clearly related to the turn in phenomenology "to the things themselves," begun by Husserl and continued by Heidegger, involving the suspension of given theoretical constructions and the dismantling of "sedimentations" of traditional concepts in practical life as well as theoretical inquiry. In other terms, the phenomenological program is to show the genesis of science out of the prescientific understanding.
Classical political philosophy, as founded by Socrates, did not have to undertake the dismantling of a prior tradition and could investigate the prephilosophic understanding of political phenomena without the aid of historical studies. Strauss underlines that modern students of political philosophy need such studies to uncover what the classical philosophers could grasp directly from experience. But Strauss's phenomenology is not only descriptive; as Socratic it is also dialectical, exposing the fissures and perplexities in the prephilosophic understanding, whereby it follows the Socratic example of seeking to find the clue to the "first things" in the "human things." The spirit of such Socratic inquiry is at the same time aporetic. "Socrates was so far from being committed to a specific cosmology that his knowledge was knowledge of ignorance. . . . Socrates, then, viewed man in the light of the mysterious character of the whole." The foundation of classical political philosophy is the "understanding of the situation of man which includes . . . the quest for cosmology rather than a solution to the cosmological problem." Strauss attempted to show that the metaphysical questions come to light, in their properly aporetic formulation, only through the ascent from the political. Yet his numerous autobiographical comments on his philosophical encounters with Husserl and Heidegger—suggesting the parallel of Socrates's story of his early enthusiasm for Anaxagoras—press one to ask the question: How does Strauss's account of the ascent from the political relate to these roots of his thought?
I start with an indispensable but insufficient formulation. Heidegger and Strauss are linked by the perception each had in his formative years that the Western rationalist tradition had collapsed, an event for which the political catastrophe of their generation, the First World War, gave compelling evidence. More fundamentally, the brilliant arguments of Kierkegaard and Nietzsche had exposed the failure of the civilization of the European Enlightenment. Heidegger and Strauss saw the urgent need to attempt a new beginning through the reconsideration of the origins of the tradition, that is, the most elementary premises on which rationalism is grounded. The possibility of philosophy had to be considered anew in the wake of the self-destructive process that Nietzsche, above all others, had diagnosed and fulfilled. Thus Strauss writes to Hans-Georg Gadamer: "it is necessary to reflect on the situation that demands the new hermeneutics, i.e. on our situation; this reflection will necessarily bring to light a radical crisis, an unprecedented crisis and this is what Heidegger means by the world night." Strauss defends this view of the present age against Gadamer's criticism of Heidegger's account of the "complete forgetfulness of Being" in the present. Similarly he disputes Karl Löwith's charge that Heidegger fails to grasp Nietzsche's true intention, characterizing Heidegger as Nietzsche's genuine successor in thinking through the implications of Nietzsche's account of the present age as nihilistic. All the same, this common ground of Heidegger and Strauss is partly obscured by the appearance, promoted by Strauss himself, that the true issue between the two is the problem of relativism, which Strauss would address by the assertion of absolute norms. As I shall argue, the deeper issue for Strauss is whether Heidegger has remained faithful to his own reopening of the aporia of Being, i.e., the implications of the crisis of philosophy, and whether Socratic skepticism provides (as Strauss argues) the more rigorous and consistent response to the crisis. Although Strauss affirms the superiority of the Socratic way, the novel terms of his rethinking that way are still decisively indebted to Heidegger.
**II**
For a number of years I have been reading Heidegger with Strauss in mind and Strauss with Heidegger in mind, and the outcome is this study. I am far from considering the thoughts here definitive. I hope to offer some mutual illumination of the two thinkers, but this is exposed to an obvious difficulty: Strauss frequently, if one includes private utterances, declared his intense engagement with Heidegger's thought, but there is no report known to me of any attention paid by Heidegger to Strauss. Thus of the two thinkers only the thought of one of them is significantly formed in response to the thought of the other. The consideration of the relation of Heidegger and Strauss necessarily offers, at least initially, more illumination of Strauss's intentions than of Heidegger's. I believe, however, that the understanding of Heidegger's thought is advanced by viewing it in the light of Strauss's effort to renew "political philosophy." It will not come as much of a surprise to anyone that Heidegger's thought has been provocative for the thinking of another figure, of whatever rank. By contrast, something must be said to justify the claim that Strauss is a figure worth considering comparatively and critically together with Heidegger. I underline that my ultimate goal is not to offer an external comparison of two authors, nor is it to weigh influences. It is to enter into the shared matter of thinking of the two philosophers and to discover what can be learned from their converging while disparate ways of thinking about that matter.
My book is not concerned with the details of intellectual biography. The basic facts of Strauss's studies with Husserl and Heidegger in the early 1920s are well known. After a short exposure to Heidegger's lectures Strauss did not remain in the circle of Heidegger's students, but he maintained lifelong contacts with some who did, and with them he continued to discuss Heidegger's thought. Strauss gives the following account of his attendance at Heidegger's lectures at the University of Freiburg in summer 1922:
One of the unknown young men in Husserl's entourage was Heidegger. I attended his lecture course from time to time without understanding a word, but sensed that he dealt with something of the utmost importance to man as man. I understood something on one occasion: when he interpreted the beginning of the _Metaphysics_. I had never heard nor seen such a thing—such a thorough and intensive interpretation of a philosophic text. On my way home I visited Rosenzweig and said to him that compared to Heidegger, Max Weber, till then regarded by me as the incarnation of the spirit of science and scholarship, was an orphan child.
As Strauss then explains, it was not simply Heidegger's interpretive powers that impressed him. Both he and Jacob Klein were deeply affected by the intent and the result of Heidegger's interpretation of Greek philosophy.
Heidegger's work required and included what he called _Destruktion_ of the tradition. . . . He intended to uproot Greek philosophy, especially Aristotle, but this presupposed the laying bare of its roots, the laying bare of it as it was in itself and not as it had come to appear in the light of the tradition and of modern philosophy.
The statement might give the impression that Heidegger laid bare the roots of the tradition only for the sake of rejecting them, but in another passage Strauss corrects that interpretation. Noting that "certainly no one questioned the premise of philosophy as radically as Heidegger," Strauss proceeds:
Klein alone saw why Heidegger is truly important: by uprooting and not simply rejecting the tradition of philosophy, he made it possible for the first time after many centuries—one hesitates to say how many—to see the roots of the tradition as they are and thus perhaps to know, what so many merely believe, that those roots are the only natural and healthy roots. . . . Above all, his intention was to uproot Aristotle: he thus was compelled to disinter the roots, to bring them to light, to look at them with wonder.
One might think that Klein and Strauss understood Heidegger's significance in the following way: he persuaded them of the inadequacy of the traditional accounts of the Greek roots, but his own new readings, while brilliant, were misguided and thus forced them to develop counterreadings that uncover the true roots. It surely is the case that neither Klein nor Strauss was a follower of Heidegger's own philosophy of existence. "Klein was more attracted by the Aristotle brought to light and life by Heidegger than by Heidegger's own philosophy." But the distinction made by this sentence means that Heidegger's reading of Aristotle contained something true and of enduring worth, enabling one "to see the roots of the tradition as they are." Furthermore, Heidegger was able to expose this only through questioning the tradition more radically than anyone else, so that what he exposed was an object of wonder to Heidegger and his listeners. In other words, he made possible a radically untraditional approach to the Greek roots and therewith of the whole tradition of philosophy, one that had intrinsic merit. Through this wonderful disclosure he opened "the possibility of a genuine return to classical philosophy, to the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle, a return with open eyes and in full clarity about the infinite difficulties which it entails." Strauss says this possibility "Heidegger had opened without intending it," for his concern was to go behind Plato and Aristotle to a more primordial thinking on which the thought of these philosophers rested and which at the same time was forgotten and obscured by their thought. Yet in some sense Heidegger's readings of Plato and Aristotle provided the basis for the return to them, for by showing the "infinite difficulties" of the return he paradoxically made the return possible. He showed that the true Plato and Aristotle were unfamiliar and so remote from traditional conceptions of them that one had to relearn completely how to read them. The traditional conceptions had lost all power, and the emergence of strange, unfamiliar conceptions held the promise of grounding a living way of philosophizing.
One can conclude that Strauss saw in Heidegger's thought an insight to which Heidegger's own philosophy proved to be inadequate. It is in this sense that one can read what Strauss says about Heidegger's thought in another work: "It compels us at the same time to realize the need for an unbiased reconsideration of the most elementary premises whose validity is presupposed by philosophy." If one takes this statement the way many readers of Strauss take it, as asserting that Heidegger's "radical historicism" exposes the nihilistic consequences of the modern tradition and so requires a return to ancient philosophy, it gives Heidegger no credit at all for uncovering problems in the roots of the tradition and raising genuine difficulties about the possibility of philosophy, including ancient philosophy. The sentence would then be at odds with the autobiographical passages cited, which establish that Heidegger had shown that a simple return to ancient philosophy from modern philosophy was impossible and that one had to rethink what the Greeks understood by philosophy without presupposing that philosophy in _any_ form is possible. The questions that Heidegger raised about the elementary premises of philosophy had to be addressed and could not be dismissed as sophistical. Indeed Strauss does not rule out the possibility that the required "reconsideration" of the premises may leave at least some of Heidegger's questions intact. This result would be compatible with seeing the need for some correction or improvement in Heidegger's thought.
Without a blink of an eye, one can of course counter that Strauss's inquiry about the recovery of classical political philosophy, especially of the Socratics, is wholly distinct from Heidegger's recovery of the question of Being as raised by the early Greeks and then forgotten by the whole tradition that follows. A closer look at Strauss's statements shows there cannot be such an absolute disjunction. In the first place, Strauss avers that the question of Being is central to Plato and Aristotle. "Heidegger agreed with Plato and Aristotle not only as to this—that the question of what is _to be_ is the fundamental question; he also agreed with Plato and Aristotle as to this—that the fundamental question must be addressed to that being which _is_ in the most emphatic or the most authoritative way." In the passage containing the previously cited statement about the "most elementary premises," Strauss expressly states that the recovery of classical political philosophy (and the problem of natural right) requires the reexamination of the possibility of philosophy as such. Clearly for Plato and Aristotle, the principal classical political philosophers, the possibility of philosophy entails the truth of certain premises about Being. Accordingly Strauss cannot be indifferent to what these philosophers think about such premises. In fact several crucial statements of Strauss assert that the founding of political philosophy by Socrates is inseparable from the discovery of a new way of approaching the questions about Being and the whole. "Contrary to appearances, Socrates' turn to the study of the human things was based, not upon disregard of the divine or natural things, but upon a new approach to the understanding of all things." "In its original form political philosophy broadly understood is the core of philosophy or rather 'the first philosophy.'" "We have learned from Socrates that the political things, or the human things, are the key to the understanding of all things."
This understanding of Socratic philosophy, which Strauss developed over several decades and which emerged fully formed only after the Second World War, is a response to Heidegger's rethinking of the possibility of philosophy, with which it shares the character of being a radically antitraditional account of philosophy and of the philosophic tradition. It is therefore not just a reinstatement of classical philosophy against Heidegger's rejection of it, since Strauss's own radical antitraditionalism has sources in Heidegger's questioning of the tradition. In light of Strauss's claim about the comprehensive philosophic character of the Socratic turn to the human (political) things, one can propose that Strauss's Socratism is an engagement with the fundamental question of Being through the examination of the human way of being as political. As such it belongs in the succession to Heidegger's approach to the question of Being through the analysis of the human way of being in the world, i.e., the exposure of the fundamental structure of that entity ( _Dasein_ ) for whom the question of Being is constitutive.
Certainly it is often maintained with suave assurance that Strauss was basically uninterested in metaphysical matters, that his thought makes no pretense of having comprehensiveness, even that his writings reveal only an unconnected collection of themes and questions garnered from texts that were the object of Strauss's devoted scholarly commentary. A locus classicus for those who want to claim that Strauss turned away from the question of Being to "the primacy of the political," and that he held it was "Heidegger's concern for Being, rather than beings, that led to his indifference to tyranny," is the conclusion of Strauss's "Restatement on Xenophon's _Hiero_ ," addressed to Alexandre Kojève. The passage, which clearly refers to Heidegger, reads as follows:
For we [Strauss and Kojève] both apparently turned away from Being to Tyranny because we have seen that those who lack the courage to face the issue of Tyranny, who therefore _et humiliter serviebant et superbe dominabantur_ , were forced to evade the issue of Being as well, precisely because they did nothing but talk of Being.
Far from denying that Strauss is concerned with Being, the statement contains an ironic affirmation that Strauss and Kojève are both concerned with the question of Being and indeed pursue it more adequately than Heidegger, insofar as they do not limit their _speaking and writing_ (talk) to Being alone, for such limitation evades the issue of Being. Indeed Strauss affirms "the primacy of the political" as the necessary beginning point for philosophic inquiry, but this is not his final or complete thought. In the same passage, immediately before the concluding sentences, he writes that "on the basis of the classical presupposition, philosophy requires a radical detachment from human concerns: man must not be absolutely at home on the earth, he must be a citizen of the whole." Kojève's account of philosophy, by contrast, calls for enduring attachment to the political ("man must be absolutely at home on earth, he must be a citizen of the earth"). The implied position of Strauss is that adequately addressing the issue of Being requires reflection on the problem of the relation of philosophy to politics (ignored by Heidegger, pursued by Strauss and Kojève) but without losing sight of the ultimate superiority of the theoretical life to the political life, and thus without conceiving philosophy as fulfilled in the realm of practice (contra Kojève). In the end, as one gathers from other sources, Strauss's objection to Heidegger comes close to this criticism of Kojève (suggesting further irony in the passage) insofar as Heidegger's thinking on Being rests on a conflation of such thinking with the historical existence of man as poetic-religious, even if (or because) Heidegger does not for the most part discuss the latter in political terms. The flaw in his philosophy is not the concern with Being but an exclusive concern with Being, which precludes the distinctive features of political life from shining forth. (Again, if concern with Being were a philosophic flaw, then Plato and Aristotle would merit a good scolding from Strauss.) The passage surely points to an intrinsic connection between the manner in which Heidegger pursues his question and his failure to face the problem of tyranny.
**III**
The present book treats Heidegger and Strauss from the standpoint of philosophical relations between them and takes up politics to the extent it bears on their approaches to philosophy. For some readers it will be disappointing that the book is not more about politics in the narrow sense. I do not delve into the details of Heidegger's involvement in National Socialism or dwell on Strauss's comments on that involvement. Certainly the book takes up the philosophical problem of how Heidegger's philosophy could allow, or rather predispose, Heidegger to engage with National Socialism, and it discusses Strauss's analysis of that problem. It should be observed, though, that Strauss's remarks on Heidegger's philosophy far outweigh in quantity and detail his remarks on Heidegger's political deeds and misdeeds, both in his public writings and in the correspondence. Strauss states that the facts of Heidegger's political engagement "afford too small a basis for the proper understanding of his thought." One can easily construct a facile syllogism: (P1) As political philosopher Strauss is most of all interested in a thinker's political thoughts and actions; (P2) Heidegger's only significant political thoughts and actions relate to his support of National Socialism; (C) What Strauss finds most interesting in Heidegger is the latter's support of National Socialism. Both premises are defective: Strauss understands political philosophy not solely as the theory of politics, or the philosophic treatment of politics, but also as the political treatment of philosophy, which leads the student or interlocutor toward grasping the superiority of the philosophic life among ways of life or the preeminence of philosophic virtue among the meanings of virtue. Its "highest theme" is the tension between the claims of politics and those of philosophy. As to Heidegger's political actions and thoughts, Strauss is ultimately more concerned with the premises, mostly unstated, in Heidegger's philosophic thought about the relation of philosophy to politics than with the overt political choices of Heidegger, although these cannot be separated from those premises. Heidegger's failure to see the problematic relations between philosophy and politics is the heart of Strauss's criticism. It is a subtle point that this criticism applies both to Heidegger's early thought, which is more obviously politically engaged, and to his later thought which has withdrawn from direct political engagement. Insofar as Heidegger's thought is throughout characterized by a fusion of philosophy with the religious-political realm that is "eschatological," it has no "room for political philosophy" in Strauss's sense. Precisely by not reflecting on the relation of philosophy and politics Heidegger's thought is politicized, being shaped by unexamined assumptions about that relation which Heidegger takes over chiefly from the tradition of German Idealism and to some extent from Nietzsche.
Since I am disavowing some common approaches to these thinkers, I shall also mention that my study distances itself from the widespread tendency of writers on Strauss to dwell on clarification, often combined with justification, of his relation to American politics and political science. I believe this was not of ultimate concern to Strauss. He of course engaged in some famous polemics with contemporary American political scientists over the "value-neutrality" of social science, but these debates are peripheral to the core of his thought, or they are only an appendix to his more central critique of Max Weber. About American political thought and events he made very few pronouncements. And it is a related point to say that Strauss's nearly universal reputation as a major "conservative" political thinker is essentially misleading about the nature of his thought. The center of Strauss's reflection is the extraordinary nature of philosophical questioning, whose radicality he contrasted with the moderation required by political action. "The virtue of the philosopher's thought is a certain kind of _mania_ , while the virtue of the philosopher's public speech is _sophrosune_." A combination of theoretical traditionalism and political extremism (on the right) is commonly ascribed to Strauss, but it is just the opposite of the truth. In other words, Strauss's thought does not belong to the mainstream Anglo-American conservative tradition for which the burning issue is the moderation or rejection of "rationalism in politics," although Strauss is a strong critic of the transformative and revolutionary approaches to politics that emerged in the modern Enlightenment. He is a critic of the Enlightenment ultimately more for its subordination of philosophy to practice, for obscuring the fundamental unsolved problems under the veil of alleged "progress," than for its possible harmful consequences for political life. As Strauss's critical reading of Burke shows, he regards the post-Burke tradition of conservatism as committing another form of the subordination of philosophy to practice or history. It is important to add that for Strauss theoretical radicality and political moderation are not merely juxtaposed parts of the philosopher's thought but essentially connected. To recognize that philosophical questioning has a radicality inherently at odds with custom and law is to acknowledge a difference in human life that cannot be overcome. The philosopher's political moderation is a manifestation of a prudence that has theoretical grounding. Strauss faults Heidegger for failing to appreciate _this_ decisive meaning of difference.
To grasp the peculiar sense of "political philosophy" in Strauss one must examine further why he encouraged the close attention to concrete analysis of political life or, more to the point given our situation, the close study of authors who engage in this analysis. Strauss focused on such study in order to uncover the problems or tensions that are inherent in political life, which he placed under the heading of the "theological-political problem." This expression is frequently and mistakenly identified solely with the dispute between philosophic reason and piety or revelation. However, Strauss, following classic authors, noted the unending debate within political life concerning notions of justice, of law, and of the good. "The meaning of the common good is essentially controversial." Political life is a realm of enduring tensions, one of which is the tension between the authority of divinely sanctioned law and human statesmanship's need for autonomous flexibility in practical judgment, which prefigures the dispute between piety and philosophy. "The ambiguity of the political goal is due to its comprehensive character." Reflection on the ultimate goal of political knowledge or art gives rise to controversies that do not occur about the ultimate goals of other arts (pastoral, military, culinary, etc.). The political, as a kind of whole, discloses the structure of the cosmos of problems considered by philosophy. Strauss's approach to politics as the way into the philosophic problems by no means implies that the political life is the highest life or that reflection on politics constitutes the whole substance of philosophic thought. It is rather that this reflection is the introduction to the problem of the best life, the core question of Socratic philosophy.
As a political being the human is "open to the whole," or transcends itself toward some completion, albeit ambiguously, as it transcends itself toward the whole of the particular political community and toward the "whole as such," which is variously conceived by all human beings. Strauss asserts that the whole as such is "mysterious," as the ultimate grounds and causes of the whole of things are removed from human understanding. The question of Being must remain, in the decisive respect, a question, on which point Strauss is in basic accord with Heidegger. All of human life is conducted in the light of this mystery and cannot be conceived without reference to it. For Strauss as for Heidegger, the human is that being whose existence is a question for itself. Both thinkers also reflect on the human tendency to conceal or "forget" this questionableness, although only Strauss puts this in political terms: the attachment to symbols, rituals, and doctrines of the "cave," grounded in sacred law, which partially limits and closes off reflection on the whole of problems. The two thinkers agree that philosophy is the intransigent facing of the questionableness of Being, of a sort that few human beings can undertake, much less sustain, in its purity. For both of them Nietzsche is the great exemplar of such philosophic intransigence in recent history.
Both are indebted to Nietzsche, as well, in their conceptions of the history of philosophy (more broadly, of the West) as a decline from lofty beginnings, as a growing oblivion of the Greek way of articulating the fundamental questions, with its unparalleled clarity and openness to the phenomena. There is some kinship, too, in the characterization of the form this oblivion takes in the modern age: for Heidegger it is the dominance of technological thinking, for Strauss the project of mastering nature, which he conceives as a political project embracing a new role for technology. In this regard both thinkers carry forward, with important modifications and criticisms, Nietzsche's attack on the Enlightenment and its utilitarian spirit. The "forgetting of Being" (Being as the disclosedness of beings) is for Heidegger a historical fate, a withdrawal of Being inherent in Being that begins already among the Greeks, most notably in Plato, after the great age of early thinking, and culminates in the occlusion of Being in the "technological world night" in which man is wholly drawn into the control and calculation of beings. This darkness may be the prelude to another beginning. Strauss locates the high point of Greek philosophy in Socrates and his immediate pupils, and his historical scheme of the loss of authentic philosophy after the Socratics is more differentiated than Heidegger's "history of Being." The spirit of Socratic philosophy recovers some vitality in the medieval Islamic and Jewish philosophers, as philosophy emerges from the massive oblivion induced by the eruption of revelation into the world of philosophy. A decisive shift occurs in the founding of modern philosophy by Machiavelli, Bacon, Hobbes, Descartes, and their successors, which is not a historical fate but a conscious human decision to reject the previous tradition and start anew. All the same, it is a crucial aspect of Strauss's dialectical mode of arguing that he at times overstates the philosophic decline inherent in the modern turn. Indeed, Strauss understands the modern founding to be another effort, albeit flawed, to save philosophy from oblivion. More generally, Strauss's sharpening of theoretical antitheses is central to his strategy of provoking awareness of fundamental problems. I shall say more about this later.
**IV**
This familiar account of history in Strauss rests on an underlying theme concerning a tension intrinsic to the condition of philosophy, present from its beginning, and to which modern philosophy is a novel response. "Philosophy is the attempt to replace opinion by knowledge; but opinion is the element of the city, hence philosophy is subversive, hence the philosopher must write in such a way that he will improve rather than subvert the city." The protective and "exoteric" stratagems of philosophic self-presentation necessarily involve public dilution of the philosopher's radical thinking. In light of the difficulty of attaining definitive results in the quest for knowledge of ultimate matters, the need for such dilution may threaten to corrupt the substance of thinking itself, by exposing philosophy to "the charm of competence" (i.e., of the apodictically demonstrable) or the socially useful. This enduring problem for philosophy was made incalculably more complex by the confrontation of philosophy with revealed religions based on sacred scriptures claiming authoritative insight in ultimate matters. Philosophy was threatened by permanent subservience to theological orthodoxy. The modern philosophers, to recover something of the original natural freedom of philosophic questioning, resorted to the effective means of securing protected freedom by redefining philosophy's goal as universally practical—above all, in practical opposition to theological authority. The gulf between philosophy and the city was bridged by identifying the ends of the philosopher and the nonphilosopher, placing inquiry in the service of the relief of man's estate or "science for the sake of power." Rather paradoxically, the gains for philosophy in greater freedom and for society in diffusion of science and its material benefits (Enlightenment and "progress") were necessarily made at the price of lowering philosophy's sights, as "unqualified attachment to human concerns becomes the source of philosophic understanding."
I can only mention now the suggestion that in Strauss's account the tendency toward a certain forgetting of Socratic philosophy by the later philosophic tradition, arising from philosophy's conflict with the requirements of political life (and especially its pious core), is rooted in what one can describe as metaphysical or cosmic ambiguity. In this regard there is a crucial difference and similarity between Heidegger and Strauss on the sources of "falling away" or forgetting. An initial approach to the difference is to say that Heidegger's account of oblivion is historical, since oblivion is grounded in the self-withdrawal of Being as historical, whereas Strauss finds the sources of oblivion in enduring, transhistorical traits of human nature. But this is misleading insofar as Strauss does not present a doctrine of human nature in the sense of an anthropology that is intelligible apart from the human relation to Being or the whole, and he is in accord with Heidegger on the necessary defects of such anthropology. Rather Strauss seeks to understand the human situation in the light of a fundamental ambiguity that one can describe as metaphysical or cosmological, with the crucial proviso that the metaphysical or cosmological inquiry in question is hypothetical or aporetic. He points to the nature of this inquiry—as both directed toward the whole, not just a part thereof, and also hypothetical—in this pregnant passage of _Natural Right and History_ :
The unfinishable character of the quest for adequate articulation of the whole does not entitle one, however, to limit philosophy to the understanding of a part, however important. For the meaning of a part depends on the meaning of the whole. In particular, such interpretation of a part as is based on fundamental experiences alone, without recourse to hypothetical assumptions about the whole, is ultimately not superior to other interpretations of that part which are frankly based on such hypothetical assumptions.
"Interpretation . . . based on fundamental experiences alone" would seem to refer to Heidegger's effort in _Being and Time_ to approach the question of Being solely on the basis of the fundamental experience of _Angst_ or care ( _Sorge_ ) as the human-existential structure of being-in-the-world that underlies that experience. Strauss knew at this time, as he was becoming aware of Heidegger's later writing, that Heidegger himself became dissatisfied with that approach, and indeed as I show in the second chapter, Strauss acknowledged and investigated an affinity between his own thinking and Heidegger's later path of thinking. A difference, however, remains: Strauss maintained against Heidegger the inevitability of considering hypothetical cosmological principles as illuminating the existence of the human—specifically, the duality of the human as political and transpolitical.
One can approach this issue by reflecting on Strauss's understanding of the problem of nature. Nature ( _phusis_ ) is a Greek discovery, already announced in poets before philosophers, according to which the natural first things are distinguished from the merely humanly made things or conventions (including _muthoi_ ) and from things known merely through hearsay as contrasted with direct seeing. Nature is "implied in the idea of philosophy," as the idea of an unchanging order discernible by human reason, independent of human willing or making and in principle universally accessible. As such it is an order distinguished from the multiplicity and diversity of human conventions or "caves." After inquiry turns to the question of what is good by nature, the idea of natural right emerges, as the idea of a right that is knowable by reason universally. The search for it entails rejection of the prephilosophic identification of the good with the ancestral. Yet Strauss states that his own inquiry seeks to restore knowledge of "the problem of natural right" or, as he also says, "the idea of natural right." To say natural right is an "idea" is to say it is a "fundamental problem." "Political life in all its forms necessarily points to natural right as an inevitable problem." As Strauss notes, not all philosophers who search for the natural principles endorse the notion of natural right or natural justice. Thus pre-Socratic and Epicurean philosophers distinguish the pleasant as the natural good from the entire realm of the political and moral as conventional. And in Strauss's reading the Socratic answer to the question "What is good by nature?" is contrasted with all political conceptions of justice, i.e., justice understood as serving the ends of the city. Still it is the case that for Socrates the structure of the city reveals something essential about the natural structure of the soul, including its essentially political passion, spiritedness or _thumos_. Both _thumos_ and _eros_ occupy a place of importance in Socratic philosophic self-understanding but are missing in classical hedonism. But all of this points to nature as a problem rather than as the subject of doctrinaire teaching, and as a problem that is accessible only by starting with political life as a realm of problems centering on the question "What is the best way of life?" Contrary to what is often thought, Strauss does not investigate the prephilosophic "cave" in order to find there sound intuitions or common sense about morality and political practice, on which to base universally evident precepts of the natural law. For him the entire history of thinking about natural right and natural law exposes the fundamental problem of nature. Historicist thought is wrong not in finding nature problematic but in substituting for doctrinaire accounts of nature its own doctrinaire principle of history. There is no question-begging assumption of a natural life-world on Strauss's part, contrary to some prominent critiques.
Accordingly Strauss's criticisms of social science positivism and cultural relativism focus not on skeptical consequences of these positions but on dogmatic ones: these positions render the question of the good life meaningless as a _question_. As to the relation of this critique to Heidegger, the situation is complicated by Heidegger's sharing much common ground with Strauss in the rejection of social science positivism, natural-scientific accounts of the human, and standard cultural relativism on the grounds that they render unintelligible the capacity of the human to raise the question about Being. Yet the question of the good is notably missing from Heidegger's profound account of questioning. Even so, or precisely for this reason, Heidegger's "radical historicism," which through a radical critique of theoretical understanding attains the "highest self-consciousness" of modern philosophy, poses the most severe challenge in all modernity (and perhaps in all philosophy) to the Socratic account of philosophy that Strauss revives.
**V**
In the chapters that follow I seek to expose and clarify the meaning of "original forgetting" found in these two figures. I argue that the central reflection of each is on the forgetting of radical questioning as an experience inseparable from human openness to the inherently enigmatic whole, and on highly provisional and experimental efforts to recover such questioning. Understood correctly, such forgetting is not something that has happened only in modernity, for it is in the nature of thinking that original insight will be replaced by doctrine and tradition. I argue also that each thinker pursues a primary ambiguity or duality to which a secondary one is attached, wherein an oscillation is set up. For Heidegger the primary duality is that of Being and beings ( _Sein_ and _Seienden_ ). Being is that which enables beings to be disclosed, thereby concealing itself in favor of what it discloses yet revealing itself at the same time as that which grounds through withdrawing, i.e., that which is thought-worthy as the "nothing." This sets up the secondary ambiguity. In his later thought Heidegger meditates on a new way of being at home in Being through attentiveness to Being as that which withdraws—being at home in homelessness—and this can be understood as Heidegger's attempt to resolve the tension between radical philosophic questioning and human attachments to people, place, language, poetry, and gods, or to the origins of these. Heidegger is not unaware of the tension between philosophic life and nonphilosophic modes of life, yet he never truly articulates these as human alternatives, since he longs and hopes for a transformation that overcomes their difference. This stance implies that the difference has only a historical character. Yet there is persisting ambiguity evident in Heidegger's later accounts of freedom, in which freedom appears both as radical questioning that transcends the historically given and as receptivity to the call of the historical event of Being as a particular way of dwelling. This ambiguity relates to the complex way Heidegger's rejection of Nietzsche's project of overcoming modernity through an assertion of will is combined with a continuing sympathy for Nietzsche as prophetic figure pointing toward a new founding of human dwelling.
For Strauss the primary duality is that of the city and man, or man's dual way of transcending: toward the political whole and toward the natural whole or "whole as such." That this duality is the source of tensions that are the permanent hinge on which human life turns is the theme of Strauss's writing. He sees the conscious project of overcoming them as the hallmark of modernity, of which Heidegger is the final and consummate thinker. Modern philosophy seeks to fuse itself with practical life and thus to become wholly at home in the world of human affairs, but "the attempt to make man absolutely at home in this world ended in man's becoming absolutely homeless." But Strauss's thought has its secondary ambiguity, pertaining to how the essentially radical essence of philosophy gets realized in its modern form as practical, which in Strauss's view constitutes a break with the premodern account of philosophy as theoretical. How is the "break" compatible with the transhistorical character of philosophy as openness to the "permanent problems"? If the modern revolution constitutes a new kind of philosophy, is not philosophy subject to historical transformation? But if, on the other hand, this revolution is in reality a falling away from genuine philosophy, can one then say that the "quarrel between the ancients and the moderns" is a philosophical one? Furthermore, if genuine (Socratic) philosophy falls or declines into something less than philosophy, how does such a process occur? Strauss offers a powerful account of the practical dangers and perplexities that philosophy always confronts, and his view of the modern approach to philosophy's difficulties, as a well-considered strategy of its founders, offers an illuminating tale of genesis that is absent from Heidegger's _seinsgeschichtlich_ scheme of decline as historical fate. But if the modern founders have such clarity about their intent, would it not be the case that they retain the essential freedom of philosophic thought, wherein they do not simply fuse philosophy with practical ends? Strauss suggests that such freedom is still evident in Machiavelli, Rousseau, and Nietzsche and seems equivocal about whether it can be found in other major figures like Hobbes, Spinoza, Locke, Kant, and Hegel. But if one allows that philosophic autonomy exists in the modern era, is there in fact such a drastic falling away from the Socratic beginning of political philosophy, in the decisive respect?
Both Heidegger and Strauss attempt to uncover or renew forms of thinking that lie beyond the modern standpoint. Heidegger would move beyond the modern stance of the will, the Nietzschean type of founding that legislates for humanity a new end or a higher freedom, but in his hope for a new era of "thinking" he retains the modern hope for a fusion of philosophy and practical life. Strauss would disclose the defect of modern philosophy as the creation of "conscious constructs" that limit the vision not only of nonphilosophers but of the philosophers themselves, as "enhancing the status of man and his 'world' by making him oblivious of the whole and eternity." This suggests a view of the modern philosophers as both able and unable to see beyond their self-limiting constructs. In my reading of Strauss, this ambiguity is deliberate, since due consideration of his work shows that he regards modern philosophy as a serious alternative to classical Greek philosophy and that indeed the recovery of Greek philosophy can take place only by means of the confrontation between its premises and the premises of modern philosophy. The latter have become as unknown as those of classical philosophy and are as worthy of archaeological research. The true object of inquiry is not to formulate an ancient doctrine to replace modern ones but to revive awareness of the "fundamental problems" shared by the philosophers. Thus Strauss, writing of the origins of his study of Hobbes, states, "I concluded that the case of the moderns against the ancients must be reopened, without any regard to cherished opinions or convictions, _sine ira et studio_." Strauss does not simply say, "I saw that the return to ancient philosophy was necessary." Furthermore, if Heidegger's thought is "the highest self-consciousness" of modern philosophy, then the confrontation between classical philosophy and Heidegger is indispensable for the recovery of original questioning. As I noted earlier, in Strauss's view such recovery must take the form of the dialectical opposing of theses. In this regard one recalls his oft-quoted remark about the antagonism of revelation and philosophy: "It seems to me that this unresolved conflict is the secret of the vitality of Western civilization." Strauss's readings of the great modern philosophers present them as profoundly aware of this conflict, and thus as sustaining the original questioning of philosophy, although the conventional forms of thought arising out of this modern tradition ("the second cave") have indeed promoted oblivion of such questioning. It cannot be denied, however, that in Strauss's estimation the two recent great figures in whom this conflict is still alive, Nietzsche and Heidegger, fell short in their grasp of its political basis and meaning.
For philosophical-pedagogical purposes Strauss engages at times in one-sided accounts of modern philosophy as "fallen." In this he seems to be a student of Nietzsche insofar as his philosophical writing employs the creation of tensions through deliberate contradiction and exaggeration, or by proposing "simplifying horizons" (satisfying the "will to untruth") from which the philosophical mind must make an effort to free itself and thereby learn the art of thinking. Heidegger also practices a certain version of this art: his accounts of "forgetting of Being" as ever-deepening oblivion are countered by interpretations of Leibniz, Kant, Hegel, Hölderlin, Schelling, and Nietzsche that ascribe to these thinkers levels of insight close to, if not quite equal to, that of the greatest ancient figures. One must distinguish between the prevailing consciousness of modernity and the thoughts that the highest minds of modernity were capable of thinking. For both Strauss and Heidegger philosophizing is incompatible with complacent reliance on historical schemata, even as such schemata must be used to provoke self-awareness that one's "self-evident truths" are essentially questionable.
To sum up this line of argument: only because the modern philosophers still bear traces of the Socratic origin is Strauss able to philosophize in dialogue with them. Modern philosophy has, furthermore, not resulted only in obliviousness to everything beyond the political-practical horizon. Strauss admits this when he tells contemporary readers that in spite of their dwelling within a "cave beneath the cave," they still are open to, and confronted with, the mysterious whole. To mention one important instance of how modern thought sustains an ancient problem (discussed in the final chapter): Strauss suggests that modern ideas of individuality have roots in the ancient poetic and philosophic accounts of tension between the city and the individual. Strauss comments that Hegel is "the profoundest student of Aristophanes in modern times," citing the _Phenomenology of the Mind_ : "The individual consciousness having become conscious of itself presents itself as the absolute power." This is a revealing parabasis. Indeed, what is apparently a mere aside points to the neglected crux of the history of Western thought: the peripheral emerges as central. The comic poet Aristophanes, who in histories of philosophy is never treated as a major player (although Hegel's remark on the "triumph of subjectivity" in Aristophanes begins to correct this absence), is according to Strauss the thinker who above all others displays to Plato the poetic alternative to philosophy—as the only genuine alternative to philosophy. This is not because poetic thought comprehends only the unquestioning obedience of piety before the law, but because in its highest form it reflects on the fundamental tension between _eros_ and the law in a compelling fashion opposed to philosophy. According to the poetic account, individuals necessarily seek beyond the law a completion that they cannot find, and the authority of sacred law (perhaps as made by poets who in their lawgiving role find satisfaction) must remain the limit for human life, since what lies beyond that limit admits no satisfactory, noncomic and nontragic, definition. This is a stance that Socrates rejects, holding that philosophy transcends the law without comic or tragic failure by uncovering a sustainable way of life based on knowledge of ignorance. The poetic awareness of the problem of the individual's transcending of law (of "the city and man") is the key to the quarrel between the ancients and the moderns, in that the modern philosophers revive the poetic view against the Socratic, with philosophic consciousness of their effort, such that "the quarrel between the ancients and the moderns concerns eventually, and perhaps even from the start, the status of 'individuality.'"
Strauss's treatment of Aristophanes is accordingly his response to Heidegger's turn to the pre-Socratic philosophers, as it shows that the poetic reflection on the problem of the individual and law is the context from which philosophy emerges, in striking affinity with Heidegger's claim that "poetic thinking" must be renewed if we are to grasp how philosophy arose and also how it went astray. But Strauss's poetic thinking, unlike Heidegger's, discloses the structure of the "cave" and its law as political, which is to say, as inherently problematic, as the comic-tragic realm in which philosophy is never wholly at home. While in accord with Heidegger's insight that philosophy cannot be understood except in relation to the world of poetry and gods that precedes it, and that genuine philosophical thought cannot be sustained except by remaining in dialogue with that world, Strauss restates the problem at issue for both poetry and philosophy. Through that restatement Socratic philosophy comes forward as mindful of the poetic-erotic experience that Heidegger claims it forgot, and at the same time as able to offer a coherent alternative to the comictragic vision of human life.
**VI**
I conclude with an observation to prepare for all that follows. For both thinkers the central theme of philosophy is Being or the whole, which is manifest and intelligible only as a question or problem for a being that is part of the whole. Such a being is the human, as the part of the whole that is also open to the whole: "the being that _is_ in the most emphatic or the most authoritative way." Thus the human ambiguously transcends toward "its own" (the part that it is) and toward what is beyond its own, toward Being or the whole. This dual manner of transcending conceals itself and forgets itself: the human has openness for the whole beyond itself but only as a relatively self-contained part that must have concern for itself. All questioning must start from, and in some way remain conditioned by, "closed horizons" of thought. Philosophy—the attempt to know the whole—is possible only because such closed horizons are questionable. Strauss sought to advance on Heidegger's formulation of ontological difference or ambiguity by arguing that the human "part" or starting point is inherently political (the "cave" that is both open and closed to the whole), whereby he attempted to show that Socratic thought does justice to the Heideggerian insight and at the same time roots it in permanent necessities of political life. This also clarifies the central place of the gods or revelation in Strauss's reflection, since the divine is the primary indicator of the dyadic character of the human as both of the city and transcending the city: the primary indicator of the tension in the soul between law and _eros_. The human has access to the whole, what is most universal, only by passing through the experience of what is particular and local, the laws of the city with their divine sanctioning. For Strauss the ancient question "What is god?" relates to the wonder that the highest human possibility, the effort to understand the whole, is crucially conditioned in its starting points by a singularity that has questionable grounding in the natural whole, the life of humans in cities under laws. Clearly this reflection is at least thematically linked to Heidegger's thinking about the divine and the gift of the disclosedness of Being. I can only indicate the substance of the affinities and the differences between these ways of thinking by a few words on the structure of this book's discussion:
Part I, "Repetition of Antiquity at the Peak of Modernity," takes up three principal topics: (1) The turnings in Nietzsche and Heidegger to the Greek beginnings of philosophy in efforts to overcome the crisis of European civilization as grounded in its forgetting of primordial questioning. Here it is important to note that for both thinkers the tasks of overcoming and revival have a providential and redemptive character, relating to the concern of the entire German tradition with the justification of evil. (2) Strauss's project of "repetition of antiquity at the peak of modernity" as discussed in letters with students of Heidegger in the period 1930–73 and other writings that disclose how the accounts of original forgetting in Strauss's German predecessors fundamentally frame his thinking. Central to these discussions is the ambiguity of the exposure of modernity's "unradicality," its foundational "certainties," by Nietzsche and Heidegger, since the latter still adhere to some modern (or Christian) notions of progress. (3) An account of Strauss's mature Socratism, his late modern renewal of Socratic political philosophy, which centers on the duality of the human as political and transpolitical and responds to the critiques of Western rationalism in Nietzsche and Heidegger. Strauss's sympathetic stance toward Heidegger's critical reading of Nietzsche and toward the questions Heidegger poses about causality, God, and Being comes to the fore. For both Heidegger and Strauss, philosophy begins with articulating human openness to Being or the whole under a radical suspension of traditional metaphysical premises. At the same time, Strauss seeks to recover, in opposition to Heidegger and with more support from Nietzsche, a classical understanding of philosophy as "cosmic" and transmoral. In this regard Strauss breaks from his German predecessors whose thinking reveals a fusion of religious and philosophic concerns.
Part II, "Exigencies of Freedom and Politics," takes up the political implications of the different versions of overcoming modernity through recovery of antiquity in Heidegger and Strauss. Heidegger's approach to the relation of philosophy to politics and practical life is crucially indebted to accounts of freedom in Kant, Schelling, and Nietzsche, as Heidegger refashions these in an effort to move beyond the oblivion of Being and to arrive at a new beginning. Strauss criticizes Heidegger's view of that relation, as assuming that philosophic freedom can be at one with, and at home with, political life. Central to this criticism is the underlying "eschatological" assumption that persists in Heidegger's later thinking after he "learned the lesson of 1933." In Strauss's conception Heidegger obscures the "tension between philosophy and the _polis_ , i.e., the highest theme of _political_ philosophy." Heidegger's recovery of antiquity and his politics suffer from the forgetting of Socrates's radical questioning of the authority of _nomos_ , such that Heidegger's thought on the tragic strife of _phusis_ and _techne_ does not point to the liberation of the philosophic mind from the mind of the age, the nation, and the _Volk_ , or it points to it only tentatively and obscurely.
Part III, "Construction of Modernity," addresses three related topics: Strauss's interpretation of modernity as it underpins his critique of Heidegger, the question of the nature of the break of modernity with antiquity according to Strauss, and suggestions in Strauss that his recovery of antiquity is informed in certain respects by the experiences of modernity and not least by the philosophy of late modernity. Strauss's genealogical criticism of Heidegger's historicism presents it as the most radical form of the modern "historical consciousness," which itself is the outcome of the politicizing of philosophy in early modernity. Mostly forgotten in modernity, in Strauss's view, are not doctrines of teleology and natural law but the duality of the human, the tension between law and _eros_ , which entails the permanent "homelessness" of philosophy in human practical affairs. Yet Strauss's account of modernity and its break with antiquity shows that modern philosophy harbors echoes of ancient themes of human duality in its treatments of individuality and poetry. In particular the late modern renewal of the "problem of Socrates" has allowed Strauss to recover the theme of duality in a heterodox way, i.e., without metaphysical premises of the post-Platonic tradition, through reviving the original quarrel of philosophy and poetry.
1
_Repetition of Antiquity at the Peak of Modernity_
CHAPTER 1
Primal Truth, Errant Tradition, and Crisis: The Pre-Socratics in Late Modernity
**I**
The thought on the Greeks in the work of Friedrich Nietzsche and Martin Heidegger has been the inspiration for much original and penetrating philosophic scholarship in the twentieth century. Assuming that Heidegger is the foremost rethinker of Nietzsche's legacy (an assumption that needs to be tested), Nietzsche's writing and Heidegger's teaching and writing began a movement that now includes numbers too great to count. Certainly not all who might be named are philosophically Nietzschean or Heideggerian; they are, however, variously indebted to the new questioning of the tradition. The readings by Nietzsche and Heidegger of the early philosophers have not usually been at the center of this reengagement with the Greeks, despite the fact that for these two thinkers the early philosophers and poets are the source of primordial wisdom from which the modern West must draw for self-renewal. But if one is to understand the roots of some leading recent approaches to the Greeks, including Plato and Aristotle, one must examine these readings. My aim is to consider in broad terms what these thinkers claim to find in the early philosophers and what philosophically motivates their quest. Due to limitations of space, I will not discuss the interpretations of particular ancient figures in detail, and I will also set aside all questions about the scholarly accuracy of their interpretations. To consider the turn to the early philosophers in these two great thinkers is to uncover something fundamental about their philosophies, and thus about philosophy in the most recent period of modernity. Some light will be shed as well, necessarily, on the nature of modernity itself.
**I I **
Among the notes collected after Nietzsche's death and published under the title _The Will to Power_ , there is the following reflection on German philosophy, dated 1885 in the Musarion edition:
German philosophy as a whole—Leibniz, Kant, Hegel, Schopenhauer, to name the greatest—is the most fundamental form of _romanticism_ and homesickness there has ever been: the longing for the best that has ever existed. One is no longer at home anywhere; at last one longs back for that place in which alone one can be at home: the _Greek_ world! But it is precisely in that direction that all bridges are broken—except the rainbow-bridges of concepts
Nietzsche surmises that perhaps in a few centuries the real dignity of German philosophy will be recognized for its "gradual reclamation of the soil of antiquity" and for its renewal of the bond with the Greeks, "the hitherto highest type of man." He then concludes:
Today we are getting close to all those fundamental forms of world-interpretation devised by the Greek spirit through Anaximander, Heraclitus, Parmenides, Empedocles, Democritus, and Anaxagoras—we are growing more Greek by the day; at first, as is only fair, in concepts and evaluations, as Hellenizing ghosts, as it were: but one day, let us hope, also in our bodies! Herein lies (and has always lain) my hope for the German character
Nietzsche here describes German philosophy as a rebellion against modernity, against the Reformation in particular, and as a second Renaissance of antiquity. The recovery Nietzsche seeks is ambiguous, however, for the Greeks are only "the hitherto highest type of man." The hope he places in the German character, whereby he implies he seeks another bridge beyond merely conceptual bridges, is to renew Greekness in mind and body, and thus to rectify a flaw in antiquity, an injustice that antiquity inflicted on itself. This was the wound inflicted on Greek culture by Socrates and his new kind of philosophizing. "The real philosophers of Greece are those before Socrates (—with Socrates something changes)." The early tragic culture of the Greeks succumbed to that wound, but a renewed tragic culture, based on a consciousness of all that had happened since the Greeks, and on a deeper understanding of the sources of mind and body in will, might endure, as incorporating the wound. Nietzsche's German predecessors did not follow this path, as Leibniz, Kant, Hegel, and Schopenhauer were all avowed admirers of Socrates, and Nietzsche's Hellenism rejects the Hellenism of classical German culture. Yet as efforts to address the soul's homesickness, all German philosophic striving is concerned with the problem of evil. He points to this feature in another note: "The significance of German philosophy (Hegel): to evolve a pantheism through which evil, error and suffering are not felt as arguments against divinity." The note contains this sentence: "I myself have attempted an _aesthetic_ justification: how is the ugliness of the world possible?"
The shared project of the German philosophers, including Nietzsche (and Heidegger, as I will argue) could be summed up this way: Burdened with homesickness in modernity, or a sense of loss, they diagnose the ground of that loss and thereby transform the loss, so that it (the illness, wound, or ugliness) is preserved somehow, or justified, in the transformation. And yet, as justified, it is not simply overcome. The renewal of antiquity includes somehow the gulf, the abyss, that separates modernity from antiquity. Nietzsche says that he is the first to justify existence through a critique of morality: "I saw no one who had ventured a critique of moral value feelings." He shows that ugliness, evil, and pain are inseparable from beauty, nobility, and health. Herein he opposes the whole post-Socratic tradition, including Kant and Hegel, who in different ways attempt to "prove the dominion of morality by means of history." But "we no longer believe in morality, as they did, and consequently we have no need to found a philosophy with the aim of justifying morality." Still, there is a sense in which those modern justifications of morality are built upon the undermining of older notions of the nature and supports of morality, such that they opened up an abyss (or exploited an already existing abyss) in freedom, in order to force reason or spirit to discover (or create) a new order in that abyss. In modernity before Kant and Hegel, ideas of freedom with abysmal potentials (such as Rousseau disclosed) emerged, pointing to the need for a synthesis of the ancient and the modern. Nietzsche rejects the classical German Idealist syntheses, so that he does not start with the acceptance of freedom in its modern Enlightenment, democratic meaning, and he does not seek to reconcile it with post-Socratic rational morality. All the same, he offers another synthesis and another justification, in which the most extreme form of modern skepticism is one component and the turn to the early Greeks is another.
Nietzsche rejects the late antiquity of Socrates and Plato—thinkers who employed logic and dialectics as they "took up the cause of virtue and justice." "Since Plato philosophy has been dominated by morality" owing to his portrayal of Socrates, "who was a monomaniac with regard to morality," tyrannizing over the instincts and the senses with his logic, producing the formula "reason = virtue = happiness," but thereby showing only that "the Socratic disposition is a phenomenon of decadence." "Philosophers are prejudiced against appearance, change, pain, death, the corporeal, the senses, fate and bondage, the aimless." Nietzsche seems to include the early Greeks, but Heraclitus does not wholly fit the charge. With the Socratics, philosophy is put on the path of finding a rational moral teleology of the whole, the search for "morality-in-itself" and the "good-in-itself." The ancient sophistic culture, whose predecessors were Heraclitus and Democritus and whose highest expression is Thucydides, was in accord with "the Greek instincts" in rejecting this quest. It was a "remarkable moment" verging on the first critique of morality. At the core of Nietzsche's appreciation of the Greeks is his revival of non-Socratic moral pessimism: the absence (in the early philosophers and poets) or the rejection (in the sophists and Thucydides) of rational moral teleology. Of course this does not mean that for Nietzsche these thinkers lacked either nobility or reason. To the true nobility and the higher reason he gives the name "Dionysian wisdom."
**III**
In one of his last writings, _Ecce Homo_ , Nietzsche says of his first book, _The Birth of Tragedy from the Spirit of Music_ , that it put forth two decisive innovations: the account of the Dionysian phenomenon as a root of Greek art, and the understanding of Socrates as "an instrument of Greek disintegration," the figure who embodies "'rationality' at any price as a dangerous force that undermines life." The Dionysian is "the ultimate, most joyous, most wantonly extravagant Yes to life," based on the insight that "nothing in existence may be subtracted, nothing is dispensable." To clarify this he quotes his own _Twilight of the Idols_ : "Saying Yes to life even in its strangest and hardest problems; the will to life rejoicing over its inexhaustibility even in the sacrifice of the very highest types—that is what I called Dionysian. Not in order to get rid of terror and pity . . . but in order to be oneself the eternal joy of becoming, beyond all terror and pity—that joy that includes even joy in destroying." This points toward the "aesthetic justification" of existence: "I took the will to beauty, to persist in like forms, for a temporary means of preservation and recuperation: fundamentally, however, the eternally-creative appeared to me to be, as the eternal compulsion to destroy, associated with pain." The will is realized not in created form itself (the Apollonian moment of art) but in the act of creating, for which form is but a vehicle. The creative will to life celebrated by the poets is its own _telos_. But in Nietzsche's judgment Socrates and Plato as moral teleologists seek a world in which life will be possible without change, destruction, and pain, and so they necessarily oppose the poets. There exists no truly Dionysian philosopher among the Greeks. "Before me this transposition of the Dionysian into a philosophic pathos did not exist; tragic wisdom was lacking." Among philosophers the thought of Heraclitus comes nearest to it: "The affirmation of passing away and destroying; saying Yes to opposition and war; becoming, along with the radical repudiation of the very concept of being." The doctrine of eternal recurrence as taught by Zarathustra might have been taught already by Heraclitus, but surely in a different mode and for different ends. In a brief passage of _The Birth of Tragedy_ , Heraclitus is described as the one philosopher having the aesthetic vision of the whole. Dionysian art "reveals to us the playful construction and destruction of the individual world as the overflow of a primordial delight. Thus the dark Heraclitus compares the world-building force to a playing child that places stones here and there and builds sand hills only to overthrow them again." Heraclitus transposes the Dionysian-poetic vision into philosophic concepts, but does so incompletely. One can surmise that Heraclitus lacks a concept of will to ground the cosmic activity of "world-building." But no ancient thinker could have had that concept, nor the historical consciousness resulting from insight into the will's powers of self-transformation.
Nietzsche remarks that he had to abandon hopes for the recovery of tragic culture by the Germans of his time through the inspiration of Wagner's art, and that he "advanced further down the road of disintegration—where I found new sources of strength for individuals. We have to be destroyers!" In the state of general disintegration "individuals can perfect themselves as never before." The decay of the old values has to be advanced, not held back, so that new values can replace them. Humanity is confronted with the greatest danger, the loss of all ability for higher willing with the collapse of the old values, but this danger affords rare higher human beings the opportunity to create new values and a new humanity. Such human beings do not yet exist: "I wish for a species of man that does not yet exist: for the 'masters of the earth.'" That the human species has such power for willing a new species into being is a thought surely lacking in the Greeks. It has to be added that Nietzsche's prophetic stance and his hopes for such transformation would not be possible without the examples of biblical revelation, which he in general opposes for their moral teachings. In paradoxical fashion, Dionysian wisdom combines affirmation of the world as it is—the rejection of any _telos_ beyond the Now—with the hope of radical transformation of man. This apparent contradiction between affirming and transcending is present in the willing of the eternal recurrence, not as theoretical doctrine but as means for the will's self-transformation. "To the paralyzing sense of general disintegration and incompleteness I opposed the _eternal recurrence_." I restate that Nietzsche synthesizes the most extreme form of modern skepticism with the recovery of early Greek wisdom, and that this constitutes in his view not a mere fusing of doctrines but the deepest understanding of the beneficence of evil.
I turn now to the incomplete and unpublished book written soon after _The Birth of Tragedy_ , entitled _Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks._ Two primary concerns of this writing are the individuality of philosophers and the relation of philosophers to their culture. Nietzsche says he is less concerned with the truth of the systems of the philosophers than with their individuality, the "incontrovertible and non-debatable" foundation of their thought in their unique personalities. The inquiry has a higher than merely scholarly aim: to bring to light great human beings whom we must love and honor. But of course we cannot love and honor something unless we can see what is lovable and honorable in it, and the question must be asked whether what is lovable and honorable in the philosophers does not have some relation to the truth or at least nobility of what they sought. Nietzsche speaks of their capacity for wonderment at mundane life, which appears to them as a problem worthy of contemplation. Philosophy is a human possibility that transcends these particular individuals. But Nietzsche himself wonders not only at their wonderment, he wonders also at the Greek culture that was able to produce these great individuals without envy, with admiration for their qualities. Why did Greece have philosophers at the high point of its political and artistic flourishing? Most cultures have no inherent need of philosophy, and the philosopher arises as a mere accident in them. The early Greeks attained somehow a harmony between philosophy and the general culture; this marvel is what Nietzsche puts before the culture of his time, in hopes that it will be emulated. But there is a difficulty in this. Philosophy alone can never initiate a healthy culture, it can only be in accord with an already healthy culture by warding off dangers to its health. In this way early Greek philosophy was in accord with the tragic poetic culture. But this unique harmony must be rooted in something that is uniquely Greek and that neither philosophy nor poetry could create. The theme of the individuality of the early philosophers, who establish various archetypes of philosophy, is mirrored in the individuality of Greek culture as a whole. How can radically unique beings serve as archetypes for others, when even they themselves do not grasp the conditions of their existence? This is a basic problem lurking in this essay.
In any case the great age does not last. The great age is one of the highest reverence for individuals that are whole and complete, which is possible at the early stage of a culture before traditions appear that limit and stifle the powers of individuals. The greatness of the early thought is related to its being the first efforts at philosophic discovery such that each discoverer finds his own way and that way reflects his being and that of no one else. Hence the early thinkers are pure types, and the pure types include Socrates. Interestingly, Nietzsche did not complete the treatise, which ends with Anaxagoras, and Socrates is mentioned only in passing. Starting with Plato, philosophers are mixed types, which means that they rely on traditions of thought from which they select their own approaches, but also that they mix being philosophers with being founders of schools and sects. They are concerned with creating institutions to preserve and protect their activity, a sign that they are not in accord with their world. Philosophers become exiles, conspiring against their fatherlands. The homelessness of philosophy emerges at the very moment when philosophers become preoccupied with the ethical and political. Philosophers begin to seek laws that are different from the customs of their cities. Nietzsche does not mean that the early philosophers are popular thinkers, content to articulate prevailing customs and myths. On the contrary, they are solitary and proud, indifferent to public opinion and oracular in their speech. But admiration for this proud indifference was itself a trait of the culture. To refer to _The Birth of Tragedy_ , one might say the early culture was not yet rationally moral and followed an instinct-based custom that revered the great individual.
This bears directly on the relation of philosophy to tragic poetry. It is true that the early philosophers leave mythical thought behind, and they think in concepts rather than images. But they are not simply empirical students of nature and not solely logical in their thinking. They seek the ground and the unity of the whole, which are hidden from ordinary experiences. Extraordinary leaps of intuition are required to make their bold proposals about the ground and unity. This intuition brings them into relation to poetic intuitions about being, and also to the questions that the tragic poets raise about the value of existence, that is, whether individual beings have any right to be at all. Tragic culture, as a whole, shares the belief that greatness exists in individuals, not the species, and is therefore fragile and transient, considered in light of the overpowering whole, which is indifferent to human wishes and human justice. Anaximander's vision is simply pessimistic, but Nietzsche claims that Heraclitus finds a way to affirm the transience. He rejects Anaximander's dualism of a fallen world of individual beings that need punishment for the injustice of simply existing, and of a ground into which they rightly return, by affirming the innocent play of becoming, of creation and destruction, as a contemplated spectacle. Heraclitus is again closely related to the wisdom of the poets, in that he views the world as a work of art and identifies with the artist-god that produces it. As such he is both contemplator and actor, just as "the artist stands contemplatively above and at the same time actively within his work." It might be suggested that Nietzsche here points to a poetic mode of philosophizing that would resolve the problem of individuality and universal archetype. Individuality achieves a kind of universality not through knowledge of timeless essences but through a poetic producing that participates in the creative force behind the whole itself. Heraclitus prefigures Nietzsche's central thought, the justification of existence for and by the great individual through the doctrine of the will to power.
**IV**
Heidegger's intense engagement with the early Greeks comes after _Being and Time_ (1927), in which work, as well as in his studies before 1927 as a whole, they play a minor role. Certainly Aristotle is from the start central to his phenomenological and ontological inquiry, and to a lesser extent Plato. Let us remind ourselves that in _Being and Time_ Heidegger seeks to recover the meaning of the question of Being, which he claims has been forgotten. The phenomenological analysis of the average and everyday understanding of Being presupposed by human existence, or by the human way of being in the world, is only a preparation for recovering the question. The human has a special place among the beings in having a unique openness to Being, such that the capacity for questioning about Being belongs to its constitution. As such the human way of existing is the site or place for the disclosure of Being, and can be called Da-Sein, the "there (or here) of Being." Heidegger insists his analysis is concerned not with anthropology but with ontology, and its aim is to show not how the human is there in Being, but how Being is there through the human. He also insists that Being is not a concept, genus, or causal ground but the primordial disclosure of the world, which makes accessible any thinking about beings, including any thinking with and about concepts, genera, and causality. But although Being is the ground of disclosure for any engagement with beings, Being ( _das Sein_ ) itself tends to be concealed, as human attention is focused on the being ( _das Seiende_ ). That which is nearest and most pervasive, Being, is also what is most hidden.
The philosophic and scientific traditions have mostly overlooked Being and promoted its hiddenness, and thus the loosening and dismantling of layers of tradition about Being must be undertaken, the so-called _Destruktion_ of tradition. This is not merely a negative undertaking since in a hidden way Being sustains the Western philosophic tradition, and the _Destruktion_ will reveal how Being is present even in its absence from explicit reflection. As early as Parmenides, the Greeks already display a tendency to think of Being in terms of worldly entities and to favor entities that are most present at hand, or enduringly present, in their accounts of Being or the world. Greek thinking has a twofold prejudice: With respect to time, it favors the present among the temporal _ecstases_ , and with respect to _logos_ , it favors assertoric judgments and the logical relations among such judgments. The full scope and power of time and _logos_ for the unconcealment of Being, for primordial truth ( _aletheia_ ), was not noticed or developed by the Greeks. The historical inquiry shows how these prejudices unfold from a Greek beginning, which has still some appreciation of Being as disclosure or _aletheia_ , into more extreme Being–forgetful forms in the modern subject-object distinction and the mathematical-technical approach to beings. Everywhere in the modern world, beings are the object of calculation and manipulation, and the ground of their disclosure is walled off from awareness. This entails that the human is lost to itself, unaware of its own essence.
It is well known that Heidegger did not complete the planned parts of _Being and Time_ , and although his fundamental pursuit remained the same, namely, the recovery of the question of Being, his path toward it changed. This change is related to several obvious external features in Heidegger's later thought: the absence of the formal systematic approach of _Being and Time_ , the new emphasis on certain figures (the early Greeks, Nietzsche, Hölderlin), on the themes of poetry, language, and the gods, and also on nihilism and the technological world night. In all of these changes, Heidegger seeks a deeper account of the ground of the disclosure of Being and does so by turning to the history of Being, by which is meant not a historical account of Being, but Being itself as giving or sending a fate or destining ( _Geschick_ ) _—_ a way of disclosure that makes a claim on the human and to which the human must respond. In a relation of mutual dependence, Being appropriates the human, and the human in turn avows its belonging to Being. Being needs the human as the site of its disclosure, such that the human is the guardian and protector of Being, and conversely the human cannot be human without the relation to Being, which gives shelter to the human essence. The most developed account of this historical appropriation ( _Ereignis_ ) by and of Being is found in the recently published _Contributions to Philosophy: From Enowning_ of 1936–38. This cannot be my theme directly, although Heidegger's turn to the early Greeks is inseparable from these considerations, and I will necessarily refer to them without the full elaboration they require.
In the history of Being two moments are most decisive: the original opening to Being among the Greeks at the beginning ( _Anfang_ ), in the first questioning about Being, which founds a destiny that carries forward Western history, and the present moment, that of oblivion to the question of Being, or nihilism, which completes the process of forgetting. Nietzsche's thought both fulfills and is a witness to the completion of Western metaphysics in nihilism, and understanding him is essential for pointing beyond the present oblivion to another beginning, a renewal of the opening to Being that also requires the most intense thinking about the first beginning. Heidegger offers some autobiographical illumination on how he reached this account. Writing soon after the end of the Second World War on his Rectoral Address of 1933, Heidegger notes that in 1932 he found in Ernst Jünger's book _The Worker_ "an essential understanding of Nietzsche's metaphysics, insofar as in the horizon of this metaphysics the history and the present of the West is seen and foreseen." Jünger exposed "the universal mastery of the will to power within the planetary scope of history." Heidegger then grasped that what Nietzsche meant by the "death of God" was that this actuality of the will to power follows the collapse of the "effective power in history of the supersensible world, especially the world of the Christian God." Thereupon he saw the need for "a reflection on the overcoming of the metaphysics of the will to power and a dialogue with the Western tradition from its beginning." In this concise account, without evident irony, Heidegger claims that his rallying the university to support the National Socialist regime was for the sake of overcoming the very doctrine, the will to power, that the new regime, usurping Nietzsche's authority, used as a slogan.
Indeed, the Rectoral Address itself contains Heidegger's first published statement on the need for the return to the beginnings within the outlines of the history of Being, as a historical new beginning. He gave seminars entitled _The Beginning of Western Philosophy (Anaximander and Parmenides)_ in summer 1932, and on Plato's allegory of the cave and _Theaetetus_ in winter 1931–32, that initiate this return. In the address he calls the German people to place themselves "under the power of the beginning of our spiritual-historical existence." He claims that in spite of our great remove from the beginning, "the beginning is itself in no way overcome or indeed annihilated. . . . The beginning _is_ still. It lies not _behind us_ as the long since departed, but it stands _before_ us. . . . The beginning has entered our future, and stands there as the distant command, bidding us to retrieve its greatness." Only by winning back the greatness of the beginning can "science [ _Wissenschaft_ ] become the inner necessity of our existence." With a reference to Nietzsche's "death of God" Heidegger seals the case that modern man's "lostness among the beings" makes necessary the turn to the beginning. Surely at the time of this address Heidegger was hopeful about the capacity of the new regime to assist in this remarkable metaphysical undertaking, though his hopes were soon dashed. It is notable that there is some parallel to the hopes placed in Wagner by the youthful Nietzsche, which also vanished with more experience. And in each case one has the notion, coming after the disenchantment, that a further advance into the night of nihilism is necessary for the arrival of the new dawn. In the hopeful time of summer 1933 Heidegger restates the claim about the enduring beginning that awaits our response to its challenge, using language that has a central place in his thought thereafter: "The essence of the beginning turns itself about [ _kehrt sich um_ ]; it is no longer the great anticipatory origin, but the incomplete, probing beginning of the future development." The first beginning in the Greeks points us toward a second beginning, and not merely is this pointing a human event, but it occurs within the beginning itself, in its turning about. The turning all the same calls for human response in order to be fulfilled. This is one of many indications that the _Kehre_ , the much-debated turning of the later Heidegger's thought, is not just a change or turning in Heidegger's way of thinking.
Although sometime after 1934 Heidegger abandons expectations or hopes of a politically led renewal of the beginnings and calls instead for reflective listening for and awaiting an arrival prepared by our thinking, there is a sense in which his conception remains more hopeful than the mature Nietzsche's. In Nietzsche one finds no claim that the great beginning continues to govern covertly the unfolding of history and no parallel to statements like this one of Heidegger: "The primordial disclosure of Being as a whole, the question concerning beings as such, and the beginning of Western history are the same." Nietzsche exhorts the philosophers of the future to assume extraordinary responsibility, but he admits it is a role that is not prepared by earlier philosophy. Nietzsche through his account of Socrates and Plato shows that philosophy can have dire consequences but not that it has ever alone founded a great culture, much less that it has been the hidden governing force of all Western history, which brings itself and the human toward a second beginning. As his short book on the early philosophers shows, the harmony of those philosophers with their culture (which Nietzsche, one may say, is overstating) was a brief moment in the otherwise precarious relation of philosophic individuals to their culture. The prominence of the philosophic life as a theme in Nietzsche relates to his stress on Socrates, to whom Nietzsche is the profoundly kindred antipode, whereas Heidegger's near total silence on Socrates reflects his neglect of that theme. One could say that Nietzsche's justification of existence for and by great individuals is replaced by Heidegger's justification of the human essence as the erring-revealing site of the truth of Being, a justification for and by Being.
Clearly there is some kinship between Nietzsche's attack on the moral-teleological thinking of the Socratics and Heidegger's account of the Platonic stage of the forgetting of Being. For both Nietzsche and Heidegger, the attempt to ground human ethics and justice in the whole obscures the truth about the whole; hence their justifications of existence are supra-ethical. Heidegger in the early 1930s seeks to uncover the manner in which Plato ambiguously retains a relation to primordial _aletheia_ while he also obscures it. In Plato "the coming into presence [ _Anwesung_ ] is no longer, as in the beginning of Western thinking, the emerging of the hidden into unconcealment," since Plato conceives coming into presence as _idea_. The _idea_ is not merely "the foreground of unconcealment [ _aletheia_ ] but is rather the ground of its possibility." Subordinated to the _idea_ , "truth is no longer the fundamental feature of Being itself but becomes correctness, henceforth the decisive mark of the knowing of beings." Through the highest of _ideas_ , the Good, the ground of the existing and appearing of all beings, Plato makes the human and its place among the beings the dominant concern of metaphysics. Yet this turning to humanism is not merely a human event. "Plato's thinking follows a turning in the essence of truth itself [ _Wandel des Wesens der Wahrheit_ ], which turning becomes a turning in the history of metaphysics that in Nietzsche's thinking has begun its unconditioned completion." Nietzsche's thought is the completion of Platonic metaphysics, not its overcoming, since his conception of philosophy as the highest will to power takes the elevation of the human (albeit supra-ethical) to its most extreme point. Even so, Heidegger also writes that the demand for reflection on the Greek beginnings would be "arbitrary and presumptuous" without two figures, Hölderlin and Nietzsche, "who knew the beginnings more primordially than all ages before them, and only for the reason that they experienced for the first time the end of the West, and furthermore: even in their existence and work they _became ends_." This was possible for them only because "they were overpowered by the beginning and were elevated to greatness. Both these moments, reflection on the first beginning and founding an end that is fitting to it and its greatness, belong together in the turning [ _Kehre_ ]." In seeing the end, seeing the beginning in the light of the end, and seeking a new beginning, Nietzsche was unfolding a fate he did not recognize, one leading beyond his self-conception as well as his interpretation of the beginnings. All the same his errors were not mere failures but the inevitable limitations of thinking greatly in the grip of the higher power of Being.
**V**
In this final section on Heidegger, I want to consider further the way in which experience of the end in the time of the completion of metaphysics is crucial to recovery of the beginning and preparing for another beginning. Heidegger should not be understood as claiming that the beginning was the primordial disclosure of Being whose brilliance is required to illuminate the darkness of modern nihilism. In that case, the beginning would simply belong to the past, as something lost and now to be regained. Rather the beginning is self-concealing essentially and from the start, and its power in the unfolding in Western history lies precisely in self-concealment. Hence the darkness of the forgetting of Being is a darkness belonging to the beginning itself and unfolding as the concealment of Being in Western history. In this way the age of the technological world night can offer an unprecedented illumination of the difference between Being and beings, for those who are able to think profoundly and primordially. Accordingly, in such thinking the Greek beginning receives an illumination that was unavailable to the early thinkers. One could say Heidegger offers a justification of erring as the forgetting of Being that recalls Nietzsche's statement about the significance of German philosophy as the justification of evil, error, and suffering. No predecessor of Heidegger, however, spoke in terms of the truth of Being as the emerging of the hidden into unconcealment. Heidegger restates in such terms the Nietzschean claim that the darkness of nihilism is inherently full of promise. Heidegger often quotes the lines of Hölderlin, "But where danger is, grows / The saving power also." The uncovering of the saving power requires a dual movement of thought, back to the first beginning (which is also the movement of the beginning toward the present) and forward to the other beginning.
Heidegger provides a rich and fascinating account of this structure of thinking in his essay "The Saying of Anaximander," written in 1946. Heidegger dismisses the prevailing understanding of the early Greeks as the precursors of Plato and Aristotle, as rudimentary students of _phusei onta_ groping toward the Aristotelian _Physics_ , that has dominated since Theophrastus. Nietzsche himself employs superficial traditional categories of Being and Becoming in his readings. The categories modern scholars use in describing the fragment of Anaximander, such as physical, ethical, rational, and philosophical, are absurd, since physics, ethics, rationalism and philosophy did not yet exist. Our disciplinary boundaries and categories must be set aside. We have the problem of interpreting an utterance that is separated from us by an immense gulf, and of transposing our thinking in a modern language into the ancient Greek. Can we make the earliest saying speak to us? Concealed in the chronological remoteness there may be a "historical proximity to the unspoken, an unspoken which will speak out in that which is coming." Perhaps the modern West is journeying into the earth's evening, into an _Abendland_ that transcends the European, which may be the place of another dawn. The once ( _Einst_ ) of the first dawn may overtake the once of the latest dawn (the _eschaton_ ), in the departure of the long-concealed destiny of Being. "As destining, Being is inherently eschatological." If we think out of the eschatology of Being, and ponder the beginning that is approaching, we may be drawn to listen and to have dialogue with the early Greeks. In that dialogue, we can speak of the same Being, though it will be addressed from out of the different. Our success will not be measured in terms of accuracy in the portrayal of "what was really present in the past." The question is whether in the dialogue "that which wishes to come to language . . . comes of its own accord." Being is, in different ways, destined to concern both the Greeks and us. But a fundamental trait of Being is to be more concealed than revealed, at all times. "By revealing itself in the being [ _das Seiende_ ], Being [ _das Sein_ ] withdraws."
Being as withdrawing endows beings with errancy, such that beings necessarily misinterpret the essential. This realm of misinterpretation is history. Errancy is not a human failing, since the self-misunderstanding of humans corresponds to the self-concealing of the illumination ( _Lichtung_ ) of Being. Without errancy the human would have no relation to its destiny. Chronological distance from the Greeks is one thing, but historical distance is something else, and in that regard we are near to them. We are close to Being's primordial refusal, to Being's keeping its truth to itself even as it discloses beings. Being's keeping to itself is the _epochê_ of Being, which sense of _epochê_ Heidegger distinguishes from Husserl's methodical setting aside of thetic consciousness. Being's _epochê_ or holding back of its truth is the grounding of worlds, which are the epochs of errancy. This now for Heidegger is the more fundamental meaning of time: "The epochal essence of Being belongs to the concealed temporal character of Being," in which the ecstatic time of _Dasein_ is grounded. Indeed, the epochal essence appropriates ( _ereignet_ ) the ecstatic essence of _Dasein_. Already at the dawn of thinking about Being, the essence of Being as the presencing of beings keeps to itself, and so the difference between Being and the beings themselves, the things that are present, remains concealed. The two are disclosed, the one as ground and the other as grounded, yet the ground comes forward as the highest being, so the difference is extinguished. "The destining of Being begins with the oblivion of Being," although the earliest thought in an unspoken way shows the trace ( _Spur_ ) of the difference, more than does later thought. (Heidegger points above all to the double sense of the genitive in Anaximander's phrase _kata to chreon._ ) The difference appears although not named as such. Again, the oblivion is not a deficiency ( _Mangel_ ); it is the event or appropriation ( _Ereignis_ ) of metaphysics, the richest and broadest event in world history. We still stand in the shadow of this event, of this destining, and thus are granted the possibility of being mindful of Being's destining. Later accounts of Being in terms of _idea_ , _energeia_ , _substantia_ , and objectivity may deepen the oblivion, but they do not thereby annul the destiny. On the contrary they fulfill it by pointing to the need for reflection on the destiny itself. In that reflection the human becomes the guardian of Being's concealing itself, of its holding back its truth so that errant humans can be historical. The human realizes then the gift of Being that happens in errancy itself. Reflecting on the saving power in danger, thinking becomes questioning, which is the piety of thought.
**VI**
What cannot be ignored in these late modern readings of the early Greeks? What is compelling about them? I shall raise only a few considerations to be pursued in further reflection. First, the importance of thinking about the history of philosophy itself is made evident in them. Philosophizing addresses certain subjects, but it cannot consist only in addressing them directly, through our own thought and experience. It must include addressing questions to the philosophers themselves, to deepen the grasp of what philosophy itself is; otherwise proceeding on our own will be naïve and narrow. At the heart of philosophy is reflection on the relation of the whole of Being to the ordinary things of experience, a relation that remains elusive and never wholly determined. By simply reflecting, as careful phenomenologists, on our own experiences, we will not come upon all the ways that the relation might be conceived. In sum, entering into the debate about the fundamental relation, the heart of philosophy, seems to depend in a crucial way on the existence of a tradition of thinking. Yet, of course, there were the first philosophers.
This brings me to the second item. Nietzsche and Heidegger remind us that philosophy cannot evade the fundamental questions about the ground and the unity of Being and that the early philosophers may offer deep insight into these questions. What is more, they remind us that traditions have a tendency to conceal their origins, and thus they raise the possibility that the beginning of the tradition may possess thoughts that deserve to stand on their own, and should not be considered only as a "first sailing." The Platonic-Aristotelian account of them as "first sailing" is already placing the first thinkers in a light that is alien to them. On the other hand, Nietzsche and Heidegger note that it is impossible to forget that the early thinkers did begin a tradition, one developing thoughts and concerns not in their sights, such that certain possibilities latent in the early thought may be hidden from or barely grasped by its authors. In this regard the later tradition may in fact provide new disclosures about the beginning.
This brings up the third item. Both thinkers draw attention to tradition itself, as a ground and condition of thinking, and as having positive and negative import for thinking. They are moved to focus on this theme because in their time the very existence of the tradition of philosophy has become problematic. The crisis in the tradition brings attention to its singularity and fragility. Philosophy as directed toward the whole and the universal is still, qua tradition, something singular, having a unique temporal reality. It is mysterious that this activity, philosophy, has a singular beginning in certain times and places and that it unfolds where, when, and how it does, as a tradition. It is also astounding to consider that this tradition might wholly disappear from the earth at some time. Nietzsche and Heidegger think that these mysteries cannot be separated from the wonder of philosophy itself. Heidegger claims that this singularity is the gift and the destiny of the questioning of Being, the gift and destiny that affords dignity to human existence, so that when all other grounds of worth have fallen into nothingness, this alone stands out more purely than ever, as providing human beings with a mission. One may question whether these two thinkers have gained genuine insights into fate and history, and also question whether they have appropriate estimations of the end and dignity of human life. Yet when all this has been properly regarded as questionable, something quite appropriate and essential for philosophy has been gained: some questions worthy of being asked.
CHAPTER 2
"The Unradicality of Modern Philosophy": Thinking in Correspondence
**I**
The questions that moved the young Heidegger and the young Strauss were surely different, but they have significant affinities. For Heidegger it was the question of Being that has been overlooked by the metaphysical tradition as it has concentrated on the characterization of beings (their "ontical" properties and causal grounds) rather than on Being as the ground of disclosure of beings. The young Heidegger's critical and hermeneutical investigations of the sources of this neglect, which were initially motivated by dissatisfaction with the medieval Scholastic treatment of Aristotle, took him on dual paths: on the one hand uncovering a more authentic reading of Aristotle and the Greek beginnings of the philosophic tradition, and on the other reexamining Christian accounts (the Gospels, Paul, Luther, et al.) of the experience of life emphasizing temporality and the "factic" human encounter with mortality. Both paths were pursued with the aid of Husserl's phenomenological method, but the early concern with "life-experience" as the horizon for the interpretation of Being gave Heidegger's phenomenology a more practical orientation than Husserl's. Indeed in its early stage a defense of religious experience against the rational claims of philosophy seemed to be its core, although the atheistic bearing of Heidegger's inquiry in _Being and Time_ (1927) was unmistakable. As Strauss saw and appreciated, Heidegger's thought after the 1920s grew into a more Greek, less biblical, effort to rethink the central question of philosophy.
The problem of revelation engaged Strauss at the start as well. He was a committed Zionist in the 1920s but troubled by the attempts to fuse Jewish orthodoxy with rationalism in the Jewish Enlightenment and in its romantic-nationalist successor, Zionism. Strauss became convinced that the modern rationalist critique of biblical orthodoxy, as espoused by its greatest exponent, Spinoza, rested on a merely asserted and unproven superiority of reason to revealed truth. His early studies of Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi, Moses Mendelssohn, Lessing, and Spinoza, focusing on the problematic foundations of the Enlightenment, related to a widespread criticism of rationalism that found expression in "new thinking" about the sources of religious tradition (Karl Barth, Franz Rosenzweig). But Strauss's dialectical manner of thought remained open to rationalist claims, as indicated by his sympathy for Lessing, whose exposure of false compromises in modern rationalist theology provided Strauss with a model for posing questions in terms of stark alternatives.
In the 1965 American preface to his first book, _Spinoza's Critique of Religion_ (completed in 1928), Strauss speaks of a "change of orientation" in his thought following the publication of this work. Strauss states that he saw the danger in a critique of rationalism that could justify any orthodoxy or induce a romantic longing without content. This and "other observations and experiences confirmed the suspicion that it would be unwise to say farewell to reason." Strauss began "to wonder whether the self-destruction of reason was not the inevitable outcome of modern rationalism as distinguished from pre-modern rationalism," and thus he reconsidered the premise on which his Spinoza study was based: "the premise, sanctioned by powerful prejudice, that a return to pre-modern philosophy is impossible." In the deepening of his critique of modern rationalism, Strauss exposed the modern criticism of revelation in terms of "prejudice" ( _Vorurteil_ ); in such criticism, reason is implicated in a fusion ( _Verquickung_ ) with revelation through its very attempt to free itself from the power of its opponent. The modern efforts to replace prejudice with a new rational doctrine produced new forms of prejudice and gave rise to repeated efforts to establish a final doctrine achieving definitive "progress" over all past doctrines. The modern engagement in a massive transforming of opinion (the battle against prejudice) had to be distinguished from the premodern striving of philosophic individuals to free themselves from opinion. Strauss saw in the new approach to opinion as prejudice the core of the argument between ancient and modern philosophy, whereby the changed political stance of philosophy became the key to understanding the entire tradition. After 1930, Strauss's correspondence discloses how this conception of the tradition enabled him to place the radical critiques of tradition in Nietzsche and Heidegger within the broad movement of modern philosophy. In other words, Strauss's own radical reflection on the tradition had the effect of diminishing the apparent radicality of the two thinkers who above all others had led the revolt against rationalism.
In the period 1930–37 Strauss studied the major figures of medieval Islamic and Jewish philosophy for their accounts of the relation of philosophy to revelation, wherein the latter is understood in terms of law, and teachings on providence and divine law are considered part of political science. The medieval philosophers thus maintain the Platonic view of piety as belonging to the realm of opinion or the "cave," a view they convey by means of "esoteric" writing outwardly respectful of the divine law. This approach enabled them to attain a genuine freedom of spirit, whereas the attack on prejudice entangled the modern philosophers in the project, both destructive and creative, of forming a new "second cave." The world-transforming appearance of revealed religions grounded in authoritative texts complicated the ascent from opinion, adding a "historical difficulty" to the "natural difficulties" of the ascent. But the medieval Islamic and Jewish philosophers found means for addressing the new difficulty that preserved intellectual independence. Strauss, following their example, sought to renew the premodern view of the natural situation of the philosopher as confronting the unalterable reality of the theological-political order, such that the enduring alternative to philosophic freedom of mind is the "law" in the sense of the comprehensive nexus of religious, moral, and political authority. Reflection on law is the necessary starting point for the philosopher insofar as the philosopher understands himself as gaining freedom from its authority even as he must at the same time attempt to justify his life before that authority. Strauss saw the problem of law and philosophy as thus essential to the grounding of the possibility of philosophy, and reflection on it as central to philosophic self-knowledge. In the preface to the German edition of his Hobbes study Strauss noted that "the theological-political problem has remained _the_ theme of all my investigations."
Although Strauss was silent on Heidegger in his writings throughout the 1930s, that thinker was a forceful presence in his thought, as Strauss's correspondence shows. As Strauss made his discovery of premodern rationalism and moved toward affirming the possibility of its rebirth, he saw that Heidegger's criticism of the rationalism of the entire tradition had to be weighed in the balance, as his account of the defects of modern rationalism had undeniable power. How might Heidegger's interpretation of ancient philosophy affect the recovery of the premodern account of the theoretical life's claim to supremacy, which Strauss saw as grounded on its raising of the Socratic question "What is the best life?" Strauss's letters are extremely helpful for exposing the complexity of his thinking on this issue.
**I I **
I preface my comments on the letters with the observation that Strauss's dialectical approach to questions must be kept in mind when evaluating positions he adopts or appears to adopt in the course of his inquiry, some of which he stresses in his public presentations of his thought. His criticism of Heidegger is accordingly far better known—as publicly more prominent—than his avowed kinship with Heidegger, which is compatible with that criticism although understated relative to it. From the early 1930s onward he is, with varying emphasis, clear about that kinship in letters. For example, writing to Jacob Klein about Hans Jonas in 1934, Strauss remarks "that [Jonas] also strives, if perhaps not as clearly, in the same direction as we do beyond or behind Heidegger." This "direction," as both inspired by Heidegger and yet deviating from him, pertains to the critique of modernity, as Strauss states in a letter to Gerhard Krüger of 1932, wherein he writes of "the unradicality of modern philosophy" as consisting in its belief that "it can presuppose the fundamental questions as already answered, and that it therefore can 'progress.'" Dogmatism, not skepticism, is the hallmark of modern thinking, and it is evident in two forms of failure: "the neglect [ _Versäumnis_ ] of ontology, which Heidegger has uncovered, and the neglect of the Socratic question, which Nietzsche denounced." The same letter contains a criticism of Heidegger: "Modern philosophy from its beginning and including Heidegger understood itself as progress and as progressing," a stance based on its "struggle against the tradition since the seventeenth century," which has as its "genuine meaning the restoration of the Greek freedom of philosophizing; it was genuinely a Renaissance movement." In all of its "foundations" of philosophic and historical thought, modern philosophy has one striving: "the reclaiming of an original natural basis" for philosophy. The root of this dual evaluation of Heidegger can be found in Strauss's relation to the critical and destructive thought of Nietzsche and Heidegger, who both argue that modernity has come to an end even as they remain entangled in modernity. "To me modern philosophy appears to have come to its _end_ , to lead to the point at which Socrates _begins._ Modern philosophy thus shows itself to be a violent 'destruction of tradition,' and not 'progress.'" Completing this destructive process, Nietzsche and Heidegger make possible a postmodern rebirth of Socratism without reaching it themselves.
What prevents these thinkers from achieving full release from the modern dogma of progress? It is the same factor in Western thought that results in the modern foundations and their new account of nature: Christianity. "Of modern philosophy this holds: without biblical belief one did not and does not enter it, and with biblical belief one cannot stay in it. . . . Modern philosophy is possible only so long as biblical belief is not shaken from the ground up, as it has been since and through Nietzsche. In Nietzsche, too, there is a Christian heritage." The evidence of this heritage is Nietzsche's "probity" ( _Redlichkeit_ ) of conscience, a secularized version of Christian virtue, which in Nietzsche's own judgment is "necessary for so long, and is indeed possible only as long, as there is a Christianity that must be fought." Nietzsche was ultimately in pursuit of an ideal of natural philosophy, with which Strauss is in principle in accord. In this regard Nietzsche comes closer to the postmodern renewal of Socratism than Heidegger, whose renewal of the ontological question, in itself profound and necessary, is more bound up with Christian categories. "In Heidegger's _Dasein_ -interpretation, a truly adequate atheistic interpretation of the Bible can, for the first time, be possible." Heidegger's thought belongs in the long line of modern critics of religion, far outstripping in depth such predecessors as Feuerbach, and his thought marks the victory of the Enlightenment even as it would overcome the Enlightenment. Heidegger endorses the progressivist claim of Christianity on which the modern Enlightenment builds as it attacks Christianity, namely, its discovery of a new depth unknown to antiquity, thereby making possible an appreciation of the "historicity" of man. Heidegger claims that "the philosophy that becomes for the first time possible after the destruction of Christianity preserves the 'true' in Christianity; this philosophy is therefore deeper and more radical than ancient philosophy."
With such statements Strauss makes clear that his critique of the Enlightenment attack on religion is not a defense of religious orthodoxy but an effort to gain genuine freedom from it. Yet this is a freedom that does not rest on willing alone; it can be acquired only through theoretical analysis. For this purpose Strauss thinks one must question the principle of "historicity" in the light of a nondoctrinaire, Socratically inspired quest for nature. Strauss confesses to Krüger: "Our difference has its ground in this, that I cannot believe, that I must search for a possibility where I can _live_ without belief. There are two possibilities of this kind: the ancient, i.e., the Socratic-Platonic, and the modern, that is, the Enlightenment," of which the chief figures are Hobbes and Kant. "It must be asked: Who is right, the ancients or the moderns? The _querelle des anciens et des modernes_ must be repeated." Yet one would think that the question has been answered if modernity has come to an end in a self-destructive process—unless self-destructive thinking could be somehow philosophically superior. And indeed Nietzsche and Heidegger provide powerful evidence of modernity's philosophical vitality in a final, paradoxical form. Given their dependence on revelation, Strauss's question implies that he can consider the possible truth of Christianity's claim to uncover a depth unknown to antiquity. This cannot surprise very much, in light of Christian Rome's indebtedness to Jerusalem. The problem of Christianity and modernity pertains to the way in which Athens and Jerusalem have combined in them. By saying he is open to renewing the quarrel of the ancient and the moderns, Strauss is open to considering the opposing claims of "pure" philosophy and of the fusion of philosophy and revelation. It may be the case that Nietzsche and Heidegger achieved the deepest versions of the fusion. Yet Strauss declares that he cannot believe, and if that is so, can any version of the fusion be philosophically plausible for him?
In letters to Krüger, Strauss applies the phrase "the second cave," meaning the "cave beneath the original cave," not only to recent modernity or even modernity as a whole, but also to Christianity. "The problem of the 'second cave' is the problem of historicism [ _Historismus_ ]. The 'substantial and historical core' of historicism is, _as you say correctly_ , 'the factual rule of Christ over post-antique humanity.' What results from this for one who does _not_ believe, who thus denies the justice, that is, the divine justice, of this rule?" He remarks that the Heideggerian conclusion (that post-Christian philosophy is deeper than ancient) "is perhaps correct—it must in any case be proven to be correct. But this is possible only through a _direct_ confrontation of modern with ancient philosophy." This is the legitimation for Strauss's setting up a direct confrontation of Hobbes with Plato, through which Strauss confronts the "starting question [ _Ausgangsfrage_ ] of the moderns and the Greeks" and "analyzes their presuppositions." In other words, modernity as derivative from Christianity may rest on a depth that is accessible to a nonbeliever, but it must pass the test of philosophic scrutiny. Also at issue, Strauss says, is the fact of the "second cave": "My thesis concerning the 'second cave'—which without _proof_ is a pure aperçu—could be false." Thus are the modern philosophers in fact limited in their thinking by a set of presuppositions they have not examined?
The claim of superiority made by modern philosophy, that of progress over antiquity indebted to Christianity, is questionable but not self-evidently false. The crisis of modernity does not constitute a self-refutation, and the radical questioning of Nietzsche and Heidegger may expose a new depth of thought that is owing to revelation but whose authority or truth-claim does not rest on belief. Strauss considers two related questions: Why did the modern philosophers, in seeking to free themselves from tradition for a truly natural philosophizing, not return to the Socratic way of philosophizing? Why did the most radical thinkers of the modern era, Nietzsche and Heidegger, not reach the renewal of antiquity to which their thought points? The first two months of 1933 offered crucial insight. Strauss states that his studies of Spinoza and Hobbes have shed light on what Nietzsche and Heidegger have undertaken. "I believe, in the end, that I understand the genuine aporia of Nietzsche." Nietzsche discovered "the good [ _das Gute_ ] whose opposite is the bad [ _das Schlechte_ ], in a countermove to good-evil [ _Gut-Böse_ ], that is, the moral conception. This discovery was a _re_ discovery of the _original_ ideal of humanity," which was denied and forgotten through "the common work of Socrates-Plato and Christianity." Yet Nietzsche failed to overthrow the powers he struggled against, his difficulty lying in his opposing knowing ( _Wissen_ ) to manly valor ( _Tapferkeit_ ) and the corresponding character of his philosophizing as "philosophizing with the hammer." By this means Nietzsche could never overcome the spirit ( _Geist_ ) that overthrew valor, as it "always falls behind his back. Therefore one must ask: whether one must stay with the _antithesis_ valor-knowing."
Strauss's acquaintance with Plato's _Laws_ had shown him that this antithesis is not required. Indeed from Plato he had learned he could "pose _Nietzsche_ 's questions, thus _our_ questions, in a simpler, clearer, and more original way." Certain observations about medieval philosophy had led him to see that an experiment ( _Versuch_ ) with Plato was advisable. Strauss also says that his Hobbes interpretation was crucial to his correction of Nietzsche. In a double paradox, Nietzsche's manly spirit of philosophizing has a hidden kinship with Hobbes's fearful spirit, and Nietzsche's deepest intent is better fulfilled by Plato, his antipode, than by Nietzsche himself. Put another way, Nietzsche's discovery of the transmoral meaning of philosophy was, without his realizing it, a rediscovery of the Platonic view, and his attack on Platonism-Christianity rested on modern, Hobbesian assumptions indebted to Christian morality.
**III**
In correspondence with Karl Löwith, who wrote important works on both Nietzsche and Heidegger, Strauss's reflections on the two thinkers and their relation grow in subtlety and penetration. Writing of Nietzsche, Strauss confides that between the ages of twenty-two and thirty "I believed literally every word I understood in him" and says of Löwith's formula for Nietzsche's work ("the repetition of antiquity at the peak of modernity") that it "speaks to my soul." He gives now an account of Nietzsche's project as having two phases: a polemical introduction attacking the tradition from the stance of "probity," followed by recovery of the ancient ideal. What should have been mere introduction, the polemic, dominates Nietzsche's thought and ties him to modernity. Thus Nietzsche presents the ancient doctrine of the eternal recurrence as an object to be willed for the future, and in stressing the will he remains trapped in modern assumptions. Strauss, however, notes a parallel between Nietzsche's two-phase project and his own, since he must begin with an overcoming of the present time. "We are natural beings who live and think under unnatural conditions—we must reflect on our natural essence in order to transcend in thought the unnatural conditions." This natural reflection, which is "neither progress nor a resignedly accepted fate," is "an unavoidable means for overcoming modernity. One can overcome modernity not with modern means, but rather, only insofar as we are natural beings with natural understanding." But then a doubt is introduced about whether this naturalness is available to Strauss and his contemporaries. "The means of thinking by the natural understanding are lost to us," and they cannot be recovered by our own efforts. "We attempt to learn them from the ancients." Strauss adds a sharp sally at Heidegger, in whose historicity "nature is brought _fully_ to disappearance." But one confronts the difficulty that the "second cave" is not self-evidently false, and since that is so, the putative naturalness transcending it is also not self-evident. It would seem to be an act of faith, or at least a bold experimental hypothesis, to suppose that by studying the ancients one will recover the naturalness that has been lost.
The obstacle facing modern men who would try to recover ancient nature was overcome by Swift and Lessing, "the greatest exponents of the ancient side of the _querelle_ ," who saw that modern philosophy shares something essential with Christianity (Strauss mentions Machiavelli). Indeed they "knew that the genuine theme of the quarrel is antiquity and Christianity." Somehow these exceptional figures maintained their natural understanding and had "no doubt that the ancient, that is, the genuine philosophy, is an _eternal_ possibility." Strauss briefly refers to "the sentimental nineteenth century" and so provides an echo of an earlier letter to Krüger:
Do you recall the first page of Schiller's "Naive and Sentimental Poetry"? The naive human _is_ nature—for the sentimental human, naturalness is only a _demand_. We moderns are necessarily "sentimental." That means however: that we must in a "sentimental" manner—thus in recollection, historically—investigate what the Greeks "naively" investigated; more precisely: we must through "recollection" bring ourselves into the dimension in which we, understanding the Greeks, can investigate "naively" with them.
Strauss goes on to say that the "achievement" of modern historical understanding is not "a more radical dimension, such as a more radical cure of human illness or at least a more radical diagnosis, but the _modern_ medicine for a _modern_ illness." Asserting that he holds just as strongly as Krüger "the impossibility of 'naive' philosophy in our world," he says that what separates him from Krüger is the fact that he, Strauss, "does not in this impossibility see progress in _any_ sense." Similarly Strauss writes elsewhere: "We need a propaedeutic the Greeks did not need, precisely that of book learning." "The historical consciousness is linked to a certain historical situation. Today we have to be historians because we do not have the means at our disposal to answer the real questions properly: 'second cave.'" One more statement on Christianity as the second cave is particularly revealing. To Krüger Strauss writes that the need for historical studies "is an external fact to philosophy" that arises from "the nonsensical interweaving of a _nomos_ tradition with a philosophical tradition, that is, biblical revelation with Greek philosophy, a tradition of obedience with a 'tradition' of questioning, and the consequent struggle in modernity against the revelation tradition," which has maneuvered modern men into a second cave so that today they "no longer have the _means_ for natural philosophizing."
Taking these statements together, one is faced with a certain ambiguity in the meaning and status of the "second cave." One side of the ambiguity is a very radical thesis. The second cave is not only the historical tradition created by Christianity and modern philosophy, which makes it difficult for contemporary men—the late modern inheritors of a well-developed tradition—to begin to philosophize in a natural way. More fundamentally the second cave is the ("nonsensical") Christian tradition of the fusion of revelation and philosophy, which prevented the founders of modern philosophy from attaining the natural philosophizing they sought, conditioning their thought in a way that limited their vision, drawing them into a conflict in which they imitated the fusing of philosophy and _nomos_ in Christianity in a bid to overthrow it. The modern philosophers were historically conditioned and unable to criticize the fundamental presupposition of their thinking. Already conditioned by Christianity to conceive philosophy as devoted to practical conquest of the world by doctrine, they were satisfied to regard their practical victory over Christianity as a definitive answer to the fundamental questions. They lacked the radicality of genuine philosophy, which questions its most basic presuppositions. One wonders whether the term "philosophy" is then fitting for their thinking. Yet Strauss affirms that as philosophers they undertook the "reclaiming of an original natural basis" of philosophizing—an affirmation hard to reconcile with the radical thesis of modern philosophy's unradicality and conditionedness.
The radical thesis is also hard to reconcile with Strauss's modest assertions about his own inquiry, to the effect that the philosophic inferiority of modern philosophy is not self-evident, that to renew the quarrel of the ancients and the moderns is to consider the parties with equal seriousness, to look for proof of philosophic failure and not to assume it. But to characterize modern philosophy as incapable of self-examination concerning its basic dependence on Christianity is already to place it in a position of philosophic inferiority. By means of one stroke Strauss purports to undermine the foundation of all modernity and thus make progress beyond it.
This stance seems to be the essence of the modern philosophic attitude he opposes! (It recalls the description of modern philosophy as reclaiming nature through a polemical attack on earlier tradition as well as Strauss's avowal that he shares with Nietzsche a structure of philosophizing with a polemical first phase.) But Strauss also says that the natural reflection he undertakes is not a form of progress—of building on foundational certitudes. This would have to mean, consistently, that there is no foundational certainty about the failure or collapse of modern philosophy. The ambiguity can be restated in terms of the need for historical studies. More modestly this would mean that only through historical study can we rediscover the forgotten questions animating the whole tradition of philosophy, embracing the distinction between ancient and modern. Strauss speaks this way when he says that by confronting Hobbes and Plato he exposes their presuppositions and analyzes them, uncovering the arguments between them. The attempt to recover these arguments is an experiment, a probing of the possibility of the rejected way of ancient philosophy without presuming that one has adequately understood either way, ancient or modern. On the other hand the need for historical study can mean, less modestly, that one starts from the insight or assumption of the "unnaturalness" of the whole tradition after pagan antiquity and endeavors with the necessary help of books to free oneself from the blighted condition that includes both Christianity and modern philosophy. For it is somehow evident to us "natural beings" that only the ancients pursued the natural mode of philosophizing. Strauss speaks of how Nietzsche awoke him to the possibility of a transmoral ideal of natural philosophizing, but also of how Nietzsche with his "probity" remains indebted to Christianity. This duality in Nietzsche seems to be crucial to the ambiguity in Strauss. For insofar as Nietzsche, the rediscoverer of ancient natural philosophizing, also remains in the thrall of biblical revelation, he shows that the modern fusion is both terribly flawed (through his critique of it) and remarkably powerful (through his exemplifying it).
Indeed it can strike one that there is something almost hasty and ill considered in Strauss's expression "nonsensical interweaving" of traditions. Of course he would not say that the great thinkers who continue that interweaving, Nietzsche not the least of them, are thinking mere nonsense. For that matter, when he discovers Plato's exoteric practice of legislating and teaching new forms of piety, he discloses a certain form of that interweaving. Insofar as Plato created a new form of _nomos_ decisively shaped by philosophy, did he introduce something "nonsensical"? The difference, one can surmise Strauss would claim, is that Plato's thought is not itself in any way governed by the pious doctrines of virtue and the soul that he invents, whereas both Christian and modern thinkers are, by his account, blinded to the genuine freedom of philosophizing through the determining place revelation has in their self-understanding. The Enlightenment as a practical engagement against revelation, and the subordinate role given to theoretical reason with respect to the practical, are adduced as definite evidence of the unfreedom of the modern philosopher's thought. Yet is the evidence so clear? Could not the modern philosopher's primary self-presentation as a practical benefactor be an exoteric means through which the philosopher finds his way to "original natural freedom"?
Another way to approach Strauss's thought is to return to an earlier point: the supremacy of the sacred text, of the book, in the traditions of revelation that Strauss treats as antithetical to philosophic "nature." "The fact that a tradition based on revelation has come into the world of philosophy has increased the _natural_ difficulties of philosophy by adding the historical difficulty." The natural difficulties of philosophy are presented poetically in the Platonic image of the cave. The historical difficulty can be illustrated by saying: "There is _now_ yet another cave _beneath_ the cave." "The turn from admitted ignorance to book learning is not natural." Sacred writings—books—changed _nomos_ so powerfully that philosophers had to begin, in their pursuit of the natural starting points, with the authority of the book, thereby losing sight of the true natural starting points. Yet some philosophers living in a world governed by the book, notably Muslim and Jewish medieval philosophers, discovered again the natural way, which involves the reinterpretation of revelation in terms of politics: the sacred law is political. But the modern philosophers replaced the books of revelation with the powerful rhetoric of new books—the polemical and politically revolutionary writings of Enlightenment. Paradoxically, postmodern philosophers must turn to the book—to historical studies—to discredit the authority of books and to uncover the Greek natural way of philosophizing in terms of the political and its law. And Strauss's manner of pursuing the philosophical questions is through a close reading of books that has often been called "Talmudic," with its search for the intricate hidden structure of the argument. Is this a philosophizing that can see its way toward, or transform itself into, a freedom from the book?
**IV**
After the Second World War, Strauss took up the reading of Heidegger with renewed interest. This was indeed in spite of Heidegger's well-known sympathies for the National Socialist regime. But Heidegger's philosophical work during the entire Nazi era had been unknown to the outside world (in fact he published very little in this period) until writings began to emerge in the late 1940s. Strauss turned back to Heidegger while investigating the problem of history and also reading Wilhelm Dilthey and Ernst Troeltsch. These reflections resulted in the lectures, and later the book, _Natural Right and History_. In a letter to Jacob Klein Strauss writes: "much has become clear to me which I actually no longer knew—above all, Heidegger, whose _deinotes_ really far surpasses everything done in our time." He notes that "it seems to me that the problem of causality lies at the ground of this whole matter, which Heidegger indicates through the relation to _ex nihilo nihil fit_ , but conceals through the 'mood-based'-metaphysical interpretation of the _nihil._ " The matter ( _Angelegenheit_ ) in question is evidently that of history. Noting that the basis of this causal problem is "Kant, or the unsolved Humean problem," Strauss says that "the insight into the absurdity of Heidegger's solution does not help in the decisive respect." This statement, rather than being a simple dismissal of Heidegger, implies that Heidegger has exposed a genuine problem to which his approach (interpreting the absence of metaphysical insight into the causal ground of Being in terms of _Dasein_ 's mood of anxiety) provides no solution. For Strauss it remains the case that the lack of a proof of _ex nihilo nihil fit_ is a stumbling block for rationalist metaphysics, and in this sense he is a post-Kantian thinker for whom the "whole is mysterious." Therewith the engagement in Nietzsche and Heidegger with revelation—at the limit of rational argument and explanation—remains for Strauss a philosophic stance worthy of respect. The issue for him, one can surmise, is whether one can acknowledge this limit of rationalism while not taking the turn toward biblical thinking in an "interweaving" of philosophy and revelation that results in the historical understanding of human thought.
After this date Strauss's correspondence and his published statements on Heidegger of the period 1950–73 disclose two phases of Strauss's thinking on Heidegger, shaped by two major publications: the collection of essays called _Holzwege_ of 1950 and the lectures on Nietzsche delivered in 1936–41 and published as _Nietzsche_ in 1961. These writings made Strauss aware of a new direction in Heidegger's thought, which turned from the analysis in _Being and Time_ of the temporal horizon of human existence ( _Dasein_ ) as the access to the question of Being, toward Being itself as disclosing itself to the human in a relation of mutual dependence that grounds history through dispensations or "fates" that determine the human way of interpreting Being. Löwith in a letter to Strauss stressed the Hegelian aspect of this change: "'Being' is certainly a super-Hegelian 'absolute' and at the same time it absorbs the historicity of _Dasein_ and renders it metaphysical. It is an 'overcoming' of historicism (in the usual sense) and at the same time the most radical historicism (in the Straussian sense)." Löwith here refers to Strauss's extension of the term "historicism" beyond its prevalent designation of nineteenth-century historical thought (the historical school, Troeltsch, Dilthey, etc.), which claimed in various ways to achieve a science of history, to apply as well to Nietzsche and Heidegger, for whom history (and therewith all human thought) has an inexplicable ground. Löwith adds that "Heidegger's effort is a religious one."
In reply Strauss writes that Heidegger is religious only in the sense that all moderns are. Yet Heidegger's sharp turning from Kierkegaard to Nietzsche after _Being and Time_ , which Strauss says "strongly speaks to me," shows "where Heidegger wants to go." In this letter Strauss acknowledges the power of Heidegger's critique of the tradition, although a doubt is expressed, and then essentially dismissed, about whether Heidegger is a philosopher. "I don't know whether a true philosopher must have a good will, but in the end it comes down to the quality of his arguments." Heidegger has "definitely refuted all that was and is in our century." The central issue for Strauss is "whether he is right in his critique of Plato." This concerns "whether the subordination of the question of Being to the question of the highest being is legitimate or, as Heidegger maintains, illegitimate." Strauss concludes with noting that "the darkest point" in Heidegger's thought is his assertion that "there are beings without Being," that is, "Being, not beings, exists only insofar as _Dasein_ exists." This assertion is also mentioned in _Natural Right and History_ as an apparent objection to Heidegger, who is there unnamed.
Somewhat later Strauss credits an article of Löwith with "helping to strengthen a newly awakened sympathy for Heidegger; for _the_ Heidegger who is true to himself insofar as he makes no concessions to belief." All the same on the question of belief Strauss finds Heidegger "flat and insufficient" compared with the "now completely Christianized and forgotten Nietzsche." Yet he sees both as striving in the direction beyond modernity (with its enduring Christian origins). "In Heidegger's thought modernity comes to an end, and his thinking is thus important to us for that reason and only that reason, because we ourselves cannot be free of modernity when we do not understand it." For this aim it is especially important to be clear about the later Heidegger's thought, which, however, maintains the primary motivation of _Being and Time_ and does not question its fundamental historicist premise. A critical note is again sounded about Heidegger's "absurd" claim that "there are beings—and not Being ( _Sein_ )—when there is no _Dasein_." The recurrence of this issue shows that it weighs heavily on Strauss; he seems to brush Heidegger's view aside, and yet it comes back to perplex him. In any case Strauss credits Heidegger, in making the movement from _Existenz_ in _Being and Time_ to _Sein_ in the later writings, with achieving a "remarkable maturity" that leaves behind the "German youth-movement aura" of the earlier work.
Löwith's account of the _Nietzsche_ lectures, nearly ten years later, elicits from Strauss his strongest expressions of admiration. "I myself feel now more strongly than ever the attraction exercised by Heidegger." At this point there is a remarkable change of tone and stance toward Heidegger's perplexing thought. Strauss speaks, against Löwith and on Heidegger's behalf, on " _Sein_ needing man."
I believe that Heidegger's view is supported by the difficulties to which the alternative is exposed: the self-sufficient God as _ens perfectissimum_ , which necessarily leads to the radical degradation and devaluation of man. Differently stated, if Heidegger were wrong, man would be an accident, there would be no essential harmony between thinking and being, the hopeless difficulty of Kant's thing-in-itself would arise.
If Being needs man, the implication is that without man there will be beings but not Being, or at least that Being cannot be fully Being without man. (This is not to say that man and Being are identical.) The thought Strauss earlier called absurd he now finds well supported. It is admittedly speculative to go further and suggest that Strauss, in accordance with this change, would now side with Heidegger's criticism of Platonism, although Strauss more sharply than Heidegger distinguishes between Plato and Platonism. In his own radical readings of Platonic dialogues, Strauss maintains that the idea of the Good is not Plato's final word and that the genuine Platonic account of the ideas is indicated in the deliberately abortive and playful presentations of descent from the Good or the One (the completion of dialectic in the move from higher ideas to lower through division or _diairesis_ of kinds), which fail to achieve knowledge of determinate kinds. Only philosophy as love of wisdom, and not wisdom, is available to humans since the problem of the organization and structure of the realm of ideas must remain unsolved. While noting some convergence between Strauss and Heidegger, one also has to observe the difference between them, which relates to Strauss's uncovering of exoteric devices—and therewith his taking seriously the comic elements—in the Platonic art of writing dialogues, an approach to reading Plato not taken by Heidegger.
The remaining exchanges with Löwith on Heidegger focus chiefly on Löwith's charge that Heidegger has misread Nietzsche's intent and on Strauss's defense of Heidegger. Strauss says he is reading the _Nietzsche_ volumes, which have just appeared, while preparing a seminar on _Beyond Good and Evil_ , and remarks that in spite of Heidegger's questionable reading of what Nietzsche intended, "one may of course raise the question whether Nietzsche achieved what he intended and whether the difficulty which obstructed his return to 'nature' does not justify Heidegger's own philosophic attempt and therewith also Heidegger's interpretation of Nietzsche. . . . What makes difficult Nietzsche's return to _phusis_ is of course 'history,' and it is history which is the starting point and the theme of Heidegger." One can relate this point to Strauss's observation in the 1930s that Nietzsche's recovery of antiquity is obstructed by his modern account of freedom. Heidegger, while deeply indebted to Nietzsche, "is naturally concerned with avoiding the pitfalls into which Nietzsche fell." Heidegger learned from Nietzsche and only from him that "There is no Without," or "there can be no 'objectivity' in the last analysis. From this point of view 'nature' is no longer possible except as postulated in the critical moment." Accordingly Nietzsche's doctrine of eternal return is "nature qua being through being postulated." Strauss concludes that when one concentrates on Nietzsche's radical historicism "there is no possibility known to me superior to Heidegger's philosophic doctrine of which his interpretation of Nietzsche forms an integral part."
This claim of Heidegger's superiority could be read as referring only to Heidegger as the best Nietzsche interpreter or as the most consequential thinker on the basis of Nietzschean premises. Yet Strauss credits Heidegger, as has been shown, with insights on causality, God, and the relation of Being to man. These indications of agreement come close to suggesting that Strauss holds a version of the view that "There is no Without." Indeed Löwith seems rather alarmed by what he calls Strauss's "concession" to Heidegger, and he wonders whether Strauss finds something resonant in Heidegger's "history of Being," which Löwith finds to be only a "hypothetical construction." Strauss replies, "I do not make 'concessions' to Heidegger," which surely does not rule out agreement with Heidegger, since agreement is not concession. Reminding Löwith of the contradiction between eternal return and freedom, he asks if Löwith did not himself assert that "the repetition of antiquity at the peak of modernity (as distinguished from unqualified return to the principles of antiquity) constitutes an insoluble difficulty? In other words you have to make a choice: Are the classical principles simply sound or is the modern criticism of these principles not partly justified?" Speaking of Heidegger's history of Being ( _Seinsgeschichte_ ), Strauss writes, "I do not understand the _Seinsgeschichte_ , but many things he presents under this heading are intelligible to me, and some of them are in my opinion profound insights. Especially he has cleared up the relation between science, art, and will to power." But a further remark makes clear that Heidegger is not a definitive interpreter of classical philosophy and that his criticisms of Plato miss the mark. "On the other hand I believe that what he says about the apriori in Plato and particularly on the idea of the good is simply wrong." Although there is a rejoinder to Heidegger on Plato, it is unclear whether or to what extent it addresses the "insoluble difficulty" of "the repetition of antiquity."
The penultimate letter to Löwith resumes the discussion of Heidegger. Strauss complains that the account of nature that Löwith maintains against Heidegger's historicism has no place for "the question of the _pos bioteon_ ," the question of how one should live. Opposing both Löwith and Heidegger, Strauss asserts that the primary human concern is _kata phusin zen_ , the concern with living rightly, living naturally. From this one can arrive at the answer of happiness as consisting in _theoria_ , a way of life that is engaged with the world as a whole. But the question of the life according to nature is a question, the natural is not self-evident, and Heidegger is on surer ground than Löwith in this respect. Strauss does not endorse Heidegger's view that "'nature' is only a specific _interpretation_ of states of affairs that can be more fittingly designated by something like his 'fourfold' [ _Geviert_ ]," but he asks, "Do the Japanese have a word for 'nature'? The biblical Jews have none. The Hebrew word for 'nature' is a translation of [ancient Greek] _charakter_." In another context Strauss makes the related point that Heidegger correctly grasps that the words for "thinking" in Western languages may offer only a limited basis for approaching what thinking is. In other words, "nature" is a problem, one with which we in the West necessarily begin. The only position that can be superior to Heidegger's is one that nondogmatically examines our most basic premises, and even in this regard Heidegger surpasses all his contemporaries. In any event, it is notable that in these exchanges with Löwith Strauss does not revert to his language of the "second cave" and seems not inclined to speak of the modern starting point as an unnatural condition for "natural beings." Also absent is the earlier charge that Heidegger's thought makes the unreflective assumption of "progress" over the Greeks on the basis of its appropriation of Christian categories. The later Heidegger cannot be set aside so easily.
In his final letter to Löwith, Strauss makes this comment on Heidegger: "For some time it has struck me that to my knowledge there is not a single place in Heidegger's writings where the name of Jesus appears, not even 'Christus' (unless it happens in a Hölderlin interpretation that I do not know). That is indeed very remarkable." Although Heidegger's thought is not in its later form specifically Christian, the question remains for Strauss (as other sources show) whether Heidegger does not continue to develop an "interweaving" of philosophy and revelation in relation to his fundamental historicist premise.
**V**
These thoughts of later letters are usefully juxtaposed with a lecture given at St. John's College in 1970, "The Problem of Socrates," which contains one of Strauss's most extended public statements on Heidegger. For present purposes I focus on only certain remarks, and to begin with, the notable comment "in all important respects Heidegger does not make things obscurer than they are," which takes direct issue with Georg Lukács and others who claim that Heidegger renders Being unintelligible. "Lukács only harmed himself by not learning from Heidegger," whose "understanding of the contemporary world is more comprehensive and more profound than Marx's." These comments immediately follow a paragraph in which Strauss remarks that Heidegger's claim that the origin of man is a mystery is a "sensible result" of an argument, which Strauss summarizes: "(1) _Sein_ [Being] cannot be explained by _Seiendes_ [being or entity]—cf. causality cannot be explained causally—(2) Man is _the_ being constituted by _Sein_ —indissolubly linked with it > man participates in the inexplicability of _Sein_." In this context Strauss again refers to the problem of causality in Kant, "Kant found 'nowhere even an attempt of a proof' of _ex nihilo nihil fit_ ," and notes that Kant's transcendental legitimation of this principle as necessary for rendering possible any possible experience points to the primacy of practical reason. Then "in the same spirit" he quotes Heidegger in German: " _Die Freiheit ist der Ursprung des Satzes vom Grunde_ (Freedom is the origin of the principle of sufficient reason)." One has to take Strauss as agreeing with Kant and Heidegger that there is no purely theoretical grounding of the principle of intelligible causality, i.e., the principle that Being is grounded only in causes available to human understanding. The origin of Being, therewith of man as open to Being, is a mystery. But there is no endorsement of Kant's resolution, which is grounded in morality or practical reason, or of Heidegger's interpretation of freedom as the ground of the principle. On the other hand the positions of Kant and Heidegger suggest that the absence of a theoretical proof poses a problem for morality or practical reason: morality, but perhaps not philosophy in the "purest," Socratic sense, demands such proof or something that takes the place of such proof on a prephilosophic plane. The positions of Kant and Heidegger point to the interweaving of philosophy and moral or religious concerns in their thought—to the "primacy of the practical" characteristic of modern philosophy.
The lecture begins with "the problem of Socrates" as renewed by Nietzsche, who saw in Socrates the optimistic rationalist who held that "thinking can not only fully _understand_ being but can even _correct_ it; _life_ can be _guided_ by science." For Nietzsche the crisis of the entire rationalist tradition, with the exposure of the groundlessness of its ultimate fruit, "the belief in universal enlightenment and therewith in the earthly happiness of all within a universal society," has made necessary the questioning of its origin. Nietzsche sees in Socrates "the single turning point and vortex of so-called world history," and on the basis of insight into the essential limitations of science Nietzsche declares, "the time of Socratic man has gone." Strauss brings forward Xenophon, not Plato, as a corrective to Nietzsche. Xenophon hints at but conceals Socrates's radicality. He minimizes the difference between Socrates and the gentleman for whom "nothing is more characteristic than respect for the law." It was the heart of Socrates's theoretical activity to call into question the authority of the law, to expose its human origin, "for laws depend on the regime." Yet Xenophon's Socrates never raises the question _ti esti nomos_ (What is law?). In other words, Strauss suggests that Xenophon saw, but did not expose, something missed by the later tradition, after Plato and including Nietzsche and Heidegger, namely Socrates's radical freedom from every sort of moralism and thereby from optimistic rationalism. Thus Xenophon's silence (he "points to the core of Socrates' life or thought but does not present it sufficiently or at all") seems to speak eloquently of a radicality never fully described or presented in any of the other portrayals of Socrates, whether by friend or foe.
That the philosophies of Nietzsche and Heidegger remain restricted to the horizon of history is directly related, in Strauss's judgment, to their failure to grasp this true radicality. Strauss adduces a metaphysical consideration at this point. Heidegger rightly stresses the mystery of the human origin, but for Strauss, in contrast with Heidegger, "it seems that one cannot avoid the question of what is responsible for the emergence of man and of _Sein_ , or of what brings them out of nothing." Granting that _Sein_ "is the ground of all beings and especially of man" and that this "ground of grounds is coeval with man and therefore also not eternal or sempiternal," there remains this consideration: " _Sein_ cannot be the _complete_ ground of man." _Sein_ is the essence of man, the _what_ of man, but not of the emergence of man, the _that_ of man. To remain open to the question of the ground of the _that_ is to remain open to a possible ground beyond Being, and therefore beyond history and time. This is not to say that an answer to this question is available to human reason. In other words, Strauss agrees with Heidegger that Being, as the ground of the openness to beings, is coeval with man and history. But something crucial to the human is not coeval with its history, namely, its coming into being, its prehistory. The need to bear in mind the question of the prehistorical origin seems connected to Strauss's appreciation of Socratic philosophy as open to questions that transcend altogether the moral and the political realm, while being aware of the difficulties such questions cause for practical human life. In this way Socratic questioning exposes a duality in the human—as both belonging to the moral and political realm and transcending it. A philosophy that would overcome that duality by limiting reflection to the historical disclosures of Being is avowedly or unavowedly governed by political concerns, and this, in Strauss's estimation, has been true of modern philosophy from its inception.
CHAPTER 3
On Caves and Histories: Strauss's Post-Nietzschean Socratism
**I**
In a public lecture delivered in Syracuse, New York, in 1940, Leo Strauss gives an account of the roots of his inquiries in the German situation of philosophy after the First World War. It is a bold statement in that Strauss acknowledges that his greatest philosophic debt is to Nietzsche and Heidegger, two thinkers in different ways associated with the current German regime with which Strauss's recently adopted homeland was gradually sliding into war. The significance Strauss accords to Nietzsche in the lecture can be summarized briefly. Nietzsche called into question more powerfully than any other figure the modern beliefs in the scientific solubility of human problems and in the progressive view of civilization as a meaningful process culminating in human perfection. His critique of modern civilization was made in the name of classical antiquity. While maintaining that all truth is historical, Nietzsche saw the problem in regarding the historicist premise as an objective theoretical premise, and accordingly he called for a historical consciousness whose sole basis is the promotion of life. Nietzsche carried forward a German tradition of criticism of science-based civilization—a tradition that began with Rousseau's criticism of civilization on behalf of original nature, and that became in Kant and his heirs an idealistic critique on behalf of freedom. Whereas Hegel and others had appealed to history—the realm of rational freedom or Spirit, realized uniquely in the modern West—as the ground of human dignity and elevation above mere nature, Nietzsche made history problematic in light of his own account of nature or "life" (or "existence" as it became known in the existential movement), thereby questioning the prevailing assumption of the superiority of the modern West to all other civilizations. Through this critique Nietzsche's philosophy "was the most powerful single factor in German postwar philosophy."
The opening paragraphs of the lecture are remarkable for their assessment of the German philosophic tradition and perhaps even more for the way in which Strauss situates his thought in relation to it. He begins with the statement that "both the intellectual glory and the political misery of Germans may be traced back to one and the same cause: German civilization is considerably _younger_ than the civilization of the West." The Germans on the one hand have had less experience of being citizens— _free_ citizens—than their Western neighbors. On the other, their philosophic tradition has developed a criticism of civilization—of the very _idea_ of civilization, but especially of the modern form. Strauss implies that this criticism, like the political inexperience, is made possible by the youthfulness of German civilization. He notes that this criticism is disastrous in the political field "but necessary in the philosophical, in the theoretical field." These remarks reveal how experience of the situation of Germany granted Strauss insight into the conflicting requirements of politics and philosophy: political success and philosophic depth do not combine easily. But furthermore they show that Strauss sees himself in some sense as carrying forward the German critique, especially Nietzsche's version of it, as philosophically necessary. For the "process of civilization means an increasing going away from the _natural_ condition of man, and increasing _forgetting_ of that situation," and perhaps one needs an "acute recollection" of that situation if one is to understand "the _natural_ , the basic problems of philosophy." Strauss refers to Nietzsche's description of German thought as a longing for the past and for origins, and most of all for building a bridge leading back from the modern world to the world of Greece. Implicitly Strauss allies himself with this tendency in two ways. He is in accord with this tradition insofar as it has seen a theoretical problem in the ideas of progress and science-based civilization central to the Western Enlightenment, and thus on a practical plane he cannot deny having profound misgivings about the modern democratic natural right tradition, which his adopted country is dedicated to defending. At the same time Strauss regards the practical attempts, i.e., German attempts, to reverse the modern development as having politically disastrous consequences, and he makes clear that such consequences cannot be separated from a theoretical critique of the German tradition. Strauss might be said to concur with Nietzsche's dictum on the Germans if its meaning is restricted to philosophy and excludes a political sense: "They belong to the day before yesterday and the day after tomorrow— _as yet they have no today._ " Does philosophy ever have a "today" politically? As Strauss sees in his own case the fate of genuine philosophy at all times is homelessness.
Strauss notes that Nietzsche changed the intellectual climate of Europe as Rousseau had about 120 years before, and that "the work of Nietzsche is as ambiguous as that of Rousseau." In spite of Nietzsche's enormous impact on politics, "if I understand him correctly, his deepest concern was with philosophy, not politics." Nietzsche's claim is that genuine philosophy is the concern of "natural men . . . men who do not need the shelter of the cave, of any cave." He decried an artificial protection against the _elementary_ problems not only in the premodern tradition (of providence) but likewise in the modern tradition. It was against "history," against the belief that "history" can decide any question, that progress can ever make superfluous the discussion of the primary questions, against the belief that history, that indeed any human things, are the elementary subject of philosophy, that he reasserted hypothetically the doctrine of eternal return. Through this assertion he sought to "drive home that the elementary, the natural subject of philosophy still is, and always will be, as it had been for the Greeks: the _kosmos_ , the world." In the midst of this paragraph Strauss inserts parenthetically and in quotes "philosophy and the State are incompatible," whereby he raises a primary theme of Nietzsche inseparable from the stress on the cosmic core of philosophy, and at the same time he points to the true meaning of his own concentration on "political philosophy." The passage thus makes evident that Nietzsche led Strauss toward his reflection on the tension between philosophy and politics, or on the necessary duality in human ends, before Strauss took up examining it in the premodern authors.
For Strauss, modernity's effort to reconcile philosophy and politics, in which the critique of orthodoxy and revelation (the Enlightenment's replacement of "political theology" by rational theology and "culture") was the crucial negative instrument, and whose high point is Hegel's system, had been problematic from the standpoint of his early questions about the possibility for the renewal of Judaism under modern conditions. It became clear to Strauss that the modern philosophic critique of revelation rested not on an adequate refutation, grounded in a comprehensive account of nature as whole, but on the assertion of a human construct—the new political order of natural rights and of humanly constructed culture—intended to replace any consideration of the superhuman whole. Accordingly the will-based modern construction rests as much as revelation on an act of faith and can claim no theoretical superiority. The actualization of wisdom seemed to be realized in the new political order, through the creation of conditions supportive of the freedom to pursue philosophy. As founder of this political-philosophical reconciliation, Hobbes (or Machiavelli before Hobbes, as Strauss would claim later) had given political philosophy an unprecedented importance, whereby it achieves political results far exceeding the political expectations of the classics. But philosophy achieves the resolution of its tension with politics at the price of abandoning its genuine object, the reflection on the superhuman (and supramoral) whole. The autobiographical lecture indicates that Strauss turned from concentrating on the consequences of modern thought for Jewish questions and, in more Nietzschean (and ultimately classical) spirit, focused on its consequences for philosophy. The lecture makes clear that Strauss's prime concern was not with politics as such.
One could say that Nietzsche exposed an apparently tragic and insuperable problem: that the moral-political order that guarantees security and freedom to the highest human activity, the contemplation of the eternal and cosmic whole, also diminishes the goals and character of that activity, turning the philosophic life into a human-all-too-human dedication to the progress and welfare of mankind. This again is what Nietzsche rejected in modern philosophy, modern scholarship, and the educational system of the modern state: their self-imposed subservience to history and the "needs of the age." Although Nietzsche exposed the problem of the modern historical consciousness and took the first steps toward transcending it, Strauss found that Nietzsche did not investigate the sources of that consciousness and understand how it had become necessary. The genetic account of the historical consciousness—an account that did not assume the truth of historicism, one seeking the adequate overcoming of "history" that Nietzsche had not achieved—became a central part of Strauss's philosophical endeavor. In the 1940 lecture, Strauss mentions that he saw the first stirring of the historical consciousness in the seventeenth-century foundations of modernity and he refers to Descartes's methodical break with "natural knowledge" as a primary source. Strauss concluded it was necessary to clarify this origin with "the eyes of pre-modern philosophy," and Socrates offered the classic example of the philosopher who starts from the natural view of the world, the world as known prior to the scientific modification of it. But precisely on that point there was an immense theoretical obstacle, one posed by Nietzsche himself.
Nietzsche forcefully argued that Socrates is the thinker who initiates the flight from the elementary problems into the protection offered by an "optimistic" account of the power of reason to overcome the evils inherent in Being. Nietzsche asks: Did not Socrates turn philosophy away from the contemplation of the suprahuman and supramoral cosmos, the magnificent theme of his predecessors, and subordinate philosophy to moral and political concerns, shoring up this turn with arguments and myths about providential supports for the life of virtue? In later writings Strauss continues to credit Nietzsche with reviving the "problem of Socrates" and compelling admirers of the classical alternatives to modernity to return to the sources of our knowledge of Socrates for a careful reconsideration. Strauss noted the kinship between the Aristophanic and the Nietzschean critiques of Socrates, as both concern not only the young Socrates's reckless disregard of pious and noble tradition but his failure to be an "erotic" thinker. The outcome of Strauss's investigation of the Platonic and Xenophonic defenses of Socrates is not only to underscore the practical prudence and moderation of the mature Socrates but (since philosophic thought is inherently "manic") to disclose Socrates's awareness of the tension between erotic philosophizing and the requirements of political life.
The lecture's remarks on the origins of Strauss's critical genealogy of historicism in confrontation with Nietzsche show that it was animated not so much by the need to refute the relativism of values as by a desire to carry forward, beyond Nietzsche's own historicism, the attack of Nietzsche on the modern unification of philosophy and history, which claimed to be the definitive solution to the human problems. The true issue is not skepticism but the dogmatism of alleged progress. Strauss was thus led to reconsider the classical reflection on the contrast between the "cave" of political life and the natural good of philosophy—not for the advantage of politics but for that of philosophy. All the same this renewed study was "both necessary and tentative or experimental," since not only Nietzsche but all of modern philosophy spoke against the possibility of a return to classical philosophy in its original form. Strauss wondered whether the original Socrates did not philosophize in a way that is as "natural" and open to the problems, without the intellectual protection of the cave, as Nietzsche's own example of genuine philosophizing. In his pursuit of this possibility, Strauss was assisted by other developments in the German situation besides Nietzsche, as the prestige of modern science (and hence modern philosophy) was under broad siege. Max Weber's defense of the vocation of science revealed science in the modern sense as unable to justify the choice of itself as way of life or to offer any wisdom. Edmund Husserl's phenomenology exposed the inadequate starting point of all modern philosophic and scientific explanation and called for a return to "things themselves" by careful description of the prescientific understanding of the world. Husserl proposed a new form of "rigorous science," but the prevailing mood was to turn away from science in any form to other grounds of authority, above all revelation (Karl Barth and Franz Rosenzweig as leading versions of the "new thinking" in theology) and the absolute obligation to the state (Carl Schmitt). But most important for the philosophic critique of modern rationalism, as offering a new opening to premodern philosophy, was the thought of Husserl's young student: Martin Heidegger.
Strauss remarks that Heidegger's teaching, which he heard in Freiburg in summer 1922, "made perhaps the most profound impression which the younger generation experienced in Germany" in the postwar period, for under his guidance "people came to see that Aristotle and Plato had _not_ been understood." Modern philosophy came into being through a refutation of the Aristotelian philosophy, but Heidegger showed that the founders of modern philosophy had refuted only the Aristotelians of their time without understanding Aristotle himself. And a thinker "cannot have been _refuted_ if he has not been _understood_." Heidegger's interpretation of Aristotle, "an achievement with which I cannot compare any other intellectual phenomenon" of the period, demonstrated the decisive role of interpretation in the recovery of lost philosophical questions. For Strauss a consequence of Heidegger's "destruction" of the tradition was the insight that " _la querelle des anciens et des modernes_ must be renewed" and staged with greater fairness and greater knowledge than in the original quarrel of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
**II**
It must be noted that this brief yet highly revealing remark on Heidegger's significance with respect to classical philosophy was not Strauss's last such statement. Indeed in the later years of his life Strauss was expansive on the subject, following a long period of reserve in public pronouncements, during which, however, there are numerous comments and references, often without naming Heidegger. Strauss wrote one of his most pregnant utterances on Heidegger in a prologue to a lecture in 1959 which was not delivered. Here he remarks that "no one has questioned the premise of philosophy as radically as Heidegger" and that "by uprooting and not simply rejecting the tradition of philosophy, [Heidegger] made it possible for the first time after many centuries . . . to see the roots of the tradition as they are." Some eleven years later a public account of Heidegger's importance, again linking his thought to classical philosophy, ends with this comment: "What distinguishes present-day philosophy in its highest form, in its Heideggerian form, from classical philosophy is its historical character; it presupposes the so-called historical consciousness." The statement implies the closeness of Heidegger's thought to classical philosophy (one cannot imagine any sentence that would begin "What distinguishes logical positivism from classical philosophy . . .") but also points expressly to what separates Heidegger's thought from Strauss's approach to classical philosophy through political philosophy: "I was confirmed in my concentration on the tension between philosophy and the _polis_ , i.e. on the highest theme of _political_ philosophy, by this consideration." In compressed fashion, Strauss suggests that classical political philosophy as reflection on the "tension" provides the means to understand the genesis of the historical consciousness, since that consciousness results from modern philosophy's effort, in a break with classical thought, to resolve the tension. Thus one must understand the historical consciousness as arising from the break with the ancient account of philosophy as essentially suprapolitical, or as transcending the cave in thought. "Politics and political philosophy is the matrix of the historical consciousness." Heidegger did not uncover the roots of the historical consciousness, simply presupposing the validity thereof, whereas Strauss saw the grounds of that consciousness in questionable modern attempts to resolve the central problem of political philosophy as expounded by Socrates.
Yet in other respects Strauss avows a close kinship between classical thought and Heidegger. Thus he notes in one passage from lectures of 1954–55 (where Heidegger is not mentioned) that historicism is "the serious antagonist of political philosophy" because of its superiority to positivism on the following: (1) It abandons the distinction between facts and values, since all understanding involves evaluation; (2) It denies the authoritative character of modern science, as only one form of human orientation in the world; (3) It refuses to regard the historical process as progressive and reasonable; (4) It denies that the evolutionist thesis makes intelligible the emergence of the human from the nonhuman. This restates essentially what Strauss in the 1940 lecture described as the fundamental questioning of modern premises by German thought in the early decades of the century, especially by Heidegger, which questioning offered a problematic and incomplete liberation from modern philosophy. While such passages confirm the view that a primary impulse to turn to classical philosophy came from Heidegger, it is also the case that Strauss was just as struck by alien elements in Heidegger's pre-1933 thinking, beyond the persistence of historicism. (Strauss's alienation was of course confirmed and strengthened by Heidegger's endorsement of Nazism.) The elements in question Strauss characterized as Heidegger's effort in _Being and Time_ (1927) to provide an atheistic interpretation of biblical experience or to give an account of human existence in Christian categories, together with the lack of any ethics in his thinking.
A renewed and deeper engagement with Heidegger occurred in the 1950s as Strauss acquired the publications of the later thought, whose character and direction were largely unknown to the world as it developed during the dark period 1933–45 when Heidegger published little. Evidence of Strauss's appreciation of the so-called "turn" in Heidegger's thought is found in a 1956 lecture giving a detailed account of Heidegger's self-criticism. Strauss notes that Heidegger pursued a deeper critique of the philosophic tradition as he sought to overcome the persisting elements of modern subjectivity in his earlier "existentialist" phase, culminating in _Being and Time_. No longer does Heidegger emphasize authentic resoluteness of will as the ground of projected ideals of existence—the response of the early Heidegger to the loss of all absolute grounds of authority, including the failure of scientific rationalism to authorize itself. Heidegger's later thinking surely has continuity with the earlier as engagement with the question of Being, but it relates to the earlier thought in the way that Hegel's philosophy (on Hegel's own estimation) relates to Kant's, as the deeper fulfillment of Kant's intention. A return to something like metaphysics is necessary, although "the return to metaphysics is impossible. But what is needed is some repetition of what metaphysics intended on an entirely different plane." Thus Heidegger develops a higher reflection on historicity as grounded in Being that surpasses (or comprehends without simply negating) the existential account of the temporality of human being-there ( _Dasein_ ) as the horizon for interpreting Being. Strauss too, it must be noted, undertakes a return to classical thought without a return to metaphysics as the tradition conceives it, and also in his way seeks to recover "what metaphysics intended," wherewith he would transcend modernity. Strauss also observes that Heidegger had uncovered fundamental flaws in Nietzsche's attempt to overcome modernity through his account of Being as will to power. Accordingly it was necessary to examine Heidegger's claim to have achieved the standpoint of an overcoming that is no longer, as is Nietzsche's thought, hobbled by internal contradiction.
There are many indications that Strauss considered it essential to test his own approach against this later direction of Heidegger (as in the statement cited above, "I was confirmed . . .") and that a true transcending of modernity required coming to terms with his thinking. We have seen a number of such statements in the correspondence, but they also occur in public utterances. Not merely did Heidegger question rationalism; he showed that all rationalism is genuinely questionable. Heidegger's later thinking in particular raised the issue of whether he had revealed a true limitation in Platonic philosophy. Heidegger uncovered a possibility of thinking about Being that was not merely humanistic, while revealing that the human is "needed" by Being, a way of thinking for which Strauss disclosed a certain sympathy. It seems that Heidegger pointed to inescapable difficulties for any attempt to understand the Good as a highest being or cause in the metaphysical sense, and yet his thinking is to be faulted for abandoning the question of the Good altogether. At the heart of Strauss's reconsideration of Socratic philosophy is the inquiry into whether the question of the Good can be accorded due centrality in philosophy, while acknowledging the metaphysical or cosmological problem uncovered by Heidegger. Can the question of the Good be regarded as the opening to Being or the whole without implying a merely "humanistic" or anthropocentric account of the whole? Strauss turned to the sources of Socratic philosophy to explore the possibility that such a way of thought is the core of the Socratic dialectic. In what follows I outline fundamental tenets of this Socratism as they appear chiefly in writings from the 1950s and early 1960s.
**III**
Strauss states that "contrary to appearances, Socrates' turn to the study of the human things was based, not upon disregard of the divine or natural things, but upon a new approach to the understanding of all things." "In its original form political philosophy broadly understood is the core of philosophy or rather 'the first philosophy.'" "We have learned from Socrates that the political things, or the human things, are the key to the understanding of all things." How can one justify giving the study of politics this privileged place in philosophy? Let us consider how Strauss characterizes the "new approach to the understanding all things." Socrates identified the science of the whole with the understanding of what each of the beings is, that is, he understood being such that "to be" is "to be a part," an intelligibly distinct or noetically heterogeneous part of the whole. The intelligible parts are the classes or kinds of things that first become known through their manifest shape or form and that cease to be intelligible if reduced to allegedly more primary elements, as was done by Socrates's philosophic predecessors. The surface of things, or what is "first for us," is the guide to the articulation of the whole. This new approach to the study of the whole favored the study of the human things. The whole as such, however, is "beyond being," and the roots of the whole from which it arises may not be accessible to human thought. Therefore the knowledge of parts is itself not perfect knowledge. "There is no knowledge of the whole but only knowledge of parts, hence only partial knowledge of parts, hence no unqualified transcending, even by the wisest man as such, of the sphere of opinion." Thus Socratic philosophy is "knowledge that one does not know; that is to say, it is knowledge of what one does not know, or awareness of the fundamental problems and, therewith, of the fundamental alternatives regarding their solution that are coeval with human thought." Such formulations do not make immediately evident, however, why the concentration on intelligible parts and the avowal of the elusiveness of the whole should lead to (or be the same as) the view that the political things, among all of the parts of the whole, are "the key to the understanding of all things."
One must turn to more formulations on Socratic philosophy. "Knowledge of ignorance is not ignorance. It is knowledge of the elusive character of the truth, of the whole." In light of the mysteriousness of the whole, philosophy articulates the more familiar "situation of man as man," which does not entail leaving the question of the whole behind, since to articulate the human situation "means to articulate man's openness to the whole." To articulate the human situation as including "the quest for cosmology rather than a solution to the cosmological problem" was "the foundation of classical political philosophy." The crucial term is "openness to the whole," which is the basis for the quest for cosmology. To articulate that openness is to acquire knowledge of "the fundamental and permanent problems," which according to Strauss are "the unchangeable ideas." Human openness to the whole is inherently problematic, and articulating the problems inherent in that openness is the same as articulating the structure of the human soul. Among all the parts of the whole, the human soul has a unique place. "The human soul is the only part of the whole which is open to the whole and therefore more akin to the whole than anything else." Owing to this kinship "the true knowledge of the souls, and hence of the soul, is the core of cosmology." But again one must underscore the problematic character of this knowledge: the true knowledge of the soul is knowledge of the problems inherent in human openness—problems that must be confronted by the quest for cosmology. There is no access to the whole or the cosmos that can bypass or ignore those problems. One could say the problems belong to the possibility of the access to the whole (they do not merely obscure it, much less prevent it). But where do the problems inherent in human openness have their most familiar forms, where are they most manifest or "writ large"? Socrates's answer, according to Strauss: in the political realm.
One can regard this interpretation of the Socratic turn as Strauss's way of taking the phenomenological turn to "things themselves" and to the "natural understanding" of which the scientific understanding is only a modification, but Strauss notes that Heidegger's version of phenomenology had the advantage over Husserl's of emphasizing the human practical engagement with things. "The natural world, the world we live in and act, is not the object or product of the theoretical attitude; it is a world not of mere objects at which we detachedly look but of 'things' or 'affairs' which we handle." The reference is to Heidegger's analysis of human being-in-the-world as the concern with _pragmata_ , which is undertaken not for its own sake but to disclose the temporal horizon for the interpretation of Being. The analysis is only preparatory to recovering the meaning of the ancient question "What is Being?" Similarly, Strauss understands the Socratic turn to the speeches and opinions that guide the analysis of the political things as conducted not in order to arrive at norms and dicta (or natural laws) based on commonsense beliefs, but to articulate the human openness to the whole. This is the Socratic path to the question of Being, a superior path to those followed in the phenomenological movement. The political-moral "surface" of life contains the fundamental problems, which do not adequately emerge if one focuses on such notions as concern with _pragmata_ , the life-world, or "embodied experience." Only when the problems inherent in moral-political life are allowed to unfold can one then uncover the starting points of philosophy. As Strauss puts it, the renewal of Socratic philosophy considers what is first for us for the sake of an "unbiased reconsideration of the most elementary premises whose validity is presupposed by philosophy." At the same time, the uncovering of the problems calls for a historical and "destructive" aspect, as we have seen, since the philosophic tradition has overlaid the surface of primary questions with a tradition of other concepts: historical inquiries are necessary to ascend from the "cave beneath the cave."
To take the account a step further, the Socratic inquiry (which in Strauss's renewal has to be assisted by historical investigations) turns to prephilosophic opinions about such things as the good, the just, and the noble that form the core of moral-political life, which itself is always a realm of debate and controversy. The examination of such opinions, guided by the philosopher's quest for knowledge of the whole, leads to uncovering contradictions and obscurities in these opinions. This in turn leads to the thought that the conflicting opinions exist merely through being humanly held or that they are conventional, and then to the question of whether there may be some thoughts on such matters that are not merely humanly held or humanly made and that are "by nature." The questions arise about "what is by nature" right, noble, and good, and a dialectical ascent is attempted from established law to nature. But thereby the authoritative opinions of the city, and preeminently the pious opinions about divinely grounded law, are put in doubt.
Strauss's claim that this Socratic attempt is aporetic or "knowledge of ignorance" may occasion a misunderstanding, for this does not mean that the effort makes no progress in articulating the opinions and in arriving at cogent distinctions between fundamental notions (between the noble and the good, between merely moral virtue and philosophic virtue, etc.), and even in establishing a certain natural order or hierarchy of notions. But Socrates uncovers such distinctions ultimately to illuminate what is hidden, or presupposed, behind what is revealed. All prephilosophic opinions are implicitly opinions about the whole, about what is primary within it and what structures or governs it. "All knowledge, however limited or 'scientific' presupposes a horizon, a comprehensive view within which knowledge is possible," or "all understanding presupposes a fundamental awareness of the whole," which Plato describes metaphorically as "a vision of the ideas, a vision of the articulated whole." Knowledge of aporia or of ignorance arises in the attempt to uncover the intelligible composition and unity of the articulated opinions or "parts"—in attempting to move from the natures of parts to nature as whole. Indeed there could be no uncovering of a problem of the whole—the knowledge of the problem that is "knowledge of ignorance"—without making progress in the articulation of parts. This again is to say that the "fundamental problems" are essential to the access to the whole and do not merely obscure or obstruct it.
The problematic effort of dialectical ascent puts the philosopher at odds with the traditional laws and customs of the city, as noted. The ongoing questioning about ultimate matters not only results in suspension of belief in the traditional laws but also denies the philosopher the leisure needed for participation in the activities of citizenship. Even so, it is misleading to describe the philosophic life in terms of a "resolve to think freely" and to contrast that freedom to "obedience to the laws." This describes the philosopher's quest in moral terms, as confrontation with the law and morality, without providing a motive for such confrontation. It abstracts from the content of philosophy, as knowledge of fundamental problems. Similarly the philosopher's effort is not exhausted in attempts to "justify" his activity with respect to the claims of the laws. "To articulate the problem of cosmology means to answer the question of what philosophy is or what a philosopher is." Even so, it is crucial to Strauss's account of the Socratic approach that the tension between philosophic inquiry and authoritative custom is at the heart of the articulation of human openness to the whole. The tension occasions not only a practical problem of prudence but a theoretical problem. The reflection on this tension is at stake when Strauss claims that for Socrates the human things are "the clue to the whole." In terms of the Socratic turn to the noetically heterogeneous parts, the Socratic philosopher grasps that "the political things are a class by themselves, that there is an essential difference between political things and things which are not political." What is of most concern is the _difference_ : "There is an essential difference between the common good and the private or sectional good."
It is above all to reflect on that difference that Socrates examines the common opinions about the just, the noble, the good, and so on. To say "Socrates is the first philosopher to do justice to the claim of the political" is to say that he is the first to see the full import of the nonreducible difference between the political and the nonpolitical; it "means he also realized the limitations of that claim. Hence he distinguished between two ways of life, the political life, and one which transcends the political life and which is the highest." This "difference" proves to be the crucial articulation of parts that provides the "clue to the whole." One is easily tempted to say that the articulation is only a matter of exposing the nullity of the claims of politics and morality, of discrediting the authoritative laws and beliefs so as to show that the true whole is correctly grasped by the philosopher as simply transpolitical and transmoral. Strauss's own language at times could suggest this, as in the praise of Nietzsche's attempt to recover the "natural" way of philosophy in the 1940 lecture. But this would be to overlook the subtle point Strauss makes about the access to the whole as an access through problems. It cannot be the case that the political-moral realm is grounded in mere illusion if there is an essential difference between the political and the nonpolitical, or a natural articulation of two competing claims on human life.
In doing justice to the claims of the political, Socrates notes its practical priority as the most "urgent." The political realm, because it addresses the most urgent human concerns, may have its true dignity as the condition for what is higher, the life of inquiry. But as such it is not in itself simply cut off from what is higher. "The political things and their corollaries are the form in which the highest principles first come to sight." Indeed through the political things the whole itself comes to sight "since they are the link between what is highest and what is lowest, or since man is a microcosm." That the political realm is not simply the "other" of the nonpolitical, and that it transcends itself by pointing beyond itself to the "difference" while not overcoming its own limitations, is what I take Strauss to mean by the "theological-political problem," which he never expressly defines. The problem is not simply the tension between philosophy and the political but the tension within the political itself, which is a tension within the human soul, making philosophy possible. Philosophy makes that tension explicit and thematic and thereby in a certain way achieves a coherent life that is not bound to the political and its internal rifts. The political is indeed paradoxical, insofar as it is essentially different from what transcends it and yet points beyond itself toward it. But that is the paradoxical quality of the human soul, which is both a part of the whole and yet open to the whole beyond itself and akin to it. The study of politics is the study that most reveals the nature of the soul; at the same time, it allows one to see how the soul is the adumbration of the whole. The togetherness of the inherently urgent or compelled and the inherently free or pleasant in this "part" of the whole raises a perplexity about the whole itself. "The whole is not one, nor homogeneous, but heterogeneous." This peculiar class, the political things, with its difference from other classes, being internally differentiated, linking the high and the low, is the clue to cosmic difference. And thus "the most important truth is the obvious truth, the truth of the surface." The common view that noble things are not reducible simply to the pleasant is a clue to the character of the whole. But it can be such a clue only by way of philosophic reflection on the relation of the two as a problem. To describe Socrates as the "founder of political science" is to say he is the founder of the study of politics as offering philosophic access to the character of Being.
**IV**
Strauss characterizes this situation by employing the Platonic image of the cave. By his own account it is a problematic image involving a deliberate overstatement, in keeping with an abstractive feature of the _Republic_ as whole, namely, its suppression of _eros_. The image shows this in two ways, by denying that the cave dwellers have any desire for what lies beyond the shadows they see, and by denying that philosophic souls who escape the cave have any _eros_ for the political communities they leave behind. Both cave dwellers and philosophers must be compelled if they are to leave their congenial place and move toward the other place. But such dramatic exaggerations in Plato have the effect of bringing forward truth. Strauss expresses it this way: "The city is both closed to the whole and open to the whole." Political life is "life in the cave which is partly closed off by a wall from life in the light of the sun. The city is the only whole within the whole or the only part of the whole whose essence can be wholly known."
Political life is not just a part but a whole, albeit one that seems to its residents more whole and complete than it is. Its way of seeming to be complete to itself is, one could say, its essence. Yet it may be an exaggeration on Strauss's part, ironically reflecting the nature of political life, to say that this "essence can be wholly known." The abstraction inherent in the character of political life is here reflected in the philosophic description of its character. But the purpose of such abstractions is to bring out their own limitations. "The city is completely intelligible because its limits can be made perfectly manifest." Certainly what can be made perfectly manifest is the tendency of human life to seek a kind of closure and shelter within the limits of laws and customs, although this effort is always precarious, never wholly successful. Strauss's account of the argument of the _Republic_ is that it makes manifest the limits of political life by offering a "city in speech" that shows how human life would appear if "perfect justice" were achieved. In such a city human life is deformed not only by the suppression of private life for the guardian class but by the artificial subordination of the philosophic life to the needs of the city. The natural desires, or _eros_ , of both the guardians and the philosophers are suppressed. Socrates with the help of his interlocutors constructs this ideal city not seriously for practical actualization but for philosophic instruction as to the nature of the soul and of politics. By maximizing or absolutizing the claims of politics so as to produce a comic and grotesque result, Socrates uncovers a fundamental tension between those claims and the soul's full range of possibilities.
Yet Strauss sees more than this in the Platonic account of how the city is both closed and open to the whole. Since political life, whose core is justice as defined by the law, forms a kind of whole whose limits can be experienced as limits, humans are capable of the questioning of law (the limits), which allows for the transcending of law. The whole or Being as problem or question can come into human view only because humans occupy a part of it that has an imperfect and ordinarily deceptive completeness. Political life's way of offering images of wholeness that allure and detain the soul without truly satisfying it is the condition for the discovery of philosophy as the pursuit that truly satisfies. In this way politics is the "link" between high and low. Human beings are not fitted directly to encounter and grasp Being or the whole as such. Political life in the form of laws, customs, rituals, duties, and attachments offers various experiences of something whole, and a sense of shelter from the mystery of human existence, with its unknown origins and unknown destiny. It then provides a ground for some human beings to look for the "true whole," although it has to be said that political life offers the metaphor or image of "the whole" guiding the philosophic quest, and the appropriateness of the language and idea of "the whole" itself may be questionable. One can restate this by saying that there could be no opening to the question of "What is?" or of Being without the difference (or limit) inherent in politics. The fact that humans have a way in law-governed communities of "forgetting" the whole to which they are naturally open—a way that is relatively solid or "substantial" compared with the disorder of lawless forms of life—is indispensable for facing and sustaining the openness. Politics provides the foundation—as that which lies under or supports—for the possibility of transcending politics. This has a certain kinship with Heidegger's account of how Being is disclosed only through "ontological difference," and how the "forgetting" of Being is inseparable from standing in its disclosure. But for Strauss what Heidegger sees only in terms of the fall into "ontic" thinking, the concern with metaphysics as causal-substantial, is better illuminated by relating forgetfulness and difference to the political nature of the human. Attention to the "surface" of political life, for which Heidegger has little or no regard, shows an intrinsic connection between reflecting on the difference that conditions theoretical transcending, and "common sense" moderate practical approaches to the basic texture of political life, the warp and woof of law and desire.
Strauss characterizes the theme of difference in one more way: in terms of the two roots of morality. He asks, "how can there be a unity of man?" Morality has "two really different roots," namely, the "moral requirements of society on the one hand and the moral requirements of the life of the mind on the other," which two roots, while radically different, still agree "to a considerable extent." What was said of the cave can be said of man as such: The unity of man consists in the fact that he is that part of the whole which is open to the whole, or, in Platonic language, that part of the whole which has seen the ideas of all things. Man's concern with his openness to the whole is the life of the mind. The dualism of being a part while being open to the whole, and therefore in a sense being the whole itself, is man.
Starting from the notion of the individual human being, the difference now appears as that between two modes of transcending by the individual toward two wholes, "society and the whole simply." Nobility consists in "dedicating oneself to something greater than oneself," and thus nobility can take the form of dedication to the common good of political life or dedication to the pursuit of knowledge of the whole. But this duality of modes of transcending is a great perplexity and cause of wonder.
This wonder seems to be related to Socrates's experience of disappointment as he sought in his early days as a student of nature to find a teleological account of the whole, especially through the guidance of Anaxagoras. What he sought was a causal knowledge of how the whole and each part of the whole are for the best, such that all parts are in harmony. But the kinds of causality available in the study of nature were two: genesis through material parts that could account for individual beings but not for universal properties, and noetic mathematical ideas that could account for universals but not for individual beings. No kind of cause was available to link these, until Socrates noted in a "second sailing" a certain togetherness of them in human speeches about beauty, goodness, and justice. The human concern with the just is a kind of cause in which universal notions are applied to individual cases, as when Socrates affirms the condemnation of the city of Athens by choosing to remain in prison when he has the chance to escape. Yet the judgment of the city itself was unjust, contrary to the natural good of philosophy. Accordingly the same action might be regarded as both just and unjust, as one looks to either the common good of the city or the private good of the philosophic life. The nature of justice is inherently controversial. Therefore the problem of the unity of the causes reappears in the sphere of human moral and political judgment, where, however, there is a certain unity within duality or agreement "to a considerable extent," making human life possible. Socrates fastens intransigently on the wonder of that unity within duality, so as to espy whatever oblique clues it may offer about the nature of the whole.
But the aporia in first principles cannot be resolved. Strauss has another prominent statement on fundamental dualism, which needs to be related to the duality of man's two modes of transcending. "The knowledge which we have is characterized by a fundamental dualism which has never been overcome," the pole of mathematical homogeneity in arithmetic and productive arts and crafts, and the pole of heterogeneity, especially in knowledge of heterogeneous ends. The statesman has a knowledge of ends to make human life complete or whole, "but this knowledge—the political art in the highest sense—is not knowledge of _the_ whole." Two kinds of knowledge must be combined, the heterogeneous and the homogeneous, "and this combination is not at our disposal." The two poles seem to parallel the two wholes to which human life is open, the trans-political and the political. Socratic philosophy realized the true whole cannot be found through a simple transcending of the city and that the problem of the true whole is the same as the problem of the unity of man. That problem cannot come into view unless one starts with man as political. Strauss presents this as the fundamental cosmological problem in Platonic thought, and he refers to it again, apparently, when he refers to "the difficulty with which every teleological physics is beset." Philosophy is possible with this persisting aporia, for as knowledge of ignorance it does not require a "specific cosmology."
Yet it could be said that Strauss goes beyond the Platonic presentation of Socratic philosophy by the bluntness with which he presents the human situation as a cave-dwelling that opens onto a mysterious whole. By asserting that the human belongs to both realms—thereby already thrusting the reader toward the mouth of the cave—and that the ascent from the cave issues not in the pure light of the sun or knowledge of the causes but only in "fundamental problems," Strauss creates the doubt that the human is wholly at home anywhere. It is a doubt that can be resolved only through taking up the Socratic life of knowing one's ignorance. The classical account of this life Strauss presents unadorned, without the consoling piety of the supersensible realm. Strauss's writing is in this respect decidedly "late modern" writing. Coming after centuries of philosophic tradition, the political cave is for most readers no longer a secure, habitable place in the age of global technology—and Strauss ventures to say this to his readers who have undergone the instruction in Enlightenment and then passed beyond that instruction. The cave no longer has providential supports of any sort—whether from premodern belief in higher powers or from modern confidence in human mastery and scientific progress. Strauss addresses a post-Nietzschean world, as does Heidegger. What arises in this situation is a new clarity. The hope that history would render the human political habitation completely livable has collapsed, allowing a renewal of the classical reflection, in its original form, on unbridgeable dualism: the city and man. But philosophy's self-awareness of homelessness proves to be its own justification, for "the very uncertainty of all solutions, the very ignorance regarding the most important things, makes quest for knowledge the most important thing, and therefore also a life devoted to it the right way of life."
2
_Exigencies of Freedom and Politics_
CHAPTER 4
Freedom from the Good: Heidegger's Idealist Grounding of Politics
**I. INTRODUCTION**
Commentators on Heidegger often note three phases in his thinking as it relates to politics: (1) the analysis of human existence or _Dasein_ , culminating in _Being and Time_ of 1927 and ending in 1933, which is apolitical or at least has only implicit and rather vague political implications; (2) the explicit political engagement with the National Socialist revolution from 1933 to around 1936, in which Heidegger sees the chance to link his philosophical efforts for spiritual renewal of the West to the dominant political forces in Germany; (3) the withdrawal in the middle to late 1930s from an active political approach to the overcoming of Western nihilistic technology, with the adoption of a stance of awaiting the next dispensation of Being in the arrival of new gods, as heralded by Hölderlin, the poet of the German nation who speaks for Germany's spiritual leadership of the West.
But it has also been claimed that the authentic comportment toward existence described in _Being and Time_ entails, in its account of the resolute affirmation of fate, a radical decisionism that is continuous with Heidegger's political engagement of 1933, even if specific features of National Socialism, such as its biological racism, are not indicated by, or even compatible with, Heidegger's existential analysis. Indeed one might discern an underlying continuity to all three phases. Herman Philipse, in his recently published _Heidegger's Philosophy of Being_ , has put forth the interesting hypothesis that the project running through Heidegger's work is theological: _Being and Time_ pursues a "Pascalian strategy" of characterizing human existence as miserably fallen so as to provoke rejection of the spiritually devastated rationalism of Western civilization and therewith a search for redemption, whose features are essentially Christian; Heidegger then in the years just following _Being and Time_ (1929–32) attempts to find what Philipse calls the "metaphysical grace" for which the analysis of _Dasein_ was preparation, an effort that ends in failure; Heidegger takes refuge in Nazism, a desperate action that Philipse describes as religious conversion; that too ends in disaster, and Heidegger's later thought consists in developing what Philipse terms "postmonotheist theology" to save the West. Philipse argues that in Heidegger's later theological or eschatological scheme, Nazism still plays a positive role insofar as it furthers the completion of the technological age through its absolute assertion of the will to power. Since moral criticism of any agent in the fulfillment of the West's historical destiny is beside the point, Heidegger's disavowal of Nazism could never be more than equivocal at best.
Philipse's formulation has helpful features, but it overlooks some explicit statements of the later Heidegger that strikingly show that the political reality of the National Socialist movement held for him, even from the standpoint of utter defeat and personal disgrace in 1945, a promise that he believed that he and others in positions of authority in the early 1930s failed to fulfill. These assertions shed important light on Heidegger's political thinking; they indicate that Heidegger perhaps never learned the "lesson" that _all_ political engagement on behalf of his philosophic vision is inherently mistaken. They point to a conception of politics that, paradoxical as it may seem, might be called "idealist." I want to show that this conception of politics, which surely in the years of Heidegger's service to the revolutionary regime contains no hint of a basis in traditional revelation, is well grounded in Heidegger's thought of the period 1929–32. It is philosophically a kind of idealism that drastically rejects theological or "metaphysical" grace, or any turn to an infinite (superhuman) reality. And it is an idealism in crucial ways descended from the great tradition of German Idealism, by Heidegger's own avowals. It also contains, I argue, an internal paradox that illuminates the so-called "turn" ( _die Kehre_ ) in Heidegger's thinking and that can be viewed as the hidden link between the Kantian idealism of Heidegger's 1929 Davos disputation with Ernst Cassirer and the post-Kantian idealism of later writings. Philipse's continuity hypothesis must undergo revision through more attention to this philosophical stratum in Heidegger.
**II. HISTORY AS METAPHYSICS**
Heidegger penned a remarkable document in 1945, "The Rectorate 1933/34: Facts and Thoughts," which he gave to his son Hermann with the instruction to publish it at "a specified time," and which appeared with the Rectoral Address of 1933, "The Self-Assertion of the German University," in 1983, seven years after Heidegger's death. It is a self-serving and in verifiable ways mendacious document, to be sure. Yet it is not simply dismissive of the National Socialist movement; indeed Heidegger offers what is perhaps his most articulate justification for participating in the revolution of 1933. "I saw at the time in the movement that had come to power, the possibility of an inner gathering and renewal of the people [ _das Volk_ ] and a way for it to find its historical Western destiny. I believed that the self-renewing university could be called on to work as the standard for the inner gathering of the people." In hindsight he does not say that this perception of the movement was a mere delusion, although he does grant that "mediocre and incompetent" persons in the movement stood in the way of achieving higher goals. Instead Heidegger poses a remarkable "what if" question—a sort of question he acknowledges to be risky. "But the question may be put: what would have happened and what could have been prevented if in 1933 all the competent forces [ _vermögende Kräfte_ ] had aroused themselves and slowly, in secret persistence, purified and moderated the movement that came into power?"
Heidegger never anywhere suggests that another regime or movement, actual or possible, had the possibility for such direction from the "competent forces." Certainly no Western democratic regime could be directed in this way. Thus the Heidegger of 1945 had not broken with the Heidegger of 1933 as to the philosophical rightness of his placing his prestige and talent behind the National Socialist revolution, as rector of the University of Freiburg. His error was only in underestimating the difficulties he would face in his efforts to shape the regime toward higher ends. Behind Heidegger's affirmation of the philosophical rightness of his move is a conception of the relation of philosophy to practical life that persists in his thought from early to late.
Scholarship on Heidegger has lacked the proper terms for describing this relation. It is seldom noted that the hope of shaping the direction of political life through the university, and the project of subordinating political life to higher philosophical or cultural aims, are both well established in the tradition of German Idealist thought. Even when this is noted, the deeper philosophical premises behind this account of the relations of university, politics, and philosophy are not uncovered. This failure is not unrelated to the fact that contemporary scholarship takes for granted the truth of many or most of these premises, in some form. Most basically, this account assumes that philosophy is, or can be, the dominant force in human affairs and that human history is most fundamentally the history of philosophy. Accordingly the principles of ordinary actors in political and social life express, more or less directly, principles arrived at philosophically. This must mean that politics, morality, and religion ultimately are derived from philosophical thought; the ordinary moral actor is thus in possession of a metaphysical principle of morals, as Kant says. The spheres of politics, morality, and religion do not maintain any degree of autonomy from philosophy; but conversely, philosophy does not maintain any degree of autonomy from practical life. Philosophy comes to mean wholly transforming practical life; or rather, it becomes that transformation itself, the historical spirit effecting such transformation. This is not to deny that certain individuals—philosophers, poets, and statesmen—can have central historical roles as the leading spokesmen of that spirit.
Heidegger's version of this idealism is supported by another assumption bearing an unmistakable Kantian stamp: the core of existence for all human beings is a kind of freedom, a capacity for transcending concerns variously described as empirical, heteronymous, anthropological, or ontic. As Heidegger puts it, the core of human existence is the understanding of Being; the transcendence that makes all human thought and action possible is philosophical transcendence. As thus capable of transcending mere beings ( _Seienden_ ) toward the whole of Being ( _Sein_ ), the human essence has the ability to look past the vulgar concerns with comfort, security, and happiness, to face resolutely the totality of existence, which is limited only by death. As becomes evident in the Davos disputation, Heidegger is fully aware of the idealist and more specifically Kantian origins of this account of freedom. It is not possible to argue here how this idealist notion emerged in the eighteenth century in response to the perception that modern scientific naturalism failed to provide an adequate account of the unity and the ends of human knowledge. It would also be very helpful in this context to show that Heidegger, in his effort to provide the foundation of metaphysics in the analysis of _Dasein_ , saw himself as addressing in the early twentieth century a situation much like that Kant faced: the dominance of mathematico-empiricist philosophies that overthrew the authority of metaphysics as the ground of the unity of the sciences and as the reflection on the highest human _telos_.
Heidegger is much aware of his debt to the German Idealist tradition, and this debt has also been widely discussed in the scholarship. What has not been seen is the full scope of what that debt means. When Heidegger asserts that Kant is the first philosopher since Plato and Aristotle to take a further step in metaphysics, the place of freedom in Kant's metaphysical thought is present to Heidegger as central to that advance. But with the Kantian account of freedom comes a particular conception of the relation of metaphysics to practical life. I will argue that a version of this conception always underlies Heidegger's thinking—at times quite plainly, at others more covertly. Heidegger's version certainly no longer supports Kant's Enlightenment-universalist idea of human dignity, but instead after 1932 it undergirds a romantic exaltation of particular people or folk (the Greeks, the Germans) who have a universal mission of a philosophical nature. My concern is with showing how Heidegger grounds his _völkisch_ thinking in idealist premises. I begin with the Kantianism of the Davos disputation and then return to later utterances in which the _völkisch_ element is pronounced.
**III. THE REVISION OF KANT**
The theme of freedom is a crucial link between the writings before and after 1933; a central factor in Heidegger's thinking on freedom is his study of Kant, which is especially intense in the late 1920s and early 1930s. For the significance of Kant to Heidegger one of the most important documents is the spring 1929 disputation with Ernst Cassirer in Davos, Switzerland. Heidegger was at the time writing _Kant and the Problem of Metaphysics_ ; this interprets the _Critique of Pure Reason_ as providing the foundations of ontology in the productive imagination, which provides temporal intuitions as "schemata" for the categories of the understanding. Heidegger saw in Kant's argument an anticipation of his own account of the temporal openness of human existence as the condition for understanding Being. In the dispute with Cassirer, Heidegger defends his interpretation against the Neo-Kantian view of Kant as providing a theory of the natural sciences. Cassirer for his part asserts that he is not a Neo-Kantian as Heidegger defines Neo-Kantian, and that for two reasons: (1) he inquires into the productive imagination for understanding the symbolic as the basis for a general theory of culture; (2) he sees that the central problem for Kant is ethical: How is freedom possible? In this latter inquiry Kant takes a remarkable step into the supersensible, the _mundus intelligibilis_ , wherein he discloses a universal moral law that establishes the reality of freedom. At this point Cassirer challenges Heidegger to make sense of this aspect of Kant on his interpretation. If Heidegger treats Kant as a philosopher of finitude, for whom all knowledge is relative to human _Dasein_ , then what place can Kant have for the move into the infinity of the supersensible and the eternal truths of the ethical?
Heidegger's reply is impressive and in part convincing. He notes that in the _Critique_ Kant is concerned not with "regional ontologies" of the physical (nature) or the psychic (freedom or culture) but with _metaphysica generalis_ , the basis for any ontological inquiry. Heidegger then denies that the move into ethics is for Kant a move into the infinite; ethical imperatives can hold only for finite beings; the moral is identical with autonomous or self-supporting reason and is not derivable from a higher eternal ground; it is the transcending of the creatural that can be carried out only by a finite creature. But now Heidegger calls ethics itself into question, by claiming it is an error to stress the normative function of the moral law. Through self-legislation _Dasein_ constitutes itself, thus disclosing the ontological significance of the law. Human existence does partake of a certain infinity, the free "self-giving" or _exhibitio originaria_ whereby the transcendental imagination projects Being as a whole. Only a finite creature can have an ontology; God as eternal being has no temporal projection of Being. Thus Heidegger links the moral law to a finite being's understanding of Being as "thrown project": _Dasein_ 's projective effort to illuminate Being, which remains fundamentally opaque and mysterious, as simply given to _Dasein_ and not created by it.
Then more radically Heidegger asserts: the truth of Being exists only if a finite human being, such as _Dasein_ , exists. Eternity has meaning only within such a being's "inner transcendence of time"; there is no eternal "beyond" finite being. He then pronounces the task of his _Destruktion_ of the philosophical tradition: his whole critique of that tradition is that only on the basis of time as the gathering together of past, present, and future is anything like substance, _ousia_ , idea, and the eternal law intelligible; since antiquity the problem of Being has been interpreted in terms of time, which was always addressed to the subject matter in an unintelligible way. Kant made the first step toward uncovering this presupposition, and to this end he raised the question "What is man?" therewith initiating the metaphysics of _Dasein_. Heidegger says that as with Kant, his raising of the question "What is man?" is not anthropological but metaphysical: it discloses _Dasein_ 's temporality as the condition for metaphysics. And as with Kant, his analysis emphasizes the finitude of _Dasein_. Accordingly such anthropological themes as anxiety and living toward death are adduced only for illuminating the structure of human temporality.
Heidegger poses at this point the delicate question of the relation of his philosophy to "worldview," a question that clearly relates to that of the moral significance of freedom. Is Heidegger's analysis of _Dasein_ pre-ethical, perhaps ethically neutral? He handles this question with ambiguous, not to say obfuscating, formulations. Philosophy does not have the task of providing a worldview, although worldview is the presupposition of philosophizing. This presupposition is not, however, a doctrine, but solely the philosopher's effort to disclose in the act of philosophizing the highest freedom of human existence. He shows freedom not as an object of theory but as the act of setting free. This at the same time discloses metaphysics as a human happening, as historical. The philosopher pushes human freedom to its limit and forces man to confront at the limit of existence the Nothingness that is inseparable from Being. This exposure of _Dasein_ as free is for Heidegger the _terminus a quo_ of philosophy, and the entire problematic of his thought. He has not formulated the _terminus ad quem_ , which is the first concern of Cassirer, namely, a philosophy of culture. But can Heidegger deny that his renewal of the question of Being is motivated by a view of the worth and end of human existence?
He proceeds to say that the philosophic exposing of the nothingness of human _Dasein_ is "not an occasion for pessimism or melancholy." Rather one must grasp that an authentic existence needs opposition and that philosophy must "throw man back into the hardness of his fate, away from the lazy aspect of a man who exploits the work of the spirit." Thus genuine philosophy must be destructive, a radical "bursting open" ( _Sprengung_ ) of tradition, as in the case of Kant, who in attempting to lay the foundation of metaphysics was pressed toward finding that foundation in the abyss ( _Abgrund_ ). The foundation of philosophizing never ceases to be questionable; the _terminus a quo_ and the _terminus ad quem_ to this extent coincide. The form of life that affirms the inescapable questionability of the starting point is the highest form of existence. Yet man finds himself thrown into Being in a historical, even accidental way. Echoing Aristotle's remark on the nature of the theoretical life, Heidegger says that man is allowed only a few rare glimpses, at the pinnacle of his possibility, of the totality of existence. Otherwise his life is overwhelmed by the beings ( _Seienden_ ) in terms of which he tends to view himself: as something "ontic," an empirically given object, not as the "eccentric" being open to beings as a whole and himself at the same time. Human life ordinarily is either dispersed among beings or withdrawn into itself: the hardest thing is to see that the self is inseparable from Being, openness to which makes possible openness to self.
As an aside, Heidegger remarks that interpreting Kant's problematic in this way precludes viewing it in an "isolated ethical" sense. The radicality of questioning precludes assuming an ethical end or justification for that questioning. Moreover, it seems for Heidegger to preclude an orientation of radical questioning toward the ethical or political questions, as the subject matter for a thinking that tries to answer the question "What is man?" Here Heidegger strikingly separates himself not only from Kant but from the entire tradition of philosophy since Socrates. Still one discerns a certain indebtedness to Kant, who is the first philosopher to propose that the inquiry into the moral, or the good, can be divorced from the nature of man, and in particular, the human natural concern with happiness. Heidegger advances further in this direction by divorcing freedom from the good entirely.
**IV. THE IDEALISM OF THE _VOLK_**
In the memoir of 1945 Heidegger offers a sketch of the philosophic prehistory to his assumption of the rectorate. He mentions first his 1929 Freiburg inaugural address, "What Is Metaphysics?" whose concern, he notes, was to uncover the essential ground of the scattered multiplicity of academic disciplines in a concept of truth. It thus took the first step toward a philosophic reform of the university on the basis of the questioning of _Being and Time_ , which sought the ground of the possibility of metaphysics in the analysis of human existence as temporal. Heidegger then mentions a seminar and lecture on Plato, and a lecture on the essence of truth, from the period of 1930–32. The Plato seminar and lecture are centrally on the cave image of the _Republic_. One can surmise that Heidegger mentions them because they expound the basis for an anti-Platonic _paideia_ , in which liberation from the cave advances toward the truth not as _idea_ but as the unconcealment ( _Unverborgenheit_ ) of beings that was uncovered by the pre-Socratic philosophers. Plato's doctrine ambiguously presupposes and conceals that original ground of thinking, with fateful consequences for the West. Heidegger claims that these lectures were censored by the Nazi authorities.
The crucial moment in this prehistory of the rectorate is Heidegger's account of "how he saw the historical situation at that time." In 1930 and 1932 Ernst Jünger published the essay "Total Mobilization" and the book _The Worker_ ; Heidegger notes that he discussed these in a small circle with his assistant Brock, and in these discussions Heidegger "tried to show that in these writings an essential understanding of Nietzsche's metaphysics was expressed, insofar as in the horizon of this metaphysics the history and the present of the West were seen and foreseen." The circle reflected on what was coming ( _das Kommende_ ), and later events, Heidegger adds, confirmed what Jünger foretold, namely, the universal domination by the will to power as the planetary destiny. Nietzsche declared the advent of this reality with his pronouncement that "God is dead," which expresses not just ordinary atheism but the conviction that within the history of humanity the supersensible world, especially Christianity, has lost its moving power ( _wirkende Kraft_ ). Heidegger quoted this line of Nietzsche in the Rectoral Address of 1933. The event of God's death, Heidegger now states, alone makes intelligible the two world wars. In sum, Heidegger claims that in the period 1930–33 he became aware of nihilism as planetary destiny, an awareness that forced on him a radicalizing of the problem of the search for the ground of the sciences and the renewal of the university.
It made clear to him the need to reflect on the overcoming of the metaphysics of the will to power through a conversation with the Western tradition that returns to its origin. This remark refers to Heidegger's efforts in the same period to go behind Plato, in whom he saw the roots of the metaphysics of the will to power, to the origin of the West in pre-Socratic thinking about Being. And he now asks rhetorically whether the urgency of the problem did not warrant, for the sake of this reflection on the part of the Germans ( _bei uns Deutschen_ ), awakening and leading into the field ( _ins Feld zu führen_ ) those places that are considered the seat of the pursuit of knowledge and learning—the German university. "With the assumption of the rectorate I dared to make the experiment to save, purify and secure the positive (in the National Socialist movement)."
What did Heidegger see as positive in this movement? He asserts that in the Rectoral Address his attempt was to see beyond the "deficiencies and crudities" of the movement, toward its potential "to bring, one day, a gathering of the Western-historical essence of the German." His failures as administrator, he observes, should not distract from the essential: that we stand in the midst of the consummation of nihilism and the death of God, and every "time-space is closed off from the divine." At the same time "the overcoming of nihilism is announced in German thinking and singing," although the Germans do not perceive this and instead measure themselves by the standards of the prevailing nihilism. Thus they "misunderstand the essence of a historical self-assertion." Heidegger's thought can be reconstructed as follows: only the Germans are capable of leading the West out of nihilism because only they have the capacity to recover the forgotten beginning of the West; if the Germans are to fulfill this mission, they must be led by the spiritual leaders in the universities; the latter must have the support of political authority; only a movement that is both antidemocratic and intent on asserting German superiority among the nations has the requisite authority; such a movement came to power in 1933. Heidegger states that less possibility exists in the present moment of 1945 than existed in 1933 "of opening blinded eyes to a vision of the essential."
Whereas Heidegger carefully grounds his 1933 assertion of the world-historical destiny of the Germans in earlier reflections, it is striking that the writings before 1933 lack stress on Germanness. Section 74 of _Being and Time_ briefly connects the resolute affirming of destiny to the history of a people ( _Volk_ ) as the destiny to be affirmed. Yet that work's analysis of human existence as preparation for raising the question of Being does not give a special role to the Germans in fulfilling that analysis. It seems to characterize the human situation in universal and even timeless fashion. According to Heidegger's own account of how his eyes were opened, it was Jünger who portrayed the darkness of the present in such terms as to make evident the need for a radical overcoming of the nihilistic age, through a historical recovery of the origins of the West. Such overcoming, since it was to be realized in the world as a whole and not only in exceptional philosophic individuals, would have to be carried out by a people or folk, the modern successors to the Greeks. In no other way, it appeared to Heidegger in 1933, could the original question of Being be raised again.
This national or _völkisch_ grounding of philosophy is found in statements such as this one in the Rectoral Address: "For the Greeks science [ _Wissenschaft_ ] is not a 'cultural value' [ _'Kulturgut'_ ] but the innermost determining center of the whole popular-national existence [ _volklich-staatlichen Dasein_ ]." For related thoughts one can turn to the lectures of 1935, _Introduction to Metaphysics_ , which Heidegger published as a book in 1953. Heidegger writes that philosophy cannot be immediately effective in practical life, or expect resonance quickly, even though it may be in accord with "the inner history of a people." He speaks of the depth of the connection between _Volk_ and philosophy in the following: "Philosophy opens up the paths and perspectives for the knowing that establishes measure and rank, in which and out of which a people [ _Volk_ ] grasps its existence [ _Dasein_ ] in the historical-spiritual world, and brings to completion the knowing that inspires, threatens, and necessitates all questioning and judging." Philosophy fulfills the destiny of a people, not by lightening human burdens, as in securing the foundations of a culture, but through inducing struggle and hardship, since these are the condition for greatness. In Heidegger's account the Germans have already been granted the gift of struggle testing them for greatness, by a historical fate that places them in a pincers between Russia and America. These powers embody the technological nihilism of modernity: "The same dreary technological frenzy, the same unrestricted organization of the average man." In this situation the Germans, who are the "metaphysical folk," must decide to move themselves and the history of the West into the primal realm of the powers of Being, or suffer the spiritual annihilation of Europe. The Germans alone can overcome the modern misinterpretation of spirit ( _Geist_ ) as cleverness, technical skill, and cultural value, by raising anew the question of Being.
But how can a folk accomplish this; what does it mean to say that a folk thinks metaphysically? Heidegger in another set of lectures quotes approvingly the line of Hegel that "a cultivated people without a metaphysics is like a richly decorated temple without a Holy of Holies." Yet Heidegger asserts that only a few actually philosophize. "Which few? The creative transformers, the converters." They arouse the folk to gather its forces, teaching it that its destiny is to further philosophical questioning and thereby to assert spiritual leadership in the world. But as in other contexts, Heidegger indicates here a paradoxical character to this effect of the few with respect to the many: the teaching of the thinkers works slowly through imperceptible pathways and detours, until at last their thought is no longer original philosophizing, but "sinks down into the self-evidence of daily existence." It therefore must always be the task of the thinkers to unsettle the comfortable state of metaphysical certainty that eventually arises out of their own thought, and to expose the people once again to the hard truths of their spiritual destiny.
I conclude this discussion with a general observation: the writings of Heidegger that discuss political matters directly show that these are of interest to him only insofar as they can be brought to bear on the renewal of the question of Being. Heidegger's political engagements show that the furthering of that renewal takes precedence over any considerations of the good, the moral, and the just, as these have been understood in the philosophic tradition as having some universal articulation, reflecting ends (happiness, perfection, virtue) inherent in human nature or reason. Indeed for Heidegger the meaning of the renewed question entails a reinterpretation of such concerns as modes of fallenness, to the extent that they tend to be placed ahead of the primary human historical concern of "gathering forces" for the renewing of the question. Such a fall occurs when discussions of National Socialism stress its moral evil rather than inquire about its role in the history of Being's disclosure. It is wrong to think of Heidegger's failure to comment on the moral evil of Nazism as merely a personal failure, unrelated to his thought. Nor can one say that Heidegger simply did not get around to discussing moral good and evil, because his concentration was on the preliminary task of uncovering the ground in Being for such discussion. The turn to Being is understood by Heidegger as entailing a complete reevaluation of the meaning and place of "morality" in human affairs, such as very few people are prepared to undertake or accept—as Heidegger himself discovered.
**V. IDEALISM WITHOUT FREEDOM**
Heidegger in 1929 and after is forced to confront a certain paradox, not unrelated to one in Kant. On the assumption that human beings possess universally a radical kind of freedom, in an openness to Being that transcends all given beings, how is it that human beings are universally "fallen" into the forgetting of Being? And how has the present age emerged as one of an especially deep forgetfulness? How can freedom be gained and lost, if it has no empirical or ontic basis? Heidegger saw that his move from analysis of _Dasein_ 's temporality to Being ( _Sein_ ) itself, by passing through the "destructive" history of the ontology of time, which he planned as the second half of _Being and Time_ , could not provide him with the answer to that question. The freedom for openness to Being has been occluded by technological domination of the world; this has its roots not in an ordinary "fallenness" of _Dasein_ into beings, but in the planetary-historical fate in which Being withdraws into oblivion. Accordingly Heidegger introduced a new formulation about freedom: man is possessed by freedom, not freedom by man. In the last analysis freedom for openness to Being is a gift of Being, granted to certain peoples in certain epochs. It was such a gift that, in Heidegger's view, Germany and therewith the West were granted in 1933, with the ascent to power of Hitler and his revolution—a gift that was misunderstood and improperly used by the Germans. At the same time, Heidegger's noting the universal fallenness or _Seinsvergessenheit_ of the epoch implies a greater gulf between the philosopher and his milieu than was implied in the analysis of _Being and Time_. Even as the philosopher would ground his insight more deeply in the folk's potential for openness to Being, he necessarily separates himself more sharply from its historical actuality. This peculiar combination of identification and distance is possible only on the basis of a transmutation of the folk into the "ideal" such as occurs in Heidegger's thought.
In sum, the radicality of freedom that has no ground in human nature can appear, or disappear, only at the whim of history, or fate, which demands the proper attunement of mankind for its reception. Indeed the promise of such freedom will appear most forcefully in those moments when ordinary reality, with its ontic or merely "natural" concerns, is most threatened with destruction. In this way nihilism, as the complete immersion in beings, can destroy itself when its negative force is turned against the beings, thus compelling human life to be free for openness to Being. The scourge of the earth is its savior: "Where danger is, there grows salvation." Since, however, the promise of the 1933 revolution was not fulfilled, and in 1945 the darkness of the American-Soviet imperium descended over the world, mankind must await, indefinitely and indeterminately, in the long convalescence ( _Verwindung_ ) of the technological world night, for the saving of mankind by other, more efficacious deities than those that appeared in 1933.
Heidegger has a profound grasp of the radicality of philosophical questioning comparable with that of the greatest figures in the tradition. But his divorce of questioning from any natural-teleological basis, for which the German Idealist concepts of freedom helped set the stage, has a paradoxical consequence. Such questioning is unable to see clearly the political-moral phenomena that must nourish it; a questioning that cannot see these phenomena cannot gain true distance on them, and so risks becoming their slave. The paradox is not mitigated if the servitude is not unwitting but voluntary, as in the case of Heidegger.
CHAPTER 5
Heidegger on Nietzsche and the Higher Freedom
**I**
In his 1946 essay "The Saying of Anaximander," Martin Heidegger writes: "To hunt after dependencies and influences between thinkers is a misunderstanding of thinking. Every thinker is dependent, namely on the address of Being [ _vom Zuspruch des Seins_ ]. The extent of this dependency determines the freedom from distracting influences. The broader the dependency, the more capacious is the freedom of thinking, and therefore more powerful the danger that it will wander past what was once thought, only perhaps to think the same [ _das Selbe_ ]." In referring to the dependency of the thinker on history—and for Heidegger "history" is the history of Being, of course—Heidegger speaks of a realm of freedom that is also a realm of danger. For Heidegger, genuine freedom exists only in the response to an address, or challenge, from somewhere beyond the individual's will. The address can be overpowering, even to the point of obliterating insight into crucial differences. Indeed this result is inherent in the address of Being, in that Being must suffer oblivion that is "by no means the result of forgetfulness of thinking, but belongs to that essence of Being which it itself conceals." Insofar as Being ( _Sein_ ) tends to be hidden by the very beings ( _Seienden_ ) that it makes available, and this self-hiding belongs even to the most essential thinking, Heidegger surely does not exempt his own thinking from the dangers of distortion and failure. Danger belongs to the freedom of thinking. Heidegger also avows the power exerted by certain earlier thinkers within his own thinking, and Nietzsche is not least among these. In being addressed by Being with or through Nietzsche, Heidegger is exposed to the danger of uncovering only "the same" in Nietzsche and missing what was "once thought."
In a 1936 comment on Hegel's relation to Schelling, Heidegger writes: "The greatest thinkers can fundamentally never understand each other, precisely because they desire the same [ _dasselbe_ ] in the shape of their own greatness. If they desired what is different, then mutual understanding, that is, indulging another [ _das Gewähren lassen_ ] would not be so difficult." The greatest thinkers are addressed by the greatest question, the question of Being, in which their thought is taken up in a radical dependence on the matter to be thought. This is very unlike ordinary thinking, in which the thinker maintains a safe distance between himself and the object of his thought. The philosopher can lose sight of the individual standpoint from which he thinks the greatest questions, and also lose sight of the standpoint from which another thinker approaches them, as well. If there is some inevitable misunderstanding of Nietzsche from Heidegger's side, it takes place through the freedom of the thinker, a freedom that is based on radical dependence. Nietzsche and Heidegger, the thinkers, share the gift and the danger of this radical freedom. Is it possible that they share the question of freedom itself, of the freedom of thinking? If the freedom of thinking claims and addresses both thinkers, perhaps they share in that thinking similar questions about dependency and freedom, and about freedom and danger. Perhaps this configuration belongs to the same, _das Selbe_ , that they think.
Again the 1936 Schelling lectures offer illumination: "The treatise of Schelling [on the essence of human freedom] has nothing to do with the question of freedom of the will, which in the end is posed perversely, and therefore is no question. For here freedom means not an attribute of the human, but the opposite: the human is above all the property [ _Eigentum_ ] of freedom. Freedom is the encompassing and pervasive essence in which the human is embedded, and first becomes human. This is to say, the essence of the human is freedom." Here Heidegger speaks for himself and not only for Schelling, it can be said. Of course it is risky to take the language of Heidegger's reading of another philosopher and to regard it as adequate to Heidegger's own thinking. But what is undoubtedly Heidegger's own language (if it can be said that language ever unquestionably belongs to the speaker) is from the essay "On the Essence of Truth," first published in 1943. "The essence of truth is freedom," Heidegger writes. "Resistance to this statement loses itself in prejudices, which in their most stubborn form declare that freedom is an attribute of the human. The essence of freedom needs and endures no further inquiry." And further, "Freedom for the disclosure of the open [ _Offenbaren eines Offen_ ] allows each of the beings to be what it is. Freedom reveals itself as the letting-be of the beings." Freedom therefore is not something over which the human has power. "The human 'possesses' freedom not as an attribute, but rather the opposite is above all the case: freedom, the existing disclosing _Da-Sein_ , possesses the human, and this in such an original way that only freedom provides to a given form of the human a relation to beings as a whole that first grounds and makes out history." Insofar as freedom grounds the historical existence of the human in which beings are disclosed, freedom as the essence of truth is inseparable from the truth of Being.
**II**
Where in Nietzsche could Heidegger find traces of this thought on freedom? Is not the language of freedom the language of German Idealism, which Heidegger appropriates from Kant, Schelling, and Hegel to uncover what is unthought in it with respect to the relation of freedom to truth? Yet surely Nietzsche, too, has an account of freedom, in which he also distinguishes the true meaning of freedom from freedom of the will, while stressing his opposition to the "intelligible world" of Kantian freedom. Indeed in the lectures of 1951–52, _What Is Called Thinking?_ Heidegger gives a central place to Nietzsche's thought on freedom in his presentation of the problematic of what thinking is. At the beginning of lecture 6, Heidegger states: "With greater clarity than any man before him Nietzsche saw the necessity of a change in the realm of essential thinking." He was "the first man to recognize clearly, and the only man so far to think through metaphysically and in all its implications, the moment when man is about to assume dominion of the earth as a whole." Heidegger says that Nietzsche saw that the man of today is faced with hitherto unknown decisions. The assumption of dominion over the earth poses the question of worldwide government. Has the man of today given thought to the conditions for such government? Is modern man prepared to manage the powers of technology and ready to address the unfamiliar decisions of world rule? "Nietzsche's answer to these questions is _No_." Heidegger continues: "There is the danger that the thought of man today will fall short of the decisions that are coming, decisions of whose specific historical shape we can know nothing."
Let us pause for a moment. Heidegger's language lets us see that the historical moment, or Being in its present historical disclosure, calls for attentive listening and receptive thinking, but also for decision. And herein lies a danger, since the needed decision may be neglected, or the wrong decision may be taken. Here within the response to the historical we have a glimpse of freedom, the freedom to decide and act in response to the disclosure of Being. Nietzsche was the first to see clearly the challenge of the historical moment, and the danger of failure it poses, and thus he was the first to grasp clearly the demands made by freedom in this moment. Heidegger proceeds to find authority in Nietzsche's writing for this view of the present. But first he notes that the Second World War "decided nothing," that is, it contributed nothing to deciding "man's essential fate on this earth." European culture has not yet risen to the challenge that Nietzsche addressed to it. The weakness was manifest in the crucial decade following World War I, when Europe was unable to come to terms with what was looming on the horizon. But Nietzsche foresaw this weakness in the summer of 1888, in his diagnosis of the modern situation entitled "Critique of Modernity," an aphorism of _Twilight of the Idols_. Heidegger quotes a substantial part of the aphorism, and I here reproduce that portion:
Our institutions are good for nothing anymore; on this point all agree. However, it is not their fault but _ours_. Now that we have mislaid all the instincts from which institutions grow, we lose institutions altogether because _we_ are no longer good for them. Democracy has always been the form of decline of organizing power: in _Human, All Too Human_ I, 349 (1878) I already characterized modern democracy, together with its mongrel forms such as the "German Reich," as the _form of decline of the state_. If there are to be institutions there must be a kind of will, instinct, imperative, antiliberal to the point of malice: the will to tradition, to authority, to responsibility for centuries to come, to the _solidarity_ of chains of generations forward and backward ad infinitum. When that will is present, something like the _Imperium Romanum_ is founded: or something like Russia, the _only_ power today that has endurance in its bones, that can wait, that still can have promise—Russia the counterconcept to that miserable European particularism and nervousness which has entered a critical condition with the formation of the German Reich. . . . The whole West no longer possesses those instincts out of which institutions grow, out of which a _future_ grows; nothing else, perhaps, goes so much against the grain of its "modern spirit." Men live for the day, men live very fast—men live very irresponsibly: precisely this is called "freedom." The thing that _makes_ an institution an institution is despised, hated, rejected: men fear they are in danger of a new slavery the moment the word "authority" is even mentioned.
Heidegger follows the quotation with five observations: (1) Nietzsche in these remarks not only comments on current politics but indicates that human nature is not yet "fully developed and secured," and is thus unprepared for the great decisions ahead; (2) The human is not yet secured because, on the basis of Western thinking, it lacks unity and is divided into separate and clashing elements, the rational and the animal. "This rupture prevents man from possessing unity of nature and thus _being free_ for what we normally call the real"; (3) Nietzsche's doctrine of the superman ( _Übermensch_ ) is the account of how we must go beyond man as he is, into a complete determination of man, a determination that leaves behind our "boundless, purely quantitative, nonstop progress": (4) The supermen will appear in small numbers, after a new "rank order has been carried out" that rejects the doctrine that all men are equal; (5) Hölderlin's words on Christ as brother of Hercules and Dionysus announce "a still unspoken gathering of the whole of Western fate," from which the West "can go forth to meet the coming decisions—to become, perhaps and in a wholly other mode, a land of dawn, the Orient."
Central to Nietzsche's analysis and Heidegger's sympathetic reading of it is the critique of the democratic account of freedom, as a mere freedom from, not a freedom for—a freedom that flies from the great responsibility of building an enduring civilization, a task that calls for the rejection of equality and for the revering of rank and authority. Freedom in the higher sense is the acceptance of a historical task and the readiness to make difficult decisions for it. But this requires that the dispersed elements of human nature be drawn together in a new unity, overcoming traditional distinctions of body and spirit, faith and reason. This new ordering of life cannot rely on common conceptions and demands a way of thinking remote from that found in "the public figures who in the course of current history emerge in the limelight."
Heidegger does not comment on the aphorism of Nietzsche just preceding the "critique of modernity," but it bears very much on the questions at stake and has the heading "My conception of freedom." I will quote a few lines. "The value of a thing sometimes lies not in what one obtains with it, but in what one pays for it, what it costs us." Liberal institutions are valuable only as long as we are fighting for them; then they promote freedom. War is a training in freedom. "For what is freedom? That one has the will to self-responsibility. . . . How is freedom measured, in individuals and in nations? By the resistance that has to be overcome, by the effort it costs to stay _aloft_." Great danger is what makes nations and individuals great. "First principle: one must need strength, otherwise one will never have it." Closely related is another aphorism entitled "Freedom as I _do not_ mean it . . ." The modern ideas of freedom—"the claim to independence, to free development, to _laisser aller_ "—are symptoms of decadence, of degeneration of instinct. "Today the only way of making the individual possible would be by _pruning_ him: possible, that is to say _complete_."
It is not hard to find the spiritual affinity between these remarks and Heidegger's thoughts on the essence of freedom as the affirmation of historical dependence, or fate, and the call to higher decisions, the exposure to danger, that such freedom brings. Freedom is not the arbitrary exercise of individual will but the gathering of forces into a true unity—a higher completion of the human that overcomes age-old distinctions and divisions. But freedom in this sense entails the transcending of the human as it has been known. It is the surpassing of metaphysical thinking, the forgetfulness of Being, which is not a movement toward a determinate goal, since we face decisions "of whose specific historical shape we can know nothing." "What is most thought-provoking in our thought-provoking time is that we are still not thinking." The "still not," Heidegger notes, does not mean that we are not thinking at all, and it does not mean that we can simply put behind us, at will, a certain failure in thinking. It implies that we are already on the way to a thinking that eludes the forms of representation to which Western man is accustomed. The prospect cannot, therefore, be described in terms of palpable outcomes—pessimistically or optimistically—such as representational thought expects and demands. "The thought-provoking thing turns away from us, in fact has long since turned away from man." The withdrawing of the thought-provoking, of Being, is what properly gives food for thought. In this way it develops its nearness, and whoever is drawn into this withdrawing is drawn "into the enigmatic and therefore mutable nearness of its appeal." "And what is most thought-provoking—especially when it is man's highest concern—may well be also what is most dangerous. Or do we imagine that a man could even in small ways encounter the essence of truth, the essence of beauty, the essence of grace—without danger?" Nietzsche saw our time as the time of the growing wasteland and of the approaching reign of the nihilism of the "last man." The response to this possible event cannot be an appeal to "common sense," the fruit of Enlightenment thinking about human improvement. The response involves a higher freedom, the freedom of the opening to a thinking beyond the representational. And it is to such thinking that Nietzsche's highest thoughts—the will to power, the superman, and the eternal recurrence of the same—point us.
But Nietzsche is only a pointer. His "thinking gives voice and language to what now _is_ —but in a language in which the two-thousand-year-old thinking of Western metaphysics speaks, a language that we all speak, that Europe speaks." Nietzsche begins a profound analysis of the account of reason, of _ratio_ , as culminating in the last man's forming of ideas to reckon with things. "Nietzsche calls it blinking, without relating blinking explicitly to the nature of representing or idea-forming, without inquiring into the essential sphere, and above all the essential origin, of representational ideas." Nietzsche still thinks in metaphysical terms of a deliverance from nihilistic thinking, the thinking that is the revenge against time. In particular, he thinks in the terms of the metaphysics of the modern era, which determines the Being of beings as will. Once again Heidegger calls on the authority of Schelling: "In the final and highest instance, there is no being other than willing. Willing is primal being, and to it alone belong all predicates: being unconditioned, eternity, independence of time, self-affirmation. All philosophy strives only to find this highest expression." Heidegger remarks that Nietzsche thinks the same thing as Schelling when he defines the primal nature of Being as will to power. Schelling and Nietzsche share the distinction of being thinkers who, while still thinking metaphysically, all the same point toward postmetaphysical thinking—and this is for both a thinking centrally about freedom. It is the freedom that appropriates man, that is not a property of man. What these philosophers still did not see or say is that such freedom appropriates man not as will but as the opening of Being in history, the opening that is more primordial than willing and the representational thinking grounded in willing. But both thinkers had the sense of a fundamental crisis in Western life, the sense that man is faced with unprecedented catastrophe. Heidegger takes up this theme. The opening to Being as historical is inseparable from danger and destruction—it calls for the destruction that occurs through and then ultimately to the representational thinking grounded in willing. The summons of fate is the exposure to death, to the nothingness of the "sound common sense" of modern life. "Nietzsche sees clearly that in the history of Western man something is coming to an end; what until now and long since has remained uncompleted, Nietzsche sees the necessity to carry to a completion."
**III**
Nihilism, or the oblivion of Being, must be carried toward and through the end point, in order to arrive at another beginning. That Heidegger held something akin to this view as early as 1929, while commenting on Kant, and before his close engagement with Nietzsche, can be gathered from his disputation with Cassirer at Davos. Once again the language of the argument is the language of freedom. "Freedom is not an object of theoretical apprehending" but "the setting free," or the "self-freeing of freedom in man." "The setting free of the _Dasein_ in man must be the sole and central thing that philosophy as philosophizing can perform." Such freedom is evident in Kant's "radical bursting open" of the traditional concept of ontology, through which he found himself pressed toward the grounding of ontology in an abyss ( _Abgrund_ ). Thus Kant grasped that "the freeing of the inner transcendence of _Dasein_ is the fundamental character of philosophy itself," a "becoming free for the finitude of _Dasein_. . . . Just to come into the thrownness of _Dasein_ is to come into the conflict that lies within the essence of freedom." Philosophy has the task of "throwing man back into the hardness of his fate," so as to make manifest to him "the nothingness of his _Da-sein_." "This nothingness is the occasion not for pessimism . . . but for understanding that authentic activity takes place only where there is opposition." In this period of fruitful appropriation of Kant, Heidegger seeks to show that "the question of the possibility of metaphysics demands a metaphysics of _Da-sein_ ," which moves beyond anthropological thinking about man. Therefore Heidegger still speaks the language of metaphysics. Freedom and the setting free of _Dasein_ are bound up with the conception of the transcendental horizon of the thrown project, with its obvious Kantian roots.
According to Heidegger's 1945 thoughts expressed in "The Rectorate 1933/34," Nietzsche's thought as mediated by Ernst Jünger had a decisive role in changing this orientation. Heidegger (participating in the early 1930s in a Jünger reading circle) found that Jünger clarified the historical situation of the West on the basis of an "essential understanding of the metaphysics of Nietzsche" within whose horizon the "history and the present of the West were seen and foreseen." "What Ernst Jünger thinks in the thoughts of the dominion and shape of the worker, and what he sees in light of this thought, is the universal dominion of the will to power, viewed within planetary history. . . . From this reality of the will to power I then saw already what _is_. The reality of the will to power lets itself be announced, as Nietzsche means it, in the sentence 'God is dead.'" Heidegger then asks: "Did this not offer sufficient ground and essential urgency to think ahead in original reflection toward the overcoming of the metaphysics of the will to power, that is, to begin a conversation with Western thought by a return to its beginning?" In light of the planetary situation of nihilism, there can be no freeing of the inner transcendence of _Dasein_ without first an uprooting of the metaphysics that dominates the present, which in turn requires a recovery of the entire history of Being in the West. Nietzsche is at once guide and obstacle to such recovery and uprooting. But Nietzsche saw the necessity for the true thinkers to assume responsibility for the destiny of Western man, which means, in the first place, to carry the metaphysics of the will to its radical completion.
There is clearly no radical break in Heidegger's thought, no specific date at which a turn begins, and _die Kehre_ has too many aspects to be subsumable under a formula. But one could speak of a shift in the meaning of freedom as central to the development of Heidegger's thought in the 1930s, insofar as freedom, in the highest sense, assumes the task of the appropriation of history for the overcoming of nihilism. This is at the heart of the turn to _Seinsgeschichte_ and to the effort to recover the historical opening of Being in Parmenides and Heraclitus at the start of Western thinking. In the early 1930s Heidegger sees this task as falling not just to himself and thinkers who shared his way but to the German people as a whole. The fate of philosophy is directly linked to the fate of particular peoples. As Heidegger writes in the Rectoral Address, "For the Greeks science [ _Wissenschaft_ ] is not a 'cultural value' but the innermost determining center of the whole popular-national _Dasein_." The 1935 lectures _Introduction to Metaphysics_ continue this theme: "Philosophy opens up the paths and perspectives for the knowing that establishes measure and rank, in which and out of which a _Volk_ grasps its _Dasein_ in the historical-spiritual world, and brings to completion the knowing that inspires, threatens, and necessitates all questioning and judging." Philosophy both discloses the essence of a people and fulfills its destiny. Surely with the emphasis on Western metaphysics as destiny Heidegger at this time moves closer to Schelling and Hegel, as well as Nietzsche. It is Hegel who writes, "a cultivated people without a metaphysics is like a richly decorated temple without a Holy of Holies," a maxim that Heidegger quotes in his lectures on Parmenides. In the mid-1930s, even after the disenchantment of the rectoral year, Heidegger has hopes that the renewal of the West will arise out of Europe and particularly out of _das Land in der Mitte_. But in 1945 Heidegger writes that less possibility exists "now" than before the war "of opening blinded eyes to a vision of the essential." And we have read the endorsement in _What Is Called Thinking?_ of Nietzsche's judgment on the "miserable particularism" of Europe. After 1945 Heidegger does not entertain hopes of the renewal of Europe through political movements or political actions of any kind.
**IV**
I wish to dwell for a while on the account of historical destiny in _Introduction to Metaphysics_ for the light it sheds on the higher freedom as Heidegger conceives it in the 1930s, and the place of Nietzsche's thought in that conception. One has to bear in mind that this writing belongs to the era of Heidegger's engagement, albeit wavering, in contemporary politics. The Germans, being singled out for a philosophical destiny, are as such exposed to great hardship. Philosophy fulfills the destiny of a people not by lightening burdens, or by securing the ground of culture, but through the knowing embrace of struggles that bring forth qualities of greatness. The Germans have been granted the gift of struggle by being placed in a pincers between America and Russia. These powers embody the technological nihilism of modernity and its extreme egalitarian ethos: "The same dreary technological frenzy, the same unrestricted organization of the average man." Heidegger echoes Nietzsche's aperçu on the spiritually flattening preoccupation with speed and efficiency. "Time is nothing but speed, instantaneity, and simultaneity; time as history has vanished from the _Dasein_ of all peoples." This is a time of decision, above all for the Germans who, as _das metaphysische Volk_ , have the calling to overcome the modern manifestation of spirit ( _Geist_ ) as cleverness, technical skill, and cultural value. "The people will acquire a fate from its vocation only when it creates in itself a resonance . . . and grasps its tradition creatively." This, then, is the highest freedom, whereby a people moves itself and the history of the West into the originary realm of the powers of Being. Such freedom is the response to Being, in raising anew the question "How does it stand with Being?" The question is raised " _not_ in order to compose an ontology in the traditional style," but rather "the point is to restore the historical _Dasein_ of human beings."
But the notion of a metaphysical people contains an inherent problem, and it poses a special danger to the philosopher who speaks for the metaphysical spirit. Those who actually philosophize are few. Which few? They are "the creative transformers, the converters." They arouse the people to gather its forces, to assert its spiritual leadership. All the same, philosophic thought works mostly in indirect ways, on imperceptible pathways and detours, and in the end, the thought that gets wide currency is no longer philosophy but thought that has sunk down into the self-evidence of daily existence. The summons to move thought beyond representational thinking, beyond the formulaic, becomes itself the accepted rule of life and another form of sound common sense. Therefore the genuinely creative thinker must be the destroyer not only of accustomed ways but of his own ways, once they harden into the familiar. The thinker who attempts to make a new beginning finds his thought unable to hold the beginning as original and sees it pass before his eyes into an established way. There can be no definitive surpassing of merely representational thinking; genuine thinking is perpetual war, _polemos_. The originating thinkers of the tradition, Sophocles, Parmenides, and Heraclitus, were fully aware of this paradox. In the exegesis of the first choral ode of _Antigone_ , the account of man as the most uncanny ( _das Unheimlichste_ , _to deinataton_ ) of beings, Heidegger writes that "those who rise high in historical Being as creators, as doers," are necessarily "violence doers" who become " _apolis_ , without city and site, lonesome, uncanny, with no way out amidst beings as a whole, and at the same time without ordinance and limit, without structure and fittingness [ _Fug_ ], because they _as_ creators must first ground all of this in each case." Their difficulty belongs to the structure of Being itself, since the overwhelming power of Being as _dike_ must be disclosed through the gathering force of human _techne_ , with the _polis_ as the site of this encounter. The gathering of _techne_ and _logos_ , which brings Being into disclosure, also must conceal what it gathers. "The uncanniest (the human being) is what it is because from the ground up it deals with and conceives the familiar only in order to break out of it and let what overwhelms it break in." Heidegger observes that this authentic poetic-philosophic thinking of the early Greeks is fundamentally at odds with later thinking in terms of "moral appraisal."
**V**
In _Introduction to Metaphysics_ Heidegger avows his debt to Nietzsche's interpretation of the Greeks. "Nietzsche did reconceive the great age of the inception of Greek _Dasein_ in its entirety in a way that is surpassed only by Hölderlin." Specifically, in the account of _Dasein_ as the self-transcending of the familiar toward Being as the overpowering, and the struggle of _techne_ with _dike_ , one sees a kinship with Nietzsche's encounter between Apollonian limits and the overwhelming force of the Dionysian. Heidegger already points to this connection in the 1929–30 lectures, _The Fundamental Concepts of Metaphysics_ , where he notes that Nietzsche offers the deepest account of our contemporary situation through his analysis of the Greek world and especially in certain passages from _The Will to Power._
I was fundamentally concerned with nothing other than surmising why precisely the Greek Apollonian had to grow out of a Dionysian understanding: the Dionysian Greek needed to become Apollonian: that is, to shatter his will for the immense, for the multiple, the uncertain, the horrifying, upon a will for measure, for simplicity, for classification in rules and concepts. . . . Beauty is not bestowed on the Greek, just as little as logic, or as naturalness of morals,—it is captured, willed, fought for—it is his _conquest_.
Let us restate this in Heidegger's terms. The Dionysian, overpowering force of Being cannot be disclosed, brought into the open, without gathering into limits, which is the work of _logos_ and _techne_. The freedom in human _Dasein_ of the letting-be of beings is the freedom of a violent, dangerous act, which ventures into the groundless and unfathomable, for it acts on behalf of the overpowering force even as it gives it measure and form. The higher destiny of the Greeks is to confront the power of Being and to preserve that power in the great works of poetry and philosophy, and also in the state, the temples, and the gods, which express not simple repose but the striving to disclose the force of _phusis_ , the emerging of Being into presence, without reducing it to the familiar, the calculable, and the common.
The noble form of freedom in both thinkers is avowedly paradoxical. The higher power, the Dionysian or _phusis_ , appropriates the human, and the human is thus moved toward a new completion, a transformation in a higher unity, a new gathering of forces. At the same time, every determination, every gathering is inherently partial, mutable, tentative. _Logos_ , even or especially as great poetry and philosophy, cannot uncover an authoritative law for humanity as a whole. Indeed the establishment of stable, permanent laws runs contrary to the ground of human excellence, which lies in being tested by struggle and conflict. Philosophy, indeed, is the highest awareness of the provisionality of all articulations of Being. Heidegger thus writes of philosophic interpretation:
There is no universal schema that could be applied mechanically to the interpretation of writings of thinkers, or even to a single work of a single thinker. A dialogue of Plato, for example the _Phaedrus_ , the conversation on the beautiful, can be interpreted in totally different spheres and respects, according to totally different implications and problematics. This multiplicity of possible interpretations does not discredit the strictness of thought content. . . . Rather, multiplicity of meanings is the element in which all thought must move in order to be strict thought.
Furthermore, the purest thinker, who remains drawn into that which withdraws, is like Socrates a thinker who does not commit thinking to writing. "For anyone who begins to write out of thoughtfulness must inevitably be like those people who run to seek refuge from any draft too strong for them. An as yet hidden history still keeps the secret why all great Western thinkers after Socrates, with all their greatness, had to be such fugitives."
Can this highest philosophic freedom, this resistance to simplification and reduction, this rigorous openness to the elusive complexity of the whole of Being—can this be the completion of humanity for which the thinker after Nietzsche is hoping and waiting? Is it conceivable as a general condition for humanity? Is it thinkable that philosophy or some other postphilosophical thinking would ever overcome the human tendencies to rely on the familiar stabilities of the calculable, the easily recognized, and the average—on unreflective _nomoi_? If the highest truths cannot even be faithfully preserved in writing, how can the highest freedom be realized in the human world as a whole—in a "new beginning"? In both Nietzsche and Heidegger the involvement of philosophy in legislative projects is ambiguous and tentative—or it becomes so for Heidegger after the 1930s. The new dispensation of the sway of _phusis_ eludes the control of the human philosopher-legislator or philosopher-poet, who finds that his meditation on the higher freedom takes him down solitary paths far from the prevailing _nomoi_ , to say nothing of the centers of political authority. This does not affect, however, the persisting tone of expectation or call for extraordinary changes in the political world whose means of actualization are left unexplained. Heidegger rejects the Greek classical account of the philosophic life as radically detached from hopes and expectations concerning the fate of the _nomos_ , beyond the prudential regard for nontyrannical rule as providing necessary conditions for that life. Such conceiving of philosophy is not sufficiently tragic.
I close with passages that reveal Nietzsche's awareness of the paradox of his own project. Again they are taken from _Twilight of the Idols_. Nietzsche announces his "great liberation," in which "the innocence of becoming is restored."
We invented the concept 'purpose'; in reality purpose is _lacking_ : one is necessary, one is a piece of fate, one belongs to the whole, one is _in_ the whole—there exists nothing that could judge, measure, compare, condemn our being, for that would be to judge, measure, condemn the whole. . . . But _nothing exists apart from the whole_.
Nietzsche later speaks of Goethe as the last German before whom he feels reverence, for Goethe attained the liberation Nietzsche teaches:
A spirit thus emancipated stands in the midst of the universe with a joyful and trusting fatalism, in the _faith_ that only what is separate and individual may be rejected, that in the totality everything is redeemed and affirmed— _he no longer denies_. . . . But such a faith is the highest of all possible faiths: I have baptized it with the name _Dionysos_.
But who are, who can be, the adherents of this faith? In the next aphorism Nietzsche tells the reader that in a sense the nineteenth century's striving was the same as Goethe's, and yet the result was "a chaos, a nihilistic sigh, a not knowing which way to turn," and he asks whether it is not possible that Goethe was "not only for Germany, but for all Europe, merely an episode, a beautiful 'in vain'?" He concludes with a remark that could be put next to Heidegger's description of Socrates:
But one misunderstands great human beings, if one views them from the paltry perspective of public utility. That one does not know how to make use of it _perhaps even pertains_ to greatness.
CHAPTER 6
The Room for Political Philosophy: Strauss on Heidegger's Political Thought
**I**
In the essay that is his final extended statement on Heidegger, Strauss defines political philosophy as the inquiry "concerned with the best or just political order which is by nature best or just everywhere and always" and observes that "in the last two generations political philosophy has lost its credibility." In a remarkable change this inquiry has "lost its credibility in proportion as politics itself has become more philosophic than ever in a sense" for "throughout its whole history political philosophy was universal while politics was particular." Political events are now globally connected, such that unrest in an American city "has repercussions in Moscow, Peking, Johannesburg, Hanoi, London, and other far away places." Politics has become universal, or at least it cannot be as wholly focused as in earlier times on "the being and well-being of this or that particular society (a polis, a nation, an empire)." Implicit in Strauss's observation is the global transformation of politics in the modern era by political philosophy of Western origin with a universal purpose. Philosophy in the modern era became more active and charitable (and less contemplative and proud) as it undertook a universal practical project: "the relief of man's estate" by science and technology, the promotion of prosperity and the rights of man, the creation of a league of free and equal nations. Accordingly it thought that its highest philosophical ends could be adequately realized in the realm of practice. By contrast premodern political philosophy reflected on what is "by nature best" but accepted with resignation the unlikelihood of its achievement in any particular society. Politics as a practical art, although enlightened by philosophers, acknowledged this limitation and pursued the best possible as allowed by the local conditions and character of given societies.
The present situation contains a profound paradox insofar as universalist politics, the product of universalist political philosophy, is no longer supported by belief in the principles of modern political philosophy or indeed any political philosophy. Strauss characterizes this situation as the "crisis of the West," which is above all a crisis of political philosophy. Political philosophy has been discredited by two powerful forms of thought, positivism and existentialism, according to which "the validation of sound value judgments" is impossible. Positivism holds that only scientific knowledge is genuine knowledge, and such knowledge is unable to validate or invalidate any value judgments. Existentialism holds that "all principles of understanding and of action are historical, i.e., have no other ground than groundless human decision or fateful dispensation." According to existentialism, science has no claim to be more "than one form of viewing the world among many of viewing the world," and what is more, its separation of fact from value is untenable. This however does not mean that existentialism provides a nonarbitrary grounding of values, since for existential thought any supposition of a universal value is a mere prejudice.
The opening paragraph of Strauss's essay lays out in compressed fashion what is probably his best-known account of political philosophy and of the contemporary modes of thought opposing it. According to this account, political philosophy is an inquiry with a practical orientation or purpose (knowledge of the order of society that is by nature best), although in the classical version Strauss advocates, this inquiry has limited practical ambitions. It serves political life (and by extension morality) through uncovering absolute, universally valid notions of virtue, justice, and natural right, or by the "validation of sound value judgments." Its principles, while universal in character (the object of _scientia_ in the premodern sense), always have particular applications that cannot dispense with prudence. Positivism and existentialism oppose the possibility of such science with "relativistic" accounts of "values," and accordingly the first task in the recovery of the possibility of classical political philosophy is to expose the fallacies of relativistic thought and to open the way at least for the discovery of absolute notions of virtue, justice, and right.
This foreground account of his intentions, which Strauss surely intends to be widely taken as the true account, is misleading about his ultimate theoretical concerns. (In the essay under consideration Strauss says that "all outstanding thinkers" are misunderstood by their critics and their followers.) For the latter one must look at Strauss's account of Socrates's turn to the study of the human things as the core of philosophy or the "first philosophy," whereby "the political things, or the human things, are the key to understanding all things." Political philosophy as Socrates founded it has a practically oriented side, giving counsel and beneficial teachings to statesman and politically ambitious young men, but at the highest level the inquiry into political matters is to lead to the philosophic life and specifically to a way of philosophizing in which those political matters reveal something fundamental about the nature of the whole. Political philosophy is not merely one discipline among a number of philosophic disciplines, as it appears to be for Aristotle and as it certainly is in the Christian Aristotelian tradition. In a striking reversal of this traditional approach, Strauss argues that through reflection on the prephilosophic experience of political life, which everywhere puts on exhibit the particulars of political life (as in the great political histories of Thucydides and Xenophon), human thought has its only access to the universals, and indeed only in the form of "fundamental problems." Strauss, it must be said, has little hope of reversing the contemporary crisis of liberal political philosophy, and even credits Heidegger with exposing the failure of liberal rationalism. Through Heidegger "all rational liberal philosophic positions have lost their significance and power. One may deplore this, but I for one cannot bring myself to clinging to philosophic positions which have been shown to be inadequate." Strauss all the same proposes an alternative to Heidegger's philosophy, his account of Socratic political philosophy. This will not supply the absolute standards or principles needed to buttress Western democratic rationalism, but in some fashion it replies to "radical historicism." Several questions press on the reader at this point. If there is a link, as Strauss asserts on several occasions, between that historicism and Heidegger's support of Nazism, where is the guidance in Socratic thought toward a nontyrannical politics? What is the standard for political choices that replaces "history" if it is not knowledge of moral-political absolutes?
One can begin with an argument Strauss makes in the present essay and elsewhere, that historicist thought makes a comprehensive, transhistorical claim about all thought as conditioned by history. The claim cannot be saved as coherent unless it arises through an "absolute moment" in which the essential character of all thought becomes transparent, by an insight that no future changes of thought could render obsolete. There is a Hegelian version of the absolute moment, in which the solution to the fundamental problems is revealed through the completion of the experience of history as a rational process, and there is Heidegger's version in which "the insoluble character of the fundamental riddles has become fully manifest." It seems at first as though Strauss needs to refute the insolubility thesis in order to oppose historicism. "Historicism, however, stands or falls by the denial of the possibility of theoretical metaphysics and of philosophic ethics or natural right; it stands or falls by the denial of the solubility of the fundamental riddles." And yet he swiftly changes the ground of attack and asserts: "But one might realize the insoluble character of the fundamental riddles and still continue to see in the understanding of these riddles the task of philosophy; one would thus merely replace a non-historicist and dogmatic philosophy by a non-historicist and skeptical philosophy." Historicism goes beyond skepticism in regarding the "attempt to replace opinions about the whole by knowledge of the whole" as "not only incapable of reaching its goal but absurd," because that attempt rests on dogmatic premises that are only historical and relative. The skeptic, on the other hand, regards philosophy as possible in that it can replace opinions about the fundamental problems with knowledge of them. It does so without a theoretical metaphysics, philosophic ethics, or philosophy of natural right. Contrary to the claims of historicism, classical philosophy is not "based on the unwarranted belief that the whole is intelligible," for the "prototype of the philosopher in the classical sense was Socrates, who knew that he knew nothing, who therewith admitted that the whole is not intelligible, who merely wondered whether by saying that the whole is not intelligible we do not admit to having some understanding of the whole." He adds that "man as man necessarily has some awareness of the whole." I venture to restate this another way: Human thought can grasp that life in the political realm or the "cave" necessarily discloses itself as incomplete, as defective, and pointing beyond itself to the "whole" of which it is a part, and conversely it can understand that the only way knowledge of the whole can be pursued is by starting in the political realm and reflecting on its character. (In this sentence a crucial word, found twice, is "that.") These insights constitute some understanding of the whole without the assumption that the whole is intelligible.
Heidegger's position that all thought is dependent on fate or an unforeseeable dispensation of Being is attractive to contemporaries, Strauss notes, since it denies that history is a rational process. It is appealing for its seemingly nondogmatic character. All the same, it is a dogmatic thesis proposing a comprehensive account of the nature and limits of thought. Heidegger was aware of this difficulty, Strauss notes, and found it necessary to go beyond the early "existential" standpoint wherein all comprehensive views are projects or ideals grounded in resolute willing, in order to expound an account of the history of Being as offering an "eschatological prospect." Thereby his thought acquired a structure recalling the accounts of history in Hegel, Marx, and Nietzsche. In a manner that can strike one as paradoxical, Strauss regards political philosophy as offering an antidote to the implicit dogmatism of these philosophies that variously call for a disclosure of a final truth in history. At the same time, it accepts as a comprehensive claim the thesis that the whole is not intelligible. Socratic political philosophy rests on the insight into a permanent rift in the human condition between philosophic _eros_ and the requirements of political life that renders impossible a comprehensive account of thought as either limited to the disclosures of history or, alternatively, as wholly at home in the political realm. This insight, although it constitutes another comprehensive claim about a limitation of human thought, is not a self-refuting one, Strauss claims, for it articulates a permanent problem in the human approach to the whole without proposing an absolute thesis about the grounds that condition all thinking.
Strauss's response to Heidegger combines a version of Heidegger's claim that the whole is not intelligible with an exposure of his dogmatic premise concerning the historical character of any possible thought. This unwarranted premise is actually an unwarranted hope. Heidegger's thought on history expresses the hope of full coincidence between the strivings of philosophic questioning and the site or place (the local habitation and time) of the philosophic questioner. To the contrary, Strauss asserts, philosophic questioning, as knowledge of ignorance, inevitably finds its own place and time questionable. It necessarily rejects the tyrannical claims of the present moment. It is Heidegger's impossible hope that gives rise to the problem of relativism by its affirmation of the fate of the present merely because it is the fate of the present. Relativism is the symptom of the deeper philosophic error that is, at the same time, the ultimate source of his tendency toward extremist politics.
**II**
Strauss famously made numerous comments on Heidegger's "radical historicism" as directly linked to his endorsement of National Socialism in 1933 as rector of the University of Freiburg. It should be clear by now, though, that his valuation of Heidegger is complex and by no means a mere reduction of his philosophy to a version of National Socialist ideology. Even on a practical and political plane Strauss shows guarded respect for Heidegger, insofar as Strauss indicates some sympathy for his criticism of modernity. Yet Strauss wholly rejects all extremist political responses to the problems of modernity. Whereas philosophical inquiry by nature calls for radicality in questioning, politics (which includes the political actions of philosophers as teachers and writers) by its nature requires moderation and prudence. In his various statements on Heidegger, Strauss is centrally concerned with showing the connections in Heidegger's thought between his radical historicism, his failure to grasp the nature of politics (or of the relation of philosophy to politics), and his leanings toward extremist and transformationist (or "visionary") politics. Strauss also seeks to expose the roots of these tendencies in earlier modern thought, that is, in modern understandings of the relation of philosophy to politics (or "practice" more broadly). Thus, against Heidegger's self-understanding, Strauss regards him as the heir and culmination of modern philosophy and believes that the comprehension of his thought, especially in its fully developed later form, is indispensable for any effort to free oneself from modernity. In this regard Strauss's philosophic-historical inquiries can be seen as a continuation of Heidegger's _Destruktion_ that includes Heidegger in its critique, through uncovering the hidden roots of the modern historical consciousness whose validity Heidegger presupposes. Also in accord with the centrality of Heidegger for Strauss's self-understanding, Heidegger could be seen as the greatest living example of the general problem of the relation of philosophy to practical life—of the inherent dangers posed by philosophy to practice and the recurrent seductions offered by practice to philosophy.
Strauss claims he found an unacceptable moral teaching in Heidegger in the 1920s, "despite his disclaimer he had such a teaching." Heidegger called for "resoluteness without any indication of what are the proper objects of resoluteness. There is a straight line that leads from Heidegger's resoluteness to his siding with the so-called Nazis in 1933." Yet, as we have seen, Strauss also saw Heidegger more positively in a larger intellectual context, namely, the widespread dissatisfaction following the First World War with the Enlightenment and modern rationalism, and the "new thinking" that supported the renewal of faith and orthodoxy in opposition to the liberal critique of tradition. Yet Heidegger's version of the critique of rationalism, in contrast to Rosenzweig's, "led far away from any charity as well as any humanity." Deeply engaged with the thought of Kierkegaard and Nietzsche, Heidegger revealed the inadequacy of the established academic positions, including the dominant Neo-Kantianism (Ernst Cassirer), and offered a sense of hopeful renewal amid the Spenglerian gloom of the time. Heidegger "gave expression to the prevailing unrest and dissatisfaction because he had clarity and certainty, if not about the whole way, at least about the first and decisive steps." Yet the hopefulness he inspired was, Strauss claims, ungrounded in responsible reflection on the practical possibilities. It is in this sense that Strauss asserts that Heidegger was "intellectually the counterpart to what Hitler was politically." To note a kinship of Heidegger's thinking with the most radically antidemocratic and antimodern movement of the era is not to assert that Heidegger was committed to all the doctrines and programs (such as biological racism) of this movement. At the heart of the matter for Strauss is Heidegger's combination of a call to action (authentically rejecting the political-cultural status quo) and a denial of the possibility of ethics owing to the "revolting disproportion between the idea of ethics and those phenomena that ethics pretended to articulate." Heidegger's doubts about the foundations of ethics were, in other words, not accompanied by a fitting skepticism about action. Indeed Heidegger longed for a sanctioning of action from a supra-ethical source, from "destiny."
The thought of the early Heidegger, culminating philosophically in _Being and Time_ (1927) and politically in Heidegger's actions as rector, is quite interestingly not the primary focus of Strauss's thoughts. His most extended statements on Heidegger's political thought dwell on the significance of the later thinking of Heidegger after his disillusionment with the Nazi regime. The theme of these treatments, stated very succinctly, is Heidegger's replacement of philosophic reflection on politics and ethics with the fateful dispensation of Being or the gods. Thus the resolute and activist stance of the early Heidegger and the later stance of meditative awaiting of a new dispensation of Being are connected by the absence of political philosophy, as Strauss understands that term. "There is no room for political philosophy in Heidegger's work, and this may well be due to the fact that the room in question is occupied by gods or the gods." Strauss underlines this connection even as he avers that Heidegger's thought grows in depth after 1933–34, and particularly during the seminars on Nietzsche in the period 1936–40. But although Strauss sees an "intimate connection between the core" of Heidegger's philosophic thought and his early support and later (post-1945) praise of the "inner truth and greatness" of the National Socialist revolution, these facts "afford too small a basis for the proper understanding of his thought."
As noted above, Strauss indicates that the core of Heidegger's thought is not historicism simply but a particular eschatological version of historical thinking emerging fully in the mature account of the history of Being ( _Seinsgeschichte_ ) and linked to the eschatological visions of Hegel, Marx, and Nietzsche. In Heidegger's case the eschatological moment corresponds to the moment of the disclosure of the historicity of Being, or the mortality and transience of the grounds of human thought and existence. Strauss understands Heidegger's account of the historicity of Being as akin to the responses to Hegel on the part of Marx and Nietzsche, who see in the Hegelian completion of history only the inhuman reconciliation with bourgeois life (Marx) or the end of humanity in the advent of the last man without nobility and greatness (Nietzsche). Strauss claims that Heidegger is much closer to Nietzsche than to Marx, in that "both thinkers regard as decisive the nihilism which according to them began in Plato (or before) . . . and whose ultimate consequence is the present decay." Both see the present age as an "infinitely dangerous moment" and at the same time the moment when philosophy can prepare the ground for a new kind of greatness, "danger and salvation belonging together." Yet Heidegger after an initial attraction abjured Nietzsche's call for a new nobility exercising planetary rule (travestied by Nazism), and thus the later Heidegger "severs the connection of the [eschatological] vision with politics more radically than either Marx or Nietzsche. One is inclined to say that Heidegger learned the lesson of 1933 more thoroughly than any other man. Surely he leaves no place whatever for political philosophy." Heidegger after 1933 denies that political action can overcome the flattening of the spirit in the technological world night and proposes instead that philosophy can prepare a novel kind of _Bodenständigkeit_ (rootedness in a homeland) as the condition for human greatness, through initiating a dialogue between the most profound thinkers of the Occident and those of the Orient "accompanied or followed by a return of the gods." Strauss's statements do not imply that Heidegger on the plane of political action ever favored any movement other than National Socialism. Indeed Heidegger "never praised any other contemporary political effort." Nor do Strauss's formulations imply that Heidegger's turning way from politics and his learning "the lesson of 1933" establish that his later reflections constitute a worthy philosophic project. Even so, the phrase "the lesson of 1933" suggests a partial agreement with the later Heidegger, namely, the rejection of political projects of overcoming modernity. But in the case of Strauss that rejection retains a place for political philosophy—in the special sense that term has for Strauss—and does not substitute new gods for rational inquiry into politics.
Strauss develops a similar estimate of Heidegger in his 1956 lecture on existentialism, where he notes "the kinship in temper and direction between Heidegger's thought and the Nazis," citing "the contempt for reasonableness and the praise of resoluteness." But this kinship does not provide grounds for dismissing Heidegger as philosopher. Indeed Strauss indicates some sympathy with Heidegger's views on the shortcomings of democracy (in which there is "no reminder of man's absolute duty and exalted destiny") and even claims (as noted above) that through Heidegger's critique of the tradition "all rational liberal philosophic positions have lost their significance and power." In this lecture Strauss more explicitly links Heidegger's welcoming of Hitler's rise in 1933 to "Nietzsche's hope of a united Europe ruling the planet," and relates Heidegger's disappointment and withdrawal from active engagement in politics to the discovery that this hope "had proved to be a delusion." Yet by replacing political action with a reflection that prepares a new world religion uniting the deepest elements of the West and the East, Heidegger maintains with Nietzsche the conception that "the philosopher of the future, as distinct from the classical philosopher, will be concerned with the holy." The new philosophic thinking, or the thinking that replaces philosophy, is essentially religious and is the heir of the Bible. In undertaking the preparatory inquiry for a new world religion, Heidegger reveals himself as "the only man who has an inkling of the dimension of the problem of a world society." In spite of this praise Strauss regards Heidegger's enterprise as involving "fantastic hopes, more to be expected from visionaries than philosophers."
Strauss's judgment on Heidegger is subtle and understated, offering only hints of the extent and nature of Strauss's affinities and debts. But it is clear that the target of Strauss's critique is only secondarily the moral and political consequences of Heidegger's thought and is more centrally the conception of philosophy that results in those consequences. In that conception philosophy is synthesized with religion and takes on the largest responsibilities for human welfare. That synthesis, in turn, arises first in the early modern period, when "the gulf between philosophy and the city was bridged" by the twin innovations of identifying the ends of the philosopher and the nonphilosopher, "because philosophy is in the service of the relief of man's estate, or 'science for the sake of power,'" and of fulfilling this new function by diffusion of the results of philosophy among nonphilosophers. These innovations are the source, in Strauss's analysis, of the modern historical consciousness, in which the highest object of philosophic reflection is human action and its products, with the ultimate outcome of obliviousness to the superhuman and eternal. Philosophy, abandoning the primacy of contemplation in seeking to make man wholly at home in the city, loses sight of the suprapolitical. At the same time political life becomes the site of philosophically based transformative projects that it cannot sustain. Whereas in early modernity such projects take the form of the Enlightenment's attack on faith and orthodoxy, in late modernity they become the effort to restore the nobility and metaphysical depth that were sacrificed on the altar of rational progress. Even when this effort loses any connection with direct action in politics, as it does in the thought of Heidegger after 1933, the distinctively modern conception of philosophy as inseparably fused with practical life is retained. The failures of the deepest and most ambitious versions of the ennobling effort, those of Nietzsche and Heidegger, confirmed in Strauss's view the rightness of his "concentration on the tension between philosophy and the _polis_ , i.e., on the highest theme of _political_ philosophy."
3
_Construction of Modernity_
Words are not like landmarks, so sacred as never to be removed. Customs are changed, and even statutes silently repealed, when the reason changes for which they were enacted.
JOHN DRYDEN, _Fables Ancient and Modern_
CHAPTER 7
On the Roots of Rationalism: Strauss's _Natural Right and History_ as Response to Heidegger
But it is the essence of prudence that one know when to speak and when to be silent. Knowing this very well, Locke had the good sense to quote only the right kind of writers and to be silent about the wrong kind, although he had more in common, in the last analysis, with the wrong kind than with the right.
LEO STRAUSS, _Natural Right and History_
**I. THE UNNAMED OPPONENT**
Leo Strauss's _Natural Right and History_ (1953) is an introduction to political philosophy through a historical treatment of natural right. "Natural right claims to be a right that is discernible by human reason and is universally acknowledged" (9). Strauss seeks to restore knowledge of "the problem of natural right," which is "today a matter of recollection rather than actual knowledge"(7). He is careful not to identify the philosophy of natural right with political philosophy as such or even classical political philosophy. Political philosophy itself is older than any doctrine of natural right and indeed "seems to begin" with arguing for "the conventional character of all right" (10). But for the classical political philosophers, both adherents and opponents of natural right, "the distinction between nature and convention is fundamental. For this idea is implied in the idea of philosophy"(11).
The modern "historical consciousness" denies "the premise that nature is of higher dignity than any works of man" (11), and in assuming that all human thought is historical, rejects "the idea of philosophy as the attempt to grasp the eternal," which is the fundamental premise of ancient conventionalism as well as of natural right doctrines (12). Strauss asserts that "our most urgent need" is to understand the issue between historicism and nonhistoricist philosophy (33), for historicism in its philosophical form questions the possibility of philosophy, a possibility that is "the necessary and not sufficient condition of natural right" (35). What Strauss calls "radical historicism" (also "'existentialist' historicism," 32) assumes that
philosophy in the full and original sense of the word, as the attempt to replace opinions about the whole with knowledge of the whole, is not only incapable of reaching its goal, but absurd, because the very idea of philosophy rests on dogmatic, that is arbitrary, premises or, more specifically, on premises that are only 'historical and relative.' (30)
The first chapter ("Natural Right and the Historical Approach") contains a summary (30–31) of "the most influential attempts to establish the dogmatic and hence arbitrary or historically relative character of philosophy." According to this thinking, the tradition of philosophy dogmatically assumes that the whole is intelligible, and consequently identifies the whole as it is in itself with the whole in so far as it is intelligible. It thereby assumes the equation of "being" with "object," that is, with what can be "mastered by the subject." Further, the whole is thought to be unchangeable on the basis of "the dogmatic identification of 'to be' in the highest sense with 'to be always.'" Against these dogmatic assumptions and claims, radical historicist thinking puts forward the discovery of the historicity of the whole: the changing, incompletable, unpredictable character of the whole and the essential dependence, accordingly, of human thought on "something that cannot be anticipated or that can never be an object" mastered by the human subject. Thus "'to be' in the highest sense cannot mean—or, at any rate, it does not necessarily mean—'to be always'" (31).
Informed readers today cannot fail to see that Strauss's summary is an account, albeit in some ways peculiar, of the thought of Martin Heidegger, none of whose works is cited and whose name is not once mentioned in the book. Strauss disavows any engagement in the present discussion with the unnamed author or authors of the doctrine compressed into a few pages; he claims that "we cannot even attempt to discuss" the most fundamental theses of radical historicism (31). When Strauss wrote his book Heidegger was barely known as a thinker in this country but was already notorious for his endorsement of Nazism while rector of the University of Freiburg and on occasions thereafter. The argument of _Natural Right and History_ , in its foreground and not only there, is oriented toward the contemporary social sciences and a public-spirited discussion of the foundations of morality and law (8). Strauss had more than one ground for thinking he could not afford Heidegger a comfortable and well-lit abode in this setting. Even so, his first chapter exposes the elements—in Strauss's manner of laconic and mostly implicit argumentation—of a philosophical critique of Heidegger that is developed through the rest of the book. Taken as a whole the book lays the basis for a full confrontation with the thinker whom Strauss regarded as the one great philosopher of the twentieth century. I will offer some observations about those elements and make some suggestions about the larger argument about Heidegger to which they point.
**II. HISTORICISM'S UNSTABLE PREMISES**
The radical historicist challenge to philosophy emerged when historicism "suddenly appeared in our lifetime in its mature form" as a "critique of human thought as such"; nevertheless an earlier historicist critique of natural right played an important role in radical historicism's formation (12–13). The crisis of natural right in the eighteenth century, from which emerged the historical school of jurisprudence, led ultimately to radical historicism (34). Strauss would show that the "experience of history," which the historical school claimed to discover, is still assumed, without examination, by radical historicist thought (22, 32–33). In particular, radical historicism has not examined whether the said "experience" is not the outcome of two beliefs, the first of which it avowedly rejects: the belief in necessary progress and the belief in the supreme value of diversity or uniqueness (22). Strauss says we need an "an understanding of the genesis of historicism that does not take for granted the soundness of historicism" (33). He argues, in effect, that radical historicism is undermined by its failure to have adequate historical awareness of its own premises. It fails by the very standard of analysis it respects, knowledge of historical origins. What it especially fails to uncover is the shaping of the "experience of history" by the "politicization of philosophy" since the seventeenth century, an event that is the presupposition for the fact that a crisis in political philosophy (the crisis of natural right) "could become a crisis in philosophy as such" (34).
The thought of the historical school is taken as a "convenient" starting point for this critique (13), but its philosophical sources—sources comparable in theoretical weight to Heidegger—are Strauss's chief concern. Two are prominently mentioned, more or less corresponding to the two beliefs that combine in the "experience of history": Rousseau as questioning the naturalness of the universal in the name of individuality (14–15), and Hume and Kant as criticizing theoretical metaphysics for the sake of the final securing of practical life against speculative subversion (19–20). Historicism shares with "the tendency of men like Rousseau" the view of the higher value of the local and temporal, and with Hume and Kant it shares the effort to define the limits of human knowledge within which certainty can be found. Historicist thought combines these in its nonskeptical position that all thought has a nonarbitrary basis in particular historical conditions (20). Like the modern critique of metaphysics it is directed against transcendence (15); historicism's claim to have discovered an "experience" that discloses the emptiness of all transcendence is explicitly or implicitly a proclamation of the superiority of the thought of the present to all previous thought. Yet this claim is inherently transhistorical and can be consistently incorporated within the historical experience only if interpreted as a nontheoretical commitment (26) or as "an unforeseeable gift or an unfathomable fate" (28). In this way the crisis of early historicism resulted in radical historicism. Yet historicism is from start to finish connected with "divination" (12, 33) and not with _theoria_.
One already discerns the outlines of a genealogical critique of Heidegger that unfolds in later chapters. The "critique of reason" as the search for certainty within well-defined limits proceeds from Hobbes's grounding of the "dogmatism based on skepticism" entailing the primacy of practice over contemplation (177n, 319–20). Strauss is centrally concerned with how the Hobbesian move sets the stage for German Idealist philosophy (173–77, 248–49, 272–82); the longest passage of the book on a German philosopher mentioned by name is a discussion of Hegel near the end of chapter 6 (319–21). The primacy of the practical is not overcome but only intensified when Hegel, with some resemblance to Burke, regards human action and its products, rather than the superhuman whole, as the highest theme of philosophy (319–20; cf. 29). The metaphysics of practice, in order to be a completed science, has to contemplate action as completed; history achieves its final _telos_ in absolute knowledge of the logic of history. The Hegelian notion of completed practice introduces a motive for existentialism's attack on theoretical science (in Kierkegaard and Nietzsche) and for radical historicism's critique of the metaphysical tradition: the recovery of practice as concern with _agenda_ in a "significant and undetermined future" (320). This is a motive that cannot be derived solely from the problems of the historical school.
The passage on Hegel in chapter 6 thus directs the reader back to the passage on radical historicism in chapter 1, wherein Hegel plays a larger role than seems the case on first reading. The radical historicist account of the history of philosophy runs as follows: metaphysics, as rooted in Greek thinking about Being (and culminating in Hegel, one may now add on second reading), assumes that the future of the whole can be predicted or that the whole is complete. This view of the whole is a consequence of the Greek identification of "to be" with "to be always," an identification made in accordance with a hidden presupposition in Greek thinking that disregards anything that cannot be an "object" mastered by the human "subject" (30–31). But the incompletability and unpredictability of human action belie this view of the whole: "the whole is actually always incomplete and therefore not truly a whole" (30–31, 320–21). Radical historicism claims to surpass both modernity and modernity's roots in antiquity; its attack on modern speculative philosophy of history is not a return to the premodern view of history as a sphere of contingencies, for it retains the modern assumption of the superiority of practice to _theoria_. And without _theoria_ , or the grasp of the universal transcending the present, there can be no prudence (321).
Thus radical historicism, in treating the realm of contingent and incompletable practice—what it calls "the temporality of _Dasein_ "—as the "horizon" from which Being is to be understood, carries forward the modern limitation of human thought to the practical, with a deeper attack on theoretical metaphysics. Its account of theoretical metaphysics is profoundly informed by Hegel, both negatively (opposing his "completion of practice") and positively (practice remains the highest theme of philosophy). It therefore is akin to the historical school, which has no substantial critique of metaphysics, but which all the same "acted as if it intended to make men absolutely at home in the world" (15) and rejected universal principles as making men "strangers on the earth" (14). However, radical historicism's effort to establish earthly temporality as the sole human dwelling is unstable, since it has absorbed the Rousseauian thought that the authentic individual cannot be at home in any social world (255, 260–61, 290). Nietzsche, in this regard recalling Rousseau, might have considered the possibility of restoring the Platonic notion of the esoteric character of theoretical analysis, thus rejecting the subservience of thought to life or fate. Strauss observes: "If not Nietzsche himself, at any rate his successors" adopted the alternative of subservience (26). Yet in Heidegger's thought historical fate at once calls for the rootedness in the particular and for the radical transcending of it: "The attempt to make man absolutely at home in this world ended in man's becoming absolutely homeless" (18). I shall return to this tension in Heidegger between the longing to be at home and the rejection of all being at home.
**III. THE MYSTERIOUS WHOLE: TWO VERSIONS**
The critique sketched above, however, offers few inklings of Heidegger's full significance for Strauss. His account elsewhere of his early attendance at Heidegger's lectures, and their shattering effect on him and his contemporaries, is hardly compatible with a view of Heidegger as dogmatic antiphilosopher. Indeed central to _Natural Right and History_ is a well-hidden positive relation to Heidegger, which may offer the most crucial ground for not mentioning him, and which lends a deeply ironical character to a book concerned precisely with exposing unexamined historical premises. The thought of a certain "Martin Heidegger" seems to be the unexamined premise of the argument directed against a figure who uncannily resembles him.
Heidegger questioned in unparalleled fashion the soundness of the tradition of Western rationalism. Such questioning is wholly different from a willful rejection of the tradition.
Certain it is that no one questioned the premise of philosophy as radically as Heidegger. . . . [Jacob] Klein alone saw why Heidegger is truly important; by uprooting and not merely rejecting the tradition of philosophy, he made it possible for the first time after many centuries—one hesitates to say how many—to see the roots of the tradition as they are. . . . Above all, his intention was to uproot Aristotle: he thus was compelled to disinter the roots, to bring them to light, to look at them with wonder.
In a practical sense Heidegger, like many of his contemporaries, began from a certain experience: an overwhelming sense of the collapse of the Western tradition, _der Untergang des Abendlandes_. But no one else sought for the roots of this collapse with as much analytic power and philological mastery. Surely Heidegger made a case for an essential defect in the Western tradition that had to be taken seriously. When Strauss writes, "I began, therefore, to wonder whether the self-destruction of reason was not the inevitable outcome of modern rationalism as distinguished from pre-modern rationalism," his expression of "wonder" implies that the source of self-destruction seemed to him at first to be located plausibly elsewhere—perhaps at the Greek beginnings or in rationalism as such. Heidegger above all others had incited such reflections. Strauss later found another way to reflect on the cause of the collapse when he "concluded that the case of the moderns against the ancients must be reopened," whereas Heidegger had concluded that modernity was just an extension of the "forgetting of Being" that had befallen the Greeks.
Therefore Heidegger's thought is not merely the most evident symptom of decline. Specifically Heidegger identified the fundamental presupposition of all rationalism as the axiom that "nothing comes into being out of nothing or through nothing"; he held that "the fundamental principle of philosophy is then the principle of causality, of intelligible necessity" (89). In Socratic fashion Heidegger investigated this premise through an inquiry into that being, the human, which has access to Being or "which _is_ in the most emphatic or authoritative way." The object of Heidegger's inquiry is therefore more adequately expressed as the question that inevitably arises for that being which finds itself "thrown" in the midst of beings: "Why are there beings rather than nothing at all?" This question is not a cosmological question about the causal origination of beings out of other beings or the whole of beings. The question would persist even if it were known that the whole of beings is eternal. Therefore natural science can shed no light on the question. The true bearing of the question is on the questioner or, more precisely, on the questioning—on the possibility of questioning. All questioning about the beings presupposes an openness to beings as a whole, a fundamental disclosedness of beings, which cannot be grounded causally in any being or beings, including the highest or most perfect being. All attempts at such grounding suffer from a fatal circularity. Heidegger calls the fundamental disclosedness of beings _Sein_ and claims that _Sein_ so understood must be kept sharply separate from the theme of traditional metaphysics, being _qua_ being or the being of beings ( _Seienden_ ), which is concerned only with the causal constitution of beings or the cosmological question. In Heidegger's view the highest themes of the metaphysical tradition—the Good, or the ideas, or _nous_ —remain on the plane of the beings, or of _das Seiende_.
Heidegger purported to uncover a thought that the entire tradition had neglected, and he alleged he was thinking beyond or, as he put it, behind the tradition. It expresses a common misunderstanding to say that Heidegger simply rejected rationalism or the Western tradition; to the end of his work Heidegger thought it necessary to think with and through this tradition, especially its Greek beginnings. Furthermore, what he calls the "forgetting of Being" is not a mistake to be set aside but a tendency of thought inseparable from openness to the beings. Human thought cannot stay focused on the mystery of a disclosedness that eludes grounding, and thus there are the inevitable and related tendencies of grounding Being in a highest being (ontotheology) or in the human being (anthropocentrism or "humanism"). For Heidegger these two tendencies are at root the same. Such groundings are always alluring because Being, so far as we know, discloses itself to only _one_ being among beings, the human. Strauss does not share the misunderstanding I mentioned, to be sure. What is more, there is evidence that he believed it necessary to participate in Heidegger's inquiry; Heidegger's question is a necessary one, and Strauss's inquiries are in a sense a continuation of Heidegger's (31, especially the sentence beginning "It compels us at the same time . . ."; cf. 89). The problems for Strauss arose in the implications Heidegger drew from his question, or the attitudes he adopted toward it. These problems relate ultimately to the absence of political philosophy in Heidegger and to the connected preference for pre-Socratic over Socratic philosophy.
I offer only a few indications that Strauss might have looked at the Greek philosophers and perhaps especially Socrates with Heidegger's question in view. Strauss writes:
And Socrates was so far from being committed to a specific cosmology that his knowledge was knowledge of ignorance. Knowledge of ignorance is not ignorance. It is knowledge of the elusive character of the truth, of the whole. Socrates, then, viewed man in the light of the mysterious character of the whole. He held therefore that we are more familiar with the situation of man as man than with the ultimate causes of the situation.
There is little basis, if any, in Strauss's writings for the view that he sought to recover a teleological natural philosophy, or that he thought such recovery a necessary condition for philosophy in its classical form. He thought that the philosopher must come to terms with the unavailability of such cosmology; in the modern era, this means coming to terms with modern science's failure to provide an account of the human (8). Essentially Socrates faced the same problem with the failure of the cosmologies he knew; his response to that difficulty was his "second sailing," the dialectical ascent from opinions (122–25). To understand philosophy this way means to acknowledge its unfinishable or aporetic nature (125–26, 29–30). And perhaps, contrary to the first impression Strauss gives the reader, Strauss holds that Aristotle conceived philosophy in the same way. (Compare the text at _NRH_ 8 with the citations of Aristotle's _Physics_ in the note.) One also should recall the passing remark in the Hobbes section of _Natural Right and History_ about "the difficulty with which every teleological physics is beset" (172). In sum, I venture to say that Heidegger provoked Strauss (with some mediation by Jacob Klein) to approach Greek philosophy with the suspension of the traditional expectation of finding therein a teleological physics and cosmology. The belief that classical philosophy is inseparable from an "antiquated cosmology" had been a principal barrier against taking it seriously—a belief that Strauss came to see as a misreading of the Socratics. Of course, the human must be understood teleologically insofar as it is oriented toward knowledge of the whole, or toward the question of the ground of the whole. But this in turn means that the human orientation is toward fundamental and insoluble problems. And thus the philosopher, who is distinguished among humans by the awareness of these problems, is the being that preeminently reflects the character of Being as a whole. "To articulate the problem of cosmology means to answer the question of what philosophy is or what a philosopher is." With suitable changes in language, this is granted by Heidegger. But in Strauss's estimation the awareness of the fundamental problems liberates the mind from its historical limitations and legitimizes philosophy in its original, Socratic sense (32)—a nonhistoricist sense that Heidegger regards as a falling away from a higher kind of thinking. How does one account for this difference?
**IV. PHILOSOPHICAL SEDIMENT**
It bears on this question to observe that Strauss draws a subtle distinction between the fundamental problems and "the fundamental alternatives regarding their solution." In one passage he says simply that both are "coeval with human thought" (32), but a few pages later he adds after "fundamental alternatives" the phrase "which are, in principle, coeval with human thought" (35). This seemingly small change points to the heart of the argument of Strauss with Heidegger.
In the first passage Strauss already modifies his quoted stance on solutions with a remark on "however variable or provisional all human solutions to these problems may be" (32). If solutions are thus variable it is doubtful that they are "coeval with human thought"—although "in principle" they could be. Indeed the "experience of history" derives some of its strongest support from the manifold evidence of this variability. Strauss in fact is quite open to the view that human experience is with respect to the proposal of solutions unpredictable and incompletable. He mentions the possibility that great thinkers might arise in the future—"perhaps in 2200 in Burma"—for whose thought we are quite unprepared. "For who are we to believe that we have found out the limits of human possibilities?" It seems to be in a related sense that Heidegger sees human history as unfinishable—in opposition to Hegel—insofar as the perplexity of Being is without end, as long as there is man. This would give support to the claim that "there can be _entia_ while there is no _esse_ ," on the assumption that _esse_ or _Sein_ means the perplexity of _esse_ or _Sein_. Strauss mentions the assertion of Heidegger with skeptical reservation, it seems, yet without any criticism (32). But for Strauss the permanence of fundamental perplexities is the strongest argument for regarding the whole as complete in the decisive respect: the problems, rather than their solutions, are permanent and not variable. This wholeness, however, is available only on the level of _theoria_ , which grasps the problems as problems (32); insofar as one remains on the level of practice, or of attempted solutions, variability and impermanence must be the dominant experience.
I suggest that in Strauss's view Heidegger does not distinguish the awareness of the fundamental problem from the historical efforts at solutions to it. Hence for Heidegger the question of Being—which always manifests itself in particular "dispensations"—has itself a historical and variable character, even though he also describes this question as determining the essence of man. One could say that Heidegger is oriented toward the fundamental question with the intention of showing how the question as question can provide the practical solution to the problems of human existence; thus he speaks of thinking as piety. Or to put this another way, Heidegger's remarkable "path of thinking" conflates philosophical reflection on the problematic character of existence with nonphilosophic human concerns for being at home in the world—the world defined by particular languages, customs, poetry, and the gods. In Strauss's view this necessarily conflates the suprahistorical with the historical, or the philosopher's being at home in the whole with various ways of being at home in human affairs, in which the philosopher can never be entirely at home. For Strauss this entails that Heidegger does not recognize the natural duality of the human—the duality that Strauss sees as the permanent condition of the human (151–52). According to Strauss, that duality will come to light only through an analysis of the "natural world" of the prescientific understanding—an analysis that must start with the phenomena of political life as they concern political actors and as they present themselves prior to their transformation by the philosophic and scientific tradition (78–81). In his disinterment of the roots of philosophy, Heidegger neglected that analysis by starting with the question of Being and only with that question. Heidegger passed over the primary sources for the required analysis of prephilosophic life, namely, the reflections on political life in the classical authors (79–80). But accordingly Heidegger's _Destruktion_ of the tradition was, from Strauss's standpoint, radically incomplete.
The heart of Heidegger's thought is a longing for the overcoming of the duality of philosophic thinking and of being at home in human affairs, or for an unheard-of transformation of human life. In this hope of transformation Heidegger's thought seeks to relate itself to the traditions of revelation and to the thought of the East. Strauss suggests that even in its later form, in which the resolute willing of _Being and Time_ has been replaced by the patient receptivity ( _Gelassenheit_ ) in which man is appropriated by Being, Heidegger's thought is based on an act of believing or willing, a stance that is "fatal to any philosophy." This is Strauss's most fundamental criticism of Heidegger, but it barely surfaces in _Natural Right and History_. Perhaps it cannot be fully articulated without exposing the extent of Strauss's affinity with Heidegger on the aporetic nature of philosophy. All the same, Strauss's account in _Natural Right and History_ of the origin of the idea of natural right in the prephilosophic situation—of the "discovery of nature" within the context of the ancestral _nomos_ —provides the indispensable foundation for the criticism (81–119). Indeed this account provides an alternative to Heidegger's uncovering of the pre-Socratic roots of the tradition. Without the investigation of the political and moral context of the appearance of philosophy, such as Strauss undertakes, the full import of the "question of Being" cannot come to light. The absence of such inquiry in Heidegger necessitates that his conception of the philosophic life is "sedimented," to use a term of the phenomenologists.
Strauss regards the conflation of philosophic reflection and being at home in the world in Heidegger as typical of modern philosophy as a whole. Near the end of his reply to Alexandre Kojève's critique of his commentary on Xenophon's _Hiero_ , Strauss describes this feature as follows:
On the basis of Kojève's presupposition, unqualified attachment to human concerns becomes the source of philosophic understanding: man must be absolutely at home on the earth, if not a citizen of a part of the inhabitable earth. On the basis of the classical presupposition, philosophy requires a radical detachment from human concerns: man must not be absolutely at home on earth, he must be a citizen of the whole.
What Strauss here ascribes to the Kojèvian-Hegelian philosopher is a motive that, like the historical school's rejection of revolutionary efforts at "transcendence," leads to the identification of the source and the condition of thought (or in the case of Heidegger, of aporia and answer). In _Natural Right and History_ Strauss traces this back to Hobbes and, ultimately, Machiavelli. I review now a few points in this account. Strauss understands Hobbes's new natural philosophy, based on the unification of Epicurean materialism and Platonic mathematicism, as allowing the construction of an island of human intelligibility "exempt from the flux of blind and aimless causation" (173) and, therewith, from skeptical attack on its foundations. A certain wisdom seems capable of permanent actualization, because the question of cosmic support from the larger whole in which the human exists can be viewed as superseded (169–77). This self-limitation of thought is the ground of Hobbes's holding an "expectation from political philosophy [that] is incomparably greater than the expectation of the classics" (177). Strauss points to the direct link between this Hobbesian innovation (which has parallels in Bacon and Descartes) and the turn to History as well as the idealist accounts of freedom (for the latter cf. 279, 281):
But "History" limits our vision in exactly the same way in which the conscious constructs limited the vision of Hobbes. "History," too, fulfills the function of enhancing the status of man and his "world" by making him oblivious of the whole or of eternity. In its final stage the typically modern limitation expresses itself in the suggestion that the highest principle, which, as such, has no relation to any possible cause or causes of the whole, is the mysterious ground of "History" and, being wedded to man and man alone, is so far from being eternal that it is coeval with human history. (176)
This comment, obviously referring to Heidegger, leads to the question of how a conception of the whole as defined by "fundamental problems coeval with human thought" (Strauss) can be much different from a conception of "the mysterious ground . . . coeval with human history" and not relatable to higher causes (Heidegger). But as we have seen, Heidegger treats the manifestations of the problems (or the problem) as identical with history, whereas Strauss, who indeed seems to provide no account of how to attain knowledge of the eternal, regards the problems as suprahistorical. The confidence in this suprahistorical dimension derives from reason's unchangeable need to concede that the human situation could be grounded in some higher and eternal "possible cause"—although one unavailable to human reason. This further means that for Strauss it is essential for reason or philosophy to reflect on the possibility of that of which revelation speaks, although barring itself from ever speaking of it affirmatively. It is Strauss's judgment that by remaining mindful of the problem of the ultimate but unknowable ground, philosophy preserves an awareness of the permanent—as permanent perplexity—that emancipates it from the vagaries of history and lends enduring vitality to its thought.
CHAPTER 8
Is Modernity an Unnatural Construct?
**I**
In a 1952 retrospect on the genesis of his 1936 Hobbes study, Leo Strauss comments on one of the most controversial and least understood aspects of his thought. "I had seen that the modern mind had lost its self-confidence or its certainty of having made decisive progress beyond pre-modern thought, and I saw that it was turning to nihilism, or what is in practice the same thing, fanatical obscurantism." A German refugee living in 1930s England, he was hardly alone in noting the collapse of belief in the liberal-progressive Enlightenment. His response was not to take up a cause, either in defense or in criticism of the liberal democracies, but to reexamine the modern philosophical premises and arguments and to confront them with the premises and arguments they replaced. Strauss does not say here that he sought to revive ancient political practice (and it is hard to grasp what that could mean) or even to return to ancient political philosophy. "I concluded that the case of the moderns against the ancients must be reopened, without any regard to cherished opinions or convictions, _sine ira et sine studio_." To reopen "the case of the moderns against the ancients" was the indispensable task for one seeking the truth about the current crisis, since all principles were now in question. It might or might not result in a new defense of the moderns. (It did result in a kind of defense, as I shall argue.) In the course of his examination Strauss arrived at something quite different from either simple defense or simple criticism of philosophical doctrines: at an unorthodox understanding of the term "political philosophy," to elaborate which became his life's labor. With this term Strauss did not mean a political program or even a theoretical doctrine about politics, but a way of beginning to philosophize. He pursued the question "How does one begin in philosophy?" through commentaries on a remarkable range of figures. He rejected the notion that philosophy can be a science since philosophy as activity and way of life is irreducible to any set of theses, arguments, and conclusions.
Strauss famously arrived at the conviction of a certain superiority of ancient philosophy, one due in large part to the accident of its historical position. The ancients, being unburdened by an existing philosophic tradition, could see the phenomena more directly. Strauss said he learned from Husserl and Heidegger the need to question the inherited philosophic tradition in order to recover the original experiences of philosophizing that produced it. For Strauss this meant turning to the ancient authors above all, for with their aid one could disclose the "natural understanding"—the standpoint from which later thought, especially modern philosophy, made a break. That natural standpoint was not a doctrine or a set of prephilosophic opinions but a way of questioning that exposes "the fundamental problems and the fundamental alternatives regarding their solution." This formulation causes difficulties for some of Strauss's readers. If the later, especially modern, tradition breaks with the natural understanding, could Strauss say that the tradition as a whole treats fundamental problems and alternatives that are "in principle coeval with human thought"? Were the natural and enduring problems available and appreciated only during certain historical epochs? Are the moderns, in their break with nature, thinking in a merely artificial or historical fashion? Indeed it would seem that modern philosophers might be denied the right to the title "philosopher," having lost contact with the primary issues. Strauss wrote of modern thought—the popularization of modern philosophy—as a "cave beneath the cave" from which one must free oneself by an archaeology of textual interpretation. Were the modern philosophers themselves only cave-dwellers? If so, was the cave paradoxically of their own making? If it was not of their own making, who made it, and why did they not leave it? Stanley Rosen and Robert Pippin have raised such questions about Strauss' s thought in particularly incisive ways.
Strauss, however, suggested another side to the story. He affirmed that the moderns, including the builders of "systems," such as Hegel, are philosophic, even if they do not practice "the primary and necessary form of philosophy." Surely there can be no "quarrel" unless the parties share problems and questions, and in the present case those are philosophic. One suspects that Strauss's seemingly unqualified preference for the ancients and his assessment of modern thought as unnatural involve some deliberate rhetorical overstatement, even bordering on self-contradiction, in order to induce perplexity and arouse the desire to grasp what is at stake in the "quarrel between the ancients and the moderns." Strauss's readers and students were (and are), after all, likely to begin with attachments to cherished modern projects and goals, and to be formed by the popularizations of modern philosophy, and it was necessary to create doubts about modernity as a whole and thereby a sense of urgency about a theoretical return to the beginnings. Indeed at one point Strauss was specific about a philosophic issue common to ancients and moderns and as such central to philosophy. Strauss once pronounced that the quarrel "concerns eventually, and perhaps even from the beginning, the status of 'individuality.'"
It could be the case, accordingly, that the modern philosophers maintained a grasp of some fundamental questions that we cannot easily see, and if we have a blindness perhaps this blindness is in good measure due, rather paradoxically, to the effectiveness of their thought. Strauss held that all philosophers as philosophers acknowledge the existence of a fundamental tension between the good of political life (or "the city") and the good of the individual. Law and justice or morality understood as law-abidingness inevitably claim to be, and just as inevitably fail to be, the complete human good. Ancient and modern philosophers agree that "political life derives its dignity from something that transcends political life," since the claim of the city's laws to be the whole good is exposed to the problem of the disproportion between the general requirements of law and the good of individuals, or "the difficulty created by the misery of the just and the prosperity of the wicked." The ancients stress that the individual attains a higher good in the perfection of the intellect, that "the individual is capable of a perfection of which the city is not capable." The moderns, objecting to the supreme place accorded to philosophic virtue, found that "traditional political philosophy aimed too high," and beginning with Machiavelli they grounded political life and human endeavor generally in passions that are always effective. Yet in Strauss's view the political success at which the modern philosophers were aiming was not merely convenience and efficiency but "the actualization of the ideal." In other terms, they purported to establish something that was considered desirable but unattainable by earlier philosophy, the adequate political defense of philosophy against its natural enemies. In this regard the ancients had lower expectations from politics, while aiming at higher forms of philosophic, transpolitical excellence. The modern approach required a transformation of the meaning and goal of philosophy, wherein the ends of politics and philosophy are fused.
Thus the moderns reformulated philosophy's purpose as humanitarian, the "relief of man's estate," and inaugurated the project of freeing humanity from servitude to stepmotherly nature. Yet this can be understood as radicalizing the ancient insight into the deficiency of law and politics, insofar as the new project universalizes the individual's transcendence of law. In place of _theoria_ or philosophic virtue as the basis for that transcendence, one now stresses something that every human possesses regardless of natural gifts or virtue, the rights of man. The political emancipation of the individual is based on the philosophic liberation of the human from natural teleology and from all ways of thinking that measure the human by some superhuman standard. It is hoped that this liberation will secure general peace (the end of civil and sectarian conflicts about the ultimate good) and the gratitude of ordinary citizens for the new kind of philosophy, which no longer strives for knowledge of the superhuman but instead ministers to universal human needs. At first glance Strauss's account seems to characterize this modern project (or Enlightenment) as radically antinatural. Indeed he argued that Hobbes in pursuit of human liberation from natural ends conceived the human good as something grounded solely in a constructive will. Positing that nature in itself is unintelligible, Hobbes placed all intelligibility in what man makes and saw the political order as a man-made "island of intelligibility" within the cosmic darkness. Strauss surely overstated the case that for the moderns in general "we know only what we make." All the same, the problem that the modern philosophers try to solve is natural—the natural tension between desire and justice, it could be called, with allowance for both subpolitical and suprapolitical forms of desire or _eros_.
**II**
Here I insert a general observation about a deep and common misreading of Strauss. Contrary to the judgment of many of his readers (this includes many of his students), Strauss did not claim that this tension was hidden from all eyes until the philosophers brought it to light. It is the primary theme of the poets, in his account, and they differ from the philosophers in supposing that the human conflict admits of only comic and tragic—that is, imperfect—solutions, whereas philosophy arrives at a solution transcending both comedy and tragedy. "Yet by articulating the cardinal problem of human life as it comes to sight within the nonphilosophic life, poetry prepares for the philosophic life." Hence Plato's Socrates should not be read literally when in the _Republic_ he takes the side of the laws, which suppress the erotic, against the poets. Strauss did not hold that the poets should or could be only prophets or spokesmen for the gods and the laws, and he claimed that for Plato the alternative to "Platonic philosophy is not any other philosophy, be it that of the pre-Socratics or Aristotle . . . the alternative is poetry," especially the profoundly innovative, and hardly pious, poetry of Aristophanes. Strauss pointed to the significance of Nietzsche's revival of the Aristophanic criticism of Socrates, and a subterranean theme in Strauss (one developed superbly by his student Seth Benardete) is what one could call the poetic discovery of nature.
Such reflections, if carried further, allow one to see that Strauss was far from supposing that liberal politics, and modernity more widely, are only unnatural constructs. As I suggest, he pointed to their having roots in a poetic wisdom that exposes the complexity of human life while resisting lofty but specious solutions to life's enduring conflicts. Thus Strauss wrote of "the poetry underlying modern prose" with reference to Montesquieu, and he stressed the importance of the comic-poetic element in Machiavelli's vision. Indeed from this natural basis modernity has derived its remarkable strength and resilience, it could be said. Strauss warmly endorsed liberal democracy's defense of individual rights in its struggles with totalitarian enemies, not merely out of some self-regarding or even civic-minded prudence, but because the liberal-democratic regime permits the possibility of recalling how individual perfection transcends the political.
What is the problem with liberal modernity? It is precisely its success in reducing the tensions and therewith its tendency to undermine the higher forms of the transpolitical life. Liberalism, in other words, promotes forgetfulness of the problems that are the ground of its own goodness. The shift from natural duties and obligations to natural rights promotes an "individualism" of self-absorption wherein the "ego is the center and origin of the moral world." One could affirm (perhaps more than Strauss did) that the founders of the liberal democratic order did not intend their principles to produce human beings indifferent to civic life and unaware of its conditions. Yet this type is an abundant result of the prosperity and security of the liberal regime. Strauss therefore regarded with some sympathy the philosophic critics of liberalism from Rousseau and Hegel to Nietzsche and Heidegger, who attempted in various ways to invoke superhuman standards and aspirations through the ideas of freedom as autonomy, the historical process, the creative will, and the disclosure of Being. But their projects failed since the fundamental tensions cannot be resolved in higher syntheses on the plane of politics and history. Later modernity, in spite of its classical inspirations, departed further from classical thought by raising the expectations for human transformation, whereas liberalism's moderate approach is closer to the classical view of the permanence of the human problems. In this regard it should not have to be said, but all the same it must be said, that Strauss was far from supposing that philosophic rule could overcome the shortcomings of liberalism.
Strauss's concern was with renewing philosophy within the liberal order, and such is the true meaning of his reflection on "political philosophy." This was a kind of reenactment of Socrates's turning to political life for the starting point for philosophy. For Socrates political life offered "the link between the highest and the lowest," between mind and body, and therefore was "the clue to all things, to the whole of nature." In Strauss's provocative readings of Plato and Xenophon, the Socratic innovation of looking to speeches or "ideas" for uncovering the "noetic heterogeneity" of the beings was the same as the discovery of the cosmological significance of the political. Socrates sought to unfold the complexities of the dual existence of the human as moral-political being—a being who is both bound to the city and its laws and open to the whole of Being. Strauss states that morality has "two radically different roots" and asks, "how can there be a unity of morality, how can there be a unity of man . . . ?" The human exists as the dualism of "being a part of the whole while open to the whole, and therefore in a sense being the whole itself." It is only as this dual or in-between being that the human can philosophize, and thus the account of how philosophy is possible must begin with investigating how human beings attempt, by means of the laws and morality, to address the problem of the unity of man. Strauss saw in this approach to philosophy's starting point a response to the leading modern critics of the rationalist tradition. Here, too, there is evidence of a favorable approach to modernity, insofar as Strauss avowed a debt to the most thorough and searching version of that criticism, Heidegger's "radical historicism," since "it compels us . . . to realize the need for unbiased reconsideration of the most elementary premises whose validity is presupposed by philosophy."
**III**
I conclude with some comments on the importance of this Heideggerian moment, and also return to my starting point of the ambiguity of Strauss's account of nature and history. It is tempting to understand the significance of Heidegger for Strauss as only negative, such that Heidegger's thought, as the "highest self-consciousness" of modern philosophy, is simply the extreme point of unnaturalness in the antinatural project of modernity, or the necessary self-destructive result of modernity's arbitrary starting point. That Strauss was far from viewing Heidegger's thought as merely nihilistic is evident from the assertion that "by uprooting and not merely rejecting the tradition of philosophy, [Heidegger] made it possible for the first time after many centuries . . . to see the roots of the tradition as they are." Thus Strauss made the remarkable claim that _after a certain historical development_ a kind of thinking was not possible until the appearance of Heidegger, and he thereby points to a philosophic dependence on Heidegger, the appearance of whom constitutes something akin to the absolute moment in history, a theme that Strauss took up in accounts of Hegel, Marx, and Nietzsche. (Strauss wrote of the theoretical advantage of the "crisis of our time," in which the "shaking of traditions" enables one to understand things "in an untraditional or fresh manner.") On one level, the most superficial, this means that Heidegger undertook a _Destruktion_ of modern thought that allowed one to see the defectiveness of the modern philosophic tradition's understanding of classical philosophy. But more deeply, Heidegger sought to uncover the Greek philosophic beginnings as free of the traditional Aristotelian interpretation of those beginnings, an effort Strauss avowed was crucial for his own thinking.
For both Heidegger (more so the early Heidegger) and Strauss, Aristotle instituted the account of philosophy in which metaphysics and cosmology are sciences independent of the primary experiences of the whole or Being for man as practical or concernful being. Strauss understood that the primary experience is political and saw Heidegger's neglect of politics as the great lacuna in his thinking, relating to (or being the same as) his lack of practical moderation. Yet the common thought of the two thinkers—a thought Strauss thought he saw in the Socrates of Xenophon and Plato and, with due regard to differences, in certain Greek poets and historians—is that without the human openness or striving toward the whole (which Strauss viewed as the erotic striving beyond law or _nomos_ ), there would be no articulation of Being, and for that reason "the whole is not a whole without man." The only possible account of the whole or Being is through the human as finite, incomplete, erotic, and thus as confronting the tensions of political life. In Strauss's reading, Aristotle departed from this insight insofar as he founded political science as an independent discipline ("one discipline, and by no means the most fundamental or the highest discipline, among a number of disciplines"). Thus in contrast to Plato's cosmology, Aristotle's cosmology is "unqualifiedly separable from the quest for the best political order," from which one might be tempted to conclude that for Aristotle the whole is still a whole without man. "Aristotelian philosophizing has no longer to the same degree and in the same way as Socratic philosophizing the character of ascent."
As Strauss was led to his interpretation of the Socratics through Heidegger, he was led to it through modernity. The experience of modernity proves to be a necessary condition not for the original Socratic thought, of course, but for its recovery in a form more reserved than the original, even disillusioned, and as such no longer preparing the ground for the later traditions, classical and modern (and one might add Christian) that emerged from it. Strauss indicated that his Socratism is essentially a reversal of the philosophic tradition by his paradoxical and polemical use of the post-Platonic term "political philosophy" to designate the true first philosophy of pre-Aristotelian Socratism. Therefore Strauss departed even from Plato, insofar as his presentation of the core Platonic thought departs from Plato's presentation, which gave birth to a metaphysical tradition. In reopening the "case of the moderns against the ancients" Strauss was not simply seeking a return to the ancients but radicalizing the critique of the classical metaphysical (Platonic-Aristotelian) tradition with the intent of rethinking the roots of ancient philosophy. This was a bold venture, undertaken with the assumption that derivative forms of rationalism—both the classical metaphysical forms and modern antimetaphysical forms— _could not_ , after this _refounding_ of philosophy, be viewed as the true fulfillment of those roots. (Hence a revival of the classical origins without a repetition of the history that followed is possible—with no call for Nietzsche's willing of "eternal recurrence"!)
I shall attempt a brief, certainly inadequate, summary of Strauss's relation to history in the light of these last remarks. The modern philosophic tradition is a combination of the natural and the unnatural or contranatural. In an effort to solve definitively the natural problem of the city and the individual, modern philosophy has recourse to artificial constructs that, however, ultimately obscure their natural starting point. Only by removing this obstruction, i.e., the modern solutions of the natural problem, can one recover the problem. The shaking of traditions, undertaken by Heidegger, was crucial to removing the obstruction. What is more, something was learned from the modern experience leading to Heidegger. Strauss indicated that one must employ for philosophic ends the modern constructs much as Socrates used a poetic construct—the idea of a perfect city—to lead his interlocutors out of the cave. The natural was not immediately available to them, as it is not to us. The modern "cave" has unique features, acquired in the unique history of Western thought, since this "cave," unlike any other, was (in part) conceived in philosophic liberty and dedicated to philosophic propositions. Hence Strauss used the _Republic_ 's figure of the "three waves" to describe the phases of the self-dismantling of the modern ideal city. In this way history has provided not just a poetic speech but a realized philosophic poem—a poem retold by Strauss with certain Platonic distortions—as an indispensable vehicle for the disclosure of nature. Furthermore, this realized poem of modernity, as refashioned by Strauss, provides the philosophers of the future with a perspective on nature not vouchsafed by the poetic speeches of the ancient philosophers. For just as the cave from which one emerges at the end of modernity is not identical with the Socratic version, so the world beyond the cave now bears a different—indeed less exalted, more sobering—shape and aspect ( _eidos_ ).
CHAPTER 9
Strauss on Individuality and Poetry
**I**
In the concluding paragraph of _Natural Right and History_ , Leo Strauss claims that "the quarrel of the ancients and the modern concerns eventually, and perhaps even from the beginning, the status of 'individuality.'" This utterance strikes one as surprising, not to say delphic, since individuality has not apparently figured as the point at issue in the preceding treatment of the ancient and modern accounts of natural right and natural law. "Individuality" does not appear to be what the modern founders have in view as the desideratum of their moral-political revolution. On the classical side, it seems beyond question that classical thought gives the individual or particular a lower status than the universal, and yet Strauss's statement suggests that the classics could at least contemplate giving it a different status. His assertion thus implies that these first appearances must be revisited.
I wish to relate this question to one about another central philosophical claim of Strauss, namely, that the modern revolution brings about a break with "the primary or natural understanding of the whole." It is well known that the heart of his endeavor is to recover the natural understanding by means of historical inquiries, in order to restore to modern awareness the "fundamental problems and the fundamental alternatives regarding their solution." Is the "status of individuality" one of these problems? Let us grant for the moment the existence of a permanent problem of individuality. How could a solution thereof—the modern solution—that "breaks with the natural understanding" be one of the "fundamental alternatives which are, in principle, coeval with human thought"? As a willful rupture with nature, would not the modern account of human life—and thus its account of individuality—be only a historical particular? In that case, the "quarrel of the ancients and the moderns" would be a dispute wherein only one of the parties is natural and permanent. Would it not seem odd that something so basic and important for Strauss's thought—not to mention its importance for many other human beings—as the core of the revolution of modern thought cannot belong to the enduring human possibilities contemplated by philosophy?
On the other hand, would it indeed be odd, after all, if one or more of the fundamental possibilities is only—at least to our knowledge—a historical particular? Or if perhaps _all solutions_ , no matter how long enduring and great, are only prudential negotiations of the basic tensions—solutions available to human beings under the circumstances that fate or fortune grants them? In this case it would be difficult, if not impossible, to claim that the solutions are in some sense "coeval with human thought." The following remarks try to shed some light on these puzzles.
**II**
Let us start with the primary theme of the thought of Leo Strauss: "the city and man," the dualism that expresses the fundamental human condition. Strauss claims that classical political philosophy holds that "the individual is capable of a perfection of which the city is not capable." "According to Plato and Aristotle, to the extent to which the human problem cannot be solved by political means it can be solved only by philosophy, by and through the philosophic way of life." The city forbids an appeal beyond its laws with their divine sanctions, but philosophy appeals to nature, making a radical break with the laws in a way of life sustainable by only a few, remarkably self-reliant inquirers. Not obedience to law but free inquiry is the basis of true human perfection and happiness. "The transpolitical life is higher in dignity than the political life." But far from removing all difficulties, this claim of the philosophers introduces a new set of problems relating to the tension between the philosophic individuals and the law-revering multitude. The first philosophers experienced this tension, but Socrates is the first philosopher to make it the central reflection of philosophy. With him the political things become "of decisive importance for understanding nature as a whole." This is not because the political is the highest concern. Political life as the most urgent concern is the indispensable condition for the appearance of what is highest, "the form in which the highest principles first come to sight." The political things are "the link between the highest and the lowest" and as such "the clue to all things, to the whole of nature." The understanding of this link proves elusive, and both theoretically and practically the relations of philosophy and the city remain problematic. The dualism of "the city and man" expresses the permanent human condition in the form of an insoluble problem. To the extent there is a solution, it is found in the way of life devoted to articulating the problem.
According to Strauss, this Socratic or classical view of the tension between political life and philosophy constitutes "the primary or natural understanding of the whole" with which modern philosophy makes a radical break. The break consists in the modern confidence that the tension can be definitively resolved as philosophy and politics unite forces in a common project, that of using philosophy and science to master nature for "the relief of man's estate." The success of this fusion or harmonization on a material plane obscures the sense that philosophic individuals, as pursuing the natural light of truth, inevitably experience dissatisfaction with life in the cave of opinion. The project creates a new "cave beneath the cave" from which a fundamental meaning of "individuality," its most adequate meaning, has disappeared. It is replaced by "individuality" as the universal emancipation of human beings on a subphilosophic plane. The modern accounts of nature that ground this emancipation are in rebellion against the natural understanding of the whole, but precisely for that reason they presuppose that understanding. Subsequent generations of dwellers in the modern cave are increasingly remote from its foundations, as they regard the modern premises as the self-evident basis for the progress of civilization. The study of the founders of modern philosophy—Machiavelli, Bacon, Hobbes, Descartes, Locke, and Spinoza—can bring to light the motives and arguments for the break with the natural understanding. Only the philosophers make the break with full consciousness of it. Although political life is transformed so that the city's natural suspicion of philosophy and science is replaced by cooperation if not warm affection, on the popular level this means only a change of habit or attitude—not of understanding—brought about by philosophical reforms. What then compels the philosophers knowingly to break with nature? Is this a free choice, or something compelled by stepmotherly nature? According to Strauss, Aristotle was already aware of nature's stepmotherly character and did not consider the project of mastering her to be a fitting response. By turning philosophy into the project of mastery, the moderns accept with full consciousness the "politicization" of philosophy. They consciously make political life the ceiling above which the philosophic life will not rise as regards its ultimate ends.
Strauss describes the modern revolution as "the secular movement which tries to guarantee the actualization of the ideal, or to prove the necessary coincidence of the rational and the real, or to get rid of that which transcends every possible human reality." The movement begins with Machiavelli's judgment that "traditional political philosophy aimed too high" and that the grounds of political life must be placed in motives that are always effective: the primary natural urges or passions. But in Strauss's account the modern intent is not just to aim at lower political results. Rather by such lowering it strives to actualize "the ideal" or the high—indeed to make its actualization necessary. In other terms, the project is to provide for the first time an adequate defense of philosophy by reconceiving it as a "humanitarian" activity, one that not incidentally frees humanity from the bonds of dogma and superstition. Again one asks: how is this project concerned with "individuality"? Liberation of individuality appears to be an outcome, or a means, in the project of actualization, but not its immediate object.
Let us note some passages where Strauss speaks of a direct link between modern "actualization" and a new account of individuality. In one passage he writes of Hobbes's transformation of ancient Epicureanism. According to Epicurean doctrine the individual is by nature free of social bonds, since the natural good is identical with the pleasant, and law requires the restraint or denial of pleasure. Hobbes goes further to liberate the individual from natural ends as such; the good life is only a pattern devised by the will, it is not a natural pattern apprehended before it is willed. Hobbes's aim of constructing an "island of intelligibility" exempt from chance and superseding the question of the cosmic support of the human entails this liberation from teleology. Again liberated individuality seems to be the effect, not the object, of the transformation. In Strauss's view, Locke continued Hobbes's project and "through the shift of emphasis from natural duties or obligations to natural rights, the individual, the ego, had become the center and origin of the moral world." Indeed Locke went even further than Hobbes in his doctrine of property, wherein "the work of man and not the gift of nature, is the origin of almost everything valuable." The emancipation of the individual's productive acquisitiveness replaces restraint of appetite as the source of social bonds. In Rousseau's even more radical account of the original natural state, its complete indeterminacy makes it the "ideal vehicle of freedom," and freedom is understood as "a freedom from society which is not a freedom for something." Rousseau makes an appeal from society to "an ultimate sanctity of the individual as individual, unredeemed or unjustified."
These philosophers present three versions of the modern effort to "get rid of that which transcends every possible human reality," efforts that liberate the individual from putative social and natural bonds transcending the individual's will. But individuality is liberated as the result of basing the human order on what human life makes for itself, without dependence on the transcendent. That dependence is the evil to be avoided; individuality is not the good to be attained. At least before Rousseau the life of the original, free individual is not good or desirable in itself. The natural state, being harsh, is only a negative _telos_. The treatment of free, original individuality as inherently good seems to be Rousseau's invention. But the quarrel between the ancients and the moderns concerning individuality cannot be limited to a quarrel between the ancients and Rousseau or the Rousseauians. What is more, Rousseau's "sanctification" of the individual is the result of his effort to remove difficulties he sees present in the earlier modern positions and so is not intelligible apart from his critique of early modern philosophy. It is thus a result, not a starting point.
It has to be observed that in all the modern philosophers, according to Strauss, the project of emancipation of the human from the superhuman is effected by means of a new account of knowledge that regards the intelligible as the object of human making. (In passing I note that Strauss's characterization here is much overstated, at least with regard to major moderns other than Hobbes, such as Bacon and Descartes, to say nothing of Leibniz, Kant, Hegel, et al.) This innovation is bound up with new conceptions of "method" as that which secures dogmatic certainty on the basis of prior skepticism about the appearances as given. Hobbes and the moderns depart from premodern nominalism, which "had faith in the natural working of the human mind," that is, belief in the natural origin of universals. Rejection of that belief is an indispensable condition for replacing order grounded in the unreliability of stepmotherly nature with reliable man-made order. Strauss's reference to pre-modern nominalism points to his awareness of an earlier thinking in which the individual, not the universal, is the primary locus of the real. But such nominalism is defective for the moderns because it does not ground the possibility of scientific knowledge of beings, and scientific certainty (secured through a new account of "laws of nature") is required for "actualization" as the extension of human power and the overcoming of chance. The modern sense of individuality arises from, and does not precede, that requirement.
**III**
But now I shall suddenly reverse myself and propose that a close look at Strauss's account shows that a certain reflection on the individual does indeed precede and condition the related modern demands for actualization, mastery of nature or chance, and the founding of new sciences. One must go back to the "presupposition" of the natural understanding of a natural tension between the individual and the political. This "presupposition" implies that moral and political life suffers from inherent defects, and these defects can be overcome only by a movement toward the "transpolitical." Perhaps the "politicization" of philosophy in modernity is then actually not a glorification of the political as the highest end, but a new response to its deficiency. A passage from the lectures entitled _The Problem of Socrates_ can help with this. Observing that "political life derives its dignity from something which transcends political life," Strauss notes that "the essential limitation of the political can be understood in three ways": the Socratic view that the transpolitical to which the political owes its dignity is philosophy ( _theoria_ ), accessible only to good natures; the teaching of revelation that the transpolitical is accessible through faith, which depends on divine grace; and liberalism, according to which the transpolitical consists in something that every human being as such possesses, regardless of natural gifts or divine grace. According to the third way, political society exists for the sake of protecting the rights of man. However, these remarks force one to raise the question: What is the nature of the limitation of the political, such that it needs a supplement beyond itself? It will be important to note that Strauss stresses that this limitation is not experienced only by philosophers.
I want to make another observation before pursuing that question. In the course of his account of the transpolitical in the lectures mentioned, Strauss tacitly replaces the third way of liberalism with another way, that of the poets, whereby he indicates that classical thought on the highest level (Aristophanes) proposes another way of thinking about the limitation, a way, Strauss claims, Plato regards as the most serious challenge to the philosophic way. I suggest—and this is now only a hypothesis—that he thereby indicates a (but perhaps not the only) natural root of liberalism, i.e., of the modern approach to individuality. The modern philosophers who sought to emancipate the political from the superhuman recognized that the political points to the transpolitical and does so in diverse and competing ways. In seeking the final reconciliation of philosophy with politics, they introduced the modern notion of the individual as defined by freedom rather than by natural teleology. Individuals so understood are the citizens of the liberal state, which does not rest on the superhuman. Such citizens are the grateful recipients of a new philosophy that aims not at knowledge of the superhuman but at ministering to universal human needs.
Here is my hypothesis: From the classical standpoint, this dual transformation of philosophy and political life, redirecting the human away from what superhumanly transcends political life, is indeed an extreme project. But there is an insight granted by the poets—the poetic account of _eros_ —that provides a basis for viewing the individual as possessing a form of the transpolitical that is neither the life of _theoria_ nor faith in revelation. What the poets show is that all human beings possess through certain merely human experiences some awareness of the limitation of the political, that is to say, of law. The modern project has a natural basis: it grounds political life in a universal awareness of the transpolitical (or subpolitical) in the human, which allows politics to be independent of the transpolitical as superhuman (the cosmic or divine grounds). There may be something apparently paradoxical in the claim that philosophers make poetic accounts of human existence the preferred point of departure. All the same, it is a starting point with warrant from nature and experience. When Strauss asserts that the famous "quarrel" concerns "eventually, and perhaps even from the beginning, the status of individuality," he indicates that the modern notion of individuality emerges most clearly in the thought of later modernity. But it is in later modernity that philosophy turns explicitly to poetry to remedy the defects of rationalist philosophy, a development already evident in Rousseau and Burke. Still "perhaps even from the beginning" the moderns, in some less manifest fashion, perform the turn to poetry as they introduce the modern notion of individuality.
**IV**
Before turning to the thematic treatment of poetry in the lectures on Socrates, I look briefly at the lectures entitled _Progress or Return?_ which contain pregnant formulations on the limitation of the political. Here Strauss analyzes the problem of modern rationalism in terms of the opposition of Greek philosophy and biblical revelation, and in the course of the analysis poetry receives a short but significant discussion. Strauss presents an account of the recent crisis of rationalism in terms of a general collapse of the belief in the necessary parallelism between social and intellectual progress. He claims that it is now widely admitted that progress in material (economic, technological, etc.) terms does not guarantee progress in virtue and wisdom. Also, confidence in the authoritative status of scientific knowledge, the ground and engine of progress, has been shaken by the awareness of science's merely hypothetical character. (For this latter point Strauss provides no argument but defers to Nietzsche's judgment.) The shattering of the fundamental tenets of modern rationalism forces us to reconsider the roots of the tradition. The lectures are notable for arguing that the modern belief in progress—thus modern rationalism itself—can be understood as a hybrid of Greek philosophy and biblical revelation. The Greeks supposed that human beings have made progress from imperfect beginnings through arts and sciences, and even allowed for unlimited progress in some arts, but not in legislation, since the requirements of social life and intellectual life are radically different. Human progress is periodically undone by natural catastrophes in Greek thought, while biblical revelation offers the guarantee of an infinite future through a covenant with God, that is, divine grace. Revelation regards as proud and sinful the belief that the beginnings are less than perfect and that human art improves on them. To compress Strauss's account to its essential points: Modern rationalism offers the assurance of infinite progress based wholly on human advances in the arts and sciences (thus replacing the revealed guarantee) and understands progress as unlimited in both the intellectual and the moral realms (thus denying the Greek views on the difference between these realms, as well as on periodic catastrophes). The result is biblical morality without revelation and philosophy as practical mastery of nature without contemplation.
Strauss offers here no account of how this hybrid, the modern doctrine of progress, was formed, but only asserts that it was formed by philosophical argument that consciously employed biblical elements, and not by an unconscious process called "secularization." He offers, however, some insight into how such a hybrid was thinkable in the first place. While commenting on the radical difference between Greek philosophy and the Bible on the "one thing needful" (autonomous understanding vs. loving obedience to the law), he also notes that "the disagreement presupposes some agreement" and spells out two fundamental agreements of the two sources: morality consists in justice as obedience to law supported by divine sanctions, and morality is insufficient and in need of completion. The two sources differ on what transcends and completes justice or morality, although both sources regard justice as problematic in light of the "difficulty created by the misery of the just and the prosperity of the wicked." The problem of justice is actually the problem of divine justice, since the primary sense of justice is observance of the divinely sanctioned law. The problem might be restated as the question of how the individual good relates to the common good, or how the individual relates to the universal or the whole.
Strauss regards both sources as able to formulate objections to the authority of law, and in that regard both allow for a fundamental exercise of reason in exposing its problem. But the two sources solve the problem "in a diametrically opposed manner." The Greek philosophic solution regards law grounded in ancestral custom as inherently inferior to law based on rational inquiry; in sum, it discovers the idea of universal nature as standard and exposes the accidental character of laws of particular societies. But the authority to which it ascends, nature, is an impersonal necessity that replaces the personal gods. Strauss notes, however, that the Bible differs from all "myth"—and so is akin to philosophy—in its awareness of the problem caused by the variety of divine laws. How is the whole to be conceived if only one particular tribe possesses the one true divine law? This surely raises the question of divine justice, of whether the divine will is just in its punishing and rewarding of the particular. The biblical solution grounds the particular and contingent law in a divine will that is wholly just, but to human reason wholly inscrutable, and it regards the quest for knowledge of the grounds of the law as a rebellion against God. Yet both sources see the need to ascend from the moral and political to the transmoral and transpolitical, and thus can engage in a continuing argument that is the "secret of the vitality of Western civilization."
It follows that any synthesis or "system" that later thought attempts to make with the two sources also addresses the problem of justice, and therefore acknowledges the need for the transpolitical. The modern fusion, however, offers an approach (the rights of man) that obfuscates the two original transpolitical alternatives. Strikingly central to Strauss's analysis is the claim that awareness of the problem of justice is not the preserve of philosophy alone. Indeed he discusses prephilosophic forms of that awareness not only in the Bible but in Greek thought, using texts of Aristotle: the magnanimous man of the _Nicomachean Ethics_ and the account of tragic poetry in the _Poetics._ The magnanimous man is not humbly obedient to the law but habitually claims great honors for himself. By regarding magnanimity as one of two foci of moral virtue (the other being justice), Aristotle presupposes that "man is capable of being virtuous thanks to his own efforts." The identification of virtue with obedience to law receives a yet greater challenge from tragic poetry, for the tragedians (at least as Aristotle reads them) are concerned with the arousal and purgation of the passions that "seem to be the root of religion": fear and pity, which are related to guilt, the feeling of disobedience to divine law. Tragic art seeks to liberate the better type of man from all morbidity so that he can dedicate himself to noble action, whereby it prepares for philosophy by pointing to an account of the divine as not concerned with human goodness. In these remarks on Aristotle, Strauss acknowledges sotto voce that the Western tradition contains another source of thinking about the problem of justice, which differs from both philosophy and revealed truth, and hence that there is another great "quarrel" in the tradition: between philosophy and poetry. By pointing to a way of thinking about the problem of justice—the relation of the individual to the whole—that is natural and yet not philosophic, he points to a possible natural root of what he expressly calls the "third" approach to the transpolitical (liberalism).
Two brief but important addenda on these lectures: Strauss notes that the meaning of philosophy is obscured above all by the identification of philosophy with "the completed philosophic system" already in the Middle Ages and "certainly with Hegel in modern times." Such philosophy "is one very special form of philosophy; it is not the primary and necessary form." In the latter form (knowledge of ignorance) Socrates wondered whether "by saying that the whole is not intelligible we do not admit to having some understanding of the whole." The Socratic philosophic life, in articulating that insight, "cannot possibly lead up to the insight that another way of life is the right one." These remarks make clear that Strauss regards the modern syntheses or "systems" as still philosophic, albeit imperfectly, and that he does not leave the argument between reason and revelation at an impasse for both parties.
**V**
A primary theme of the lecture series _The Problem of Socrates_ is "the secular contest between poetry and philosophy of which Plato speaks at the beginning of the tenth book of the _Republic_ ," and the Platonic view that this quarrel is the decisive context for understanding the meaning of Socratic political philosophy. "One could venture to say that the alternative to philosophy, to Platonic philosophy, is not any other philosophy . . . ; the alternative is poetry." Strauss, as in the _Progress or Return?_ lectures, states that the contemporary collapse of rationalism requires us to consider the origins of rationalism. "For a number of reasons this question can be identified with the problem of Socrates, or the problem of classical political philosophy in general." In these lectures, however, the problem for philosophy is not the challenge from revelation. The problem that classical political philosophy tried to solve and the obstacle it tried to overcome "appeared clearly in Aristophanes's presentation of Socrates." Aristophanes's _The Clouds_ "is the most important statement of the case for poetry" against philosophy. The title _The Problem of Socrates_ carries unmistakable overtones of the thought of Nietzsche. In the introduction to his book on Socrates and Aristophanes, Strauss makes that connection explicit. Nietzsche's attack on Socrates or Plato is the culmination of the radical questioning of the tradition that compels a return to the tradition's origins. Nietzsche revives the Aristophanic critique of the young Socrates, which he uses "as if it had been meant as a critique of the Platonic Socrates." Strauss implies that the Platonic Socrates, who defends justice and piety unlike the young Socrates of _The Clouds_ , provides a response to both Aristophanes and Nietzsche. The examination of Plato's account of the quarrel between poetry and philosophy is a crucial element therefore in the response to Nietzsche's attack on rationalism (an attack that Strauss argues was initiated by Rousseau). It discloses an "erotic" Socrates and an "erotic" Plato who are in crucial ways closer to the poets than later thinkers—including Nietzsche—had seen.
Aristophanes's poetry, although informed by philosophic thought, sees philosophy as a problem for civic life. His poetry is informed by the philosophic idea of nature, for it presents an account of the natural life as the enjoyment of the private and retired pleasures of family life, in tension with the just and the noble that are only conventional. The family is more natural than the city. Yet Aristophanes launches a defense of noble convention rooted in the ancestral against philosophy, since human life cannot dispense with convention, which has a precarious middle status between the body and the mind. Socrates in the Aristophanic satire cannot grasp the requirements of civic life and lacks self-knowledge about his problematic relation to convention; he is amusical and apolitical. But Aristophanes's defense of _nomos_ is itself novel, and his restoration of sound, prephilosophic politics is incompatible with the ancestral polity. The comic poet gives expression to the fundamental tension between the individual good and _nomos_ and at the same time portrays the folly of not recognizing the limits of rational efforts to liberate human beings from convention. Xenophon and Plato in their defenses of Socrates present him as regarding politics and human things as worthy of serious study and show him aware of the limits of reason and especially of the limits of the philosopher's ability to persuade the multitude. Indeed Socrates was the first philosopher to grasp that understanding political life is decisive for knowledge of the whole. His reflection on the spirited aspect of the soul, or _thumos_ , as providing the link between the higher and the lower, between mind and body, and as that which gives man unity, is central to this inquiry. Spiritedness appears to be the characteristically human passion; in any case it is the political passion. In the _Republic_ it is radically distinguished from _eros_.
In practical terms Socrates sees the need of philosophy to enlist the thumotic rhetoric of Thrasymachus if the philosopher is to have any hope of founding and governing a city. Theoretically Socrates has full awareness the tension between reason's search for the universal and the inherently particular and exclusive character of society. _Thumos_ seems capable of resolving the tension. The construction in speech of the best city in the _Republic_ rests on the thumotic demand for the parallel between the individual and the city: that the justice of the city (each part performing well one and only one task for the sake of the whole) and that of the individual are the same. The parallel breaks down, since when each part of the individual's soul performs its task well the individual attains a higher justice than the city's: a perfection that is possible in any city, and desirable for its own sake. The spirited identification of the individual and the city can be carried out only through a radical suppression of the body and _eros_. Spiritedness indeed has a questionable relation to the human good; in its indeterminacy it is obedient to any end, whether of the mind or the body. The laws that _thumos_ enforces (and without _thumos_ there could be no law) have no necessary relation to the mind or the good. The standpoint of spiritedness and law is abstraction from the individual case; wisdom that does reflect on the individual case must transcend the standpoint of law and have a flexibility that law lacks. The problem faced by wise individuals is to translate their judgment into a form effective with the multitude. "The unlimited rule of undiluted wisdom must be replaced by the rule of wisdom diluted by consent," i.e., indirect rule by means of laws "on the making of which the wise have had some influence."
Spiritedness for the most part, except when under the control of the wise, is the opponent of the highest human good; it produces spurious human unity. But spiritedness belongs inescapably to the context of human life and thus to that of philosophy as well; philosophic _eros_ cannot ignore it, and not solely for practical reasons. Indeed the Socratic turn to political philosophy is centrally a recognition that being is heterogeneous, articulated into knowable classes or kinds; this awareness of "noetic heterogeneity" is above all the recognition of the distinctiveness of the political. The political is a realm between body and mind, partaking of both; its heterogeneity from the rest of nature depends on the source of its precarious unity: _thumos_. The Socratic turn to the ideas is first of all a turn to the significance of _thumos_ as the ground of a decisive heterogeneity in being. The intrinsic relation between _eidos_ and _thumos_ , in other terms, consists in the fact that the core of Socrates's philosophic revolution is the uncovering of the distinctiveness of the political as an _eidos_ or class. How then could _thumos_ be only an obstacle to philosophic understanding? On the contrary, political life with its spirited foundation is necessarily the first way that human unity comes to sight, or necessarily the first way that the higher becomes visible in and to the lower. Morality or law is the primary way in which the human exists as the dualism "of being a part [of the whole] while open to the whole, and therefore in a sense being the whole itself." Political life is the chief way that the individual rises above and beyond himself, dedicating himself to a whole beyond himself: "All nobility consists in such rising above and beyond oneself." Politics is the clue not only to a fundamental heterogeneity but also to the possible unification of the heterogeneous. The unity precariously achieved by morality points to a more genuine unity.
In what way is the turn to political philosophy an answer to the poetic critique? To address this one needs an account of what the poet regards as his distinctive wisdom. It happens to be quite close to the Socratic-Platonic philosophy just described. Strauss goes so far as to say that subject matter and treatment are "fundamentally of the same character" in both poetry and philosophy. The Platonic dialogue and poetry both have as subject matter the variety of souls or human types (the heterogeneity of being), and both proceed by imitation. "Poetry does justice to the two sides of life by splitting itself, as it were, into comedy and tragedy, and precisely Plato says that the true poet is both a tragic and a comic poet." Yet the dramatic poet's need to imitate many kinds of people makes his art questionable from the standpoint of the legislation of the best city, which requires complete dedication of the citizen to one job. Plato's own procedure is of course to imitate many types and to produce a work of poetry that speaks with many voices. Philosophy and poetry are alike in bringing to light what the law forbids, a range of experiences and thoughts at odds with the demands of conventional or demotic justice. Poetic imitation creates the illusion of presenting real beings as wholes; in fact it heightens something essential by disregarding something essential. It thereby uncovers the essential in various states of soul or characters, but thus raises the question of whether there is a unity behind this multiplicity. It exposes the problem of the unity of human life, a problem that it is the business of spiritedness to suppress or solve by force. Poetry is more closely related to the pleasant and erotic than to the noble, even if (or because) _thumos_ and the noble are indispensable themes of poetry (as in the tradition founded by Homer). Furthermore poetic imitation, unlike a treatise, treats human beings as moved by passions and not as pure intellects; poetic imitation is the appropriate vehicle for presenting philosophy as a way of life. Strauss writes that "what undergoes various kinds of fate in treatises is not human beings, but _logoi_ ," and "Plato refers frequently to this life and fate of the _logoi_ , most clearly perhaps in the _Phaedo_. . . . Yet the primary theme of the _Phaedo_ is not the death of Socrates' _logoi_ but the death of Socrates himself."
The difference between poetry and philosophy in Strauss's presentation comes down to one point: the poets show only inferior ways of life, those that fail to solve the problems of life in a satisfactory way. Autonomous poetry presents nonphilosophic life as autonomous, and so remains drastically incomplete. "Yet by articulating the cardinal problem of human life as it comes to sight within the nonphilosophic life, poetry prepares for the philosophic life." Legitimate poetry is ministerial to the life of understanding.
**V I **
I conclude with a few remarks on the meaning of the apparent disregard of poetry in Strauss's account of the sources of liberalism. Poetry's openness to the problematic character of life shows it to be more akin to philosophy's _eros_ than to law and ancestral piety. Plato's presentation of a musical Socrates, aware of the complexity of the human passions and thus possessing an essential ingredient of prudence, counters the charge of the poets that philosophy is unerotic. Poetry has its source in a universal human capacity to experience the complexity of the passions and the limitations of law on a prephilosophic level. In the hands of capable poets, poetic imitation articulates this experience to disclose the structure of primary human tensions and problems. Poetry's failure consists in not making available by argument or example the thinker and the life of thought as the most satisfactory way of life, as neither tragic nor comic. In this way it prefigures the liberal account of the human in terms of freedom: the human capacity to pursue a variety of ends, without the judgment of a natural hierarchy of ends. In later modern philosophy, this becomes the celebration of diversity, or the preference for the local and particular over the universal. Strauss indicates that Nietzsche's preference for the tragic life over the theoretical life is related to his adoption of the "fundamental premise of the historical school," namely, not the belief in necessary progress but "the belief in the supreme value of diversity or uniqueness." Strauss's presentation of the origins and development of modernity as an artificial, willful project seems to commit a deliberate abstraction from this poetic element, which has its counterpart, if not its source, in ancient poetry. He thus enlarges the gulf between ancient and modern, even as, in a countervailing movement, he distances Socrates in his provocative reading from traditional rationalism and uncovers a Plato who can converse with Nietzsche and Heidegger to show philosophic respect for human particularity as only poetry can disclose it. His procedure, however, might be considered a Platonic abstraction: Just as the _Republic_ 's "three waves" of founding first inspire enthusiasm, then lead to disappointment about the prospects for political idealism, so Strauss's account of modernity—banishing the poets with as much irony as Socrates—detaches the better natures from modern political hopes and awakens the philosophic need to return to the beginnings.
EPILOGUE
Dwelling and Exile
Only since the philosophy of German Idealism is there a _history_ of philosophy wherein history itself becomes a path of absolute knowing to itself. History is now no longer the past that one has left behind oneself and is over with, but is rather the constant form of becoming of the spirit itself [ _Werdeform des Geistes selbst_ ]. First in German Idealism is history grasped metaphysically. Until that time it is something unavoidable and unintelligible, a burden or a miracle, an error or a purposeful arrangement, a witch's dance or the teacher of "life," but in any case always something that one interprets directly on the basis of quotidian experience and its aims.
MARTIN HEIDEGGER, _Schelling: Vom Wesen der menschlichen Freiheit_
The Greeks, and therewith in particular Socrates and Plato, lacked the awareness of history, the historical consciousness. . . . But perhaps History is a problematic _interpretation_ of phenomena which could be interpreted differently, which _were_ interpreted differently in former times and especially by Socrates and his descendants. I will illustrate the fact starting from a simple example. Xenophon, a pupil of Socrates, wrote a history called _Hellenica_ , Greek history. This work begins abruptly with the expression "Thereafter.". . . More importantly: the _Hellenica_ also _ends_ with Thereafter, what we call History is for Xenophon a sequence of Thereafters, in each of which _tarache_ (confusion) rules.
LEO STRAUSS, "The Problem of Socrates"
**I**
History is a theme central to the thought of Heidegger and Strauss as late modern philosophers. Both see themselves as living in a time of exhaustion and collapse of the tradition, which calls for a new beginning, but their conceptions of history and of philosophy's role in it are otherwise starkly different. It is as important for Strauss to reject the German metaphysical approach to history as a meaningful process as it is for Heidegger to endorse a version of it. This is not to say that Strauss simply returns to the Greek account of history as a "sequence of Thereafters," since Strauss cannot claim that he is unaware of history in the modern sense or of the historical consciousness. For a late modern philosopher, the recovery of the nonmetaphysical approach requires a conscious effort of overcoming the inheritance of the historical consciousness. "The _distinction_ between philosophic and historical cannot be avoided, but distinction is not total _separation_ : one cannot study the philosophic problem without having made up one's mind on the historical problem and one cannot study the historical problem without having made up one's mind implicitly on the philosophical problem." The rejection of history as a meaningful or "metaphysical" process is based not on a comprehensive alternative metaphysical doctrine but rather on skepticism about the possibilities of the political sphere. That the latter can only be a "cave" of conflicting opinion and not a true whole is the experience from which Strauss begins. To begin there "implicitly" is not the same as possessing final knowledge about the problem of history. The structure of the relation of philosophy to the city is an indeterminate dyad: philosophy must distinguish itself from the city but it cannot exist apart from the city. Strauss ascribes the same structure to the relation of the problem of philosophy to the problem of history, for the modern cave has been formed by historical thinking. Like all opinion in the cave, historical thinking has proved to be characterized by internal contradiction. That merely negative insight, far from constituting wisdom, is sufficient to ground a Socratic inquiry that denies its subservience to (or unity with) history while all the same not leaving behind the reflection on history.
Reflection on history cannot be abandoned after one has had the insight that philosophic questioning is subject to deformation as it becomes a tradition or as it becomes "history" with a negative teleological sense (growing forgetfulness). With this problem of history in mind, Strauss and Jacob Klein recovered the original meaning of the Platonic criticism of writing as in reality the achievement of a new form of writing that remains "alive" through requiring readers to question the doctrinal distortions of philosophy that the same writing seems to present as the truth of its own dialectic. In other words, Platonic writing anticipates its own fall into error (the tradition of the "doctrine of ideas"), which it enables close readers to avoid. Although Heidegger did not read Plato in this way, he provided insights that enabled others to find this way, for he showed that Greek philosophy from the beginnings through Aristotle is moved by the aporia of Being (the question "of ancient times, and the question now and the question always," as Aristotle says), which specifically has the structure of tension between the apophantic disclosure of Being in _logos_ and the attempt to give causal, genetic accounts of Being, which tend to occlude the original disclosure. In clear indebtedness to Heidegger, Jacob Klein took as the principal theme of his inquiries the twofold character of _eidos_ as disclosure in _logos_ (in stable intelligible structures) and as the causal-genetic ground of becoming. Klein wrote of "the one immense difficulty within ancient ontology, namely, to determine the relation between the 'being' of the object itself and the 'being' of the object in thought," and argued that this difficulty laid the basis for the modern approach in mathematics and physical science in which the solution to the aporia of Being is found in "the _symbolic_ understanding of the object intended," or the identification of the actual object being studied (number, body) with the mere concept of the object (indeterminate magnitude, extension). Referring to Klein's insights, Strauss argues that the new approach to knowledge as symbolic construction made possible the idea of progress, which "implies that the most elementary questions can be settled once and for all so that future generations can dispense with their further discussion, but can erect on the foundations once laid an ever-growing structure." As the foundations were covered up by advances built upon them, philosophy, which requires lucidity about its proceeding, found it needed a special inquiry (the history of philosophy or science) "whose purpose it is to keep alive the recollection, and the problem, of the foundations hidden by progress." Strauss, in accord with Heidegger and Klein, engages in such inquiry not in order to shore up the foundations but in order to expose the problem in them.
Heidegger made the ancient aporia accessible insofar as he showed that the question of Being begins with the prescientific disclosure of beings through human speaking and knowing as an engaged openness with the world, and made evident the presence of this understanding in ancient authors. Heidegger's intent was not merely to identify openness to Being with the practical handling of things as equipment (the ready-to-hand) but to uncover the presupposed horizon of this engagement ("world") as inherently elusive to discursive and causal accounts. At the same time he sought to show that the aporia of Being was under constant pressure of concealment by the tendencies toward "fallen" modes of discourse bound up with human existence, which is inauthentic and flees from genuine questioning, especially human "being-together" in anonymous, self-forgetting social life. It is an easy step from this analysis to the view that philosophizing is under constant threat from distortion in the form of tradition that arises from the social needs of teaching and communication. It is also not difficult to see that in spite of his vastly different appreciation of political life and philosophy's relation to it, Strauss's view of philosophy as radical openness to aporia that is in inherent tension with the requirements of law and political life was prepared by Heidegger's analysis. In other terms, Strauss's claim that the core of philosophy is political philosophy is equivalent to the claim that the primary theme of philosophic reflection is the forgetfulness of aporia, understood in nonhistoricist fashion.
**I I **
Central to Strauss's nonhistoricist account of the problem of history is the transformation of the cave by revealed religion, or the religion of the book, which made possible the permanent subordination of philosophy to a doctrine that claimed to be comprehensive truth. In Strauss's account early modern philosophy attempted to reestablish the natural independence of philosophy from _nomos_ but did so only through another subjection of philosophy to _nomos_ : the practical, progressive, humanitarian project of Enlightenment that is grounded in universally accessible certainties. Philosophy lost its aporetic openness in order to secure civic freedom for itself and for all humanity, thereby becoming wholly at home in politics. Hobbes supplied the foundations of this project in the account of knowledge as construction, abstracting philosophy from ancient questions and controversies about causes. "The abandonment of the primacy of contemplation or theory in favor of the primacy of practice is the necessary consequence of the abandonment of the plane on which Platonism and Epicureanism have carried on their struggle. For the synthesis of Platonism and Epicureanism stands or falls with the view that to understand is to make." The successors to the constructivism of Hobbes and Descartes are the various modern systems that claim to give a comprehensive structure of human knowledge that excludes the possibility of miracles and any revelation of a mysterious God. Of Spinoza Strauss writes: "There is therefore only one way of disposing of the possibility of revelation or miracles: one must prove that God is in no way mysterious, or that we have adequate knowledge of the essence of God. This step was taken by Spinoza." According to Spinoza "any knowledge of God we can have must be as clear and as distinct as that which we can have of the triangle," and his teaching "presents the most comprehensive, or the most ambitious, program of what _modern science_ could be." Although Strauss regards the contrast between ancient and modern philosophy on the question of the refutability of revelation as the key to their difference, his view on their positions is at times put cryptically. "A philosophy which believes that it can refute the possibility of revelation and a philosophy which does not believe that: _this_ is the real meaning of la querelle des anciens et des modernes." The ambiguity of the references in this sentence may be removed by recalling that Strauss expressly describes Spinoza as believing that he could refute the possibility of revelation. Since at least one major modern subscribes to refutability, it would seem to follow that the ancients have the more modest approach, although Strauss remarks on the "possibility of refutation implied in Platonic-Aristotelian philosophy. What their specific argument is, we cannot say before we have understood their whole teaching. Since I cannot claim to have achieved this, I must leave the issue open."
Upon careful consideration, one sees that Strauss's view is that ancient philosophy as aporetic, as admitting that the whole is not intelligible, is in the stronger position for justifying its way of life as the most choiceworthy. But its strength does not depend on showing the refutability of revelation in a crucial sense, i.e., by offering a metaphysical account of the whole that establishes the impossibility of a mysterious, omnipotent first cause. He writes: "as far as I know, the present-day arguments in favor of revelation against philosophy are based on an inadequate understanding of classical philosophy," for "classical philosophy is said to be based on the unwarranted belief that the whole is intelligible." Countering this view, Strauss writes of Socrates as the philosopher "who knew that he knew nothing, who therewith admitted that the whole is not intelligible" although "he wondered whether by saying that the whole is not intelligible we do not admit to having some understanding of the whole." In other words, Strauss thought that Socratic philosophy provides a sufficient grounding for the philosophic life that does not depend on knowing whether Plato and Aristotle had achieved refutations of the alternative of revealed truth. To be more precise, Socratic knowledge of ignorance provides a response to the _claim_ of revelation to define the best life even if reason cannot prove the impossibility of a mysterious God. "The very insight into the _limitations_ of philosophy is a victory of philosophy: because it is an _insight."_ This is a crucial point in Strauss (often misconstrued by interpreters), and it bears directly on Strauss's response to Heidegger, who in Strauss's estimation is quite "sensible" in avowing the mysteriousness of Being and of the origin of the human as bound up with Being. For Strauss the confrontation with that ultimate mystery leaves intact the possibility that reason has transhistorical knowledge of its limitations, or an insight that is not an _Ereignis,_ a "gift of Being" or of some higher power, but derived from knowledge of the human dyadic openness and closedness of the "cave," which determines the human relation to the whole. Whereas Heidegger still agrees with the modern philosophers that the appearance of biblical revelation in the world changed the character of philosophy, presumably permanently, Strauss regards the insight into human duality as providing philosophy with a crucial means of transcending this historical contingency.
To restate Strauss's central insight: the _knowledge_ of human dyadic openness to the whole, or the knowledge that access to the fundamental problems (including the problem that revelation claims to answer) is available only through an erotic ascent from the moral-political realm, is the root transhistorical insight. Hence "the political things and their corollaries are the form in which the highest principles first come to sight" and "they are the link between what is highest and lowest." The political things are the key to all things since man as political is the microcosm.
Strauss could at the same time express sympathy with certain moments in modern philosophy that in an ancient spirit distance themselves from the authority of revelation, aiming at neither refutation nor subservience. Thus he praises Montesquieu who "tried to recover for statesmanship a latitude which had been considerably restricted by the Thomistic teaching. What Montesquieu's private thoughts were will always remain controversial. But it is safe to say that what he explicitly teaches, as a student of politics and as politically sound and right, is nearer to the spirit of the classics than to Thomas." This statement makes evident that the "theologico-political problem" as Strauss sees it unfolds on the plane of politics insofar as reason has a claim to autonomy in practical matters, apart from the theoretical controversy between reason and revelation. Strauss evidently was confirmed in this view by the events of his own life. "The biggest event of 1933 would rather seem to have proved, if such proof was necessary, that man cannot abandon the question of the good society, and that he cannot free himself from the responsibility for answering it by deferring to History or to any other power different from his own reason." Such statements call into question the view that Strauss regarded only philosophers as having a right to appeal to reason and that otherwise the lives of human beings are necessarily and properly guided only by revelation's demands for obedience or by "political theology."
**III**
The focal thesis of the present study is that Strauss's criticism of the historicism of Heidegger's thought is not chiefly concerned with the skeptical and relativistic consequences of that thought, whereby Strauss would assert against it a set of moral absolutes, and that on the contrary, his judgment is that the appeal to History has the effect of concealing the skeptical and aporetic nature of philosophy as the critique of custom and law. This is the real meaning of Strauss's claim that Heidegger's thought has no room for political philosophy. Thus Heidegger is a profoundly paradoxical figure insofar as his questioning reopened the essential aporia of philosophy and at the same time it concealed from itself its own moral and political implications, distorting the nature of radical questioning by identifying it with the stance of grateful dwelling within worlds defined by particular languages and the poetic announcement of gods. But if Strauss's true critique of Heidegger is commonly misunderstood, this has much to do with the paradoxical character of his own thought, since Strauss's skeptical overcoming of historicism involves a radical particularism of a special sort. In correspondence with Hans-Georg Gadamer concerning the latter's _Wahrheit und Methode_ , Strauss writes: "Not only is my hermeneutical experience very limited . . . the experience I possess makes me doubtful whether a universal hermeneutics which is more than 'formal' or external is possible. I believe that the doubt arises irretrievably from the 'occasional' character of every worthwhile interpretation." Strauss's mode of philosophizing by means of commentaries seeks to illuminate the diverse approaches of the great philosophers to the fundamental problems by placing their thought in dialogue. It is not satisfied with an abstract and general account of those problems and their possible solutions, since the core of philosophy is the activity of addressing the tension between the theoretical life and its political-moral matrix. This entails a constant effort of ascent toward wisdom (knowledge of the whole) that is never completed, and every such ascent has unique features that are necessarily reflected in the individual philosopher's manner of writing. The study of a given philosopher involves becoming acquainted with his peculiar mode of speaking differently to philosophers and nonphilosophers, according to rhetorical strategies that seem to him required by his situation. His mode of rhetoric is inseparable from the substance of his thought, for it directly relates to how he conceives the philosophic life and its relation to political life. The highest subject of philosophy is the philosophic life itself, which is always lived as a particular effort to attain an end that is radically universal: to be at home in the whole. The life and fate of _logoi_ are thematic throughout the Platonic dialogues, "yet the primary theme of the _Phaedo_ is not the death of Socrates' _logoi_ but the death of Socrates himself." The consequences of the philosophic life for facing mortality cannot be summed up in a formula or a theory but can fully emerge only in the actuality of that life.
It must be avowed that this conception of philosophy in which the substance of thinking is inseparable from the manner in which the philosopher conducts his life in his particular _nomos_ accords an enormous weight to "history" in some sense. Strauss himself puts great emphasis on how philosophic rhetoric and therefore philosophizing in the context of the Jewish and Islamic revelations were shaped profoundly by their situation. One recurs at this point to Strauss's position that philosophy and history must be distinguished although they cannot be separated. What he means by "history" has no overall coherence or _telos_ , is deficient in _logos_ (as "cave"), yet is a necessary condition of philosophic _logos_. Philosophy necessarily begins with reflection on particulars that lead to awareness of the universal but are never wholly derivable from the universal. No instance of the philosophic life is strictly speaking repeatable, given that it is always a particular life, engaged with particular circumstances, in erotic quest of the universal. Löwith's formulation "repetition of antiquity at the peak of modernity" spoke to Strauss since it brings forward the essential novelty of what seems to be only a recurrence of the same. The boldness of repetition involves the daring of unorthodox readings. "Who can dare to say that Plato's doctrine of ideas as he intimated it, or Aristotle's doctrine of the _nous_ that does nothing but think itself and is essentially related to the eternal visible universe, is the true teaching?"
In opposing his recovery of tradition to both the tradition and his contemporaries, Strauss appeals to no authority but only his own insight. Philosophy as he conceives it is not a destiny or fate sent by history or Being as historical. Philosophers have a permanent, natural fate as exiles operating in the midst of the political realm that provides them with their questions and problems—a fate that can be experienced only by individuals, not by epochs or cultures.
ABBREVIATIONS
WORKS OF HEIDEGGER CITED
All references to _GA_ below are to _Martin Heidegger: Gesamtausgabe_ (Frankfurt am Main: V. Klostermann, 1975–).
_EM_ : _Einführung in die Metaphysik,_ 5th ed. (Tübingen: M. Niemeyer, 1987)
_GA_ 3: _Kant und das Problem der Metaphysik,_ ed. F.-W. von Herrmann, 1990
_GA_ 8: _Was heißt Denken?_ ed. P.-L. Coriando, 2002
_GA_ 9: _Wegmarken_ , ed. F.-W. von Herrmann, 1976
_GA_ 16: _Reden und andere Zeugnisse eines Lebensweges: 1910_ – _1976_ , ed. H. Heidegger, 2000
_GA_ 22: _Die Grundbegriffe der antiken Philosophie_ (SS 1926), ed. F.-K. Blust, 1993
_GA_ 29/30: _Die Grundbegriffe der Metaphysik: Welt-Endlichkeit-Einsamkeit_ (WS 1929/30), ed. F.-W. von Herrmann, 1992
_GA_ 36/37: _Sein und Wahrheit_ (SS 1933, WS 1933/34), ed. H. Tietjen, 2001
_GA_ 42: _Schelling: Vom Wesen der menschlichen Freiheit (1809)_ (SS 1936), ed. I. Schuessler, 1988
_GA_ 45: _Grundfragen der Philosophie_ (WS 1937/38), F.-W. von Herrmann, 1984
_GA_ 51: _Grundbegriffe_ (SS 1941), ed. P. Jaeger, 1981
_GA_ 54: _Parmenides_ (WS 1942/43), ed. M. S. Frings, 1982
_GA_ 62: _Phänomenologische Interpretationen ausgewählter Abhandlungen des Aristoteles zur Ontologie und Logik_ (SS 1922), ed. G. Neumann, 2005
_GA_ 65: _Beiträge zur Philosophie (Vom Ereignis)_ (1936–38), ed. F.-W. Von Herrmann, 1988
_GA_ 70: _Über den Anfang_ (1941), ed. P.-L. Coriando, 2005
_H_ : _Holzwege_ , 4th ed. (Frankfurt am Main: V. Klostermann, 1963)
_ID_ : _Identität und Differenz_ (Pfullingen: G. Neske, 1957)
_N_ : _Nietzsche_ , 2nd ed. (Pfullingen: G. Neske, 1961)
_SD_ : _Zur Sache des Denkens_ (Tübingen: M. Niemeyer, 1969)
_SDU_ : _Die Selbstbehauptung der deutschen Universität und Das Rektorat 1933/34_ , 2nd ed., ed. H. Heidegger (Frankfurt am Main: V. Klostermann, 1990)
_SZ_ : _Sein und Zeit_ , 19th ed. (Tübingen: M. Niemeyer, 2006)
_VA_ : _Vorträge und Aufsätze_ (Pfullingen: G. Neske, 1954)
WORKS OF STRAUSS
CCWM : "Correspondence with Hans-Georg Gadamer concerning _Wahrheit und Methode_ ," _Independent Journal of Philosophy_ 2 (1978): 5–12.
_CM_ : _The City and Man_ (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1964)
_EW_ : _The Early Writings (1921_ – _32)_ , trans. and ed. M. Zank (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2002)
GN : "German Nihilism," _Interpretation_ 26, no. 3 (1999): 353–78.
_GS_ : _Gesammelte Schriften_ , vols. 1–3, ed. H. Meier (Stuttgart and Weimar: J. B. Metzler, 1996–2001)
_HPP_ : _History of Political Philosophy_ , with J. Cropsey, eds., 3rd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987)
_JPCM_ : _Jewish Philosophy and the Crisis of Modernity: Essays and Lectures in Modern Jewish_ Thought, ed. K. H. Green (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1997)
LIGPP : "Living Issues of German Postwar Philosophy," in H. Meier, _Leo Strauss and the Theologico-Political Problem_ , 115–39 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006)
_NRH_ : _Natural Right and History_ (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1953)
_OT_ : _On Tyranny: Revised and Expanded Edition, Including the Strauss-Kojève Correspondence_ , ed. V. Gourevitch and M. S. Roth. (New York: Free Press, 1991)
_PP_ : _Political Philosophy: Six Essays_ , ed. H. Gildin (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1975)
_PPH_ : _The Political Philosophy of Hobbes: Its Basis and Its Genesis_ , trans. E. Sinclair, 2nd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1952)
PS : "The Problem of Socrates," _Interpretation_ 22, no. 3 (1995): 319–38.
_RCPR_ : _The Rebirth of Classical Political Rationalism: Essays and Lectures by Leo Strauss_ , ed. T. Pangle (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989)
RR : "Reason and Revelation," in H. Meier, _Leo Strauss and the Theologico-Political Problem_ , 141–80 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006)
_SA_ : _Socrates and Aristophanes_ (New York: Basic Books, 1966)
_SCR_ : _Spinoza's Critique of Religion_ , trans. E. Sinclair (New York: Schocken Books, 1965)
_SPPP_ : _Studies in Platonic Political Philosophy_ (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983)
_TM_ : _Thoughts on Machiavelli_ (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1958)
_WIPP_ : _What Is Political Philosophy? And Other Studies_ (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1959)
_XS_ : _Xenophon's Socrates_ (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1972)
NOTES
PARABASIS
. _CM_ , 9. The terms "crisis" and "critique" designate not just moments or possible stances in the history of philosophy but the condition of philosophizing as such. Philosophic thinking cannot "hasten forward with sanguine expectations, as though the path which it has traversed leads directly to the goal, and as though the accepted premises could be so securely relied upon that there can be no need of constantly returning to them and considering whether we may not, perhaps in the course of inferences, discover defects" (Kant, _Critique of Pure Reason_ , A735/B763). In the forever-renewed search for beginnings, the center proves to be everywhere and the circumference nowhere. Interruption and crisis in the forward movement of thought are the distinctive signs of insight, therewith of "progress," in philosophic thought. In the drama of dialectic, parabasis is necessarily the principal action and theme. For an account of philosophy as "critical science" whose task is to make distinctions visible ( _krinein_ ) in such a way that it "always puts itself under the most radical critique," see _GA_ , 22: 7–11.
. One should not overlook the great debt of both of these figures to Edmund Husserl precisely in the thematizing of "crisis" and in the phenomenological approach to its analysis. At the same time Heidegger and Strauss are more centrally concerned than Husserl with the uncovering of the origin of the tradition in the Greeks' radical openness to questioning, and with the tradition as the historical obscuring of this origin, although Husserl took up a related inquiry in his late _The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology._ See Hwa Yol Jung, "Two Critics of Scientism: Leo Strauss and Edmund Husserl," _Independent Journal of Philosophy_ 2 (1978): 81–88, and the author's "Edmund Husserl," in _HPP_.
. "Philosophy as Rigorous Science and Political Philosophy," _SPPP_ , 29–37; first published in _Interpretation_ 2, no. 1 (1971).
. _SPPP_ , 30. I am not concerned with whether Heidegger made such a statement or what he may have meant by it if he did make it. I am here concerned with Strauss's statement and what it reveals about his own relation to Heidegger. Indeed Strauss's authority for his view of Heidegger's opinion is obscure and not clearly traceable to Heidegger's express declaration ("As far as I can see . . .").
. "An Introduction to Heideggerian Existentialism," lecture of 1956, _RCPR_ , 29. A more authentic version of this lecture bearing Strauss's original title "Existentialism" appears in _Interpretation_ 22, no. 3 (1995): 303–20. In the same lecture Strauss says, "prior to Heidegger's emergence the most outstanding German philosopher—I would say the only German philosopher—of the time was Edmund Husserl," _RCPR_ , 28. This should lay to rest the question of whether Strauss thought of Heidegger as a philosopher. For literature treating both Strauss and Heidegger, see relevant essays or parts of the following: L. Batnitzky, _Leo Strauss and Emmanuel Levinas: Philosophy and the Politics of Revelation_ (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006); S. Fleischacker, ed., _Heidegger's Jewish Followers_ (Pittsburgh: Duquesne University Press, 2008); P. Kielmansegg, H. Mewes, and E. Glaser-Schmidt, _Hannah Arendt and Leo Strauss_ (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995); S. B. Smith, _Reading Leo Strauss: Politics, Philosophy, Judaism_ (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006); C. Zuckert, _Postmodern Platos_ (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996); C. Zuckert and M. Zuckert, _The Truth about Leo Strauss: Political Philosophy and American Democracy_ (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006).
. See chapter 7 below.
. Notable exceptions, besides the authors cited in note 5 above, are Jeffrey Barash, Mark Blitz, Michael Gillespie, Robert Pippin, Stanley Rosen, and Gregory Bruce Smith. Rosen is one of the few writers to address Strauss's concern with the possibility of philosophy. See "Wittgenstein, Strauss, and the Possibility of Philosophy," in _The Elusiveness of the Ordinary: Studies in the Possibility of Philosophy_ (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002).
. _TM_ , 13.
. _SPPP_ , 34–37; _WIPP_ , 74–77; _RCPR_ , 28–29. "Since the natural understanding is the presupposition of the scientific understanding, the analysis of science and the world of science presupposes the natural understanding, or the world of common sense." _NRH_ , 79. See also chapters 3 and below.
. See chapters 2 and below.
. For Strauss's argument on this, see chapter 3 below.
. _WIPP_ , 39.
. This is Strauss's interpretation of Socrates's account of his beginning philosophically with the direct approach to the causes of beings (his "pre-Socratic" phase), followed by his "second sailing" or his "taking refuge in speeches" as the approach to what the beings are. See _Phaedo_ 95e–100b.
. _RCPR_ , 24–25, 38–42; _CM_ , 2–3.
. In "Nietzsche's Word 'God is Dead'" (1943), Heidegger writes: "Nietzsche himself interprets the course of Western history metaphysically, as the advent and development of nihilism. To think through Nietzsche's metaphysics becomes a matter of reflecting on the situation and place of contemporary men, whose destiny with respect to truth is still little experienced." _H_ , 193–94. In "Religiöse Lage der Gegenwart" (1930), Strauss writes: "Through Nietzsche, tradition has been shaken to its _roots_. It has completely lost its self-evident truth. We are left in this world without any authority, any direction. Only now has the question _pos bioteon_ again received its full edge. We _can_ pose it again." _GS_ , 2: 389, trans. _EW_ , 32. See L. Lampert, _Leo Strauss and Nietzsche_ (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), for an insightful discussion of Strauss's relation to Nietzsche focusing on Strauss's "Note on the Plan of Nietzsche's _Beyond Good and Evil_." On Heidegger's appropriation of Nietzsche, see R. Pippin, "Nietzsche, Heidegger and the Metaphysics of Modernity," in _Nietzsche and Modern German Thought_ , ed. K. Ansell-Pearson (New York: Routledge, 1991), and the contributions in A. Denker, M. Heinz, J. Sallis, et al., eds., _Heidegger und Nietzsche_. _Heidegger-Jahrbuch_ 2, (Freiburg/Munich: Alber Verlag, 2005).
. CCWM, 5–12.
. See chapter 2 below.
. For intellectual biographies of Strauss, see the studies by David Janssens, _Between Athens and Jerusalem: Philosophy, Prophecy and Politics in Leo Strauss's Early Thought_ (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2008); Heinrich Meier, _Carl Schmitt and Leo Strauss: The Hidden Dialogue_ (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995); Eugene R. Sheppard, _Leo Strauss and the Politics of Exile: The Making of a Political Philosopher_ (Waltham: Brandeis University Press, 2006); Daniel Tanguay, _Leo Strauss: An Intellectual Biography_ (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007); and the introduction in _EW_. Principal friends and correspondents of Strauss among Heidegger's students were Hans-Georg Gadamer, Hans Jonas, Jacob Klein, Gerhard Krüger, and Karl Löwith. The thought of another close correspondent, the Hegelian-Marxist Alexandre Kojève, is deeply engaged with Heidegger, although he was not Heidegger's student. For Kojève's relation to Heidegger, see E. Kleinberg, _Generation Existential: Heidegger's Philosophy in France, 1927_ – _1961_ (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2005).
. "A Giving of Accounts," _JPCM_ , 461. Heidegger's lecture course was _Phänomenologische Interpretationen ausgewählter Abhandlungen des Aristoteles zur Ontologie und Logik_ , published in _GA_ , 62. See also _RCPR_ , 27–28. Heidegger states the fundamental intent of his interpretation of the _Metaphysics_ in the following passage:
The question now is: In what way is an inquiry into Being to be motivated? What is the object-sphere, what is the mode of access, from which the ground-meaning [ _Grundsinn_ ] of Being emerges that is decisive for philosophic inquiry? . . . The determination of the meaning of Being which deals solely with the ground-meaning of Being in the sphere of objects, and which is of interest to philosophy, finds itself led back to the analysis of _Life_ , human life in its specific-factic way and in its historical Being. . . . The question is: How is one in the first place to set about an investigation of the ontological- and object-meaning of life? For the concrete starting-point it is a matter of appropriating the material for such an inquiry through critique of philosophy. The starting-point must emerge out of history. . . . A genuine starting-point is possible only by going back to the decisive starting-points of philosophy, in the rubble of whose tradition we stand. On this basis every step of the interpretation and translation of Aristotle is determined. ( _GA_ , 62: 173–74)
For an incisive account of Heidegger's reading of Aristotle's _Nicomachean Ethics_ , see S. Rosen, "Kant and Heidegger: Transcendental Alternatives to Aristotle," in _The Elusiveness of the Ordinary: Studies in the Possibility of Philosophy_ (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002).
. _JPCM_ , 462.
. "An Unspoken Prologue to a Public Lecture at St. John's College in Honor of Jacob Klein," _JPCM_ , 450.
. _JPCM_ , 462.
. _JPCM_ , 450.
. _NRH_ , 31. See chapter 7 below.
. To my knowledge Strauss never characterizes Heidegger as a nihilist or his thought as nihilistic. He delivered a most interesting and revealing lecture in 1941 entitled "German Nihilism," in which he analyzes and criticizes the broad German tendency in the early twentieth century toward opposition to "civilization," understood as the Western democratic Enlightenment. See GN and corrections in _Interpretation_ 28, no. 2 (fall 2000): 33–34, and also S. Shell's excellent essay on the lecture, "To Spare the Vanquished and Crush the Arrogant," in _The Cambridge Companion to Leo Strauss_ , ed. Steven B. Smith (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 171–92. Surely Heidegger's thought has sympathies with this outlook, including a contempt for moderation that Strauss found in Heidegger's teaching before it became manifest in his praise of the Nazi movement (see chapter 6 below). All the same, Strauss does not reduce Heidegger's thinking, as genuinely philosophic, to the cultural tendencies of his time, and, if I am not mistaken, he regards nihilism as a subphilosophic phenomenon. For a thoughtful and careful study of how Heidegger's philosophy relates to National Socialist ideology and its sources, see C. Bambach, _Heidegger's Roots: Nietzsche, National Socialism and the Greeks_ (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2003). Bambach writes of Heidegger's "philosophical attempt at geo-politics, a grand metaphysical vision of German destiny based on the notion of a singular German form of autochthony or rootedness in the earth: _Bodenständigkeit_ " (xix–xx). As Bambach argues, Heidegger's concerns with "preserving and transforming the German _Volk_ against the forces of industrialization, urbanization and the threat of foreign influence" linked him to Nazi ideology, but all the same Heidegger had philosophical concerns alien to Nazism, and his "ontological" account of German destiny brought him into explicit conflict with the biological racism and "political science" of Nazism. For accounts of Heidegger's political engagement that initiated the recent debate about Heidegger's Nazism, see V. Farias, _Heidegger and National Socialism_ , trans. P. Burrell and G. Ricci (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989), and H. Ott, _Martin Heidegger: A Political Life_ , trans. A Blunden (New York: Basic Books, 1993). See also H. Sluga, _Heidegger's Crisis_ (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993); J. F. Ward, _Heidegger's Political Thinking_ (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1995); M. Zimmerman, _Heidegger's Confrontation with Modernity_ (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990); and most recently H. Zaborowski, _"Eine Frage von Irre und Schuld?" Martin Heidegger und der Nationalsozialismus_ (Frankfurt am Main: Fischer Verlag, 2010), and the documents and interpretations collected in A. Denker and H. Zaborowski, eds., _Heidegger und der Nationalsozialismus. Heidegger-Jahrbuch_ , vols. 4 and 5 (Munich: Karl Alber, 2009). For Heidegger's "idealist" concept of the _Volk_ , see below, chapter 4.
. _RCPR_ , 37.
. _NRH_ , 122.
. _CM_ , 20.
. _TM_ , 19. See chapter 3 for more discussion of this and the previous two quotations.
. Thus Steven Smith writes that there is "a set of common problems or questions that characterize Strauss's work: for example, the difference between ancients and moderns, the quarrel between philosophy and poetry, and of course the tension between reason and revelation. None of these problems can be said to have priority over the others nor do they cohere in anything as crude as a system. Whatever may be alleged, there is hardly a single thread that runs throughout these different interests." _Reading Leo Strauss_ , 4. I have to disagree and say that the single thread running through Strauss's inquiries is the duality of the human as political and transcending the political, for which he uses the expression "the city and man."
. 1 S. Smith, _Reading Leo Strauss_ , 130.
. _OT_ , 212. I find it remarkable that Strauss implies that Kojève, the apologist for Stalin, has "the courage to face the issue of Tyranny" lacking in Heidegger, and that Strauss furthermore associates himself with Kojève in possessing such courage. This is especially odd in light of Strauss's critical remarks about Kojève's claiming that "all present-day tyrants are good tyrants in Xenophon's sense," which, as Strauss asserts, involves an allusion to Stalin, and also about Kojève's failure to grasp the meaning of Stalin's use of the NKVD and labor camps ( _OT_ , 188–89). Although Strauss's criticism seems to suggest the moral equivalence of Hitler and Stalin, Kojève's apology for Stalin did not earn from Strauss as much opprobrium as Heidegger's endorsement of Hitler. One could argue that Heidegger's action had greater practical consequences, lending authority to a new regime that was in need of legitimacy, whereas Kojève's favoring of Stalin came after the fact of Stalin's brutal accomplishments. But that would also make Kojève's apology more reprehensible as based on knowledge of the dictator's demonstrated capacity for inhuman cruelty such as Heidegger and others could not have concerning Hitler in 1933–34 at the peak of Heidegger's enthusiasm for the Führer. (Negative judgments of Hitler's character and of the Nazi program were of course certainly possible at that time.) Heidegger's philosophic superiority to Kojève conceivably plays a role in Strauss's stronger criticism of Heidegger. See the editors' introduction to _OT_ , ix–xxii.
. _SPPP_ , 30.
. "At any rate, it is ultimately because he means to justify philosophy before the tribunal of the political community, and hence on the level of political discussion, that the philosopher has to understand the political things exactly as they are understood in political life." See "On Classical Political Philosophy," _WIPP_ , 94.
. _JPCM_ , 463. See chapter 6 below. Strauss's _Natural Right and History_ is according to wide repute a defense of the America tradition of natural right, but only those who have not read the book could hold this opinion. Strauss refers to the Declaration of Independence with a one-line quotation and without analysis on the first two pages to establish the importance of the theme of natural right. (The University of Chicago Press in an astute marketing decision put the original Declaration on the cover of the paperback edition.) Strauss makes in the whole book just one brief reference to an American political thinker (Madison), and his treatment of the philosopher most closely associated with the American Founding, John Locke, is highly critical, arguing that the principles of Locke are ultimately barely distinguishable from those of Hobbes. At the same time, Strauss's genuine respect for the moderation and stability of the American founding principles and for the statesmanship that produced them entails qualification of a simply Hobbesian reading of American democracy.
. Among the few statements of Strauss on foreign policy questions and the practical implications of political philosophy are two unpublished lectures from the early 1940s that appear with an introduction by Nathan Tarcov in the _Review of Politics_ 69, no. 4 (fall 2007): 513–38: "What Can We Learn from Political Theory?" and "The Re-education of Axis Countries concerning the Jews." On the basis of these lectures, Tarcov remarks that "it turns out not only that Strauss's views do not seem to have inspired recent U.S. policy, but that they might have served as warnings against some of the missteps that have plagued U.S. policy in recent years." See N. Tarcov, "Will the Real Leo Strauss Please Stand Up?" _American Interest_ online, September–October 2006.
. _WIPP_ , 16–17. One can think here of the three competing definitions of justice in Plato, _Republic_ , book 1. See _CM_ , 62–85.
. Strauss was exposed to a version of this problem in his youth, before turning to philosophy, as he writes that he was "a young Jew born and raised in Germany who found himself in the grip of the theological-political predicament," _SCR_ , 1–31. The arguments between Jewish orthodoxy and political Zionism brought him to question the Enlightenment critique of orthodoxy, after which he moved to the consideration of the difference between modern and pre-modern (Islamic and Jewish medieval, then ancient) accounts of the relation of philosophy to orthodoxy. See also chapter 2 below. I will not dwell on the prehistory of Strauss's discovery of Socratic philosophy, which has been closely examined by others, but only note that it shows that the theological-political was central to his own ascent to philosophy. See the writings in _EW_.
. _WIPP_ , 17.
. See chapter 3 below. In anticipation of what is argued below, I will say that the theological-political problem concerns the fundamental duality of the human as political and transpolitical and that this problem is not about only the argument between philosophy and revelation, since it appears in various prephilosophic forms. Ordinary piety's turn to gods that reward and punish reflects a deficiency in morality as law-abidingness—in the meaning of morality most basic to political life. Ordinary piety already shows that the human is not constituted only by the law or the needs of political life, although it interprets the transpolitical goods in terms of support of the law (the happiness of the virtuous) and so it conceals the deficiency of the law from itself. See chapter 9 below. The flexible, nonpious action of statesmen is freer to disclose the deficiency of law as it reflects on the good of the whole political community. Philosophy is the most comprehensive and fundamental reflection on the duality, and thus it poses the profoundest challenge to piety as it pursues an end altogether transpolitical and would give an intelligible account of what piety is in terms of the duality. Strauss expresses this point with respect to biblical revelation: "For the Bible claims to present a solution to the very problem which gave rise to philosophy," and it offers a solution (obedience to the law of a mysterious God) diametrically opposed to philosophy's (the life of autonomous reason in quest of knowledge; see RR, 148–49). It does not follow that piety is the highest alternative to philosophy from philosophy's standpoint. (See Strauss's formulation: "If we assume on the basis of the Fall that _the_ alternative for man is philosophy _or_ obedience to God's revelation," RR, 142). Strauss argues that for Plato the great alternative to Socratic philosophy is the philosophic poetry of Aristophanes, as the most profound alternative to the Socratic approach to the fundamental duality (see chapter 9 below). Reflection on human duality provides Socrates and Socratic thinkers with a way of seeing how the philosophic quest for knowledge of the whole is made possible through an examination of the "political things." To that extent, indeed, the Socratic philosopher has grounds for being grateful for the existence of the city's gods. Accordingly Socrates may have a kind of theology, one peculiar to the philosopher.
. Strauss uses the term "whole" with a problematic meaning that emerges contextually, as the whole, or the cosmos, of the problems faced by the human.
. See chapters 1, , and below.
. See chapters 1, , and below.
. _JPCM_ , 463.
. See _EW_ , 31–32.
. _JPCM_ , 463.
. _OT_ , 212. See chapter 7 below.
. See chapters 3, , and below.
. _NRH_ , 125–26.
. _SZ_ , 180–230; _Being and Time_ , trans. J. Macquarrie and E. Robinson (New York: Harper & Row, 1962), 225–73.
. A primary source for his suggestions on this is the Platonic trilogy _Theaetetus_ , _Sophist_ , and _Statesman._ See Strauss's treatment of the _Statesman_ in "Plato," in _HPP_ , and the comments on the trilogy in _WIPP_ , 39–40. See also the letter to A. Kojève, 28.5.1957, in _OT_ , 276–80 and chapters 2 and below.
. See _NRH_ , chap. 3, and below, chapter 7.
. Strauss on Socrates: "We may also say that he viewed man in the light of the unchangeable ideas, i.e., of the fundamental and permanent problems." _WIPP_ , 39. Equivalently Strauss interprets the ideas in terms of Socratic knowledge of ignorance. "In other words, philosophy is possible only if man, while incapable of acquiring wisdom or full understanding of the whole, is capable of knowing what he does not know, that is to say, of grasping the fundamental problems and therewith the fundamental alternatives, which are, in principle, coeval with human thought." _NRH_ , 35.
. _NRH_ , 81.
. See chapter 9 below. I also mention (following a suggestion of Nathan Tarcov) the contest for rule within the soul in _Republic_ , books 8–9, and in Nietzsche, _Beyond Good and Evil_ , aph. 19, which contest between kinds of souls or "parts" of the soul has implications for political rule.
. See chapter 7 below. The praising comment on Montesquieu at _NRH_ , 164, makes plain that Strauss is not a proponent of doctrinaire natural right or natural law. See also the observation in "How to Begin to Study Medieval Philosophy," _RCPR_ , 224: "The rules of conduct which are called by the Christian scholastics natural laws and by the _mutakallimun_ rational laws are called by the Islamic-Jewish philosophers generally accepted opinions."
. See Robert Pippin, "The Modern World of Leo Strauss," in _Idealism as Modernism: Hegelian Variations_ (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), and Rosen, "Wittgenstein, Strauss, and the Possibility of Philosophy." Although Strauss does not propose the notion of a natural life-world, he does argue for the existence of a natural problem—the tension between politics and philosophy—that comes to light for those who philosophize naturally. To the extent that Strauss suggests that the evidence for this problem arises from reflection on the alternatives of political life and philosophy as they once existed in their original, pure, and unmixed form—a reflection requiring historical studies for modern students—there is the possible theoretical difficulty that _knowing_ that such reflection is a condition for the recovery of natural philosophizing presupposes somehow possessing already the grasp of the natural problem that needs to be recovered. (See chapter 2 below: Strauss's asserts to Karl Löwith, "We are natural beings . . ." but then adds, "The means of thinking by the natural understanding are lost to us.")
. _WIPP_ , 38: "To understand man in the light of the whole means for modern natural science to understand man in the light of the sub-human. But in that light man as man is wholly unintelligible."
. _WIPP_ , 55.
. See chapters 4 and below. Strauss also has a dual relation to Nietzsche, for on the one hand Nietzsche abandons nature for history, but on the other his thought points to the recovery of the classical account of the natural distinction between the philosopher and the nonphilosopher. See especially "Note on the Plan, etc." in _SPPP_.
. _NRH_ , 18. See chapters 6 and below.
. _NRH_ , 176. See chapter 8 below.
. _TM_ , 294–96: Strauss cautions against "the error of denying the presence of philosophy in Machiavelli's thought" but also writes that "Machiavelli's philosophizing . . . remains on the whole within the limits set by the city qua closed to philosophy. Accepting the ends of the _demos_ as beyond appeal, he seeks the best means conducive to those ends."
. _PPH_ , xv (preface to the American edition).
. _RCPR_ , 270.
. See Nietzsche, _Beyond Good and Evil_ , aphorisms 24, 59, 188, 230. See also Heidegger, _N_ , vol. 1, "The Will to Power as Art," section 25, and Strauss, _SPPP_ , 174–75, 182–83. One should however add that for Strauss the highest models of this art are the classical authors.
. _RCPR_ , 115–16. Strauss continues: "But we must note that what Hegel calls the triumph of subjectivity is achieved in the Aristophanic comedy only by virtue of the knowledge of nature, i.e., the opposite of self-consciousness." See also a letter to Hans-Georg Gadamer, 26.2.1961: "The deepest modern interpretation of Aristophanean comedy (Hegel's) is much less adequate than Plato's Aristophanizing presentation of Aristophanes in the _Symposium_." Strauss adds, "Heidegger is silent on comedy." CCWM, 7. See chapter 9 below as well. Hegel comments that "tragedy allows less scope for the free emergence of the poet's personal views than comedy does because there from the beginning the ruling principle is the contingency and caprice of subjective life," and notes the significance of Aristophanes's _parabases_ as putting the author in relation to the Athenian public to whom he gives advice and discloses his political views. G. W. F. Hegel, _Aesthetics: Lectures on Fine Art_ , trans. T. M. Knox (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1975), 2: 1180–81.
. Consider in this context the thought of Seth Benardete: "The stories of poetry center around foundational crimes, crimes that reveal what must not be violated if either man is to be man or the city is to be possible. The line between man's humanity and man's sociality, the poets seem to be saying, cannot be clearly drawn, for they show that the answer to the riddle of the Sphinx and Oedipus's incest and patricide are linked and that, in light of what Oedipus has done, Oedipus has to cease to be what he is. . . . The opposition, then, between philosophy and poetry seems straightforward enough. There is for philosophy a divide between man as man and man as political animal that poetry denies." _The Tragedy and Comedy of Life: Plato's_ Philebus, trans. with commentary by S. Benardete (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), ix. At the same time Benardete observes that "the Socratic revolution seems to be coeval with Greek poetry, which had realized from the start, with its principle of telling lies like the truth, the relation of argument and action. Homer and Hesiod, then, would have to be recognized as already within the orbit of philosophy." With reference to Strauss's noting Homer's philosophic use of "nature," Benardete observes that "Strauss's recovery of Plato opened up the possibility of gathering into the fold of philosophy more than philosophy had ever dreamed of." _The Argument of the Action: Essays on Greek Poetry and Philosophy_ , ed. R. Burger and M. Davis (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), 415–16. Thus Benardete following Strauss understands the "quarrel" between philosophy and poetry as premised on a profound kinship as to the fundamental problem of the relation of nature to law (or the gods), which philosophy and poetry tend to resolve in different ways. Benardete's remarks, taken together, suggest that tragedy is less open to the idea of nature than epic poetry. See chapter 9 below.
. _NRH_ , 323.
CHAPTER 1
. Nietzsche, _Werke in drei Bänden_ , ed. K. Schlechta (Munich: Hanser, 1966) (henceforth _W_ ), 3: 464–65, and _The Will to Power_ , trans. W. Kaufmann (New York: Random House, 1967) (henceforth _WP_ ), aph. 419.
. Ibid., aph. 419.
. _W_ , 3: 765–67; _WP_ , aph.437.
. _W_ , 3: 496; _WP_ , aph. 416.
. _W_ , 3: 756–58; _WP_ , aph. 428.
. _W_ , 3: 486: _WP_ , aph. 410.
. _W_ , 3: 479; _WP_ , aph. 415.
. _W_ , 3: 730; _WP_ , aph. 429.
. _W_ , 3: 771–72; _WP_ , aph. 432.
. _W_ , 3: 438; _WP_ , aph. 407.
. _W_ , 2: 957–58 ( _Götzen-Dämmerung_ , "Die 'Vernunft' in der Philosophie," 2).
. _W_ , 3: 757; _WP_ , aph. 428.
. _W_ , 3: 912; _WP_ aph. 417.
. _W_ , 2: 1109–10 ("Warum ich so gute Bücher Schreibe").
. _W_ , 2: 1110, citing _W_ , 2: 1032 ("Was ich den Alten Verdanke," 5).
. _W_ , 3: 496; _WP_ , aph. 416.
. _W_ , 2: 1111.
. _W_ , 2: 1111.
. _W_ , 2: 1111.
. _W_ , 1: 131–32 ( _Die Geburt der Tragödie_ , sec. 24).
. _W_ , 3: 912; _WP_ , aph. 417.
. _W_ , 3: 432; _WP_ , aph. 958.
. _W_ , 3: 912; _WP_ , aph. 417.
. _W_ , 3: 351–52 ( _Die Philosophie im tragischen Zeitalter der Griechen_ ).
. _W_ , 3: 353–54; cf. _Die Vorplatonischen Philosophen_ , "Einführung" (Nietzsche's introduction), in _Nietzsche Werke_ , ed. G. Colli and M. Montinari (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1995), pt. 2, vol. 4 (henceforth _VP_ ).
. _W_ , 3: 358–60.
. _VP_ , "Einführung."
. _W_ , 3: 367–69.
. _W_ , 3: 376–84.
. _SZ_ , "Einleitung," 2–40.
. _GA_ , 65. For the relation of Heidegger's Nietzsche interpretation to the _Contributions_ , see the essays by A. Vallega and D. Crownfield in _Companion to Heidegger's_ Contributions to Philosophy, ed. C. Scott, S. Schoenbohm, D. Vallega-Neu, A. Vallega (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2001), and R. Polt, _The Emergency of Being: On Heidegger's_ Contributions to Philosophy (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2006).
. _SdU_ , 24.
. _SdU_ , 25.
. _SdU_ , 12–13.
. _GA_ , 36/37: 11.
. "Vom Wesen der Wahrheit," _GA_ , 9: 190.
. He does so in the Plato seminar mentioned and in a related essay, "Platons Lehre von der Wahrheit," published 1942 in a revised version; see _GA_ , 9: 203–38 _._ See W. Galston, "Heidegger's Plato: A Critique of _Plato's Doctrine of Truth_ ," _Philosophical Forum_ 13, no. 4 (Summer 1982): 371–84, for an incisive discussion.
. _GA_ , 9: 233–34.
. _GA_ , 9: 234–36.
. _GA_ , 9: 237.
. _H_ 306, citing Nietzsche, _W_ , 3: 895–96; _WP_ , aph. 617: "To stamp becoming with the character of being—that is the _highest will to power_."
. _GA_ , 45: 126.
. _VA_ , 32.
. _H_ , 296–343.
. _H_ , 297–99; _GA_ , 51: 105.
. _H_ , 305; _GA_ 51: 99.
. _GA_ , 51: 123.
. _H_ , 300.
. _H_ , 300–302.
. _H_ , 307.
. _H_ , 310.
. _H_ , 311–12.
. _EM_ , 111, 145–46.
. _H_ , 336.
. 40.
. _GA_ , 70: 140–42.
CHAPTER 2
. See various letters cited in this chapter, and also the 1956 lecture "An Introduction to Heideggerian Existentialism," _RCPR_ , 38–39. For discussion of Heidegger's thought before _Being and Time_ , see T. Kisiel, _The Genesis of Heidegger's_ Being and Time (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), and W. J. Richardson, _Heidegger: Through Phenomenology to Thought_ , 3rd ed. (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1974). For the phases of Heidegger's developing criticism of Husserl's phenomenology, see D. Dahlstrom, _Heidegger's Concept of Truth_ (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), and for the relation of Heidegger's thought to the "new thinking" of Rosenzweig, see P. E. Gordon, _Rosenzweig and Heidegger: Between Judaism and German Philosophy_ (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003).
. See preface, _SCR._
. _JPCM_ , 462. Strauss notes he was greatly assisted by Lessing in the study of Spinoza. "Lessing was always at my elbow. . . . As I came to see later, Lessing had said everything I had found out about the distinction between exoteric and esoteric speech and its grounds." See also Strauss, "Exoteric Teaching," _Interpretation_ 14, no. 1 (1986): 51–59, and RR, 178–79, the comments on Lessing, "that man to whom I owe, so to say, everything I have been able to discern in the labyrinth of that grave question" of reason and revelation. "Lessing's attitude was characterized by an innate disgust against compromises in serious, i.e., theoretical, matters."
. _SCR_ , 30–31. For discussion see H. Meier, "How Strauss Became Strauss," in _Enlightening Revolutions: Essays in Honor of Ralph Lerner_ , ed. S. Minkov (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2006), 355–82.
. See "Religöse Lage der Gegenwart" (1930), _GS_ , 2: 377–91.
. See note 20 below.
. _JPCM_ , 453.
. 14.2.1934 in _GS_ , 3: 494.
. 17.11.1932, _GS_ , 3: 406.
. Plan for letter to Krüger, 12.12.1932, _GS_ , 3: 415; see also _NRH_ , 78. Strauss's remark on modern philosophy as an attempt to reclaim its natural basis can be compared with this passage of Jacob Klein on the new science of the seventeenth century: "It [the new science] conceives itself as again taking up and further developing Greek science, i.e., as a recovery and elaboration of 'natural' cognition. It sees itself not only as a science _of nature_ , but as ' _natural_ ' science—in opposition to _school_ science. Whereas the 'naturalness' of Greek science is determined precisely by the fact that it arises out of 'natural' foundations . . . the naturalness of modern science is an expression of its _polemical attitude toward school science_. This special posture of the 'new' science fundamentally defines its horizon, delimits its methods, its general structure, and most important, determines the conceptual character of its concepts." Klein also notes that this reclaiming of naturalness is pursued rather paradoxically by a new elevation of practical arts in relation to theoretical sciences so that " _in general_ the distinction between the _artes liberales_ and the _artes mechanicae_ is slowly obliterated." _Greek Mathematical Thought and the Origin of Algebra_ , trans. E. Brann (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1968, German original published in 1934), 120, 125, and n. 132.
. _GS_ , 3: 414.
. Letter to Krüger, 7.1.1930, _GS_ , 3: 380.
. Plan for letter to Krüger, 27.12.1932, _GS_ , 3: 415; also the definitive letter of 27.12.1932, _GS_ , 3: 420.
. Letter of 27.12.1932, _GS_ , 3: 420.
. Plan for letter to Krüger, 27.12.1932, _GS_ , 3: 414.
. See Strauss, "Niccolo Machiavelli," _SPPP_ , 210–11.
. See _GS_ , 3: 412, 414, 415, 420.
. Letter to Krüger, 27.12.1932, _GS_ , 3: 420.
. Letter to Löwith, 2.2.1933, _GS_ , 3: 620.
. _GS_ , 3: 621. Strauss gives this account of his discovery: "One day, when reading in a Latin translation of Avicenna's treatise _On the Division of the Sciences_ , I came across the sentence (I quote from memory): the standard work on prophecy and revelation is Plato's _Laws._ " This was the beginning of Strauss's understanding of esotericism in Maimonides and other medieval writers. _JPCM_ , 463.
. Letter of 23.6.1935, _GS_ , 3: 648.
. _GS_ , 3: 649–50.
. Letter to Löwith, 15.8.1946, _GS_ , 3: 662.
. _GS_ , 3: 661.
. Letter of 27.12.1932, _GS_ , 3: 422.
. These quotations are from a review of J. Ebbinghaus, _Über die Fortschritte der Metaphysik_ , in _GS_ , 2: 438–39, and from an autobiographical note of 1930–32. The Ebbinghaus review contains Strauss's first use of the figure "second cave" in print. Both are cited by H. Meier, _Leo Strauss and the Theologico-Political Problem_ (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 57.
. Letter of 17.11.1932, _GS_ , 3: 406.
. "Die geistige Lage der Gegenwart," lecture of 1932, in _GS_ , 2: 456 and cited by Meier, _Leo Strauss and the Theologico-Political Problem_ , 59–60.
. Review of Ebbinghaus, cited by Meier, _Leo Strauss and the Theologico-Political Problem_ , 57.
. Letter of 1.8.1949, _GS_ , 3: 598–99.
. Strauss's comments may refer to the 1929 lecture "What Is Metaphysics?" which treats _das Nichts_ and its relation to Being. A fifth printing with a new introduction appeared in 1949. Concerning the reference to the "unsolved Humean problem" in this letter: Martin Sitte recalls a conversation with Strauss in the spring of 1973 in which Strauss spoke of plans to write studies of Plato's _Gorgias_ and Hume. Strauss died the following autumn and completed neither project.
. These are translated as _Off the Beaten Track_ , trans. J. Young and K. Haynes (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), and _Nietzsche_ , ed. D. Krell, 2 vols. (New York: Harper and Row, 1979–87). Although these two works are most prominently mentioned in the correspondence, Strauss read a number of other later writings, such as those cited at _SPPP_ , 34, n. 3. The introduction to the fifth printing of "What Is Metaphysics?" (1949) would have given Strauss some indications of Heidegger's later thought. Consider the following: "The name 'existence' is used exclusively in _Being and Time_ as the designation of the being of the human ( _Dasein_ ). From 'existence' rightly understood is the 'essence' of _Dasein_ to be thought, in whose openness Being itself announces and conceals itself, endures and withdraws, without the truth of Being exhausting itself in _Dasein_ or indeed being placed in identity with it according to the metaphysical kind of proposition: all objectivity is as such subjectivity." _GA_ , 9: 373–74.
. Letter of 21.2.1950, _GS_ , 3: 673.
. Letter to Löwith, 23.2.1950, _GS_ , 3: 674.
. See chapter 7 below.
. Letter to Löwith, 19.7.1951, _GS_ , 3: 675.
. Letter to Löwith, 21.12.1951, _GS_ , 3: 676–77.
. Letter to Löwith, 13.12.1960, _GS_ , 3: 684–85. Strauss mentions that in addition to Löwith's book on Nietzsche he is reading _Der Satz vom Grund_ and other writings by Heidegger. It should be noted that in spite of his high estimation of the later work Strauss maintained deep reservations. One of his last utterances on Heidegger is in a letter to Gershom Scholem, 7.7.1973. "To me it is now clear after many years what is actually wrong in Heidegger: a phenomenal intellect inside a kitsch-soul; I can prove this. As I read a statement by him from the year 1934 about himself as a Black Forest peasant, I found the wish rising in me—in me!—to be or to become an intellectual." _GS_ , 3: 769–70.
. See Strauss's "Plato" essay in _HPP_ , especially 69–70 in discussion of _The Statesman_ , and _OT_ , the letter of 28.5.1957 to Kojève, 279.
. For more on Heidegger's reading of Plato see chapter 1 above. For Strauss on Plato see chapter 3 below.
. Letter to Löwith, 15.3.1962, _GS_ , 3: 685–87. Strauss also writes that "the profoundest interpreter and at the same time the profoundest _critic_ of Nietzsche is Heidegger. He is Nietzsche's profoundest interpreter because he is the profoundest critic." PS, 324.
. Letter to Strauss, 27.3.1962, _GS_ , 3: 687.
. Letter to Löwith, 2.4.1962, _GS_ , 3: 688.
. Letter to Löwith, 12.3.1970, _GS_ , 3: 696.
. See PS, 330.
. Letter of 30.9.1971, _GS_ , 3: 697. But strangely Strauss overlooks Heidegger's discussion of Hölderlin's thought on Christ as the brother of Hercules and Dionysus in _Was heißt Denken?_ ( _GA_ , 8: 74), a work that Strauss cites elsewhere ( _SPPP_ , 34). See chapter 5 below.
. See chapters 6 and below.
. PS, 324–30.
. PS, 330.
. PS, 329–30.
. See chapter 4 below for Heidegger's reinterpretation of Kantian freedom.
. In this regard consider the concluding sentences of "An Introduction to Heideggerian Existentialism": "Esse (Being) as Heidegger understands it may be described crudely and superficially and even misleadingly, but not altogether misleadingly, by saying it is a synthesis of Platonic ideas and the biblical God: it is as impersonal as the Platonic ideas and as elusive as the biblical God." _RCPR_ , 46.
. PS, 323.
. PS, 333–34. On the other hand Xenophon in _Memorabilia_ 1.2 shows that Alcibiades, the tyrant and friend of Socrates, raises this question in conversation with Pericles. See _XS_ , 14–15. Strauss notes that Alcibiades is a Socratic and that his question is Socratic, although it is never raised by the Xenophonic Socrates. "This is another example of the limitation that Xenophon imposed on himself when writing his 'recollections.'"
. PS, 329.
CHAPTER 3
. "Living Issues in German Postwar Philosophy," LIGPP, 115–39.
. LIGPP, 116.
. _Beyond Good and Evil_ , aph. 240. See the author's _Being after Rousseau: Philosophy and Culture in Question_ (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002).
. LIGPP, 137.
. LIGPP, 137–38.
. LIGPP, 129. For an account of the separation of religious thought from political authority as the defining feature of modern Western life, see M. Lilla, _The Stillborn God: Religion, Politics and the Modern West_ (New York: Alfred Knopf, 2007).
. See sources cited in note 18 to Parabasis.
. See _NRH_ , 177.
. LIGPP, 129–33.
. LIGPP, 123. In this regard Strauss discerns a certain historical necessity in the course of modernity (though not in Western history as a whole) that allies him in a way (and not simply ironically) with Hegel. For Nietzsche's critique of the idea of culture in modern historical consciousness, see _SPPP_ , 148–49.
. See _PPH_ , 79–107. In his first study of Hobbes (1936), Strauss underlines three aspects of Hobbes's new science of politics that prepare for the historical consciousness of later modern thought: the emphasis on applicability or effectiveness of principles, the rejection of the natural orientation in the world by speech in favor of mathematical method, and the account of knowing as a kind of making or construction.
. LIGPP, 136–37. For remarks on Descartes's importance ("The rights of man are the moral equivalent of the _Ego cogitans_ "), see _CM_ , 42–45. Strauss's doctoral dissertation on F. H. Jacobi treats Jacobi's criticism of Cartesian rationalism as grounded on a spurious form of certainty that precludes a true confrontation with the mystery of the grounds of existence. One might claim that Strauss's lifelong concerns with the self-destructiveness of modern rationalism and the argument of reason versus faith have roots in his early work on Jacobi and the _Pantheismusstreit_ that Jacobi initiated through his "exposure" of Lessing's Spinozism, and that Strauss discusses in the _Jubiläumausgabe_ of Moses Mendelssohn's writings. For discussions of these issues see Batnitzky, _Leo Strauss and Emmanuel Levinas_ , and D. Janssens, "The Problem of Enlightenment: Strauss, Jacobi, and the Pantheism Controversy," _Review of Metaphysics_ 56 (2003): 605–32.
. See _SA_ , 11–53, 311–14. See also chapter 9 below.
. _CM_ , 11; _WIPP_ , 38; _RCPR_ , 34.
. Strauss writes that Husserl's analysis of the basic assumptions of modern science and philosophy, especially of the transformation of geometry underlying Galileo's physics, is of unsurpassed significance. LIGPP, 137; _RCPR_ , 28–29; _SPPP_ , 34–37.
. LIGPP, 134.
. LIGPP, 137.
. _SPPP_ , 29–37; _JPCM_ , 457–66; and PS.
. "An Unspoken Prologue," _JPCM_ , 449–50.
. _JPCM_ , 464.
. See chapter 7 below for Strauss on the genealogy of historicism.
. _WIPP_ , 26.
. See chapter 6 below.
. Letters to G. Krüger discussed in chapter 2 above and _SCR_ , 9–11; _RCPR_ , 28: Strauss notes that Ernst Cassirer had "silently dropped" ethics from H. Cohen's Kantian system and "had not _faced_ the problem" of ethics. " _Heidegger did face the problem._ He declared that ethics is impossible, and his whole being was permeated by the awareness that this fact opens up an abyss." See chapter 4 below for the Cassirer-Heidegger confrontation at Davos.
. See the exchange of letters with K. Löwith in chapter 2 above.
. The meaning of the _Kehre_ or "turn" in Heidegger's thought in the 1930s is much debated. I hold the view that it involves no change in the fundamental question of Heidegger's thought (the question of Being or the _Seinsfrage_ ) but a change in the approach to the question. See chapter 1 above and chapter 5 below. For a discussion of Heidegger's later thought of _Ereignis_ as the continuation of the inquiry into the "originary, fundamental, unifying meaning of Being," which is the single defining concern of Heidegger's path of thinking, see R. Capobianco, _Engaging Heidegger_ (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2010), chap. 2.
. _RCPR_ , 27–46.
. _RCPR_ , 38–39.
. Letter to Löwith, 15.3.1962, discussed above in chapter 2.
. Letter to Löwith, 21.12.1951, discussed above in chapter 2.
. _RCPR_ , 29.
. Letter to Löwith, 23.2.1950, discussed above in chapter 2; cf. _RCPR_ , 34.
. Letter to Löwith, 13.12.1960, discussed above in chapter 2; cf. _RCPR_ , 42–44.
. _WIPP_ , 26: "Historicism rejects the question of the good society."
. See chapter 2 above.
. See _TM_ , 78, for a statement on the defect of humanism: "Since man is a being that must try to transcend humanity, he must transcend humanity in the direction of the subhuman if he does not transcend it in the direction of the superhuman."
. _NRH_ , 122.
. _CM_ , 20.
. _TM_ , 19.
. _NRH_ , 122–24.
. _CM_ , 20.
. _NRH_ , 32.
. _WIPP_ , 38–39.
. _WIPP_ , 39.
. _SA_ , 314.
. _NRH_ , 79.
. _NRH_ , 32.
. _CM_ , 20.
. _NRH_ , 125.
. Related to this stance is the suggestion that the philosophic life is simply based on a choice or an act of will.
. _WIPP_ , 39.
. _RCPR_ , 132.
. _RCPR_ , 132.
. _RCPR_ , 133.
. Even so Strauss makes the well-known comment in the German edition of _PPH_ , referring to his early studies of seventeenth-century biblical criticism, that "the theologico-political problem has since remained _the_ theme of my studies." _GS_ , 3: 7–8.
. _RCPR_ , 142.
. _CM_ , 127–28.
. _CM_ , 29.
. _CM_ , 138. S. Benardete admirably sums up the relation between Strauss's approach to reading Platonic dialogic imitation and Strauss's "linking up political philosophy with first philosophy" through the study of the soul: "Plato's psychology was Strauss' way to Plato's ideas: and Strauss' way was the way of the _Republic_. No single Platonic dialogue, however, can yield Plato's teaching about the soul; Strauss put great stress on Socrates' observation in the _Republic_ that the problem of justice there precludes an exact account of the soul, even though the problem of justice seems to require such an account, inasmuch as the structure of the city is presumably in strict accordance with the structure of the soul. The _Republic_ reveals the tension between the political and natural relation between _thumos_ and _eros_. Such a tension needs to be represented or imitated. It is imitated through the action of the _Republic_ that accompanies its argument. Strauss was the first, as far as we know, to give a coherent account of this double function. He showed that, how, and why the linking up of _logos_ and _psyche_ , which is dialectic, was of the essence of the Socratic revolution." "Strauss and the Ancients," memorial lecture delivered at the New School for Social Research, 1974.
. "Without cities, no philosophers. They are the conditions." _JPCM_ , 465.
. _RCPR_ , 164.
. _Phaedo_ 95e–100b. For outstanding discussions of the causal problem in this dialogue, see S. Benardete, "On Plato's _Phaedo_ ," in Burger and Davis, _Argument of the Action_ , and R. Burger, _The "Phaedo": A Platonic Labyrinth_ (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984; rpt. South Bend, IN: St. Augustine's Press, 1999). The quest for cosmology encounters the problem of including the human soul and its problematic _telos_ within an intelligible order. Yet the soul's problematic _telos_ (bound up with its political nature) at the same time conditions inquiry about the cosmos as guided by the concerns with the beautiful, the good, and the just, and accordingly this inquiry cannot proceed except through examination of the soul's "pretheoretical" orientation by such concerns.
. _WIPP_ , 61. See also the letter of 28.5.1957 to Kojève in _OT_ , 279, on Platonic cosmology: "The adequate division [of ideas] would presuppose that one could deduce all ideas, especially also the ideas of living; it would presuppose a 'rational biology'; this is impossible (see _Timaeus_ ); hence what is available is a dualism of a hypothetical mathematical physics and a non-hypothetical understanding of the human soul. The difference between Plato and Aristotle is that Aristotle believes that biology, as a mediation between knowledge of the inanimate and knowledge of man is available, or Aristotle believes in the availability of universal teleology, if not of the simplistic kind sketched in _Phaedo_ 96b."
. _NRH_ , 172.
. _R_ , 260.
CHAPTER 4
. See Herman Philipse, _Heidegger's Philosophy of Being: A Critical Interpretation_ (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000), 256–66.
. Philipse, _Heidegger's Philosophy of Being_ , 223–29, 239–44.
. Philipse, _Heidegger's Philosophy of Being_ , 246–76.
. Philipse, _Heidegger's Philosophy of Being_ , 276: Heidegger's view of National Socialism is "never unambiguously negative." Philipse goes further. He characterizes the later theological thought as "spiritual Nazism" (270–72): grounded on the experience of the death of God as proclaimed by Nietzsche, and thus on the total withering of Christianity and its Platonic roots, this pious thinking awaits new gods who support the particular folk, the German folk, in its struggle with Western decadence. Heidegger's account of the history of the West gives no place to Judaism, even though its eschatological structure has unmistakably biblical sources. This is a special sort of Nazism to be sure: the greatness of the folk is based not on biology but on the spirit of language and poetry.
. See _SPPP_ , 34: "One is inclined to say that Heidegger has learned the lesson of 1933 more thoroughly than any other man."
. See the account below of the Davos disputation with Cassirer, and the essay contemporary with it (1929), "Vom Wesen des Grundes," _GA_ , 9: 161–62.
. _SdU_ , 6. These writings are reprinted in _GA_ , 16, which contains many important things—speeches, lectures, official documents, exhortations to students and faculty—that make evident the full range and intensity of Heidegger's support of the new regime, even after his resignation from the rectorate in spring 1934.
. See Philipse, _Heidegger's Philosophy of Being_ , 248–49, whose chief source for biographical data is Hugo Ott, _Martin Heidegger: Unterwegs zu seiner Biographie_ (Frankfurt: Campus Verlag, 1988).
. _SdU_ , 23.
. _SdU_ , 25.
. To accusations that he harmed individuals, groups, the university, or Germany itself by his actions, Heidegger's response is one of full denial.
. A start is made by Miguel de Beistegui, _Heidegger and the Political: Dystopias_ (London: Routledge, 1988), 32–39.
. See the author's _Freedom and the End of Reason: On the Moral Foundation of Kant's Critical Philosophy_ (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989).
. _GA_ , 42: 61–72, and Jeffrey A. Barash, _Martin Heidegger and the Problem of Historical Meaning_ (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff, 1988).
. _GA_ , 9, "Vom Wesen des Grundes," 133n.
. In one notable self-accounting, Heidegger claims that his thought renews and deepens a concept of the essence of freedom emerging at the end of the eighteenth century: "Freedom now (in that period) has for the Germans a new sound and meaning. Freedom means: adherence to the law of the folk-spirit, that manifests itself preeminently in the works of poets, thinkers and statesmen. . . . Freedom: responsibility for the destiny of the folk." "Die deutsche Universität," in _GA_ , 16: 291. This is two addresses, previously unpublished, that Heidegger gave in a "course for foreigners"—clearly a performance of public service—at the University of Freiburg in November 1934, after his resignation from the rectorate. Heidegger traces this new concept to all of the leading thinkers and poets of Germany of the age and claims that it was the principle behind the founding of the University of Berlin. This is one of Heidegger's most detailed statements linking his thought to earlier German political thought, and it concretely ascribes a common root to his philosophy and National Socialism. Special praise is given to Friedrich Karl von Savigny, who "showed in relation to the essence of the state, that political freedom and unfreedom depend not on the form of state [ _Staatsform_ ] but above all on whether the power of the state is rooted in the nature and history of a folk, or is entirely used up in the will of individual power holders and governments" (294). For the relation of Heidegger to the "historical school" of Savigny and Barthold Niebuhr, and to the romantic approach to history in general, see Barash, _Martin Heidegger and the Problem of Historical Meaning_.
. Noteworthy in this regard are the seminar of winter 1927–28 on Kant's _Kritik der reinen Vernunft_ ( _GA_ , 25) and that of summer 1930 on Kant's account of freedom in the Dialectic of the same work ( _GA_ , 31), bearing the title "Vom Wesen der menschlichen Freiheit. Einleitung in die Philosophie."
. The Davos disputation is found in _GA_ , 3: 274–96. I will not give page references for each passage cited and discussed in what follows, but refer the reader to the entire text. On the disputation see Strauss, _WIPP_ , 245–46; J. A. Barash, ed., _The Symbolic Construction of Reality: The Legacy of Ernst_ Cassirer (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008), essays by J. A. Barash and M. Roubach; M. Friedman, _A Parting of the Ways: Carnap, Cassirer and Heidegger_ (Chicago: Open Court, 2000); P. E. Gordon, _Continental Divide: Heidegger, Cassirer, Davos_ (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2010). Strauss wrote his doctoral dissertation on F. H. Jacobi for Cassirer; Heidegger and Strauss both have academic beginnings in Neo-Kantianism.
. In a lecture given at Davos during the same _Hochschulkurse_ (third appendix in _GA_ , 3), Heidegger put forth the famous thesis, argued in the book, that "Kant through his own radicality brought himself before a position from which he had to draw back in fear [ _zurückschrecken_ ]. That is to say: destruction of the foundations theretofore of Western metaphysics (Spirit, Logos, Reason)" ( _GA_ , 3: 273).
. In the fourth edition of this book (1973) Heidegger says that Kant was for him just a "refuge" ( _Zuflucht_ ) whom he could treat as the spokesman for his own account of Being; he says that he misunderstood both his own question and Kant at that time. _GA_ , 3: xiv. For learned and penetrating discussions of Heidegger's relation to Kant, see Stanley Rosen, _The Question of Being: A Reversal of Heidegger_ (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993), 192–211, and _The Elusiveness of the Ordinary: Studies in the Possibility of Philosophy_ (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002), 94–134. See also the references in note 43 below.
. _SdU_ , 21. "Was ist Metaphysik?" _GA_ , 9: 103–22.
. _Vom Wesen der Wahrheit: Zu Platons Höhlengleichnis und Theaetet_ , _GA_ , 34 (seminar winter 1931/32); "Vom Wesen der Wahrheit," _GA_ , 9: 177–202; "Platons Lehre der Wahrheit," _GA_ , 9: 203–38.
. _SdU_ , 22.
. _SdU_ , 24.
. _SdU_ , 13.
. _SdU_ , 25. Heidegger perhaps reads some thoughts of the later 1930s back into the period 1930–32. All the same, the memoir makes evident the persistence in Heidegger's thought of the "idealist" orientation.
. _SdU_ , 26.
. _SdU_ , 39.
. _SdU_ , 39.
. For discussion of this passage, see Philipse, _Heidegger's Philosophy of Being_ , 260–62.
. _SdU_ , 12.
. _Einführung in die Metaphysik_ (Tübingen: Niemeyer Verlag, 1953 and later editions), reprinted as _GA_ , 40. I will cite the Niemeyer edition as _EM_.
. _EM_ , 7.
. _EM_ , 8.
. _EM_ , 9.
. _EM_ , 29, 34.
. _EM_ , 28; cf. 35.
. _EM_ , 35–37.
. Hegel, preface to first edition of _Logik_ (1812), cited at _GA_ , 54: 148–49.
. _GA_ , 16: 294: "Savigny showed that right [ _das Recht_ ] arises not solely and not primarily from the formal legal thinking of legislation [ _Gesetzgebung_ ], but rather, as in the case of language, from the folk-spirit of the peoples [ _Völker_ ], with their belief and their customs."
. "Vom Wesen der Wahrheit," _GA_ , 9: 190; see also _GA_ , 42: 15; H, 340–41.
. For a formulation that has explicit reference to the contemporary political situation (Germany's withdrawal from the League of Nations), see _GA_ , 16: 333: "True historical freedom as the independence of the recognition of one folk by another has no need of the organized illusory community [ _Scheingemeinschaft_ ] of a 'League of Nations.' . . . The true historical freedom of the peoples [ _Völker_ ] of Europe is the _presupposition_ for the West's returning once again spiritually-historically to _itself_ and for its securing its destiny in the great decision of the earth against the _Asiatic_."
. This perhaps emerges most forcefully from Heidegger's extensive conversation with great philosophers from Parmenides to Nietzsche. For accounts of his "dialogue" with Kant, see F. Schalow, _The Renewal of the Heidegger-Kant Dialogue: Action, Thought, and Responsibility_ (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992), and C. Sherover, _Heidegger, Kant and Time_ (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1971).
CHAPTER 5
. _H_ , 340–41 _._
_. GA_ , 42: 21–22.
. _GA_ , 42: 15.
. _GA_ , 9: 187.
. _GA_ , 9: 188.
. _GA_ , 9: 190.
. _GA_ , 8: 60–61.
. _GA_ , 8: 70–71.
. _GA_ , 8: 71.
. _GA_ , 8: 71–72, citing _Götzen-Dämmerung_ , "Streifzüge eines Unzeitgemässen," aph. 39.
. _GA_ , 8: 72–74.
. _GA_ , 8: 74.
. Nietzsche, _Götzen-Dämmerung_ , "Streifzüge," aph. 38.
. Nietzsche, _Götzen-Dämmerung_ , "Streifzüge," aph. 41.
. _GA_ , 8: 19.
. _GA_ , 8: 32.
. _GA_ , 8: 81.
. _GA_ , 8: 87.
. _GA_ , 8: 95. Heidegger's citation is from Schelling, _Werke_ , I/7: 350.
. _GA_ , 8: 60.
. _GA_ , 3: 274–96. See also chapter 4, section III, above.
. _GA_ , 3: 274–96.
. _GA_ , 3: 274–96.
. _SdU_ , 24. See also chapter 4, section IV, above.
. _SdU_ , 25.
. _SdU_ , 12.
. _EM_ , 8.
. _GA_ , 54: 148–49.
. _SdU_ , 39.
. _EM_ , 9.
. _EM_ , 28–29, 34.
. _EM_ , 35–37.
. _EM_ , 32.
. _EM_ , 7.
. _EM_ , 117.
. _EM_ , 125.
. _EM_ , 96–97.
. _GA_ , 29/30: 109–10, citing _Der Wille zur Macht_ , Musarion edition, 19: 360f., aph. 1050.
. _GA_ , 8: 75.
. _GA_ , 8: 20.
. _Götzen-Dämmerung_ , "Die vier grossen Irrtümer," aph. 8.
. _Götzen-Dämmerung_ , "Streifzüge," aph. 49.
. _Götzen-Dämmerung_ , "Streifzüge," aph. 50.
CHAPTER 6
. "Philosophy as Rigorous Science and Political Philosophy," _SPPP_ , 29.
_. CM_ , 3–4.
. _CM_ , 1–6.
. _SPPP_ , 30.
. See chapter 3 above.
. _RCPR_ , 29. The passage continues: "I am afraid that we shall have to make a very great effort in order to find a solid basis for rational liberalism. Only a great thinker could help us in our intellectual plight. But here is the great trouble: the only great thinker in our time is Heidegger."
. _SPPP_ , 32–33, and _NRH_ , 28–29.
. _NRH_ , 29–30.
. _RCPR_ , 262. The paragraph ends with this important comment: "As far as I know, the present-day arguments in favor of revelation against philosophy are based on an inadequate understanding of classical philosophy."
. _SPPP_ , 30.
. _SPPP_ , 32–33, and _RCPR_ , 38–39.
. This was not always the case. One cannot fail to mention in this connection Strauss's letter of 19.5.1933 to Karl Löwith, in which Strauss praises the principles of the right ("fascist, authoritarian, imperialist") by which he means the fascism of Mussolini, whereas he makes clear his contempt for the Nazis ( _GS_ , 2: 624–25). Werner Dannhauser comments: "we must admit that the young Strauss, not yet thirty-five at the time, was more reactionary than we might wish him to be." Dannhauser's whole discussion of the published correspondence of Strauss ("Leo Strauss in His Letters") deserves attention, in Minkov, _Enlightening Revolutions_ , 355–61.
. "Philosophy is the attempt to replace opinion by knowledge; but opinion is the element of the city, hence philosophy is subversive, hence the philosopher must write in such a way that he will improve rather than subvert the city. In other words the virtue of the philosopher's thought is a certain kind of _mania_ , while the virtue of the philosopher's public speech is _sophrosune._ " _JPCM_ , 463. For a discussion of the deficiency of Heidegger's political judgment, Smith, _Reading Leo Strauss_ , chap. 5. Smith takes issue with the claim of Luc Ferry that Strauss's return to Greek philosophy adopts wholesale Heidegger's critique of modernity and applies it in a revival of hierarchical, antiliberal politics.
. See letter to Karl Löwith of 21.12.1951, _GS_ , 3: 676–77.
. _JPCM_ , 461.
. _JPCM_ , 147.
. _WIPP_ , 246. Concerning the decay of the faith in progress after the First World War, Strauss writes, "Spengler's _Decline of the West_ seemed to be much more credible [than the faith of the communists]. But one had to be inhuman to leave it at Spengler's prognosis. Is there no hope for Europe? And therewith for mankind? It was in the spirit of such hope that Heidegger perversely welcomed 1933." _RCPR_ , 41.
. _JPCM_ , 450.
. _WIPP_ , 246.
. _RCPR_ , 27–46, and _SPPP_ , 29–37.
. _SPPP_ , 30.
. See letter to Karl Löwith, 15.3.1962 in _GS_ , 3: 685–87: "But one may of course raise the question whether Nietzsche achieved what he intended . . . and then there is no possibility known to me superior to Heidegger's philosophic doctrine of which his interpretation of Nietzsche forms an integral part."
. _SPPP_ , 33.
. _SPPP_ , 34. In this same essay Strauss indicates that the lack of political philosophy in Heidegger may be partly explained by its absence from Husserl's conception of "philosophy as rigorous science." While praising Husserl's phenomenological criticism of the scientific understanding of the world, he notes that there is no reflection in Husserl until the very end of his life—"under the impact of events which could not be overlooked or overheard" in 1935—on the possible adverse affects of philosophy as rigorous science upon those who need a worldview, and thus on the age-old antagonism between "those who are conservatively contented with the tradition and the circle of philosophic human beings." _SPPP_ , 34–37.
. _SPPP_ , 30.
. _RCPR_ , 29–31. Surely Strauss has some sympathy for Heidegger's view of the technological world society as a "nightmare." "It means unity of the human race on the lowest level, complete emptiness of life, self-perpetuating doctrine without rhyme or reason; no leisure, no elevation, no withdrawal; nothing but work and recreation; no individuals and no peoples, but instead 'lonely crowds.'" _RCPR_ , 42.
. _RCPR_ , 41.
. _RCPR_ , 41, 43–44; see _JPCM_ , 150–51, 171–72.
. _RCPR_ , 43.
. _SPPP_ , 34.
. Consider in this context the statement of Daniel Tanguay: "His [Strauss's] aim is to present the ancients' solution but without committing himself to a restoration of metaphysics or cosmologies incompatible with the proclamation of the radical limits of the human intellect and of the unintelligible and mysterious character of the Whole." Tanguay, _Leo Strauss: An Intellectual Biography_ , 108.
. _JPCM_ , 463. For discussion of Strauss on "synthesis," see Tanguay, _Leo Strauss: An Intellectual Biography_ ; Zuckert, _Postmodern Platos_ , 185–200.
. _NRH_ , 24–34, 176–77, 319–21; _WIPP_ , 55; _OT_ , 212. Relevant here is Leora Batnitzky's observation that "on Strauss's reading, Heidegger's and Levinas's error lies in a shared overinflated sense of philosophy, which denies the distinction of theory and practice." Batnitzky, _Leo Strauss and Emmanuel Levinas_ , 178.
. _JPCM_ , 464. The paragraph continues thus: "What distinguishes present-day philosophy in its highest form, in its Heideggerian form, from classical philosophy is its historical character; it presupposes the historical consciousness. It is therefore necessary to understand the partly hidden roots of that consciousness."
CHAPTER 7
. Page numbers in text refer to _NRH_.
. Moreover "the whole galaxy of political philosophers from Plato to Hegel, and certainly all adherents of natural right, assumed that the fundamental political problem is susceptible of a final solution. This assumption ultimately rested on the Socratic answer to the question of how man ought to live" ( _NRH_ , 35–36). As the reference to Hegel makes evident, there are political philosophers, both ancient and modern, who endorse the core idea of Socrates while not adhering to natural right. The central practical question of political philosophy, "the question of what the goal of wise action is," need not be framed in terms of natural right.
. See also _WIPP_ , 26–27, 57. Elsewhere Strauss states that historicism is "the serious antagonist of political philosophy" and that "positivism necessarily transforms itself into historicism" ( _WIPP_ , 25–26). In present-day social science the appeal to History and the appeal to the distinction between Facts and Values (positivism) are the two grounds for rejecting natural right ( _NRH_ , 8). For a somewhat different approach to _Natural Right and History_ as response to Heideggerian historicism, see Zuckert and Zuckert, _The Truth about Leo Strauss_ , 91–102.
. _RCPR_ , 27–30.
. See _GA_ , 42, 83. In a significant pair of speeches given at the University of Freiburg in August 1934 ("Die deutsche Universität"), which certainly served state-approved political aims, Heidegger speaks of the importance of German romantic thought (Savigny is singled out for special praise) and its account of freedom as based in the _Volk_. Here Heidegger shows awareness of sources of his thought—and of current political realities—in the historical school ( _GA_ , 16: 285–307, esp. 289–97). All the same, Heidegger devotes little time to the sources of the modern historical consciousness in his teaching and writing.
. A closely related point is made when Strauss notes that opposition to the doctrinaire early modern versions of natural right led to the stress on history in the effort to recover the distinction between theory and practice ( _NRH_ , 13–16, 319–20). The point helps one to see why Strauss investigates not simply "natural right" but "the problem of natural right."
. _SZ_ , 15–19; _GA_ , 3: 20–35.
. It is helpful to recall that the primary modern philosophic sources for the young Heidegger, apart from Husserl, were Kant, Hegel, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, and Dilthey. See Otto Pöggeler, _Der Denkweg Martin Heideggers_ (Pfullingen: Neske, 1963), 17–36, and Barash, _Martin Heidegger and the Problem of Historical Meaning_. For an important and revealing statement on Hegel see Heidegger, _ID_.
. _SPPP_ , 33–34.
. _RCPR_ , 27–30; _SCR_ , 9–10; _WIPP_ , 245–246; _JPCM_ , 449–52, 460–62. See Steven B. Smith, " _Destruktion_ or Recovery? Leo Strauss's Critique of Heidegger," in _Reading Leo Strauss_ , for an account of Strauss's judgment of Heidegger's political-moral failure. See also Catherine Zuckert, _Postmodern Platos_ , especially pp. 164–173.
. One could think of the entire historical mode of presenting this critique of historicism as having ironic features. Strauss's one book directly engaging German thought is his most "German" in form. The account of historical inevitability in the progression of modern thinkers is surely overstated so as to give less attention to the dissent from modern progress by Rousseau and Nietzsche. Strauss's borrowing from Plato's _Republic_ of the "three waves" figure to describe the history of modern political philosophy ( _PP_ , 81–98) also points to an intent both playful and serious: like Socrates's interlocutors, the reader must participate in the construction of the "ideal city" (in this case, Strauss's ideal construction of the modern development) in order to uncover the limitations of this account. And that construction itself exploits, in an inverted way, the modern belief in inevitable progress. See Heinrich Meier, _Die Denkbewegung von Leo Strauss_ (Stuttgart: Metzler, 1996), for distortions inherent in Strauss's historical mode of argument.
. _JPCM_ , 450.
. _SCR_ , 31.
. _SCR_ , 9–10.
. _PPH_ , xv.
. See also lecture version of _NRH_ , 2: 3.
. See especially _EM_ , 1–39; "Was ist Metaphysik?" _GA_ , 9: 103–22.
. It is not possible here to enter into the subject of Heidegger's indebtedness to Husserl's phenomenological inquiry for the formulation of the ontological problem. But surely Husserl's central concern with showing that reason's openness to a world of objects or its "intentionality" is not explicable through causal-genetic accounts was decisive for Heidegger. See _SPPP_ , 31, 34–37; the author, "Edmund Husserl," in _HPP_ , 870–87. Strauss refers to Husserl (again without naming him) when he describes modern science as a "radical modification" of the natural understanding, rather than the "perfection" of it, and calls for an analysis of the natural understanding as the presupposition for an analysis of science, at 78–80. Jacob Klein was following both Husserl and Heidegger in his historical investigation of the origins of modern mathematics as "symbol-generating abstraction" and in his account of it as presupposing a natural understanding of number that the modern notion conceals. Strauss makes evident a debt to his work ( _NRH_ , 78; _PPH_ , 142, 163; _JPCM_ , 449–52, 457–66). See the epilogue below. But Klein was most beholden to Heidegger for the latter's analyses of Platonic-Aristotelian _eidos_ as disclosing the world or as "apophantic." Heidegger stresses that the Greeks, and especially Aristotle, were the greatest of all phenomenologists in their thinking of truth ( _aletheia_ ) as "the self-announcing of the phenomena . . . the unconcealment of what is present, its disclosure and self-showing" ( _SD_ , 87).
. As Strauss puts it: " _Sein_ cannot be explained by _das Seiende_ , as causality cannot be explained causally" ( _RCPR_ , 44; also PS, 328).
. _H_ , 336–37.
. _SPPP_ , 33–34.
. _WIPP_ , 38–39.
. See also _WIPP_ , 39–40.
. The foundation of classical political philosophy was "the quest for cosmology rather than a solution to the cosmological problem" ( _WIPP_ , 39).
. In the text Strauss asserts that according to Aristotle "the issue between the mechanical and the teleological conception of the universe is decided by the manner in which the problem of the heavens, the heavenly bodies, and their motions, is solved." But the cited passages from the _Physics_ (196a25ff., 199a3–5) argue that causality in the heavens is not "for the sake of an end" but necessary causation. Coming to be for the sake of an end is discovered from experience of terrestrial beings like ourselves, wherein chance is intermingled with final causation; the teleological nature of these beings is in no way deducible from the motion of the heavens. See also Rosen, _Elusiveness of the Ordinary_ , 153–54.
. _WIPP_ , 38.
. "Since man must understand himself in the light of the whole or of the origin of the whole which is not human, or since man is the being that must try to transcend humanity, he must transcend humanity in the direction of the subhuman if he does not transcend it in the direction of the superhuman" ( _TM_ , 78).
. _WIPP_ , 39.
. _RCPR_ , 30.
. "Brief über den 'Humanismus,'" _GA_ , 9: 313–64.
. With this one touches on the source of what Strauss calls the lack of "any charity as well as . . . any humanity" in Heidegger's philosophy ( _SCR_ , 9).
. See note 18 above.
. _OT_ , 212.
. _RCPR_ , 42–46; _SPPP_ , 33–34.
. _GA_ , 9: 187–91; _N_ , 2: 193–99.
. _SCR_ , 9–12, 29–30; cf. _NRH_ , 26–27.
. It is suggested in the note at 26 (Nietzsche's preference for the "tragic life" to the theoretical life) and the references to "divination" at 12 and 33 and the reference to "revelation" at 28.
. _OT_ , 212.
. Cf. _WIPP_ , 45–46.
. See Richard Kennington, "Strauss's _Natural Right and History_ ," _Review of Metaphysics_ 35, no. 1 (September 1981): 57–86, for a very insightful treatment of the theme of "metaphysical neutrality" in Strauss's account of modern philosophy. As Kennington points out, the emancipation of man from natural ends and from the whole is the root of the favoring of individuality, or of the individual's becoming "the center and origin of the moral world" ( _NRH_ , 248).
. I take this to be the most decisive point of Strauss's critique of modern philosophy, and it is more central than his objections to "the lowering of the goals" in modern democratic politics. Indeed Strauss's criticism applies in a way more certainly to post-Rousseauian idealistic versions of modern politics dedicated to raising the goals. On this I differ with the approach to Strauss of Robert Pippin, "The Modern World of Leo Strauss."
. _RCPR_ , 270.
CHAPTER 8
. _PPH_ , 15.
. _WIPP_ , 27.
. _NRH_ , 78–80; _CM_ , 43.
. _NRH_ , 32.
. _NRH_ , 34.
. _RCPR_ , 258.
. _NRH_ , 323.
. _RCPR_ , 161.
. _RCPR_ , 248.
. _RCPR_ , 161.
. _WIPP_ , 48.
. _WIPP_ , 51.
. _CM_ , 42–44.
. _RCPR_ , 162. Here one needs to have regard for the theological-political problem posed by revealed religion, especially the Christian form in which the promise of salvation transcends the law, and all believers partake of life in another kingdom as well as that of this world. Strauss saw this mixing of philosophy and " _nomos_ tradition" as posing special problems not just for politics but for philosophy, which modern philosophy sought in its way to overcome. See chapter 2 above.
. _NRH_ , 279.
. _NRH_ , 172–77; _RCPR_ , 243–44.
. _RCPR_ , 182. See chapter 9 below for further discussion of the points in this paragraph.
. _RCPR_ , 149–50, 125.
. _RCPR_ , 252; _NRH_ , 90 n. 10; _SA_ , 312.
. _WIPP_ , 50, 45.
. _NRH_ , 248.
. _WIPP_ , 50–55.
. _RCPR_ , 132–33, 142, 169; _WIPP_ , 38–40. See chapter 3 above.
. _RCPR_ , 164.
. _NRH_ , 31.
. _WIPP_ , 55.
. _JPCM_ , 450.
. _SPPP_ , 32–34. Strauss's moment, however, has crucial differences from those of his German predecessors. The moment of insight for Strauss enables us to uncover the natural, transhistorical truths that tradition has overlaid, and this recovery does not involve, it seems, progress beyond the original form of the insights. Yet I add the cautionary "it seems" in light of the thoughts in the text that follows.
. _CM_ , 9.
. _JPCM_ , 450.
. _SPPP_ , 30–34.
. _HPP_ , 77.
. _CM_ , 21. Of course Aristotelian philosophizing is still an ascent, and Strauss's statements do not exclude the possibility that for Aristotle human _theoria_ , as contemplation of nature apart from the political realm, is necessary for the completion of the whole or of nature. Platonic readings of Aristotle can be found in S. Benardete, "On Wisdom and Philosophy: The First Two Chapters of Aristotle's _Metaphysics A_ ," in _The Argument of the Action_ ; R. Burger, _Aristotle's Dialogue with Socrates: On the 'Nicomachean Ethics'_ (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008), and M. Davis, _The Politics of Philosophy: A Commentary on Aristotle's Politics_ (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 1996).
CHAPTER 9
. _NRH_ , 323.
. _CM_ , 42; _NRH_ , 78–80.
. _NRH_ , 32.
. _NRH_ , 35.
. _HPP_ , 74–75.
. _RCPR_ , 161.
. _RCPR_ , 182.
. _RCPR_ , 132.
. _RCPR_ , 126.
. _RCPR_ , 133.
. _WIPP_ , 38–40.
. _CM_ , 42–45.
. _CM_ , 43.
. _CM_ , 42.
. _NRH_ , 34.
. _TM_ , 296.
. _WIPP_ , 51.
. _WIPP_ , 40–50.
. _NRH_ , 279.
. _NRH_ , 169–77.
. _NRH_ , 248.
. _NRH_ , 294.
. _NRH_ , 174–75.
. _NRH_ , 176–77.
. _RCPR_ , 161. I shall frequently cite these lectures ( _RCPR_ , 103–83) in the remainder of this chapter. The version in _RCPR_ omits the first of the original six lectures, which were delivered at the University of Chicago in fall 1958. A more authentic version of the lecture series appears in _Interpretation_ , 23, no. 2 (1996): 129–207.
. _RCPR_ , 162.
. _NRH_ , 293, 312, 323.
. See _WIPP_ , 50, on "the poetry underlying modern prose" in Montesquieu, and _TM_ , 289, 292.
. _RCPR_ , 238.
. _RCPR_ , 240–42.
. _RCPR_ , 245.
. _RCPR_ , 235–37.
. _RCPR_ , 246–48.
. _RCPR_ , 248.
. _RCPR_ , 252–56.
. _RCPR_ , 256–57.
. _RCPR_ , 271.
. _RCPR_ , 248–49.
. _RCPR_ , 250.
. _RCPR_ , 258.
. _RCPR_ , 262.
. _RCPR_ , 260.
. Two views about Strauss are often found in the literature: that he held modern philosophy to be not genuinely philosophic, and that he regarded the argument between reason and revelation as leading only to an impasse. I have tried to show that both views of Strauss are erroneous. He did, however, argue that modern philosophy, as lacking the Socratic response to human ignorance of the whole, was less able than the Socratic to address the challenge of revelation. Strauss provides his own attempt to "deduce" biblical revelation (or its "idea") and writes, "the task of the philosopher is to understand how the original (mythical) idea of the _theios nomos_ is modified by the radical understanding of the moral implication and thus transformed into the idea of revelation," but he also concludes his proposed "deduction" with objections. RR, 164–67. See also chapter 2 above and the epilogue below.
. _RCPR_ , 125.
. _RCPR_ , 149–50.
. _RCPR_ , 168–69.
. _RCPR_ , 125. See also CCWM, 7: "The greatest document of the case of poetry against philosophy is Aristophanes' _Clouds._ "
. _SA_ , 6. See also the first lecture of the series "The Problem of Socrates" in _Interpretation_ 23, no. 2 (1996): 136–38.
. _SA_ , 8.
. _NRH_ , 252–53.
. _RCPR_ , 111, 115, 118.
. _RCPR_ , 125–26.
. _RCPR_ , 109, 112.
. _RCPR_ , 155–59.
. _RCPR_ , 126.
. _RCPR_ , 165.
. _RCPR_ , 165–66.
. _RCPR_ , 159.
. _RCPR_ , 161.
. _RCPR_ , 146.
. _RCPR_ , 132, 142, 169.
. _RCPR_ , 165; see the remark on _thumoeides._
. _RCPR_ , 133.
. _RCPR_ , 164; thus man is the microcosm, 133.
. _RCPR_ , 180.
. _RCPR_ , 151, 154.
. _RCPR_ , 181.
. _RCPR_ , 174.
. _RCPR_ , 150.
. _SA_ , 173: "This entitles us perhaps to say that Aristophanes is not opposed to philosophy simply, but only to a philosophy that, disregarding Eros, has no link to poetry."
. _RCPR_ , 181.
. _RCPR_ , 180.
. _RCPR_ , 182.
. _NRH_ , 14, 22, 322–23.
. _NRH_ , 26 n. 9, 22.
EPILOGUE
. PS, 335.
. S. Benardete writes that the Platonic mode of imitation, "which never ceases to amaze, made it possible for Plato to preserve the Socrates who in never writing represents the truth that philosophy alone has no tradition within the perpetuation of philosophy in its necessary decline." He adds: "Strauss's deconstruction of philosophy is thus not Heidegger's, who hurried past Plato to Parmenides and Heraclitus, by-passing Socrates." _Argument of the Action_ , 414.
. Klein, _Greek Mathematical Thought and the Origins of Algebra_ , 192. Klein proceeds to characterize this identification as a move in which "an object of an _intentio secunda_ (second intention), namely the concept as such, is turned into the object of an _intentio prima_ (first intention)." Contrary to what is often said, Klein does not regard ancient ontological inquiries, which ascend from the "natural" experience of number and bodies, as simply superior to the modern approach, which allowed for the whole range of discoveries in modern science. It is rather that these modern discoveries have concealed the aporia of Being, which ancient philosophy exposed. Thus Klein on Aristotle writes of a "bifurcation in the direction in which the _eidos_ [works]" (in the process of generation and in the process of understanding) as one that "threatens the integrity of Aristotle's philosophizing." Similarly there is a duality in the meaning of _arche_ for Aristotle: "it is (a) the begetting, unchanging and imperishable power which works on a suitable material and it is (b) that pliable material which is being transformed by the begetting power into the natural thing." In both cases a stable principle of intelligibility has to relate to the elusive realm of change and becoming. See Klein, _Lectures and Essays_ (Annapolis: St. John's Press, 1985), 185, 226. In the case of Plato, Klein gives an account of the "failure of _logos_ " to "count" the arithmetical structure of Being ( _on_ ) as the community ( _koinonia_ ) of motion and rest in Plato's _Sophist_. See _Greek Mathematical Thought_ , 94–95. I have profited from conversations about Klein's work with Paul Wilford.
. _WIPP_ , 76. Among Strauss's students Richard Kennington in particular developed a deep understanding of the relationship in early modern philosophy between new foundations of knowledge in "metaphysically neutral" principles and the new practical _telos_ of mastery of nature. See R. Kennington, _On Modern Origins: Essays in Early Modern Philosophy_ , ed. P. Kraus and F. Hunt (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2004). Kennington saw the need to make some revision of Strauss's constructivist view ("to understand is to make") of the early modern accounts of knowledge.
. _WIPP_ , 76, and the entire essay "Political Philosophy and History," ibid., 56–77. Strauss refers in the essay to Klein's book on Greek mathematical thought and an essay, "Phenomenology and the History of Science," which was reprinted in Klein, _Lectures and Essays_ , 65–84.
. _NRH_ , 177.
. RR, 154–55. See also _SCR_ , preface to the English translation, where Strauss describes Spinoza's account of nature and the whole as a version of constructivist thought.
. RR, 177.
. RR, 179. Strauss also mentions Kant's criticism of the identification of "being" with "evidently knowable" in Kant's critique of earlier philosophy and its approaches to theology. Earlier (classical) philosophy holds that "there is no revelation, because there can be no evident _knowledge_ of the fact of revelation. The argument presupposes the tacit identification of 'being' with 'evidently knowable.' Philosophy is essentially 'idealistic.'. . . It is _this_ fact which gave rise to Kant's Critique of Pure Reason, to his distinction between the phenomenon and the Thing-in-itself." My understanding of Kant's transcendental idealism is that it denies the possibility of revelation as the evident sign of supernatural events while admitting that God or being is not accessible through clear and distinct ideas. It is not altogether plain from the Strauss passage that he includes Kant among the moderns who deny the possibility of revelation. RR, 176–77. See _Critique of Pure Reason_ A631/B659.
. _RCPR_ , 262. It is clear that Strauss does not mean that the whole is wholly unintelligible. "For of something of which we know absolutely nothing, we could not of course say anything." The whole's limited intelligibility is the intelligibility of the fundamental perplexities, the knowledge of which Socrates calls knowledge of ignorance. In Strauss's view, Socrates sees the unavailability of wisdom as a permanent condition for man. Philosophy "is essentially a quest, because it is not able ever to become wisdom" ( _RCPR_ , 260). It is also clear that Strauss sees the knowledge of these perplexities as the basis of the goodness of the philosophic life and of its claim of superiority to revelation. "But the very uncertainty of all solutions, the very ignorance regarding the most important things, makes quest for knowledge the most important thing, and therefore makes a life devoted to it the right way of life" ( _RCPR_ , 260). Revelation would not be meaningful to human beings without the fundamental perplexities, of which only philosophy acquires _natural_ knowledge—knowledge that is unavailable to revelation by its own principle. Strauss argues that both philosophy and revelation address the problem of justice, more specifically the insufficiency of justice as law (see chapter 9 above). Philosophy understands this as a permanent or natural problem without a perfect solution, whereas revelation offers the perfect solution of the mysterious omnipotent deity.
The penultimate paragraph in the lectures entitled _Progress or Return?_ is often cited as presenting Strauss's final thought on the quandary of philosophy, which, having to admit the possibility of revelation, is "not evidently the right way of life," with the consequence that "the choice of philosophy is based on faith" ( _RCPR_ , 269). But Strauss goes on to say that "this difficulty underlies all present-day philosophizing," which finds itself "incapable of giving an account of its own necessity." He does not say it underlies all philosophy, and indeed in an earlier passage of the lecture (cited above) he describes philosophy "according to the original notion" as showing "why philosophy cannot possibly lead up to the insight that another way of life apart from the philosophic one is the right one" ( _RCPR_ , 260). There he speaks of classical philosophy, which he says is not adequately understood by present-day arguments in favor of revelation ( _RCPR_ , 262). Classical or Socratic philosophy seems capable of giving an account of its own necessity.
The penultimate paragraph, it should be noted, begins with an odd disclaimer of speaking "colloquially" and of making a point that Strauss can show "is not quite trivial," i.e., is somewhat trivial. He goes on to say that his use of the term "philosophy" is "in the common and vague sense of the term where it includes any rational orientation in the world, including science and what-have-you, common sense" ( _RCPR_ , 269). Clearly he is not speaking of philosophy "according to the original notion," and the present-day philosophizing that he adduces as unable to give an account of its own necessity is of a piece in this incapacity with science and common sense or "the vague sense" of philosophy.
. RR, 174. Such statements make clear that Strauss's position does not rest on any form of natural theology. He writes of a "most serious difficulty" that arises for natural theology (RR, 154) and more widely for efforts to establish metaphysically that philosophy is the right way of life ( _RCPR_ , 260).
. See chapter 3 above.
. _NRH_ , 164.
. _WIPP_ , 27.
. Heinrich Meier is perhaps the leading representative of this reading. Since the authority of Plato and Aristotle may be the most effective in this regard, one should note that neither thinker presents the life of the pious observer of the sacred law as the highest and most serious alternative to the life of the philosopher. (One might add that nothing remotely suggesting this ranking is to be found in Shakespeare.)
. CCWM, 5–6.
. _RCPR_ , 29–30.
. Strauss does not give much attention to the indications in modern philosophers of concern with the philosophic life as a distinctive life, apart from some remarks on Machiavelli, Rousseau, and Nietzsche. This concern is surely underplayed in the rhetoric of the modern philosophers, but that does not entail its essential absence. In the end it is difficult to assess the extent to which Strauss's Platonic-Nietzschean device of dialectical overstatement controls his account of modern philosophy.
. _RCPR_ , 180. See discussion in chapter 9 above.
. In his essay on Thucydides in _The City and Man_ , Strauss writes that Thucydides as historian presents universals through his engagement with the particulars of the wars between Athens and Sparta, and therefore does something like what the poet does according to Aristotle. Thucydides can be vindicated as a historian who is not "less philosophic" than the poets, contrary to Aristotle's ranking of poetry and history. _CM_ , 141–44.
. Such observations relate to Strauss's Platonic claim that from the philosophic standpoint the true alternative to philosophy is poetry of a higher (Aristophanic) kind and _its_ version of the problem of the individual and the city. See chapter 9 above.
. _RCPR_ , 34.
INDEX
Anaximander, , , ,
Aristophanes, , , , 174n67; Hegel and, , 174n67; Nietzsche and, , 136–37, 151–; Socrates and, , , , , 172n40
Aristotle, 6–8, , , , , , , 192n33; cosmology, ; Jacob Klein on, 5–6, , 195n3; _Physics_ , , , 190n25; vs. Plato, 182n63
Avicenna, 178n20
Bambach, Charles, 170n25
Barth, Karl, ,
_Being and Time_ (Heidegger), , , , , 55–56, , 83–84, , , , ,
Benardete, Seth, 174n68, 182n59, 194n2
Burke, Edmund,
Cassirer, Ernst, , , ,
Christianity, 46–53, , , 83–84; Nietzsche and, , 47–49, , , . _See also_ God
city, 187n13; duality of man and, , , , 143–44, 170n30 ( _see also_ duality/dualism); ideal/perfect, , , , 189n11; the individual and the, , , 152–53; philosophy and the, , , , , , , ; transcendence of the, , ,
concealment and unconcealment, 38–42, ,
conservatism,
cosmology, , 14–15, , , , 127–29,
crisis (in philosophy), , , , , , , 167nn1–2; primal truth, errant tradition, and, 27–42
cultural relativism. _See_ relativism
Dannhauser, Werner, 187n12
_Dasein_ , , , , , 86–89, , , 102–6, 178n32; temporality of, ; transcendence of, ,
Descartes, René, , 180n12
destruction: of modern thought, ; of tradition, , , , , , ,
_Destruktion_ ,
Dilthey, Wilhelm,
duality/dualism, , , , ; of humans as political and transpolitical, , , 170n30, 172n40; of modes of transcending, , 77–. _See also under_ city
dwelling, , 19–20, , ; and exile, 156–66
Enlightenment, , , , , ; Heidegger and, ; Nietzsche and, , , ; Strauss and, 43–44, , 63–64, , , , , , 172n38
Epicureanism,
_eros_ , , , , , , , , , , ,
eternal recurrence, doctrine of, 31–32, . _See also_ eternal return
eternal return, doctrine of, , , . _See also_ eternal recurrence
ethics, 87–89, , 180n24; Kant on, 86–89. _See also_ morality
exile. _See under_ dwelling
existentialism, ,
existentialist historicism. _See_ radical historicism
freedom: from the good, 83–95; Heidegger on higher, 96–108; idealism without, 93–95
Gadamer, Hans-Georg,
God, , , 149–50, ,
"God is dead" and the "death" of God, , , 90–91, ; Nietzsche and, , , , , 168n15, 183n4
gods, ,
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 108–9
grace, , , ,
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, , , , , , , , 174n67; Aristophanes and, , 174n67; Schelling and,
Heraclitus, , , 33–34
hermeneutics, ,
historical consciousness, , , , 65–68, , 156–57
historicism, , , ; of Heidegger, , , , 161–62; Nietzsche and, , , , ; overcoming, ; Strauss on, , , 112–, , 121–23, 161–62, 188n3; unstable premises of, 123–25. See also _Being and Time_
historicity, , , , , ,
history, , , 156–57; as metaphysics, 84–87; of philosophy,
Hitler, Adolf, , 171n32
Hobbes, Thomas, , , , , , , 131–, , , , 180n11; constructivism, ; Nietzsche and, ; Plato and, ,
Hölderlin, Johann Christian Friedrich, , , ,
Hume, David, 123–24
Husserl, Edmund, , , , 66–67, , , 167n2, 180n15, 187n24, 190n18
idealism: without freedom, 93–95; of Kant, , , 195n9; of Nietzsche, ; of the _Volk_ , 90–93
idealist grounding of politics, 83–95
ignorance, knowledge of, , , , , , , , , , 173n53, 196n10
individuality: Strauss on, 142–53
_Introduction to Metaphysics_ (Heidegger), , 104–6
Jacobi, Friedrich Heinrich, , 180n12
Jesus Christ,
Jewish Enlightenment, 43–44
Jonas, Hans,
Judaism, 43–45, , , 172n38
Jünger, Ernst, , , ,
justice, natural, 15–16
Kant, Immanuel, , , ; _Critique of Pure Reason_ , , 195n9; on ethics, 86–89; on freedom, 86–87, 102–3; Heidegger's revision of, 87–90; idealism, , , 195n9; metaphysics, , , , 123–24; problem of causality in, 59–60
Kennington, Richard, 191n40, 195n4
Kierkegaard, Søren, , ,
Klein, Jacob, , , , 157–58, 177n10, 190n18, 194n3
Kojève, Alexandre, 8–9, , 171n32
Krüger, Gerhard, , 50–51
Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm,
Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim, , , 177n3
"lesson of 1933," , 183n5
liberalism, , , 137–38, , ,
Locke, John, , 171n35
_logoi_ , ,
_logos_ , , , , ,
Löwith, Karl, , , 55–59, ; Nietzsche and, , , 55–57, 178n38, 187n22
Lukács, Georg,
Machiavelli, Niccolò, , , ,
Maimonides, 178n20
Marx, Karl, , 116–17
Meier, Heinrich, 196n15
Mendelssohn, Moses,
modern philosophy, , 16–20, 64–68, 193n43, 197n18; "unradicality" of, 43–61. _See also_ modernity
modernity, , , 47–48, 50–52, , , , , , , ; crisis of, ; critique of, , , , 114–15; Nietzsche and, , , , , ; pre-Socratics in late, 27–42; repetition of antiquity at the peak of, , , ; technological nihilism of, , ; as unnatural construct, 133–41
Montesquieu, Charles-Louis de Secondat, , 173n56, 193n28
moral appraisal,
moral law, ,
moral teleology. _See_ teleology
morality, , , , ; critique and justifications of, , , ; freedom and, ( _see also_ freedom); Kant on, 86–89; Nietzsche on, 28–31, , , ; politics and, 65–66, 72–74, , , , 160–62; roots of, , , . _See also_ ethics; transmorality
mysterious whole, , ; two versions of, 125–29
National Socialism (Nazism): Heidegger's disillusionment with, ; Heidegger's support of, , , , , , 83–85, , , , 114–17, , 170n25, 183n4
natural philosophy, , , , , ,
_Natural Right and History_ (Strauss), 14–15, , 171n35; Heidegger as unnamed opponent, 121–23; as response to Heidegger, , 121–23, , ,
natural rights, , ,
nature, problem of, 15–16, 58–59, 62–64. See also _phusis_ (nature)
Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm, , , 31–33, 36–42, , 48–50, , , , , , , , , , , 116–18, , , , 179n41; Aristophanes and, , , 151–52; attack on Enlightenment, ; _The Birth of Tragedy from the Spirit of Music_ , ; Christianity and, , 47–49, , , ; on the "death" of God, , , , , 168n15, 183n4; doctrine of eternal recurrence, 31–32, ( _see also_ eternal return); _Ecce Homo_ , ; Enlightenment and, , , ; German philosophy, Germans, and, , , , , , 62–64, ; on the Greeks, , 28–34; Heidegger on the higher freedom and, 96–109; historicism and, , , , ; Hobbes and, ; idealism and, ; Karl Löwith and, , , 55–57, 178n38, 187n22; metaphysics, , , , , , 168n15; modernity and, , , , , ; on morality, 28–31, , , ; natural philosophy and, , , , ; nihilism and, , 36–37, , , , , 168n15; _Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks_ , , ; Plato and, 29–31, , 151–52, ; rationalism and, , ; Socrates, Socratism, and, 29–31, , 37–38, , , , , , ; Xenophon and, . _See also_ Socratism, Strauss's post-Nietzschean; _Will to Power, The_ (Nietzsche)
nihilism, 35–37, , , , 102–5, , , 170n25; Nietzsche and, , 36–37, , , , , 168n15
nominalism,
_nomos_ , , , , ,
nothingness, , , , . _See also_ ignorance
Parmenides,
phenomenology, , , , , 71–72; Husserl's, , , 187n24, 190n18
Philipse, Herman, 83–84, 183n4
philosophers as exiles, ,
philosophical sediment, 129–32
philosophy, 13–14, , , ; premise of,
_Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks_ (Nietzsche),
_phusis_ (nature), , ,
Pippin, Robert, , 191n41
Plato, , , , , , 55–58, , , , , , , 151–52, , , ; cosmology, ; doctrine of ideas, ; Hobbes and, , ; _Laws_ , ; metaphysics, , ; Nietzsche and, 29–31, , 151–52, ; nihilism and, ; vs. Platonism, ; _The Republic_ , , , , 182n59
Platonism, , ,
poetry, Strauss on, 147–55
political thought of Heidegger, Strauss on, 110–18. _See also specific topics_
positivism, , , , 188n3
power. _See_ will to power
_pragmata_ ,
prejudice,
pre-Socratics in late modernity, 27–42
_Problem of Socrates, The_ (Strauss lecture series), , ,
_Progress or Return?_ (Strauss lecture series), , 196n10
radical historicism: of Heidegger, , , , , , , , , ; Nietzsche's, . _See also_ historicism: unstable premises of
rationalism: Heidegger and, , , , , , , 126–27; modern vs. premodern, , ; Nietzsche and, , ; roots of, 121–32; Socrates and, ; Strauss and, , , , 43–45, , , , , , , , , , , , 180n12
relativism, , , , , , ,
_Republic, The_ (Plato), , , , , 182n59
revelation, , 147–49, , 159–62, 172n40, 193n43, 195–96nn9–10. _See also_ modern philosophy: "unradicality" of
rights, natural, , ,
romanticism,
Rosen, Stanley,
Rosenzweig, Franz, , ,
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, , , , , 123–25, , , ,
Savigny, Friedrich Karl von, 184n16, 185n40
"Saying of Anaximander, The" (Heidegger), ,
Schelling, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph, , ,
Schiller, Friedrich,
Schmitt, Carl,
"second cave," , , , ,
_Sein_ , , , , , . See also _Dasein_
_Seinsgeschichtlich_ , , , , ,
self-destructive processes, , , , ,
Shell, Susan, 170n25
Smith, Steven, 170n30
Socrates, , , , , , , , , , , , 179n54; Aristophanes and, , , , , 172n40; on the city, , , ; cosmology and, ; duality and, 172n40; on knowledge of ignorance, , , , , , , , , 173n53, 196n10; Nietzsche and, 29–31, , 37–38, , , , , , , ; as optimistic rationalist, ; political philosophy and, , , 111–12, , , , 151–53, 188n2; "the problem of Socrates," , ; _The Problem of Socrates_ (Strauss's lecture series), , , ; in _The Republic_ , , 182n59. _See also_ Socratism
Socratism, Strauss's post-Nietzschean, 62–79
Spengler, Oswald, 187n17
Spinoza, Baruch, , , , 177n3
spiritedness, , 152–54
Stalin, Joseph, 171n32
Swift, Jonathan,
Tanguay, Daniel, 188n31
Tarcov, Nathan, 171n36
teleology, 30–31, , 190n25
_telos_ , 30–31
theological-political problem, , , 74–75, 172n38, 172n40, 191n14
Thucydides, , , 197n20
_thumos_ (spiritedness), , 152–54
transcendence, , , , , , 145–46; of the city, , , ; of _Dasein_ , , ; duality of modes of, 77–78; of law, , , , ; of modernity, ; political, , 74–75, , 135–37,
transmorality, , , ,
Troeltsch, Ernst,
Wagner, Richard,
Weber, Max, , ,
_What Is Called Thinking?_ (Heidegger), ,
"What Is Metaphysics?" (Heidegger), , 178nn31–32
will to power, , , , , , , 90–91, 101–3
_Will to Power, The_ (Nietzsche), ,
Xenophon, , , 179n54
Zionism, , 172n38
| |
The current era marked by political unrest and division between parties and branches of our government is nothing new to our history. What is different, however, is the president’s understanding of his role in current circumstances.
In his own way, President Trump is getting to the root of what people really want. The American people want security — protection and reassurance that their regime will prevent fraud and abuse by any means necessary, while ensuring that each person could feel fulfilled in their communities and their work. This may seem broad, but America’s definition of security is changing as we speak, which might lead to a change in the role of our government.
A government’s primary role is concerned with security, but every generation has the opportunity to define what the scope of that security is, financially, militarily, morally. The President has tapped into the wellspring of security that continues to attract individuals dissatisfied with business as usual in Washington, D.C.
For example, politicians accept that illegal immigration is a problem, but twiddle their thumbs instead of fixing it.
Trump campaigned as a de-aligning figure, a wrecking ball thrown against the gilded institutions of Washington, D.C. set upon demolishing the previous status quo. He attacks his political opponents mercilessly, ignores expediency for prudence with a long-run approach, exposes corruption, and speaks honestly — even if sometimes incorrectly with false information. And he demonstrates a genuine care for the American people.
But what will be left in his wake?
According to the theory of realignment, history illustrates a political party system which realigns in terms of platform and policy every 36 years, as a result of generational differences and a dramatic change in party allegiance. If this is so, a realignment is soon imminent. I do not think Trump is that realigning figure, nor do I think he sees himself as that. He is leveling all previous standards, paving the way for a realignment.
Following Trump’s presidency, what will be the new defining characteristics of the Right after the previous attempt at fusion between libertarianism and social conservatism in America?
We can only predict what will come in principle, but I believe it is essential to prepare for the future in our limited capability to know. We must ask the right questions in order to identify the New American Right, as Sohrab Ahmari calls it, when it actually arrives. This upcoming philosophy is a fundamental rejection of unrestrained classical liberalism — one without guardrails — which yields a continual fight for endless and aimless individual autonomy.
This new political ideology articulates the connection between true liberty and responsibility. It encourages self-restraint and announces that man ought to be judged as an individual while he is understood as a part of the community. It will understand government as a means of both providing security and encouraging the preservation of a moral society. It understands society’s need for orientation toward that “highest good.” People don’t want liberty for its own sake; they want the protection of liberty to seek fulfillment.
The New American Right will not worship the free market like the conservatives of the past. For them, free enterprise will be a tool, historically-proven to be the best mechanism for promoting human flourishing. It is a means to help build a society, rather than its own end in which the people may conduct themselves with or without good aims.
Those under this banner will likely deeply revere the Founders, bear witness of the desecration of the Constitution, and morally oppose the ethical and cultural disintegration of the United States. They will understand this on account of government’s neglect of immorality, anti-religiosity, and class warfare. Our system of government is designed for a moral people, but morality is not spontaneous. A well-ordered society needs guidance by good leaders and policies.
We are beginning to see actors emerge in this mold, such as Congressman Andy Biggs, R‑Ariz., and Congressman Dan Crenshaw, R‑Texas. Senator Josh Hawley, R‑Missouri, emphasizes the necessity of encouraging morality, and the threat big tech poses to the American polity. These three individuals are more articulate versions of President Trump in some form or fashion, and they will have the chance to rebuild the political sphere after his exit.
If Trump is re-elected, the United States will see a surge in this trend of defiance against aimless individualism. I predict we may see a realignment toward a new ideology that champions the citizen — the person who has duties to the community and for whom the government secures the ability to pursue personal plans ordered toward a higher purpose.
Weston Boardman is a George Washington Fellow and a senior studying economics. | http://hillsdalecollegian.com/2019/10/conservatism-post-trump/ |
Since we left Umbria last November, I have gotten out of the habit of making my own bread at home. I’m not sure why, but life is just different here in Florida compared to my country life in Umbria. I decided last week that I needed to start making bread on a regular basis once again. I went through my files of recipes on my “to do” list and pulled out a recipe for Ricotta bread that I’ve made once before but never managed to get the recipe posted here. Ricotta bread has a lovely, moist, fine grained texture and a nice chewy delicate crust. This recipe makes enough dough for two loaves of bread, and I decided to make one baguette loaf for bruschetta, and a nice oval shaped loaf that I’ll slice for sandwiches.
Buon Appetito!
Deborah Mele 2011
Ricotta Bread
The addition of ricotta cheese creates a moist, country style bread.
Ingredients
- 1/2 Cup Plus Additional Warm Water As Needed(About 110 degrees F.)
- 1 Package Rapid Rise Active Yeast (1/4 Ounce)
- Pinch of Sugar
- 4 Cups Unbleached Bread Flour
- 2 Teaspoons Salt
- 1/4 Cup Extra Virgin Olive Oil
- 1 Teaspoon Ground Cinnamon
- 1 Cup Fresh Ricotta Cheese
For Shaping:
- Additonal Flour Or Fine Cornmeal
Instructions
- In a small bowl, mix the 1/2 cup warm water, sugar and yeast and stir to mix, then let sit for 10 minutes until foamy.
- In a large bowl, place 3 2/3 cup of the flour, the olive oil, salt, ricotta, and cinnamon.
- Add the yeast mixture and stir with a large spoon until the dough begins to come together, adding enough additional warm water as needed to create a dough.
- Dump the dough onto a board or counter, and using the additional flour as needed, knead the dough by hand until the dough is smooth, about 8 minutes.
- Lightly oil a large bowl and place the dough into the bowl, cover with plastic wrap and let rest until doubled in size, about 1 1/2 hours.
- Divide the dough in two, and shape as desired into baguettes, or oval or round shaped loaves.
- Place the loaves on two separate baking sheets that have been lightly coated with flour or fine cornmeal.
- Let loaves rest for about 45 minutes.
- While the dough is resting, preheat the oven to 425 degrees F. and arrange two oven racks in the middle of the oven. 5 minutes before baking, place a baking dish with water on the oven floor which will help create a good crust on the bread.
- Dust the loaves lightly with flour, and using a very sharp knife or bread lame, cut slashed into the top of the loaves to allow expansion as they bake.
- Bake the loaves until they are golden brown and reach an internal temperature of 200 degrees F., about 45 minutes.
- Cool on racks to room temperature before slicing. | https://www.italianfoodforever.com/2011/02/ricotta-bread/ |
The main objective of this seminar is to define respiratory system and explain its importance to multicellular organisms. Describe the ways that oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported in the bloodstream and to study available and modern techniques for position measurement of endotracheal tubes. The need for Instrumentation is to make proper and accurate measurement of various parameters related to medical science. All the measurement mainly depends on the detection, acquisition and display of biological signal.
Respiration is a vital function of all living organisms. The exchange of gases in any biological process is termed as Respiration. Respiration is to get Oxygen Into the Body and Waste Gases Out of the Body. To sustain life, the human body must take in oxygen, which combines with carbon, hydrogen, and various nutrients to produce heat and energy for the performance of work. As a result of this processes of Metabolism, which takes place in the cell, a certain amount of water is produced along with the principle waste product, carbon dioxide. The entire process of taking in oxygen from environment, transporting the oxygen to the cells, removing the carbon dioxide from the cells, and exhausting this waste product to the atmosphere must be considered with in the definition of respiration. It is the function of the Respiratory System to Transport gases to and from the circulatory system.
Respiration occurs at different levels: The first is pulmonary ventilation in which air is moved into and out of the body. The second, external respiration, involves the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the lungs and the blood. The third is internal respiration, which involves the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide at the cellular or tissue level. Finally, cellular respiration is the utilization of oxygen to produce energy, which also produces carbon dioxide as a by-product.
Inspiration and expiration are accomplished by the creation of pressure gradients.
The respiratory musculature is relaxed, atmospheric pressure equals chest cavity pressure, and so no air movement occurs.
The external intercostals and diaphragm contract, moving the ribs up and out and the diaphragm down, respectively. This muscle action enlarges the chest cavity laterally, anterioposterially, and downward, increasing the volume. As a result chest cavity pressure is lower than atmospheric pressure and air flows in.
The inspiratory muscles relax, and the chest cavity recoils, creating a pressure higher than atmospheric pressure. Air flows out. The respiratory cycle then begins again.
The main job of the Respiratory System is to get oxygen into the body and waste gases out of the body. | http://cyberlectures.indmedica.com/show/160/1/Acoustic_Guided_System_for_Positing_of_Endotracheal_Tube_During_Ventilation |
Sercos International will present the Sercos TSN demonstrator at Hannover Fair from April 24-28, 2017 in hall 9, booth G28. The demonstrator shows the transmission of the Sercos III real-time protocol via Ethernet standard IEEE 802.1 TSN (Time-Sensitive Networks).
The Sercos® TSN demonstrator was created by the Institute for Control Engineering of Machine Tools and Manufacturing Units (ISW, University of Stuttgart) with support of several industry partners. It shows a real-time and multiprotocol-capable network infrastructure based on TSN for automation technology.
The demonstrator involves a TSN-based Sercos III SoftMaster with a Soft CNC from Industrielle Steuerungstechnik GmbH (ISG), which communicates with Sercos III servo drives from Bosch Rexroth via Hirschmann Automation TSN switches. Through this TSN network infrastructure, video streams from a webcam are transmitted to a remote display in parallel with the servo communication, without impairing the characteristics and functionality of the Sercos real-time communication.
The demonstrator constitutes a proof of concept,with which the native real-time capability of Sercos within a TSN network is presented on an exemplary basis.
Ethernet standard IEEE 802.1 brings with it mechanisms that ensure open, real-time-capable communication and also support high, future data rates. A key aspect here is the IEEE 802.1Q standard, which specifies the division of physical networks into several logically separated, prioritized virtual networks (VLANs). In turn, the VLAN priorities enable optimized scheduling of the packages from all virtual networks, with transmission safety and a deterministic latency. To create a uniform time base in the entire network and to transfer the traffic classes within synchronous time slots, mechanisms from IEEE 802.1-AS / IEEE 1588 (distributed clock synchronization) and IEEE 802.1Qbv (time-multiplex procedure) are used.
The aim in designing the Sercos TSN demonstrator was to expand a typical setup consisting of a numerical control and drives by adding an interposed, real-time-capable network. A key element here was the integration of the Precision Time Protocol (PTP) according to IEEE 1588 into the control, so that all network participants use a uniform time base. In the analysis of the Sercos real-time behavior, it was shown that the errors in the time synchronization were restricted to a two-digit nanosecond range. With this analysis, it could be proven that the synchronization,which is also contained in the TSN standard as IEEE 802.1-AS, achieves accuracy that is sufficient for demanding motion applications. Additional analyses on the demonstration system will establish the limits of real-time communication of Sercos via TSN by varying the cycle time and the number of participants.
Sercos International will also show the Sercos SoftMaster Demo. This demo is based on a Sercos III SoftMaster core, which was developed in cooperation with Bosch Rexroth and is being made available as open source software.
A Sercos III FPGA or ASIC master component is not required because a standard Ethernet controller is used, with the Sercos III hardware functions emulated in host-based driver software. With this implementation approach, adequate real-time behavior is ensured for a large number of applications. If an Ethernet controller with several queues and telegram scheduling (such as the Intel I210™) is used, even the synchronicity and the highest availabilities of a hardware-based master can be achieved.
Unlike the previous solution with a hardware-based Sercos master, with the Sercos SoftMaster, engineers and control manufacturers can now use an industrial PC without special fieldbus hardware and without PCI slots to control the machine. Due to the use of the Sercos SoftMaster in combination with the powerful Intel I210, the CPU load is reduced significantly, while costs and space are also saved.
The Sercos SoftMaster is available as an open source software license for general use in the software pool of Sercos International e.V.
Additional demos as well as a large number of the approximately 250 Sercos-capable products will also be displayed in the Sercos stand. | https://www.sercos.org/news-events/newsdetail/sercos-tsn-demonstrator-at-hannover-fair/ |
The implementation of the Paris Agreement will require countries and sub-national entities to take actions to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases in an optimal way. To assist the countries in meeting their commitments the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and its partners have initiated the development of an Integrated Global Greenhouse Gas Information System (IG3IS). IG3IS looks to serve users (decision-makers) who are able and willing to take actions to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases and pollutants that reduce air quality. This service is based on existing and successful methods and use-cases for which the scientific and technical skill is proven or emerging.
The Science Implementation Plan presents the suite of the technical solutions that are available to address articulated user needs on different scales (from national to facility). It also paves the way for the development of future solutions where additional research is required. This document presents the main principles of the IG3IS Science Implementation Plan. The choice of the objective to be implemented has to be made by the countries or sub-national implementation bodies/practitioners. For each individual objective, the plan presents the available and proven tools based on measurements and model analyses. It summarizes key elements required to implement individual solutions. The plan describes the approach to the modelling coordination activities to ensure harmonized and quality assured global implementation and compatibility of the products delivered on different scales.
The measure of success of the IG3IS implementation is the use of the provided information for valuable and additional emission reduction actions, building user confidence and practitioner skills in the value of atmospheric composition measurements as an essential part of the climate change mitigation and pollution remediation tool kits. The IG3IS team defined four implementation objectives:
1) improve knowledge of national emissions (including reduction of uncertainties of inventory reporting to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC));
2) locate and quantify previously unknown emission reduction opportunities such as fugitive methane emissions from industrial sources;
3) provide sub-national entities such as large urban source regions (for example, megacities) with timely and quantified information on the amounts, trends and attribution by sector of their greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions to evaluate and guide progress towards emission reduction goals; and
4) support for the Paris Agreement’s global stocktake through the integration of these objectives. This Science Implementation Plan documents the “good-practice” methodological guidelines for how atmospheric measurements and analysis methods can deliver valuable information under each objective area.
This plan and the team that prepared it, will serve to guide WMO Members and their partners in the definition and implementation of new IG3IS projects that apply and advance these “good-practice” capabilities. The plan will evolve overtime to respond to new policy challenges and to capture emerging capabilities. Successful application of IG3IS methods depends on intimate dialogue between scientists and users in order to ensure that user requirements are met, and so that users are introduced to previously unknown capabilities that may drive them to address challenges in new ways. IG3IS takes a highly collaborative “Translation Atmospheric Sciences” approach to deliver science-based services to potential stakeholders/users and is well in line with the implementation plan of the Global Atmosphere Watch (GAW) Programme. The plan directly supports implementation of the WMO Strategic Plan for 2020-2023, Objective 3.2 “Advance policy-relevant science”. | https://ig3is.wmo.int/index.php/en/about |
After all, not everyone has $800 or $900 to spare, let alone their European equivalents, and for the most part, less expensive phones like the Galaxy A5 and A7 (2017) manage to deliver as far as both build quality and respectable specs are concerned.
That’s most likely the model number of the Samsung Galaxy A5 (2018), closely following the SM-A520F designation of the 2017 version, and the screen resolution is listed as 412 x 846 pixels.
That’s obviously (and hilariously) inaccurate, but it’s almost surely indicative of the phone’s 18.5:9 aspect ratio. That means significantly thinner bezels than on the company’s previous mid-rangers, although we shouldn’t expect an “Infinity Display” quite as spectacular as existing ones.
If we were to make an educated guess, we’d say both the Galaxy A5 and A7 (2018) are likely to come with a real-life screen resolution of 2220 x 1080 pixels, which just so happens to be the default setting on the Galaxy S8. You can always boost that to 2960 x 1440 pixels, of course, which isn’t going to be available for Galaxy A5 (2018) users.
Adrian has had an insatiable passion for writing since he was in school and found himself writing philosophical essays about the meaning of life and the differences between light and dark beer. Later, he realized this was pretty much his only marketable skill, so he first created a personal blog (in Romanian) and then discovered his true calling, which is writing about all things tech (in English). | |
Strategic Plan 2021-2027
It is with great pleasure that we present you the Willow Ridge Community Association’s (WRCA) 2021-2027 strategic plan. This plan will help you and our broader stakeholder group understand how the WRCA will achieve its two strategic priorities for the coming years: Rebuild the Community Experience and Build Internal Capabilities.
The WRCA is responsible for creating and sustaining communities in our two neighbourhoods: Maple Ridge and Willow Park. It does so by providing relevant programs, events, and services with care and safety in mind. Our north star is to serve our community, and as a team, we take our responsibilities with prudence and passion. For this reason, we kept the interests and needs of our community at the center of our strategic planning process.
As part of this process, the Strategy Committee reviewed the WRCA’s vision, mission, and values. Updates were made to ensure that its purpose statements and values are a true reflection of the role it performs in our community. We synthesized the former guiding principles into six core values which are aligned with how we aspire to operate and interact as a team and with our stakeholders on a continuous basis. Together, they provide an effective direction for the organization as it launches into its journey to achieve its two strategic priorities.
Significant internal and external studies have been performed to understand the needs and priorities of the community and how the WRCA can operate with resilience to deliver on its mandate. Our strategic plan takes into consideration the challenges presented by the COVID-19 pandemic, and factors in the ever-important element of safety in our operations going forward.
The board will work towards the strategic priorities and as a team we will monitor, measure, and report upon on a specific set of key performance indicators on an annual basis. These indicators demonstrate accountability to our community, keep our volunteer board and staff engaged, and ensure that our planned objectives and action plans remain relevant and meaningful.
We invite you to review this strategic plan, get inspired to collaborate, and help make our community a great place to live for years to come. | https://mywillowridge.ca/association/strategic-plan |
As a UX Researcher (UXR) at Bally's Interactive, you’ll help your team of UXers, product managers, and engineers understand user needs. You’ll play a critical role in creating useful, usable, and delightful products. You’ll work with your peers and stakeholders across functions and have impact at all stages of product development.
Responsibilities:
- Define, plan, and conduct user research (i.e., surveys, usability tests, interviews) to inform design decisions for various products and experiences.
- Be able to identify and articulate what needs research and select the best approach.
- Work with Designers, Product Managers, Engineers and other UXRs to prioritize research opportunities in a fast-paced, rapidly changing environment.
- Understand and incorporate complex technical and business requirements into research.
- Analyse and communicate user research findings to diverse audiences through written reports and in-person presentations.
- Deliver compelling and timely insights to the product and design teams.
- Facilitate evidence-based product and design decisions.
- Take a holistic view of our understanding of our business and our users and their behaviour, and proactively identify gaps and opportunities for new research.
- Understanding of how to recruit users for research, create screeners, how to engage research panels or techniques to recruit internal users.
- Be able to speak to the business about the importance of research and convince business leaders to engage in research activities.
Requirements:
- Have experience in a research role at a customer-focused company.
- Have experience with remote and in-person research.
- Have a degree in Human Computer Interaction, Psychology, Social Science, or a related field.
- Have a solid working experience with qualitative research methods.
- Comfortable with planning, scoping, conducting, analysing, and communicating research.
- Familiar with quantitative research methods, comfortable with metrics and A/B tests, and can synthesise quantitative data with qualitative user research.
- Proficiency in communicating user research findings to cross functional teams to drive impact.
- Strong understanding of the strengths and shortcomings of different research methods, including when and how to apply them during the product development process.
- Experience with using UserTesting.com platform is a plus.
Benefits
We offer some of the most competitive benefits in the market, including continued personal growth and career development plans, as well as performance based bonuses. We also believe in providing an environment where employees can flourish. You’ll have the opportunity (hopefully soon!) to work in a modern and well catered for environment, with office events and team-building activities. Until then, we also offer a Work From Home Allowance to ensure you have everything you need to work comfortably, during these times. | https://careers.ballysinteractive.com/jobs/?id=3238375 |
RIVERSIDE, Calif. (http://www.ucr.edu) -- A team of scientists has found that a species of ant that clusters together to form rafts to survive floods exhibits memory and repeatedly occupies the same position during raft formation, according to a just published paper.
The research shows that, like humans, ants work together to enhance their response to emergency situations with different members of the group carrying out different tasks.
By working together, social insects, such as ants, achieve tasks that are beyond the reach of single individuals. A striking example is "self-assembly," a process in which ants link their bodies to form structures such as chains, ladders, walls or rafts.
By studying self-assembly in ants, scientists are addressing broad biological and evolutionary questions such as why particular animals live in some environments but not others. Their findings set the stage for potential comparisons of ant "emergency responses" in different species from different environmental contexts.
There are also indirect applications. The fields of swarm robotics and nanorobotics use ants and other social insects as models when they design 'cooperative' robots that may ultimately be used in medicine, for such things as clearing blood clots, or for fabrication of materials.
The team of scientists, including Jessica Purcell, an assistant professor of entomology at The University of California, Riverside, focused on Formica selysi, an ant species found in floodplains in central and southern Europe.
In a lab, they subjected groups of Formica selysi workers to two consecutive floods and monitored the position of individuals in rafts. Workers showed specialization in their positions when rafting, with the same individuals consistently occupying the top, middle, base or side position in the raft.
In addition, they found the presence of brood, or immature members of the ant society, modified workers' position and raft shape. Surprisingly, they found workers' experience in the first rafting trial with brood influenced their behavior and raft shape in the subsequent trial without brood.
They believe this is the first time memory has been demonstrated in so-called self-assemblages.
"These elaborate rafts are some of the most visually stunning examples of cooperation in ants," Purcell said. "They are just plain cool. Although people have observed self-assemblages in the past, it's exciting to make new strides in understanding how individuals coordinate to build these structures."
The work was published online in an article titled "Ant workers exhibit specialization and memory during raft formation," in the journal The Science of Nature. Purcell conducted the work while working as a post-doctoral researcher at the University of Lausanne in Switzerland. The co-authors of the paper are Amaury Avril and Michel Chapuisat, both of whom are at the University of Lausanne.
The paper builds on a 2014 paper by the same group of scientists that found worker ants protected the most valuable nest mate, the queen, by placing her in the center of the raft. In contrast, worker ants placed the vulnerable brood at the base of the raft, taking advantage of their buoyancy to produce a sturdy raft and allowing groups to remain in a cohesive unit during floods. Workers and brood exhibited high survival rates after they rafted, which suggests that being immersed in water at the base of the raft is not as deadly as scientists expected. | https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/490101 |
Abstract: We prove global stability of Minkowski space for the Einstein vacuum equations in harmonic (wave) coordinate gauge for the set of restricted data coinciding with Schwartzschild solution in the neighborhood of space-like infinity. The result contradicts previous beliefs that wave coordinates are "unstable in the large" and provides an alternative approach to the stability problem originally solved (for unrestricted data, in a different gauge and with a precise description of the asymptotic behavior at null infinity) by D. Christodoulou and S. Klainerman.
Using the wave coordinate gauge we recast the Einstein equations as a system of quasilinear wave equations and, in absence of the classical null condition, establish a small data global existence result. In our previous work we introduced the notion of a eak nul condition and showed that the Einstein equations in wave coordinates satisfy this condition. The result of this paper relies on this observation and combines it with the vector field method based on the symmetries of the standard Minkowski space.
In a forthcoming paper we will address the question of stability of Minkowski space for the Einstein vacuum equations in wave coordinates for all "small" asymptotically flat data and the case of the Einstein equations coupled to a scalar field.
Submission historyFrom: Igor Rodnianski [view email]
[v1] Mon, 29 Dec 2003 04:44:20 UTC (56 KB)
[v2] Fri, 17 Sep 2004 15:22:23 UTC (57 KB)
Full-text links:
Download: | https://arxiv.org/abs/math/0312479v2 |
Human-human communication takes place in various forms, of which gestures play a crucial role . Gestures include movements of body, head, or hands and can facilitate the understanding of the speech or serve as emblems to deliver messages in place of speech [40, 42]. They can significantly improve the communication efficacy for information conveyance .
Similarly, human-robot communication can also occur using multimodal cues . Although robots and autonomous systems are designed to collaborate with humans who supervise, instruct, or evaluate the system to perform specific tasks, most existing communication interfaces assume that humans communicate to an artificial agent only using natural language, either verbally or through text. In stark contrast, the origin of human communications is primarily rooted in nonverbal forms , e.g., gestures. Therefore, providing assistive or collaborative AI systems with nonverbal means of communication would open up new research venues to investigate the efficacy of alternative communication forms. Unlike natural languages, which suffer from intermittent conveyance and need continuous attention, nonverbal cues like gestures are immediate and intuitive, hence are less vulnerable to interruptions. In particular, when the environment is noisy, or the agent is listening to someone else, a user might refer to a location using a deictic gesture, e.g., pointing with a finger, instead of describing it with a long sentence.
To illustrate the significance of communications using gestures, let us take Fig. 1 as an example. A human intends to instruct the robot to navigate to the target location or object in the scene. Previous works in embodied visual navigation with language-based human interactions may require a lengthy text message, such as “go to the second brown chair next to the big white table in the living room”. In contrast, gestures allow to express the same message in a much simpler and more natural way, e.g. “go there,” ”clean here,” or ”bring it to me.” Such multimodal messages can only be correctly interpreted in a given physical space where a human and an agent are situated together. The meaning of a human message must be inferred from the joint understanding of the given scene by the agent who also understands the semantics of human natural gestures [63, 62].
Inspired by the above crucial observation, we intend to bring in nonverbal communication cues [41, 25, 39] into the embodied agent navigation task—the most straightforward task of an embodied AI that interacts with the environments and other agents. Despite the progress reported for the embodied agent on the Vision-Language Navigation (VLN) task [16, 14, 33, 21, 3, 68, 17, 26, 78], we contemplate on prior arts and quest for the following questions: Instead of using natural language, can we replace the language grounding by gestures in a similar setting? Can we improve the performance of navigation with gestures incorporated? Can the learning agent acquire the underlying semantics of gestures, even when they are not predefined?
Specifically, we aim to use gestures to communicate with an embodied agent to navigate in a virtual environment. To provide gesture-based instructions for a navigation task, the agent needs a photorealistic simulation environment, and a human player needs to be situated in the same scene to have joint attention . To support such a co-existing environment, we build our virtual environment Ges-THOR with Oculus, Kinect, and Leap Motion, based on the existing framework AI2-THOR .
Although human gestures have been used as a communicative interface between humans and robots in robotics [35, 53, 24, 55, 13], prior literature typically predefines the vocabulary of admissible gestures and their definite meanings (e.g., “ok” sign means an approval). In contrast, human gestures are diverse; their meanings are also non-rigid and context-dependent . One needs to develop a flexible system to address the variability and versatility of nearly-unlimited naturalistic human gestures without a predefined set of recognizable gestures. Without defining any gestures and their meanings ourselves, we have collected demonstrations from a group of volunteers who have diverse gesture preferences for the same message.
In our proposed framework, an agent should therefore solve two tasks: multimodal target inference and navigation. Inferring the meanings of human gestures and finding a path to the target location are two major goals of the agent, which mutually help each other, i.e. learn to communicate and communicate to learn. Experiments reveal that our model incorporating gestures outperforms a baseline model only with vision for navigation, as well as models on similar environments and tasks using different methods .
This paper makes four contributions: (i) By introducing human gestures as the new communicative interface for embodied AI learning and (ii) developing a simulation framework, Ges-THOR, that supports multimodal interactions with human users, (iii) we demonstrate that the embodied agent’s navigation performance significantly improves after incorporating human gestures. (iv) We further demonstrate that the agent can learn the underlying meanings and intents of human gestures without predefining the associations.
Ii Related Work
Language grounding
Language grounding is crucial for both parties involved in communication to understand each other. Natural language, the most common modality for human-human and human-robot communication, can realize the grounding in various ways. For communication with robots, language can be interpreted from instructional commands to actions [49, 50]. For static images or texts, it can be either visually grounded [4, 54] or text-based Q&A. In our work, language grounding is replaced by “gesture grounding;” we provide gestures as the new communicative interface. The agent is tasked to learn by grounding human gestures into a series of actions and identify target objects.
Vision-language navigation
Image captioning with large datasets and Visual Question Answering (VQA) [4, 48] has made significant progress in vision and language understanding, which enables visually-grounded language navigation agent to be trained. Many tasks following the VLN framework [16, 14, 22, 21, 3, 68, 17, 26, 64, 34, 78, 61] have been addressed and solved using end-to-end learning models, either in 2D world [77, 19, 10], 3D world [37, 14], or even photorealistic environments [3, 17, 26, 73, 78]. Some works have also explored the acoustic cue in navigation, but these are not mainly concerned with speech [27, 15]. Our work is built on the existing VLN framework but extended by incorporating gestures as a new modality for communications.
Simulated environments
To help the research in embodied AI learning, various simulated environments have spurred for the community’s benefit. Those 3D environments are created from either synthetic scenes [9, 71, 47, 73, 60, 56] or real photographs [57, 72, 58, 12]; some of them use game engines to enable physical interactions [44, 7, 47, 74, 73]. In this paper, we choose AI2-THOR, which uses Unity as the physics engine, and build the environment on it. Exiting works using AI2-THOR for visual navigation tasks [80, 76] require either the target visualization or its context. In this paper, we propose a gesture-based method to eliminate the need for acquiring additional target information.
RL for navigation
Instead of using traditional path-planning approaches to compute a route to the goal location, the embodied AI community has recently focused more on end-to-end learning for training navigation policies, especially with Reinforcement Learning (RL
). Compared with other machine learning methods, such as supervised learning, RL benefits from simple reward definitions and easy implementations. As a result, RL becomes the core of the learning framework [58, 72, 3, 80, 33, 76]. In this paper, we choose Proximal Policy Optimization (PPO) as the RL model.
Human AI interaction
Human-AI Interaction (HAI) has been intensively investigated in AI, Human-Computer Interaction, and robotics [31, 1, 45]. For the embodied navigation agents, the sprout of simulated environments makes users communicate with the agent interactively. Most existing frameworks achieve this goal using dialogues [11, 21, 32, 77, 52, 64]. However, as discussed, natural language is not the only cue for multimodal communication, and current collaborative frameworks have not yet fully explored a rich spectrum of communicative interfaces for embodied agent navigation. In this paper, we propose gestures as the communicative interface between human users and the artificial agent.
Meanwhile, there is a large body of work on human gestures as a communicative device either to humans or robots [18, 28]. Most of these approaches are based on a predefined gesture set with fixed meanings or focus on gesture type classification
, pose estimation[30, 5], or both [75, 29]. In contrast, we let users use any natural gestures and demonstrate the agent can directly learn the semantics and underlying intents of these gestures.
Iii Ges-THOR: A Simulation Framework for Human-Agent Interaction via Gestures
We build an interactive learning framework in Unity based on the iTHOR environment from AI2-THOR for the gesture-boosted embodied AI research, namely Ges-THOR—Gesture-based iTHOR environment.
Iii-a Simulation and Learning Framework
There are many existing physics-based simulation frameworks for photorealistic indoor navigation tasks [72, 73, 58, 47, 57, 74]. We choose AI2-THOR specifically to build our learning environment because it provides a diversity of rooms and interactive features. It has been widely used for different visual navigation tasks [80, 76]. In addition, the game engine Unity provides the ability to deploy across platforms and integrate third-party resources, compatible with the sensory devices we use for this learning environment. We also use AllenAct as the codebase for our modular framework.
Iii-B Human Gesture Sensing
The following setup immerses human players into the virtual environment while allowing the system to capture human gestures:
Devices
We use Oculus Rift, Kinect Sensor v2, and Leap Motion Controller (hereinafter referred to as Oculus, Kinect, and Leap Motion) together for gesture sensing via pose estimation. Oculus gives the player the first-person view in the virtual environment; hence the player sees the virtual scene and knows where the target object is. Kinect is used to track overall body movements. However, Kinect is incapable of capturing fine in-hand motions. Leap Motion is brought in to detect hand movements.
Device Arrangement
Fig. 3 illustrates the device arrangement. During data acquisition, the human player is asked to wear the Oculus headset, face the Kinect sensor, and move hands in front of Leap Motion at a distance between 30cm and 60cm. In Unity, a humanoid character (see Fig. 3d) mirrors players’ movements in real-time, including body composure and hand motions.
Data collection
Ideally, learning would take place in real-time, where a human player continuously observes an agent’s behavior and interacts with it such that the agent can respond to the feedback immediately. Unfortunately, this is infeasible because the entire training process may take hundreds of thousands of episodes. Therefore, we opt for using pre-recorded gestures to simulate real-time interactions between the human player and the agent as closely and efficiently as possible. There are two types of instructional gestures that humans can use: one is for referencing, and the other one is for intervention. To record referencing gestures, a volunteer is given the target object in a scene and asked to communicate with the agent to guide the direction with a gesture. We do not ask participants to use any specific gestures such as pointing with a finger but encourage them to use any gestures as if they are talking to another person. The gesture sequence, as well as the environmental information, is recorded as one episode in the dataset. We have over 230,000 unique episodes for training and 2,500 episodes for validation and testing. For intervention gestures, the player shows gestures in a rejective manner used to warn the agent if it is moving away from the target. We recorded ten different intervention gestures. Kinect Body and Leap Hands can duplicate the player’s movements and save the recorded motions as animation clips in Unity. See Fig. 4 for examples of collected gestures.
Iii-C Sensory Modalities
Multimodal perception is essential for artificial systems. We provide several sensory inputs in our environment to build a multimodal learning framework; see Fig. 2. The observational space consists of the following inputs:
Vision
Unity’s built-in camera component allows a 2D view of the virtual space. It is attached to the eyesight of the embodied agent at 1.5m from the ground with a 90-degree field-of-view and provides real-time RGB images in the first-person view. The resolution of the RGB images is , and each pixel contains scaled RGB values from 0 to 1.
Depth
The depth image is extracted from the depth buffer of Unity’s camera view. It has a size of
, and each pixel value is a floating-point between 0 and 1, representing the distance from the rendered viewpoint to the agent, linearly interpolated from 0m to 10m.
Collision
Unity checks for collisions dynamically in the learning environment. Every time the agent triggers a collision, it can report this event and prevent the agent from penetrating into the object meshes. Note that for our agent design, it can slide along the object surface it collides with. This “sliding” mechanics has been noticed by recent work and may hinder sim2real transition. We rectify this issue by addressing penalties in rewards for such behaviors.
Gesture
As previously mentioned, we use Oculus, Kinect, and Leap Motion to capture human gestures. Each gesture motion is saved as a sequence of vectors with 100 steps and 95 features consisting of body and hand poses. Note that for referencing gestures, we select motions from the corresponding episode. For intervention gestures, we randomly sample one from saved recordings and use it only when the agent faces away from the target. The raw gesture inputs are encoded and piped into our learning model.
Iv Learning to Navigate with Gesture
In this section, we describe our end-to-end gesture learning model using Deep Reinforcement Learning (DRL). We start by introducing the formulation of the DRL model we use, followed by the other components of the entire architecture.
Iv-a Problem Formulation
We take the ObjectGoal task as our navigation task, where the agent must navigate to an object of a specific category, as our experimental testbed. The details of the task and the agent embodiment are explained below:
Agent Embodiment
The learning agent is represented by a robot character with a capsule bound. The agent has a rigid body component attached to it so that it can detect collisions with environmental objects. It has four available actions: turn left, turn right, move forward, and stop. Each turning action results in a rotation of , and each forward action results in a forward displacement of 0.25m.
Task Definition
The agent is initiated at a random location, and an object is selected randomly as the target; we ensure that the agent can reach the target. Note that there can be more than one instance of the target object type in the same environment. To complete the task, the agent must navigate to the target object instance with a stopping distance equal to or less than 1.5m. The agent then needs to issue a termination (i.e., stop) action in the proximity of the goal, and the object must also be within the agent’s field of view in order to succeed. An episode is terminated if the above success criteria are met or the maximum allowed time step (which is 100 in our setup) is reached. We allow the agent to issue multiple stops in an episode but measure success rates using different numbers of maximum stops (1-3). We allow an unlimited number of stops in training; the agent needs to explore and learn after issuing incorrect stops in earlier episodes.
Iv-B Policy Learning with Ppo
We formulate our visual gesture navigation using DRL, specifically PPO. Our learning process can be viewed as a Markov Decision Process (MDP). At each time step , the agent perceives a state (i.e., a combination of the sensory inputs), receives a reward from the environment, and chooses an action according to the current policy :
|(1)|
where represents parameters for the function approximator of the policy . We implement PPO
with a time horizon of 128 steps, batch size of 128 and 4 epochs for each iteration of gradient descent, and buffer size of 1280 for each policy update. We use Adam as the optimizer with a learning rate of 0.0003 and a discount factor of 0.99.
The agent receives a positive reward of if it completes the navigation successfully. Since we encourage the agent to reach the target object with the minimal amount of steps, the agent receives a small time penalty of for each step. We further add a collision penalty of for each collision detected; the collision penalty is added to mitigate the aforementioned “sliding” behavior. If the agent stops in an ineligible location, a penalty of is added.
Iv-C Model Overview
We equip the embodied agent with different sensory modalities, and each of them feeds into a part of the input network for the RL model. Below we introduce these components of the architecture.
Visual network
Gesture network
The raw input of the gesture network is a sequence with 100 time steps and 95 features. Each feature represents the muscle value from the Unity humanoid model, which can be considered as the coordinates for tracked body and hand joints. The gesture input is flattened and encoded into a vector. In addition, we provide the target object category from a selected set and pass it to an embedding layer. This is equivalent to speech or text instructions from a user in prior work on interactive embodied agent learning. Since our focus in this paper is gesture, we simplify this part of the input as a categorical variable (e.g., a single word in a fixed vocabulary). Note that this vector alone does not specify the target object location: There can be multiple instances of the same object category in the scene, and the agent needs to infer which instance the human player is referring to. This vector is concatenated with encoded gesture inputs and visual features by an observation combiner. There is a memory unit using Gated Recurrent Unit (GRU) after this combiner. Fig. 5 illustrates the entire architecture.
V Evaluation
We evaluate our methods in Ges-THOR environment. AI2-THOR provides 120 scenes covering four different room types: kitchen, living room, bedroom, and bathroom. Each room has its own unique appearance and arrangements. We randomly split 30 scenes for each scene type into 20 training rooms, 5 validation rooms, and 5 testing rooms.
There are 38 object categories available for all scenes. Since there is almost no overlap of objects for different scene types, we train and evaluate separately for each scene type. We evaluate each scene for 250 episodes and report the average results for each scene type.
Evaluation Metrics
We use 2 metrics to evaluate different methods:
-
[leftmargin=*,noitemsep,nolistsep,topsep=0pt]
-
SR: for the -th episode, the success can be marked by a binary indicator . The success rate is the ratio of successful episodes over completed episodes N:
(2)
-
SPL: this metric is proposed by Anderson et al. . It measures the efficacy of the navigation. SPL is calculated as follows:
(3)
where is the shortest path distance from the agent’s starting position to the goal in episode , and is the actually path length taken by the agent.
We have three methods to evaluate the agent performance: (1) Baseline: the agent only has the visual (i.e., RGB and depth images) and object category information. (2) Referencing Gesture: in addition to (1), the agent receives referencing gesture inputs. (3) Intervention Gesture: in addition to (1), the agent receives rejective gesture inputs when the forward direction forms an angle larger than 90 degrees between the agent and the target.
In our comparative setting, the baseline model does not use any gestures. While one may expect that it should always underperform, this is only true if the agent has learned and inferred the semantics of human gestures and incorporated the signals during navigation, which is the focus of our evaluation. Again, this is not trivial because we do not pre-define the meaning of any gestures. Similarly, the intervention gestures is a strong directive feedback from the human user, but we evaluate how well the agent can infer its meaning and adopt it in navigation.
Navigation Performance
Table I show the performance of different methods when evaluated at the first stop, and Table II show the performance at test scenes evaluated at a different number of stops. From the both results, we confirm that adding gestures can significantly improve the navigation success rate as well as the efficiency over the baseline model. Table I puts a hard constraint on the number of stops to 1 to match the state-of-art benchmarks . Of note, models trained with intervention gestures outperform models trained with referencing gestures, both in SR and SPL, demonstrating that intervention gesture is a more effective kind of gesture to communicate with the agent. Table II reports results on test scenes with a different number of allowed stops. We should see that both SR and SPL increase with the number of allowed stops, and the improvement of SR and SPL with gestures is more evident in a lower number of allowed stops.
Qualitative Results
To visualize the effectiveness of our methods, we show some qualitative results in Figs. 7 and 6. Fig. 6 compares our referencing gesture model against the baseline model with visualized trajectories in different scenes and targets. It could be observed that in all scenes, our referencing gesture model enables the agent to navigate to the target more intelligently, while the baseline model often struggles to find the target and stop or takes a longer path to find the target. Fig. 7 demonstrates how our intervention gesture model works to improve the navigation significantly. In this example, the agent rotates at the place where it faces back to the target and is instructed with interventions gestures until the target is in its field of view before making any movements. This indicates that our agent is able to understand and react to the intervention gestures, resulting in much better navigation performance.
Vi Conclusion
In this paper, we propose a new framework for embodied visual navigation where human users can give instructions to the autonomous agent using gestures. Such agents and gesture based interface will be very useful for collaborative robots or virtual agents. We have built a VR-based interactive learning environment, Ges-THOR, based on AI2-THOR and designed an end-to-end deep reinforcement learning model for the navigation task. Our experiments show that the agent is able to interpret human instructions with gestures and improve its visual navigation. We also conclude that interactive activities during agent task execution can improve performance. While the main setting and experimental design of our study have been used in prior works, to the best of our knowledge, our paper is the first incorporating human gestures for embodied agent learning and showing the agent can learn the semantic of gestures without supervision. We will make publicly available our simulation environment and the recorded gesture dataset for any future research for Human-AI interaction via gestures. The future directions include adding more objects, tasks, gestures, and multiple agents in the scene, e.g., navigating to an object and bring it back by showing gestures in our framework and also allowing agents to make gestures to the human player such that both parties can communicate with gestures, which will also help humans to utilize even more diverse gestures to communicate with agents.
0.94
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Seizures Until Fainting After Anger?
My brother was angry while crying then he was convulsing and passed out, is that dangerous? What are the causes and long-term effects? R nPlease answer, thanks
1 Answer:
Hello Ita.
Thank you for the question.
In order to move, the muscles send electrical signals through the nerves to the muscles. In general, seizures can be divided into 2, epileptic seizures and non-epileptic seizures. Epileptic seizures are uncontrolled body movements and behavior changes due to abnormal electrical activity in the brain. Non-epileptic seizures caused by other than epilepsy. Seizures and epilepsy are different things. Not all seizures are caused by epilepsy.
Each person experiences different seizure symptoms:
jerky movements of the arms and legs
passed out
fall down
foam
biting the tongue
wet the bed
changes in eye movement
In non-epileptic seizures the cause is due to changes in brain function and structure and due to psychogenic conditions. The causes include:
psychic stress
depression
post traumatic condition
head injury
side effects of certain drugs
hypoglycemia
meningitis
stroke
drinking alcoholic beverages
lack of oxygen to the brain
blood electrolyte disorders
As for suggestions that can be done when sufferers have seizures:
lay the sufferer
keep the sufferer away from dangerous goods
loosen the patient's clothes
do not put anything in or give the sufferer anything to drink during the seizure
tilt the patient's head, so that if vomiting occurs, the vomit does not make him choke
Seizure sufferers should immediately be taken to a neurologist to be examined and to know the exact cause. The most important treatment for patients with seizures is to stop the seizures.
When a seizure occurs, oxygen supply to the brain is stopped, the effect depends on how long the sufferer has had seizures and how many times he has had seizures. So it is necessary to carry out further examinations for this in the form of electroencephalogram, CT-scan, MRI.
Hopefully my explanation can answer the question.
Regards, | https://www.healthreplies.com/question/seizures-until-fainting-after-anger/ |
Permissioned vs. Permissionless Blockchains – What are the Differences?
This article will describe what permissioned and permissionless blockchains are and will present a few use cases for their implementation. We will select some of the ongoing projects to describe the way that both types of blockchains operate.
If you need to catch up with what blockchain is you can refer to out Bitcoin Master Guide which covers all of the elements that make up the technology. By the way, Bitcoin is the first, and it is a permissionless blockchain.
Permissionless blockchains
What started with Bitcoin has grown to exponential levels. At the time of writing it is about ten years later, and we have more than 2000 blockchain projects that are either original or depend on a platform such as Ethereum to provide infrastructure for them. At the core of the permissionless blockchain is freedom. The freedom to participate or not participate, at any time, for any reason. There are rules to follow, governed by the decentralized ecosystem of that particular blockchain, and this prevents malicious actors from taking over control and corrupting the information.
In a permissionless blockchain, all information is publicly available to everyone in the world. You do not need permission to use Bitcoin, Litecoin, Dash, Ethereum. There is no need for any form of KYC, certification, or any third-parties to facilitate the account creation process. Yes, in the case of Bitcoin, there are many services which make the entire process of making your account, creating the proof-of-work, and accessing/using your wallet easier.
You can also download the entire Bitcoin Core software and run your show (and even provide services for other people). It’s up to you to decide how you want to engage with a permissionless blockchain. The point is that nobody can say whether or not you can or cannot do it. Information on this type of decentralized public blockchain is being maintained by nodes, computers which run this core software. They are the ones that enforce the community rules and make sure that everybody is looking at the same version of the distributed ledger.
This type of behavior by participants is essential to reach consensus, but it also protects the network from any censorship, if it is designed to be a publicly available network. Anything that differs from the core is discarded.
Permissioned Blockchains
Unlike publicly available blockchains, private and managed blockchain can also provide benefits to a different type of crowd. Permissioned blockchain solutions are useful when individuals or companies need to retain control over the accessibility to the blockchain.
They are generally used by businesses which can create value through the use of the technology to communicate with various stakeholders in their industry. Permissioned blockchains are specifically designed for the result they are deployed to reach. They can be either public, or private, or a mixture of both, with some information requiring a special key, while the rest is unencrypted.
Since permissioned blockchains are designed for a specific use case, it’s much better to learn about it in terms of how they are implemented. Industry-wide solutions provide a more natural way to communicate within the realms of a specific industry, with select key participants that have the need to reliably and continually communicate information, commitment, and value. This type of blockchain would be supported by partners in business and help them save time on administration. The blockchain can be designed to provide and create any reports that are necessary for the legal operations of companies involved in the industry.
Permissioned transaction networks use this type of blockchain to choose who can validate the transactions made on the ledger, i.e. who will assume the responsibility for the transactions and the status of the ledger. They can involve multiple parties, and reasonably expect them to keep the blockchain honest. There is a risk of conspiracy, which is mitigated by including a variety of powerful transaction validators, that would be at a loss in the case of fraud.
Want to learn more about different blockchain implementations?
Let us know your questions in the comments below, and we will provide you with additional information. Our goal is to encourage discussion around these topics, because they are fundamental towards the proper understanding of blockchain technology.
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In vertebrate animals, the heart is a hollow muscular organ having four pumping chambers: the left and right atria and the left and right ventricles, each provided with its own one-way valve. The natural heart valves are identified as the aortic, mitral (or bicuspid), tricuspid and pulmonary, and are each mounted in an annulus comprising dense fibrous rings attached either directly or indirectly to the atrial and ventricular muscle fibers.
Heart valve disease is a widespread condition in which one or more of the valves of the heart fails to function properly. Diseased heart valves may be categorized as either stenotic, wherein the valve does not open sufficiently to allow adequate forward flow of blood through the valve, and/or incompetent, wherein the valve does not close completely, causing excessive backward flow of blood through the valve when the valve is closed. Valve disease can be severely debilitating and even fatal if left untreated.
Various surgical techniques may be used to repair a diseased or damaged valve. In a valve replacement operation, the damaged leaflets are excised and the annulus sculpted to receive a replacement valve.
Another less drastic method for treating defective valves is through repair or reconstruction, which is typically used on minimally calcified valves. One repair technique that has been shown to be effective in treating incompetence is annuloplasty, in which the effective size of the valve annulus is contracted by attaching a prosthetic annuloplasty repair segment or ring to an interior wall of the heart around the valve annulus. The annuloplasty ring is designed to support the functional changes that occur during the cardiac cycle: maintaining coaptation and valve integrity to prevent reverse flow while permitting good hemodynamics during forward flow. The annuloplasty ring typically comprises an inner substrate of a metal such as stainless or titanium, or a flexible material such as silicone rubber or Dacron cordage, covered with a biocompatible fabric or cloth to allow the ring to be sutured to the heart tissue. Annuloplasty rings may be stiff or flexible, may be split or continuous, and may have a variety of shapes, including circular, D-shaped, C-shaped, or kidney-shaped. Examples are seen in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,041,130, 5,104,407, 5,201,880, 5,258,021, 5,607,471 and, 6,187,040 B1. Most annuloplasty rings are formed in a plane, with some D-shaped rings being bowed along their anterior or straight side to conform to the annulus at that location.
The present application has particular relevance to the repair of tricuspid valve, which regulates blood flow between the right atrium (RA) and right ventricle (RV), although certain aspects may apply to repair of other of the heart valves.
The tricuspid valve 20 is seen in plan view in FIG. 1 and includes an annulus 22 and three leaflets 24a, 24b, 24c (septal, anterior, and posterior, respectively) extending inward into the flow orifice defined by the annulus. Chordae tendineae 26 connect the leaflets to papillary muscles located in the RV to control the movement of the leaflets. The tricuspid annulus 22 is an ovoid-shaped fibrous ring at the base of the valve that is less prominent than the mitral annulus, but slightly larger in circumference. The septal leaflet 24a is the site of attachment to the fibrous trigone, the fibrous “skeletal” structure within the heart. The triangle of Koch 30 and tendon of Todaro 32 provide anatomic landmarks during tricuspid valve repair procedures. The atrioventricular (AV) node 34 is a section of nodal tissue that delays cardiac impulses from the sinoatrial node to allow the atria to contract and empty their contents first, and relays cardiac impulses to the atrioventricular bundle. In a normal heart rhythm, the sinoatrial node generates an electrical impulse that travels through the right and left atrial muscles producing electrical changes which is represented on the electrocardiogram (ECG) by the p-wave. The electrical impulse then continues to travel through the specialized tissue of the AV node 34, which conducts electricity at a slower pace. This will create a pause (PR interval) before the ventricles are stimulated. Of course, surgeons must avoid placing sutures too close to or within the AV node 34. C-rings are good choices for tricuspid valve repairs because they allow surgeons to position the break in the ring adjacent the AV node 34, thus avoiding the need for suturing at that location.
Despite numerous designs presently available or proposed in the past, there is a need for a tricuspid ring that more closely conforms to the actual shape of the tricuspid annulus.
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Manitoba Education announced a Rural Education Action Plan for Student Services in October 2008 to enhance the delivery of programming for students in rural and northern Manitoba who have exceptional learning needs. The initiative addresses the unique needs of rural and northern school divisions through enhanced consultative support for programming, increased professional learning opportunities, a clinician bursary and access to technology software and hardware to assist rural and northern divisions/schools in providing appropriate educational supports for students with exceptional learning needs including students with learning disabilities.
Information for Schools, Students, and Families
The Rural and Northern Consultants completed a consultation process with each rural and northern school division in 2008/2009. From these consultations an Action Plan was developed to begin to address the needs identified.
A video conferencing system at 1181 Portage has been set up to provide access to professional learning opportunities for teachers in their own community. This technology can also be used for live video conferences and consultation. Technology such as video conferencing will increase the opportunities for rural and northern school educators to participate in the development of support materials and to access professional learning opportunities. The technology can also be used by school divisions to access consultant support from Manitoba Education to assist in planning for students with special needs.
As part of the Rural and Northern Initiative, Manitoba Education has developed a lending library for Assistive Technology software. Consultation and workshops are also available to rural and northern school divisions to assist in selection and implementation of AT software.
Consultation and Professional Learning Opportunities
As part of the Action Plan resulting from these consultations, the Consultants for Rural and Northern have developed a series of workshops to address Appropriate Educational Programming (AEP) for students with learning disabilities in rural and northern schools.
The first workshop is intended to be an introduction to the topic of Learning Disabilities, and is appropriate for classroom teachers, resource teachers and administrators. The rural and northern consultants are available to deliver this workshop at the school division or school level. In addition, there are four follow-up workshops available that address the following specific learning disabilities: reading, writing, math and non-verbal.
Consultants are also available for consultation at the division, school and student specific level. To request a workshop or if you have any questions, please contact the General Enquiries office. | https://www.edu.gov.mb.ca/k12/specedu/rndi/index.html |
Finding the perfect ending is difficult, even for professional writers and big-budget films. The resolution after the climax provides closure for the audience and characters. Sometimes termed the “denouement,” this scene is just as important as the climax itself.
It’s the part of the story that resolves any remaining subplots. The script shows how the characters’ lives have changed. The audience have a moment to breathe after the heightened climax and before the credits roll.
MEN IN BLACK: originally, Agent J talked to the bug alien rather than fighting it. Other endings were considered, including one in which coroner Laurel’s memory is wiped instead of her becoming an agent.
SHAKESPEARE IN LOVE: Shakespeare and Viola’s parting scene was reshot so it takes place in private.
28 DAYS LATER: originally, Jim died of a gunshot wound, but a test screening audience thought this was too bleak, implying the other characters would soon die too.
It’s understandable that producers and studios would be willing to pay more to get the closure perfect. The ending, specifically the denouement, determines the feeling the audience leave a film with and its word of mouth.
The key to perfect closure is often in looking back to the first act. If the protagonist has been introduced properly, with goals and flaws, along with a plot that has enough momentum and material for a full story, an ending should suggest itself.
After taking the protagonist through the plot and their arc, to their logical climax, what kind of life awaits them?
Ideally, a climax will unite and resolve the internal conflict (the main character overcoming their flaw, their arc) with the external conflict (the action of the plot). Both need closure.
It’s common for writers to visualise the closure in their story before they start writing, before they even have a clear conception of how to get there.
For example, JK Rowling had an image for the ending of HARRY POTTER in mind, of Hagrid carrying Harry out of the forest. She also wrote the epilogue in advance, even though she wasn’t entirely sure which characters would die or survive.
In its simplest terms, closure can be happy or unhappy.
Did the character achieve their ultimate goal? Of course, their goal may have shifted over the course of the story. Alternatively, their original goal might be rendered irrelevant because of a character flaw that’s now been resolved. In this case, do they fulfil their need?
Take, for example, the familiar, cliché conflict of work versus family life (as seen in HOOK, CLICK, and LIAR LIAR). The main character’s goal might have been to secure an important promotion or to land a big client. Their need, on the other hand, is to spend more time with their family.
Their closure is the realisation of this need. It’s happy even if they haven’t met their goal. Generally, if the character hasn’t achieved their goal and hasn’t resolved their flaw, the result is unhappy closure. It can make the difference between comedy and tragedy.
There’s an impression that unhappy or downbeat closure is more realistic or serious somehow. This is not necessarily the case. GOD’S OWN COUNTRY, for example, refreshingly proved that stories about gay characters don’t have to end tragically.
The contrary assumption is that mass audiences don’t want an unhappy ending in any circumstances. Crucially, it depends on the genre and the audience.
There are plenty of ways to moderate technically unhappy closure into something that’s more “feel good,” or vice versa.
One classic example is THELMA & LOUISE. The script, by Callie Khouri, ends with the title characters, pursued by police, driving over a cliff.
Khouri originally intended to direct the script herself, on a low budget. When the script picked up heat, attracting stars and a big director, there were questions over the closure.
One suggestion by director Ridley Scott was that Louise could push Thelma out of the car, saving her life. However, it was important for Khouri that the film retained her original ending.
Scott filmed another ending, which showed the car falling, and then Detective Hal Slocumb (Harvey Keitel) running up to the edge. He finds a Polaroid of the two characters from the beginning of the film.
The finished film instead ends with the famous freeze frame of their car still in the air. Having one survive and the other die, or seeing the car fall or the detective react, would have made it too real and too downbeat.
Instead, the freeze frame evokes BUTCH CASSIDY AND THE SUNDANCE KID which ends mid-shoot out where the characters likely die.
Instead of seeing them die, they get to live on forever. The characters win their hard-earned escape.
I guess I’ll see you in the movies.
More recently, in LA LA LAND, the main couple Sebastian and Mia don’t end up together. An extended musical set-piece shows what their lives might have been like had they stayed together.
However, this takes place in a heightened, shared imagination. In real life, both characters appear to be better off for having parted company. Both know any future they may have had together is no longer possible.
THELMA & LOUISE and LA LAND may have their origins in independent film sensibilities, but both crossed over into mass popularity. A big part of that is that they both find satisfying endings. Not only do both offer closure, but they strike a perfectly bittersweet tone.
Audiences are aware of the conventions of genre. A writer who wants to surprise their audience might turn to genre revisionism, genre hybrids, or genre deconstructions. This grants some amount of leeway in terms of closure.
For example, in CHINATOWN the detective Jake Gittes does uncover an underlying conspiracy. However, its perpetrator escapes and there’s nothing the he can do about it.
The script, by Robert Towne, cynically up-ends the expectations of a film noir detective story. Normally in this genre, an audience expects justice to be served and criminals to always be punished. Here there’s a lack of closure.
Forget it Jake. It’s Chinatown.
The reward of an ambiguous or open ending is that they can be thought-provoking and engaging. Audiences have to ask themselves and each other what it means and what they think happens next. They provide their own closure.
The downside is that inevitably some will see the same ending as a cop-out, taking the audience out of believing the characters and the world. It can be a way for the writer to avoid taking a side or making a clear statement on the themes and topics they’ve introduced.
There is also a difference between ambiguity and confusion. The latter results when the goalposts for success and failure, happiness and unhappiness, or the rules for the world have been moved too far.
In THE LOBSTER, written by Efthimis Filippou and Yorgos Lanthimos, does David go through with blinding himself with a steak knife? If he doesn’t, does it disprove his claim to be capable of real love?
Does Sean Baker’s THE FLORIDA PROJECT end in Moonee’s imagination, or is her escape to Disneyland real?
What happens to Riggan at the end of BIRDMAN?
Are the results of the chest X-ray in the Coen bros’ A SERIOUS MAN positive or negative? What happens to Danny at the end?
However, some viewers have indeed criticised these endings for their lack of closure.
The common thread across these examples of ambiguous and open endings is that they’re at the independent end of the budget scale. Storytelling expectations are different.
In fact, when these sequel teases and hints of interconnected universes become too obvious, and interfere too much with one franchise entry’s closure, it turns audiences off.
It was partly a disagreement over the closure in Alex Garland’s ANNIHILATION that led the studio Paramount to sell it off to Netflix internationally, rather than mount a more expensive wide theatrical release as it did in the US.
Was this an independent film about self-destruction, about what it means to be alive? Or was it a medium-budget monster movie with those philosophical concepts at the margins?
A similar problem befell THE BUTTERFLY EFFECT, which has no less than four different alternative endings.
As a thought-provoking sci-fi drama about the consequences of abuse, the most shocking and downbeat ending makes sense. In a star vehicle for Ashton Kutcher, however, the audience want closure for his relationship, to see him happy and victorious.
While the climax may be the most fun part of the third act to write and to watch, don’t overlook the closure that must follow. Striking the right balance between an open and closed denouement is crucial, as is finding the right tone. Both will be influenced by – and in turn influence – the genre and audience for the film. | https://industrialscripts.com/script-closure/ |
May, 2022, Friends Couple Enrichment welcomed Rick and Carol Holmgren, new FCE leaders from Meadville, PA. They are the first couple to complete the new, self-paced, online training.
In their training and sharing in FCE events, Carol and Rick have dived deeply into the spirit of Couple Enrichment dialogue, exhibiting open-heartedness and truth-speaking with one another. They bring valuable skills and experience to the ministry of Friends Couple Enrichment. As a Couple-in-Training, they assisted in facilitating a one-day online workshop at the 2021 FGC Summer Gathering, and a multi-session online workshop co-sponsored by FCE and Pendle Hill. They have a great capacity for love, fun, and intimacy, which by example invites others into disclosure and deeper intimacy. Their reliance on the Holy Spirit has gifted each of them with a natural grace and empathy. Through their gentle awareness, they convey a sense of calm, respect, and deep caring for the particular gift of each relationship. They look forward to facilitating in-person workshops once the pandemic allows this.
Carol and Rick have been married for 34 years and have twin children, who are now 26. They are active in their local Unitarian Universalist church, where Rick serves on the board and leads Sunday services several times each year. During their lives together, they have benefited from a variety of experiences designed to foster their growth as individuals and as a couple, and they were delighted to discover the depth possible through Friends Couple Enrichment. The skills they learned in FCE workshops and in the FCE leader training have helped them strengthen their relationships with each other, with their children, and with their community.
Carol is a licensed wildlife rehabilitator at Tamarack Wildlife Center where she strengthens people’s connection to and care for the natural world, while helping the creatures native to northwest Pennsylvania. Rick is retired from faculty and administrative positions at Allegheny College, enjoys having more time to tend their home, and continues to consult occasionally in higher education.
They are delighted to embark on their ministry sharing the gifts of FCE as FCE leaders, and they hope to develop a vibrant FCE community in their region. They welcome support for that effort from the FCE community, particularly members in Western PA, Northeastern Ohio, and Western NY. | https://www.friendscoupleenrichment.org/blog/2022-06-welcome-rick-carol |
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30 minutes
per class
Once per week
over 10 weeks
5-8
year olds
2-3
learners per class
per learner - per class
How does a “Multi-Day” course work?
Meets multiple times at scheduled times
Live video chats, recorded and monitored for safety and quality
Discussions via classroom forum and private messages with the teacher
Great for engaging projects and interacting with diverse classmates from other states and countries
How Outschool Works
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You can request another time or scroll down to find more classes like this.
Description
Class Experience
This class is for students who have taken the Jammin’ On the Black Keys course. At this level, students should be able to identify high and low, piano finger numbers, groupings of two and three black keys. Basic music theory concepts such as a quarter note, quarter rest, half note, whole note, repeat sign, and dynamics markings (e.g. forte & piano). These skills are necessary for this class. In this 10-week course, we will move from playing on the black keys to playing on the white keys....
All about the teacher, Christine: "It's not just about creativity. It's about the person you're becoming while creating." This quote epitomizes my teaching philosophy concisely. My mission is to raise my students’ artistic confidence, grow their skills, and teach them to enjoy the art-making process while building integrity and good character. I started performing on stage at the age of four years old. I began formal private lessons in voice and acting at the age of 10 at The Newark School of the Arts and at The Children’s Theater Workshop in Essex County, New Jersey. As a young teen, I also began directing and leading the youth and adult choirs in church. As a result of my commitment to my craft, I had numerous opportunities to perform and record as an accomplished artist throughout the United States and abroad. As an international performer, my credits include touring throughout the country of China as a lead singer for the state of the arts Thai City Theater. Other recent credits include working as a lead production singer for the renowned cruise line, Carnival; sailing the Western and Eastern Caribbean islands performing Las Vegas-style production shows. I perform regularly for various commercial establishments and private venues. I studied Music and Theater at Montclair State University earning a BA degree along with a teaching license in performing arts. The overall goal of my teaching philosophy is to cultivate independent and critically thinking artists. I want to produce well-rounded individuals, instill a lifelong love of music and theater in every student, and create an effective performance medium in which students will grow not only musically, but also personally and professionally. Through these principles, I strive to become a key mentor in their educational journey.
30 minutes per week in class, and maybe some time outside of class.
Offered by
Sudbrink Performance Academy Music and Theatre
Performing Arts Education! Private voice lessons, group piano lessons, general music, and more.
🇺🇸Lives in the United States
49 total reviews
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About Us
Welcome! Home of the #SudKids! SPA has been a staple in our local community since 2015, offering a wide variety of performing arts classes, workshops, and quality stage productions. We are thrilled to now be on Outschool, where we can offer a... | https://outschool.com/classes/music-jammin-on-the-keyboard-101-jGAyOM7O |
About the Biology of Functions
by Jean Bokelmann, M.D.
The Biology of Functions is a set of indexes that are derived from some pretty standard blood work. Different components of the standard blood work are related to other components through a variety of mathematical formulas to come up with a large number of indexes. Unlike regular blood work that only tells us what is in your bloodstream at the time the blood was drawn, the indexes give us an idea of what is going on inside your body at the tissular, cellular and metabolic levels when you are at rest and when you are active. Examples of these indexes include free radical index, adrenal index, cortisol index, prolactin index, carcinogenesis index, amyloid index, insulin resistance index, thrombotic index, etc.
When Should I Get a Biology of Functions test?
- Mysterious Health Issues: Have you experienced health symptoms that have not been diagnosable through conventional medical means? Some common conditions that are often unsolved puzzles in conventional medicine include diffuse muscle pains, abdominal pain, chronic diarrhea, chronic fatigue, weight gain, irregular menstrual cycles, premenstrual complaints, headaches, joint pains, infertility, memory disturbance, chronic sinus conditions, digestive problems, and lack of sex drive. These conditions can be caused by a variety of underlying imbalances that cannot be identified through conventional blood tests.
- Cancer or pre-cancer: A number of physiological imbalances create a fertile ground for cancer growth. A Biology of Functions can give you an indication of imbalances that should be addressed to support your body’s ability to clear cancerous cells.
- Prevention: If you have a family history of degenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease, multiple sclerosis, cancer, or cardiovascular disease, a Biology of Functions can give you an idea of your predisposition to these problems and can help target imbalances that can be corrected to reduce your risk of developing these diseases.
- Known Medical Condition: If you have been diagnosed with a common medical condition such as hypertension or diabetes and would prefer to get to the underlying root of the problem instead of simply counteracting your body’s misbehavior with drugs, the biology of functions can direct you to the underlying cause so that your therapeutic treatment can be directed more specifically.
- General Wellness: If you are feeling well and want to stay that way throughout a long and happy life, the Biology of Functions will help identify minor imbalances before they express themselves through symptoms or disease. These minor imbalances can usually be corrected with lifestyle and dietary changes, with support from nutritional supplements and herbs when appropriate.
Does Insurance Pay for the Biology of Functions?
Usually the Biology of Functions is paid out of pocket. This is because the test is considered “alternative”. Insurance may cover the conventional lab tests that the Biology of Functions is based on, but often patients are left paying more by running it through insurance than paying the cash price for the testing. The cash price for the test is $300.00 when ordered in conjuction with a face-to-face clinic visit, or $350.00 for a remote evaluation. | https://eimcenter.com/biology-of-functions/ |
Last month we discussed three action items to minimize violations against your client’s due process rights. To close 2018, here are the remaining action items that empower you to solve the issue.
As soon as a court date is scheduled, notify the clerk’s office what kind of certified court interpreter is needed (for common languages or otherwise qualified for languages without certification available in SC).
I was scheduled to interpret for someone with a Spanish surname. That person spoke ASL. Money unwisely spent, time wasted, hearing continued.
Interpreters practice their profession; their schedule fills quickly. Download our interpreter request sheet, complete it, send to the clerk’s office, and follow up with a telephone call.
Become familiar with the Court’s Language Access Plan (LAP) (03/20/2015).
Court Administration was developing a new Case Management System to explore a mechanism for systemwide reporting of cases requiring an interpreter, the language required, and required interpreter appointments for future hearings. Three years and seven months have passed. Has the tracking mechanism been deployed? Is Court Administration still archaically tracking by payment disbursements to spoken and sign language interpreters?
According to SC census data before 2015, the prominent non-English languages spoken at home are Spanish, Asian languages, and others. Four years have passed. Is the SC census data still valid?
What happens if your hearing in Courtroom 2 is called, but the interpreter is in a plea in Courtroom 8? Respectfully request that the judge hold the matter until the interpreter finishes in Courtroom 8.
Allowing some building employee who can barely interpret and uses English terms is a violation of the LEP person’s due process rights. If you speak your client’s language and the interpreter does not provide an accurate rendition, it is your duty to inform the judge and object to the use of that interpreter.
If you read the LAP mentioned in number 5, you note there is no means for filing a state complaint. However, since the judiciary does receive federal funding, it must comply with federal law. The DOJ has sent letters in 2010 and 2016 to SC state court stakeholders. You see something’s not done for the last two to eight years? Say something to the Federal Coordination and Compliance Division of the DOJ.
no accountability measures to certify the court interpreter program complied with Title VI.
Tightened its oversight of language assistance delivery.
We look forward to the day when South Carolina Court Administration institutes a clear, detailed language access policy, annually trains judges and attorneys in language access requirements and procedures, keenly oversees language access services, instructs all courts in its unified system to post a multilingual “I speak” sheet at the entrance and the clerk’s office, and implement a language access complaint process. | https://alfonsointerpreting.com/six-action-items-you-can-do-to-limit-due-process-rights-violations-in-court-part-ii/ |
Transactional and transformational leadership Transactional The transactional leader: Toward this end, contingency theories of leadership such as those proposed by Fred FiedlerRobert House ;and Hersey and Blanchard ; focus on specific variables related to the environment that might determine which particular style of leadership is best suited for the situation.
Charisma Before moving on it is important to look at the question of charisma. In business organizations, these are not the requirements to be an effective leader.
As our awareness of our own place in the making of leadership grows, we may be less ready to hand our responsibilities to others.
Others turned to the ways in which leaders and followers viewed each other in various contexts — for example in the army, political parties and in companies.
Users without a subscription are not able to see the full content on this page. You are showing leadership if you influence them to change their approach to customers. Managers can "serve" the needs of subordinates, yes, as a way of motivating them, but this is managerial motivation, not leadership, not as defined here anyway.
For more information or to contact an Oxford Sales Representative click here. Transformational The transformational leader: The only point is that we need to be clear what leadership actually means. There may well come a point when the lie implicit in this confronts us.
Often, there is an in-group and an out-group. Leadership styles affect people in different ways, and they are an important thing to consider when developing your own skills as a business leader.
The reformulated theory specifies leader behaviours that enhance subordinate empowerment and satisfaction and work unit and subordinate effectiveness. Capable of exercising good judgment, strong analytical abilities, and conceptually skilled Knowledge of business: The four main styles that appear are: In summary, it may be that our feeling that there are servant leaders is due to our inability to separate leadership and management effectively.
There are variations across books, but most are more similar than dissimilar. Where do you want to go from here.
Model of Path-Goal Theory of Leadership House revised his theory in later years House, and presented a reformulated path-goal theory of work unit leadership. Excellent collection of key discussions of classical, traditional, modern and alternative forms of leadership.
An example would be in which a man and a woman were hired at the same time and with the same skills, but the woman isn't getting invited to the golf club, and the man is.
Servant leadership is a very popular leadership model. It was developed by Robert K. Greenleaf in The servant leader serves the people he/she leads, which implies that employees are an end in themselves rather than a means to. Leaders seek to influence the actions, beliefs and the feelings of others.
This is a complex process: effective leadership requires the leader’s qualities and skills to connect with people and their needs as well as the needs of the leadership situation.
This complexity is reflected in the evolution of leadership theory over the past 80 years. ) Academy of Management Executive, Vol. 5 No. 2 Leadership: do traits matter? Shelley A.
Kirkpatrick and Edwin A. Locke, University of Maryland. Larry Coutts, Ph.D. and Director, Research and Development at EPSI Inc.
shares with you the highlights of his findings on some of the numerous concepts and theories pertaining to leadership.
Theoretical Approaches to Leadership Interest in leadership increased during the early part of the twentieth century.
Early leadership theories focused on. Other models of trait leadership. Multiple models have been proposed to explain the relationship of traits to leader effectiveness. Recently, integrated trait leadership models were put forward by summarizing the historical findings and reconciling the conflict between traits and other factors such as situations in determining effective leadership.
Leadership can be defined as a process by which one individual influences others toward the attainment of group or organizational goals. Three points about the definition of leadership should be emphasized. First, leadership is a social influence process. | https://segaryxemom.michaelferrisjr.com/leadership-and-management-traits-and-theories-48360ys.html |
Mayfair Development is the construction of 8 houses on 2 former garage sites located immediately opposite each other on Mayfair Avenue, Radcliffe, Bury. The proposal is to provide 3 houses on 1 site and 5 on the other to be constructed using traditional construction methods on a Design & Build Contract using JCT Design & Build 2011. The properties are two storey in height with traditional pitched roofs and un-adopted entrances into each site. Bury Council require these to be built to a high standard to give options for affordable rent or shared ownership sales, a decision which was made post tender but prior to commencement on site. Contractors will be expected to build the sites out using sectional completion with an overall contract period of 36 weeks with the smaller sites having a 30 week contract. Subject to necessary approvals following the tender, it is hoped that the project will commence on site in early late Summer / early Autumn 2017. The project is to be assessed on a price/quality basis with 95% price and the remaining 5% based upon social value response to a set question. This is an important project for Bury Council as it is their first new build housing scheme of this nature for a number of years and Bury Council are excited about the delivery of this project.
Rachel Taylor
[email protected]
Town Hall
Knowsley Street
Bury
BL9 0SW
United Kingdom
+44 1612535744
http://www.bury.gov.uk/
Contract value:
Published: 25 May 2017, Receipt by: 23 Jun 2017
All suppliers that are registered with us receive email notifications of Public Sector tenders related to their area of business. | https://www.oscar-research.co.uk/tenderalerts/92657 |
Citizen Science Monitoring
The City of Fitchburg Parks and Forestry Department has created an initiative to better manage its parks and natural areas. Citizen science monitoring utilizes local residents to help gather a large amount of data in a short amount of time. Using this approach allows the department to gather data that otherwise might not be able to be collected due to time, geographic, or resource constraints. Classic citizen science involves using pencil and paper, which makes a large amount of paper and clutter. Advances in technology have allowed citizen science to move into the digital world and can now be done using a smartphone which is something most people commonly own.
How It Works
A variety of applications are available for citizen science monitoring including, E-Bird, iNaturalist, and GLEDN. These applications utilize the GPS in a smartphone to track sightings of certain items in nature, which the individual then records. Once the location is recorded the individual enters in information on their findings. This information is then submitted to the application to be used by local and national conservation science groups, as well as the City of Fitchburg. To learn more about how this process works, and how the applications function, click on one of the links below.
The Applications
Events
- Check out the article in April 2017's edition of the Fitchburg Star (Page 4)
"Local citizen scientists providing valuable information through apps"
- On April 10th 2017 the City of Fitchburg Forestry Department conducted a citizen science monitoring workshop and training event in conjunction with the Fitchburg Library and the Wisconsin First Detectors Network. The PowerPoints can be viewed below after the training date. | https://www.fitchburgwi.gov/2421/Citizen-Science |
Madrid, located at the very heart of the Iberian Peninsula, has been the capital of Spain since 1562. It's the second largest city in the European Union, with a population of 3.2 million in the city and 6.7 million in the metropolitan area.
Madrid is considered to be the major financial center of the Iberian Peninsula because of its economic output, high standard of living and huge market size. It hosts the head offices of the majority of Spain's companies. It's also home to three of the world's largest companies' headquarters: Telefónica, Repsol-YPF and Banco Santander. In addition to the banking and industrial sectors, Madrid is home to textile, food and metal-work factories that are clustered along the southern fringe of the city.
Not only is the city a business center but also headquarters of the Spanish Government and home to Spain's Royal Family. Its Adolfo Suárez Madrid-Barajas International Airport, Europe's sixth busiest airport, connects the city to the world.
SLU-Madrid is located amidst other universities, private homes and religious houses in Madrid's Chamberí District.
Cell Phones
We imagine that you would be interested in obtaining local cell phone accessibility. However, because students visiting Spain are non-residents, you can run into limitations when trying to contract cell phone services. The following is a summary of what is available and will give you an idea of what you can get depending on your individual needs and situations. This is general information. Saint Louis University — Madrid Campus is not related nor has any interests in any of the providers listed in this document.
For students who arrive with unlocked cellular phones from their own country, you can purchase a Spanish SIM card for your phone. Proceed to any of the companies that are listed below and request a SIM card, or you may prefer to purchase a Spanish phone, here are some tips:
How do I purchase a pre-paid phone or SIM card?
You can purchase a phone or SIM card at Spain's main department store, El Corte Inglés, where various phone operators like Movistar, Vodafone or Orange market phones and calls and data packages.
Please note that you will need a copy of your passport, as well as the original in order to purchase a SIM card or a phone with calls and data services. You will find these three operators within the department stores cellular phone section, and they will all have various call and data packages on sale.
How do I recharge my phone with money?
If you have a prepaid SIM or phone, when you run out of money (or "saldo") on your phone, you can recharge it at most through ATM machines.
How do I purchase a phone with a long-term contract?
You can sign up for a phone with a yearly contract at El Corte Inglés with the same companies mentioned above. You will need to provide the same documentation, and in addition, you must have a Spanish bank account to pay monthly bills — not recommended for students without a Spanish residence card (TIE). Please note that some contracts require a commitment of a designated number of months. This is called "permanencia." If you break your contract before this minimum time is up, you maybe be required to pay an extra fee.
How much does it cost to use a cell phone?
Rates vary between operators, so be sure to ask for the rates prior to your purchase. It is quite expensive to make international calls from a cell phone, in some cases costing over a euro a minute.
Using your personal phone
Contact your U.S. provider to get it unlocked if it's not already, so it can be used with other SIM cards or ask for an international calling package. Find out if using your smartphone with other SIM cards may affect your apps, contacts or other settings on the phone, such as iMessaging, Whatsapp etc. If these apps will work the same regardless of what kind of SIM you use in your phone, we would recommend this option. If you are thinking about just using your U.S. mobile service while abroad, consider you will pay high roaming rates to your U.S. provider, may have connectivity issues and you'll still have to dial internationally when texting and calling locally. It's not practical to use your U.S. number while in Spain in case of an emergency.
Communication With Family Members
SLU-Madrid will only contact a student's parent, legal guardian or home institution if a SLU-Madrid registered student:
- seriously violates SLU-Madrid's Student Responsibility and Community Standards;
- is incapacitated and has been hospitalized due to illness or injury;
- has a serious mental health concern and is deemed a harm to themselves or others in the community, or their condition prevents them from continuing to act as a university student (included but not limited to going to class, submitting papers, taking exams, etc.).
In most other instances, SLU-Madrid staff will communicate directly with the student in question and will not share information due to strict Spanish and European privacy laws, as well as several U.S. federal laws, including FERPA and HIPAA.
Connecting with Your Loved Ones
Being abroad can make it more difficult for you and your family to stay in touch. Challenges include the time difference, academic excursions, personal travel, roaming costs and unreliable WiFi access. However, emergency situations can take place anywhere, anytime. Here are tips for staying connected with your loved ones while you are abroad:
- Purchase a phone and data plan that will enable you to be in touch anytime and anywhere. Do not rely only on WiFi access. You'll find that there are plenty of options; roaming costs should never be a reason not to stay in touch with your family.
- Develop a communication plan. Schedule regular times to talk to your family. Always contact home if you are located in a city where there has been any kind of emergency or crisis. People worry about you when you're away.
- Use your phone to talk, chat using message applications like WhatsApp and stay connected through social media. Follow along with others, both abroad and at home, and share your experiences through social media channels, such as Facebook, Instagram and SnapChat.
The Madrid Metro (Metro de Madrid) serves the city of Madrid and is the seventh longest metro in the world. Students are encouraged to apply for a transport card online. The application is in Spanish, but SLU-Madrid has English instructions available.
Students are strongly encouraged to bring everything they may need along with them to avoid customs fees, taxes, deposit fees and any other charges.
We strongly discourage students from having packages sent over unless it is absolutely necessary. Upon arrival in Spain, all packages will be assessed customs fees, which can be very expensive. They will also require you to provide a Spanish tax number on the documentation you will need to present. Most students do not have a Spanish tax number and Spaniards will be very reluctant to provide this information as a personal favor.
When it's absolutely necessary to get something, you have two options:
- Purchase whatever you need in Spain. It's easier, quicker and eventually cheaper.
- Receive a package, and depending on its content you may face custom charges plus 21 percent value added taxes and other fees. You will need a Spanish tax number and it can be difficult to find a Spaniard willing to let you use this number.
Students living with host families arranged by the University should have all mail sent to the University. Packages and mail requiring a signature can be sent to:
[Student Name]
Saint Louis University ― Madrid Campus
Avenida del Valle, 34
28003 Madrid, Spain
Students who do not live with a host family arranged by the University should have all mail sent to their local address, not a University address.
Do not ship medications as they will not clear customs.
Ask your doctor to email Dr. Ruben Borrás, an English-speaking doctor that many students see, who will be able to prescribe something similar.
Dr. Borrás will guide you through the process of ensuring you have your required medications. Contact him at [email protected] or at 91 575 98 34.
Only students who plan to receive money through check or wire transfer must open a bank account. Students are not obligated to open an account, and Spanish legislation makes doing so time-consuming. Study abroad students are encouraged to use an ATM card or credit card to access funds in their home country.
You may open an account with your passport; however, after three months in Spain you will need to present your Spanish residency card (Tarjeta de Identidad de Extranjería or TIE), or your bank account will be closed.
To withdraw money from your Spanish account, you can write a personal check and cash it at any branch of your bank. You must present official documentation (such as a passport) in order to cash any check. A photocopy of your passport is not valid identification.
In Spain, personal checks are only used to access bank funds. To make purchases in stores, use cash or credit card.
The best way for people to send money to your bank account is through a bank draft made out to you in euros. The transfer will usually take a few days, depending on your home bank's connections with your bank in Spain.
Checks in foreign currency are usually accepted, but take longer to clear.
The University works with Banco Santander, which is located close to campus. They are located at Paseo de San Francisco de Sales, 35 and you can call them at 91 533 32 01. You should indicate you are a SLU-Madrid student.
The following sites and resources can help you calculate your living expenses and cost of living:
- Prices in Madrid: Features average prices of restaurants, transportation, utilities, groceries and rent in Madrid. Various interesting economic indices are calculated for Madrid.
- Updated Prices: A list of prices in Madrid for food, housing, transportation, going out and more. Compare the cost of living in Madrid with other cities.
- What Lifestyle Can I Afford?: Compare your monthly budget to these estimations and get an idea of the lifestyle you can afford in Madrid, including all living expenses.
- Rental Prices for Apartments: Find Information on the monthly rent for apartments.
- Expat Arrivals: This site is filled with information for people moving to Madrid, Spain.
- Seriously Spain: Find information on what to do, where to eat and shop and how much it costs.
Madrid has so much to offer, you could easily fill up all of your free time visiting museums, monuments, parks, theatres and hidden corners.
Attractions:
- Biblioteca Nacional
- Casa de América
- Cines Verdi
- Círculo de Bellas Artes
- Conde Duque
- El Rastro
- Jardín Botánico
- Los Jerónimos
- Madrid Río
- Mercado de San Miguel
- Parque del Buen Retiro
- Templo de Debod
Museums:
- Museo de las Artes Decorativas
- Museo Arqueológico Nacional
- Museo de Cera Madrid
- Museo de Ciencias Naturales
- Museo Naval de Madrid
- Museo del Prado
- Museo Reina Sofía
- Museo Sorolla
- Museo Thyssen-Bornemisza
- Museo del Traje | CIPE
Theatres:
Saint Louis University ― Madrid does not assume any responsibility for the activities of the organizations and individuals contained herein. | https://www.slu.edu/madrid/campus-life/living-in-madrid/ |
Lesson:
Number of Problems:
Pages:
Answer Key:
Samples:
Tutor-USA.com Worksheet
Applications on Exponential Functions
A. Find the compound amount at the end of 10 years on an original principal of $200 at 4%
1) compounded annually
2) compounded semi-annually
3) compounded quarterly
4) compounded continuously
B. What time is required to double a certain amount
1) compounded annually at 6%
2) compounded continuously at 6%
C. There are originally 1 000 bacteria in a culture, and 4 hours later there are 4 000. Find the rate of increase per hour of the bacteria.
D. In a certain chemical reaction, the original concentration of 0.03 is reduced to 0.01 in 4 minutes
1) What is the rate of decrease in concentration per minute?
2) What will be the concentration be in 10 minutes?
Download Worksheet
All Worksheets © Tutor-USA. All Rights Reserved. | http://tutor-usa.com/free/trigonometry/worksheet/exponential-functions-applications-compound-interest-growth-and-decay |
Who doesn’t love pizza?? I know it’s a favorite around my house, and I love when I see different takes or ideas for pizza. I guess that’s why I was drawn to this recipe when I first saw it. The name caught me, first. Potato Pizza Pie. I thought it was just going to be topped with potatoes, which I was totally down for trying. But then I saw that this is definitely not your typical pizza – the “crust” is actually made out of potatoes instead of a pizza dough!
I only had 1 complaint with this recipe – and it’s one that I find that I run into quite often with recipes. The recipe calls for “6 large white potatoes”. What exactly does that mean? I took it to mean 6 large white potatoes – like Idaho potatoes, or baking potatoes. And I was completely wrong. I was only making a half batch, and after I grated 3 large potatoes, I knew something was wrong. That is a lot of grated potato!! In fact, it filled a 9×13 pan quite thickly – and the full recipe is only supposed to fill an 8×8 pan!! So, needless to say, I don’t really like it when recipes just use “large” or “small” as a guide for an ingredient. It’s too open to interpretation!! (And for the recipe below, I just changed the “large” to “small” – I wish I knew exactly how many cups of grated potatoes you actually need…)
But despite the little hiccup with the potatoes, this was actually quite delicious! I added pepperoni to our pizza, which is an added expense if you are trying to make this for under $5. But it was a delicious expense! I’ll admit that it didn’t really taste like pizza, but it was still a great dinner idea. But if you are on a gluten-free diet, this could totally be adapted to fit your diet, and it just might help to cure a pizza craving!!
Potato Pizza Pie
slightly adapted from The $5 Dinner Mom Cookbook
serves 4
total time: about 1 hour
6 small white potatoes
2 eggs
1 tablespoon flour
1 cup pizza sauce
2 cups shredded mozzarella cheese
desired toppings (I used pepperoni)
Preheat the oven to 350F.
Peel the potatoes and slice into quarters. Grate the potatoes in a food processor using the grating blade.
In a bowl, beat the eggs slightly. Add in the grated potatoes. Mix in the flour and season with salt and pepper.
Spread the mixture into the bottom of an 8×8 inch baking dish. Bake for 30 minutes in the preheated oven, or until the potatoes are golden on top.
Remove the “potato crust” from the oven and spread the pizza sauce over the top. Sprinkle with the shredded cheese. Top with additional toppings, if desired.
Return the pizza to the oven and cook for 15 minutes, or until the cheese is melted. Cut the potato pizza into squares for serving. | https://www.tasteandtellblog.com/cookbook-of-the-month-recipe-potato-pizza-pie/ |
SG | Modern Slavery: Bittersweet Slavery?
What do we know about the human impact of the production processes keeping us online and clothed?
Tea and cocoa. Where do practices within the supply chains of both industries figure on the scale ranging from slavery to extreme exploitation? How do such qualifications influence attempts to improve social justice?
Karin Astrid Siegmann unravels hierarchies of post-coloniality, class, gender and power while discussing poverty and risk in the highly regulated tea industry. Tea is the second most popular beverage after water. What price do labourers pay for the world’s second most popular beverage known as the ‘cheap drink’? Based on a recent study of tea plantation workers’ conditions in Sri Lanka and India, dr. Siegmann will explore links between the price of tea and its conditions of cultivation and production. Does the governance of tea plantation labour constitute a form of ‘modern slavery’ and what can be done to improve tea plantation workers’ conditions?
Antonie Fountain melts myths about slave-free chocolate. Despite programmes in the cocoa sector to tackle injustices, why has there been little progress on the ground? He examines various actors’ roles while revealing dilemmas surrounding transparency & accountability, market volatility and historical practices of child labour amid the root causes of dubious labour practices.
About Karin Astrid Siegmann
Holding a PhD in Agricultural Economics, Karin Astrid Siegmann works as a Senior Lecturer in Labour and Gender Economics at the International Institute of Social Studies (ISS) of Erasmus University Rotterdam in The Hague, the Netherlands. She is keen to understand how workers challenge and change the social, economic and political structures that marginalize labour. Her focus is on the intersection of global economic processes with local labour markets, stratified by varying degrees of formality of work, as well as gender and other social identities. She has investigated these dynamics in the context of global production networks, global care chains and international migration more generally. The geographical focus of her work has been South Asia, Pakistan in particular. During the past two years, she has coordinated a study on the impact of fair trade certification on tea plantation workers’ working and living conditions in India and Sri Lanka.
About Antonie Fountain
Antonie Fountain (1978) is one of the key spokespersons for civil society in cocoa sector, and has been actively advocating sustainable cocoa production for more than a decade. He is co-founder and Managing Director of the VOICE Network, an umbrella organisation for civil society organisations working in sustainable cocoa, focusing on research and advocacy. Previously, he was founder and national Director of Stop The Traffik Netherlands, policy advisor of Stop The Traffik’s global campaign against trafficking in the cocoa sector, and coordinator of the 10 Campaign, a global cooperation of NGO's and trade unions calling for legislation and enforcement to end human trafficking and the worst forms of child labour in West Africa's cocoa sector. | https://www.wur.nl/nl/activiteit/SG-Modern-Slavery-Bittersweet-Slavery-.htm |
The root chakra is the basis for nurturing self-esteem, stability, security, a sense of belonging, and integrity. It is located at the bottom of the spine below the tailbone. It comprises the bladder, colon, and the three vertebrae and forms the foundation for all the other chakras above. It can be viewed as a start point for balance development or creation and maintenance.
It is referred to as “Muladhara”. Muladhara is a Sanskrit word that breaks down into “Mula”, which means ‘‘root”, and “adhara”, which means “base’ or “ support”. Seven major chakras are aligned along the spine, originating from the spine’s base to the head’s crown. These spheres extend through and beyond the body’s front, back and sides but run along the spine.
Chakras are whirlpools of energy not seen by the naked eye but can be sensed and seen by intuition providing hidden healing energy(prana). Prana is informative and influences our behaviours and actions to determine our lifestyles- health, relationships, careers, and others. The Root Chakra provides a firm base for the other chakras and comprises anything that grounds us into achieving life stability with an encompass of basic needs- food, water, shelter, and safety and emotional needs.
It is the most instinctual of all the other chakras. It determines our fight or flight responses and is the foundation of our life’s energy and a link between our internal energy systems and the outside world. The Root Chakra is believed to connect with the kundalini- an energy force that can awaken and move up the spine to the other Chakra. The Root Chakra is vital for governing the quality of our physical presence and helping our bodies feel alive.
Chakras hold the energies of thoughts, memories, sentiments, experiences and conduct and impact and offer direction to our present and future mindsets, actions and emotional health.
Each chakra has nerves and holds major body organs. They are responsible for our emotional, psychological and spiritual states. Psychologically, the root chakra gives us a feeling of having an earth basis, and this helps us attain a sense of security to allow us to lead a life propelled with positivity and optimism.
Root Chakra Imbalance
The energies of the root chakra must remain balanced and controlled. Any imbalance, stagnation, or blockage in the root chakra compromises our sense of belonging and purpose. An imbalance may result in fears, suicidal thoughts, anxiety disorders, physical imbalances, depression, eating disorders and even nightmares.
Physical imbalances may be evident and show as colon distress, bladder elimination issues, cramping, inflammation, problems of the lower back, prostate challenges in men, feet and leg issues. A severely blocked root chakra can also manifest as eating disorders- anorexia nervosa, binge eating disorder, and bulimia nervosa. These result from the inability to relate to the need for body nourishment.
Root Chakra Healing
The root chakra needs to remain open, fluid and aligned just like body organs. Any blockage will restrict energy flow and cause some form of stagnation. The mind, body, spirit and soul are connected and inseparable. An imbalance in either disorients another, but the meditation of the Chakra helps restore the balance.
Healing of the Chakra is the deliberate practice of connecting the energy we store to understand how our past influences our present and future. Healing of the root chakra makes us feel secure with our choices and can help us set and work towards goal achievement. This healing helps us to rekindle our enthusiasm for life. Resourcefulness and courage to adverse situations are geared by a healthy energy flow in the root chakra.
Opening and alignment of a blocked chakra for its healing can be attained through;
- Physical exercises- Consider doing exercises that especially target the pelvic and the lower back. Any physical activities, whether big or small, will ultimately support the root Chakra healing. Moving the legs and feet is particularly effective. Kegel exercises strengthen the pelvic area as they encourage bracing and holding of the often-tight area. These exercises make the pelvis supporting muscles attentive, increasing pelvis stability and creating a safe surrounding for spinal movement. Ultimately the strength of the back and the abdomen is improved.
- Deep breathing exercises – These will help restore the alignment of the Root Chakra as breath is the bridge between the body and mind.
- Visualization- It is a grounding exercise that can help realign the root Chakra. For example, imagining bright red roots linking the body to the earth.
- Meditation- Just like the spiritual connection with a higher power gives one a feeling of safety and trust; meditation effectively balances the Muladhara. Meditation makes one trust that they will be provided with what is necessary to keep them safe. The root chakra corresponds to smell, and meditation requires focusing on the nose tip. It will help in root alignment and bring about attributes needed to attain root chakra balance. Meditation is a foundational solution for attaining balance in life. It is a naturally calming and restoring tool that creates core steadiness. Finding the right practice and keeping it going will awaken and harmonize your energies to achieve relaxation.
- Mantras, chanting and toning sounds- Mantras are short sounds, words or spoken phrases used for meditation purposes. They are repetitively uttered to keep the body and mind focused. To chant the mantra, use your normal voice and not a high or low pitch. Sounds will build up body vibrations, and these vibrations help in cell function synchronization. LAM is considered to be the mantra sound that conforms with the root chakra. Particular sound frequencies are associated with each Chakra. Crystal singing bowls with a C frequency resonate excellently with the Root Chakra.
- Gemstone healing- Placing gemstones on the chakra area (base of the spine) while lying down or wearing the stones helps align the root chakra.
- Affirmations- Words of affirmation such as “I am grounded and feel safe” will help set intentions for an even more balanced root Chakra, reveal areas that need improvements or work and strengthen the Chakra’s existing alignment.
- The use of essential oils and aromatherapy- These play a major role in aligning the root Chakra as earthy scents such as cedarwood and frankincense are used to bring back root Chakra balance.
- Bandha Yoga– It works by locking or tightening certain body areas to bring powerful energy and strengthen the first chakra area. It is effective for both men and women.
- Colors– Certain colors are linked to certain feelings and emotions. Colors such as red, orange and yellow reflect lower chakras. They tend to generate warm feelings such as safety, security, and coziness and release anxiety and stress. Working with a specific chakra color can help one draw the energy and frequency given by the color. Red is the main color associated with the root chakra.
- Yoga and yoga asanas- Regular yoga practice aims at unlocking the root Chakra for prana energy to move freely. Yoga poses that aid in balancing the root Chakra will include asanas that promote grounding and stability through the legs. They help connect earth energies with the feet corners and send those energies upwards to nourish the body as a whole. Yoga asanas are body poses that work to lubricate body muscles, ligaments, and joints to increase circulation, improve flexibility, and better enhance overall internal body health.
Root Chakra Yoga Poses
Pavanamuktasana
It is a knee-to-chest pose. It helps alleviate gas trapped within the digestive system and helps stretch the hip and lower back. It is also referred to as the Wind Relieving pose or The gas releasing pose.
To achieve the pose, lay in a supine position with the legs extended in front and arms laying alongside the body. Hug the knees towards the chest while clasping your hands around their front. Extend the left leg back to the ground while clasping the front of the right knee with your hands. For those with tight hamstrings or hips, the left knee can be bent, and the sole brought to the earth. For neck lengthening, tuck in your chin and keep the head and back flat on the ground while drawing the shoulders away from the ears. Keep hugging the knee such that you seem to be trying to let it touch the left shoulder. Release the pose and rest the arms along the body and repeat with the alternate sides.
Precautions
- It should not be performed on a full stomach.
- It should not be performed just after abdominal area surgery.
- Do not perform if you have a spine injury.
- Avoid if pregnant.
- Proper inhaling and exhaling make it more effective.
- For good results, practise his pose 2-3 times daily.
Janu Sirsansana
It is a head-to-knee pose. The pose is achieved by firstly sitting with the legs extended in the front. The right leg knee then bends such that the right foot is placed against the inner thigh of the left leg with the right heel close to one’s perineum just below one’s public bone. The right knee should be swung from the left foot such that an angle preferably of 135 degrees is attained.
A forward fold is then done over the left leg from the crease of the left hip. The first reach should be made with the right hand and the left foot held from the inside. The left foot should be held from the outside with the left hand. To move deeper into the fold, hold the right wrist with the left hand. The elbows should bend away from each other, and the forehead should then be rested on the shin, breathing deeply.
Benefits
- It helps improve digestion.
- It is effective for liver and kidney stimulation.
- It helps stretch the spine, hamstrings, shoulders, and groins.
- It helps calm the brain relieving mild depression.
- It relieves anxiety, headaches, and menstrual discomforts.
- It is a therapy for high blood pressure and insomnia.
- It helps strengthen back muscles keeping the front torso long and the spine concave.
Precautions
- Do not rush or force yourself into attaining the position.
- Avoid practice if you suffer from a hernia, a slipped disc or sciatica.
- It should not be practised when pregnant.
- Shoulder and neck injury can make it difficult to perform.
- Avoid practising if asthmatic or suffering from diarrhoea.
Padmasana
It is referred to as the lotus flexion pose. It is achieved from a sitting position whereby the legs are crossed, and the feet rest on opposite thighs. The back remains straight, and the arms rest on the knees. The pose encourages proper breathing, grounding the individual to create physical stability. It helps connect the body, mind, and spirit. It effectively fosters physical activity and stability with a good breathing design. It represents the lotus flower which is a symbol of aspects such as enlightenment, rebirth, spiritual wealth, and beauty. It is a very calming pose and is commonly used in meditation. Deities have been shown to sit in this pose. Once comfortable with this pose, modifications can be done.
Benefits
- It opens and releases any tension that may be stored in the hips.
- It stretches the spine, thereby improving posture.
- It eases menstrual symptoms such as bloating, cramps and uneasiness.
- It helps ease childbirth when done during pregnancy.
- It helps calm one’s thoughts, rejuvenating the body for meditation.
- The extension attained during the pose stretches the knees and ankles and improves their motion range.
- It stimulates the lymphatic system boosting immunity.
Precautions
- Avoid practising this asana if you have a recent knee, ankle or hip injury.
- Do not force the achievement of this pose, especially if pain is experienced on the hips, knees or ankles.
- Practice the pose within your body’s ability and limits.
Malasana
It is a squatting pose. It is also referred to as the Garland pose. To achieve the pose, begin by assuming a squat position and bring your feet as close as possible together, keeping them parallel. Keep your heels on the floor if you can, and if not, support them with a rolled mat or a folded blanket. Move thighs slightly wider than the torso and lean forward as you exhale such that the torso fits closely between the thighs. Press the elbows against the inner knees to create resistance and bring the palms of your hand in prayer at the chest centre to help lengthen the torso. Your bodyweight should be kept forward.
Benefits
- It opens the groin and hips.
- It tones the abdominal.
- It helps foster digestion.
- It helps strengthen the metabolism.
- It is recommended for prenatal yoga.
- It helps keep the hip joints and pelvic health.
- It stretches the back, hamstrings and ankles.
Precautions
- Avoid if you have a lower back or knee injury.
- Do not push your squat deeper than your body can allow.
- Back out of the pose if you feel any pain.
- Do not come into the squat position forcefully.
Root Chakra Stones
Root chakra stones can be placed on the chakra area when lying down to assist in its opening and alignment. Generally, red stones and crystals are closely connected with the Root Chakra. Stones and crystals that are black are also thought to provide Root Chakra protection and stability. Stone or crystal healing for the Root Chakra can be the placement of the stones on the lower back, placing them in pockets, placing them around your environment or even wearing them as jewellery.
Garnet
It is referred to as the Stone of Ultimate Health and will provide you with the emotional stability and satisfaction of the need to belong. It can synchronize energies within the body and allow their free flow. It is perceived as a stone that can heal any emotional relationship rifts. The energies derived from the Garnet are associated with vigour, success, security, strength, vitality and endurance.
It is believed to possess healing properties – a healthy reproductive system for men, and a hormonal balance for women. It has been long believed to be a cure for spinal disorders. It is said to inspire honesty and contemplation. It is an ancient friendship symbol. The stone possesses psychic properties that help release feelings of worry, fear, and anxiety. It will strengthen courage, trust and hope while promoting self-confidence. The Garnet is an inspiration for love and devotion. It lessens emotional disharmony by aiding one to let go of useless and non-beneficial ideas. It strengthens instincts for survival during a crisis or when experiencing stressful situations.
Red jasper
It is referred to as the Stone of Endurance and Nurturing. It holds a deep red color- the main color associated with the Root Chakra. It is heavy and has high iron levels that make it a grounding force. It is considered a very protective stone against threats, keeps the body in a state of detox, and keeps the blood circulation system strong. It builds up sexual interest and stirs stimulation for courage, passion and a healthy attitude.
Red jasper welcomes focus and strength, especially during stressful times. To come out of life’s chaotic times, the red jasper can be used to achieve divine healing. Anchored to the roots, it tethers one to the earth giving strength to stand strong, renew and revitalize the soul. It can spark self-confidence by boosting emotional stability. It has strong protective qualities as it is connected to the base chakras. It will stir up and boost the life force by eliminating stagnant energy in our bodies. It is the Gemstone for lighting our inner power.
Black Tourmaline
This Gemstone has been used for protection and as a shield against destructive forces and deflects against negative energies. It provides a firm, cleansed and grounded root Chakra by creating a connection between the spiritual world and the earth. It is mostly used to cleanse the aura and can help one achieve higher awareness levels. Emotionally, the stone will help dispel fears and any obsessions to bring emotional stability.
It breeds a positive attitude, happiness and luck even in unfavorable circumstances. It is a metaphysical field of force that helps stop negativity that may erupt from the effects of people’s bad thoughts on you. It protects against ill-health and is perceived to strengthen immunity as it can keep diseases at bay through the energy it exerts on body organs. It is ideal for treating colon and bowel issues such as constipation. It is believed to be a protector against life misfortunes.
Bloodstone
It is referred to as the stone of Courage and Bravery and is a powerful healer and cleanser that heightens intuition for creativity. It combines aspects of strength, growth, and fearlessness and provides a barrier against threats and negativity. The stone enlivens resilience and a recognition of the benefits of undergoing a tough or difficult time. It helps keep you in the moment fully. It has healing properties that make it effective for emotional wound healing and works effectively to stabilize moods. It improves the innate power within to quiet a preoccupied mind and refocus one’s energy on wound repair and renewal and stimulates the root Chakra to rid us of sluggishness.
Bloodstone meaning is known for its strong ability to move energies and provide an urge for motivation. It inspires idealism and qualities of selflessness. It will ground one to the life-giving properties of the earth by helping one act in the current situation or present moment. Bloodstone helps calm the mind, disperse confusion and improve decision making. It works to purify and fortify the blood, making it effective for anaemia and blood-related cancers such as leukaemia. Bloodstone aids in the bladder, liver, intestines, spleen, and kidney detoxification.
Final Words
Evidently, the Root Chakra is a strong and steadying force that allows us to attain success in life. Almost everything that happens within our existence comes back to the sense of balance and self-preservation that we possess. The root Chakra bases all this, and its well-being should not be overlooked. We must keep the root Chakra in good shape to attain that feeling of being grounded to achieve the best possible renditions of ourselves. | https://www.gemstonist.com/root-chakra/ |
Aging is associated with a loss of brain neurotransmitter function which apparently is the substrate for a diverse constellation of age-associated symptoms. Systemic administration of GM1 ganglioside, a normal constituent of the membranes of the brain, enhances cholinergic neurochemical and morphological markers in the brain of aged (22-24 month old) rats. We now provide evidence that GM1, also, improves the neurochemistry and morphology of dopaminergic neurons in the aged brain. The improvement of cholinergic and dopaminergic neuronal activity is accompanied by enhanced cognitive and motor performance. GM 1-induced recovery of function in aged animals is long-lasting, as both neurochemical and behavioral enhancement is maintained for 15 days after the discontinuation of GM1 treatment. In many aspects, the trophic actions of the GM1 in various systems resemble those of the neurotrophins. Based on these observations, we speculated that GM1 might exert its trophic effects, in part, by interacting with the neurotrophins. Recently, this notion has been supported by observations that NGF and GM1 display pharmacological synergism, and that in cell lines GM1 induces tyrosine phosphorylation of the NGF receptor TrkA. We provide evidence that GM1 is capable of inducing Trk tyrosine phosphorylation in brain tissues in situ and in vivo. Interestingly, GM1 tyrosine phosphorylation of Trk is maintained in aged animals. Our general goals are: (1) to continue exploring the consequences of administering GM1 on brain neuronal neurochemistry, morphology and behavior in aged animals; and (2) to investigate the molecular mechanism(s) of the GM1 neurotrophic action. In this regard, dopaminergic and serotonergic neurons of aged brain will be studied, as they are important contributors for the pathogenesis of age-associated motor, cognitive and mental disorders. The interaction of GM1 with other neurotrophins, BDNF and NT-3, will be investigated, and, the role of GM1 for Trk neurotrophin receptor tyrosine phosphorylation and signaling pathways will be explored. Understanding the mechanism(s) underlying the neurotrophic actions of GM1 in vivo will validate the utility of the ganglioside as a putative therapeutic modality for treating/preventing age-associated symptomatology. GM1 has major therapeutic advantages over the peptide neurotrophic factors; it can be administered systemically and its action is long-lasting. More importantly, GM1 can serve as a model molecule for the synthesis of neurotrophic drugs with better bioavailability and efficacy, and with limited side effects.
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INTRODUCTION {#sec1-1}
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Research is among the basic and major fundamental processes in developed societies. Noscientific or logical movements seem to be possible without the support of researches. In fact, research is the most important driving force of society in the path of progress and development and one of the most important indicators of development.\[[@ref1][@ref2]\] Thus, given that research is among the major services of the faculties, the evaluation of researches is an essential and important aspect for the awareness of quality and improvement of research programs. The resulting data can be used in decision-making, determining strategies, and growth and development of research systems in the universities. On the other hand, the main core in any higher education system is the learner (student). All the efforts of various departments of the university are used to understand the questions and needs of students and to create appropriate changes in their behaviors and practices. Performing a research project as a thesis is an especial course which all of the students at the doctoral level are required to do, in Iran. Therefore, one can claim that a thesis is the most important and systematic step in research dimension that the students will be familiar with it.\[[@ref3][@ref4]\] This process ends with the guidance of the students masters as supervisors and consultants.\[[@ref5]\] Theses play an important role in educating students in the field of research and finally in the production of science. Many of the surveyed, descriptive, and experimental researches that are performed by students will be the start of a series of more detailed and fundamental studies. Articles have been written based on theses, which are regularly presented in developed countries, indicate their importance.\[[@ref6]\] It seems that the success in the thesis conduction process is totally dependent on factors such as, the quality of scientific resources, organizational cooperation, access to skilled supervisors, and an appropriate enforcement process.\[[@ref7]\] Raadafshar and colleagues, in reviewing the students' perspectives about thesis course, in the Gilan University of Medical Sciences, showed that only 17% of the students were satisfied with the thesis procedure.\[[@ref8]\] Siemens and colleagues showed in their study that the most important obstacles to participate in research projects from the point of view of medical students in the three faculties in Canada, have been included, time, access to supervisor, teaching research methodology, and lack of receiving proper feed back for their efforts.\[[@ref9]\] In another study, it has been expressed that supervisors have the maximum guidance in the early stages of research, such as guidance for choosing the topic and the initial planing, and also in the final stages of preparing a thesis, such as, the thesis report preparation. The results have shown that there is no significant difference between the quality of supervisors' guidance in terms of faculties and academic ranking.\[[@ref10]\] James Cook University, Australia, in its report about the student satisfaction from thesis supervision has shown that 67% of the students was satisfied with theses supervision in 2007, which in comparison with 2006, has shown a reduction of 12.8%.\[[@ref11]\] Universities due to their involvement in multiple issues have less opportunity for assessment of students perception about quality of their education Most of these efforts are faced with lack of direction.\[[@ref12]\] In the Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, in recent years, special attention has been paid to the supervision, monitoring, and a more accurate evaluation of theses. However, so far, there has not been a structured survey in the field of students' attitudes and evaluation of their perception with regard to the thesis conduction process. Besides, understanding the students' points of view, as a main asset of each educational institution, thinking about their experiences and desires are other important factors that cannot be ignored. The obtained information can provide a clear and underlying objective to solve many observed problems in the universities. The results can demonstrate some of the problems, weak points, and of course, the strong points in higher education and necessary changes in the current programs. Considering that the thesis is typically the last connection that the students have with the university, there is no more time for the students to express their opinion regarding the shortcomings of this process during their education. Therefore, the present study has been designed to investigate the rate of satisfaction of the dental students' in the Isfahan University of Medical Sciences in different domains of passing the thesis course after graduating.
MATERIALS AND METHODS {#sec1-2}
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This research was a cross-sectional study that was carried out in 2011--2012 in the Dental School of Isfahan University of Medical Sciences. The participants comprised of all the 63 students, who according to the report of Department of Education, had graduated this year. Sampling was performed by using the census method. The data collection tool was the Postgraduate Research Experience Questionnaire (PREQ). It was extracted from a scientific questionnaire, which was used in an Australian study.\[[@ref13]\] Reliability and validity of the Persian version of questionnaire had been approved in the study of Dehghani.\[[@ref14]\] As the main questions were designed for PhD graduate students, limited changes were made to optimize it ford ental students. Finally, for assessing the content validity, the questionnaire was given to three professors and two experts from the Educational development center. The necessary reforms were carried out after applying their opinions. For the face validity, the questionnaires were given to ten students. Their points of view were considered and they were applied. A pilot study was used for the reliability assessment of the questionnaire by calculating the Cronbach\'s alpha coefficient of 0.81, which was a good indicator for the appropriate reliability of the questionnaire. The questionnaire was of a regular type, including 25 Likert-type questions and was consisted of two parts. The first part included questions regarding the students' gender and their experience in conducting researches. The second part included questions that were related to measuring student satisfaction. Perspectives of the studied subjects were measured with a five-point Likert scale and the scores were: One for 'totally disagree' and five for 'strongly agree'. The overall satisfaction score, according to this questionnaire was in the range of 24 to 120 and was divided into four levels (low satisfaction from 24 to 48, moderate satisfaction from 49 to 72, satisfied from 73 to 96, and great satisfaction from 97 to 120). This questionnaire investigated the students' satisfaction in six areas, including thesis supervision and monitoring (six questions with a score ranging from 6 to 30), intellectual atmosphere in the faculty (two questions with a score ranging from 2 to 10), improvement of research skills (five questions with a score ranging from 5 to 25), access to equipment and infrastructure for the research (five questions with a score ranging from 5 to 25), area of the thesis examination (three questions with a score ranging from 3 to 15), area of achieving the expected goals of thesis course (three questions with a score range from 3 to 15), and finally, one question regarding the overall satisfaction of passing the thesis (with a score ranging from 1 to 5). According to the information received from the Department of Education of the faculty, students whop ass their thesis examination and getting the final scores were selected as the samples. The questionnaires were given to the subjects and after completion, they were collected. Statistical analysis was performed by using the SPSS statistical software accompanied by descriptive analysis (frequency and the mean), an independent *t*-test to investigate the relationship between the gender and the overall satisfaction score of the students, and the Fisher\'s exact test to investigate the relationship between the history of previous researches and their satisfaction. The level of significance was considered to be 0.05.
RESULTS {#sec1-3}
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Out of the 63 graduates, in 2011 -- 2012, 62 subjects (40 females and 22 males) participated in the present study. One person was excluded from the study due to lack of access. The overall response rate was 96%. Five subjects (7.9%) had a history of previous researches. The overall satisfaction scores of individuals, based on the sum of all questions were obtained, which were, 3.2% low, 33.9% moderate, 61.3% good, and 1.6% great, respectively. The mean satisfaction score was also reported, which was 75.5 ± 12.2 (with a score range from 24 to 120). The mean satisfaction score in the studied areas, in terms of gender, can be seen in [Table 1](#T1){ref-type="table"}. Based on the independent *t*-test, apart from the two areas of satisfaction of the equipment and infrastructure (*P* = 0.013) and satisfaction of defending the thesis (*P* = 0.013), there was a significant relationship; but there was no significant difference between the rate of satisfaction in the different areas and gender. The Spearman\'s correlation coefficient test showed that there was a fairly significant correlation between the overall score of the questionnaire and the mean score of overall satisfaction (*P* = 0.000, r = 0.563). According to the Fisher\'s exact test, there was a significant relationship between having a previous history of research projects, but only in the area of satisfaction from the intellectual atmosphere in the faculty (*P* \< 0.05). There were no significant differences in other areas.
######
The mean score of the studied areas by gender
The mean score for each area was graded as: 0 -- 1 = completely disagree, 1 -- 2 = disagree, 2 -- 3 = have no comment, 3 -- 4 = agree, and 4 -- 5 = totally agree, \[[Figure 1](#F1){ref-type="fig"}\].
{#F1}
\(A\) Supervisory, (B) skills improvement, (C) intellectual atmosphere in the faculty, (D) equipment and infrastructure availability, (E) achieving the goals and expectations,(F) thesis-defending process
To evaluate the percentage of satisfaction in each area, the responses to the questions were divided into two parts: (1) Satisfaction, included responses of 'agree' and 'totally agree',(2) lack of satisfaction, included responses of 'having no comment', 'disagree,' and 'totally disagree'. Next, the percentage of satisfaction was calculated with a number of key questions \[[Table 2](#T2){ref-type="table"}\] and the satisfaction was calculated in all areas \[[Figure 2](#F2){ref-type="fig"}\]. The highest percentage of satisfaction was observed in the area of monitoring and supervision, and the lowest percentage of satisfaction was obtained in the area of intellectual atmosphere in the faculty. In general, satisfaction in women was greater than it was in men.
######
Frequency percentage of responses to some questions of the questionnaire
{#F2}
DISCUSSION {#sec1-4}
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Evaluation of programs and courses in the universities hasparticular importance. Considering that research is among the major services of the faculties, its evaluation is an important and essential aspect in improving research programs. Evaluation will be used in decision-making, determining strategies, future operational procedures, and growth and development of the research system in universities. Thesis is one of the most essential aspects of study for students. Every student at the doctoral level in Iran is obligated to do so. The present study has investigated the dental students' satisfaction in Isfahan, by conducting this thesis process in various areas, including supervision and monitoring of the teachers, acquisition of research skills, intellectual atmosphere in the faculty, access to equipment, and the use of appropriate infrastructure to perform the study, examination process of the thesis, and achieving the expected goals. On the basis of the results of this study, 64% of the students had full and complete satisfaction with the process, 34% were with moderate satisfaction, and 3.3% of them had low satisfaction in this regard. Satisfaction was greater in women than in men. The highest satisfaction was related to the area of supervision and monitoring and the least satisfaction was related to the area of intellectual atmosphere in the faculty. The study of Dehghani and colleagues, conducted in the Tabriz Faculty of Medical Sciences, showed that the overall satisfaction level from the theses supervision was 58%, which was pretty much the same as the results of the present study in Isfahan. The main causes of dissatisfaction in the students were the included fundamental elements of research, lack of scientific seminars, lack of financial support from researchers, and the absence of scientific and intellectual atmosphere at the university.\[[@ref14]\] Raadafshar and colleagues, in a similar study, in the Gilan University of Medical Sciences, showed that only 17% of the students were satisfied with the thesis conduction process. This was significantly greater in dental students compared to the medicine and pharmaceutical students.\[[@ref8]\] The results of the University of Edinburgh, UK, showed that in 2004 -- 2005, thesis supervision had achieved 84% satisfaction of the students compared to 2003 -- 2004, where it had decreased by 5%.\[[@ref15]\] In another study by the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, student satisfaction with respect to the efforts of the supervisor to understand the difficulties faced by the students has been 70%. This value in the present study was much lower (about 50%). Also, the guidance of the supervisor for the research literature was about 45%, which was very close to 51% in the present study. About 20% difference in understanding the students' problems was probably related to the different target groups in these two studies. This was probably because the Melbourne study had been performed in PhD students. Their quantities had usually been much more limited, with an extremely close relationship with their teacher in their own research projects.\[[@ref16]\] The final report of the Higher Education Academy, UK, showed that the factor of supervision and monitoring was the most important factor in the success of research programs.\[[@ref17]\] The supervision process and monitoring the thesis is a mutual interaction connection between the teacher and student. This type of relationship has a significant impact on the quality of the supervision process. Bennet in a study indicated that thesis supervision was a very personal matter. It would be judged best by teachers and students with a close relationship and the student could be the best judge for the quality of this process.\[[@ref18]\] In a research conducted by Mabrouk, the students expressed four features as the characteristics of an ideal supervisor, including, academic ability, offering helpful tips, ability to motivate students, and availability.\[[@ref19]\] The training curriculum of dental students has been determined by the goals of providing a thesis course including, the ability of students to write a proposal for a research project, their ability for application of software programs, management of scientific resources, operating as a member of a research team (teamwork), interpreting the research results, and finally, presenting the conducted research report. The study observed that the students were very satisfied about the proposed writing process and guidance of their teachers in giving a written form to their ideas. Their satisfaction on issues regarding acquisition of analysis skills were reported to be over 60%. This issue would indicate that many of the objectives of this course have been achieved from the students' point of view. However, unfortunately, more than 60% of these students not know themselves at the range of the expected standards of doing research. Considering the lack of satisfaction of 77% of the students regarding the area of existence of intellectual atmosphere in the faculty for additional research opportunities, it can be concluded that these students are required to do more researches for achieving the necessary competency in performing standard researches in this field. Other factors pertaining to student dissatisfaction are lack of access to computer facilities, statistics, and financial liabilities. It seems that increasing computer facilities and allocating more funding for students' researches and theses can be an effective step for improving the quality of researches and increasing student satisfaction. From the results of this study it can be gathered that there is no significant relationship between the thesis conduction process and gender, from the overall satisfaction of students. However, women showed significantly greater satisfaction compared to men in the areas of equipment and infrastructure availability and thesis defending process. An interesting fact is that in a conducted study in Australia, there was a significant difference between the two genders, only in the area of equipment and infrastructure. However, men were more satisfied than women. Perhaps the difference could be due to the type and quantity of research project infrastructure that existed in the two countries and also the difference in the expectations of both genders in two different cultures. In this study, there was a 10% difference between the overall student satisfaction on the basis of the questionnaire (64%) and the overall satisfaction, with regard to the last question on the sum of the individual evaluation from the thesis conduction process (54%). This difference appeared to be due to some factors other than the questions posed in questionnaire, influencing the students' satisfaction, and also lack of their coverage by the questions in the questionnaire. This issue has been among the limitations of this study. It is suggested to carry out a qualitative study to recognize the factors affecting dental student satisfaction with regard to the thesis process.
Financial support and sponsorship {#sec2-1}
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Dental School, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences.
Conflicts of interest {#sec2-2}
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There are no conflicts of interest.
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In the last post we talked about taking away existing elements to make variations and sounds less repetitive. While that method proves to be effective in a busy or full-sounding track, it can not fill up a less busy or thinner track. So this post will dig into the melodic modifications that can help fill up those empty spaces or enrich the harmonics of thinner chord progressions (in many cases this would be the first step of making loop variations, followed by rhythmical changes, and finished with tonal adjustments).
One of the easiest ways of achieving a richer/fuller sound is to add a 7th note to your basic triad chords, to form 7th chords. In the past, 7th chords were almost exclusive to genres like blues and jazz for their unique harmony and potential to create more complex chords through inversions (will be covered in pt.2 of this topic) and add-ons (9th, 13th, etc). In today's music scene, 7th chords, along with other complex chords are ubiquitous -- from R&B to HipHop, Folk music to EDM. Let's say you're working on a loop with 2 chords (e.g. A minor -> F major) as the main chord progression of the track (or it could be just for a specific part of the track). All you have to do is find the 7th note of the corresponding scales, A minor and F major scales in our example, which happen to be G and E, respectively, and add them on top of our triad chords, A minor (A-C-E) and F major (F-A-C). As a result, we end up with an A minor 7th chord (A-C-E-G), and a F major 7th chord (F-A-C-E). If you feel that it is still not full enough, try adding an additional 9th note of the scale (which also happens to be the 2nd note since the 8th note is the same as the root note, just an octave higher) and you will get even richer and fuller sounding chords than before.
Note: Be careful when you play with big chords a lot, as it takes up more space frequency wise. One easy and creative way to avoid having too many notes with one instrument is to select some of the notes from the chords and let another instrument play those notes and delete them from the original instrument. It will give you the full depth of the harmony while creating interesting layers of textures. Also, while the extra harmony opens up the potential for the use of new melodic lines, it may collide with certain notes (or take away its effectiveness) that used to work in the old melody before modifying the chords.
Stay tuned for part 2 of this topic, as it will cover how you can take these new chords and create close to infinite amount of variations.
Covering all the essential components of music creation from the perspective of the musician, DJ and Producer, the Music Fundamentals class starts from the basics and assumes no previous musical training. With a hands on learning approach this is a lab style course designed to fill the gaps in any artists theoretical understanding of how electronic music is made. Using Ableton Live 9 and Midi keyboards we will show you how to have fun with melodies and harmonies by focusing on foundation skills and concepts that will give you the confidence to create meaningful changes and progression in your tracks. Our primary focus here is to teach the language of music without the tedium of traditional music theory by directly translating your ideas into sound. See More...
There are many ways to make variations for repetitive sections in your tracks (introducing new instruments, adding more melodies, etc.,) but one of the most effective and underlooked method is to take away some of the existing notes or shifting the timing of percussive instruments very slightly. For example you can take away every other chord or bass notes instead of trying to add new ones, and you can also let the snare hit slightly early (or late) instead of adding more hits. You can do all this through volume automation or warping (in audio tracks), and taking out/shifting the midi note (in midi tracks). So next time you're in need of variations, think of what you can do with what you already have before trying to add new things, it will keep the track from sounding too busy and consequently you'll have more space for other things at the same time - if you need more that is. For more tips and tricks, check out our Music Fundamentals course!
If you ever run out of ideas for melodies, you can always break down your chords into single notes (arpeggio)
and play around with the spacing for a simple in-key melody/harmony. For a little more variation and originality, you can add any notes from the appropriate major/minor scale (according to what type of chord you just broke down) between the original notes from the arpeggio. Refrain from adding too many notes though, more notes could mean less space to play around with creative rhythm. If you have no clue what any of this means, come check out our music fundamentals course! | https://www.offcentredj.com/ocdj-blog/category/music-fundamentals-tips |
Several publications and patent documents are referenced in this application in order to more fully describe the state of the art to which this invention pertains. The disclosure of each of these publications and documents is incorporated by reference herein.
The Polymerase Chain Reaction or PCR (Saiki et al 1985, Science 230:1350) has become a standard molecular biology technique which allows for amplification of nucleic acid molecules. This in-vitro method is a powerful tool both for the detection and analysis of small quantities of nucleic acids and other recombinant nucleic acid technologies.
Briefly, PCR typically utilizes a number of components: a target nucleic acid molecule, a molar excess of a forward and reverse primer which bind to the target nucleic acid molecule, deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates (dATP, dTTP, dCTP and dGTP) and a polymerase enzyme.
The PCR reaction is a DNA synthesis reaction that depends on the extension of the forward and reverse primers annealed to opposite strands of a dsDNA template that has been denatured (melted apart) at high temperature (90° C. to 100° C.) Using repeated melting, annealing and extension steps usually carried out at differing temperatures, copies of the original template DNA are generated.
Amplification of template sequences by PCR typically draws on knowledge of the template sequence to be amplified such that primers can be specifically annealed to the template. The use of multiple different primer pairs to simultaneously amplify different regions of the sample is known as multiplex PCR, and suffers from numerous limitations, including high levels of primer dimerisation, and the loss of sample representation due to the different amplification efficiencies of the different regions.
For the multiplex analysis of large numbers of target fragments, it is often desirable to perform a simultaneous amplification reaction for all the targets in the mixture, using a single pair of primers for all the targets. In certain embodiments, one or more of the primers may be immobilised on a solid support. Such universal amplification reactions are described more fully in application US2005/0100900 (Method of Nucleic Acid Amplification), the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. Isothermal amplification methods for nucleic acid amplification are described in US2008/0009420, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. The methods involved may rely on the attachment of universal adapter regions, which allows amplification of all nucleic acid templates from a single pair of primers. However the universal amplification reaction can still suffer from limitations in amplification efficiency related to the sequences of the templates. One manifestation of this limitation is that the mass or size of different nucleic acid clusters varies in a sequence dependent manner. For example, the AT rich clusters can gain more mass or become larger than the GC rich clusters. As a result, analysis of different clusters may lead to bias. For example, in applications where clusters are analyzed using sequencing by synthesis techniques the GC rich clusters may appear smaller or more dim such that the clusters are detected less efficiently. This results in lower representation of sequence data for GC rich clusters than the brighter (more intense) and larger AT rich clusters. This can result in lower representation and less accurate sequence determination for the GC rich templates, an effect which may be termed GC bias. The presence of sequence specific bias during amplification gives rise to difficulties determining the sequence of certain regions of the genome, for example GC rich regions such as CpG islands in promoter regions. The resulting lack of sequence representation in the data from clusters of different GC composition translates into data analysis problems such as increases in the number of gaps in the analyzed sequence; a yield of shorter contigs, giving rise to a lower quality de novo assembly; and a need for increased coverage to sequence a genome, thereby increasing the cost of sequencing genomes.
In particular embodiments, the methods and compositions presented herein are aimed at limiting the sequence specific biases found in nucleic acid amplification reactions. In certain embodiments, the methods of amplification normalise the intensity of nucleic acid clusters of different sequences, and minimise the population size variance between amplified nucleic acid species having different sequences. The problem of bias may be more acute when the density of clusters on the solid support is high. In certain situations, as the clusters grow, the amplification primers on the solid support are all extended, and hence adjacent clusters can not expand over the top of each other due to the lack of available amplification primers. The over-amplification of AT rich sequences causes rapid consumption of the primers on the surface, and hence reduces the ability of the GC rich sequences to amplify. The amplification methods described herein are therefore particularly useful in order to obtain a high cluster density on a solid support where different clusters contain AT and GC rich sequences.
| |
New Delhi, Sep 17 : Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) has joined hands with Defence Research and Development Organization (DRDO) for development of human centric systems for the Space Mission to demonstrate its human space flight capabilities.
A delegation of ISRO scientists, led by Human Space Flight Centre (HSFC) Director S Unnikrishnan Nair signed a set of MoUs with various DRDO labs here on Tuesday to provide technologies for human centric systems and technologies specific to the Human Space Mission.
Speaking on the occasion, Secretary, Department of Defence R&D and Chairman DRDO G Satheesh Reddy said the technological capabilities existing in DRDO laboratories for defence applications will be customized to meet the requirements of the human space mission of ISRO.
Some of the critical technologies to be provided by DRDO to ISRO include space food, space crew health monitoring and emergency survival kit, radiation measurement and protection, parachutes for safe recovery of crew module and others, he added.
DG (Life Sciences) AK Singh said DRDO is committed to provide all necessary support to ISRO for the human space flight and customization of the required technologies has already been initiated to meet the stringent timelines. | https://www.pennews.net/national/2019/09/17/isro-drdo-ink-mous-for-human-space-mission |
5 Ways to Express Workplace Gratitude & Appreciation This Holiday Season
When you hear the term “Thanksgiving holiday,” chances are you picture family and friends enjoying one another’s company as the fire cracks and pops in the background. With the game on in the den, you can smell the turkey roasting in the oven as the gravy, mashed potatoes, stuffing, cranberry sauce, rolls, and sweet corn start making an appearance on the dining room table.
Sounds like a scene to be thankful for, right?
Hold on for a second: In the midst of all your daydreaming, you’ve likely forgotten that you’re sitting at your desk with weeks of work sitting between you and the Thanksgiving holiday.
But that doesn’t mean that there isn’t a place for the spirit of thanks and appreciation around the office! Research from Harvard Medical School, in fact, shows there is a strong correlation between gratitude and work engagement – not just during the Thanksgiving season but throughout the year.
“Managers who remember to say ‘thank you’ to people who work for them may find that those employees feel motivated to work harder,” notes Harvard.
So what are some ways to express workplace gratitude and appreciation this holiday season (and beyond)? Let’s take a look at 5 examples we’ve collected from a variety of sources across the Internet:
1. Say “Thank You”
“‘Employee surveys continue to show that people value a simple ‘thank you’ from managers,’ says David Shindler, founder of social learning site, The Employability Hub. ‘Psychologists have long pointed to different personality types valuing appreciation in a way that has most impact on the person, ranging from a job well done to simply being appreciated for who they are.’
Joyce K. Reynolds, an expert business coach, agrees. ‘While salary increases, bonuses, perks and other financial rewards are very important to employees, recognition and genuine appreciation can prove to be the primary keys to talent growth and retention.’” 1
2. Create a Culture of Gratitude
“Cultivating a culture of gratitude might be the best way to help a workplace prepare for stresses that come with change, conflict, and failure. Making gratitude a policy and a practice ‘builds up a sort of psychological immune system that can cushion us when we fall,’ writes psychologist Robert Emmons. ‘There is scientific evidence that grateful people are more resilient to stress, whether minor everyday hassles or major personal upheavals.’
Gratitude helps employees to see beyond one disaster and recognize their gains. [But, in order to do so, employees need to] overcome their aversion to gratitude on the job, and come to see it as just one more career skill [they] can cultivate alongside skills like communication, negotiation, and forgiveness. It’s something anyone can learn—from which everyone will benefit. 2
3. Stage Appreciation Events
“One great way to show [employee appreciation is to] throw parties. Throughout the year, we host parties for our team members. The best ones include their spouses and children. This sends a message that we love not just the employees but their entire families for the contribution that they collectively make to our organization. It takes a village to run an awesome company.
Every employee, every team member makes some sacrifice to be part of the organization and sometimes that sacrifice comes at the expense of spending time with their family members.
Say thanks with a company outing, a party or a huge get together that celebrates your people, their families and the organization.” 3
4. Spend Time With Employees
“Time is our most valuable commodity. When we choose to share our lives and our precious time with others, we are boldly declaring who and what we care about the most.
Spending time with [employees] strengthens that relationship, which results in a strong support system. People with solid relationships around them are generally happier and more content. Investing the time in others and appreciating their place [can bring about] bountiful rewards.” 4
5. Send a Thanksgiving Business Greeting Card
“[To show appreciation during the holiday season, employers can send] warm, appreciative Thanksgiving cards. From the traditions of pumpkin pie to the iconic colors and symbols of autumn, Hallmark Business Connections’ Thanksgiving cards feature the timeless quality of the season of gratitude.
Example sentiments include ‘With sincere appreciation for your hard work and best wishes for a Happy Thanksgiving’ or ‘Thanksgiving is the perfect time to say how much we appreciate your contributions throughout the year.’” 5
Final Thoughts
In the workplace, telling employees “it is great to work with you” goes beyond just the words themselves – what matters is showing employees that they’re valued for their hard work and dedication.
This holiday season, companies big and small should remember to give thanks for employees at all levels, expressing their gratitude and appreciation in ways that can make a difference to employee outlook and motivation during the holidays and throughout the year.
In what ways has your organization expressed gratitude to its employees? | https://www.hallmarkbusiness.com/insights/article/5-ways-to-express-workplace-gratitude-appreciation-this-holiday-season/ |
Microsoft Windows mobile platform users have been advised by Microsoft to make a switch to either Android or iOS phones. Windows Phone’s support page had a change on Friday, first spotted by Thurrott, a site that covers Microsoft. Microsoft has announced that from Dec. 10, 2019, it will stop providing Windows mobile updates for free. This practically means that no more new security updates, non-security hotfixes, free assisted support options or technical content updates for Windows Phones. The company further stated that just a few ...
Tags archives: windows-phone
The odd absence of Windows Phone from the Microsoft’s annual developer conference Build 2016 in San Francisco has fueled major speculations regarding the dead end of smartphone line-up by the company. Judging by what we witnessed at the Microsoft’s annual developer conference Build 2016, you wouldn’t know it probably, but the software mammoth hasn’t given up on its smartphone line-up just yet. Every year, Microsoft welcomes a swarm of developers to talk about the fresh updates on Microsoft’s products during Build conference. This ... | https://www.technowize.com/tag/windows-phone/ |
Three adult men and a young adolescent of unknown gender buried in cemeteries outside Rome were likely migrants to the city, their teeth reveal.
The four immigrants all lived during the first to third centuries A.D. They are the first individuals ever to be identified as migrants to the city during the Roman Imperial era, which began around the turn of the millennium and ended in the fourth century.
This was a time when Rome was a thriving, complex metropolis, said study researcher Kristina Killgrove, a biological anthropologist at the University of West Florida.
"Up to a million people were living there," Killgrove told Live Science. "This population ebbed and flowed. You had people who were migrating in, and you had people who were dying and [people who were] migrating out." [See Photos of the Ancient Roman Burials]
Hidden history
Previous researchers have estimated that 40 percent of the people who lived in Rome during this period were slaves (some born locally and some imported), and about 5 percent were voluntary migrants to the city. But there was no census in Rome and no records of the comings and goings of individuals, Killgrove said.
She searched for evidence of these early travelers in two cemeteries right outside Rome's walls — Casal Bertone to the east, and Castellaccio Europarco to the south. To uncover people's origins, Killgrove and colleague Janet Montgomery of Durham University in the United Kingdom analyzed the isotopes in their molars. They focused on the first molar, which starts forming at birth and finishes forming at age 4. The enamel of this molar holds a record of what people ate and drank in their first years. [Photos: Gladiators of the Roman Empire]
"Teeth are kind of like little time capsules in your mouth," Killgrove said.
Isotopes are versions of the same element with different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei. The researchers analyzed strontium isotopes in molars from 105 skeletons from the two cemeteries, and further analyzed oxygen and carbon isotopes in a subset of 55 of those individuals. Strontium enters food and water by the weathering of rocks and indicates the geology of an area where a person spent his or her first years. Oxygen reflects the source of a person's drinking water, including meteorological factors like humidity and rainfall. Carbon can provide information about a person's diet, particularly whether plants rich in the isotope C4 (maize and millet, for example) or C3 (rice and wheat, among others) were eaten.
Trading places
A combination of these isotopes revealed that two adult men who were between 35 and 50 when they died, one adult man older than 50, and a teenager between the ages of 11 and 15 almost certainly came to Rome from somewhere else. A couple of the men had high levels of certain strontium isotopes, indicative of starting life in a place where the rocks are old. Much of Italy is made of young, volcanic rocks, Killgrove said. The closest old rocks are in the Alps, or on some of the islands of the Tyrrhenian Sea. The oxygen isotope analysis also hinted that these two men could have come from an Alpine climate, though it's impossible to be sure, Killgrove and Montgomery reported.
The adolescent had low strontium isotope levels, suggestive of a home environment of young limestones or basalt. High oxygen isotopes ratios pointed to a hot climate. Those clues suggest a possible North African origin for this young person.
Four other individuals (two 7- to 12-year-olds, a male between the ages of 11 and 15 and a female between the ages of 16 and 20) also had isotope signatures that suggested they may not have been native Romans, but the data was a bit ambiguous, Killgrove said. Figuring out if people migrated to Rome is particularly difficult because people in the city ate imported food and drank water drawn from large areas through aqueducts, meaning their isotope ratios have a broader range than people living in a more self-contained city.
It's impossible to tell why the migrants found in the Roman cemeteries moved, Killgrove said. They may have been slaves, or they may have come to Rome for voluntary reasons. The burials appear to be those of lower-class people, Killgrove said, but that doesn't mean they weren't free. Notably, the immigrants' diets do seem to have changed when they moved to Rome. As children, they ate diets higher in C4 foods, probably millet, Killgrove said.
"When they came to Rome, that becomes more in line with the Roman diet, which is more wheat-based than millet-based," she said. (Killgrove has previously found class differences in the amount of millet and wheat eaten by Romans.)
Killgrove is now working at another cemetery site outside Rome and plans more isotope analysis, along with DNA studies. An understanding of migration can deepen an understanding of Rome's development, as well as Imperial Roman slavery, acculturation to Roman culture and even disease transmission.
"It all goes back to migration," Killgrove said.
Follow Stephanie Pappas on Twitter and Google+. Follow us @livescience, Facebook & Google+. Original article on Live Science. | https://www.livescience.com/53674-first-migrants-to-imperial-rome.html |
Performance Management in a Remote Team
Most obvious to managing a team – remote or not – is that we want our team to perform well.
If only the means of doing so were as obvious!
Managing an individual’s performance well, especially someone who is remote, is challenging, perplexing, and definitely not one-size-fits-all. In fact, according to our survey, “managing individual performance, while not being in-person” was the third most popular response as “the hardest part of a remote manager’s job” (8% of remote managers said this).
Questions of “How do you know if someone is actually working?” or “How do you help someone from afar, if they’re underperforming?” or “How do you continue to encourage and coach someone who is performing well?” are tricky questions to consider and address.
From our survey of 297 remote managers and employees, and insights from 1,000+ managers in The Watercooler in Know Your Team, here are my observations on the potential answers around managing individual performance in a remote team…
Nix your nagging paranoia.
When you’re in an office, you see folks come in. You see them leave. They seem “busy.” They seem productive. So, you get this nice, warm, reassuring fuzzy feeling that things are indeed “going to plan.” Stuff is happening. All is well.
When you’re not in an office and everyone is remote, it’s different. Yes, you might see when someone is online or not. But all of sudden, you really don’t know if they’re working. What if someone is just on Facebook the whole day? What if they’re out with friends or just spending their entire day running errands?
Your answer to that should be: So what?
Time applied does not equate to progress made. It’s important not to conflate the two. As a remote manager you have to kill that nagging voice inside that asks, “Well, are they working?” You can never answer that truly even when you are in-person. So why focus on it in a remote environment?
Rather, instead of becoming consumed by your own paranoia, remind yourself that you want to focus on the results. And, the path to results is creating the best environment for a person to achieve those results.
A huge part of performance management is in fact trusting that the team you picked, and you hired, and you chose, is up to the job.
Hold consistent, rigorous one-on-one meetings.
Most remote managers will tell you how heavily they lean on holding regular, meaningful one-on-one meetings in order to support their team and encourage their performance. This is true, of course, in in-person environments. But when you’re remote, these one-on-one meetings become even more crucial.
According to our survey, the most popular frequency that remote managers hold their one-on-one meetings with their direct reports is every single week (32% of remote managers said this), and the most common duration was 30 minutes to one hour (40% of remote managers said this).
Most remote teams will use Zoom for video conferencing for these one-on-one meetings, and ask that the video be turned on. This allows you to read body language, smile at one another, and feel as close as you might to being in the same room.
Perhaps most importantly, you want to spend time properly preparing for your one-on-one meetings. You’ll only get out of your one-on-one meeting what you put in. Here are a few points of emphasis to consider when preparing for your remote one-on-one meeting:
- Take the first 10 - 15 minutes to talk about something fun, light-hearted, and more personal in the beginning. Since “building trust and rapport across the team” is the #1 thing remote managers should prioritize (33% of remote managers said this), you can utilize your one-on-one meeting to fulfill this purpose.
- Ask questions you couldn’t ask in an all-team chat setting or something you wouldn’t post publicly. One-on-one meetings are valuable, sacred time to get feedback and get to the bottom of issues. Save your status reports or project updates for a separate meeting, or your designated tool you use to communicate those things.
- Actively clarify expectations and ask for feedback about yourself. Some of my favorite one-on-one questions I like to regularly ask are topics that are always hard to gage from a distance, such as: “How is your workload?” and “What about my management style would you change?” and “What have I done lately that’s been annoying?”
To save time preparing for your meeting, you can use our One-on-Ones Tool in Know Your Team to get hundreds of one-on-one question suggestions and one-on-one meeting templates.
Review performance – but it doesn’t have to be a formal performance review.
When it comes to performance management, the natural thought is that you should utilize an actual performance review. This is a popular route within remote teams, as we found that 54% of remote managers survey do some sort of performance management review.
- However, more recently, performance reviews have become less en vogue. When we asked our 1,000+ managers in The Watercooler, the majority said that they did not use performance reviews formall, but sought out other methods instead. Here were some of their tips and advice around performance reviews:
- Have lightweight, meaningful check-ins twice a year, combined with regular one-on-one meetings.
- Use every fourth one-on-one meeting as the time to talk about performance instead of the traditional of the traditional performance review cycles. This is something Patty McCord, former VP of People at Netflix, recommended in a 2015 TED Talk. It’s also what we do here internally at Know Your Team.
- Keep salary adjustments completely separate from the performance review and have it handled by HR (though performance certainly plays into this). Here’s a Harvard Business Review article that discusses this more in-depth.
- Tools like feedback surveys in Know Your Team can nudge employees in the right direction.
Here’s an example of a one-on-one meeting agenda that I personally used through our One-on-Ones Tool in Know Your Team that focuses specifically on performance management:
Personal connection
- How’s life? What’s new?
- What are you most excited about your vacation next week?
- Anything have you worried or down lately?
Performance + feedback
- As you reflect on your own performance, personally, what stands out to you? What have you learned or observed about yourself?
- What’s a recent situation you wish you handled differently? What would you change?
- Would you be open to me sharing some feedback with you?
- How is your workload?
- As you reflect on my personal performance, what stands out to you? What have you observed and wish was different and/or stayed the same?
- When have you been annoyed, peeved, or bothered by me and something I’ve done?
- What do you find challenging about my management style?
- What do you appreciate about my management style?
Takeaways and Next Steps:
- What takeaways and next steps do we both have?
Figuring out how to manage performance well shouldn’t be as daunting as it seems. Focus on creating an environment where you can trust your team, hold rigorous one-on-ones, and have a regular discussion about performance throughout the year instead of just as at a one-off time. Better performance begins there.
Takeaways:
- Skip surveillance: Focus on results, and truly trust your employees.
- Hold consistent one-on-one meetings – it’s recommended to do so once a week, and for 30 minutes to one hour.
- For performance reviews, incorporate them as lightweight check-ins at multiple points in the year, instead of relying on one, giant review once a year.
Put this into practice with Know Your Team:
- Use our One-on-Ones tool to have consistent one-on-one meetings with your team, with agenda templates, suggested questions, and a place to write shared takeaways. | https://knowyourteam.com/m/guides/161-managing-remote-teams/topics/1351-performance-management-in-a-remote-team |
Background
==========
Local sequence alignment plays a major role in the analysis of DNA and protein sequences \[[@B1]-[@B3]\]. It is the basic step of many other applications like detecting homology, finding protein structure and function, deciphering evolutionary relationships, etc. There exist several local sequence alignment programs that use well-known algorithms \[[@B4],[@B5]\] or their heuristic versions \[[@B3],[@B6],[@B7]\]. Database search is a special case of pairwise local sequence alignment where the second sequence is a database in itself consisting of many sequences. Recently, there have been many enhancements in alignment program features \[[@B8],[@B9]\] using difference blocks and multiple scoring matrices, in an attempt to incorporate more biological features in the alignment algorithm.
Why statistical significance?
-----------------------------
The local sequence alignment programs report alignment scores for the alignments constructed, and related (homologous) sequences will have *higher*alignment scores. But the definition of *high*depends strongly on the alignment score distribution, which gives importance to the concept of statistical significance. An alignment score is considered statistically significant if it has a low probability of occurring by chance. Since the alignment score distribution depends on various factors like alignment program, scoring scheme, sequence lengths, sequence compositions \[[@B10]\], it implies that it is possible to have two alignments of different sequence pairs with scores *x*and *y*with *x*\<*y*, but *x*more significant than *y*. Therefore, instead of using the alignment score for detecting homology, the statistical significance of an alignment score is more widely accepted as a metric to comment on the relatedness of the two sequences being aligned. Of course, it is important to emphasize here that although statistical significance is a good preliminary indicator of biological significance, it does not necessarily imply biological significance \[[@B10],[@B11]\].
Accurate statistical theory for the ungapped alignment score distribution is available \[[@B12]\]. However, no precise statistical theory currently exists for the gapped alignment score distribution and for score distributions from alignment programs using additional features. Accurate estimation of statistical significance of gapped sequence alignment scores has attracted a lot of attention in the recent years \[[@B13]-[@B21]\].
Although there exists some understanding of the statistics of gapped alignment score distributions for simple scoring schemes \[[@B22],[@B23]\], but a complete mathematical description of the optimal score distribution remains far from reach \[[@B23]\]. There exist some excellent reviews on statistical significance in sequence comparison in the literature \[[@B10],[@B24]-[@B26]\].
Database statistical significance versus pairwise statistical significance
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
Recently, a study of pairwise statistical significance and its comparison with database statistical significance \[[@B27]\] was conducted. In summary, the database statistical significance reported by most database search programs like SSEARCH, FASTA, PSI-BLAST is database-dependent, and hence, the same alignment of two sequences with the same alignment score can be evaluated as having different significance values in database searches with different databases, and even with the same database at different times, as the database size can be variable. On the other hand, pairwise statistical significance is specific to the sequence pair being aligned, and is database-independent. In \[[@B27]\], various approaches to estimate pairwise statistical significance were compared to find that maximum likelihood fitting with censoring left of peak is the most accurate method for estimating pairwise statistical significance. Further, this method was compared with database statistical significance in a homology detection experiment to find that pairwise statistical significance performs comparably to and sometimes significantly better than database statistical significance.
Accurate statistical significance estimates for pairwise alignments can be very useful to comment on the relatedness of a pair of sequences aligned by an alignment program independent of any database. And thus, it can also be used to compare different combination of alignment parameters -- like the alignment program itself, substitution matrices, gap costs. A comparison of different gap opening penalties for four commonly used BLOSUM matrices using pairwise statistical significance was presented in \[[@B28]\]. In addition to the standard local alignment algorithms \[[@B4],[@B5]\], some recent algorithms have been developed \[[@B8],[@B9]\] that take into account other desirable biological features in addition to gaps -- like difference blocks or the use of multiple parameter sets (substitution matrices, gap penalties). These features of the alignment programs enhance the sequence alignment of real sequences by better suiting to different conservation rates at different spatial locations of the sequences. As pointed out earlier, accurate statistical theory for alignment score distribution is available only for ungapped alignment, and not even for its simplest extension, i.e., alignment with gaps. Accurate statistics of the alignment score distribution from newer and more sophisticated alignment programs therefore is not expected to be straightforward. For comparing the performance of newer alignment programs, accurate estimates of pairwise statistical significance can be very useful. Further, quick and accurate estimates of pairwise statistical significance can also be helpful for applications like multiple sequence alignment and phylogenetic tree construction which are based on pairwise sequence alignment to select most related pairs of sequences, for example, in a progressive multiple sequence alignment.
The extreme value distribution for ungapped and gapped alignments
-----------------------------------------------------------------
Just as the distribution of the sum of a large number of independent identically distributed (i.i.d.) random variables tends to a normal distribution (central limit theorem), the distribution of the maximum of a large number of i.i.d. random variables tends to an extreme value distribution (EVD) \[[@B29]\]. This is an important and useful fact, because in principle it allows us to fit an EVD to the score distribution from any local alignment program and use it for estimating statistical significance of scores from that program. The distribution of Smith-Waterman local alignment score between random, unrelated sequences is approximately a Gumbel-type EVD \[[@B12]\]. In the limit of sufficiently large sequence lengths *m*and *n*, the statistics of HSP (High-scoring Segment Pairs which correspond to ungapped local alignments) scores are characterized by two parameters, *K*and *λ*. The probability (P-value) that the optimal local alignment score *S*exceeds *x*is estimated by:
where *E*is the E-value and is given by
For E-values less than 0.01, both E-value and P-values are very close to each other. The above formulae are valid for ungapped alignments \[[@B12]\], and the parameters *K*and *λ*can be computed analytically from the substitution scores and sequence compositions. For gapped alignments, no perfect statistical theory has yet been developed, although there exist some good starting points for the problem as mentioned before \[[@B22],[@B23]\]. Recently, researchers have also looked closely at the low probability tail distribution, and the work in \[[@B30]\] applied a rare-event sampling technique earlier used in \[[@B31]\] and suggested a Gaussian correction to the Gumbel distribution to better describe the rare event tail, resulting in a considerable change in the reported significance values. However, for most practical purposes, the original Gumbel distribution has been widely used to describe gapped alignment score distribution \[[@B9],[@B13]-[@B15],[@B17],[@B27],[@B32],[@B33]\]. From an empirically generated score distribution, we can directly observe the E-value *E*for a particular score *x*, by counting the number of times a score *x*or higher was attained. Since this number would be different for different number of random shuffles *N*(or number of sequences in the database in case of database search), a normalized E-value is defined as
$$E_{normalized} = \frac{E}{N}$$
In theory, this normalized E-value is same as the P-value (for large *N*).
Contributions
=============
In this paper, we extend the existing work on pairwise statistical significance \[[@B27]\] to incorporate in it the use of multiple parameter sets, and evaluate it on an important knowledge discovery application-homology detection. We conducted similar experiments as reported in \[[@B34]\], and later in \[[@B27]\] on a subset of the CATH 2.3 database to compare pairwise statistical significance with single and multiple parameter sets. This benchmark database was earlier created in \[[@B34]\] to evaluate seven protein structure comparison methods and two sequence comparison programs: SSEARCH and PSI-BLAST. SSEARCH uses the original Smith-Waterman algorithm \[[@B4]\], and is considered the most sensitive algorithm in terms of retrieval accuracy, better than the heuristic versions like BLAST and FASTA \[[@B35],[@B36]\]. PSI-BLAST is a modification to the BLAST program, where position specific scoring matrices are constructed over multiple iterations of BLAST algorithm. Comparison of pairwise statistical significance results using multiple parameter sets with pairwise statistical significance using a single parameter set shows that at least for some error levels, using multiple parameter sets is significantly better than using a single parameter set. This is because sequences can have different conservation rates at different spatial locations, which can be better aligned using multiple parameter sets (substitution matrices, gap penalties, etc.). Comparison with database statistical significance results show that pairwise statistical significance with multiple parameter sets gives significantly better performance than the statistical significance estimates reported by BLAST and PSI-BLAST, and comparable and at times significantly better performance than the SSEARCH program. Further, the results also give concrete evidence that for the practical application of homology detection, the score distribution from alignment program using multiple parameter sets can also be assumed to follow an extreme value distribution. This is an important and useful finding since it is in general difficult to accurately determine statistics of alignment scores from enhanced alignment programs. Finally, experiments with different values of parameter set change penalties indicate that it is indeed important to use a non-zero parameter set change penalty while performing alignment using multiple parameter sets.
Methods
=======
Pairwise statistical significance estimation
--------------------------------------------
Consider the pairwise statistical significance described in \[[@B27]\] to be obtainable by the following function: *PairwiseStatSig*(*Seq*1, *Seq*2, *SC*, *N*) where *Seq*1 is the first sequence, *Seq*2 is the second sequence, *SC*is the scoring scheme (substitution matrix, gap penalties), and *N*is the number of shuffles. The function PairwiseStatSig, therefore generates a score distribution by aligning *Seq*1 with *N*shuffled versions of *Seq*2, fits the distribution to an extreme value distribution using censored maximum likelihood fitting to obtain the statistical parameters *K*and *λ*, and returns the pairwise statistical significance estimate of the pairwise alignment score between *Seq*1 and *Seq*2 using the parameters *K*and *λ*in the P-value formula. More details on pairwise statistical significance can be found in \[[@B27]\]. In this paper, we dynamically use multiple parameter sets instead of a single scoring scheme *SC*for estimation of pairwise statistical significance.
Dynamic use of multiple parameter sets in sequence alignment
------------------------------------------------------------
Usually, pairwise sequence alignment is done with a single parameter set (substitution matrix, gap penalties). But to suit the different levels of conservation between sequences, there exists an algorithm \[[@B9]\] which can dynamically use multiple parameter sets and generate a single optimal alignment with possibly different parameter sets used in different regions of the alignment. The algorithm is implemented in a program named GAP4. The algorithm uses a dynamic programming approach as explained in \[[@B9]\]. Consider alignment of two sequences *A*= *a*~1~, *a*~2~,\..., *a*~*m*~and *B*= *b*~1~, *b*~2~,\... *b*~*n*~using *p*parameter sets *P*~1~, *P*~2~,\..., *P*~*p*~. Let *A*~*i*~and *B*~*j*~be the subsequences *a*~1~, *a*~2~,\... *a*~*i*~and *b*~1~, *b*~2~,\..., *b*~*j*~respectively. For each alignment position (*i*, *j*) and each parameter set *P*~*k*~, the algorithm keeps track of the optimal alignment score of the subsequences *A*~*i*~and *B*~*j*~where the last component (substitution, gap, or difference block) is scored using *P*~*k*~. Dynamic programming is used to get optimal alignment for progressive alignment positions, until *i*becomes *m*and *j*becomes *n*. Appropriate modification of the algorithm also allows it to calculate the optimal local alignment. More details about using multiple parameter sets for pairwise sequence alignment can be found in \[[@B9]\].
Evaluation methodology
----------------------
To evaluate the performance of pairwise statistical significance using multiple parameter sets, we used a non-redundant subset of the CATH 2.3 database (Class, Architecture, Topology, and Hierarchy, \[[@B37]\]) provided by \[[@B34]\] and available at <ftp://ftp.ebi.ac.uk/pub/software/unix/fasta/prot_sci_04/>. This database was selected in \[[@B34]\] to evaluate seven structure comparison programs and two sequence comparison programs. As described in \[[@B34]\], this dataset consists of 2771 domain sequences and includes 86 selected test query sequences. This domain set is considered as a valid benchmark for testing protein comparison algorithms \[[@B38]\].
We used this database and query set for experimenting with pairwise statistical significance using multiple parameter sets. For each of the 86 × 2771 comparisons, we used the maximum likelihood method with censoring left of peak with 1000 shuffles to fit the score distribution from the GAP4 program with substitution matrices BLOSUM45, BLOSUM50, BLOSUM62, BLOSUM80, and their all possible combinations (2^4^- 1 = 15 in number). All matrices were used in 1/3 bit scale. The gap opening penalties for each of these matrices was set to the values empirically determined to be the best for this database in \[[@B28]\]. These are listed in Table [1](#T1){ref-type="table"}. The gap extension penalties were set to 2 for all the four matrices. Following \[[@B27],[@B34]\], Error per Query (EPQ) versus Coverage plots were used to present the results. To create these plots, the list of pairwise comparisons was sorted based on decreasing statistical significance (increasing P-values). Going down the list, the coverage count is increased by one if the two sequences of the pair are homologs, and the error count is increased by one if they are not. At a given point in the list, Errors Per Query (EPQ) is the total number of errors incurred so far, divided by the number of queries; and coverage is the fraction of total homolog pairs so far detected. In the ideal case, the curve would go from 0% to 100% coverage, without incurring any errors, which would correspond to a straight line on the x-axis. Therefore, the more the curve is towards the right, the better the curve is.
######
Effective gap opening penalties for commonly used BLOSUM matrices determined for the benchmark database used
**BLOSUM matrix** **Gap opening penalty**
------------------- -------------------------
BLOSUM45 7
BLOSUM50 9
BLOSUM62 11
BLOSUM80 13
Just as gap opening and gap extension penalties are dynamically charged during the alignment process whenever a gap is inserted and extended respectively, the GAP4 \[[@B9]\] program allows the use of a parameter set change penalty, which is dynamically charged whenever the parameter set mapping is changed during the alignment process. To see the effect of parameter set change penalty on the coverage performance, we conducted a series of homology detection experiments with one of the substitution matrix combinations (BLOSUM45 and BLOSUM62) with different parameter set change penalties. Coverage vs. parameter set change penalty curves were plotted at different error levels to find the usefulness of the parameter set change penalty, as reported in the next section.
Results
=======
Comparison with pairwise statistical significance using single parameter set
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Out of the 15 substitution matrix combinations, 4 are using single parameter sets, 6 are using two parameter sets, 4 are using three parameter sets, and 1 is using all four parameter sets. The EPQ vs. Coverage curves using pairwise statistical significance with two, three, and four parameter sets are presented in Figures [1](#F1){ref-type="fig"}, [2](#F2){ref-type="fig"}, and [3](#F3){ref-type="fig"} respectively. For comparison purposes, the EPQ vs. Coverage curves using corresponding single parameter sets are also presented in the same figures. The y-axis (error-axis) in all these graphs is in log-scale, and hence there is more information in the upper part of the graphs. These figures suggest that pairwise statistical significance using multiple parameter sets performs comparably to and sometimes significantly better than pairwise statistical significance using a single parameter set for most instances of using a single parameter set, and at most error levels.
{#F1}
{#F2}
{#F3}
Comparison with database statistical significance
-------------------------------------------------
Since the EPQ vs. Coverage curves on the complete dataset can be distorted due to poor performance by one or two queries (if those queries produce many errors at low coverage levels) \[[@B34]\], to compare the performance of pairwise statistical significance using multiple parameter sets with database statistical significance, we examined the performance of the methods with individual queries, following the work in \[[@B34]\]. The coverage of each of the 86 queries at the 1st, 3rd, 10th, 30th, and 100th error was recorded, and the median coverage for each error level across the 86 queries was plotted to obtain EPQ vs. Coverage curves for the sequence comparison method to be evaluated. Figure [4](#F4){ref-type="fig"} shows the median coverage level at the 1st, 3rd, 10th, 30th, and 100th false positive for homologs (i.e. 43 of the queries have worse coverage, and 43 have better coverage). The curve for SSEARCH in Figure [4](#F4){ref-type="fig"} is derived from the figure [2A](#F2){ref-type="fig"} in \[[@B34]\]. The curves for BLAST and PSI-BLAST were obtained by experimentation. It is clear that the proposed pairwise statistical significance using multiple parameter sets performs significantly better than BLAST and PSI-BLAST at all error levels, comparable to SSEARCH at low error levels, and significantly better than SSEARCH at higher error levels.
{#F4}
Empirical justification of parameter set change penalty
-------------------------------------------------------
The coverage vs. parameter set change penalty plot for the substitution matrix combination of BLOSUM45 and BLOSUM62 is illustrated in Figure [5](#F5){ref-type="fig"}. The curve shows a poor coverage performance for the case when the parameter set change penalty is not charged, i.e., when the alignment algorithm is freely allowed to change the parameter set during alignment without charging any penalty. This can be explained by the fact that the algorithm would try to mathematically maximize the alignment score by changing the parameter set as frequently as possible, which may produce more biologically irrelevant alignments. A similar phenomenon is also observed when very low gap penalty is used \[[@B28]\]. The coverage performance clearly improves for non-zero values of parameter set change penalty, which provides its empirical justification.
{#F5}
Discussion
==========
As pointed out earlier, SSEARCH employs the original Smith-Waterman algorithm for alignment, and is considered more sensitive than its heuristic implementations like BLAST and FASTA. PSI-BLAST uses an iterative approach with query-specific substitution matrices, and its performance mainly depends on the quality of position-specific scoring matrices (PSSMs) constructed iteratively. The results show that PSI-BLAST gave poorer performance than pairwise statistical significance using multiple parameter sets, even with PSSMs constructed against the benchmark CATH database used in our experiments. However, using PSSMs derived against BLAST non-redundant protein database has been shown to give better results \[[@B34]\] as it uses much more information than just a pair of sequences. Comparable and at times significantly better results than SSEARCH using pairwise statistical significance with multiple parameter sets implies that statistical significance estimates at least as good as database statistical significance can be obtained by pairwise statistical significance using multiple parameter sets without having to do a time-consuming database search. This can be very useful to estimate accurate pairwise statistical significance of two (or a few) sequences, which is a common scenario in many pairwise alignment based applications like phylogenetic tree construction, progressive multiple sequence alignment.
It is important to note that the proposed method is not a database search method but statistical significance estimation method for pairwise local alignment, and the comparison with database search programs like BLAST, SSEARCH, and PSI-BLAST is of their statistical significance estimation strategies. The proposed method, as of now is not scalable to a database search, but can be used to refine the results from a fast database search program like BLAST.
Since pairwise alignment using multiple parameter sets takes more computational time than using a single parameter set, pairwise statistical significance estimation using multiple parameter sets also takes more time than pairwise statistical significance estimation using a single parameter set. In general, using *k*parameter sets increases the computation time by a factor little more than *k*. Therefore, faster methods for significance estimation can be very helpful.
Conclusion
==========
This paper extends the work on pairwise statistical significance by incorporating in it the use of multiple parameter sets (substitution matrices, gap penalties, etc.), and compares it with database statistical significance for the knowledge discovery application of homology detection. The results show that pairwise statistical significance using multiple parameter sets performs better than pairwise statistical significance using a single parameter set. It also performs significantly better than database statistical significance using BLAST and PSI-BLAST, and comparable and at times significantly better than database statistical significance using SSEARCH. Further, an empirical justification of the use of parameter set change penalty is provided.
Since PSI-BLAST results can be improved by using better quality PSSMs derived from larger protein databases, we believe that the performance of pairwise statistical significance can also be improved using sequence-specific/position-specific substitution matrices, which is a significant part of our future work. Another important contribution can be to estimate the pairwise statistical significance accurately in less time, since using multiple parameter sets increases the significance estimation time. Faster methods for determining pairwise statistical significance would be very useful.
Competing interests
===================
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Authors\' contributions
=======================
AA conceived the study based on the initial idea given by XH. Both AA and XH did the programming, AA carried out the experiments and analysis, and drafted the initial manuscript. Both AA and XH read and approved the final version of the manuscript.
Acknowledgements
================
The authors would like to thank Dr. Volker Brendel for helpful discussions and providing links to the data.
This article has been published as part of *BMC Bioinformatics*Volume 10 Supplement 3, 2009: Second International Workshop on Data and Text Mining in Bioinformatics (DTMBio) 2008. The full contents of the supplement are available online at <http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2105/10?issue=S3>.
| |
This article is part of special IPS coverage for World Environment Day, on June 5, whose theme this year is “Beat Plastic Pollution”.
RIO DE JANEIRO, Jun 3 2018 (IPS) - Although Latin America produces just five percent of the world’s plastic, it imports billions of tons annually for the use of all kinds of products, some of which end up in the sea as garbage.
It thus contributes to this kind of artificial tsunami that threatens the biodiversity of the oceans, where 13 million tons of waste, mostly disposable plastics, are dumped each year at a global level, according to UN Environment – enough to wrap around the Earth four times.
The impact is such that it also affects human health, as this resistant waste enters the food chain, and has led the United Nations to declare “Beat Plastic Pollution” as the theme for this year’s World Environment Day, on Jun. 5.
Favoured by a 3,000-km coastline on the Pacific Ocean, with one of the world’s most nutrient-rich waters, Peru was one of the first Latin American countries to join the Clean Seas campaign, launched a year ago by UN Environment.
The global campaign aims to eliminate by 2022 the main sources of marine debris, which can remain in ecosystems for 500 years. There are five identified ‘islands’ of plastic rubbish in the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans, one of them between Chile and Peru.
“We have witnessed firsthand the serious impacts of different types of waste, including plastic in our seas,” said Ursula Carrascal, project coordinator for the Institute for the Protection of the Environment Vida in Peru.
For 20 years, the organisation has been leading a campaign to clean up beaches and coastlines in this Andean country, involving all sectors of society.
According to Carrascal, the problem is exacerbated when the country suffers additional damage caused by natural disasters, such as the “La Niña” phenomenon that in 2017 caused flooding and the shifting of tons of waste accumulated on river banks.
“Marquez Beach in Callao was literally covered in garbage for three km. Many beaches are now gone, fishing boats and artisanal fishermen are affected by the damage to their nets or engines caused by plastic,” she told IPS from Lima.
The country, according to the Environment Ministry, generates 6.8 million tons of solid waste. Lima and the neighbouring port city of Callao alone generate an estimated three million tons per year. Of that total, 53 percent is organic waste, and in second place comes plastic, accounting for 11 percent, a percentage in line with the world average.
In fact, half of the 6,000 tons of marine debris collected by Vida since 1998, with the support of 200,000 volunteers, is plastic.
“There is a strong concern about the risk in the field of food safety due to the plastic accidentally ingested by fish,” Carrascal said.
The governmental Marine Institute of Peru has been studying the impact of microplastic (less than five mm long) on Peruvian beaches and in the digestive tract of fish for years. A 2017 report found 473 plastic fragments per square metre on a beach in Callao.
The British Ellen MacArthur Foundation, dedicated to promoting the circular economy – based on the reduction of both new materials and waste, to create loops of recycling – warns that by 2050 there will be more plastic than fish in the oceans and reminds us that all marine life eats this waste.
One of the consequences, say scientists at Ghent University in Belgium, is that when you eat fish and seafood, you ingest up to 11,000 tiny pieces of plastic, a material most commonly derived from petrochemicals, every year.
In Brazil, a country with more than 9,000 km of coastline on the Atlantic Ocean, a marine aquarium was inaugurated in October 2016 in Rio de Janeiro. AquaRío, which promotes environmental education and scientific research for biodiversity conservation, is the institution with which the Clean Seas campaign was launched.
“Plastic discarded improperly on beaches, rivers and the sewers ends up in the sea and causes the death of thousands of marine animals every year. Drinking straws, cigarette butts, caps, plastic bags, improperly discarded, represent the highest percentage of environmentally hazardous materials for marine wildlife,” director Marcelo Szpilman told IPS.
“The remains of nets, fishing lines, ropes and plastic bags abandoned in the sea remain in the environment for many years due to their low biodegradability and end up injuring or killing countless animals that end up entangled and die by asphyxiation or starvation,” added the marine biologist.
To raise awareness among children about this silent killing at sea, the aquarium uses the image of mermaids dying from the ingestion of plastic.
This happens in reality in the oceans to fish, birds, seals, turtles and dolphins that confuse floating plastic waste with octopuses, squid, jellyfish and other species that they eat.
“Dolphins have been found with their stomachs full of city trash. Cigarette butts, the most widely collected item in all beach clean-up campaigns, have caused the death of animals that swallow them mistaking them for fish eggs,” Szpilman said.
In addition, he noted, “a plastic bag drifting at sea is easily mistaken for a jellyfish, which is a food for several species of sea turtles, which as a result can die from asphyxiation.
According to experts, in Brazil and other Latin American countries, the problem is combated with isolated initiatives, such as the banning of plastic bags in supermarkets, when what is needed is a broader change in the model of plastic production and consumption.
But some things have started to be done.
In Peru, for example, Vida has coordinated actions with the waste management industry to promote the circular economy model through recycling chains with the waste collected in coastal cleanups throughout the country.
This work has been carried out not only with large industry but also with small and medium-sized enterprises and the National Movement of Recyclers of Peru.
“Greater efforts and investment in recycling technology are needed to solve the plastic problem. In Peru, much of the plastic waste collected, although it could be 100 percent recycled, is not recycled because there are no recycling plants, due to lack of knowledge or lack of adequate technology,” Carrascal said.
The Peruvian model of waste management in the marine ecosystem has been used as a reference point in other countries of the Southeast Pacific, including Chile, Ecuador, Colombia and Panama. | http://www.ipsnews.net/2018/06/plastic-tsunamis-threaten-coast-latin-america/ |
Richardson’s annual research survey of field reps, senior sales professionals, and sales leaders across industries aims to paint a clear picture of existing sales challenges and how they are evolving.
We asked 350 sales professionals to tell us about the biggest challenges their buyers face when making purchasing decisions.
Buyers can be too comfortable with the status quo, adverse to the risk of something new and hesitant to stretch outside of their current comfort zones. They may be tired of change or skeptical. Even those who welcome change may feel degrees of concern, stress, or anxiety.
Comparing options is made increasingly complex with the more information there is to consider. When sellers present something that buyers consider irrelevant or not tied to their specific issues, it only adds to the noise in decision making.
With more decisions being made by committee, building internal consensus grows more difficult. Sellers who engage all stakeholders, providing relevant insights and demonstrating value, can help move the process along.
Creating a compelling case to combat the status quo doesn’t just mean sharing impact data. As mentioned earlier, impact shared must be specific and relevant to your buyer. To combat the buyer’s status quo, sellers should highlight the loss or risk associated with not changing. Address missed opportunity costs — the benefits unrealized — by staying put, and outline a clear path forward to make the change decision easier to make.
Remember, buying is an emotional process. Don’t forget to highlight the opportunities and potential for your buyer as well.
Help buyers compare options by presenting personalized insights, information, and perspective based on credible research or relevant experiences. Avoid overwhelming buyers with too much (and irrelevant) information.
by providing additional materials, working alongside them, and building their own relationships with stakeholders. | https://www.richardson.com/blog/selling-challenges-2017-buyers-decisions/ |
Two months from now, about 200 million people will be out of jobs due to the economic effects of the coronavirus (COVID-19).
The disruption of supply chains and reduction in demand are impacting businesses’ cash flows and profitability—in some cases permanently. To avert a possible credit freeze, regulators across the globe have introduced unprecedented financial measures, such as moratoria on credit repayments and extension of past-due days. Many have also published directives mandating credit providers to stop reporting negative data.
Policy makers should be mindful of the implications of these measures on credit information. Access to reliable credit information supports lending decisions, data-driven policy formulation, and compliance with Basel and other financial sector standards. Inaccurate and untimely data may result in creditors losing trust in credit information, which could slow the recovery from the crisis.
Credit bureaus (and registries) hold massive amounts of data and have the technology to support policy makers in formulating guidelines to allocate government funds to sectors and firms that have the strongest potential to survive and grow over the long run. Credit bureau data can also assist in credit classifications and in the expected IFRS (International Financial Reporting Standards) 9 credit loss computations. Without reliable information, creditors tend to lend only to existing clients, excluding any new customers. This could have a particularly negative impact on micro, small, and medium-sized enterprises (MSMEs).
Given the connection between fiscal, monetary, and prudential policies, governments should take a coordinated and holistic approach to policy formulation and implementation in a manner that preserves the integrity of credit information sharing systems. Because of the implications that prudential measures can have on credit reporting and how critical credit information systems are to enable these measures, the World Bank Group has proposed a series of phased interventions to respond to the COVID crisis. They include:
- In the stabilization or containment phase, responses are aimed at addressing the immediate needs of credit markets to ensure that credit flows from financial institutions to borrowers and enhances the financial stability and economic objectives of the prudential, fiscal, and monetary measures:
- Regulators and policymakers should enforce policy to report full-file credit information (both positive and negative) during COVID-19, utilize flags or codes to identify loans under forbearance, strengthen the capacity to utilize credit reporting information to support data-driven policy, and develop financial literacy programs to raise the awareness of borrowers.
- Credit reporting service providers (credit bureaus or registries) should provide training to ensure consistent interpretation and application of the data-reporting requirements, provide consumers and firms with digital access to free credit reports and scores, develop a COVID-19 rating for MSMEs to assess firms’ probability of survival, and activate their own business continuity plans.
- Credit providers should communicate the potential impact of payment agreements to borrowers, and coordinate with credit reporting service providers and other lenders to ensure consistent interpretation of policy directives.
- In the recovery phase, these measures would apply once the health crisis subsides, the lockdown ends, and businesses reopen:
- Regulators and policy makers should monitor the measures implemented in the first phase to ensure minimal or no effect on credit histories and risk scores of consumers and firms. They should also enhance capacity for handling complaints and disputes, recalibrate policies throughout the recovery phases using data from the credit reporting system, and enhance consumer and financial literacy programs.
- Credit reporting service providers should automate their complaint and dispute-handling processes, revise credit-scoring models based on performance during the crisis, and train credit and data providers on adjustments made due to the crisis.
- Credit providers should recalibrate internal scoring models and cater to segments not considered during the stabilization phase.
The World Bank Group is working with policy makers, regulators, and service providers to ensure the integrity of the credit information systems and promote healthy policies during the crisis. Among other things, the Bank Group chairs and hosts the Secretariat of the International Committee on Credit Reporting (ICCR)—the standard-setter on credit reporting—which recently issued a guidance note on the treatment of credit data in credit information systems during COVID-19.
In normal times, credit market activity relies on accurate information to enable creditors to take informed risk and grant effective credit. During a pandemic, when risks are amplified, the importance of credit reporting systems cannot be emphasized enough. | https://www.biia.com/why-credit-reporting-matters-in-formulating-policy-during-covid-19-response-and-recovery |
If you feel you meet the job description, please click here to review the positions’ Key Deliverables.
SEND RESUME TO: [email protected]
Position Title: Executive Assistant
Reports to: Chief Executive Officer/President
Field: Executive Administrative Support
Position summary:
Looking for an experienced, highly skilled Executive Assistant to support the CEO. Ready to hire an “A” player who values integrity and service to join the Team of a successful family owned manufacturing company. A Team Player, ready to sore with the coming growth wave of Manufacturing in the US.
To Provide high-level administrative support by conducting research, preparing reports, handling information requests, and performing administrative functions such as preparing correspondence, receiving visitors, arranging conference calls, travel arrangements and scheduling meetings/events. Many inter-companies involved so ability to handle high amounts of detail with accuracy, a must. Accounting/bookkeeping experience needed to support the CEO.
Position will require interaction with CEO’s personal ministry work.
Tasks:
- Maintain confidential nature of statistical, financial, personnel, and customer information.
- Maintain and coordinate dual calendars for CEO. Schedule appointments and maintain CEO appointment calendars for both corporate and personal commitments.
- May receive calls or questions to be routed to the appropriate person for both corporate customers and CEO personal commitments.
- Prepare and maintain an orderly filing system for corporate use. Prepare and maintain a separate system for CEO outside work.
- Prepare agendas and make arrangements for committee, board, and other meetings. May be required to attend meetings or seminars.
- Read and analyze incoming memos, submissions, and reports to determine their significance and plan their distribution.
- Perform general office duties such as ordering supplies, maintaining records management systems, and performing light bookkeeping and accounting
- File and retrieve corporate documents, records, and reports.
- Prepare responses to correspondence containing routine inquiries.
- Open, sort, and distribute incoming correspondence, including faxes and email.
- Must be proficient in Microsoft Office-Word, Excel, PP
Skills:
- Presentation – Must have professional interactive skills and present a positive manner and approach
- Active Listening – Giving full attention to what other people are saying, taking time to understand the points being made, and asking questions as appropriate.
- Reading Comprehension – Understanding written sentences and paragraphs in work related documents.
- Time Management – Managing one’s own time and the time of others.
- Multi-tasking – Must be able to work on more than one project at a time while handling interruptions.
- Speaking – Talking to others to convey information effectively.
- Writing – Communicating effectively in writing as appropriate for the needs of the audience.
- Critical Thinking – Using logic and reasoning to identify the strengths and weaknesses of alternative solutions, conclusions or approaches to problems. | https://evanstd.com/executive-assistant-position/ |
The rapid global spread of COVID-19 is with no doubt has changed the way we live and lead. It disrupted millions of humans’ lives and affecting the global economy. In dealing with this situation, organization is at the position to strive in this challenging condition and ensure the resiliency of their leaders. They are unlikely to go back to the old ways of doing things if they want to stay ahead of the competition. As countries continues to ease lockdown and adapt to new normal, resilience and agility are increasingly needed in every leader in order to bring organizations to bounce back and rise.
From brain perspective, resilience and agility share similar characteristics. Both are brain abilities that requires our capability to learn from experience and adapt to external environment. Both are also can be built over time through coaching, training, and experience – thanks to the neuroplasticity capacity of the brain that enables our brains to change. However, resilience and agility are distinctive abilities but still closely correlated one another.
Agility refers to how quickly a person could respond and adapt to the rapid and constant changes. A leader with an agile mindset is considered to be able to adapt flexibly by viewing problems from various perspectives, without being trapped in a polarized view. Agile leadership is also about being the change by fostering innovation, sharing, and collaboration in alignment with meaning and purpose1.
Resilience, on the other hand, is humans’ ability to endure the adversity and bounce back from the hardship. It depends on how well our brains adapt to difficulties. Neuroscience studies found that the level of resilience is determined by the connectivity between prefrontal cortex (PFC) and the amygdala in the brain2. The more brain signals going back and forth between the PFC and the amygdala, the better we are in managing negative emotions and adapting to bad experience.
While agility requires the speed of thought, accountability, and complex thinking abilities, both resilience and agility involve mental strength and cognitive flexibility in adapting to change. It means that brain’s resilience underlies the agility of a leader. When you are resilient enough, your brain will be able to function better to respond market changes quickly and handle all uncertainties.
Thus, what does it take to build sufficient resilience level for leaders across managerial levels within organization to be agile in adapting to new normal?
1. Developing leaders’ personal resilience with holistic approach
Personal resilience is a multidimensional construct that is measured by determination, endurance, adaptability, and recuperability3. To build such multidimensional abilities, your organization need to facilitate a multidimensional leadership development approach. Vibrant Resilience program from Vanaya enable leaders and talents to build physical, socio-emotional, cognitive, and spiritual resilience by facilitating leaders to rewire their own brain networks in a way that strengthens their personal resilience.
2. Build a learning organization to foster leadership resilience
One of the key organizational resilience characteristics is willingness and ability to learn from mistakes4. Organization can create a resilience support system by developing a learning culture through continuous improvement and reward system – not only to those who prevail, but also for those who bounce back higher. Other critical abilities of organizational resilience are the ability to deal with adverse events timely and anticipate the future5. Those two abilities are linked to the data-driven capability to effectively monitor the signals from operational environment and forecast future events based on historic data. Data-driven leaders are then those who will be able to translate data into actionable insights to create anticipative decisions and actions.
3. Bring mindfulness as a daily leadership practice at work
Mindful working involves the ability to focus and being aware of moment to moment experience. Recent neuroscience studies found that mindfulness helps leaders to deal better with stress and anxiety, and allows them to be more effective in decision-making, managing emotion, and enhancing creativity6. Inspired by the value of bringing mindfulness at work, many organizations – from Google to SAP – have started to equip their talents and leaders with mindfulness training and encouraging their leaders to start the day with mindfulness practice.
References:
https://www.agilebusiness.org/page/Resource_paper_nineprinciples
Herringa, R.J. al. (2016). Enhanced Prefrontal-Amygdala Connectivity Following Childhood Adversity as a Protective Mechanism Against Internalizing in Adolescence, Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging, 7 (1), 326-334.
Taormina, R.J. (2015). Adult Personal Resilience: A New Theory, New Measure, and Practical Implications, Psychological Thought, 8 (1), 35–46.
Annarelli, A., Battistella, C., and Nonino, F. (2020). A Framework to Evaluate the Effects of Organizational Resilience on Service Quality, Sustainability, 12 (958), 1-15.
Patriarca, R., et.al. (in press). An Analytic Framework to Assess Organizational Resilience, Safety and Health at Work.
Huang, F.Y., et.al. (2019). Mindfulness Improves Emotion Regulation and Executive Control on Bereaved Individuals: An fMRI Study, Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 12 (541), 1-10. | https://www.vanaya.co.id/post/building-leaders-brain-resilience-to-be-agile-in-new-normal |
Sample records for vocabulary effectively significant
The purpose of the study was to compare the effectiveness of hierarchy vocabulary exercises and copying vocabulary exercises on EFL students' vocabulary acquisition and reading comprehension. Two specific factors were probed: (a) vocabulary gains and retention from different exercises; (b) reading comprehension performance through different…
Ankara : The Department of Teaching English as a Foreign Language, Bilkent University, 2007. Thesis (Master's) -- Bilkent University, 2007. Includes bibliographical references leaves 82-87 This study investigated the effectiveness of vocabulary notebooks on vocabulary acquisition, and the attitudes of teachers and learners towards keeping vocabulary notebooks. The study was conducted with the participation of 60 pre-intermediate level students, divided into one treatment ...
Full Text Available The aim of this study was to find out the effect of using vocabulary flooding technique on Iranian EFL elementary learners’ vocabulary learning at the recognition level. A pretest-posttest control group design was used in this quasi-experimental research. The study was conducted at a secondary school in Sahand, a city located in the East-Azerbaijan province in Iran. Four intact grade-three classes were considered for the study. A KET test was administered and based on its results, two classes were selected as the homogenous ones, which were randomly assigned into the vocabulary flooding (experimental and no vocabulary flooding (control groups, each with 30 students. After the vocabulary recognition pretest, supplementary vocabulary teaching was used as the treatment in both groups. In the Experimental group, the target words were presented and practiced in flooding form, that is, in six or more sentences, while in the Control group, students were taught and practiced in only one sentence. After the treatment, two posttests (immediate and delayed were conducted in both groups. The results of the One-way within-subjects and between-subjects Repeated-Measures ANOVA revealed that there were statistically significant differences within and between the experimental and control groups in the three vocabulary recognition tests. It was found that the participants’ receptive vocabulary knowledge was improved in the experimental group as a result of using vocabulary flooding technique. The implications are provided for the syllabus designers, textbook writers and EFL teachers.
Full Text Available This study intended to inspect the possible effects of vocabulary cluster on Iranian Intermediate EFL learners' vocabulary achievement. It was based on the comparison between semantically and thematically –related sets to find out which type of vocabulary learning cluster was more effective on learners vocabulary learning. Sixty intermediate EFL learners were selected based on their performance on OPT test and then were randomly assigned into three groups each containing 20 subjects (one control and two experimental groups. Quasi-experimental design was used in which Pre-test and post-test were administered to collect data. The researcher employed Nations word level test as the pre-test to examine the participants' initial knowledge of common words. The experimental group (A worked on thematic clustering, while experimental group (B received instruction on semantic clustering and the control group received placebo. Next, all participants took part in vocabulary size test to evaluate the vocabulary achievement of the participants. The scores obtained from pre-test and post-test were analyzed through running paired sample t-test, and one-way ANOVA. The results indicated that the experimental group (B which received semantically related sets outperformed the control group & the experimental group (A which received thematically related sets. This may have significant implications for language instructors, syllabus designers, and learners to make more advancement in vocabulary learning process through employing vocabulary cluster.
We examined the effects of adaptive word retrieval intervention on a classroom vocabulary program on children's vocabulary acquisition in kindergarten. In the experimental condition, word retrieval was provided in a classroom vocabulary program, combining implicit and explicit vocabulary
The study enlightens the effectiveness of e-TLM in Learning Vocabulary in English at standard VI. Objectives of the study: 1. To find out the problems of conventional TLM in learning vocabulary in English. 2. To find out the significant difference in achievement mean score between the pre test of control group and the post test of control group.…
Breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge have been studied from many different perspectives, but the related literature lacks serious studies dealing with their effects on vocabulary profiles of EFL learners. In this paper, with an aim to fill this gap, the relative effects of breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge on L2 vocabulary profiles…
We examined the effects of adaptive word retrieval intervention on a classroom vocabulary program on children's vocabulary acquisition in kindergarten. In the experimental condition, word retrieval was provided in a classroom vocabulary program, combining implicit and explicit vocabulary instructions. Children performed extra word retrieval…
Full Text Available Vocabulary of any language undergoes a natural evolution. In many cases this centuries-long process is related to several factors, including the penetration of new words into the language lexis. Similarly, the historical development of the Slovak language and its enhancement can be observed by examining the adoption of words from other languages. At a time when Latin was the only official language as well as the language of scholars and religious institutions in the Hungarian Kingdom, the penetration of Latinisms into the lexis of the old Slovak was significant. This trend was still evident in the 18th and 19th centuries marked by the beginning revivalist efforts. Domestication of adopted words - that initially stood at the edge of the language standard - was significantly influenced by innovative trends and technologies. The study does not primarily examine penetration of foreign words from modern languages, but it aims to analyse the process of naturalisation of Latinisms in Slovak and their use at different language levels.
The study was conducted to find out the effectiveness of structural method of teaching vocabulary in English subject at secondary level. The population of the study was the students of secondary classes studying in Federal Government schools of Islamabad District. Purposive and random sampling techniques were applied to select the school, teachers…
Examines the effects of training Spanish-speaking parents in read-aloud techniques on the Spanish vocabulary development of their children aged five and six. Although not statistically significant, the results seem to favor the group that received training for five weeks versus a control group. The training increased parental involvement and had…
The purpose of this experimental study is to investigate the effects of using content acquisition podcasts (CAPs), an example of instructional technology, to provide vocabulary instruction to adolescents with and without learning disabilities (LD). A total of 279 urban high school students, including 30 with LD in an area related to reading, were randomly assigned to one of four experimental conditions with instruction occurring at individual computer terminals over a 3-week period. Each of the four conditions contained different configurations of multimedia-based instruction and evidence-based vocabulary instruction. Dependent measures of vocabulary knowledge indicated that students with LD who received vocabulary instruction using CAPs through an explicit instructional methodology and the keyword mnemonic strategy significantly outperformed other students with LD who were taught using the same content, but with multimedia instruction that did not adhere to a specific theoretical design framework. Results for general education students mirrored those for students with LD. Students also completed a satisfaction measure following instruction with multimedia and expressed overall agreement that CAPs are useful for learning vocabulary terms.
This study explored the relationship between two dimensions of vocabulary knowledge, that is, breadth of vocabulary (the number of words known) and depth of vocabulary (the richness of word knowledge), and their effects on different aspects of English reading in Chinese high school students learning English as a second language. Two hundred and…
This study explored the relationship between two dimensions of vocabulary knowledge, that is, breadth of vocabulary (the number of words known) and depth of vocabulary (the richness of word knowledge), and their effects on different aspects of English reading in Chinese high school students learning English as a second language. Two hundred and…
To investigate the effects of different techniques of vocabulary portfolio including word map, word wizard, concept wheel, visual thesaurus, and word rose on L2 vocabulary comprehension and production, a sample of 75 female EFL learners of Kish Day Language Institute in Karaj, Iran were selected. They were in five groups and each group received…
This study aims to investigate the effectiveness of vocabulary learning strategies on Iranian EFL learners' vocabulary test score. To achieve this aim, fifty Intermediate level students from Kish English Institute were randomly selected from among fifteen classes after administering the Oxford Placement Test (OPT). Then, an intermediate level…
The present study was conducted to investigate the effect of using vocabulary flash card on Iranian pre-university students' vocabulary knowledge. The participants of the study comprised 50 female learners. They were randomly assigned into two homogeneous groups each consisting of 25 learners. The control group received the traditional treatment…
Full Text Available Helping students develop vocabulary competence is one of the main challenges English language teachers face. This paper addresses the main aspects we should consider when planning and developing lessons in terms of vocabulary improvement. To achieve that objective, we will analyse the linguistic background and principles of vocabulary teaching and learning, as well as some ways of opening up vocabulary.
Two experiments examined whether the age of acquisition (AoA) of a concept influences the speed at which native English speakers are able to name pictures using a newly acquired second language (L2) vocabulary. In Experiment 1, participants were taught L2 words associated with pictures. In Experiment 2 a second group of participants were taught the same words associated with L1 translations. Following training both groups performed a picture naming task in which they were asked to name pictures using the newly acquired words. Significant AoA effects were observed only in Experiment 1, in that participants were faster at naming pictures representing early acquired relative to late acquired concepts. The results suggest that the AoA of a concept can exert influence over processing which is independent of the AoA of the word form. The results also indicate that different training methods may lead to qualitative differences in the nature of the links formed between words and concepts during the earliest stages of second language learning.
This paper aims to make a comparison between good and poor language learners in the use of vocabulary learning strategies.It will introduce some helpful vocabulary learning strategies to help those frustrated Chinese college non-English major learners.
Full Text Available The study is aimed at investigating the effectiveness of using picture chart media on students’ English vocabulary. The study belonged to pre-experimental study by applying counterbalance procedure to collect the data. The study was conducted at the class VII-5 at the SMPN 1 Palangka Raya. The number of the sample was 40 students. This study was restricted to focus on teaching vocabulary especially in classification of vocabulary. To answer the research problem, the t test for correlated was applied. The research findings showed that teaching vocabulary by using picture chart media gives effect toward the seventh grade students’ English vocabulary. The mean score of posttest reached higher score than the mean score of pretest (X=57.105 t table =2.021. Keywords: picture chart media, effectiveness, English vocabulary
Full Text Available Cognitive styles influence the performance of language learners and can predict their success in the process of language learning. Considering field dependence/independence cognitive styles, this study aims at determining if they are significant in English vocabulary knowledge. A number of EFL university students took part in the study. The investigation was done through using Vocabulary Size Test (VST (Nation, 2007 and the Group Embedded Figures Test (GEFT (Witkin, Oltman, Raskin, and Karp, 1971. Using the Vocabulary Size Test (VST, the participants were divided into three groups of high, mid, and low. Moreover, with respect to the Group Embedded Figures Test (GEFT, they were divided into two groups, field dependents and field independents. Mean score comparison revealed there was a credible and meaningful relationship between field dependence/independence cognitive styles and total vocabulary knowledge. It was also indicated there was a significant relationship between field dependence/independence cognitive styles and vocabulary knowledge in the high and mid groups. Finally, based on the findings, teachers should take learners’ individual differences into consideration so that they could adopt and apply teaching methods in line with the learners’ various cognitive styles.
There are many important factors to help learn English better.In learning English, vocabulary could be very important part because it is a fundamental element to form a sentence. So many English teachers try very hard to use different and new ways to make their vocabulary teaching effective, and also improve students’ability of using the language. Here we are going to see what kinds of new ways an English teacher can use to help students to learn English vocabulary better.
The present study was designed to investigate empirically the effect of Vocabulary Self-Selection strategy and Input Enhancement strategy on the vocabulary knowledge of Iranian EFL Learners. After taking a diagnostic pretest, both experimental groups enrolled in two classes. Learners who practiced Vocabulary Self-Selection were allowed to…
This study focused on the effect of teaching vocabulary through semantic mapping on the awareness of two affective dimensions, evaluation and potency dimensions of deep vocabulary knowledge as well as the general vocabulary knowledge of EFL students. Sixty intermediate EFL female adult learners participated in this study; they were chosen among 90…
Full Text Available Video games are potential sources of second language input; however, the medium’s fundamental characteristic, interactivity, has not been thoroughly examined in terms of its effect on learning outcomes. This experimental study investigated to what degree, if at all, video game interactivity would help or hinder the noticing and recall of second language vocabulary. Eighty randomly-selected Japanese university undergraduates were paired based on similar English language and game proficiencies. One subject played an English-language music video game for 20 minutes while the paired subject watched the game simultaneously on another monitor. Following gameplay, a vocabulary recall test, a cognitive load measure, an experience questionnaire, and a two-week delayed vocabulary recall test were administered. Results were analyzed using paired samples t-tests and various analyses of variance. Both the players and the watchers of the video game recalled vocabulary from the game, but the players recalled significantly less vocabulary than the watchers. This seems to be a result of the extraneous cognitive load induced by the interactivity of the game; the players perceived the game and its language to be significantly more difficult than the watchers did. Players also reported difficulty simultaneously attending to gameplay and vocabulary. Both players and watchers forgot significant amounts of vocabulary over the course of the study. We relate these findings to theories and studies of vocabulary acquisition and video game-based language learning, and then suggest implications for language teaching and learning with interactive multimedia.
This study examines the effect of the translation of traditional scientific vocabulary into plain English, a process referred to as Anglicization, on student learning in the context of introductory microbiology instruction. Data from Anglicized and Classical-vocabulary lab sections were collected. Data included exam scores as well as pre and…
This study examines the effect of the translation of traditional scientific vocabulary into plain English, a process referred to as Anglicization, on student learning in the context of introductory microbiology instruction. Data from Anglicized and Classical-vocabulary lab sections were collected. Data included exam scores as well as pre and…
This paper aims to make a comparison between good and poor language learners in the use of vocabulary learning strat-egies. It will introduce some helpful vocabulary learning strategies to help those frustrated Chinese college non-English major learners.
Full Text Available The present empirical study was conducted to compare instructed vocabulary teaching and incidental vocabulary acquisition that are two common approaches to teaching second language (L2 vocabulary in the literature. For this purpose, 53 Iran learners of English as a Foreign Language were selected from a larger sample and were then randomly assigned into a control group and two experimental groups as the participants of the study. The participants in the groups received placebo instruction while those in the experimental groups were either explicitly instructed or incidentally exposed to a number of targeted words (TWs selected for the purposes of the study. The results of an immediate posttest of the TWs demonstrated that the participants in both experimental groups benefited from instruction on/exposure to the TWs compared to the participants in the control group who were neither instructed on nor exposed to the TWs. The results of a delayed posttest indicated that, though there was a difference between the two experimental groups in the immediate posttest with respect to the acquisition of the TWs, the difference faded away in five-week interval as the experimental groups performed rather similarly on the delayed posttest. At the end, the implication of these findings for L2 vocabulary research and pedagogy would be discussed, along with some suggestions for researchers who wish to follow this trend of research. Keywords: Intentional Vocabulary Teaching, Incidental Vocabulary Acquisition, Short-Term Effects, Long-Term Effects, Target Words
Vocabulary acquisition has been a main concern of EFL English teachers and learners. There have been tons of research to examine the student's level of receptive vocabulary and productive vocabulary, but no research has conducted on how turning receptive vocabulary into productive vocabulary. This study has reported the impact of the teaching…
Full Text Available Vocabulary learning is an on-going and life-long process, which is greatly influenced by individual differences. It has been noted that there is inefficient self-directed FL vocabulary learning of college students in mainland China and non-individualized learning may be one of the major reasons. As one of the most significant individual differences, a student’s learning style is supposed to largely determine their selection of learning strategies and have an effect on learning outcomes. This paper focuses on categorizing diversified vocabulary learning tasks which activate various vocabulary learning strategies, and integrating them into a learning system along particular learning paths to cater for different learning styles. The system is also tested in an empirical study for the purpose of checking the effects of these learning paths.
Full Text Available The aims of this result to reveal the integrated of vocabulary and effective sentence mastery against the argumentation writing skill students’ PBI-SU FITK UIN the hypothesis proposed in this results are : (1 vocabulary mastery contribute to the argument to the arguments writing skill of students; (2 effective sentence mastery contribute to the argument writing skill of student; (3 vocabulary mastery and effective sentence mastery together contribute to the argument writing skill of students. This result uses a quantitative approach. The population in this study is PBI UIN-SU as many as 6 classes. As for the samples in this result are students of class II. By using cluster random sampling, obtained a sample of 140 students. The instrument used is a test. These results indicate that: (1 vocabulary mastery contributed positively and significantly to the argument essay writing skills of students. The amount of contribution is 18.4%; (2 Effective sentence mastery contribute positively and significantly to the argument essay writing skills of students. The amount of contribution is 11.7%; (3 mastery of vocabulary and mastery of effective sentences together contributed positively and significantly to the argument essay writing skills of students. The major contribution is 26.5%; (4 mastering vocabulary to effectively contribute by 16.39% against the argument essay writing skills of students; (5 Mastery effective sentence effectively contribute 13.11% against the argument essay writing skills of students. Based on the results of this study, it was concluded that the vocabulary and mastery of effective sentences are the two factors that influence the argument essay writing skills of students in addition to other factors. Therefore, the researchers suggest to all parties concerned to pay more attention to these two factors so that students' skills in essay writing can be further improved.
The link between vocabulary and later literacy is well documented in the research base. One way children gain vocabulary is through incidental learning. Deaf or hard-of-hearing children (D/HH) often struggle with incidental learning and require vocabulary intervention to increase their lexicon. An effectivevocabulary intervention is storybook…
The link between vocabulary and later literacy is well documented in the research base. One way children gain vocabulary is through incidental learning. Deaf or hard-of-hearing children (D/HH) often struggle with incidental learning and require vocabulary intervention to increase their lexicon. An effectivevocabulary intervention is storybook…
The present study mainly investigated the effects of vocabulary knowledge and dictionary use on EFL reading performance. The results show that scores on vocabulary size, specific vocabulary knowledge, and reading comprehension are highly and positively correlated. Scores on specific vocabulary knowledge are more closely correlated with reading…
Full Text Available In our modern technological world, Computer-Assisted Language learning (CALL is a new realm towards learning a language in general, and learning L2 vocabulary in particular. It is assumed that the use of multimedia annotations promotes language learners’ vocabulary acquisition. Therefore, this study set out to investigate the effects of different multimedia annotations (still picture annotations, dynamic picture annotations, and written annotations on L2 vocabulary learning. To fulfill this objective, the researchers selected sixty four EFL learners as the participants of this study. The participants were randomly assigned to one of the four groups: a control group that received no annotations and three experimental groups that received: still picture annotations, dynamic picture annotations, and written annotations. Each participant was required to take a pre-test. A vocabulary post- test was also designed and administered to the participants in order to assess the efficacy of each annotation. First for each group a paired t-test was conducted between their pre and post test scores in order to observe their improvement; then through an ANCOVA test the performance of four groups was compared. The results showed that using multimedia annotations resulted in a significant difference in the participants’ vocabulary learning. Based on the results of the present study, multimedia annotations are suggested as a vocabulary teaching strategy.
Full Text Available EFL students, particularly Iranian students, usually feel bored in vocabulary lessons because they have not changed their learning habits, such as writing words on paper, trying to learn by heart or learning passively through the teacher's explanations. To help students find language classes, especially vocabulary lessons more interesting in EFL context, and to achieve more from games, the study conducted action research to find the answer to the question, "Do games help English Language Learners learn vocabularyeffectively, and if so, how?" Most academic reviews start from an assumption that games are beneficial. However, this study singled out the component of games to study that in isolation. After reviewing academic opinions on this specifically focused matter, of which there are relatively few, the researcher began action research which included applying games in our own classes, observing other teachers' classes, and interviewing both teachers and learners so as to elicit students' reactions, feelings and the effectiveness of games in vocabulary learning. The research shows they are effective in helping students to improve their vocabulary building skills.
Vocabulary notebooks are one way of promoting learner independence. Introducing vocabulary notebooks to provide the learners with an area of language learning where they could be given a relatively high level of independence that would build their confidence in their ability to act independently in terms of vocabulary learning. This article is focused on the effectiveness of keeping the vocabulary notebooks to empower the learner’s independence on their foreign language learning and also to e...
The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of three different screen sizes (small, medium and large) and two types of multimedia instruction (text only and text with pictorial annotation) on vocabulary learning. One hundred thirty-five Korean middle school students learning English as a foreign language were randomly distributed…
This study was designed to examine the effect of the redundancy principle in a multimedia presentation constructed for foreign language vocabulary learning on undergraduate students' retention. The underlying hypothesis of this study is that when the students are exposed to the material in multiple ways through animation, concurrent narration,…
This study was designed to examine the effect of the redundancy principle in a multimedia presentation constructed for foreign language vocabulary learning on undergraduate students' retention. The underlying hypothesis of this study is that when the students are exposed to the material in multiple ways through animation, concurrent narration,…
Full Text Available The present study investigated the effects of selected presentation techniques including the keyword method, the peg word method, the loci method, argument mapping, concept mapping and mind mapping on L2 vocabulary comprehension and production. To this end, a sample of 151 Iranian female students from a public pre-university school in Islam Shahr was selected. They were assigned to six groups. Each group was randomly assigned to one of the afore-mentioned treatment conditions. After the experimental period, two post-tests in multiple choice and fill-in-the-blanks formats were administered to assess the participants’ vocabulary comprehension and production. Two independent One-Way ANOVA procedures were used to analyze the obtained data. The results showed that the differences among the effects of the above-mentioned techniques were statistically significant in both vocabulary comprehension and production. These findings can have implications for learners, teachers, and materials’ developers.
This ten-week quasi-experimental study was undertaken to explore the effectiveness of strategies-based vocabulary instruction on English vocabulary learning of postgraduate learners.By the questionnaires and vocabulary tests administered before and after the instruction, the experimental group and the control group were compared to find out whether reading comprehension plus SBI method was more effective than reading only method in postgraduates' English vocabulary learning.
Vocabulary as a significant component of language learning has been widely researched. As well, it is well documented that vocabulary could be learned through listening and reading. In addition, measuring productive vocabulary has been a chief concern among scholars. However, few studies have focused on meaning-focused listening input and its…
This study investigates the relationship between nonword repetition (NWR) and vocabulary in 2-year-olds. Questions addressed are whether (1) NWR and vocabulary are associated, (2) phonotactic probability affects NWR, and (3) there is an interaction effect between phonotactic probability and vocabulary on NWR performance. The general aim of the…
Many scholars in language learning and teaching agree that vocabulary plays a vital role in a language learning. However, the way the vocabulary is presented to language learners, whether explicitly or implicitly, becomes central discussion in language literature. This study investigated the effect of explicit and implicit vocabulary instructions…
EFL learners at all ages and proficiency levels are usually confronted with various problems in vocabulary learning and retention. This study sought to introduce strategies for improvement of vocabulary learning and retention. Therefore, the effects of using aural/visual storytelling on Iranian EFL learners' vocabulary learning and retention were…
Vocabulary plays a pivotal role in the ESL classroom. Whereas a considerable amount of research has examined effective ESL vocabulary teaching and learning, missing are studies that provide examples of how to put various research findings into practice: that is, apply them to real texts including target vocabulary items. In order to close the gap…
Vocabulary plays a pivotal role in the ESL classroom. Whereas a considerable amount of research has examined effective ESL vocabulary teaching and learning, missing are studies that provide examples of how to put various research findings into practice: that is, apply them to real texts including target vocabulary items. In order to close the gap…
Studies of incidental vocabulary acquisition in second language learning have got more and more attention both at home and abroad. By first introducing the definition and theoretical foundations of incidental vocabulary acquisition, this paper reviews empirical studies of effect of different tasks on incidental vocabulary acquisition and points…
The main aim of this study was to find out which type of vocabulary cluster--semantic, thematic and unrelated--very young learners benefit from the most while learning foreign language vocabulary. The study also aimed at shedding light on the effects of these three vocabulary clusters on the immediate and delayed recall of foreign language…
Full Text Available The purpose of this article is to present the content, conceptual structure and methodological steps of the latest revision of the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT-III, which is a highly functional and valuable vocabulary test that has been in use since 1959 in different language and cultural surroundings. On the case of the PPVT-III we are presenting the procedure of development and standardization of such vocabulary tests as well as its translation and adaptation from one language and cultural milieu to another. We also note the practical use of the PPVT-III for research purposes. In Slovenian language no vocabulary tests were developed or adapted so far; PPVT-III is presented in this context, too.
The purpose of this study was to provide professional development in vocabulary instructional practices and analyze the impact on student achievement. This quasi-experimental study utilized the PLC to curriculum map English/Language Arts state academic vocabulary words in K-4 into each of the four nine-weeks. The first through fourth grade…
Full Text Available This study investigated the effects of captioned texts on second/foreign (L2 listening comprehension and vocabulary gains using a computer multimedia program. Additionally, it explored the caption ordering effect (i.e. captions displayed during the first or second listening, and the interaction of captioning order with the L2 proficiency level of language learners in listening comprehension and vocabulary performance. To these ends, a computer software program was designed and 200 EFL learners (100 high-intermediate and 100 low-intermediate level students were asked to participate in the experiment. They were randomly assigned into four groups: captioned (listening to texts twice with captions, noncaptioned (listening to texts twice without captions, first captioned (listening to texts first with captions and then without captions, and second captioned (listening to texts first without captions and then with captions groups. They listened to four audio texts (i.e. short stories twice and took the listening and vocabulary tests, administered through the software. Results from t-tests and two-way ANOVAs showed that the captioned stories were more effective than the non-captioned ones. Moreover, the caption ordering had no significanteffect on the participants' L2 listening comprehension and vocabulary performance. Finally, L2 proficiency level differences did not affect performance derived from caption ordering.
The link between vocabulary and later literacy is well documented in the research base. One way children gain vocabulary is through incidental learning. Deaf or hard-of-hearing children (D/HH) often struggle with incidental learning and require vocabulary intervention to increase their lexicon. An effectivevocabulary intervention is storybook reading. When dialogic methods are added to storybook reading, the gains are greater than with traditional storybook reading. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of an enhanced storybook reading intervention, which included scripted questions and picture prompts, on the vocabulary of young signing D/HH children. We utilized a multiple baseline across content probe design. We discovered a functional relation between the storybook intervention and picture vocabulary identification for several participants. This outcome offers insight into appropriate interventions to increase vocabulary for signing D/HH children.
Full Text Available This quasi-experimental study examined the effects of different glossing conditions on English as a foreign language (EFL learners’ vocabulary recall. To this end, five glossing conditions were adopted (i.e., inference-gloss-gloss, gloss-retrieval-gloss, inference-gloss-retrieval-gloss, gloss-retrieval-gloss-retrieval, and full glossing. The participants were 140 MA students of Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL. They were randomly assigned to one glossing condition to read an English reading passage. Five target words were glossed in different glossing conditions within a reading passage. To ensure the participants’ attention focused on the reading material, the participants were told that a multiple-choice reading comprehension test would be administrated. Afterward, two vocabulary tests (i.e., form recall and meaning recall were conducted. The results of one-way MANOVAs and the post hoc Scheffé tests revealed that the full glossing condition group did significantly better than other glossing groups in vocabulary form recall, whereas the gloss-retrieval-gloss-retrieval condition group outperformed other four groups in vocabulary meaning recall.
This study examines the effect of two vocabulary instruction treatments on word retention by 56 EFL learners. In particular, it focuses on the differential effects of a message-oriented treatment (reading text and answering comprehension questions) and a vocabulary-oriented treatment (reading text and performing two vocabulary tasks) on learners'…
Full Text Available The effect of explicit instruction of clustering new thematic vocabulary items into two different categories through hyperlinks of PowerPoint was examined on vocabulary learning of 75 Iranian intermediate EFL learners. The sample was randomly assigned to three groups. Experimental group 1 received the meaning of new words in their First Language (L1 translation via PowerPoint, while experimental group 2 received the meanings in English definition in the same way; control group learned the meanings through a traditional method of instruction without employing any specific strategy. To measure the participants’ vocabulary learning, a pretest and a posttest were administered to all groups. The result of t-test indicated that such explicit strategy instruction enhanced vocabulary learning of the experimental groups. According to the results of One-Way ANOVA, although there was no significant difference between the experimental groups, a significant difference was observed between the experimental groups and the control group in vocabulary learning.Keywords: CALL (Computer-Assisted Language Learning; hyperlinks; explicit strategy instruction; L1 translation, English definition; vocabulary learning
Oral vocabulary is a strong predictor of young children's later reading development. Many children enter kindergarten with weak vocabulary knowledge and could benefit from an extra level or higher tier of intentional instruction in vocabulary that supplements the Tier 1 core curriculum in language. Recent findings from research developing a…
@@ 1.The Present Situation of English Vocabulary Learning in Ordinary Universities In the present English vocabulary learning among non-English majors in China,lack of scientific memorization metheds is still a fundamental problem to college students,and vocabulary is still learned in the traditional way.Then,it is necessary for us to suggest some elaborative rehearsal strategies and test the effect of these strategies in English learning practice.As a book titled as Short-Passages for College English Vocabulary(SPFCEV)edited by Prof.
In the past, vocabulary teaching and learning were often given little priority in second language programs but recently there has been a renewed interest in the nature of vocabulary and its role in learning and teaching. Although most teachers might be aware of the importance of technology, say, computer, rarely teachers use it for teaching vocabulary. Thus, the current study aims at exploring the effects of CALL on vocabulary learning of Iranian EFL Learners. In this study, 40 intermediate E...
This study examines (1) the effects of hypertext gloss use on L2 vocabulary acquisition in computerized reading contexts; (2) which specific combination of either text-only (single) or text + visual (multiple) hypertext glosses is more effective on L2 vocabulary acquisition; and (3) potential moderators to systematically account for between study…
Examines which of the image modalities--dynamic video or still picture--is more effective in aiding vocabulary acquisition. Thirty English-as-a-Second-Language students were introduced to a hypermedia-learning program, designed for reading comprehension. Concludes that a video clip is more effective in teaching unknown vocabulary words than a…
The present study investigated the contribution of morphological and cognate awareness to the development of English and French vocabulary knowledge among young minority and majority language children who were enrolled in a French immersion program. Participating children (n = 75) were assessed in English and French on measures of morphological awareness, cognate awareness, and vocabulary knowledge from Grades 1 to 3. Hierarchical linear modeling was used to investigate linear trends in English and French vocabulary growth for minority and majority language children and to identify metalinguistic contributions to Grade 1 and Grade 3 English and French vocabulary performance and rate of growth. Results demonstrated a similar pattern of prediction for both groups of children. English and French morphological awareness and French-English cognate awareness significantly predicted concurrent and longitudinal vocabulary development after controlling for nonverbal reasoning, phonological awareness, and word identification. The contributions of morphological awareness to English vocabulary and cognate awareness to French vocabulary strengthened between Grades 1 and 2. These findings highlight the emerging importance of morphological and cognate awareness in children's vocabulary development and suggest that these metalinguistic factors can serve to broaden the vocabulary repertoire of children who enter school with limited language proficiency. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2017 APA, all rights reserved).
. The vocabulary knowledge was examined by means of multiple-choice pre- and post-tests which were administered to all student participants. The choices included a scientific synonym, an everyday synonym, and a synonym based on a common misconception related to the term. Student understanding of the chemistry content was examined using chemistry content understanding pre- and post-tests comprised of four probes based on the National Science Education Standards (National Research Council, 1996) and linked to common student misconceptions which were administered to all student participants. Vocabulary knowledge effect scores were compared between the TG and CG using a t-test. Only a slight gain in vocabulary knowledge mean effect scores was found in the TG compared to the CG; however, it was not statistically significant. Chemistry content understanding effect scores were compared between the TG and CG using Chi-square analysis. The results of the chemistry content understanding effect scores in the TG compared to the CG showed that the student participants in the CG did significantly better. Chemistry content understanding effect scores and vocabulary knowledge effect scores were compared using a t-test. Chapter V provides explanations for the results which do not corroborate those found by other researchers. The researcher contends that the use of the Frayer model for specific terms in content across the curriculum is worth further study.
Full Text Available There has been exciting and serious progress in the field of computers for teaching English. Identification of the most effective methods is essential to make teaching and learning more efficient. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of using multiple content forms in web-based instruction on students’ English vocabulary learning. The study was conducted at the Compulsory Preparatory Program of a state university located in the Black Sea region of Turkey with 106 students. The factorial research design was used to conduct the study. Thus, the effect of using multiple content forms in web-based instruction on students’ English vocabulary learning was analyzed.The vocabulary level of students was measured with a web-based multiple choice English vocabulary achievement test. The measure of internal consistency of the English vocabulary achievement test was 0.966. The findings of this study indicate that, in vocabulary teaching, providing definitions in an audio format in English is more effective in teaching English vocabulary than providing the same definitions in an audio format in English accompanied with pictures. Mobile devices which eliminate the time and distance limitations can be used in further studies with developmental applications to investigate the effects on students’ English vocabulary learning.
Vocabulary is very necessary in language teaching and acquisition.If students have a certain amount of vocabulary,they will overcome many difficulties in reading.listening、 speaking and writing.In vocabulary teaching,scholars have been working hard to find better ways.This paper attempts to find how to improve students’ enthusiasm of learning vocabulary and teach vocabulary more successfully and effectively.
Our study aimed at finding out the effectiveness of corpus-based vocabulary teaching activities as well as students' attitudes towards concordance-based materials when corpus-based tasks in English vocabulary learning are used. The study was conducted in a preparatory school in a private university. The participants were 28 intermediate level…
Purpose: Individual differences in vocabulary development may affect academic or social opportunities. It has been proposed that individual differences in word reading could affect the rate of vocabulary growth, mediated by the amount of reading experience, a process referred to as a "Matthew effect" (Stanovich, 1986). Method: In the…
The effectiveness of three instructional approaches was investigated in a study of how best to facilitate vocabulary acquisition. The three approaches were (1) the cognitive approach, a method employing dictionary worksheets and patterned after the most commonly used method of teaching vocabulary; (2) the affective approach, which urged students…
Because learning English is extremely popular in non-native English speaking countries, developing modern assisted-learning schemes that facilitate effective English learning is a critical issue in English-language education. Vocabulary learning is vital within English learning because vocabulary comprises the basic building blocks of English…
Presents the findings of an experiment conducted to determine the efficacy of the suggestopedia method (learning through suggestion, relaxation, and concentration) in teaching English vocabulary to 90 Spanish-dominant third graders. Reports that suggestopedia was found to be more effective than a control method for teaching vocabulary. (DR)
Within the framework of foreign language teaching and learning, reading strategies, depth of vocabulary knowledge and text inferencing skills have not been researched extensively. This study tries to fill this gap by analyzing the effects of reading strategies used by Turkish EFL learners and their depth of vocabulary knowledge on their text…
Presents the findings of an experiment conducted to determine the efficacy of the suggestopedia method (learning through suggestion, relaxation, and concentration) in teaching English vocabulary to 90 Spanish-dominant third graders. Reports that suggestopedia was found to be more effective than a control method for teaching vocabulary. (DR)
This study examines socioeconomic status (SES), English language proficiency (ELP), vocabulary proficiency (VP), and math proficiency (MP) of students to determine if SES, as determined by the Free and Reduced Lunch Program (FRL), as well as English language proficiency (ELP) and vocabulary proficiency (VP), as measured by CELLA scale scores and…
Word is one of the most important components of a natural language. Speech is meaningful because of the meanings of words. Vocabulary acquired in one's mother tongue is learned consciously in a foreign language in non-native settings. Learning vocabulary in a system based on grammar is generally neglected or learned in conventional ways. This…
Investigated the number of times a word must be encountered in order to be learned and the types of contexts that are conducive to learning in a vocabulary acquisition study with Quebec school-aged English-as-a-Second-Language learners at five levels of proficiency. Learners read text and were tested on new vocabulary and learned and unlearned…
Full Text Available This case study examines the effectiveness of using mnemonic techniques in learning English vocabularies. This study looks into students’ perspectives and point of view of the mnemonic technique in teaching and learning English vocabularies. The selected respondents are students who are currently learning English subject in a primary school. Their English teachers will teach the students about English vocabulary with and without using the mnemonic technique. A set of questionnaire will be given to the students. The result received from the questionnaire will be used to help in obtaining the data for the research. The aim of this study is to know the effectiveness of using mnemonic techniques in learning English vocabularies as well as the students’ response towards the technique. This research will help to recommend future English teachers with guidance and thoughts that should be taken into consideration when teaching English vocabularies to their students.
Full Text Available The significance and impact of vocabulary learning in reading comprehension and L2 language learning are apparent to teachers, researchers and language learners. Moreover, glosses are found as one of the most effective strategies regarding vocabulary retention. Therefore, the present study attempted to investigate the effect of different types of glosses on reading comprehension, vocabulary gain and vocabulary retention. To this end, 140 Iranian EFL learners learning English were selected and were divided into four groups (footnote gloss group, interlinear gloss group, marginal gloss group, and glossary group. They were required to read a text and answer four reading comprehension questions. In addition, one immediate vocabulary post-test and one delayed vocabulary post-test were taken in order to investigate learners' vocabulary gain and vocabulary retention. In order to analyze the data, one one-way ANOVA and one MANOVA were run. The results of one-way ANOVA revealed that participants who received interlinear glosses significantly outperformed the other groups regarding comprehending the text. Moreover, the immediate vocabulary post-test was conducted immediately after reading test and the delayed post-test was administered after four weeks. The results of MANOVA indicated that the group which received interlinear glosses outperformed the other groups in both vocabulary gain and vocabulary retention. The present study has implications for teachers and learners. Teachers can find better methods to teach new reading passages as well as vocabulary items. Also, glosses help learners to have a better comprehension of difficult passages and they facilitate learning. Moreover, learners can enhance their vocabulary knowledge with the help of glosses. Keywords: footnote gloss, interlinear gloss, marginal gloss, glossary, Iranian EFL learners, reading comprehension, vocabulary gain, vocabulary retention
Full Text Available This study intended to investigate the comparative effectiveness of keyword and context method on immediate and delayed vocabulary retention of EFL learners. It also compared the rate of forgetting in the keyword and context groups. With a quasi experimental design, 40 learners from two intact classes in a language teaching institute in Khorramabad, Iran, were randomly assigned to the keyword and context group. The keyword group received the keyword strategy training, while the context group focused on learning vocabulary in their real context. The result indicated that learners in the keyword group recalled more vocabulary immediately after training and one week later. The results also indicated the rate of forgetting is more in the context group than in the keyword group.Key words: Vocabulary Learning, Keyword Strategy, Context Strategy, Vocabulary Retention
The current study investigated the role of spatial distance in word learning. Two-year-old children saw three novel objects named while the objects were either in close proximity to each other or spatially separated. Children were then tested on their retention for the name-object associations. Keeping the objects spatially separated from each other during naming was associated with increased retention for children with larger vocabularies. Children with a lower vocabulary size demonstrated better retention if they saw objects in close proximity to each other during naming. This demonstrates that keeping a clear view of objects during naming improves word learning for children who have already learned many words, but keeping objects within close proximal range is better for children at earlier stages of vocabulary acquisition. The effect of distance is therefore not equal across varying vocabulary sizes. The influences of visual crowding, cognitive load, and vocabulary size on word learning are discussed.
Full Text Available For almost four decades, ESL/EFL scholars have been trying to find which learning type, contextualized vs. decontextualized, leads to better vocabulary acquisition and retention. In an attempt to solve this problem, this study tried to examine the possible effectiveness of using humorous context on vocabulary acquisition and retention. Another issue that was undertaken in the present study was comparing the efficiency of contextualized and decontextualized vocabulary learning and retention. For this purpose, 58 Iranian EFL learners were categorized into 3 groups: a humorous, b non-humorous, and c decontextualized. The findings were analyzed using one-way ANOVA and Tukey post hoc test. As the results revealed, the participants in decontextualized group outperformed the participants in both humorous and non-humorous groups. However, it should be noted that the performance of humorous group was significantly better than the performance of non-humorous group.
Closing the vocabulary gap for young children at risk for reading and language delays due to low socioeconomic status may have far reaching effects, as the relationship between early vocabulary knowledge and later academic achievement has been well-established. Vocabulary instruction for young children at risk for reading and language delays…
Full Text Available Words are building blocks of a meaningful communication, which make them very significant in terms of languages. Vocabulary is always one of the most important grade when the point is foreign or second language learning and teaching. Many people must have seen images or pictures and sentence examples being used to enable learners to learn new vocabulary. Some think pictures are more efficient on vocabulary learning while others think the more efficient ones are sentences. The purpose of this study is to find which technique is more efficient; sentence examples or pictures. To find an answer to this question, 20 Turkish speaking, Uludağ University students, whose ages ranged from 18 to 25 and who studied English as a foreign language at least one term, participated in the study on the days between 22 and 30 April in 2016. They did it in cafes, at Uludağ University and in a girls' dormitory, so we can say the majority of the participants were females. Their level were neither tested nor asked because there was no specific level demanded for participating in the research. Firstly, they were given a pre-test on which there were 20 English words with a blank next to each word. The participants were requested to write the Turkish translations or meanings of the 20 target words next to the words, in the blanks. Then, 10 of them have received paper on which there were pictures that represented the target words (Picture Group and the other 10 have received paper on which there were sentence examples including the target words and their Turkish translations except for the target words’ translations (Sentence Group. The two groups examined the paper. Soon after, all of them were given the post-test which were the same as pre-test. They tried to write the Turkish translations or meanings of the target words again on the post-test. Their pre-test and post-test results were compared and the per cent of the gap between the results of the pre-test and
This paper is an article review that makes comments on The Effects of Vocabulary Breadth and Depth on English Reading exploring the relationship between vocabulary breadth and depth and their effects on different aspects of English reading. There are three sections in this paper,including the general introduction,the analysis and the conclusion,which discusses the advantages and disadvantages of this article.
This paper is an article review that makes comments on The Effects of Vocabulary Breadth and Depth on English Reading exploring the relationship between vocabulary breadth and depth and their effects on different aspects of English reading.There are three sections in this paper,including the general introduction,the analysis and the conclusion,which discusses the advantages and disadvantages of this article.
Full Text Available Over the past decades, the potential for the direct use of corpora known as data driven learning (DDL has gained great prominence in English language classrooms. A substantial number of empirical studies demonstrated that DDL instruction positively affects students’ learning. As learning outcomes can be affected by individual differences, some researchers have investigated the efficiency of DDL in the light of learners’ different characteristics to determine the type of learners who were more responsive to DDL. The DDL literature has indicated the need for more research addressing for whom DDL best suits. Therefore, the aim of the current study was to examine whether or not learners’ predominant intelligences were significant predictors of DDL learning outcomes. The sample for this study included 30 female EFL Yemeni students at Sana’a University. The study used three primary instruments: a multiple intelligence questionnaire, a posttest and a delayed test on the vocabulary that was taught using DDL. The result of the correlation analyses between the participants’ three identified predominant intelligences and their performances in the posttest and delayed test showed an insignificant relationship between the variables. The regression analyses results also revealed that the predominant intelligences insignificantly predicted the participants’ posttest and delayed test performances. Based on these findings, learners’ needs and preferences should be activated and addressed by classroom instructions for creating a diverse and motivating learning environment. Keywords: corpora, DDL, individual differences, IQ, multiple intelligences
grade science teachers and approximately 700 fifth grade students in a medium-sized (approximately 16,000 students) school district in southeast Texas participated in the study. The model of systematic vocabulary instruction applied in this study combined best practice from the fields of reading and science instruction. While the results indicated a statistically significant F-ratio (F = 13.22, p vocabulary instruction in science), the effect size (d = +0.13) did not imply educational significance. Based on this somewhat unsettled outcome, the usefulness of this assemblage of strategies may yet be proven as a valuable instructional model, or it may simply be abandoned as a step in the evolutionary progression toward a genome for instructional effectiveness in elementary science. Understanding the extent to which best practice vocabulary instruction from the field of literacy education may be balanced with inquiry instruction from the field of science education may begin to improve the deficient state of science education. Most especially at the elementary level, where teachers are more likely to be familiar with the pedagogy of reading than any other content area, a familiar approach lent different content may render increased effectiveness in teaching elementary science students.
The purpose of this study was to investigate whether an emergent literacy professional development program enhanced educators' use of vocabulary-teaching strategies during shared reading with small groups of pre-schoolers. Thirty-two pre-school educators and small groups of pre-schoolers from their classrooms were randomly assigned to experimental or comparison groups. The 15 educators in the experimental group received four in-service workshops as well as five individualized classroom coaching sessions. The comparison group received only the workshops. Each educator was video-recorded reading a storybook to a small group of pre-schoolers at pre-test and post-test. The videos were transcribed and coded to yield measures of the vocabulary-teaching strategies and children's vocabulary-related talk. The findings revealed that the children in the experimental group engaged in significantly more vocabulary-related talk relative to the comparison group. A non-significant trend in the data indicated that educators in the experimental group used more vocabulary-teaching strategies at post-test. The educators' familiarity with children's authors and book titles at pre-test was a significant predictor of their outcomes. These findings suggest that an emergent literacy professional development program that includes coaching can enhance children's participation in vocabulary-related conversations with their educators.
This study compares two ways of vocabulary instruction in an English as a Foreign Language class. With this research I want to investigate the effects of the new methodology of songs on students’ memory and motivation when learning a foreign language compared with the traditional vocabulary instruction. One class of 1st bachiller divided into two groups of students took part in this research. Group 1, the experimental group, listened to one song, and group two, the control grou...
We investigated the relative efficacy of extensive reading (ER) and paired-associate learning (PAL) in the ability of second language (L2) learners to retain new vocabulary words. To that end, we combined behavioral measures (i.e., vocabulary tests) and an event-related potential (ERP) investigation with a focus on the N400 ERP component to track short- and long-term vocabulary retention as a consequence of the two different approaches. Behavioral results indicated that both ER and PAL led to substantial short-term retention of the target words. In contrast, on a long-term basis, ER was more effective than PAL to a considerable degree as indicated by a large-size effect (d=1.35). Evidence from the N400 effects (d=1.70) observed in the parietal electrode group (P3, Pz, P4) provided further support for the superior effects of ER over PAL on long-term vocabulary retention. The converging evidence challenges the assumptions of some L2 researchers and makes a significant contribution to the literature of vocabulary acquisition, because it provides the first ERP evidence that ER is more conducive to long-term vocabulary retention than PAL.
The authors report data from a longitudinal study of the reading development of children who were assessed in the years of their 8th, 11th, 14th, and 16th birthdays. They examine the evidence for Matthew effects in reading and vocabulary between ages 8 and 11 in groups of children identified with good and poor reading comprehension at 8 years. They also investigate evidence for Matthew effects in reading and vocabulary between 8 and 16 years, in the larger sample. The poor comprehenders showed reduced growth in vocabulary compared to the good comprehenders, but not in word reading or reading comprehension ability. They also obtained lower scores on measures of out-of-school literacy. Analyses of the whole sample revealed that initial levels of reading experience and reading comprehension predicted vocabulary at ages 11, 14, and 16 after controlling for general ability and vocabulary skills when aged 8. The authors discuss these findings in relation to the influence of reading on vocabulary development.
This research has analysed the impact of morphological treatment in English morphological awareness task. The main aim of this study is to understand the relationship between morphological awareness and vocabulary knowledge of university preparatory class students. In second language learning environment, fifty-two preparatory class students have…
Previous research has documented the role of readers' existing topic knowledge in supporting students' comprehension of text; yet, we know less about how to build students' knowledge in order to support comprehension and vocabulary learning. In the current study, we test the hypothesis that knowledge can be built and leveraged simultaneously in…
In urban middle schools, educators find it challenging to meet the literacy needs of the many struggling readers in their classrooms, including language-minority (LM) learners and students from low-income backgrounds. One strategy for improving these students' reading comprehension is to teach essential academic vocabulary in a meaningful,…
To investigate the effect of concurrent instruction in Dutch and English on reading acquisition in both languages, 23 pupils were selected from a school with bilingual education, and 23 from a school with education in Dutch only. The pupils had a Dutch majority language background and were comparable with regard to social-economic status (SES). Reading and vocabulary were measured twice within an interval of 1 year in Grade 2 and 3. The bilingual group performed better on most English and some of the Dutch tests. Controlling for general variables and related skills, instruction in English contributed significantly to the prediction of L2 vocabulary and orthographic awareness at the second measurement. As expected, word reading fluency was easier to acquire in Dutch with its relatively transparent orthography in comparison to English with its deep orthography, but the skills intercorrelated highly. With regard to cross-linguistic transfer, orthographic knowledge and reading comprehension in Dutch were positively influenced by bilingual instruction, but there was no indication of generalization to orthographic awareness or knowledge of a language in which no instruction had been given (German). The results of the present study support the assumption that concurrent instruction in Dutch and English has positive effects on the acquisition of L2 English and L1 Dutch.
Vocabulary is undoubtedly an important part in English language study.It's the basis of the development for the skills of reading. Thus,vocabulary teaching is a necessary part in English teaching.However,some traditional teaching methods take vocabulary out of context, which cost a lot of time and energy,but students fall into the dull circle from memorizing to forgetting to memorizing again.Finally,they lose their patience and may give it up eventually.This thesis,based on the new vocabulary teaching theory,seeks to investigate the present situation of vocabulary teaching.It is designed to put forward constructive suggestions so as to provide valuable reference for vocabulary teaching.%如果把英语比作自行车，那么对于英语学习而言，前轮是词汇，后轮是语法，想学好甚至精通英语，词汇语法二者缺一不可。词汇是培养阅读技能的基础。因此，词汇教学是英语教学中不可或缺的一部分。但是，一些传统的教学方法脱离了语境，耗费了学生大量的时间和精力而他们仍然处于一种忘了记，记了再忘的恶性循环状态。本文以新的词汇教学理论为基础，对中学教师的词汇教学状况以及方法进行研究，弄清中学英语教师们对词汇教学的重视程度、注重哪些方面及教学方法，找出这些方面可能存在的问题，提出了相应的建议。
Full Text Available Involvement load hypothesis as a cognitive construct states that tasks with higher involvements yield better results in vocabulary retention. This comparison group designed study examined the immediate and delayed effects of tasks with different involvements in involvement load hypothesis (Laufer & Hulstijn, 2001. Applying a version of Nelson Proficiency Test as a homogenizing exclusion criterion, 33 low proficiency Iranian EFL learners were randomly assigned to three experimental groups: blank-filling, sentence making, and reading comprehension. The results of ANOVA and Kruskal-Wallis tests supported task-induced involvement in immediate posttest since the sentence making task (M=5.72 yielded better results in comparison with the other two blank-filling (M=5.45 and reading comprehension (M=3.18 tasks. Nevertheless, sentence making and blank-filling tasks of which the involvements were somehow similar did not yield significant superiority to each other. It is inferred that tasks with nearer involvements yield somehow similar results in vocabulary acquisition.
Acquisition of a foreign language is a challenging task that is becoming increasingly more important in the world nowadays. There is evidence suggesting that the frontal and temporal cortices are involved in language processing and comprehension, but it is still unknown whether foreign language acquisition recruits additional cortical areas in a causal manner. For the first time, we used transcranial random noise stimulation on the frontal and parietal brain areas, in order to compare its effect on the acquisition of unknown foreign words and a sham, or placebo, condition was also included. This type of noninvasive neural stimulation enhances cortical activity by boosting the spontaneous activity of neurons. Foreign vocabulary acquisition was tested both immediately and seven days after the stimulation. We found that stimulation on the posterior parietal, but not the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex or sham stimulation, significantly improved the memory performance in the long term. These results suggest that the posterior parietal cortex is directly involved in acquisition of foreign vocabulary, thus extending the "linguistic network" to this area.
Growing recognition of disparities in early childhood language environments prompt examination of parent-child interactions which support vocabulary. Research links parental sensitivity and cognitive stimulation to child language, but has not explicitly contrasted their effects, nor examined how effects may change over time. We examined maternal sensitivity and stimulation throughout infancy using two observational methods - ratings of parents' interaction qualities, and coding of discrete parenting behaviors - to assess the relative importance of these qualities to child vocabulary over time, and determine whether mothers make related changes in response to children's development. Participants were 146 infants and mothers, assessed when infants were 14, 24, and 36 months. At 14 months, sensitivity had a stronger effect on vocabulary than did stimulation, but the effect of stimulation grew throughout toddlerhood. Mothers' cognitive stimulation grew over time, whereas sensitivity remained stable. While discrete parenting behaviors changed with child age, there was no evidence of trade-offs between sensitive and stimulating behaviors, and no evidence that sensitivity moderated the effect of stimulation on child vocabulary. Findings demonstrate specificity of timing in the link between parenting qualities and child vocabulary which could inform early parent interventions, and supports a reconceptualization of the nature and measurement of parental sensitivity.
Full Text Available This paper discusses the development of the vocabulary of grade 7 learners in a reading project currently underway at a school in Atteridgeville, a township on the outskirts of Pretoria. A library has been established at the school and teachers throughout the school attend workshops designed to heighten their awareness of the value of reading and the importance of vocabulary, and to provide them with strategies to facilitate the development of reading. This paper focuses on the vocabulary development of grade 7 learners – they are in the senior phase of primary school and will soon be entering high school where they will be faced with more academic vocabulary in context-reduced textbooks. Learners’ vocabulary was tested early in the year and then again towards the end to assess whether increased access to books and reading had had an effect on vocabulary growth. Results revealed that learners at the project school showed a lack of vocabulary, even at the end of the study period, not only in terms of academic words but also high frequency words. Extensive reading alone is clearly not enough – learners need explicit vocabulary instruction: in order to read successfully at high school level, learners need a working knowledge of academic vocabulary, and this knowledge is developed by reading – but learners cannot read successfully without an adequate basic high-frequency vocabulary.
Full Text Available The objective of this research was to determine the effects of multimedia learning and vocabulary mastery on students’ Japanese Reading skills which used two-way treatment experiment design. This research was conducted at The Japanese Language Program, Faculty of Humanities – UNSOED with 48 students as the sample. The method used in this study was an experimental method with treatment by level 2 x 2 design. The formulation of this research was the effect of Rosetta Stone and Tell Me More Japanese multimedia learning against Japanese reading skill and the effect of vocabulary (high and low to the Japanese reading skills. The results of this study are students’ Japanese reading skills presented by “Rosetta Stone” is better than those presented by “Tell Me More Japanese”. There are any effects of interaction among multimedia learning and vocabulary mastery on students’ Japanese Reading skills. Besides that, students’ Japanese Reading skills who have high-level vocabulary mastery and presented by “Rosetta Stone” is better than those presented by “Tell Me More Japanese”. Then, students’ Japanese Reading skills who have low-level vocabulary mastery and presented by “Tell Me More Japanese” is better than those presented by “Rosetta Stone”.
Full Text Available The study delved into the effect of instructional video materials vs. authentic video materials on vocabulary learning of extrovert and introvert Iranian EFL learners. To this end, Nelson proficiency test was administered to one hundred eighty (n=180 language learners. Considering 1 standard deviation above and below the mean score, one hundred twenty three (n=123 language learners were selected for the study. These participants were distributed into 4 experimental groups (with 25 learners and a control group (with 23 learners. Researcher-made vocabulary pretest and posttest which were designed using the vocabularies from the movies were also administered to the participants. The findings of the study after three weeks of treatment revealed that both authentic video materials and instructional video materials can have positive effect on vocabulary learning of Iranian EFL leaners. This effect, however, is not different among extrovert learners. It was also revealed that introvert EFL learners benefit more from authentic video materials. The findings of the study could be used by material developers or language teachers who may wish to use video materials in their classes. Keywords: Authentic video materials, Instructional video materials, Vocabulary learning, Introversion, Extroversion
Full Text Available In the past, vocabulary teaching and learning were often given little priority in second language programs but recently there has been a renewed interest in the nature of vocabulary and its role in learning and teaching. Although most teachers might be aware of the importance of technology, say, computer, rarely teachers use it for teaching vocabulary. Thus, the current study aims at exploring the effects of CALL on vocabulary learning of Iranian EFL Learners. In this study, 40 intermediate EFL learners, both male and female aged from 16 to 18 studying New Interchange, book III, were chosen randomly from a language institute in Tehran. They were dividedinto two twenty-member groups. The experimental group was given the VTS.S (a computer program for teaching vocabularies, a computerized dictionary and provided with teacher efeedback.The control group received no special software and vocabularies were taught using the conventional ways with the help of a paper dictionary. A vocabulary pre-test based on the tests available in their teacher's guide was given to both groups. The aim of this test was to make sure that the students were not familiar with the words in advance. By pre-test/post-test comparison researchers found learners exposed to VTS.S teacher e-feedback plus the computerized dictionary scored higher than the control group. Both high-stake and low-stake holders can avail from the findings of the study.
Given that there are neural markers for the acquisition of a non-verbal skill, we review evidence of neural markers for the acquisition of vocabulary. Acquiring vocabulary is critical to learning one's native language and to learning other languages. Acquisition requires the ability to link an object concept (meaning) to sound. Is there a region sensitive to vocabulary knowledge? For monolingual English speakers, increased vocabulary knowledge correlates with increased grey matter density in a region of the parietal cortex that is well-located to mediate an association between meaning and sound (the posterior supramarginal gyrus). Further this region also shows sensitivity to acquiring a second language. Relative to monolingual English speakers, Italian-English bilinguals show increased grey matter density in the same region.Differences as well as commonalities might exist in the neural markers for vocabulary where lexical distinctions are also signalled by tone. Relative to monolingual English, Chinese multilingual speakers, like European multilinguals, show increased grey matter density in the parietal region observed previously. However, irrespective of ethnicity, Chinese speakers (both Asian and European) also show highly significant increased grey matter density in two right hemisphere regions (the superior temporal gyrus and the inferior frontal gyrus). They also show increased grey matter density in two left hemisphere regions (middle temporal and superior temporal gyrus). Such increases may reflect additional resources required to process tonal distinctions for lexical purposes or to store tonal differences in order to distinguish lexical items. We conclude with a discussion of future lines of enquiry.
Full Text Available The aim of this study is to investigate the effectiveness of storytelling in improving English vocabulary learning among children in kindergarten. Twenty Iranian children (9 boys and 11 girls in a private kindergarten in Kerman, Iran, were the participants of the study. All of the children were five years old and were taught English with the same teacher in a class in a kindergarten. The design of the study was one group pre-test post-test quasi experimental design. Both pre and post-tests included 20 vocabulary picture items taken from a story book teaching in the kindergarten. The statistical analysis revealed that storytelling was effective in increasing vocabulary learning among kindergarten children.
This paper is based on the assumption that semantic categories vary from one language to another and prototypes of semantic categories are culture-specific. Prototypicality has its effects in acquisition of second foreign language vocabulary. The author hypothesizes that focal member words and basic level words are acquired earlier than non-focal member words and words on other levels of lexical hierarchies when prototypes of the target language correspond to those of the mother tongue in the same semantic categories. The results of a vocabulary test on beginner, intermediate and advanced learners of English as foreign language confirm the hypothesis. The paper concludes that learning a second foreign language means, to an extent, learning to categorize the worm in a different way, and prototypic effects should be given due attention in vocabulary instruction.
Full Text Available The study was conducted to investigate the impact of a model, created with the help of computer and mobile phone, on the EFL vocabulary learning of the students at a public university on a Preparatory Year Program. The study used a quasi-experimental pretest posttest control group design. The participants were 122 students in their first year at a public university. Half of them (N = 61 were male and half were female (N = 61. Six weeks treatment period involved vocabulary learning activities presented through PCs in the language laboratory and receiving multi-glossed vocabulary cards on the mobile phones through a social networking mobile phone application WhatsApp. Findings suggested that performance of treatment group was significantly better than that of control group on achievement posttest. The impact of treatment was found gender neutral as male and female participants benefitted from it alike.
Interoperability of soil data depends on agreements concerning models, schemas and vocabularies. However, observed property terms are often defined during different activities and projects in isolation of one another, resulting in data that has the same scope being represented with different terms, using different formats and formalisms, and published in various access methods. Significantly, many soil property vocabularies conflate multiple concepts in a single term, e.g. quantity kind, units of measure, substance being observed, and procedure. Effectively, this bundles separate information elements into a single slot. We have developed a vocabulary for observed soil properties by adopting and extending a previously defined water quality vocabulary. The observed property model separates the information elements, based on the Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) Observations & Measurements model and extending the NASA/TopQuadrant 'Quantities, Units, Dimensions and Types' (QUDT) ontology. The imported water quality vocabulary is formalized using the Web Ontology Language (OWL). Key elements are defined as sub-classes or sub-properties of standard Simple Knowledge Organization System (SKOS) elements, allowing use of standard vocabulary interfaces. For the soil observed property vocabulary, terms from QUDT and water quality are used where possible. These are supplemented with additional unit of measure (Unit), observed property (ScaledQuantityKind) and substance being observed (SubstanceOrTaxon) vocabulary entries required for the soil properties. The vocabulary terms have been extracted from the Australian Soil and Land Survey Field Handbook and Australian Soil Information Transfer and Evaluation System (SITES) vocabularies. The vocabulary links any chemical substances to items from the Chemical Entities of Biological Interest (ChEBI) ontology. By formalizing the model for observable properties, and clearly labelling the separate elements, soil property observations may
This study examined the effects of the verbal labels procedure and vocabulary skills on low-socioeconomic status (SES) preschool children's eyewitness memory. Children (N = 176) aged 3-5 years witnessed a conflict event and were then questioned about it in either a standard or a verbal labels interview. Findings revealed that children with higher rather than lower vocabulary skills produced more complete and accurate memories. Children who were given the verbal labels interview recalled more information, which included both correct and incorrect details. Overall, the verbal labels procedure did not improve children's performance on direct questions, but children with low vocabulary skills answered direct questions more accurately if they were given the verbal labels interview than when they were not. Implications of the findings for memory performance of low-SES children are discussed.
Full Text Available The technical language of behavior analysis is arguably necessary to share ideas and research with precision among each other. However, it can hinder effective implementation of behavior analytic techniques when it prevents clear communication between the supervising behavior analyst and behavior technicians. The present paper provides a case example of the development of a shared vocabulary, using plain English when possible, among supervisors and supervisees at a large public school district in which behavior analytic services were provided for children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders. A list of terms and definitions are provided as well as suggestions on how to develop shared vocabularies within the readers’ own service provision context.
This study examined the effects of a multifaceted, metacognitive vocabulary intervention on the reading comprehension and vocabulary achievement of fifth-grade children in one of California's lowest performing Title I schools. Instruction was comprehensive, designed to facilitate encoding of student-selected words, mastery of clarifying…
This study examined the effect of the translation of traditional scientific vocabulary into plain English on student achievement in college science instruction. The study took place in the context of an introductory microbiology course. Data were collected from course sections instructed with traditional microbiology vocabulary as well as sections…
To investigate the effects of semantic mapping, thematic clustering, and notebook keeping on L2 vocabulary recognition and production, four groups of intermediate level learners in an EFL institute in Zanjan, Iran participated in the study. Three experimental groups consisted of semantic mapping, semantic feature analysis, and vocabulary notebook…
This multiple-probe study examined the effects of self-regulation on the acquisition of science vocabulary by four third-grade English language learners (ELLs) with learning difficulties. The students were provided only direct vocabulary instruction in a baseline phase, followed by intervention and maintenance phases into which self-regulation…
This study examined the effects of an intensive shared book-reading intervention on the vocabulary development of preschool children who were at risk for vocabulary delay. The participants were 125 children, who the researchers stratified by classroom and randomly assigned to one of two shared book-reading conditions (i.e., the experimental, Words…
The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of a vocabulary intervention designed to supplement research-based classroom vocabulary instruction, implemented with students who may be at risk for language and learning difficulties. Participants included 43 kindergarten students who received research-based classroom vocabulary…
This multiple-probe study examined the effects of self-regulation on the acquisition of science vocabulary by four third-grade English language learners (ELLs) with learning difficulties. The students were provided only direct vocabulary instruction in a baseline phase, followed by intervention and maintenance phases into which self-regulation…
In this paper, we investigate the effect of neighbourhood density (ND) on vocabulary size in a computational model of vocabulary development. A word has a high ND if there are many words phonologically similar to it. High ND words are more easily learned by infants of all abilities (e.g. Storkel, 2009; Stokes, 2014). We present a neural network…
Many English language learners (ELLs) and children living in poverty begin school with substantially less English vocabulary knowledge than their monolingual, economically advantaged peers. Without effective intervention, these vocabulary gaps are likely to contribute to long-term reading failure. This quasi-experimental study examined the extent…
Vocabulary is central to English language teaching. Without sufficient vocabulary, students cannot understand others or express their own ideas. Teachers who find the task of teaching English vocabulary a little daunting are not alone! This book presents important issues from recent vocabulary research and theory so that teachers may approach…
Vocabulary is central to English language teaching. Without sufficient vocabulary, students cannot understand others or express their own ideas. Teachers who find the task of teaching English vocabulary a little daunting are not alone! This book presents important issues from recent vocabulary research and theory so that teachers may approach…
Full Text Available "Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD is the most common neurobehavioral disorder of childhood. ADHD is also among the most prevalent chronic health conditions affecting school-aged children"(American Academy of Pediatrics, 2000. Too many young girls are not getting the help they need because of hidden symptoms and late diagnosis. The purpose of this study is to determine the effect of focus strategies on vocabulary learning of ADHD students at two junior high schools. To this end, eight female ADHD and eight normal students from two public schools were assigned to the both control group and the experimental one. The quantitative data was gathered from each student and was analyzed through 2-way analysis of variance (ANOVA in a factorial arrangement with two repetitions. An orthogonal test was used to compare the strategies that were used in the control group (word list and the experimental group (key word method, concentration, making sentences and fold overs. The instrument of this study contained a questionnaire sent to the parents and English teachers, an interview with a psychologist, a pre-test and a post-test. The results indicated that the four focus strategies in the experimental group increased the vocabulary learning in ADHD students for the short term retention and this increase was significant in the first focus strategy (key word method and mostly the last one (fold overs in the normal and ADHD students. The mean scores of control group were lower than the treatment group both in the normal and ADHD students. The results of delayed post-test revealed that although focus strategies improved the scores of the normal students compared to the ADHD students, this difference was not significant. Keywords: ADHD, focus strategies, Key word method, fold overs, attention, two-way ANOVA
Full Text Available The paper reports a classroom action research that aimed to determine the impact of a Content and Language Integrated Learning on the mastery of vocabulary and of course contents of a group of students in the Accounting Department of Universitas Ma Chung. It also intended to identify their opinions about the effectiveness of such approach. To achieve these objectives, a Time Series Design was used in a Classroom Action Research framework to introduce an adjunct class to the accounting class. The baseline data in the form of their vocabulary mastery and knowledge of the course contents were gained before the adjunct session was given. Then, the adjunct sessions were given for a period of two months. A few tests were administered to measure their progress in the mastery of vocabulary and course contents. A comparison was then drawn between the scores of the baseline data and the subsequent measures. In general, although they gained better mastery of new words, they failed to utilize them to increase their mastery of the course contents. Further exploration into the interview data reveals that most of them did not feel any significant assistance in mastering the course contents, although many of them admitted the benefit of mastering new vocabulary. There are some possible causes of the results. First, the limited duration of the adjunct sessions was felt to hinder the effectiveness. Second, the explanation in the adjunct sessions were not matched quite well with the focus during the main content course. On the basis of the results, the recommended points are the matching between the emphasis of both classes, and the lengthening of the duration of the adjunct sessions.
This study investigates the effects of different display modes of video captions on mobile devices, including non-caption, full-caption, and target-word modes, on the English comprehension and vocabulary acquisition of fifth graders. During the one-month experiment, the status of the students' English listening comprehension and vocabulary…
The current study investigated the effects of three forms of output activity on EFL learners' recognition and recall of second language (L2) vocabulary. To this end, three groups of learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) were instructed to employ the following three output activities after reading two narrative texts: (1) summarizing the…
This study, which is an experimental research with pre-test and post-test control groups, aims to determine the effectiveness of the Synectics Instructional Model on foreign language vocabulary teaching. The research was conducted with two experimental and two control groups and 82 students taking part in these groups. The experimental application…
This study explored the effect of video games as a new tool for Iranian EFL (English as a foreign language) vocabulary learning. To conduct the study, 40 intermediate EFL learners, both male and female, were chosen through a TOEFL proficiency test. The participants were divided into two groups (10 males and 10 females in each): a control group and…
This study was carried out to investigate the effects of cooperative learning strategies on the vocabulary skills of 4th grade students. The study was also designed to ascertain the attitudes of the students in the experimental group towards cooperative learning. Out of 96 4th grade students enrolled in the private school where the study took…
This study aimed at investigating the effect of keyword method, as one of the mnemonic strategies, on vocabulary retention of Iranian senior high school EFL learners. Following a quasi-experimental design, the study used thirty eight (n = 38) female senior high school students in grade four from two intact classes at a public high school. The…
This study explored the effect of video games as a new tool for Iranian EFL (English as a foreign language) vocabulary learning. To conduct the study, 40 intermediate EFL learners, both male and female, were chosen through a TOEFL proficiency test. The participants were divided into two groups (10 males and 10 females in each): a control group and…
The present study was conducted to compare the effect of memory and cognitive strategies training on vocabulary learning of intermediate proficiency group of Iranian learners of English as a foreign language. It is to check how memory and cognitive strategies training affect word learning of EFL intermediate learners (N = 60) who were homogenized…
This study evaluated the role of music in acquiring foreign language vocabulary using suggestopedia techniques with 40 technically gifted students. The study found that the effectiveness of different types of music depended on student characteristics including gender, musical ability, foreign language learning ability, and feeling states. (DB)
The purpose of this study was to investigate, describe and assess parents' perceptions of effective strategies for developing vocabulary literacy; and to determine whether their opinions were consistent with what is reported by experts in the field of reading. The goal was to compare the views of parents who had attended school-based literacy…
The current study investigated the effects of three forms of output activity on EFL learners' recognition and recall of second language (L2) vocabulary. To this end, three groups of learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) were instructed to employ the following three output activities after reading two narrative texts: (1) summarizing the…
This article synthesized science instruction studies with preschool and kindergarten children to understand the magnitude of science instruction's impact on young children's vocabulary outcomes. A total of seven studies that met criteria for the synthesis and provided sufficient data for the calculation of effect size were included. Science…
This study was conducted to investigate the effect of bimodal subtitled films on vocabulary learning among Iranian EFL learners. To achieve this purpose, 60 male and female intermediate learners who were studying English as a Foreign Language (EFL) in Pardis Memar Institiute in Bandar Abbas, Iran, participated in this study. A standard proficiency…
Extends the line of research that has recently applied the savings paradigm from cognitive psychology to vocabulary relearning. Second language data from 3044 returnees from Japan and Korea provide evidence of the strongest savings effect yet reported in studies of lexical reactivation. (Author/VWL)
In this study we investigated the effects of two learning methods (picture- or word-mediated learning) and of word status (cognates vs. noncognates) on the vocabulary acquisition of two foreign languages: English and German. We examined children from fourth and eighth grades in a school setting. After a learning phase during which L2 words were…
Based on a prior study by Chen and Truscott, the present study investigated the possible effects of repetition (repeated exposure) and L1 lexicalization on the incidental acquisition and retention of 10 English target words by 90 Persian-speaking EFL learners at an Iranian university. Seven aspects of vocabulary knowledge were measured, including…
This experimental design study examined the effects of viewing captioned instructional videos on EFL learners' content comprehension, vocabulary acquisition and language proficiency. It also examined the participants' perception of viewing the captioned instructional videos. The 92 EFL students in two classes, who were undertaking the "Tape…
This study aimed to find whether meditation can be effective in terms of anxiety and vocabulary learning in a foreign language learning context. To test this, an experimental pre-test and post-test study was designed. 61 students (14 male-47 female) from the English Language Teaching Department of a state university in Turkey were assigned into…
This chapter reviews the results of a set of experiments that examined foreign-language (FL) vocabulary learning by late learners, exploiting the paired-associate-learning (PAL) paradigm. The effects on acquisition and retention of the concreteness and frequency of the native-language (L1) words, th
The present study investigates the effects of two different vocabulary learning conditions in digital reading environments equipped with electronic textual glossing. The first condition presents the concordance lines of a target lexical item, thereby making learners infer its meaning by reading the referenced sentences. The second condition…
This study evaluated the role of music in acquiring foreign language vocabulary using suggestopedia techniques with 40 technically gifted students. The study found that the effectiveness of different types of music depended on student characteristics including gender, musical ability, foreign language learning ability, and feeling states. (DB)
This study explored the effect of video games as a new tool for Iranian EFL (English as a foreign language) vocabulary learning. To conduct the study, 40 intermediate EFL learners, both male and female, were chosen through a TOEFL proficiency test. The participants were divided into two groups (10 males and 10 females in each): a control group and…
This chapter reviews the results of a set of experiments that examined foreign-language (FL) vocabulary learning by late learners, exploiting the paired-associate-learning (PAL) paradigm. The effects on acquisition and retention of the concreteness and frequency of the native-language (L1) words, th
By illustrating the significance of cultural elements in vocabulary and current situations in English vocabulary teaching,the author hope that English teachers can pay more attention to cultural elements behind the conceptual meanings of English words and change their method of teaching to motivate students' interest in vocabulary learning.
By illustrating the significance of cultural elements in vocabulary and current situations in English vocabulary teaching,the author hope that English teachers can pay more attention to cultural elements behind the conceptual meanings of English words and change their method of teaching to motivate students’ interest in vocabulary learning.
Full Text Available This study sets out to clarify the effectiveness of using an online vocabulary study tool, Quizlet, in an urban high school language arts class. Previous similar studies have mostly dealt with English Language Learners in college settings (Chui, 2013, and were therefore not directed at the issue self-efficacy that is at the heart of the problem of urban high school students in America entering remedial writing programs (Rose, 1989. The study involves 95 students over the course of 14 weeks. Students were tested weekly and were asked to use the Quizlet program in their own free time. The result of this optional involvement was that many students did not participate in the treatment and therefore acted as an elective control group. The resultant data collected shows a strong correlation between the use of an online vocabulary review program and short-term vocabulary retention. The study also showed that students who paced themselves and spread out their study sessions outperformed those students who used the program only for last minute “cram sessions.” The implications of the study are that students who take advantage of tools outside of the classroom are able to out perform their peers. The results are also in line with the call to include technology in the Basic Writing classroom not simply as a tool, but as a “form of discourse” (Jonaitis, 2012. Weekly vocabulary tests, combined with the daily online activity as reported by Quizlet, show that: 1 utilizing the review software improved the scores of most students, 2 those students who used Quizlet to review more than a single time (i.e., several days before the test outperformed those who only used the product once, and 3 students who professed proficiency with the “notebook” system of vocabulary learning appeared not to need the treatment.
Students' vocabulary knowledge is a significant predictor of their overall comprehension. The Common Core State Standards are raising the expectations for word learning and there are now 4 distinct standards related to vocabulary as well as expectations in other standards, including content areas. To address these expectations, teachers need…
Teaching vocabulary in teaching Turkish as Foreign language is important. Different methods are employed in teaching vocabulary. In this study the pre- and post-test results of experimental group where caricatures were used to teach vocabulary and control group where vocabulary items were taught without use of caricatures when teaching Turkish…
Vocabulary can become tedious and a chore if it is approached as such. By making art terms and vocabulary meaningful, students will remember and use them for years to come. In this article, the author describes two vocabulary review projects that work wonderfully and create great works of art: (1) cursive creature rubbings; and (2) bubbling bodies…
Vocabulary can become tedious and a chore if it is approached as such. By making art terms and vocabulary meaningful, students will remember and use them for years to come. In this article, the author describes two vocabulary review projects that work wonderfully and create great works of art: (1) cursive creature rubbings; and (2) bubbling bodies…
Full Text Available This study was designed to demonstrate the effect of implementing multi-component vocabulary strategy instruction in fourth grade social studies. Curriculum was designed for a six-week period and was intended to actively engage students and reinforce retention of word meanings in isolation and in context. Teachers were randomly chosen for assignment to the intervention and/or to the comparison group. The study included 375 fourth-grade students from 3 different districts and 5 schools. The student population consisted of 29 classes taught by 23 different teachers. Two different vocabulary and comprehension measures were administered, and results were analyzed using difference score analyses and repeated measures ANOVAs. Outcomes were consistent across both administered measures. Although student scores improved in both the group receiving the intervention and the group receiving regular classroom instruction, findings indicated that the group receiving the intervention showed greater gains and persisted longer than in the comparison classrooms.
The aim of this study is to specify the learning strategies that the students use while learning Turkish as a foreign language and the effects of these strategies on learning vocabulary. Conducted in compliance with “pretest – posttest control group model” among experimental patterns, this study involved 40 students of Turkish as a foreign language in Istanbul University Language Center, who were divided into two groups as the experimental group and the control group, each of which consisted ...
An experiment was performed to investigate the effects of practice and spacing on retention of Japanese-English vocabulary paired associates. The relative benefit of spacing increased with increased practice and with longer retention intervals. Data were fitted with an activation-based memory model, which proposes that each time an item is practiced it receives an increment of strength but that these increments decay as a power function of time. The rate of decay for each presentation depended on the activation at the time of the presentation. This mechanism limits long-term benefits from further practice at higher levels of activation and produces the spacing effect and its observed interactions with practice and retention interval. The model was compared with another model of the spacing effect (Raaijmakers, 2003) and was fit to some results from the literature on spacing and memory.
Full Text Available This study examined the effects of self-efficacy on language learning strategies by focusing on vocabulary learning strategies (VLSs. A group of 281 EFL learners from two universities participated in the study. They completed the Vocabulary Size Test (Nation & Beglar, 2007, questionnaires on self-efficacy, and an open-ended question about their use of VLSs. The learners were divided into three groups based on their responses to the self-efficacy questionnaire. The effect of self-efficacy was then examined by utilizing text mining. The results show that the effects of self-efficacy were observed in the participants’ open-ended responses. It also became clear that those with high self-efficacy were active users of VLSs, they employed deep strategies, and they were metacognitively superior to participants with medium and low efficiency. Those with medium self-efficacy were also active users of VLSs, but they used shallow strategies compared with the high self-efficiency group. Those with low self-efficacy tended to be passive users of VLSs. The pedagogical implications of the current study are discussed mainly in terms of incorporating self-efficacy and self-regulation enhancing instructions into vocabulary teaching.
Full Text Available Abstract This article presents an overview of current research on second language vocabulary learning and proposes eight strategies for teaching and learning vocabulary. First, to facilitate effectivevocabulary teaching, choosing high-frequency words is essential. Teachers of vocabulary also need to add explicit, intentional teaching to incidental learning. In addition, vocabulary learning strategies including morphological awareness and lexical inference provides a platform by which learners can improve both receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge. This article also suggests that productive vocabulary knowledge needs more attention than receptive vocabulary knowledge, and that available textbooks seldom address vocabulary sufficiently. In summary, it is very important for all learners and teachers to acknowledge that learning vocabulary is incremental in nature, and we should develop a principled, long-term program for teaching and learning vocabulary.
Full Text Available It has been 9 years since the Congressionally appointed National Reading Panel made recommendations for literacy instruction that comprise a five-component framework of phonological awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension. Vocabulary, a critical pillar of literacy, has reciprocal and correlational relationships with reading achievement. The researchers piloted an observational instrument to determine the methods and materials K-3 teachers use to teach vocabulary in today’s classrooms. This brief evaluates a vocabulary observation tool the researchers developed to gather information from early childhood classroom settings in the midsouth region of the United States. Understanding materials utilized in various contexts will enable practitioners and researchers to address the significant disparity between vocabulary “haves and have-nots.” An examination of the instrument was conducted (n = 18 raters at 3 ratings apiece for 45 trials to determine reliability and validity of observations. Reliability was addressed via training with discussion and resolution of ratings from video of vocabulary instruction. Validity was analyzed via multidimensional scaling (MDS to visually portray ratings along the dimensions of student or teacher control. From this data, we were able to determine the number of possible senses (auditory, visual, kinesthetic, smell, and taste students used. Results indicated observer ratings (n = 45 clustered or separated material-type consistently indicating variance along both dimensions. The researchers are currently applying this piloted instrument in a large-scale study to depict teachers’ vocabulary material use. Understanding vocabulary materials and contexts of their use may lead to more effectivevocabulary curriculum, instruction, and assessment.
This essay is focused on college English vocabulary teaching and mainly probes into the effectivevocabulary teaching strategies based on relevant semantic theories--semantic field,derivation,core meaning and prototype.The author explores three vocabulary teaching procedures,that is,how to get a desirable word list,how to teach words with different qualities by adopting different strategies,and how to consolidate the words students have learnt,and then offer certain effective solutions to each stage.%本文从相关的语义学理论入手,着重探讨了大学英语词汇教学的有效手段和策略.文中主要涉及词汇教学中存在的三方面问题,即:如何获得适应不同层次学生需求的单词表;如何将单词表进行分类;如何巩固学生已学的单词.作者在语义学理论的基础上分别就以上三个问题提出了相应的对策,以实现大学英语词汇教学的预期目标.
Full Text Available Both cognition and affect have been proven to have a significant role in instructed second language acquisition. Unlike cognitive processes, the affective processes in language learning have not received due attention in the research on task-based language teaching. The effect of task-related emotional state on learning achievements resulting from task engagement is an almost unexplored area. The study reported here investigated the effect of emotional involvement as compared to cognitive involvement both applied to the pre-task phase of a reading-while-listening focused task on lexical acquisition as a result of engagement with the task. Emotional involvement was operationalized as a video clip shown before the main task which elicited positive affect. MANCOVA statistics indicated that both emotional and cognitive involvements had an enhancing effect on short-term retention and ease of activation of vocabulary. However, the enhancing effect was not observed for long-term acquisition. The findings imply pedagogical suggestions for task-based vocabulary teaching.
Background Extracting structured data from narrated medical reports is challenged by the complexity of heterogeneous structures and vocabularies and often requires significant manual effort. Traditional machine-based approaches lack the capability to take user feedbacks for improving the extraction algorithm in real time. Objective Our goal was to provide a generic information extraction framework that can support diverse clinical reports and enables a dynamic interaction between a human and a machine that produces highly accurate results. Methods A clinical information extraction system IDEAL-X has been built on top of online machine learning. It processes one document at a time, and user interactions are recorded as feedbacks to update the learning model in real time. The updated model is used to predict values for extraction in subsequent documents. Once prediction accuracy reaches a user-acceptable threshold, the remaining documents may be batch processed. A customizable controlled vocabulary may be used to support extraction. Results Three datasets were used for experiments based on report styles: 100 cardiac catheterization procedure reports, 100 coronary angiographic reports, and 100 integrated reports—each combines history and physical report, discharge summary, outpatient clinic notes, outpatient clinic letter, and inpatient discharge medication report. Data extraction was performed by 3 methods: online machine learning, controlled vocabularies, and a combination of these. The system delivers results with F1 scores greater than 95%. Conclusions IDEAL-X adopts a unique online machine learning–based approach combined with controlled vocabularies to support data extraction for clinical reports. The system can quickly learn and improve, thus it is highly adaptable. PMID:28487265
Extracting structured data from narrated medical reports is challenged by the complexity of heterogeneous structures and vocabularies and often requires significant manual effort. Traditional machine-based approaches lack the capability to take user feedbacks for improving the extraction algorithm in real time. Our goal was to provide a generic information extraction framework that can support diverse clinical reports and enables a dynamic interaction between a human and a machine that produces highly accurate results. A clinical information extraction system IDEAL-X has been built on top of online machine learning. It processes one document at a time, and user interactions are recorded as feedbacks to update the learning model in real time. The updated model is used to predict values for extraction in subsequent documents. Once prediction accuracy reaches a user-acceptable threshold, the remaining documents may be batch processed. A customizable controlled vocabulary may be used to support extraction. Three datasets were used for experiments based on report styles: 100 cardiac catheterization procedure reports, 100 coronary angiographic reports, and 100 integrated reports-each combines history and physical report, discharge summary, outpatient clinic notes, outpatient clinic letter, and inpatient discharge medication report. Data extraction was performed by 3 methods: online machine learning, controlled vocabularies, and a combination of these. The system delivers results with F1 scores greater than 95%. IDEAL-X adopts a unique online machine learning-based approach combined with controlled vocabularies to support data extraction for clinical reports. The system can quickly learn and improve, thus it is highly adaptable.
This study investigated the receptive vocabulary growth of advanced EFL learners in an English-medium degree programme. The study used the Vocabulary Size Test in a cross-sectional design to measure the vocabulary size of learners at various stages of study. The effect of word frequency on vocabulary development and the presence of an…
All teachers know very well how important vocabulary is in learning language, but, for many years, vocabulary has all been neglected in language teaching. In this essay will try to introduce some practical and effective methods in presenting, practising,and consolidating vocabulary in elementary level in which, I wish, the elementary teachers may get some inspiration for their vocabulary teaching.
This paper is about a survey and suggestion on students’vocabulary learning strategies in senior high school.Vocabulary is one of the three elements of a language and the basic material of a language. So the vocabulary learning in English is especially important.In order to help the students to have a better understanding of the significance of language and lay a solid foundation for deep vocabulary acquisition, it is necessary for teachers to find effective ways to learn English vocabulary.So in this paper the author hopes to find what the vocabulary learning strategies the students have used through the survey and give more effective learning strategies according to the available English vocabulary learning strategies.
Full Text Available The aims of this research is to find out the influence of vocabulary journal as media in teaching student vocabulary at the eighth grade students of SMP Al-Fajar. The quantitative method was conducted and this research is a population research, because all the member of population is taken as sample, which consisted of 30 students of eighth grade. To collect the data, the writer used pre-test and post-test, then the vocabulary test was used as the research instrument. To know whether there is an influence, the writer analyzed the data by using paired-sample T-test.The result shows that there is significant influence of vocabulary journal in teaching students’ vocabulary mastery.Keywords: Influence, vocabulary journal, students’ vocabulary mastery
Linked Data (LD), Linked Open Data (LOD) and generating a web of data, present the new knowledge sharing frontier. In a philosophical context, LD is an evolving environment that reflects humankinds' desire to understand the world by drawing on the latest technologies and capabilities of the time. LD, while seemingly a new phenomenon did not emerge overnight; rather it represents the natural progression by which knowledge structures are developed, used, and shared. Linked Open Vocabularies is a significant trajectory of LD. Linked Open Vocabularies targets vocabularies that have traditionally b
Since the 1980's, vocabulary acquisition has been one of the most actively researched aspects of SLA (Lightbown & Spada, 2006). Four factors emerge in an investigation of the development of the role of L2 vocabulary learning in SLA. First, successive SLA theories marginalized vocabulary, often emphasizing the importance of grammar. Second, a growing body of empirical research showed the efficiency and effectiveness of direct vocabulary teaching. Third, overestimates of L1 vocabulary size led ...
Full Text Available The present study investigates the effect of the explicit instruction of formulaic sequences in pre-writing vocabulary activities on foreign language writing. To this end, a total of 81 Saudi pre-intermediate learners of English as a foreign language participated in a 10-week study of a pretest/posttest design. In every 2-hour session of a total of 10 sessions, the participants were required to read a news story and then re-write it individually without looking back at the original story. During the treatment period, the participants received different pre-writing vocabulary practice. One group, consisting of 44 students, practiced individual words in the news stories while the remaining 37 students studied formulaic sequences in the new stories before re-writing the stories in their own language. Analyzing the students’ writing showed that the explicit instruction of formulaic sequences led to an increased use of the sequences in students’ writing. The results also partially supported a positive influence for the explicit instruction of formulaic sequences on the learners’ lexical choices and overall writing quality. The practice provided on formulaic sequences in the study did not, however, result in any significant improvement in the learners’ use of formulaic sequences in autonomous story re-writing. Relevant pedagogical implications are proposed.
Full Text Available The complexities of reading comprehension have received increasing recognition in recent years. In this realm, the power of vocabulary in predicting cognitive challenges in phonological, orthographic, and semantic processes is well documented. In this study, we present a web-based vocabulary development tool that has a series of interactive displays, including a list of the 50 most frequent words in a particular text, Google image and video results for any combination of those words, definitions, and synonyms for particular words from the text, and a list of sentences from the text in which particular words appear. Additionally, we report the results of an experiment that was performed working collaboratively with middle school science teachers from a large urban district in the United States. While this experiment did not show a significant positive effect of this tool on reading comprehension in science, we did find that girls seem to score worse on a reading comprehension assessment after using our web-based tool. This result could reflect prior research that suggests that some girls tend to have a negative attitude towards technology due to gender stereotypes that give girls the impression that they are not as good as boys in working with computers.
Tests that require memory retrieval strongly improve long-term retention in comparison to continued studying. For example, once learners know the translation of a word, restudy practice, during which they see the word and its translation again, is less effective than testing practice, during which
Vocabulary has always been one of the significant issues related both with teachers and learners of foreign languages. How to teach vocabulary efficiency? Teachers should choose proper ways to instruct words. Many teachers often write new words they want to teach on the blackboard and then explain them one by one. It makes students feel bored. This paper will summarize some teaching approaches that are better on teaching English words.
Full Text Available Despite the use of modern textbooks and teaching materials in German language teaching, school and university students continue to have difficulty in applying their knowledge of the language and in understanding authentic language. Even after studying German at school for as long as eight years, students are frequently unable to apply their knowledge of the language in written and oral communication. One of the major problems and shortcomings of German language teaching is that learners of German, unlike learners of English, are not exposed to authentic language input, which is important for stimulating subconscious, and therefore more rapid and efficient, language acquisition. The aim of our research was to assess the effects of using authentic texts in German language teaching on students' writing skills and vocabulary knowledge. An experimental study was conducted at the Novi Sad Faculty of Philosophy in the period October 2014 - June 2015 among students of an elective A2 level German language course. The findings indicate that the use of authentic texts in teaching has positive effects both on writing skills and on vocabulary knowledge. The results obtained from the experimental student group suggest a need for greater use of authentic texts in German language teaching, with the aim of developing language competences as well as tolerance and openness towards the foreign and the different, which is not always possible when using textbook texts.
Two studies were conducted to assess whether (a) the incidental presence of print facilitates the acquisition of oral vocabulary, (b) the facilitative effect of print is moderated by phoneme-to-grapheme consistency, and (c) the findings obtained with monolingual children generalize to bilingual children. In total, 71 monolingual French-speaking children (M age = 9 years 2 months) in Study 1 and 64 bilingual children (M age = 9 years 3 months) in Study 2 participated in one of three conditions: consistent print, inconsistent print, or no print. Children were to learn novel labels for unfamiliar objects in a paired-associate paradigm. In both studies, print facilitated the acquisition and recall of expressive vocabulary. The effect of print consistency, however, varied across studies. As expected, monolingual children exposed to consistent print learned more novel labels than children exposed to inconsistent print. In contrast, bilingual children exposed to inconsistent print learned and recalled more labels than children exposed to consistent print. These intriguing findings might be due to differences in attention allocation during training.
To describe the nature and frequency of the aided language stimulation program and determine the effects of a 3-week-long aided language stimulation program on the vocabulary acquisition skills of children with little or no functional speech (LNFS). Four children participated in this single-subject, multiple-probe study across activities. The aided language stimulation program comprised 3 activities: arts and crafts, food preparation, and story time activity. Each activity was repeated over the duration of 5 subsequent sessions. Eight target vocabulary items were taught within each activity. The acquisition of all 24 target items was probed throughout the duration of the 3-week intervention period. The frequency and nature of the aided language stimulation provided met the criterion of being used 70% of the time and providing aided language stimulation with an 80:20 ratio of statements to questions. The results indicated that all 4 participants acquired the target vocabulary items. There were, however, variations in the rate of acquisition. This study explores the impact of aided language stimulation on vocabulary acquisition in children. The most important clinical implication of this study is that a 3-week intervention program in aided language stimulation was sufficient to facilitate the comprehension of at least 24 vocabulary items in 4 children with LNFS.
Full Text Available While problems such as small screens and inconvenient keypads have been pointed out by researchers (e.g., Thornton & Houser, 2002, we still have little knowledge of how the mobile platform affects the way in which activities are completed and how learners make decisions about using mobile phones. Stockwell (2007b provided preliminary evidence that learners generally require more time to complete vocabulary activities and achieved slightly lower scores on mobile phones when compared to completing the same activities on desktop computers, but data in the study were limited. The current study examines 175 pre-intermediate learners of English who could choose to complete vocabulary activities on either a mobile phone or a desktop computer to identify the effect of the mobile platform. Data were collected from three cohorts of learners over a three-year period, and learner activity was analysed for the amount of time required to complete activities on both platforms and the scores they achieved for the activities. The results of the study are discussed in terms of how the platform affects learners’ ability to complete tasks, whether continued usage contributes to improved performance or sustained usage of the mobile platform over time. Trends across the yearly cohorts were also identified.
The present study examined the effect of presentation rate on foreign-language vocabulary learning. Experiment 1 varied presentation rates from 1 s to 16 s per pair while keeping the total study time per pair constant. Speakers of English studied Dutch-English translation pairs (e.g., kikker-frog) for 16 × 1 s, 8 × 2 s, 4 × 4 s, 2 × 8 s, or 1 × 16 s. The results showed a nonmonotonic relationship between presentation rate and recall performance for both translation directions (Dutch → English and English → Dutch). Performance was best for intermediate presentation rates and dropped off for short (1 s) or long (16 s) presentation rates. Experiment 2 showed that the nonmonotonic relationship between presentation rate and recall performance was still present after a 1-day retention interval for both translation directions. Our results suggest that a presentation rate in the order of 4 s results in optimal learning of foreign-language vocabulary.
The current study investigated the effect of cooperative and competitive learning strategies on the acquisition of English vocabulary development by Iranian EFL intermediate learners. In addition, it explored what type of theses strategies was more effective. In such doing, utilizing an Oxford Placement Test (OPT), 45 out of 77 Iranian EFL…
In this current study the researchers have tried to investigate the possible effect of authentic and non-authentic texts on Iranian EFL learners' vocabulary retention. Despite the great deal of studies conducted in the area of EFL/ESL learning, the effect of authentic versus non-authentic texts have almost gained little attention and been…
The mnemonic keyword method is an effective technique for vocabulary acquisition. This study examines the effects on recall of word-meaning pairs of (a) training in use of the keyword procedure at the time of retrieval; and (b) the influence of the self-rated ability to image. The performance of students trained in bidirectional retrieval using…
Knowing a word refers to more than just a matter of knowing its form, meaning, pronunciation and spelling. It also refers to one's knowledge of the relationships the word is involved in, such as its collocations, semantic associations and so on. Words are not isolated entities. This paper focuses on vocabulary knowledge and helps us get an idea of what needs to be learned and the process of English vocabulary learning.
Research Findings: In order to identify the active ingredients in an effective professional development intervention focused on enhancing preschool vocabulary instruction, this study examines the frequency with which teachers and children discussed theme-related vocabulary words during shared book reading. Head Start teachers received 1 year of…
Children who are learning English as an Additional Language (EAL) may start school with smaller vocabularies than their monolingual peers. Given the links between vocabulary and academic achievement, it is important to evaluate interventions that are designed to support vocabulary learning in this group of children. To evaluate an intervention, namely Sign-Supported English (SSE), which uses conventionalized manual gestures alongside spoken words to support the learning of English vocabulary by children with EAL. Specifically, the paper investigates whether SSE has a positive impact on Reception class children's vocabulary development over and above English-only input, as measured over a 6-month period. A total of 104 children aged 4-5 years were recruited from two neighbouring schools in a borough of Outer London. A subset of 66 had EAL. In one school, the teachers used SSE, and in the other school they did not. Pupils in each school were tested at two time points (the beginning of terms 1 and 3) using three different assessments of vocabulary. Classroom-based observations of the teachers' and pupils' manual communication were also carried out. Results of the vocabulary assessments revealed that using SSE had no effect on how well children with EAL learnt English vocabulary: EAL pupils from the SSE school did not learn more words than EAL pupils at the comparison school. SSE was used in almost half of the teachers' observations in the SSE school, while spontaneous gestures were used with similar frequency by teachers in the comparison school. There are alternative explanations for the results. The first is that the use of signs alongside spoken English does not help EAL children of this age to learn words. Alternatively, SSE does have an effect, but we were unable to detect it because (1) teachers in the comparison school used very rich natural gesture and/or (2) teachers in the SSE school did not know enough BSL and this inhibited their use of spontaneous gesture
In this single-case design study, we examined the effects of an adapted dialogic reading intervention on the oral language and vocabulary skills of four Latino preschool children who were at risk for English language delays. We used adapted dialogic reading strategies in English and two literacy games that included a rapid naming activity and…
The study aimed to investigate whether or not negotiation of meaning is effective in L2 vocabulary acquisition of Chinese learners of English in the classroom setting. In the study there were two experimental groups (pre-modified input and negotiation of meaning) and two control groups (pre-modified input). The four groups were required to do a…
This study tried to investigate the effectiveness of authentic and pedagogical films with English and Persian subtitles in learning vocabulary. Moreover, the role of these two types of subtitles and the films with no subtitles were investigated. To conduct the study, 30 Iranian EFL students were selected based on the results of an Oxford Placement…
The present study focused on using the MoodleReader to promote extensive reading (ER) in an Iranian EFL context, emphasizing its effect on students' incidental vocabulary acquisition. Thirty eight Shiraz University sophomores were assigned to experimental and control groups. The experimental group used the MoodleReader for their ER program, while…
This study aims to obtain more insight regarding the effect of multimedia learning on third grade of Thai primary pupils' achievement in Size and Depth Vocabulary of English. A quasi-experiment is applied using "one group pretest-posttest design" combined with "time series design," as well as data triangulation. The sample…
The contribution of computer-assisted instructional programs to language learning process has been the focus of researchers for about two decades. However, the effect of synchronous and asynchronous computer-assisted approaches of language teaching on improving L2 vocabulary has been scarcely investigated. This study explored whether synchronous,…
This study used a randomized pretest-posttest control group design to examine the effect of the integration of corpora in general English courses on the students' vocabulary development. To enhance the learners' lexical repertoire and thereby improve their reading comprehension, an online corpus-based approach was integrated into 42 hours of…
Purpose: To describe the nature and frequency of the aided language stimulation program and determine the effects of a 3-week-long aided language stimulation program on the vocabulary acquisition skills of children with little or no functional speech (LNFS). Method: Four children participated in this single-subject,multiple-probe study across…
This study examines the effects of interactive versus simultaneous display of visual and verbal multimedia information on incidental vocabulary learning and reading comprehension of learners of English with lower proficiency levels. In the interactive display condition, learners were allowed to select the type of multimedia information whereas the…
For university students in Indonesia, English reading comprehension, which partially depends on vocabulary knowledge, is key to success in academic achievement. The current study was set up to compare the effect of two commonly known teaching interventions during a whole semester to improve reading
For university students in Indonesia, English reading comprehension, which partially depends on vocabulary knowledge, is key to success in academic achievement. The current study was set up to compare the effect of two commonly known teaching interventions during a whole semester to improve reading
The present study aims to advance the extant research base by evaluating the implementation and effectiveness of an academic vocabulary program designed for use in mainstream middle school classrooms with high proportions of language minority learners. The quasi-experimental, mixed-methods study was conducted in 21 classes (13 treatment matched to…
We investigated the effectiveness of using constant time delay (CTD) with young adults with intellectual disability on their vocabulary acquisition and retention, as well as expository reading comprehension. Four learners, ages 19 to 21 years, from a postsecondary education program for individuals with disabilities participated in the study.…
This study investigated the effects of a six-month course in speed reading in three areas of reading proficiency development: 1) general reading comprehension, 2) knowledge of high-frequency vocabulary, and 3) reading-rate and accuracy. The participants (N = 105) were Japanese students studying English as a foreign language in Grade 10 at a…
This study extends current knowledge by exploring the effect of different annotation formats, namely in-text annotation, glossary annotation, and pop-up annotation, on hypertext reading comprehension in a foreign language and vocabulary acquisition across student proficiencies. User attitudes toward the annotation presentation were also…
In the present study, the comparative effects of comprehensible input, output and corrective feedback on the receptive acquisition of L2 vocabulary items were investigated. Two groups of beginning EFL learners participated in the study. The control group received comprehensible input only, while the experimental group received input and was…
Full Text Available The purpose of this study was to determine the motivational level of the participants in a language classroom towards course materials designed in accordance with augmented reality technology and to identify the correlation between academic achievement and motivational level. 130 undergraduate students from a state-run university in Turkey participated in this study and Turkish version of Material Motivational Survey was used to determine the undergraduate students’ motivational level about the materials which were designed with AR technology to teach English words at the elementary level. The results of this study suggested that AR technology materials had positive impact on increasing undergraduate students’ motivation towards vocabulary learning in language classroom. This study also signified that a positive significant correlation was found between academic achievement and the motivation in the use of AR technology in language classroom.
Vocabulary knowledge is vital for students' success in school and beyond. However, students with disabilities and others who consistently score below their peers on various measures of vocabulary knowledge have difficulties in secondary-level content area courses. Because many students with disabilities are now educated primarily in general…
In theory, computer game-based learning can support several vocabulary learning affordances that have been identified in the foreign language learning research. In the observable evidence, learning with computer games has been shown to improve performance on vocabulary recall tests. However, while simple recall can be a sign of learning,…
The vocabulary learning is one of very important part in the college English teaching. Correct analysis of the result of vocabulary strategy instruction can offer feedbacks for English teaching, and help teachers to improve the teaching method. In this article, the issue how to use SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Science) to…
In theory, computer game-based learning can support several vocabulary learning affordances that have been identified in the foreign language learning research. In the observable evidence, learning with computer games has been shown to improve performance on vocabulary recall tests. However, while simple recall can be a sign of learning,…
Given that there are neural markers for the acquisition of a non-verbal skill, we review evidence of neural markers for the acquisition of vocabulary. Acquiring vocabulary is critical to learning one's native language and to learning other languages. Acquisition requires the ability to link an object concept (meaning) to sound. Is there a region…
We tested whether urban middle-school students from mostly low-income homes had improved academic vocabulary when they participated in a freely available vocabulary program, Word Generation (WG). To understand how this program may support students at risk for long-term reading difficulty, we examined treatment interactions with baseline…
词汇是语言不可或缺的组成部分，提高学生的英语词汇水平是大学英语有效教学的重心之一。本文在分析大学英语词汇教学中存在问题的基础上，探讨了一系列词汇教学策略，希望能够引起人们关注词汇教学，使教有实效，学有实效。% Vocabulary is the essential part of language and improving students’ English vocabulary level is the keynote of effective teaching. Based on the existing problems in vocabulary teaching, this paper analyzes a series of vocabulary teaching strategies. It is hoped that this paper may draw teachers’attention to the effectiveness of vocabulary teaching.
Vocabulary is a fundamental requirement of language acquisition, and its competence enables independent reading and effective language acquisition. Effective language use requires adequate level of vocabulary knowledge; therefore, efforts must be made to identify students' vocabulary base for greater efficiency and competency in the language.…
The usefulness of bilingual dictionaries for vocabulary learning was examined with 293 Japanese university students studying English as a foreign language. Students who used a dictionary during reading scored significantly better on a vocabulary test than those who did not, but there was evidence for differential item functioning. (25 references)…
Full Text Available The aim of the present study was to explore the effect of narrow reading on English as foreign language (EFL learners’ vocabulary recall and retention. To this end, 60 senior high school students studying at Tarbiyat High School in Mahshahr, Iran, were selected from four intact classes. The participants were then divided into two equal groups, experimental and control. Ten words which were unknown to the participants were selected as target words. The experimental group received thematically related passages while the control group was given reading passages of different topics. The immediate posttest was given to the participants two days after the treatment. Afterwards, two delayed posttests were administered with two week intervals. The scores were analyzed through two-way repeated measures ANOVA, Bonferroni pairwise comparisons, and independent samples t-tests. The results revealed that the experimental group outperformed the control group in all posttests. The implications arising from the findings and suggestions for future research were explained.
Prenatal exposure to testosterone is known to affect fetal brain maturation and later neurocognitive function. However, research on the effects of prenatal testosterone exposure has been limited by indirect measures of testosterone and small unrepresentative samples. This study investigated whether bioavailable testosterone (BioT) concentrations in umbilical cord blood are associated with expressive vocabulary development, in a large birth cohort. Cord blood samples were taken immediately after delivery and expressive vocabulary was measured at two years of age using the language development survey (LDS). BioT concentration significantly predicted vocabulary size in males (n=197), such that higher concentrations were associated with lower LDS scores, indicating smaller vocabulary. This relationship between BioT concentrations and vocabulary at aged 2 years was not observed in girls (n=176). Higher circulating prenatal testosterone concentrations at birth may be associated with reduced vocabulary in early childhood among boys.
Full Text Available This study was designed to verify the effect of thematic classes on English vocabulary learning. Thematic class is an educational project, which recently started to be used in junior high schools in Iran. The ministry of Education in Iran has launched the project of thematic classes to improve learning in 2010 with the hope of copying with some of the educational problems so that students experience deeper learning. For subjects of the study, 90 7th grade students of junior high school in Taybad, Khorasan e Razavi were selected. Three groups were used in this study: two experimental groups and one control group. Each group consisted of 30 female students, who settled randomly in the groups, respectively. Their range of age was between 13 and 14. A vocabulary-based test, which was designed by the researcher, was used as the main measurement tool in the study to evaluate the students' achievement in the course. The course lasted 10 weeks, two sessions per week. The results reflected the positive effect of thematic classes on vocabulary learning. Therefore, educational implication of thematic class for junior high school is suggestible. Keywords: Thematic Class, Cooperative Learning, Vocabulary, Visual Aids, Audio Visual Aids, Motivation
《普通高中英语课程标准》和江苏省高考考试说明（英语）都对高中生必须达到的词汇要求作了明确规定，由此可见词汇学习的重要性。然而现在的教学中存在着不少问题，因此本文旨在通过对词汇教学的内容、原则进行分析，提出词汇教学的有效途径，帮助学生高效地学习词汇，提高综合运用英语语言的能力。%"Curriculum Standard for Ordinary Senior High School English"and Jiangsu Province college entrance examination test description (English) both have made specific provisions to the vo-cabulary requirements which senior high school students must meet, thus the importance of vocabulary learning can be seen. But now there are many problems in the current teaching, there-fore, through analyzing the content and principle of vocabulary teaching, this paper aims to put forward effective ways of vocabu-lary teaching, helping students learn vocabulary efficiently and improve the comprehensive ability to use the English language.
Essential French Vocabulary is the course for you if you need help with your study of French. This fully revised edition of our best-selling course now comes with free downloadable audio support containing hints on how to learn vocabularyeffectively.
To review the current literature on the effects of bilingualism on vocabulary, executive functions, age of dementia onset, and regional brain structure. PubMed and PsycINFO databases were searched (from January 1999 to present) for relevant original research and review articles on bilingualism (but not multilingualism) paired with each target neuropsychological variable published in English. A qualitative review of these articles was conducted. It has long been known that mean scores of bilinguals fall below those of monolinguals on vocabulary and other language, but not visual-perceptual, format cognitive tests. Contemporary studies that have reported higher mean scores for bilinguals than monolinguals on executive function task-switching or inhibition tasks have not always been replicated, leading to concerns of publication bias, statistical flaws, and failures to match groups on potentially confounding variables. Studies suggesting the onset of Alzheimer's disease occurred about 4 years later for bilinguals versus monolinguals have not been confirmed in longitudinal, cohort, community-based, incidence studies that have used neuropsychological testing and diagnostic criteria to establish an age of dementia diagnosis. Neuroimaging studies of regional gray and white matter volume in bilinguals versus monolinguals show inconsistencies in terms of both the regions of difference and the nature of the difference. Resolving inconsistencies in the behavioral data is necessary before searching in the brain for neuroanatomical correlation. Comparisons of balanced versus language-dominant groups within the same ethnoculture combined with objective measurement of bilingualism could better match groups on potentially confounding variables. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved).
Vocabulary size is an important criterion to measure one's English proficiency. More words mean more freedom in language use. To many English learners, language skill remains difficult due to insufficient vocabulary. Both learners and teachers should be active to find an appropriate way to improve that condition. So it is necessary to know the feature of vocabulary and some effective ways to enlarge vocabulary size.
This paper analyses current situations and some problems with vocabulary leaning confronted by students (especially Mongolian students) in Inner Mongolian, which should be solved urgently since the requirements of College English Teaching Curriculum are increasing, and it points out the improvement of vocabulary teaching strategies should become college English teachers' main concern. Finally, interesting methods of presenting vocabulary and effective ways of checking students' vocabulary are suggested ...
Full Text Available It seems that the vocabulary knowledge of Iranian university students for English translation is below minimal comprehension. One possible factor affecting the vocabulary knowledge of students is the oral input presented by professors in their classes. This research seeks to analyze the role of oral input in vocabulary learning. For this reason, twenty- three content courses from B.A. English translation syllabus were selected. Hence, the professors` lectures were recorded and then transcribed. Next the data was analyzed with Range 32, the software developed by Paul Nation. The findings revealed that almost ninety percent of the oral vocabulary items used by professors were in the first 1000 word families that are the most frequent words in English. Moreover, the results showed that the level of vocabulary items used by professors did not change over the past semesters. Therefore, it is clear that one of the possible reasons for students’ inadequate vocabulary knowledge is lack of rich oral input, because students do not have sufficiently strong motivation to work harder to comprehend their instructors. The results of this research bring into focus the need for more systematic preparation and presentation of the vocabulary items in the course syllabus.
Full Text Available This study investigated the effects of visible and invisible links for annotated words in a computer module for learning French on the vocabulary acquisition and reading comprehension of two types of students – high – and average-achievers. Two hundred and sixty four second-semester students of French were identified as high- or average-achievers. Each type of students was then randomly assigned to two groups – with visible or invisible hyperlinks. All students were instructed to read a short passage in French (181 words for general comprehension and allowed to consult the annotated words (made visible by bold face for the visible links group as much as they needed. The students took a vocabulary pretest and an immediate and delayed (two weeks vocabulary and reading comprehension posttest. The results of the study showed that average- achievers benefited more from the visible links for vocabulary acquisition and reading comprehension than high-achievers. The results are discussed in light of second language acquisition and gifted-student theories and suggestions for future research are made.
@@ Due to limited class time,students will not be able to learn all the vocabulary simply from class teaching.Thus we need to help students develop items vocabulary learning strategies so that they can effectively acquire more vocabulary on their own,especially outside the class.Below are some strategies.
Presents a study of the acquisition of English-as-a-Foreign-Language vocabulary through academic listening. Explored the effects of EFL proficiency and lecture comprehension on vocabulary acquisition as well as the relationship between vocabulary gain and the following factors: frequency of occurrence, types of word, type of word elaboration, and…
vocabulary is one of the most important elements of the language. It is closely related with context and pragmatic. This paper intends to find out some effective method of vocabulary teaching under the pragmatic principles, exploring how to improve pragmatic competence of students in English vocabulary teaching.
Vocabulary is the basis for learning any language.Anyone who wants to learn a language well faces the challenge of enlarging his/her vocabularyeffectively.From six aspects,this paper discusses what teachers should do to help their students with vocabulary acquisition.
This research is a comparative study of Chinese EFLgradutes′vocabulary strategies applied in their EGeneralAP(English for General Academic Purposes)and ESpecialAP(English for Special Academic Purpose)learning.Participantswere the first-year graduates of non-English major in ChinaPharmaceutical University(N=102).The present study uses ataxonomy of strategies developed by O’Malley and Chamot(1990),which was modified to more accurately reflectvocabulary strategies(altogether 31 sub-strategy variables within16 strategies).Analysis through SAS(Statistic Analysis System)on the collected date has revealed that:1)Learners apply more types of vocabulary stategies inEGeneralAP than in ESpecialAP vocabulary learning.2)Translation and Extensive Reading gain higher frequencyof application in ESpecialAP learning.3)11 vocabulary strategies strongly predict EGeneralAPvocabulary achievement and only 6 strategies strongly predictESpecialAp vocabulary achievement.At the end of the paper,some practical suggestions aremade for EFL graduate teachers to adjust their teaching targetand methods.
Based on its coincidence with a significant period in language development for children, preschool provides a favorable setting to foster vocabulary growth. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of two instructional conditions and an incidental exposure condition for teaching targeted vocabulary words to preschool students…
Full Text Available The study of vocabulary can be considered a chief issue which the second language students encounter within the learning of another language especially, for non-English major students. This study aims at assessing the influence of a suggested program for enhancing EFL students` vocabulary and vocabulary learning strategies use. The sample of this study consists of (123 females, it is parted into two sections; the experimental group consists of 55 female students and the control group consists of 68 female students. During the course of the study, learners were randomly chosen and randomly were divided into the experimental and control groups. The aim of the study is twofold: (a to assess if there exist notable discrepancies between these two groups on the English Language Vocabulary post-test and vocabulary language learning strategies. The study also aims to analyze if there exist important discrepancies in the mean grades of pre and post-test of the English Language Vocabulary test and vocabulary language learning strategies. The research applied will continue for 12 weeks throughout the second semester which includes the proposed program. Students` vocabulary learning strategies were measured by Schmitt’s (1997 questionnaire. This questionnaire contains 58 items covering five main strategies that are determination plans, social plans, memory tactics, cognitive plans and meta-cognitive programs. While the Students` English Language Vocabulary size was measured by English Language vocabulary test that was designed by the researchers. The research accomplished lasted for three months that encompasses the suggested plan. The gathered data demonstrated that there existed statistically important discrepancies between the experimental group and the control group on the post-test, in which the experimental one was more bolded. It also uncovred that there existed statistically important discrepancies among the pre-test and post-test outcomes for the
To figure out the most robust factors influencing incidental vocabulary acquisition (IVA) performance, in this paper three reader variables are identified based on literature review, i.e., reading proficiency, sight vocabulary and content schema; and an investigation is conducted to search for their different impacts.After the analysis of the collected data by SPSS 10.0, the results suggested that individual difference in IVA is largely caused by the difference in reading ability and previous vocabulary knowledge.Therefore, to foster learners' IVA ability, EFL teachers need to help students develop independent reading strategies for IVA, provide material suitable to students' level and enrich their background knowledge.
Although expanding spacing is often regarded as the most effective practice schedule, studies comparing equal and expanding spacing have yielded mixed results. The present study set out to examine whether the amount of spacing and the retention interval may influence the effects of expanding and equal spacing on second language (L2) vocabulary…
Full Text Available The present study was an attempt to look into the effect of collaborative learning on the learners’ improvement in vocabulary learning. Moreover, the learners’ attitudes about vocabulary learning were taken into account as well. The study was conducted with the participation of 30 intermediate Iranian EFL (English as a foreign language learners, who were studying in a private language institute. To collect the data, OPT (Oxford Placement Test was applied to check the learners’ proficiency level and meet the homogeneity requirements. Then, the learners took the vocabulary pre- and post-test to check the effectiveness of treatment sessions on the learners’ vocabulary learning. Semi-structured interview was also done to investigate the learners’ awareness regarding learning vocabularies before and after the treatment sessions. Findings showed that the applied collaborative techniques, i.e. word-webbing and snowball techniques paved the way for the experimental group to outperform the control group since improvement in vocabulary learning was found to be significant. Moreover, Qualitative results revealed the occurrence of positive changes in the learners’ attitudes about vocabulary learning since almost all the learners concurred that the above-mentioned collaborative techniques assisted them in their better speaking and, by having more interaction through group work, enjoyable environment was created for learning target vocabularies. It was suggested that collaborative instruction should be implemented in teaching vocabulary as it can pave the way for both teachers and learners to benefit from a communicative language classroom.
Full Text Available This paper developed an adaptive Business English self-learning system for EFL vocabulary learning. The components of word reoccurrence and learner engagement have been built into the system where the amount of unknown word reexposure in various customized texts increases and vocabulary enhancement tasks are added to promote learner engagement with wanted words. To evaluate the system effectiveness on EFL vocabulary learning, the experimental group read system-screened texts with immediate and repeated contacts with individuals’ unknown words and performed vocabulary tasks specific to those unknown words, while the control group read online texts without unknown word reoccurrence and vocabulary practice. After one semester, these two groups were measured by one online vocabulary test, and an online user satisfaction investigation was also administered to the experimental group. The study found that the experimental group reading customized texts to reexpose to previously encountered unknown words in different texts along with doing individualized vocabulary exercises performed significantly better in EFL vocabulary learning than the other group. It was also found that the system was appealing for the learners to show positive attitudes toward the use of the system. The study demonstrated that the constructed adaptive Business English self-learning system could effectively promote vocabulary growth.
This study explored the effect of a serious game on the vocabulary of students in primary education. 206 students and 10 teachers used the game during vocabulary lessons in three conditions: (a)online game and vocabulary instruction, (b)online game only, and (c)paper game and vocabulary instruction.
Despite poor vocabulary outcomes for children with hearing loss, few studies have evaluated the effectiveness of specific vocabulary teaching methods on vocabulary learning for this group. The authors compared three vocabulary instruction conditions with preschool children with hearing loss: (a) explicit, direct instruction; (b) follow-in…
Despite poor vocabulary outcomes for children with hearing loss, few studies have evaluated the effectiveness of specific vocabulary teaching methods on vocabulary learning for this group. The authors compared three vocabulary instruction conditions with preschool children with hearing loss: (a) explicit, direct instruction; (b) follow-in…
Full Text Available By means of questionnaire and quantitative research, this article aims at investigating the effects on students’ mastery of vocabulary by studying teachers’ adoption of seven kinds of common vocabulary teaching strategies and the usage of analyzing strategies in intensive English in order to improve vocabulary teaching strategies and to help enlarge students’ vocabulary.
By means of questionnaire and quantitative research, this article aims at investigating the effects on students’ mastery of vocabulary by studying teachers’ adoption of seven kinds of common vocabulary teaching strategies and the usage of analyzing strategies in intensive English in order to improve vocabulary teaching strategies and to help enlarge students’ vocabulary.
Numerous researchers in education recognize that vocabulary is essential in foreign language learning. However, students often encounter vocabulary that is difficult to remember. Providing effectivevocabulary learning strategies is therefore more valuable than teaching students a large amount of vocabulary. The purpose of this study was to…
This article discusses the importance of mathematical vocabulary, difficulties students encounter in learning this vocabulary, and some instructional strategies. Two general methods for teaching vocabulary are discussed: context and explicit vocabulary instruction. The methods are summarized as they apply to mathematical vocabulary instruction and…
Full Text Available This research was aimed to get empirical data and analyze the effects of reading habit and vocabulary mastery towards student’s speaking skill at private vocational schools in East Jakarta. This research used data analysis technique, those were descriptive statistic, requirement analysis, normality test, linearity test, and test of hypothesis (analysis of inferential. The research was held at State Senior High Schools in East Jakarta. Data collection was done by giving a test for reading habit, vocabulary mastery and listening skill to tenth-grade students at SMA 105 Ciracas and SMA 98 Cijantung. Due to the result, it can be inferred that there is an effect of reading habit towards student’s speaking skill.
Full Text Available The present study with a quasi- experimental design, aimed at comparing the effect of semantically related and semantically unrelated clustering on elementary EFL Iranian learner’s recognition ability and their retention. Participants were divided into two groups of 30 learners at elementary level, randomly assigned as experimental and control groups. They were all females, with the age range of 12 to 14, learning English at one of the language Institutes in Mashhad, Iran. Some instruments were used for collecting the research data. The experimental group underwent semantic clustering in which they were provided with eight lists of words, whereas the control group was presented eight unrelated word list with their pictures. An ANCOVA test was used to compare the effectiveness of two groups during short and long period of time. The comparison of two groups in post immediate test have shown that control group outperformed the experimental group, whereas for the delayed test, the results showed a significant difference in favor of semantically related over semantically unrelated clustering. The results have some implications for teaching of foreign language vocabulary instruction.
Vocabulary teaching is extremely important in college English teaching. Nowadays there exist many problems in col⁃lege English vocabulary teaching, which influence on the students’English learning. The effective college English vocabulary teaching strategies include: 1) teaching and learning vocabularies in the context; 2) strengthening the understanding and memory of the vocabularies through association;3) mastering the strategies to memorize and study vocabularies and developing self-aware⁃ness of acquiring vocabularies;4) empathizing emotional factors and developing the active motives to learn vocabularies. Through those strategies,it is helpful to improve the present situation of college English vocabulary teaching and promote the quality of col⁃lege English teaching and learning.% 词汇教学在大学英语教学中至关重要。目前在大学英语教学中，制约学生英语学习的只要问题是词汇。词汇作为学习语言的基础，在教学中常用的教学策略有：在语境中教、学词汇；通过联想，加深对词汇的理解与记忆；掌握词汇记忆、学习策略，培养习得词汇的自我意识；注重情感因素，培养学生学习词汇的积极动机。在教学中合理运用这些策略，有利于改进学生的英语学习状况，通告学生掌握词汇的能力，为学生学好英语打下坚实的基础。
The main purpose of this volume is to provide a complement to Towards a grammatical description of Palula (Liljegren 2008). The 1460 main entries included in the present work are limited to those lexical items that are cited or exemplified in the aforementioned work. The work is the result of linguistic research in and with the Palula community (Pakistan). It contains much of the basic vocabulary used in today's Palula, presented along with illustrative example sentences, grammatical informat...
In the present study, introductory-level German students read a simplified story and learned the meanings of new German words by reading English translations in marginal glosses versus trying to infer (i.e., guess) their translations. Students who inferred translations were given feedback in English or in German, or no feedback at all. Although immediate retention of new vocabulary was better for students who used marginal glosses, students who inferred word meanings and then received English feedback forgot fewer translations over time. Plausible but inaccurate inferences (i.e., those that made sense in the context) were more likely to be corrected by students who received English feedback as compared with German feedback, providing support for the beneficial effects of mediating information. Implausible inaccurate inferences, however, were more likely to be corrected on the delayed vocabulary test by students who received German feedback as compared with English feedback, possibly because of the additional contextual support provided by German feedback.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of the learning video game Quizlet on students with learning disabilities in the science classroom. Specifically this study investigated (a) student academic performance, (b) student on-task behavior, and (c) student satisfaction using the learning video game. Student academic performance was measured in terms of vocabulary acquisition, and student engagement was measured in relation to on-task behaviors. Seven middle school students, three female and four male participated in the study. A single subject design with ABABAB phases and maintenance data collection was utilized. Results show that all students increased their grades in science vocabulary and increased on-task behaviors. A follow-up student satisfaction survey determined that the intervention was acceptable to all students. Additional studies to assess the effects of Quizlet are recommended.
The purposes of this study were (a) to determine if using the video learning game Quizlet in a middle school resource classroom increases science vocabulary acquisition of students with learning disabilities, (b) to determine if using the video learning game Quizlet in a middle school resource classroom increases the student engagement/on-task behavior of students with learning disabilities, and (c) to evaluate student comfort and satisfaction in using the video learning game Quizlet in a middle school resource classroom. Six middle school students, three female and three male participated in the study. A single subject design with ABAB phases was utilized over eight weeks. Results show that all students increased their science vocabulary acquisition and increased their on-task behaviors. A follow-up student satisfaction survey determined that the intervention was acceptable to all students. Further research to assess the effects of Quizlet is recommended.
The significance-effect is the right effect of meaning caused upon an interpreting mind. The right effect is understood as the right interpretation of an intended meaning caused by a sign communicated by an utterer. In the article, which is inspired by Charles S. Peirce's doctrine of signs, his...
The current study explores the influence of socioeconomic status (SES) and bilingualism on the linguistic skills and verbal short-term memory of preschool children. In previous studies comparing children of low and mid-high SES, the terms "a child with low-SES" and "a child speaking a minority language" are often interchangeable, not enabling differentiated evaluation of these two variables. The present study controls for this confluence by testing children born and residing in the same country and attending the same kindergartens, with all bilingual children speaking the same heritage language (HL-Russian). A total of 120 children (88 bilingual children: 44 with low SES; and 32 monolingual children: 16 with low SES) with typical language development, aged 5; 7-6; 7, were tested in the societal language (SL-Hebrew) on expressive vocabulary and three repetition tasks [forward digit span (FWD), nonword repetition (NWR), and sentence repetition (SRep)], which tap into verbal short-term memory. The results indicated that SES and bilingualism impact different child abilities. Bilingualism is associated with decreased vocabulary size and lower performance on verbal short-term memory tasks with higher linguistic load in the SL-Hebrew. The negative effect of bilingualism on verbal short-term memory disappears once vocabulary is accounted for. SES influences not only linguistic performance, but also verbal short-term memory with lowest linguistic load. The negative effect of SES cannot be solely attributed to lower vocabulary scores, suggesting that an unprivileged background has a negative impact on children's cognitive development beyond a linguistic disadvantage. The results have important clinical implications and call for more research exploring the varied impact of language and life experience on children's linguistic and cognitive skills.
We investigated the impact of emotions on learning vocabulary in an unfamiliar language to better understand affective influences in foreign language acquisition. Seventy native English speakers learned new vocabulary in either a negative or a neutral emotional state. Participants also completed two sets of working memory tasks to examine the potential mediating role of working memory. Results revealed that participants exposed to negative stimuli exhibited difficulty in retrieving and correctly pairing English words with Indonesian words, as reflected in a lower performance on the prompted recall tests and the free recall measure. Emotional induction did not change working memory scores from pre to post manipulation. This suggests working memory could not explain the reduced vocabulary learning in the negative group. We argue that negative mood can adversely affect language learning by suppressing aspects of native-language processing and impeding form-meaning mapping with second language words.
Full Text Available The present study attempted to investigate the role of using word games in L2 vocabulary acquisition. 12 female participants from Uludag University were selected for control and experimental groups. Additionally, 35 participants from different universities in Turkey were invited to attend the study. First, an online questionnaire about the effect of games on vocabulary learning was administered to 35 participants. And results were analysed. Secondly, 12 female participants were divided into two groups as control group and experimental group. Both groups were taught certain words, however, a word game known as “Bingo” were utilized for the experimental group. Finally, a vocabulary quiz was administered to both groups to determine the differences between them. The scores obtained from vocabulary quiz showed that the experimental group outperformed the control group in vocabulary quiz. Even so, there was not a significant difference between the results of the quiz. Similarly, the findings of the questionnaire indicated that the participants preferred learning through vocabulary games rather than traditional way. Also, the findings revealed that games reduce negative feelings during the learning process. It was suggested that teachers should reconsider the role of games and appreciate their educational value.
Vocabulary learning is the basis of the language learning process in teaching Turkish as a second language. Vocabulary learning strategies need to be used in order for vocabulary learning to take place effectively. The use of vocabulary learning strategies facilitates vocabulary learning and increases student achievement. Each student uses a…
Schools across the country are inadequately prepared to meet the educational needs of English language learners (ELLs), much less the needs of ELLs who also have an intellectual disability (ID). In this exploratory study, three Mexican American elementary students with moderate ID were given vocabulary word instruction in English and Spanish using…
The present study investigated the contribution of morphological and cognate awareness to the development of English and French vocabulary knowledge among young minority and majority language children who were enrolled in a French immersion program. Participating children (n = 75) were assessed in English and French on measures of morphological…
This study is an investigation of the use of multimedia components such as visual text, spoken text, and graphics in a Web-based self-instruction program to increase learners' English vocabulary learning at Myungin Middle School in Seoul, South Korea. A total of 172 middle school students (14 years of age) in five classes participated in the…
In this study, the researchers attempted to address the main hypothesis that diglossia may impede vocabulary growth of Lebanese bilingual students [in L1 Arabic], but they should eventually catch up in the upper cycle. A correlation design based on a two-stage random sample was used with 100 participants including pre-schoolers, first, second,…
Strategies play an important role in learning a second or foreign language (L2). The aim of the current study was to develop and evaluate a co-sharing-based strategy learning system for L2 vocabulary learning known as "Mywordtools." Mywordtools is designed specifically for lexical learning, enabling learners to use the currently…
The present study examines how glossing of second language (L2) texts affects L2 learners' reading comprehension as well as their learning of L2 grammar and vocabulary. It employed a pretest, immediate posttest, and delayed posttest design with two treatment sessions. The target features were English unaccusativity and 10 pseudo-word items.…
The present study investigated the brain mechanisms involved during young children's receptive familiarization with new words, and whether the dynamics of these mechanisms are related to the child's productive vocabulary size. To this end, we recorded event-related potentials (ERPs) from 20-month-old children in a pseudoword repetition task.…
This study examines the development and evaluation of a bilingual Vocabulary Size Test (VST, Nation, 2006). A bilingual (English-Russian) test was developed and administered to 121 intermediate proficiency EFL learners (native speakers of Russian), alongside the original monolingual (English-only) version of the test. A comparison of the bilingual…
The current research was an attempt to explore the washback impact of task-based instruction (TBI) on EFL Iranian learners' vocabulary development. To this end, conducting an Oxford Placement Test (OPT), 30 out of 72 EFL Iranian learners studying in an English language institute, were randomly selected. Then, they were assigned to experimental (N…
The primary aim of this investigation was to determine what combination of target word variables (frequency, patternedness, length, cognateness, lexicalization) could best predict the difficulty of incidentally acquiring vocabulary through reading. A group of adult English First Language (EL1) (n = 20) and adult English as a Foreign Language (EFL)…
It is well established that oral language skills in preschool, including vocabulary and comprehension, predict later reading proficiency and that substantial differences in oral language skills exist when children enter school. Although explicit instruction embedded in storybooks is a promising intervention approach, high-fidelity implementation…
This paper investigates how authentic web-delivered video can inform ESL online instruction and enhance the incidental acquisition of vocabulary and listening comprehension. A total of 24 adult learners of English as a Second Language enrolled in a listening comprehension class at a major Midwestern university participated in the study. The…
The present study investigated comprehension, immediate and delayed vocabulary retention under incidental and intentional learning conditions via computer mediated hypertext gloss. One hundred and eighty four (N = 184) intermediate students of English as a foreign language at an English school participated in the study. They were randomly assigned…
"Teaching word" as a complimentary process of teaching Turkish is a crucial field of study. However, studies on this area are insufficient. The only aim of the designed activities that get under way with the constructivist approach on which new education programs are based is to provide students with vocabulary elements of Turkish. In…
Students of English as a second language who major in science and technology use English-language textbooks to ensure that they can read English materials upon graduation. Research indicates that teachers spend little time helping these students on the linguistic complexity of such textbooks. Vocabulary, grammar, and article structure are elements of this complexity, but to many students, these elements can be akin to locked doors. This study presents MyVLS-Reader, which focuses on unlocking the first of these doors-vocabulary-while assisting in reading. With explicit vocabulary learning, students learn and memorize individual vocabulary, but the context is lost if the depth of learning discards context. In implicit vocabulary learning, students acquire vocabulary through repeated exposure to contexts, but repeated encounters with new words are required. Few e-learning systems combine both vocabulary-learning approaches. MyVLS-Reader achieves such synergy by (1) using a keyword setting to provide context-matched vocabulary explanation while reading and (2) embedding multiple learning choices, such as keyword setting, the review and memorization of explicit vocabulary, and the option to ask instructors. This study includes two rounds of evaluations: (1) an evaluation of the learning achievements of control and treatment groups and (2) a quantitative and qualitative investigation of perceptions regarding the use of MyVLS-Reader. The evaluation results indicate that the treatment group developed a better vocabulary than the control group in significantly less time. The use of MyVLS-Reader also slightly improved higher-order thinking skills. This result suggests that MyVLS-Reader can effective assist students in building their vocabulary while reading.
Full Text Available Under the influence of globalization through cultural and technological exchange, English viewed as a medium of international communication enjoys its privileged status around the world. In Taiwan, English is the only foreign language tested in the entrance examinations and English is the most popular foreign language which Taiwanese people desire to master. However, many learners in Taiwan agree the fundamental and crucial role vocabulary plays in the language learning, but they think learning vocabulary is very difficult under the current method of instruction based on the use of word lists. This study aims to investigate the learning outcomes of presenting vocabulary in contexts, specifically in the contexts of literature and imaginative texts, and compare them with the use of word lists only. In the present research, two experiments were designed to investigate Taiwanese learners’ attitudes and perceptions concerning the way in which vocabulary is presented and compare their opinions about the effect of the use of word lists and literature in the foreign language classroom respectively. Questionnaires were used in both of these two experiments. The results indicated that most of the learners’ opinions agreed that the delayed presentation of words is not helpful for them in vocabulary learning as well as showed that the use of literature in the foreign language classroom is perceived as a productive and valuable resource for vocabulary learning. Implications were drawn concerning the design of textbooks used in Taiwan and also for curriculum and methodological innovation.
Background: Children who are learning English as an Additional Language (EAL) may start school with smaller vocabularies than their monolingual peers. Given the links between vocabulary and academic achievement, it is important to evaluate interventions that are designed to support vocabulary learning in this group of children. Aims: To evaluate…
Background: Children who are learning English as an Additional Language (EAL) may start school with smaller vocabularies than their monolingual peers. Given the links between vocabulary and academic achievement, it is important to evaluate interventions that are designed to support vocabulary learning in this group of children. Aims: To evaluate…
This study examined the role of the language of vocabulary instruction in promoting English vocabulary in preschool Latino dual language learners (DLLs). The authors compared the effectiveness of delivering a single evidence-informed vocabulary approach using English as the language of vocabulary instruction (English culturally responsive [ECR]) versus using a bilingual modality that strategically combined Spanish and English (culturally and linguistically responsive [CLR]). Forty-two DLL Spanish-speaking preschoolers were randomly assigned to the ECR group (n=22) or CLR group (n=20). Thirty English words were presented during small-group shared readings in their preschools 3 times a week for 5 weeks. Multilevel models were used to examine group differences in postinstruction scores on 2 Spanish and 2 English vocabulary assessments at instruction end and follow-up. Children receiving instruction in the CLR bilingual modality had significantly higher posttest scores (than those receiving the ECR English-only instruction) on Spanish and English vocabulary assessments at instruction end and on the Spanish vocabulary assessment at follow-up, even after controlling for preinstruction scores. The results provide additional evidence of the benefits of strategically combining the first and second language to promote English and Spanish vocabulary development in this population. Future directions for research and clinical applications are discussed.
Handbooks recommend a variety of quite complicated procedures for learning and remembering vocabulary, but most learners only engage in very simple procedures. The aim of this project was to establish a basis for identifying optimal vocabulary recording procedures by finding out what learners...... currently do. We administered a questionnaire, interviewed learners who said that they kept vocabulary records of some kind and examined their records. Two-thirds had given up making vocabulary lists on entering the L2 environment and/or starting to read extensively, but several made interesting lists...... to be bilingual and single-word focused. The optimal listing procedures are those which represent a compromise between linguistically and psychologically effective practices and the amount of investment learners are actually prepared to put in. It is important to distinguish records made in class, which should...
The research of technics theory started in 1930s. In 1960s when contemporary technics theory generally formed, technics and the definitions they express have become the object of technics research. In 1970s, technics has become an indepen-dent discipline. Experts who are engaged in individual technics research carry out analysis and research on technics of different fields, including vocabulary technics which is closely related to technics. Previous domestic researches of vocabulary technics are mostly semantic analysis and construction, instead of analysis and research from the perspective of definition system and construct-ing definition division figures, so it is necessary to analyze and research the definition system of vocabulary. This paper will e-laborate the theoretical and practical significance as well as the basis of constructing a vocabulary definition system, aiming to lay a theoretical foundation for the construction of a vocabulary defi-nition system.%术语学理论研究始于20世纪30年代。60年代，当代术语学理论基本形成后，术语和其表达的概念成为术语学的研究对象。70年代术语学成为一门独立的学科。其中从事个别术语学研究的专家学者对不同领域的术语进行分析研究，与术语学密切相关的词汇学术语自然也列在其中。此前国内对词汇学术语的研究，大多停留在语义分析和构成方面，尚未从概念体系和构建概念划分图示的角度对词汇学术语进行分析和研究，因此对词汇学概念体系进行分析研究是必要的。本文将阐述构建词汇学概念体系的理论意义、实践意义以及构建概念体系的依据，为词汇学概念体系的构建做好理论铺垫。
Vocabulary is an important component in English reading for Grade 5-6 students. Efficient vocabulary teaching is good for students to master this language better. In fact, inefficient and time-consuming phenomena in English vocabulary teach⁃ing are still obvious in primary schools. In order to make students acquire vocabularyeffectively, some useful vocabulary teaching techniques will be introduced in this thesis to help teachers teach vocabularyeffectively.
Traditional ways of English learning such as memorizing a certain couple of words and reciting from the word list seem much easier than developing a useful vocabulary for L2 learners. However, learners complain that they have suffered from couples of difficulties as the words are easy to be forgotten. Compare with the ways of mechanical memorizing, it argues that pro⁃viding L2 learners with the development of useful lexical knowledge such as semantic information and morphological structure is more effective in the process of language acquisition. Moreover, developing a useful lexical knowledge is far more complicated for English learners.
The vocabulary contains approximately 6,000 terms, with definitions for some 1,250 concepts. It has been prepared in accordance with current terminological methods: Equivalence of terms was confirmed by consulting recent and reliable sources in both English and French. It is intended as a flexible tool for responding quickly to terminological needs in the environmental sciences. It includes an example of usage of the entry and defines the concept.
In vocabulary testing, whether to adopt context is a heat-debated topic. In the article, an experiment is designed to in⁃vestigate what is the effect of zero context and sentence context on the vocabulary testing? And how do the different kinds of context in vocabulary affect the subjects’performance? The experimental result demonstrates that sentence do play an important role in helping text-takers to figure out the correct meaning or target words.
Vocabulary teaching is an important part in English teaching, which purpose is to foster students to use learned words to conduct language communication, increasing the capability of language using in daily life. This paper analyzes the present condition and exposes the problems existing in English vocabulary teaching and learning, then, puts forward some scientific, effective strategies for the education of English vocabulary. I hope these teaching strategies can help teachers improve their teaching methods and help English learners acquire knowledge easily and efficiently.
Vocabulary, as the information carrier, plays an indispensable role of language. Likely, vocabulary learning is a signifi-cant part in English learning, so vocabulary acquisition becomes one of the hottest SLA research fields. This study tests the vo-cabulary size of 61 first-year students in Jiangsu Maritime Institute by applying the adjusted Nation's Vocabulary Level Test (VLT), laying basis for further researches and studies on vocabulary acquisition and development of those students.
Full Text Available This study compared the effectiveness of three techniques for teaching English vocabulary to Persian native speakers: a traditional procedure, the classical cloze procedure, and an innovative procedure, which is dubbed here as vicinity technique, based on incidental learning, noticing and consciousness-raising. To do the comparison, 51 students, registered at a private language institute, were randomly assigned to three groups and were taught 40 vocabulary items in five sessions in the three procedures. To evaluate the vocabulary gain in the three conditions, immediate and delayed post-tests were administered and the obtained data were analyzed using ANOVA. The results revealed that the vicinity technique was more effective than the traditional procedure; both in immediate and delayed evaluations. It was also revealed that, although there was no significant difference between the vicinity technique and the classical cloze technique in short-term, the vicinity technique was more effective than the classical cloze one for long-term retention.
IntroductionIn China,intensive reading is the main method for teaching English.One feature of the textbooks isthat they all have large quantities of new words in each text,so vocabulary is one of the mostimportant aspects of this course.Recently,I conducted a survey among students who entered thePetroleum University in Shandong.To the question‘What is the greatest problem in your Englishstudies?’,82 out of the t00 students answered-vocabulary.This,to some extent,suggests that ourapproaches to vocabulary teaching should be improved.This article explores more effective ways toteach vocabulary.It suggests the idea of classifying and grouping vocabulary items and how to teachthem differently.A series of task-based activities are recommended to present and review vocabulary.
In this paper, we investigate the effect of neighbourhood density (ND) on vocabulary size in a computational model of vocabulary development. A word has a high ND if there are many words phonologically similar to it. High ND words are more easily learned by infants of all abilities (e.g. Storkel, 2009; Stokes, 2014). We present a neural network model that learns general phonotactic patterns in the exposure language, as well as specific word forms and, crucially, mappings between word meanings and word forms. The network is faster at learning frequent words, and words containing high-probability phoneme sequences, as human word learners are, but, independently of this, the network is also faster at learning words with high ND, and, when its capacity is reduced, it learns high ND words in preference to other words, similarly to late talkers. We analyze the model and propose a novel explanation of the ND effect, in which word meanings play an important role in generating word-specific biases on general phonological trajectories. This explanation leads to a new prediction about the origin of the ND effect in infants.
Vocabulary is an ele mentary component of a language, which is essential to communication and plays an important role in language learning. Therefore, how to strengthen and improve the vocabulary teaching has become one of important fields in English teaching. To some degree, whether or not the vocabulary teaching is successful will have direct effect on the quality of English teaching. In retrospect, foreign language researchers and educators have probed into vocabulary teaching theoretically and practically on the second language acquisition, linguistics, psychology, pedagogy and have obtained great accomplishment. The present paper incorporates five parts: 1) introduction, 2) English vocabulary learning strategies, 3) English vocabulary teaching principles and strategies and 4) conclusion.
While researchers have examined the effectiveness of various online gloss types on incidental L2 vocabulary learning, little research on online gloss languages has been conducted. Previous attempts which compared the effects of L1 and L2 glosses have reported mixed results. To fill the gaps, this study examined the effectiveness of Chinese and…
Full Text Available In the present study, the comparative effects of comprehensible input, output and corrective feedback on the receptive acquisition of L2 vocabulary items were investigated. Two groups of beginning EFL learners participated in the study. The control group received comprehensible input only, while the experimental group received input and was required to produce written output. They also received corrective feedback on their lexical errors if any. This could result in the production of modified output. The results of the study indicated that (a the group which produced output and received feedback (if necessary outperformed the group which only received input in the post-test, (b within the experimental group, feedback played a greater role in learners’ better performance than output, (c also a positive correlation between the amount of feedback an individual learner received, and his overall performance in the post-test; and also between the amount of feedback given for a specific word and the correct responses given to its related item in the post-test was found. The findings of this study provide evidence for the role of output production along with receiving corrective feedback in enhancing L2 processing by drawing further L2 learners’ attention to their output which in turn may result in improving their receptive acquisition of L2 words. Furthermore, as the results suggested, feedback made a more contribution to L2 development than output. Keywords: comprehensible input, output, interaction, corrective feedback, modified output, receptive vocabulary acquisition
This quasi-experimental study compared the effects of morphemic and contextual analysis instruction (MC) with the effects of textbook vocabulary instruction (TV) that was integrated into social studies textbook lessons. The participants were 157 students in eight fifth-grade classrooms. The results indicated that (a) TV students were more…
This study discusses the effects of using multimedia assisted instruction for Mandarin vocabulary learning by Vietnamese students with the assistance of the ASSURE model. The aim is to understand the difficulties encountered by these students and the effects during the learning progress of multimedia assisted instruction. In order to fulfill the…
Over the past 20 years, research has consistently affirmed the importance of explicit vocabulary instruction for adult learners of English as a second language (ESL). Given the significantvocabulary demands faced by adult second language readers, ESL teachers must carefully target their instruction for maximum impact and to foster meaningful…
In this article, we measure the effects of hypnosis and suggestions for learning second language vocabulary. Participants (N = 70) were randomly assigned to a hypnosis or a control group. They were pre-tested, and then presented 21 Spanish words, post-tested immediately and 1 week later. The data were analyzed using repeated measures analysis of variance with group (experimental versus control) as the between-subjects factor, and time as the within-subjects factor. The experimental group performed significantly better in both tests. Our results indicate that hypnosis is beneficial for second language vocabulary learning and retrieval.
Grammar provides the overall patterns, and vocabulary is the material to put in the patterns. Without grammar we can convey a little, but without vocabulary we can convey nothing. Vocabulary teaching is an indispensable part of English curriculum. Art is a kind of creation. Teaching vocabulary artistically can make teachers and students build up created consciousness in teaching and learning vocabulary activities and teachers put their experience and emotions towards beauty into teaching activities to raise general vocabulary teaching activities to appreciation of beauty and creative activities, convert bitter into happy, tense into ease. Thus the non-intellectual factors like motive, interest, emotion, self-confidence and so on can be developed naturally and they will elaborate a great part in English vocabulary teaching. At the same time, the relationship between teachers and students can get improved fundamentally furthest and it pushes vocabulary teaching powerfully in turn.
Full Text Available This study aims to compare the appropriateness of two statistical procedures for measuring the effectiveness of vocabulary learning strategies: percentages and correlation coefficients. To do this a group of 20 learners of English were asked to study 12 words in a written list, with their pronunciations, dictionary definitions, and example sentences. Data was collected through introspection where students were asked to verbalize their mental processes as they studied the target words. A pre-test and post-test were given to measure the task achievement. The qualitative data was transcribed verbatim and content-analysed for tokens of strategy use as well as by noting whether each use of strategies led to successful recall of the words on which they were used. To calculate the strategy effectiveness, both simple percentage calculation and correlation coefficients were employed for comparison. The findings indicated that percentage calculation can give a more realistic picture of strategy effectiveness than correlation coefficients.
Shared vocabularies are a core element in interoperable systems. Vocabularies need to be available at run-time, and where the vocabularies are shared by a distributed community this implies the use of web technology to provide vocabulary services. Given the ubiquity of vocabularies or classifiers in systems, vocabulary services are effectively the base of the interoperability stack. In contemporary knowledge organization systems, a vocabulary item is considered a concept, with the "terms" denoting it appearing as labels. The Simple Knowledge Organization System (SKOS) formalizes this as an RDF Schema (RDFS) application, with a bridge to formal logic in Web Ontology Language (OWL). For maximum utility, a vocabulary should be made available through the following interfaces: * the vocabulary as a whole - at an ontology URI corresponding to a vocabulary document * each item in the vocabulary - at the item URI * summaries, subsets, and resources derived by transformation * through the standard RDF web API - i.e. a SPARQL endpoint * through a query form for human users. However, the vocabulary data model may be leveraged directly in a standard vocabulary API that uses the semantics provided by SKOS. SISSvoc3 [1] accomplishes this as a standard set of URI templates for a vocabulary. Any URI comforming to the template selects a vocabulary subset based on the SKOS properties, including labels (skos:prefLabel, skos:altLabel, rdfs:label) and a subset of the semantic relations (skos:broader, skos:narrower, etc). SISSvoc3 thus provides a RESTFul SKOS API to query a vocabulary, but hiding the complexity of SPARQL. It has been implemented using the Linked Data API (LDA) [2], which connects to a SPARQL endpoint. By using LDA, we also get content-negotiation, alternative views, paging, metadata and other functionality provided in a standard way. A number of vocabularies have been formalized in SKOS and deployed by CSIRO, the Australian Bureau of Meteorology (BOM) and their
This article reports the results of two studies on the vocabulary growth of advanced learners of English as a foreign language in an English-medium degree programme. Growth in learners' written receptive and productive vocabularies was investigated in one cross-sectional and one longitudinal study over three years. The effect of word frequency on…
The words are called as basic building blocks of language. It is impossible to discuss the language system without words. It is related to the vocabulary whether a language is rich or not. It is also related to the peoples' vocabulary to understand what is said and written or to express effectively their thoughts and their feelings verbally or in…
Hearing stories can result in considerable incidental vocabulary development, for both first and second language acquisition (e.g. Elley 1992; Robbins and Ehri 1994; Senechal, LeFevre, Hudson and Lawson 1996). It has also been claimed, however, that direct instruction is more effective than incidental vocabulary acquisition and that combining both…
This article reports the results of two studies on the vocabulary growth of advanced learners of English as a foreign language in an English-medium degree programme. Growth in learners' written receptive and productive vocabularies was investigated in one cross-sectional and one longitudinal study over three years. The effect of word frequency on…
This article reports the results of two studies on the vocabulary growth of advanced learners of English as a foreign language in an English-medium degree programme. Growth in learners' written receptive and productive vocabularies was investigated in one cross-sectional and one longitudinal study over three years. The effect of word…
Rote memorization of vocabulary has long been a common way for Chinese students to learn lexical items. Cultural, educational background and traditional teaching practice in China are identified to be the factors that contribute to many students' heavy reliance on memorization as their sole approach to vocabulary learning. In addition to rote…
An efficient vocabulary learning strategy can supply students with exact meanings and usage of words. There are many differences between Chinese and English,so the result of memorizing vocabulary by rote is always not good. The paper holds the Incidental Vocabulary Learning to improve the English ability.
Output Hypothesis was proposed by Swain in 1985, her Output Hypothesis is regarded as the most important and in-fluential one. However, few studies research and analyze the effect of output on vocabulary acquisition. The findings of this study suggest the importance of output in vocabulary acquisition. Furthermore, in the interactive mode output can help learners acquire vocabulary.
Vocabulary instruction is addressed on two levels in this article: 1) the importance of direct teaching and 2) using the books of a popular children's series as examples to support these vocabulary lessons. Also addressed are specific methods of turning classrooms into places where vocabulary instruction is effective and enjoyable. Elements of…
Mastering vocabulary is one of the key factors for learning a language. Therefore, how to teach and help students acquire vocabulary is worth researching for every English teacher. This paper mainly provides some effective ways of teaching vocabulary and discusses how to implement these methods in higher vocational English teaching.
This study has been conducted to investigate the effectiveness of using poetry to teach vocabulary in a foreign language classroom. It aims to find answers to two research questions (1) "Do the learners enhance more extensive vocabulary knowledge by means of poetry-based vocabulary teaching activities than the traditional coursebook…
In this essay four types of vocabulary tests are examined and the focus is on the variety in vocabulary tests. The main incentive with writing this essay was to make an overview of vocabulary measurement tools and to examine whether there existed a standardized vocabulary test. In the first chapter an attempt is made to answer the question of what vocabulary knowledge is. Receptive and productive knowledge of vocabulary is discussed as well as the distinction of vocabulary into breadth and...
The current study aimed at investigating the effectiveness of keyword-based instruction in enhancing English vocabulary achievement and retention of intermediate stage pupils with different working memory capacities. The study adopted a quasi experimental design employing two groups (experimental and control). The design included an independent…
This study investigates the effects of extensive reading of e-books on tertiary level EFL students' English reading attitude, reading comprehension and vocabulary. Eighty-nine participants were assigned in two groups, with 46 students in the experimental group and the other 43 students in the control group. In addition to a traditional…
The intervention study investigated the effects of an interactive word-learning app Learning apps are developed to achieve certain aims. In our case, the intention was to enrich the vocabulary acquisition of young children. Many other apps, such as games, are developed mainly for entertainment. The intention of games apps is to hold the attention…
This study investigated the effectiveness of three kinds of vocabulary instruction. Seventy learners in the classes of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) were divided into three different groups receiving different instructions: Focus on Form Instruction (FoF) (Dictogloss task), Focus on Meaning Instruction (FoM) (Reading and Discussion task),…
Full Text Available The presented study investigated the effects of a four-week academic and activity – enriched summer program on vocabulary development and writing achievement of homeless children residing in traditional shelter facilities. When compared to controls the experimental students did not reveal gains in vocabulary and spelling as measured by two norm referenced tests. They did however demonstrate highly significant gains in writing ability based on the New York State standards criteria, reflecting five qualities of writing. On two project-developed instruments designed to measure improvement in book vocabulary and tennis skills, they showed significant increases based on analyses of their pre- and posttest scores. The program closed achievement gaps, fulfilled standards criteria, and may be the first of its kind in the homeless literature whereby students’ writing development was compared to matched controls as vocabulary development occurred based on literary readings.
Children with histories of maltreatment and disruptions in care are at elevated risk for impairments in early language development, which contribute to difficulties in other developmental domains across childhood. Given research demonstrating associations between parent responsiveness and children's early language development, we examined whether a parenting intervention administered in infancy improved preschool receptive language skills in children involved with the child welfare system. Attachment and Biobehavioral Catch-up (ABC) is a 10-session intervention that aims to enhance parent-child interactions. The follow-up results of this randomized clinical trial demonstrated that infants who received the ABC intervention ( n = 24) scored significantly higher on a test of receptive vocabulary at age 36 months than infants who received a control intervention ( n = 28). These results provide evidence of the critical role of parental responsiveness in supporting optimal language development among young children with histories of child welfare involvement.
The one thing that most interferes with English as a Second Language learner’s reading is unknownvocabulary.This refers to any word which blocks the readers’understanding in their process ofreading.When reading,one will inevitably meet unknown vocabulary no matter how large one’smental lexicon is.Often the density of unfamiliar words in reading makes the reader feel greatlyfrustrated and give up in the end,for he has already lost his train of thought when looking up words inthe dictionary.It is clear that too great a density of unknown lexical items slows down the readingspeed which leads to poor comprehension of the text.Of course,one’s knowledge of Englishvocabulary is bound to be limited;but is there a way one can efficiently cope with the unknown wordsone comes across in reading without having to stop and look them up in the dictionary.
In the last 15 years or so, language testing practitioners have increasingly favored assessing vocabulary in context. The discrete-point vocabulary measure used in the old version of the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) has long been criticized for encouraging test candidates to memorize wordlists out of context although test items…
Vocabulary acquisition and assessment are regarded as the key basis for the instruction of English as a second language. However, it is time-consuming, fallible and repetitive for the school teachers and parents to assess the proficiency of the students' vocabulary acquisition. We customized the open source course management system Moodle to build…
Full Text Available The present study intended to examine the impact of methodology on EFL vocabulary learning of elementary school boys and girls. To achieve this end, 40 elementary female and male students aged 9-10 were selected from among 60 students studying at a language institute in Isfahan, Iran. The students were selected based on the results of an overall language proficiency test as a placement test that had been prepared by the institute that identified students' level of proficiency. They were further divided into two experimental groups. Next, a pretest was used to identify the number of words students knew before treatment. The experimental group A learned vocabulary through Direct Method and in the experimental group B students learned vocabulary through Total Physical Response. After 12 weeks of instruction a post-test was administrated to measure and compare the results of vocabulary learning of two groups after treatment. The data collected were put to statistical analysis using SPSS. The results of t-test showed the positive effect of TPR on learners’ L2 vocabulary knowledge. With regard to the impact of gender on learners’ L2 vocabulary knowledge, findings revealed that there were not any statistically significant differences between the male and female learners’ vocabulary score. Keywords: Total physical response, direct method, gender, vocabulary, Iranian EFL learners
Placebo controlled studies examining clinical problems, e.g. in pain therapy, are considered the "gold standard" for evidence-based medicine. In these studies the placebo effect itself is not the main focus of interest, but serves more as a control for the specificity of the effect of a certain treatment. What physicians in this context often do not realize is that the placebo effect itself represents a true measurable correlate of an organism's psycho-neurobiological response and, thereby, influences the healing process, e.g. the pain relief. Placebo is, therefore, not equivalent to "no treatment". The number of placebo responders, the degree and the duration of the placebo effect is not fixed, but are subject to a much greater variability then hitherto believed. The myth that placebo responders have a certain personality has not been proven correct; instead, the relationships between physicians and patients as well as sociocultural factors have a considerable impact on the placebo effect. Psychological theories explain that classical conditioning, enhanced expectation and motivation of the patient determine the degree of the placebo effect. These directly influence neurobiological systems such as the endogenous opioids which according to modern brain imaging are predominantly activated in pain-relevant areas and contribute to the effect of placebo analgesia. Placebo effects that should be deliberately excluded in controlled clinical trials, can be desirable in clinical practice to optimize the total therapeutic effect. This should mean that the context effect of each therapeutic intervention is maximized towards an improved therapeutic effect, as outlined in the recent AWMF guidelines for postoperative pain therapy, but should not include the administration of an inert substance. The latter is controlled by rigorous ethical guidelines and is only permitted in the context of ethically approved controlled clinical trials. A possible alternative is suggested by
In view of the current situation of many vocational se-nior high school students' English vocabulary learning, this paper briefly discusses how to take effectivevocabulary teaching meth-ods to help students learn English vocabulary happily and make them happy and efficient vocabulary learners.% 本文针对目前许多职高生学习英语单词“枯燥、乏味、厌烦”等现状，简要地阐述了在职高英语词汇教学中，如何采用有效的词汇教学方法，让学生轻松愉快地学习英语单词，从而成为快乐高效的词汇学习者。
This study investigated the relationships among vocabulary breadth, vocabulary depth, reading comprehension, and reading rate among college-aged students. While the relationships of some of these variables have been explored in previous research, the current study's focus on the role of vocabulary depth on the literacy measures within a sample of skilled readers is new and produced several interesting findings. First, consistent with the hypotheses, both vocabulary breadth and depth were significantly correlated with reading comprehension and reading rate. Second, while both types of vocabulary knowledge explained unique variance in reading comprehension, only vocabulary breadth explained unique variance in reading rate. Finally, although vocabulary breadth was significantly correlated with both of the vocabulary depth measures, the two depth measures were not significantly correlated with each other. This work implies that a strong depth of vocabulary affects reading comprehension, in addition to the well-established relationship between vocabulary breadth and comprehension.
This article explores the significance of a word and the changes it undergoes in its form when it is placed in the hierarchy of grammatical constituents thereby forming a new word termed as vocabulary. This change or transformation is the result of affixations. Transformation becomes essential as the words learnt cannot be used as such in a…
This paper investigates the effect of larynx position on the articulatory abilities of a humanlike vocal tract. Previous work has investigated models that were built to resemble the anatomy of existing species or fossil ancestors. This has led to conflicting conclusions about the relation between
Purpose: This study examined the role of the language of vocabulary instruction in promoting English vocabulary in preschool Latino dual language learners (DLLs). The authors compared the effectiveness of delivering a single evidence-informed vocabulary approach using English as the language of vocabulary instruction (English culturally responsive…
Full Text Available The objective of the study is to find out whether there is a significant difference between the vocabulary mastery of first semester students taughtusing English pop songs and that taught without using English pop songs as a medium. This study involved 64 students of first semesterof STKIP Muhammadiyah Pringsewu Lampung in the academic year of 2012/2013 as the objects of the study. The result of the study shows there is a significant difference in the student’s vocabulary mastery between the experimental group who are taughtusing English pop songs and that taught without using English pop songs as a medium.The mean of post test score of the experimental group is 16.93 while the mean score of the control group is 14.54. The result of t-test shows that t-observed value which is higher than the t-value of the table (2.572>1.99, with a probability value of 0.008 which is lower than the significance level (0.008 < 0.05. In conclusion, the use of English pop songscould improve the students’ vocabulary mastery.Keywords: Vocabulary, English Pop Songs
Full Text Available Considering the overall tendency of foreign language learners to use mechanical strategies of rote rehearsal in vocabulary learning and their resistance towards use of 'deep' vocabulary learning strategies, namely contextual guessing, Keyword Method, metacognitive strategy, and semantic mapping, this study intended (a to explore what impact the instruction of these deep strategies, on vocabulary retention of 32 post-intermediate adult EFL Iranian learners, (b to determine how the variable of gender influences the vocabulary retention of students after receiving training in these strategies. To this end, on the basis of a strategy-based model of instruction–CALLA (Chamot & O'Malley, 1994, the experimental group received training in using 'deep' vocabulary learning strategies while the control group received only the common method of vocabulary teaching. After the treatment, following factorial design, the performance of the participants in the teacher-made vocabulary test as posttest was analyzed statistically. The results indicated higher vocabulary retention for the experimental group, and it was revealed that female students were more receptive to strategy training. This study provides evidence for confirmation of 'depth of processing' hypothesis and the emerging theory about the impact of gender on effective strategy teaching and use, and it recommends incorporation of teaching these 'deep' strategies of vocabulary learning into EFL classrooms.
This article employs meta-analysis procedures to evaluate whether children with cochlear implants demonstrate lower spoken-language vocabulary knowledge than peers with normal hearing. Of the 754 articles screened and 52 articles coded, 12 articles met predetermined inclusion criteria (with an additional 5 included for one analysis). Effect sizes were calculated for relevant studies and forest plots were used to compare differences between groups of children with normal hearing and children with cochlear implants. Weighted effect size averages for expressive vocabulary measures (g = -11.99; p vocabulary measures (g = -20.33; p vocabulary knowledge than children with normal hearing. Additional analyses confirmed the value of comparing vocabulary knowledge of children with hearing loss to a tightly matched (e.g., socioeconomic status-matched) sample. Age of implantation, duration of implantation, and chronological age at testing were not significantly related to magnitude of weighted effect size. Findings from this analysis represent a first step toward resolving discrepancies in the vocabulary knowledge literature.
Full Text Available Background and purpose: A 3-unit course is dedicated to general language in medical universities and the vocabulary and text structure of the courses have usually no relation to medical language. We examine whether teaching general language will be as effective as medical language as assessed through recall of general and medical vocabulary and text structure knowledge. Methods: an experimental study was designed, in that, the third year students who had participated in the 3-unit general language classes in the first year of their General Practitioner (GP program were selected and sat for a 60 MCQ tests. The 60 MCQ tests consisted of 30 questions of general language, 25 vocabulary and 5 comprehension questions and also 30 questions of medical language, 25 technical and semi-technical vocabulary and 5 comprehension questions. In all, 145 medical students attended the exam which took 40 minutes to accomplish. Results: The results of the study indicated that memory retention was significantly lower in general language than medical language. The technical and semi-technical vocabulary items were significantly better recalled and the medical text was significantly better understood by the participants. Conclusion: A 3-unit course in general language may be a futile effort since the students will not be exposed to the same vocabulary and text structure knowledge in later years of their GP program. It is recommended that the focus of all the university English courses be on the medical language. Key words: Medical Vocabulary, English For Specific Purposes, ESP
The prominent role of vocabulary knowledge in second or foreign language learning has been recently recognized by theorists and researchers in the field. This article aims to provide a digest of recent research on vocabulary learning strategies specifically in the English as a foreign language context in Japan. In Japan where there is minimal exposure to English in daily life and where word knowledge is often tested, teachers should be informing learners about vocabulary learning strategies a...
elements like core bibliographic data, controlled vocabulary terms, reviews, and tags to the retrieval performance. Our comparison is done using a test collection of over 2 million book records with information elements from Amazon, the British Library, the Library of Congress, and LibraryThing. We find...... that tags and controlled vocabulary terms do not actually outperform each other consistently, but seem to provide complementary contributions: some information needs are best addressed using controlled vocabulary terms whereas other are best addressed using tags....
The controlled vocabulary used by the NASA Scientific and Technical Information effort to index documents in the area of aeronautics is presented. The terms comprise a subset of the 1988 edition of the NASA Thesaurus and its supplements issued through the end of 1990. The Aeronautics Vocabulary contains over 4700 terms presented in a hierarchical display format. In addition to aeronautics per se, the vocabulary covers supporting terminology from areas such as fluid dynamics, propulsion engineering, and test facilities and instrumentation.
This study was carried out to examine the effectiveness of using the Vocabulary Self-Collection Strategy Plus (VSSPlus) on developing university EFL students' vocabulary learning. It adopted the quasi experimental design which included two groups design. The participants were first level students at Languages and Translation Department, Arar…
Food and Feed Vocabulary was developed to consolidate all the major OPP Commodity Vocabularies into one standardized vocabulary. The EPA-preferred term is the only term that can be used in setting tolerances.
This paper explores two fundamental issues concerning the inter-textual vocabulary growth patterns for Marine Engineering English, viz. vocabulary growth models and newly occurring vocabulary distributions in cumulative texts. On the basis of the DMMEE （Dalian Maritime University Marine Engineering English） corpus, four mathematical models （Brunet＇s, Guiraud＇s, Tuldava＇s, and Herdan＇s models） are tested against the empirical vocabulary growth curve for Marine Engineering English. A new growth model based on the logarithmic function and the power law is presented. The theoretical mean vocabulary size and the 95% upper and lower bound values are calculated and plotted as functions of the sample size. Being significant in explicit EFL teaching and learning, the new growth model can make accurate estimates not only on the vocabulary size and its intervals for a given textbook but also on the volume of texts that are needed to produce a particular vocabulary size.
Full Text Available Vocabulary knowledge is an integral part of second/foreign language learning. Thus, using teaching methods that can help learners retain and expand their vocabulary knowledge is necessary to facilitate the language learning process. The current research investigated the effectiveness of an interactive classroom method, known as Project-Based Learning (PBL, in helping Iranian EFL learners not just learn but retain new vocabulary knowledge. To this end, an experimental approach using two groups of participants (i.e. experimental and control was employed. The experimental group was taught using the PBL method while the control group was taught using the conventional method. The findings of the study indicated that learners who were taught using the PBL approach (i.e. the experimental group had a significant improvement in their vocabulary recall and retention rate. Besides, they even showed better retention of new vocabulary with higher level of difficulty. This supports previous findings on the effectiveness of PBL as a vocabulary teaching method in the EFL context which could contribute to the betterment of the existing teaching methods.
Mastering abundant vocabulary is the base for us to learn English well. Therefore we should do regular intensive reading and extensive reading. We should use the dictionary effectively; We should also have a good command of Lexicology.
Almost every teacher is certain about that vocabulary is an important facet of learning a second language. It may be more important than grammar, at least in so far as this concerns communication , and particularly in the early stages when learners seem to understand that amassing a basic vocabulary is very important to fluency in another language. As a rule, receptive vocabulary exceeds productive vocabulary and why listening with comprehension and speaking with comprehension are two very different things—the latter a more difficult cognitive process than the former. Furthermore, vocabulary acquisition is highly idiosyncratic and depends largely on the learner and her or his individual learning styles and cognitive abilities. No two people learn alike. In particular, as understanding and fluency increases, individual interests and even needs will change, which then requires teacher-assisted guidance and remediation vis-à-vis the compilation of a specified and nuanced vocabulary that is tailored to the learner’s more practical linguistic needs, whatever these might be. In this case, new vocabulary items are more likely to be recalled and communicative. Essential to such an approach to teaching vocabulary acquisition, it is argued here, is exposure to authentic language, that is, reading, writing, listening, and speaking in class that both engages the visual, tactile, and aural-oral senses and imprints. In the case of texts, it is paramount that the comprehension level be such that the learner can guestimate with a nigh degree of accuracy the meaning and proper usage of new vocabulary items without a dictionary and thus from their context. And the more often these new vocabulary items appear, the more likely it is that their full meaning will be understood and committed to memory. For that reason we wanted to make use of sentences in vocabulary teaching.
To determine whether achievement in pharmacology is related to students' general health vocabulary knowledge. Students registered for the pharmacology modules in the second (n=117), third (n=54), and fourth (n=41) years of the bachelor of pharmacy degree program completed a general health vocabulary assessment. Results of the vocabulary assessments in Pharmacology 3 and Pharmacology 4 were used to determine the effects of academic progression. Grades in the summative Pharmacology 2 examination served as indicators of achievement in pharmacology. Focus group sessions were held with a convenience sample of Pharmacology 2 (n=12), Pharmacology 3 (n=10), and Pharmacology 4 (n=5) students. A significant, positive correlation between Pharmacology 2 grades and vocabulary assessment scores was demonstrated. Student perceptions revealed during focus group interviews were that poor pharmacy-related vocabulary knowledge impacted their ability to learn pharmacology. Achievement in pharmacology correlated positively with vocabulary knowledge (p=0.031) among a South African, multilingual student cohort in a setting where English is used in teaching and thus is imperative for learning.
Abstract This thesis is concerned with the vocabulary learning strategies used by Band 1 and Band 4 undergraduate students of Universiti Utara Malaysia (UUM. The objectives of this descriptive study were to survey the vocabulary learning strategies used by the respondents and to determine to what extent their use of the strategies was influenced by their proficiency level. The instrument employed in the study was a questionnaire developed by Lachini (2007 based on Cottrell’s classification of learning strategies. It consists of five categories of vocabulary learning strategies: creative, reflective, effective, active and motivated. The responses of 100 Band 1 and 100 Band 4 students to the questionnaire were examined on the frequency of their use of the vocabulary learning strategies. The results indicated that there was no significant difference in terms of the frequency of use between Band 1 and Band 4 participants as the majority of both groups employed most of the strategies either ‘a little’ or ‘often’. The findings of the study perhaps could help instructors to facilitate the learning of English vocabulary by UUM students and other students at large. Keywords: The vocabulary learning strategies, proficiency levels
Vocabulary becomes more and more crucial in English learning.The article depicts six main domains about the mastery and enlargement of vocabulary,and they are motivation and aim,major fields,word,ways,radiation,and concrete execution respectively.
Although mathematics is visual language of symbols and numbers it is also expressed and explained through written and spoken words. For students to excel in mathematics, they must recognize, comprehend and apply the requisite vocabulary. Thus, vocabulary instruction is as critical in content areas as it is in language arts. It is especially…
Describes the use of Georgi Lozanov's technique using rhythm, breathing, music, and meditation to bring about hypermnesia, or supermemory, to teach vocabulary to 15 university students. Reviews students' vocabulary gains, as seen in pre- and post-test scores, and describes how some students implemented superlearning techniques with their own…
There are multiple vocabularies and thesauri within astronomy, of which the best known are the 1993 IAU Thesaurus and the keyword list maintained by A&A, ApJ and MNRAS. The IVOA has agreed on a standard for publishing vocabularies, based on the W3C skos standard, to allow greater automated interaction with them, in particular on the Web. This allows links with the Semantic Web and looks forward to richer applications using the technologies of that domain. Vocabulary-aware applications can benefit from improvements in both precision and recall when searching for bibliographic or science data, and lightweight intelligent filtering for services such as VOEvent streams. In this paper we present two applications, the Vocabulary Explorer and its companion the Mapping Editor, which have been developed to support the use of vocabularies in the Virtual Observatory. These combine Semantic Web and Information Retrieval technologies to illustrate the way in which formal vocabularies might be used in a practical application, provide an online service which will allow astronomers to explore and relate existing vocabularies, and provide a service which translates free text user queries into vocabulary terms.
Does task significance increase job performance? Correlational designs and confounded manipulations have prevented researchers from assessing the causal impact of task significance on job performance. To address this gap, 3 field experiments examined the performance effects, relational mechanisms, and boundary conditions of task significance. In Experiment 1, fundraising callers who received a task significance intervention increased their levels of job performance relative to callers in 2 other conditions and to their own prior performance. In Experiment 2, task significance increased the job dedication and helping behavior of lifeguards, and these effects were mediated by increases in perceptions of social impact and social worth. In Experiment 3, conscientiousness and prosocial values moderated the effects of task significance on the performance of new fundraising callers. The results provide fresh insights into the effects, relational mechanisms, and boundary conditions of task significance, offering noteworthy implications for theory, research, and practice on job design, social information processing, and work motivation and performance.
Language independent `bag-of-words' representations are surprisingly effective for text classification. The generic BOW approach is based on a high-dimensional vocabulary which may reduce the generalization performance of subsequent classifiers, e.g., based on ill-posed principal component...... transformations. In this communication our aim is to study the effect of sensitivity based pruning of the bag-of-words representation. We consider neural network based sensitivity maps for determination of term relevancy, when pruning the vocabularies. With reduced vocabularies documents are classified using...... a latent semantic indexing representation and a probabilistic neural network classifier. Pruning the vocabularies to approximately 20% of the original size, we find consistent context recognition enhancement for two mid size data-sets for a range of training set sizes. We also study the applicability...
In this study, the authors evaluated the efficacy of a Spanish-English versus English-only vocabulary intervention for dual-language learners (DLLs) with language impairment compared to mathematics intervention groups and typically developing controls with no intervention. Further, in this study the authors also examined whether the language of instruction affected English, Spanish, and conceptual vocabulary differentially. The authors randomly assigned 202 preschool DLLs with language impairment to 1 of 4 conditions: bilingual vocabulary, English-only vocabulary, bilingual mathematics, or English-only mathematics. Fifty-four DLLs with typical development received no intervention. The vocabulary intervention consisted of a 12-week small-group dialogic reading and hands-on vocabulary instruction of 45 words. Postintervention group differences and linear growth rates were examined in conceptual, English, and Spanish receptive and expressive vocabulary for the 45 treatment words. Results indicate that the bilingual vocabulary intervention facilitated receptive and expressive Spanish and conceptual vocabulary gains in DLLs with language impairment compared with the English vocabulary intervention, mathematics intervention, and no-intervention groups. The English-only vocabulary intervention differed significantly from the mathematics condition and no-intervention groups on all measures but did not differ from the bilingual vocabulary intervention. Vocabulary growth rates postintervention slowed considerably. Results support the idea that bilingual interventions support native- and second-language vocabulary development. English-only intervention supports only English. Use of repeated dialogic reading and hands-on activities facilitates vocabulary acquisition.
Full Text Available The current study explores the influence of socioeconomic status (SES and bilingualism on the linguistic skills and verbal short-term memory of preschool children. In previous studies comparing children of low and mid-high SES, the terms “a child with low-SES” and “a child speaking a minority language” are often interchangeable, not enabling differentiated evaluation of these two variables. The present study controls for this confluence by testing children born and residing in the same country and attending the same kindergartens, with all bilingual children speaking the same heritage language (HL-Russian. A total of 120 children (88 bilingual children: 44 with low SES; and 32 monolingual children: 16 with low SES with typical language development, aged 5; 7–6; 7, were tested in the societal language (SL-Hebrew on expressive vocabulary and three repetition tasks [forward digit span (FWD, nonword repetition (NWR, and sentence repetition (SRep], which tap into verbal short-term memory. The results indicated that SES and bilingualism impact different child abilities. Bilingualism is associated with decreased vocabulary size and lower performance on verbal short-term memory tasks with higher linguistic load in the SL-Hebrew. The negative effect of bilingualism on verbal short-term memory disappears once vocabulary is accounted for. SES influences not only linguistic performance, but also verbal short-term memory with lowest linguistic load. The negative effect of SES cannot be solely attributed to lower vocabulary scores, suggesting that an unprivileged background has a negative impact on children’s cognitive development beyond a linguistic disadvantage. The results have important clinical implications and call for more research exploring the varied impact of language and life experience on children’s linguistic and cognitive skills.
Full Text Available The present study aimed to investigate the effects of implementing two innovative speaking tasks, namely, information-loaded and negotiation-oriented tasks, on the incidental vocabulary acquisition of advanced Iranian EFL learners. To this end, an experimental research was conducted in an English language institute with 30 homogeneous advanced EFL learners randomly divided into two experimental groups. Experimental group I performed some information-loaded tasks using thirty five texts as speaking aids for implementing multicultural experiences, and experimental group II performed some negotiation-oriented tasks utilizing seven argumentative sentences for each topic to promote divergent thinking processes. At the end of the treatment, a vocabulary post-test and a questionnaire were administered to measure the effects of the treatments on the students’ incidental vocabulary knowledge and attitude to the performed tasks in each group. The statistical analysis of the data revealed that the information-loaded tasks group had significantly outperformed the negotiation-oriented tasks group on the vocabulary post-test and had a significantly more positive attitude to the tasks they performed in their class. This study offers some implications for the development of a sizable and profound knowledge of vocabulary in an effortless and pleasant manner. It also fulfils the need of EFL teachers and material developers in their search for some effective activities and techniques that can help to improve EFL learners’ incidental vocabulary knowledge. Keywords: Incidental vocabulary learning; Information-gap tasks; Information-loaded tasks; Negotiation-oriented tasks; Opinion-gap tasks
Full Text Available Given, on the one hand, the poor results obtained by Peruvian children in the national and international reading assessments. And on the other hand, the increased investment intechnology for schools in the country, this study aimed to develop and test an online tool to improve reading comprehension. In order to do this, the reading comprehension strategies and vocabulary activities from the research-based digital environment ICON were adapted to design the platform LEO. A total of 88 fifth graders from urban middle-to-low-income private schools from Lima participated in this quasi-experimental study, which involved acontrol group and a treatment group that participated in a 12-week teacher-mediated digital intervention. All participants were administered reading and vocabulary assessments pre and post intervention. Results revealed that students who participated in the intervention achieved higher comprehension scores for narrative texts and higher vocabulary scores than those of the control group.
Vocabulary learning is the foundation of language learning and the security to realize the language communication. However, vocabulary learning for many students is a difficulty which is hard to pass across. This paper attempts to explore the present vocabulary teaching reform, which aims to establish a teaching method that is to help students develop vocabulary learn-ing interest with the game.
In a word, Vocabulary plays an indispensable part in language proficiency and provides much of the basis of how wel learns language, so it cannot be ignored. I discussed Schools’ viewpoints on the vocabulary teaching ,Reason for forgetting, Traditional approach to vocabulary teaching, supplements to vocabulary teaching,the author hope the above content can offer some hints for language learners.
Ankara : The Program of Teaching English as a Foreign Language Bilkent University, 2015. Thesis (Master's) -- Bilkent University, 2015. Includes bibliographical references leaves 83-91. This study investigated the effectiveness of the use of a concordance software and concordance lines as a pedagogical tool to learn the target vocabulary of a text book. The purpose of the study was to compare the effects of corpus-aided vocabulary instruction with traditional vocabulary teac...
Full Text Available This article seeks to outline the use of controlled vocabulary standards for qualitative datasets in cultural anthropology, which are increasingly held in researcher-accessible government repositories and online digital libraries. As a humanistic science that can address almost any aspect of life with meaning to humans, cultural anthropology has proven difficult for librarians and archivists to effectively organize. Yet as anthropology moves onto the web, the challenge of organizing and curating information within the field only grows. In considering the subject classification of digital information in anthropology, I ask how we might best use controlled vocabularies for indexing digital anthropological data. After a brief discussion of likely concerns, I outline thesauri which may potentially be used for vocabulary control in metadata fields for language, location, culture, researcher, and subject. The article concludes with recommendations for those existing thesauri most suitable to provide a controlled vocabulary for describing digital objects in the anthropological world.
From illustrating the significance of cultural elements in vocabulary teaching, and the ctmtparison of some major differences between English and Chinese words, this paper emphasizes the indivisible relationship between vocabulary and culture. International cultural exchange occurring more and more often, this paper attempts to guide students to better understand the cultural connotation of vocabulary, enhance their awareness towards the target culture, improve their comtprehensive language skills, and, develop their cross-cultural communicative ctmtpetence.
英语课堂是新课程实施的主要阵地，是开启和展示学生智慧的核心场所。在英语学习中，词汇是重头戏，词汇是英语学习的基础，在一定程度上决定着学生英语水平的高低。没有足够的词汇就不能有效地进行听、说、读、写，就无法有效地用英语进行交际，词汇教学的成败决定了外语教学的成败。本文就目前英语词汇教学中存在的非常普遍的问题，分析其存在的原因，阐述了教师要抓词汇教学重点，注意词汇教学方式多样化．多方面实施相应的词汇教学策略．从而提高词汇教学的有效性。%English classroom is the main position of implementing new curriculum and the core position of enlightening and showing students＇ intelligence. In English learning, vocabulary is the key and vocabulary is the basis of English learning, and it determines students＇ English competence. Listening, speaking, reading and writing couldn＇t be effectively implemented and English couldn＇t be applied to communicate without enough vocabularies and the success or failure of vocabulary teaching determines the success or failure of foreign language teaching. This paper expounds teachers should grasp the key of vocabulary teaching, emphasize multiply vocabulary teaching methods and implementing corresponding vocabulary teaching strategies, thus to improve the effectiveness of vocabulary teaching.
Full Text Available Input enhancement's role to promote learners’ awareness in L2 contexts has caused a tremendous amount of research. Conspicuously, by regarding all aspects of input enhancement, the study aimed to find out how differently many kinds of input enhancement factors such as bolding, underlining, and capitalizing impact on L2 learners’ vocabulary acquiring. Furthermore, the study was conducted through a quasi-experimental design with a proficiency test to find how homogeneous the groups are. Four classes were selected as the experimental groups (n =80, and each class was conducted by one of the input enhancement main categories compared with the control group. Subjects attended in eight sessions to make them familiar with advantages of input enhancement in relation to vocabulary learning. Each group received different strategies but control group received no treatment and then, the researcher taught and employed those inputs in texts along with target words. Learners’ progress was measured during the eight sessions of employing those inputs in responding to vocabulary questions. One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test, One-way ANOVAs series along with LSD and post hoc comparisons showed that three inputs were effective in responding to target vocabulary words and they compared and contrasted with control group but the bolding group did better than the other groups. Finally, bolding target words were more effective in fostering L2 learners’ vocabulary knowledge learning. These outcomes propose that using input enhancement to answer target words are the most useful factors, especially bolding as a significant input in this study outperformed the other ones in developing learners’ awareness to answer vocabulary tests. It can also be concluded that capitalizing is the least effective input compared to underlining and bolding in terms of their efficacy. Keywords: Focus on form and Implicit Fonf, Input enhancement as focus on form, Vocabulary
Full Text Available Negotiation is believed to play a key role in language learning in general and vocabulary learning in particular. The present study aimed at investigating the effect of types of instructions (negotiation, non-negotiation, or in isolation on learning and recalling of new words by Iranian learners. Using a quasi-experimental research design, 39 EFL students of a secondary school were sampled and assigned into three experimental groups: the input plus negotiated group (IPN, the input without negotiated group (IWN, and the elaborative, un-instructed input group (EUI. The first group had the chance for negotiated interaction; the second one received the input without any negotiation with their instructor and the last group received elaborative input without any interaction with their teachers. The groups were rated on their degree of comprehension and the acquisition of vocabulary items. The results revealed that negotiation had a non-significanteffect over non-negotiation tasks. However, the results indicated that negotiation was significantlyeffective against un-instruction task. Thus, in acquisition and retention of new vocabulary, IPN group was not significantly different than IWN group, but they outperformed those learners who used their own strategy to learn new words (EUI.
... learning. In addition, the study identies the characteristics of the participants (n = 7) preferred apps and aims to determine if the participants were able to make gains in vocabulary recall and listening comprehension aer a six-month period of independent language learning. The results of this study indicate that the children and their parents establi...
This investigation examined the impact of maternal language and children's gender on bilingual children's vocabulary and emergent literacy development during 2 years in Head Start and kindergarten. Seventy-two mothers and their children who attended English immersion programs participated. Questionnaires administered annually over a 3-year period…
Research Findings: This study investigated the association between Mexican American maternal education and socioeconomic status (SES) and child vocabulary as mediated by parental reading beliefs, home literacy environment (HLE), and parent-child shared reading frequency. As part of a larger study, maternal reports of education level, SES, HLE, and…
This study evaluated the impact of two metalinguistic factors, English derivational awareness and English-Spanish cognate awareness, and the impact of two sociocultural factors, maternal education and children's length of residence in Canada, on English Language Learners (ELLs)' vocabulary knowledge. The participants of the study were 89…
This study compared and contrasted 64 Taiwanese college freshmen's perceptions of and attitudes toward three online vocabulary flashcard websites, Quizlet, Study Stack, and Flashcard Exchange. Four types of data were collected in two freshmen English classes in a university in Taiwan from February to April 2013. Data included online flashcard…
This study evaluated the impact of two metalinguistic factors, English derivational awareness and English-Spanish cognate awareness, and the impact of two sociocultural factors, maternal education and children's length of residence in Canada, on English Language Learners (ELLs)' vocabulary knowledge. The participants of the study were 89…
Word Generation (WG) is a research-based vocabulary program for middle school students designed to teach words through language arts, math, science, and social studies classes. The program consists of weekly units that introduce 5 high-utility target words through brief passages designed to spark active examination and discussion of contemporary…
Ankara : Institute of Economics and Social Sciences of Bilkent Univ., 2000. Thesis (Master's) -- Bilkent University, 2000. Includes bibliographical references leaves 40-43 Teaching words in collocations is a comparatively new technique and it is accepted as an effective one in vocabulary teaching. The purpose of this study was to find out whether teaching vocabulary would result in better learning and remembering vocabulary items. This study investigated the differences betw...
We compared the performance of two clinical groups, Williams syndrome (WS) and Smith-Magenis syndrome (SMS), in terms of concrete and relational vocabulary. We analyzed (a) whether the WS group had an advantage in concrete vocabulary when compared to the SMS group, as good concrete vocabulary knowledge is considered a hallmark of WS; (b) if spatial processing difficulties in WS would be reflected specifically in their knowledge of relational spatial vocabulary; (c) if a specific vocabulary profile could be outlined for SMS. Our results show similar performances on receptive concrete and relational vocabulary in both groups. However, and as anticipated, performance on relational space concepts was significantly lower in the WS group.
The increasing population of dual language learners (DLLs) entering preschool classrooms highlights a continued need for research on the development of dual language acquisition, and specifically vocabulary skills, in this age group. This study describes young DLL children's (N = 177) vocabulary development in both English and Spanish simultaneously, and how vocabulary skills in each language relate to one another, during a contextual shift that places greater emphasis on the acquisition of academic English language skills. Findings demonstrated that DLL preschoolers made gains in vocabulary in both languages with more change evidenced in receptive, in comparison to expressive, vocabulary as well as in English in comparison to Spanish. When examining whether children's vocabulary scores in one language at the beginning of preschool interact with their vocabulary scores in the other language to predict vocabulary growth, no significant associations were found for receptive vocabulary. In contrast, the interaction between initial English and Spanish expressive vocabulary scores was negatively related to growth in English expressive vocabulary. This cross-language association suggests that children who have low expressive vocabulary skills in both languages tend to grow faster in their English expressive vocabulary. The study extends previous work on dual language development by examining growth in expressive and receptive vocabulary in both English and Spanish. It also provides suggestions for future work to inform a more comprehensive understanding of DLL children's development in both languages.
The increasing population of dual language learners (DLLs) entering preschool classrooms highlights a continued need for research on the development of dual language acquisition, and specifically vocabulary skills, in this age group. This study describes young DLL children's (N = 177) vocabulary development in both English and Spanish simultaneously, and how vocabulary skills in each language relate to one another, during a contextual shift that places greater emphasis on the acquisition of academic English language skills. Findings demonstrated that DLL preschoolers made gains in vocabulary in both languages with more change evidenced in receptive, in comparison to expressive, vocabulary as well as in English in comparison to Spanish. When examining whether children's vocabulary scores in one language at the beginning of preschool interact with their vocabulary scores in the other language to predict vocabulary growth, no significant associations were found for receptive vocabulary. In contrast, the interaction between initial English and Spanish expressive vocabulary scores was negatively related to growth in English expressive vocabulary. This cross-language association suggests that children who have low expressive vocabulary skills in both languages tend to grow faster in their English expressive vocabulary. The study extends previous work on dual language development by examining growth in expressive and receptive vocabulary in both English and Spanish. It also provides suggestions for future work to inform a more comprehensive understanding of DLL children's development in both languages. PMID:26807002
textabstractResearch suggests that integrating human movement into a cognitive learning task can be effective for learning due to its cognitive and physiological effects. In this study, the learning effects of enacting words through whole-body movements (i.e., physical exercise) and part-body
textabstractResearch suggests that integrating human movement into a cognitive learning task can be effective for learning due to its cognitive and physiological effects. In this study, the learning effects of enacting words through whole-body movements (i.e., physical exercise) and part-body moveme
Research suggests that integrating human movement into a cognitive learning task can be effective for learning due to its cognitive and physiological effects. In this study, the learning effects of enacting words through whole-body movements (i.e., physical exercise) and part-body movements (i.e., gestures) were investigated in a foreign language…
Every industry has its professional terms or particular use of common words. The marine industry is no exception. This paper attempts to give a brief introduction to the elementary vocabularies related to marine industry from six aspects: types of ships;ship’s structure and equipment, manning, logbook, safety and organizations concerned. The corresponding Chinese terms is given simultaneously. It concludes that a good master of these vocabularies is useful and necessary for Chinese seafarers whose native language is not English.
A number of studies have reported positive associations between music experience and increased abilities in non-musical (e.g., linguistic, mathematical, and spatial) domains in children. These transfer effects continue to be probed using a variety of experimental designs. The major aim of this quasi-experimental study was to examine the effects of…
Video games are potential sources of second language input; however, the medium’s fundamental characteristic, interactivity, has not been thoroughly examined in terms of its effect on learning outcomes...
Full Text Available The spacing effect is a ubiquitous phenomenon, whereby memory is enhanced for the information that is learned across different points in time rather than being learned at once. A considerable amount of research has focused on the nature of the spacing effect, and there is general acceptance that spacing learning events out in time promotes learning. However, fewer studies have been conducted in educational settings. The aim of this study is to explore learners’ perceptions of different spacing schedules (massed vs. spaced. To achieve the purpose of the study, we taught 30 children 24 English–Farsi word pairs utilizing different spacing schedules. Later, we administered a questionnaire to explore leaarners’ perceptions of both massed and spaced schedules. The results revealed that the children percieved spaced practice to be more effective than massed practice.
Full Text Available Abstract:This present study aimed to investigate 14 kindergarten students of Apple Tree pre-school Samarinda with various ability toward their English vocabularies development by flashcards. A Class Action Research was applied in this study. The data was collected through observation checklist, sequence of cycles and interview transcript. Then, building on the analysis of the collected data, it further discusses the vocabulary development of YL and provides suggestions for TEYL. This study revealed that; (1 most of the students developed their English vocabularies gradually by flashcards. (2 These result indicated that TEYL especially kindergarten students by using flashcards could give significantvocabularies development in learning process. Flashcards is one of the simplest and effective teaching materials for teaching YL vocabulary due to the fact that flashcards are categorized based on themes with full colored pictures which attractive for YL. As this study showed the students were engaged with the topics given since the teachers used flashcards to teach English vocabulary. It was difficult to make engagement with YL in English teaching and learning because YL have different mood, self-motivation, and self-confidence which influenced to the willingness in grasping the lesson. Finally, through this based-picture learning, the students indicated that their progress in vocabulary development although this phenomena was commonly happened in TEFL for YL that lead to teaching method done by English teachers who are required to do more innovation toward their teaching method, to develop sufficient knowledge and to use proper teaching media.
Our objective was to replicate previous cross-linguistic findings by comparing Portuguese and U.S. children with respect to (a) effects of language, gender, and age on vocabulary size; (b) lexical composition; and (c) late talking. We used the Language Development Survey (LDS; Rescorla, 1989) with children (18-35 months) learning European Portuguese (n = 181) and English (n = 206). In both languages, girls had higher vocabulary scores than boys and vocabulary scores increased with age. Portuguese LDS scores were significantly lower than English scores, but the effect size was small. Cross-linguistic concordance of percentage use scores yielded a Q correlation of .50, with 64 of the "top 100" words being exact matches. Cross-linguistic concordance was highest for the youngest age group. In both languages, vocabulary composition in late talkers (children ≥ 24 months with < 50 words) was highly correlated with composition in vocabulary size-matched younger children. Results replicated previous Greek, Korean, and Italian LDS studies. The early lexicons of typical talkers and late talkers contained many of the same words, indicating considerable universality and suggesting good targets for clinical intervention.
To investigate the effect of concurrent instruction in Dutch and English on reading acquisition in both languages, 23 pupils were selected from a school with bilingual education, and 23 from a school with education in Dutch only. The pupils had a Dutch majority language background and were comparabl
Video games are potential sources of second language input; however, the medium's fundamental characteristic, interactivity, has not been thoroughly examined in terms of its effect on learning outcomes. This experimental study investigated to what degree, if at all, video game interactivity would help or hinder the noticing and recall of second…
The present study is a replication of a Lahey and Drabman study (1974) which investigated the effects of contingent versus noncontingent reinforcement on the learning of sight words. The subjects in this study were 14 Kamehameha Early Education Program (KEEP) students who composed the lowest reading group in a combined first-second grade…
To investigate the effect of concurrent instruction in Dutch and English on reading acquisition in both languages, 23 pupils were selected from a school with bilingual education, and 23 from a school with education in Dutch only. The pupils had a Dutch majority language background and were comparabl
To investigate the effect of concurrent instruction in Dutch and English on reading acquisition in both languages, 23 pupils were selected from a school with bilingual education, and 23 from a school with education in Dutch only. The pupils had a Dutch majority language background and were
Computer technology has been applied widely as an educational tool in second language learning for a long time. There have been many studies discussing the application of computer technology to different aspects in second language learning. However, the learning effect of both de-contextualized multimedia software and sound gloss on second…
Several empirical studies and syntheses of extensive reading have concluded that extensive reading has positive impacts on language learning in second- and foreign-language settings. However, many of the studies contained methodological or curricular limitations, raising questions about the asserted positive effects of extensive reading. The…
The objectives of the study were to introduce the technique called "Mnemonic Keyword Method" ("MKM") to low proficiency English learners, and to explore the effectiveness of the method in terms of short-term and long-term retention. The sample was purposefully drawn from one intact class consisting of 44 students. They were…
Full Text Available This study aimed to examine the effect of using audio-visual aids and pictures on foreign language vocabulary learning of individuals with mild intellectual disability. Method: To this end, a comparison group quasi-experimental study was conducted along with a pre-test and a post-test. The participants were 16 individuals with mild intellectual disability living in a center for mentally disabled individuals in Dezfoul, Iran. They were all male individuals with the age range of 20 to 30. Their mother tongue was Persian, and they did not have any English background. In order to ensure that all participants were within the same IQ level, a standard IQ test, i.e. Colored Progressive Matrices test, was run. Afterwards, the participants were randomly assigned to two experimental groups; one group received the instruction through audio-visual aids, while the other group was taught through pictures. The treatment lasted for four weeks, 20 sessions on aggregate. A total number of 60 English words selected from the English package named 'The Smart Child' were taught. After the treatment, the participants took the posttest in which the researchers randomly selected 40 words from among the 60 target words. Results: The results of Mann-Whitney U-test indicated that using audio-visual aids was more effective than pictures in foreign language vocabulary learning of individuals with mild intellectual disability. Conclusions: It can be concluded that the use of audio-visual aids can be more effective than pictures in foreign language vocabulary learning of individuals with mild intellectual disability.
This study examines vocabulary growth rates in first and second languages for Spanish-speaking and Cantonese-speaking English language learners from kindergarten through second grade. Growth-modeling results show a within-language effect of concepts about print on vocabulary. Language exposure also had an effect on English vocabulary: earlier…
This study examines vocabulary growth rates in first and second languages for Spanish-speaking and Cantonese-speaking English language learners from kindergarten through second grade. Growth-modeling results show a within-language effect of concepts about print on vocabulary. Language exposure also had an effect on English vocabulary: earlier…
Full Text Available This study investigates the effectiveness of using Facebook in enhancing vocabulary knowledge among Community College students. Thirty-three (33 Community College students are exposed to the use of Facebook as an environment of learning and enhancing their English vocabulary. They are given a pre-test and a post-test and the findings indicate that students perform significantly better in the post-test compared to the pre-test. It appears that Facebook could be considered as a supplementary learning environment or learning platform or a learning tool; with meaningful and engaging activities that require students to collaborate, network and functions as a community of practice, particularly for introverted students with low proficiency levels and have low self-esteem.
This investigation examined the impact of maternal language and children’s gender on bilingual children’s vocabulary and emergent literacy development during 2 years in Head Start and kindergarten. Seventy-two mothers and their children who attended English immersion programs participated. Questionnaires administered annually over a 3-year period revealed that mothers increased their usage of English to their children. In addition, more mothers of sons reported using “More or All English” wit...
The vocabulary needs of individuals who are unable to spell their messages continue to be of concern in the field of augmentative and alternative communication (AAC). Social validation of vocabulary selection has been suggested as one way to improve the effectiveness and relevance of service delivery in AAC. Despite increased emphasis on stakeholder accountability, social validation is not frequently used in AAC research. This paper describes an investigation of the social validity of a vocabulary set identified in earlier research. A previous study used stakeholder focus groups to identify vocabulary that could be used by South African adults who use AAC to disclose their experiences as victims of crime or abuse. Another study used this vocabulary to create communication boards for use by adults with complex communication needs. In this current project, 12 South African adults with complex communication needs who use AAC systems used a 5-point Likert scale to score the importance of each of the previously identified 57 vocabulary items. This two-step process of first using stakeholder focus groups to identify vocabulary, and then having literate persons who use AAC provide information on social validity of the vocabulary on behalf of their peers who are illiterate, appears to hold promise as a culturally relevant vocabulary selection approach for sensitive topics such as crime and abuse.
Full Text Available Adults attending short, language for specific purpose courses may have expertise not utilized in general foreign language courses. The present study investigates two factors that may influence the acquisition of medical Spanish vocabulary in such persons: native English vocabulary size and topic knowledge. Forty-four health care workers attended 12 hr of medical Spanish instruction. Prior to instruction, the Nelson–Denny Vocabulary Test, a Medical Spanish vocabulary test, and an English Medical Terminology Test (an indicator of topic knowledge were administered. The Medical Spanish Vocabulary Test was readministered at posttest. Individually, both English medical terminology knowledge and English vocabulary size were significant predictors of medical Spanish vocabulary acquisition, but English medical terminology knowledge explained most of the variance in medical Spanish vocabulary acquisition. The results are discussed in terms of the impact of expert memory organization on the ability to learn new labels in a second language. A curricular shift toward content-centered vocabulary in language for specific purpose courses may be advantageous for some groups of foreign language learners.
The objective of this study was to investigate the impact of Video Games and their role on promoting Saudi Kids' English vocabulary retention. The study attempted to answer whether there was a statistically significant difference (a = 0.05) between the Saudi children's subjects' mean score on the English vocabulary test due to using Video Games…
The associations between vocabulary growth and reading development were examined longitudinally for a representative sample of Dutch children throughout the elementary school period. Data on basic and advanced vocabulary, word decoding, and reading comprehension were collected across the different grades. The results showed significant progress on…
The aim of this thesis is to examine the early vocabulary development of a sample of Swedish children in relation to parental input and early communicative skills. Three studies are situated in an overall description of early language development in children. The data analyzed in the thesis was collected within a larger project at Stockholm University (SPRINT- “Effects of enhanced parental input on young children’s vocabulary development and subsequent literacy development” [VR 2008-5094]). D...
互动主义认知理论与社会文化理论均为在二语课堂开展协作输出任务提供理论支持，但此类实验研究或仅检验协作任务的作用，或用单一类型的任务调查协作相对于个人对二语习得的有效性。采用两类输出任务比较协作与个人两种任务条件对英语词汇习得的影响，研究发现：协作条件下的任务表现显著更好，但协作条件对促进词汇习得没有显著影响；任务类型与任务条件对词汇知识增长有交互作用，表现为协作条件下的短文改错任务更显著促进词汇知识增长。%Both sociocultural and interactionist⁃cognitive theories have encouraged the use of collaborative output tasks in L2 classrooms yet few studies investigated how the combination of task type and implementation variables affected the quality of task performance.This study by employing two types of output tasks examined whether doing the tasks collaboratively led to greater gains of vocabulary knowledge than doing the tasks individually. The results showed that completing the tasks collabora⁃tively led to a significantly greater accuracy of task completion than completing them individually. However collaborative tasks did not lead to significantly greater gains of vocabulary knowledge than individual tasks. Interestingly a significant interaction effect was found between task type and task condition with the collaborative editing tasks being significantly more effective in promoting the gains of vocabulary knowledge.
Research has consistently shown diversity of vocabulary to be an important indicator of second language (L2) writing development as well as L2 writing performance. These studies underscore the importance of vocabulary to L2 writing. However, they provide little to indicate what kind of vocabulary learners of English may need to know in order to…
Research has consistently shown diversity of vocabulary to be an important indicator of second language (L2) writing development as well as L2 writing performance. These studies underscore the importance of vocabulary to L2 writing. However, they provide little to indicate what kind of vocabulary learners of English may need to know in order to…
"Vocabulary Plus" is an interactive strategy which links vocabulary development with content area learning for English learners. This strategy uses interactive read-alouds of thematically- connected informational text matched to the grade-appropriate state standards and content of core subjects. When using "Vocabulary Plus",…
Lots of studies have tried to test the effect of strategy training on vocabulary development. However, instead of trying to uncover the strategies that learners actually use, they have tried to expose learners to a list of strategies supported by theories. Although these theory-driven studies have provided the field with significant and…
This paper will try to review two important theories (repletion and retrieval) which are crucial for vocabulary retention. These two methods are well connected and each of them cannot lead to successful vocabulary retention without sensible utilization of the other.
Vocabulary is the gateway to knowledge that unlocks the doors of sublime ideas to the readers. The competency on the lexical items of language plays a significant role in learning a new concept. Any learner who has excellent command over the use of vocabulary excels in his/her study of different subjects. Vocabulary learning is one of the…
Receptive vocabulary and associated semantic knowledge were compared within and between groups of children with specific language impairment (SLI), children with Down syndrome (DS), and typically developing children. To overcome the potential confounding effects of speech or language difficulties on verbal tests of semantic knowledge, a novel task was devised based on picture-based semantic association tests used to assess adult patients with semantic dementia. Receptive vocabulary, measured by word-picture matching, of children with SLI was weak relative to chronological age and to nonverbal mental age but their semantic knowledge, probed across the same lexical items, did not differ significantly from that of vocabulary-matched typically developing children. By contrast, although receptive vocabulary of children with DS was a relative strength compared to nonverbal cognitive abilities (p vocabulary and depth of semantic knowledge. Overall, these data challenge the integrity of semantic-conceptual development in DS and imply that contemporary theories of semantic cognition should also seek to incorporate evidence from atypical conceptual development.
Haycraft defined receptive vocabulary as "words that the student recognizes and understands when they occur in a text, but which he cannot produce correctly", while productive vocabulary is "words which the student understands can pronounce correctly and use constructively in speaking and writing" (1978:44).In English language teaching practice, students' productive vocabulary size lags far behind there ceptive vocabulary size. Based on the SLA theories, many reasons caused this problem and some solutions will be discussed.
Lexical tone is one of the most prominent features in the phonological representation of words in Chinese. However, little, if any, research to date has directly evaluated how young Chinese children's lexical tone identification skills contribute to vocabulary acquisition and character recognition. The present study distinguished lexical tones from segmental phonological awareness and morphological awareness in order to estimate the unique contribution of lexical tone in early vocabulary acquisition and character recognition. A sample of 199 Cantonese children aged 5-6 years was assessed on measures of lexical tone identification, segmental phonological awareness, morphological awareness, nonverbal ability, vocabulary knowledge, and Chinese character recognition. It was found that lexical tone awareness and morphological awareness were both associated with vocabulary knowledge and character recognition. However, there was a significant relationship between lexical tone awareness and both vocabulary knowledge and character recognition, even after controlling for the effects of age, nonverbal ability, segmental phonological awareness and morphological awareness. These findings suggest that lexical tone is a key factor accounting for individual variance in young children's lexical acquisition in Chinese, and that lexical tone should be considered in understanding how children learn new Chinese vocabulary words, in either oral or written forms.
Speech recognition systems allow human - machine communication to acquire an intuitive nature that approaches the simplicity of inter - human communication. Small vocabulary speech recognition is a subset of the overall speech recognition problem, where only a small number of words need to be recognized. Speaker independent small vocabulary recognition can find significant applications in field equipment used by military personnel. Such equipment may typically be controlled by a small number of commands that need to be given quickly and accurately, under conditions where delicate manual operations are difficult to achieve. This type of application could hence significantly benefit by the use of robust voice operated control components, as they would facilitate the interaction with their users and render it much more reliable in times of crisis. This paper presents current challenges involved in attaining efficient and robust small vocabulary speech recognition. These challenges concern feature selection, classification techniques, speaker diversity and noise effects. A state machine approach is presented that facilitates the voice guidance of different equipment in a variety of situations.
Full Text Available Bilingualism can be broadly defined as the ability to speak 2 languages; however there are many grey areas when establishing which are the first language, second language and third language of a bilingual. The paper reports on a study exploring the effect of bilingualism on the learning of a vocabulary learning of two groups of Iranian male students: Baluchi bilinguals and Persian monolingual. The present study is based on data from 80 monolingual Persian-speaking learners of English and 80 bilingual Baluchi-Persian-speaking learners of English. All the participants were male studying English as a foreign language at pre-university of Sistan and Baluchestan in Iran. The results indicates that Baluchi-Persian bilingual speakers outperformed in general and in L3 recognition vocabulary learning. The findings of this paper also showed that no significant difference was seen between Persian-speaking learners and Baluchi-Persian-speaking in L3 production vocabulary learning.
Full Text Available The relationship between meanings of words and their sound shapes is to a large extent arbitrary, but it is well known that languages exhibit sound symbolism effects violating arbitrariness. Evidence for sound symbolism is typically anecdotal, however. Here we present a systematic approach. Using a selection of basic vocabulary in nearly one half of the world’s languages we find commonalities among sound shapes for words referring to same concepts. These are interpreted as due to sound symbolism. Studying the effects of sound symbolism cross-linguistically is of key importance for the understanding of language evolution.
This research was conducted to find out whether or not using "translation" technique in vocabulary teaching would have any positive effects on the "free active" vocabulary of Iranian learners of English. To carry out the research, eighty-eight intermediate male and female students were chosen. The participants were divided into…
Krashen (2004) has advocated that narrow reading, i.e., reading a series of texts addressing one specific topic, is an effective method to grow vocabulary. While narrow reading has been championed to have many advantages for L2 vocabulary learning, there remains a relative dearth of empirical studies that test the impact of narrow reading on L2…
This study investigated the effects of two cognitive strategies, rote memorization and semantic mapping, on L2 vocabulary acquisition. Thirty-eight intermediate female EFL learners divided into two experimental groups participated in this study. Each experimental group used one of the strategies for vocabulary acquisition. After the four-month…
In the current study, explicit vocabulary learning strategy instruction was integrated into an EFL curriculum to investigate its effects on learners' vocabulary acquisition. A total of 180 EFL learners enrolled in the freshmen English program at a university in Taiwan participated in the study. The participants were guided to explore and practice…
Learning vocabulary is an important instructional aim for teachers in all content areas in middle grades schools. Recent research, however, indicates that vocabulary instruction may be problematic because many teachers are not "confident about best practice in vocabulary instruction and at times don't know where to begin to form an instructional…
Although instruction has been shown to be effective at increasing vocabulary knowledge and comprehension, factors most important for promoting the acquisition of novel vocabulary are less known. In addition, few vocabulary studies have utilized models that simultaneously take into account child-level, word-level, and instructional factors to…
Learning vocabulary forms a major part for any language learner. Apart from direct teaching of vocabulary, language teachers are always searching for ways to increase their students' vocabulary to enable them to use the language more effectively. Therefore, this study sets out to investigate whether the use of computer textual glosses can aid…
Broad-stroke approaches to vocabulary teaching in preschool include effective instructional elements, yet may be too ill-structured to affect the vocabulary learning of children experiencing serious delays. Using a formative research approach, this study examines the design potential of a supplemental vocabulary instruction technique that…
This research examined the effectiveness of three different learning strategies on Korean EFL students' vocabulary comprehension and retention: context, semantic mapping, and word lists. 116 college freshmen were placed into one of the three treatments of vocabulary instruction. Subjects were tested on varying levels of vocabulary knowledge using…
The use of mobile phones for learning has become well-known and is widely adopted in many language classes. The use of SMS for transmitting short messages is a fast way of helping students to learn vocabulary. To address this issue, this study was conducted to examine the effects of mobile-assisted vocabulary exercises on vocabulary acquisition of…
Direct vocabulary instruction is 1 critical component of reading instruction. Although most students in the elementary grades need to continue building their vocabulary knowledge, students with reading difficulties are at the greatest risk of falling further behind each year in vocabulary and concept knowledge without effective instruction. This…
We investigated the effects of three facilitators: adults' support, dynamic visual vocabulary support and static visual vocabulary support on vocabulary acquisition in the context of e-book reading. Participants were 144 Israeli Hebrew-speaking preschoolers (aged 4-6) from middle SES neighborhoods. The entire sample read the e-book without a…
The primary source for young children's vocabulary development is parent-child interaction. How parent-child interaction influences vocabulary depends on the child's functioning and the family context. Although research shows the effect of the family context on vocabulary (e.g., reading activities
We investigated the effects of three facilitators: adults' support, dynamic visual vocabulary support and static visual vocabulary support on vocabulary acquisition in the context of e-book reading. Participants were 144 Israeli Hebrew-speaking preschoolers (aged 4-6) from middle SES neighborhoods. The entire sample read the e-book without a…
Full Text Available The paper focuses on vocabulary learning strategies as a subcategory of language learning strategies and their instruction within the ESP context at the Faculty of Maritime Studies and Transport in Portorož. Vocabulary strategy instruction will be implemented at our faculty as part of a broader PhD research into the effect of language learning strategy instruction on strategy use and subject-specific and general language acquisition. Additional variables that will be taken into consideration are language proficiency, motivation and learning styles of the students. The introductory section in which the situation that triggered my PhD research is presented is followed by a theoretical introduction to the concept of language and vocabulary learning strategies. The aspects that the paper focuses on are the central role of lexis within ESP, vocabulary learning strategy taxonomies, and the presentation of research studies made in the examined field to date. The final section presents the explicit vocabulary learning strategy instruction model. In the conclusion, some implications for teaching can be found.
Full Text Available Vocabulary plays an important role because it links to the four skills of listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Those aspects should be integrated in teaching and learning process of English. However, the students must be able to know the meaning of each word or vocabulary of English in order to master the four skills. It is as a mean to create a sentence in daily communication to show someone’s feeling, opinion, idea, desire, etc. So that, both speakers understand what the other speaker mean. However, English as a second language in Indonesia seems very hard for the students to master vocabulary of English. It makes them not easy to be understood directly and speak fluently. The students, sometimes, get difficulties in understanding, memorizing the meaning of the vocabulary, and getting confused in using the new words. There must be an effective strategy to attract students’ interest, break the boredom, and make the class more lively. Based on the writer experience, Colourful Puzzle Game is able to make the students learn vocabulary quickly. It needs teacher’s creativity to create the materials of this game based on the class condition. The teacher just need a game board made from colourful papers, write any command and prohibition words on it. A dice is a tool to decide where the player should stop based on the number. Some pins as counter as sign of each player.
We all focus on the students' abilities of listening, speaking, wading, writing and translating in college teaching. But actually, it is nothing without vocabulary. Thus, vocabulary teaching is an essential part in English teaching. However, seme traditional teaching takes vocabuhury out from the context, which costs a lot of time and energy, but students are involved in the dull circle of memorizing to forgetting to memorizing again. Finally, they lose their patience on English learning and maybe give it up. In this paper, we discuss some vocabulary teaching strategies, so as to help the memorizing of vocabulary and enhance the efficiency of vocabulary teaching and learning.
Full Text Available The objective of this research was to find out whether the use of integrated computer assisted media (ICAM is effective to improve the vocabulary achievement of the second semester students of Cokroaminoto Palopo University. The population of this research was the second semester students of English department of Cokroaminoto Palopo University in academic year 2013/2014. The samples of this research were 60 students and they were placed into two groups: experimental and control group where each group consisted of 30 students. This research used cluster random sampling technique. The research data was collected by applying vocabulary test and it was analyzed by using descriptive and inferential statistics. The result of this research was integrated computer assisted media (ICAM can improve vocabulary achievement of the students of English department of Cokroaminoto Palopo University. It can be concluded that the use of ICAM in the teaching vocabulary is effective to be implemented in improving the students’ vocabulary achievement.
In the process of primary school English teaching,teachers of vocabulary teaching is an important part. But because many students failed to find the correct method of study and lack of learning initiative,resulting in the vocabulary learning inefficiency. Through the summary of experience in teaching and in the actual teaching practice,for the above problems, I summarized some effectiveness measures.%在小学英语教学过程中，教师对词汇的教授是重要的一部分。但是因为很多学生没有找到正确的学习方法和缺乏学习主动性，这就导致了词汇学习效率低下。通过教学经验的总结和在实际教学中的实践，对于上述问题，总结了几点实效性措施。
This paper describes some simple simulation models of vocabulary attrition. The attrition process is modelled using a random autonomous Boolean network model, and some parallels with real attrition data are drawn. The paper argues that applying a complex systems approach to attrition can provide some important insights, which suggest that real…
“I'm not 100% convinced that memorizing the dictionary is the best way of improving your vocabulary,” says the character played by Hugh Grant in Woody Allen's film Small Time Crooks.Yet why not?Ifyou could memorize the dictionary-or even
With respect to reading vocabulary knowledge and deafness, this article addresses two broad questions: (1) Why is vocabulary knowledge related to reading comprehension ability? (2) How is reading vocabulary (i.e., word meanings) acquired? The article argues that the answers to these questions are best addressed by a vocabulary acquisition model labeled the knowledge model. In essence, this model asserts that both breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge are critical. It is necessary to teach vocabulary, especially to poor readers, who are not likely to derive many word meanings from the use of context during natural or deliberate reading situations. On the basis of theoretical and research syntheses, the article offers implications for vocabulary instruction for deaf children and adolescents.
This study compares lexical access and expressive and receptive vocabulary development in monolingual and bilingual toddlers. More specifically, the link between vocabulary size, production of translation equivalents, and lexical access in bilingual infants was examined as well as the relationship between the Communicative Development Inventories and the Computerized Comprehension Task. Twenty-five bilingual and 18 monolingual infants aged 24 months participated in this study. The results revealed significant differences between monolingual and bilinguals’ expressive vocabulary size in L1 but similar total vocabularies. Performance on the Computerized Comprehension Task revealed no differences between the two groups on measures of both reaction time and accuracy, and a strong convergent validity of the Computerized Comprehension Task with the Communicative Development Inventories was observed for both groups. Bilinguals with a higher proportion of translation equivalents in their expressive vocabulary showed faster access to words in the Computerized Comprehension Task. PMID:24761135
This study compares lexical access and expressive and receptive vocabulary development in monolingual and bilingual toddlers. More specifically, the link between vocabulary size, production of translation equivalents, and lexical access in bilingual infants was examined as well as the relationship between the Communicative Development Inventories and the Computerized Comprehension Task. Twenty-five bilingual and 18 monolingual infants aged 24 months participated in this study. The results revealed significant differences between monolingual and bilinguals' expressive vocabulary size in L1 but similar total vocabularies. Performance on the Computerized Comprehension Task revealed no differences between the two groups on measures of both reaction time and accuracy, and a strong convergent validity of the Computerized Comprehension Task with the Communicative Development Inventories was observed for both groups. Bilinguals with a higher proportion of translation equivalents in their expressive vocabulary showed faster access to words in the Computerized Comprehension Task.
Adults' performance on a variety of tasks suggests that phonological processing of nonwords is grounded in generalizations about sublexical patterns over all known words. A small body of research suggests that children's phonological acquisition is similarly based on generalizations over the lexicon. To test this account, production accuracy and fluency were examined in nonword repetitions by 104 children and 22 adults. Stimuli were 22 pairs of nonwords, in which one nonword contained a low-frequency or unattested two-phoneme sequence and the other contained a high-frequency sequence. For a subset of these nonword pairs, segment durations were measured. The same sound was produced with a longer duration (less fluently) when it appeared in a low-frequency sequence, as compared to a high-frequency sequence. Low-frequency sequences were also repeated with lower accuracy than high-frequency sequences. Moreover, children with smaller vocabularies showed a larger influence of frequency on accuracy than children with larger vocabularies. Taken together, these results provide support for a model of phonological acquisition in which knowledge of sublexical units emerges from generalizations made over lexical items.
It has long been argued that little or no classroomattention is given to vocabulary(Carter,1987;Zim-merman,1997),whereas the opposite might be saidof Chinese tertiary English majors.But problems stillremain:Does more time spent on vocabulary teachingand learning prove effective?Does more attentionneed to be paid to the quality of teaching and learningof vocabulary?To answer these questions,I argue inthis article for a balance of quality and quantity of at-tention to vocabulary development.In the first partof the article,I present five common procedures invocabulary teaching and learning in Chinese collegesand universities and analyse the reasons for the low ef-ficiency in vocabulary teaching and learning.In thesecond,I put forward three techniques—a semanticmapping activity,creating meaningful contexts andusing an integrated approach in teaching and learningvocabulary.
This study examines how STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) inquiry-based learning through a hands-on engineering design can be beneficial in helping students acquire academic vocabulary. This research took place in a second grade dual- language classroom in a public, suburban elementary school. English language learners, students who speak Spanish at home, and native English speakers were evaluated in this study. Each day, students were presented with a general academic vocabulary focus word during an engineering design challenge. Vocabulary pre-tests and post-tests as well as observation field notes were used to evaluate the student's growth in reading and defining the focus academic vocabulary words. A quiz and KSB (knowledge and skill builder) packet were used to evaluate students' knowledge of science and math content and engineering design. The results of this study indicate that engineering design is an effective means for teaching academic vocabulary to students with varying levels of English proficiency.
The scope of climate modeling has grown tremendously in the last 10 years, resulting in a large variety of climate models, increasing complexity with more physical or chemical components and huge volumes of data sets (simulation outputs). While significant efforts to standardise the associated metadata (i.e. data describing data and models) have already been made in recent projects (e.g. CF standard names for CMIP3), detailed standards documentation of the models and experiments that created this data is still lacking. The EU METAFOR Project (http://metaforclimate.eu) is specifically addressing this issue by creating new metadata schemas in cooperation with existing standards in Earth System Modeling (Curator, GridSpec, CF convention, NumSim, etc.). Descriptions of climate simulations, of the data they produce, and of the numerical models used to perform these simulations are all within the scope of METAFOR and these descriptions are assembled in a common information model (the CIM). Of particular note is the metadata for numerical models that is found in the CIM. This paper presents the controlled vocabulary (CV) that has been collected by METAFOR to describe (in a common manner) the components of the numerical models developed by the different modeling centres. This vocabulary is used in the model part of the web-based questionnaire that METAFOR has developed in support of the upcoming IPCC exercise (the CMIP5 questionnaire). The methods to (1) establish standards for this vocabulary via interactions with climate scientists, (2) utilise the vocabulary in the web-based questionnaire and (3) process the vocabulary for ingestion in the Earth System Grid (ESG) portal, are described. Governance aspects of this new controlled vocabulary are also addressed.
Children vary widely in the rate at which they acquire words--some start slow and speed up, others start fast and continue at a steady pace. Do early developmental variations of this sort help predict vocabulary skill just prior to kindergarten entry? This longitudinal study starts by examining important predictors (socioeconomic status [SES], parent input, child gesture) of vocabulary growth between 14 and 46 months (n = 62) and then uses growth estimates to predict children's vocabulary at 54 months. Velocity and acceleration in vocabulary development at 30 months predicted later vocabulary, particularly for children from low-SES backgrounds. Understanding the pace of early vocabulary growth thus improves our ability to predict school readiness and may help identify children at risk for starting behind.
Full Text Available Dynamic assessment (DA, stemmed from both Vygotsky’s (1978 learning theory and Feuerstein’s (1979 theory of mediated learning experiences, is an alternative to static assessment. It focuses on both instruction and assessment aiming at promoting learning through mediation. DA has been widely researched in different linguistic areas, but there is paucity of research on its practice in ESP contexts. Accordingly, this study investigated the effectiveness of DA on incidental vocabularies emerging in technical reading textbooks, written for electronic engineering students. The study employed a quasi-experimental research design. Due to sample selection problems, an intact group of 25 BA electronic students were selected from the University of Zanjan. A pre-test was administered to check whether they had previous knowledge of the target words, incidentally acquired during the reading activity. As for the instrument stage, DA procedures were utilized in order to individualize participants’ assessment. Following DA implementation, a post-test similar in content to pre-test, was administered to the same participants. The significance of DA for the enhancement of incidental vocabularies was to make participants aware of the strategies of identifying, evaluating and monitoring vocabularies (Nassaji, 2003 through mediation process. The results indicated that participants' incidental vocabulary learning promoted dramatically using DA, which employed structured hints for the mediation process. The results of this study can inform both teachers and learners to provide a step by step procedure to promote both teaching and assessment of ESP learners' vocabulary.Keywords: Dynamic Assessment, Incidental Vocabulary Learning, ESP Learners, ZPD, mediation
This study evaluated the effectiveness of Total Physical Response Storytelling (TPRS[TM]) compared to the Grammar-Translation approach for acquiring and retaining new vocabulary in an English as a Second Language (ESL) class. The subjects were adult Hispanic learners with limited literacy. An experimental design approach was used to gather…
Early, effective instruction to introduce both science vocabulary and general academic language may help children build a strong conceptual and linguistic foundation for later instruction. In this study, a design research intervention was employed to expose children to a variety of interrelated science content words to increase both the breadth…
Federal legislation mandates that all students with disabilities have meaningful access to the general education curriculum and that students with and without disabilities be held equally accountable to the same academic standards (IDEIA, 2004; NCLB, 2001). Many students with disabilities, however, perform poorly in academic content courses, especially at the middle and secondary school levels. Previous research has reported increased notetaking accuracy and quiz scores over lecture content when students completed guided notes compared to taking their own notes. This study evaluated the effects of a pre-quiz review procedure and specially formatted guided notes on middle school special education students' learning of science vocabulary. This study compared the effects of three experimental conditions. (a) Own Notes (ON), (b) Own Notes+Random Study Checks (ON+RSC), and (c) Guided Notes Study Cards+Random Study Checks (GNSC+RSC) on each student's accuracy of notes, next-day quiz scores, and review quiz scores. Each session, the teacher presented 12 science vocabulary terms and definitions during a lecture and students took notes. The students were given 5 minutes to study their notes at the end of each session and were reminded to study their notes at home and in study hall period. In the ON condition students took notes on a sheet of paper with numbered lines from 1 to 12. Just before each next-day quiz in the ON+RSC condition students used write-on response cards to answer two teacher-posed questions over randomly selected vocabulary terms from the previous day's lecture. If the answer on a randomly selected student's response card was correct, that student earned a lottery ticket for inexpensive prizes and a quiz bonus point for herself and each classmate. In the GNSC+RSC condition students took notes on specially formatted guided notes that after the lecture they cut into a set of flashcards that could used for study. The students' mean notetaking accuracy was 75
Full Text Available In this paper we have looked at the difference between teaching language structure and teaching vocabulary. We have discussed how counts of frequency alone are not enough to determine what words should be taught. We have seen that knowing a word means more than just knowing its meaning. Even that is problematical since meaning includes sense relations and context, for example. To know a word we also need to know about its use, how it is formed and what grammatical behavior it provokes. Above all, in this paper, we have approached the idea of how vocabulary teaching and learning need to be emphasized in order for students to be competent language users.
With the high-speed development of society, English has already become a university language and learning English is the basic requirement to learners. Vocabulary learning is one of the key factors in English Learning. This paper focuses on the vocabulary memories strategies.%随着社会高速发展，对任何学习者来说，掌握英语，这个世界性语言是学习中最基本的要求。词汇学习当然是英语学习中关键因素之一。本文将侧重介绍词汇记忆的策略。
Since the 1600s, the developments in the understanding of electrical phenomena have frequently altered the models and metaphors used by physicists to describe and explain their experiments. However, to this day, certain relics of past theories still drench the vocabulary of the subject, serving as distracting fog for future students. This article attempts, through historical illumination, to shine through the mist of electrostatic terminology and offer a clearer view of the classical model of electricity.
Full Text Available The paper suggests effective techniques to improve the vocabulary of the students in English as a Second Language context based on an experimental study. The study was conducted in India (South Asia, in an Engineering college for freshmen in the age group of eighteen to nineteen years. The paper makes a comparison of two vocabulary teaching strategies and the results show that explicit vocabulary teaching is more effective than implicit vocabulary teaching. The experimental group also showed greater involvement as they enjoyed doing reading and vocabulary exercises than the control group that did only reading activities. The study makes an important contribution to the existing research as it recommends focused vocabulary teaching by suggesting various techniques for teaching vocabulary.
This study examined whether English-only vocabulary instruction or English vocabulary instruction enhanced with Spanish bridging produced greater word learning in young Spanish-speaking children learning English during a storybook reading intervention while considering individual language characteristics. Twenty-two Spanish-speaking children learning English (ages 4-6) who participated in a summer education program for migrant families were randomly assigned to receive 2 weeks of each instruction: (a) word expansions in English or (b) English readings with word expansions in Spanish. Researcher-created measures of target vocabulary were administered, as were English and Spanish standardized measures of language proficiency and vocabulary. Results revealed significant improvement in naming, receptive knowledge, and expressive definitions for those children who received Spanish bridging. Spanish expansions produced the greatest gains in the children's use of expressive definitions. Initial language proficiency in both languages was found to affect participants' gains from intervention, as those with limited skills in both languages showed significantly less vocabulary growth than those with strong skills in Spanish. Additional benefits to using Spanish expansions in vocabulary instruction were observed. Future research should explore additional ways of enhancing the vocabulary growth of children with limited skills in both languages in order to support and strengthen the child's first language and promote second language acquisition.
Medical English is relatively more difficult than general English,especially its vocabulary.Those medical English words are long and complex,making it hard to remember.But medical English vocabulary has its own features,which would help us in learning vocabulary.On the basis of many medical English materials,the paper explores the features of etymology,affixes and roots of medical English.
Medical English is relatively more difficult than general English,especially its vocabulary.Those medical English words are long and complex,making it hard to remember. But medical English vocabulary has its own features,which would help us in learning vocabulary.On the basis of many medical English materials,the paper explores the features of etymology,affixes and roots of medical English.
In the Semantic Web, vocabularies are defined and shared among knowledge workers to describe linked data for scientific, industrial or daily life usage. With the rapid growth of online vocabularies, there is an emergent need for approaches helping users understand vocabularies quickly. In this paper, we study the summarization of vocabularies to help users understand vocabularies. Vocabulary summarization is based on the structural analysis and pragmatics statistics in the global Semantic Web. Local Bipartite Model and Expanded Bipartite Model of a vocabulary are proposed to characterize the structure in a vocabulary and links between vocabularies. A structural importance for each RDF sentence in the vocabulary is assessed using link analysis. Meanwhile, pragmatics importance of each RDF sentence is assessed using the statistics of instantiation of its terms in the Semantic Web. Summaries are produced by extracting important RDF sentences in vocabularies under a re-ranking strategy. Preliminary experiments show that it is feasible to help users understand a vocabulary through its summary.
Current situation of vocabulary teaching The importance of vocabulary in learning a second or foreign language has been widely acknowledged and the findings of a sea of research studies have convinced us to regard vocabulary k nowledge as a
Full Text Available Vocabulary knowledge is central to a speaker's command of their language. In previous research, greater vocabulary knowledge has been associated with advantages in language processing. In this study, we examined the relationship between individual differences in vocabulary and language processing performance more closely by (i using a battery of vocabulary tests instead of just one test, and (ii testing not only university students (Experiment 1 but young adults from a broader range of educational backgrounds (Experiment 2. Five vocabulary tests were developed, including multiple-choice and open antonym and synonym tests and a definition test, and administered together with two established measures of vocabulary. Language processing performance was measured using a lexical decision task. In Experiment 1, vocabulary and word frequency were found to predict word recognition speed while we did not observe an interaction between the effects. In Experiment 2, word recognition performance was predicted by word frequency and the interaction between word frequency and vocabulary, with high-vocabulary individuals showing smaller frequency effects. While overall the individual vocabulary tests were correlated and showed similar relationships with language processing as compared to a composite measure of all tests, they appeared to share less variance in Experiment 2 than in Experiment 1. Implications of our findings concerning the assessment of vocabulary size in individual differences studies and the investigation of individuals from more varied backgrounds are discussed.
Vocabulary knowledge is central to a speaker's command of their language. In previous research, greater vocabulary knowledge has been associated with advantages in language processing. In this study, we examined the relationship between individual differences in vocabulary and language processing performance more closely by (i) using a battery of vocabulary tests instead of just one test, and (ii) testing not only university students (Experiment 1) but young adults from a broader range of educational backgrounds (Experiment 2). Five vocabulary tests were developed, including multiple-choice and open antonym and synonym tests and a definition test, and administered together with two established measures of vocabulary. Language processing performance was measured using a lexical decision task. In Experiment 1, vocabulary and word frequency were found to predict word recognition speed while we did not observe an interaction between the effects. In Experiment 2, word recognition performance was predicted by word frequency and the interaction between word frequency and vocabulary, with high-vocabulary individuals showing smaller frequency effects. While overall the individual vocabulary tests were correlated and showed similar relationships with language processing as compared to a composite measure of all tests, they appeared to share less variance in Experiment 2 than in Experiment 1. Implications of our findings concerning the assessment of vocabulary size in individual differences studies and the investigation of individuals from more varied backgrounds are discussed.
Handbooks recommend a variety of quite complicated procedures for learning and remembering vocabulary, but most learners only engage in very simple procedures. The aim of this project was to establish a basis for identifying optimal vocabulary recording procedures by finding out what learners...... currently do. We administered a questionnaire, interviewed learners who said that they kept vocabulary records of some kind and examined their records. Two-thirds had given up making vocabulary lists on entering the L2 environment and/or starting to read extensively, but several made interesting lists...
For almost 80 years, deformation-induced head changes caused by poroelastic effects have been observed during pumping tests in multilayered aquifer-aquitard systems. As water in the aquifer is released from compressive storage during pumping, the aquifer is deformed both in the horizontal and vertical directions. This deformation in the pumped aquifer causes deformation in the adjacent layers, resulting in changes in pore pressure that may produce drawdown curves that differ significantly from those predicted by traditional groundwater theory. Although these deformation-induced head changes have been analyzed in several studies by poroelasticity theory, there are at present no practical guidelines for the interpretation of pumping test data influenced by these effects. To investigate the impact that poroelastic effects during pumping tests have on the estimation of hydraulic parameters, we generate synthetic data for three different aquifer-aquitard settings using a poroelasticity model, and then analyze the synthetic data using type curves and parameter estimation techniques, both of which are based on traditional groundwater theory and do not account for poroelastic effects. Results show that even when poroelastic effects result in significant deformation-induced head changes, it is possible to obtain reasonable estimates of hydraulic parameters using methods based on traditional groundwater theory, as long as pumping is sufficiently long so that deformation-induced effects have largely dissipated. ?? 2011 The Author(s). Journal compilation ?? 2011 National Ground Water Association.
Full Text Available Self-regulation is referred to as learners’ self-generated ideas and actions which are systematically directed towards achieving educational goals and require learners’ active participation in the learning process (Zimmerman & Bandura, 1994. The present study investigated the relationship between Iranian EFL students’ self-regulation capacity for vocabulary learning and their vocabulary size. For this purpose, the researchers made use of two main instruments: the self-regulation capacity in vocabulary learning scale developed by Tseng et al. (2006 consisting of five subscales of commitment, metacognitive, emotion, satiation and environment control, and a bilingual vocabulary size test developed and validated by Karami (2012. The results of the data analysis revealed no significant relationship between the two variables measured by these instruments. However, the results of the multiple regressions indicated that the metacognitive control compared to the other subscales made a better contribution to the prediction of learners’ vocabulary size. In addition, based on the analysis of variance (ANOVA, which examined and compared the self-regulatory strategy use of learners in different experience groups, the first year students had a higher mean score in their self-regulation capacity, which can possibly be attributed to the strategies they have learnt in their Study Skills courses. Finally, it was suggested that teachers must try to develop self-regulatory power in the learners because their creative effort and informed decisions in trying to improve their own learning are highly important.
Full Text Available Abstract: The present study was conducted to investigate types of Multiple Intelligences as predictors of reading comprehension and vocabulary knowledge. To meet this objective, a 60-item TOEFL test and a 90-item multiple intelligences questionnaire were distributed among 240 male and female Iranians studying English at Qazali and Parsian Universities in Qazvin. Data were analyzed using a multiple regression procedure. The result of the data analysis indicated that musical, interpersonal, kinesthetic, and logical intelligences were predicators of reading comprehension. Moreover, musical, verbal, visual, kinesthetic and natural intelligences made significant contributions to predicting vocabulary knowledge. Key words: Multiple intelligences, reading comprehension, vocabulary knowledge.
It is admitted that vocabulary acquisition, as the smallest unit in English leaning, is the most basic, decisive yet difficult part. Yet vocabulary acquisition has always obsessed and fascinated Chinese learners of English. This paper mainly presents a discussion of English vocabulary acquisition by Chinese learners in the respect of vocabulary size and correct use. Through the analysis of the problems existing in the present vocabulary learning and teaching, author also presents some learning strategies to expand vocabulary size.
It is well established that networks within multiple-demand cortex (MDC) become active when diverse skills and behaviors are being learnt. However, their causal role in learning remains to be established. In the present study, we first performed functional magnetic resonance imaging on healthy female and male human participants to confirm that MDC was most active in the initial stages of learning a novel vocabulary, consisting of pronounceable nonwords (pseudowords), each associated with a picture of a real object. We then examined, in healthy female and male human participants, whether repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation of a frontal midline node of the cingulo-opercular MDC affected learning rates specifically during the initial stages of learning. We report that stimulation of this node, but not a control brain region, substantially improved both accuracy and response times during the earliest stage of learning pseudoword-object associations. This stimulation had no effect on the processing of established vocabulary, tested by the accuracy and response times when participants decided whether a real word was accurately paired with a picture of an object. These results provide evidence that noninvasive stimulation to MDC nodes can enhance learning rates, thereby demonstrating their causal role in the learning process. We propose that this causal role makes MDC candidate target for experimental therapeutics; for example, in stroke patients with aphasia attempting to reacquire a vocabulary.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Learning a task involves the brain system within which that specific task becomes established. Therefore, successfully learning a new vocabulary establishes the novel words in the language system. However, there is evidence that in the early stages of learning, networks within multiple-demand cortex (MDC), which control higher cognitive functions, such as working memory, attention, and monitoring of performance, become active. This activity declines
Full Text Available Teade plagiaadi kohta / Report of an Act of Plagiarism (6. mai 2012 / 6 May, 2012ERÜ aastaraamatus 4 (2008 lk 121–138 ilmunud Mohammad Mohseni-Far'i artikli "In Search of the Best Technique for Vocabulary Acquisition" näol on tegemist iseenda plagiaadiga. Sama artikkel on 2008. a ilmunud lisaks ERÜ aastaraamatule veel KAKS KORDA ligilähedases sõnastuses ning ligilähedase pealkirjaga. Kuna autor on tegelnud sõnastuse muutmisega, siis järelikult on tegemist teadliku plagiaadiga. Vt ka Check for Plagiarism On the Web.We are sorry to inform that Mohammad Mohseni-Far, the author of 'In Search of the Best Technique for Vocabulary Acquisition' published in ERÜ aastaraamat / EAAL yearbook, Vol. 4 (2008 pp. 121–138, has published the same article TWICE in another journal just by changing the title and a few wordings. The plagiarism is verified, using the Check for Plagiarism On the Web.A Cognitively-oriented Encapsulation of Strategies Utilized for Lexical Development: In search of a flexible and highly interactive curriculum. – Porta Linguarum 9 (2008, 35–42. Techniques and Strategies Utilized for Vocabulary Acquisition: the necessity to design a multifaceted framework with an instructionally wise equilibrium. – Porta Linguarum 8 (2007, 137–152.ERÜ aastaraamatu toimetus / Editors of the EAAL yearbook***The present study is intended to critically examine vocabulary learning/acquisition techniques within second/foreign language context. Accordingly, the purpose of this survey is to concentrate particularly on the variables connected with lexical knowledge and establish a fairly all-inclusive framework which comprises and expounds on the most significant strategies and relevant factors within the vocabulary acquisition context. At the outset, the study introduces four salient variables; learner, task and strategy serve as a general structure of inquiry (Flavell’s cognitive model, 1992. Besides, the variable of context
Basic cognitive functions such as: alertness, working memory, long term memory and perception, as well as higher levels of cognitive functions like: speech and language, decision-making and executive functions are affected by aging processes. Relations between the receptive vocabulary and cognitive functioning, and the manifestation of differences between populations of elderly people based on the primary disease is in the focus of this study. To examine receptive vocabulary and cognition of elderly people with: verified stroke, dementia, verified stroke and dementia, and without the manifested brain disease. The sample consisted of 120 participants older than 65 years, living in an institution. A total of 26 variables was analyzed and classified into three groups: case history/anamnestic, receptive vocabulary assessment, and cognitive assessments. The interview with social workers, nurses and caregivers, as well as medical files were used to determine the anamnestic data. A Montreal Cognitive Assessment Scale (MoCA) was used for the assessment of cognition. In order to estimate the receptive vocabulary, Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test was used. Mean raw score of receptive vocabulary is 161.58 (+-21:58 points). The best results for cognitive assessment subjects achieved on subscales of orientation, naming, serial subtraction, and delayed recall. Discriminative analysis showed the significant difference in the development of receptive vocabulary and cognitive functioning in relation to the primary disease of elderly people. The biggest difference was between subjects without manifested brain disease (centroid = 1.900) and subjects with dementia (centroid = -1754). There is a significant difference between elderly with stroke; dementia; stroke and dementia, and elderly people without manifested disease of the brain in the domain of receptive vocabulary and cognitive functioning. Variables of serial subtraction, standardized test results of receptive vocabulary
Despite years of research on vocabulary learning and teaching, relatively little is known about strategies for effective mastery of vocabulary in less commonly taught languages. The current study focuses on English native speakers studying Modern Standard Arabic to identify effective ways to present and learn new vocabulary using tasks varying in…
This paper reports on the study of the strategy use of Chinese English majors in vocabulary learning; the individual differences between effective and less effective learners in employing vocabulary learning strategies and the relationship between their strategies and their outcome in English learning. In this research, 118 junior English majors inChineseUniversitywere investigated. The participants were asked to take a vocabulary test and complete a vocabulary-learning questionnaire. The d...
Full Text Available The state policy regarding higher education has changed in the last decade. These changes were part of the efficiency programs of the public sector. Governments of different countries ruined previously existing system of higher education state regulation and attempted to build the quasi-market structure in the higher education industry. Such transformations served as timely and progressive reforms in the recent studies of the economics of education. Substitution of bureaucratic management mechanisms and modern competition managerial tools are articulated. Economic and institutional and sociological studies on the effects of the introduction of quasi-markets and managerial tools in higher education governance oppose to orthodox market approach. They drew attention to the fact that evaluation methods and improve the effectiveness of organizations and employees that are typical of the private sector often produce results that differ from those in the public sector. To assess the consequences of the introduction of managerial tools of external control activities of university lecturers used a methodology based on the allocation of the individual structural components (effects and building on their basis of a multi-level hierarchical model in the research. Each component of the model (single effect is characterized by a degree of significance (importance and the degree of severity. The results of the systematization and assessment of the significance of the effects of external control activity of lecturers of Russian universities implemented in conditions of quasi-market mechanisms of the higher education system are highlighted in the paper.
Compared with the study of Grammar, syntax, the description on vocabulary is comparatively slower than them. The related theories of vocabulary description have fast developed since the 1980s and 1990s have experienced a growing interest in vocabulary learning and teaching----The vocabulary size, text coverage, word list, meaning of vocabulary in context, and collocation have been discovered and described, which helped new insights in arrange of different research fields have all added to our understanding of vocabulary development. Vocabulary acquisition research, based on vocabulary description, has established itself as a central research focus for language acquisition researchers and contributed to the focus of practical teaching and learning in English.
The aim of the study was to identify factors associated with the level of language understanding, the level of receptive and active vocabulary, and to estimate effect-related odds ratios for cochlear implanted children's language level....
This research investigated the relationship between vocabulary learning strategies and vocabulary size of Iranian university EFL students. Participants in the present study were a total of 67 EFL learners, studying at Shiraz Azad University as senior English Translation students. The instruments utilized for data collection were three tests: A…
Full Text Available This article is mainly to survey the centennial controversy between controlled vocabulary v. uncontrolled vocabulary of subject indexing in the western library and information society. We also discuss the related problems in Chinese information retrieval systems and analyze the factors affecting their performance. [Article content in Chinese
This research investigated the relationship between vocabulary learning strategies and vocabulary size of Iranian university EFL students. Participants in the present study were a total of 67 EFL learners, studying at Shiraz Azad University as senior English Translation students. The instruments utilized for data collection were three tests: A…
This is a report of a professional development project. The purpose of the project was to provide professional development to teachers in vocabulary instructional strategies and to examine vocabulary acquisition of English language learners. The participants were 8 second grade ELL students and 6 second grade teachers. The eight second grade…
以某高职院校的不同层次英语水平的大二学生为实验对象，对高职院校学生在英语词汇学习中应用词汇策略的情况进行了调查研究。结果表明，高职院校学生的词汇策略整体水平欠佳，学生的英语词汇策略水平与其英语学习成绩有显著的正相关关系。认为在教学中对学生进行有针对性的词汇策略训练能有效改善学生英语词汇学习效果。%A survey was conducted on a vocational college’s sophomores at different English level, studying their vocabulary application strategies in English vocabulary learning. The results showed that the students are not good enough in handling vocabulary strategies, which have significant positive correlation with their English learning. It is therefore believed that targeted vocabulary strategy training in English teaching can effectively improve the students’ English vocabulary learning.
以某高职院校的不同层次英语水平的大二学生为实验对象，对高职院校学生在英语词汇学习中应用词汇策略的情况进行了调查研究。结果表明，高职院校学生的词汇策略整体水平欠佳，学生的英语词汇策略水平与其英语学习成绩有显著的正相关关系。认为在教学中对学生进行有针对性的词汇策略训练能有效改善学生英语词汇学习效果。%A survey was conducted on a vocational college’s sophomores at different English level, studying their vocabulary application strategies in English vocabulary learning. The results showed that the students are not good enough in handling vocabulary strategies, which have significant positive correlation with their English learning. It is therefore believed that targeted vocabulary strategy training in English teaching can effectively improve the students’ English vocabulary learning.
Purpose Vocabulary assessment holds promise as a way to identify young bilingual children at risk for language delay. This study compares 2 measures of vocabulary in a group of young Spanish–English bilingual children to a single-language measure used with monolingual children. Method Total vocabulary and conceptual vocabulary were used to measure mean vocabulary size and growth in 47 Spanish–English bilingually developing children from 22 to 30 months of age based on results from the MacArthur–Bates Communicative Development Inventory (CDI; Fenson et al., 1993) and the Inventario del Desarrollo de Habilidades Comunicativas (Jackson-Maldonado et al., 2003). Bilingual children’s scores of total vocabulary and conceptual vocabulary were compared with CDI scores for a control group of 56 monolingual children. Results The total vocabulary measure resulted in mean vocabulary scores and average rate of growth similar to monolingual growth, whereas conceptual vocabulary scores were significantly smaller and grew at a slower rate than total vocabulary scores. Total vocabulary identified the same proportion of bilingual children below the 25th percentile on monolingual norms as the CDI did for monolingual children. Conclusion These results support the use of total vocabulary as a means of assessing early language development in young bilingual Spanish–English speaking children. PMID:24023382
Full Text Available This paper surveys some current developments in second language vocabulary assessment, with particular attention to the ways in which computer corpora can provide better quality information about the frequency of words and how they are used in specific contexts. The relative merits of different word lists are discussed, including the Academic Word List and frequency lists derived from the British National Corpus. Word frequency data is needed for measures of vocabulary size, such as the Yes/No format, which is being developed and used for a variety of purposes. The paper also reviews work on testing depth of knowledge of vocabulary, where rather less progress has been made, both in defining depth as a construct and in developing tests for practical use. Another important perspective is the use of vocabulary within particular contexts of use or registers, and recent corpus research is extending our understanding of the lexical features of academic registers. This provides a basis for assessing learners’ ability to deploy their vocabulary knowledge effectively for functional communication in specific academic contexts. It is concluded that, while current tests of vocabulary knowledge are valuable for certain purposes, they need to be complemented by more contextualised measures of vocabulary use.
Shows English-as-a-Second-Language educators how vocabulary teaching can become humanizingly meaningful through the use of techniques inspired by some of the interdependent traditions to peace, and to make a plea for ESL teachers and learners to humanize their repertoires of best practices in vocabulary teaching and learning. (Author/VWL)
In order to enlarge English vocabulary , we need to have some methods. I’d like to share my experience with begin⁃ners how I enlarge English vocabulary when when I am learning English. It is a long process and needs hard work and patience.
Twenty-four studies were included in this systematic review of vocabulary research literature. The review corroborates the findings of past studies that several strategies have emerged that increase students' vocabulary knowledge. Findings further reinforce the National Reading Panel's recommendations regarding the context and magnitude of studies…
The bag-of-visual-words approach, inspired by text retrieval methods, has proven successful in achieving high performance in object retrieval on large-scale databases. A key step of these methods is the quantization stage which maps the high-dimensional image feature vectors to discriminatory visual words. In this paper, we consider the quantization step as the nearest neighbor search in large visual vocabulary, and thus proposed a randomized dimensions hashing (RDH) algorithm to efficiently index and search the large visual vocabulary. The experimental results have demonstrated that the proposed algorithm can effectively increase the quantization accuracy compared to the vocabulary tree based methods which represent the state-of-the-art. Consequently, the object retrieval performance can be significantly improved by our method in the large-scale database.
In this paper we have looked at the difference between teaching language structure and teaching vocabulary. We have discussed how counts of frequency alone are not enough to determine what words should be taught. We have seen that knowing a word means more than just knowing its meaning. Even that is problematical since meaning includes sense relations and context, for example. To know a word we also need to know about its use, how it is formed and what grammatical behavior it provokes. Above ...
By referring to the fundamental question of how we unite aesthetics and technology – tectonic theory is necessarily a focal point in the development of the architectural discipline. However, a critical reconsideration of the role of tectonic theory seems necessary when facing the present everyday...... architectural practice. In this matter the paper focuses on the need to juxtapose theoretical studies, to bring the present vocabulary of the tectonic further, as well as to spur further practical experiments enabling theory to materialize in the everyday of the current practice....
The members of the CSTNIN - the Special Commission for Nuclear Engineering Terminology and Neology - have just produced a Nuclear Engineering Vocabulary, published by SFEN. A 120-page document which, to date, includes 400 nuclear engineering terms or expressions. For each term or expression, this Glossary gives: the primary and secondary subject field in which it is applied, a possible abbreviation, its definition, a synonym if appropriate, any relevant comments, any associated word(s), the English equivalent, its status on the date of publication of the Glossary. (author)
to establish a Nordic Network for Research and Teaching in Tectonics is currently forming. This paper seeks to jointly reflect upon these initiatives in order to bring them further, with the intention to clad a discourse on the future of tectonic architectural research that addresses the conditions of everyday...... architectural practice. In this matter the paper focuses on the need to juxtapose theoretical studies, to bring the present vocabulary of the tectonic further, as well as to spur further practical experiments enabling theory to materialize in the everyday of the current practice....
Objective To evaluate the clinical significance of antihypertensive effect witharterial compliance. Methods In males, 72 cases were control group, 35 cases were EH-controlled,and 35 cases were EH-uncontrolled groups. Blood pressure and arterial compliance (C1 and C2) weredetected by HDI DO-2020. Results In the EH-uncontrolled group,the values of systolic blood pres-sure (SBP) , diastolic blood pressure (DBP) , mean arterial pressure (MAP), and pulse pressure(PP) were significantly higher than those of the control and the EH-controlled groups (P＜0.01),however ,there was no difference between the control and the EH-controlled groups. In the EH-uncon-trolled group,the values of C1 and C2 were lower tlan those of both the control and the EH-controlledgroups (P＜0.01) ,again,with no difference between the control and the EH-controlled groups. Con-clttsion Arterial compliance (C1 and C2) measurements may serve as a sensitive indicator of evalu-ating antihypertensive effect.
Participants learned foreign vocabulary by means of the paired-associates learning procedure in three conditions: (a) in silence, (b) with vocal music with lyrics in a familiar language playing in the background, or (c) with vocal music with lyrics in an unfamiliar language playing in the background. The vocabulary to learn varied in concreteness (concrete vs. abstract) and phonological typicality of the foreign words’ forms (typical vs. atypical). When tested during and immediately after tra...
Compares various computerized bilingual dictionaries for their relative effectiveness in helping Japanese college students at several language proficiency levels to access new English target vocabulary. (Author/VWL)
Probiotics are defined as live microorganisms which when administered in adequate amounts confer a health benefit upon the host (FAO/WHO, 2001). Lactic acid bacteria, particularly Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium species are commonly used as probiotics. Other less commonly used probiotics include the yeast Sacchromyces cerevisiae and some non-pathogenic Escherichia coli and Bacillus species. Studies over the past 20 years have demonstrated that probiotic intake is able to confer a range of health benefits including modulation of the immune system, protection against gastrointestinal and respiratory tract infections, lowering of blood cholesterol levels, attenuation of overt immuno-inflammatory disorders (such as inflammatory bowel disease, allergies) and anti-cancer effects. However, the strongest clinical evidence for probiotics relates to their effectiveness in improving gut health and modulating (via stimulation or regulation) the host immune system. This chapter provides an overview of the current status of our knowledge regarding the immunostimulatory and immunoregulatory effects of probiotics on the immune system and their significance to human health.
This study examined the effect of teaching glossary and personality traits on vocabulary learning. Two groups of students who had different personality (extroverted and introverted) were exposed to two types of glosses: paper and online-based glossary. The two groups underwent two-month treatment. Prior to and after the treatment, each group was given pre and posttest. In calculating the data, two-way ANOVA was used. The results of the study showed that extroverted students learned vocabulary...
The present study, by use of questionnaire and vocabulary tests, has investigated the foreign language vocabulary learning situation of 481 undergraduates in terms of their perspective of vocabulary learning, strategy use and vocabulary size. Based on the questionnaire investigation and vocabulary level tests, the characteristics of the subjects'…
Vocabulary learning strategies and vocabulary size are among the main factors that help determine how students learn second language vocabulary. The present study was an attempt to exploring the relationship between vocabulary learning strategies and Arabic vocabulary size of 742 pre-university in "Religious High School" (SMKA) and…
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Through this proposal, Hope & Help for Wandering, our goal is to create safer East Texas communities for people living with dementia and other cognitive issues, such as Autism (ASD). This project will provide these most vulnerable groups and their caregivers with the support, protection, peace of mind and the quality of life they deserve. The Alzheimer’s Alliance of Smith County will be the lead agency in implementing this project, along with our partners outlined below.
Proposed primary activities:
Develop and implement a comprehensive campaign to increase the public awareness of wandering, educate on prevention strategies and promote and increase the number of individuals in East Texas enrolled in evidence-based programs, such as the Project Lifesaver Program.
Develop and implement a comprehensive education & training program for first responders, families of individuals who wander, schools, and other community partners. This would be accomplished through conducting web-based trainings, region-wide conferences, and collaborating with local junior colleges to embed training within first responder programs.
Develop and implement, in partnership with local first responders and 911 District, an alert program that identifies persons that are at risk for wandering or have a dementia or other cognitive diagnosis.
The primary service area for this project is Smith and Gregg Counties, as they are the most populated and the secondary service area includes those counties contiguous to Smith and Gregg. These include but are not limited to Anderson, Van Zandt, Cherokee, Harrison, Panola, Rusk, Upshur, Wood County, and Henderson. East Texas is primarily rural and the target audience is at an increased risk of injury and death due to the geography of this region. In addition, almost half of the proposed service area is designated as a qualified opportunity zone.
The primary beneficiaries of the project are the estimated 52,258 individuals living with some form of dementia in East Texas along with their families. In addition, approximately 2,000 children living with ASD or with the propensity to wander due to a cognitive condition.
Partners:
Champions for Children – Implement outlined services as subcontractor in various East Texas counties for those with ASD.
East Texas Alzheimer’s Alliance – Implement outlined services as subcontractor in various East Texas counties for those with ADRD.
Other supportive agencies include, but are not limited to Tyler Junior College, East Texas Area Agency on Aging, County Sherriff’s Offices, 911 Districts, media outlets, and local police, fire and EMS departments. | https://bja.ojp.gov/funding/awards/15pbja-21-gg-02966-mapx |
The economic models that analyse the functioning of market economies assume the existence of institutions - not necessarily economic - which are essential for the functioning of the markets, whether they are competitive, oligopolistic or monopolistic. Without these institutions, markets would cease to function or be subject to huge inefficiencies. In a constantly evolving globalizaation’s context, the presence of effective and efficient governance becomes a strategic necessity for a country and, in this viewpoint, also includes the analysis of the distinctive characteristics. In fact, a well-defined system of property rights, a regulation bureaucracy of markets which guarantees competition, public policies that support social cohesion, political institutions that reduce the risk of social conflicts and/or allow their management, are all institutions functional to the economic growth of a country. The role of institutions in the countries’ development process has long interested and continues to attract the attention of the scientists who belong to different disciplinary fields. There is a growing consciousness among scholars on whether the way societies are organized (in the most common sense their institutions) is the primary cause of their economic performance. Three different types of theories analyse the institutions’ origins and development. According to economic theories, institutions are configured as efficient insofar as the benefits deriving from them, are greater than their costs or when they reduce uncertainty and therefore transaction costs [2-3] or even they are not necessarily created to be efficient but for serving and preserving the interests of some social groups and for generating new institutions [4-9]. Political theories believe that institutions and policies are introduced for the achievement of benefits by those politically more powerful groups, to consolidate their power and accumulate resources ; according to Marx, for example, society was divided into social classes and (economic) policies were designed by the dominant social class, while, modern theories believe that institutions (and policies) are determined by sovereigns, bureaucrats, dominant ethnic and religious groups and lobbies. Finally, according to cultural theories, some societies form beliefs or ideas that can lead to economically “good” (efficient) institutions, while others do not [11-14]. An example of it, which can become institutions, is the “trust in others” (namely in unknown people) that can facilitate collective actions and, therefore, the institutions that lead to the provision of public goods. Over the years, the economic theories of development leave the neoclassical paradigm and identify in the different types of institutions (formal or informal, economic or political) “what matter” for the growth dynamic of a nation. For example, it can be observed how in the planisphere the increases of per capita GDP are concentrated in the temperate areas, far from the equator, so the growth of GDP, according to the economist Sachs , is somehow related to the density of coastal population and is attributable to its geographical factors, whereas, the opinion of Acemoglu, who studied their connection with the national economic development, one of the most cited economists in the field of institutional theories, is opposite to. He tries to demonstrate that the economic growth, and therefore the same gap among advanced and developing countries, is due to nothing more than differences between institutions and their histories. According to the author, the political-economic institutional bureaucracy of a country arises as a main and non-competing factor (such are the other factors such as capital, land, labour) of a country’s economic development (Acemoglu and Robinson, 2012: “Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity, and Poverty). Obviously, the exponents of these theories are often compared each other not because their respective theses are not supported by any evidence, but because they unsatisfactorily reduce the complexity of reality, leaving out of their capacity to explain those behaviours that, however, represent the basic postulates in other theories. Whether or not they are the main or transversal cause of growth, several viewpoints agree by establishing that “the inadequacy” or low resilience of institutions with a change of environmental conditions or about power relationship among social groups, does not support technology investment, skills and knowledge which are essential to produce the desirable results. One of the primary causes of institutional inefficiencies can be precisely found in the changes in power relationships among social groups where the desire of an internal resource redistribution from the political groups in power leads to the implementation of distorting policies, causing the emergence of institutions that limit growth and improve social inequalities. The conflict among the groups encourages society to bring out political institutions which, through inefficient policies, will be long consolidated even if in the system alternative and better policies coexist. This conflict takes place mainly in the arena of political competition, the latter is therefore the key element in the analysis on a system’s institutional arrangements efficiency.
It follows that, political competition represents both a theoretical base and a tool to empirically investigate the reality in which administrators and policies are in time and space connected by reflecting the socio-economic models of the geographical areas examined. The analysis of the relationship between institutions and political competition among groups, is useful to identify how the optimal level of development of a country can be invalidated by political competition variations and policies implications. It is precisely from the definition of political competition that this work start to glimpse the transposition into institution of the individual dimension and the consequences of an action which is implemented in the human case as well as in the institutions, and that declines its effects through a decision. One of the goals of this short essay is, therefore, the capacity to pop the question on how, under some circumstances, the interests conflict among power groups, which become multitudes (institution), may become a set of policies set up to configure a high-performance economic system, for this, the relevance of the relationship between political competition and institutional quality will be here exposed. Several opinions lead to different studies with different and never definitive results. However, what is certain is that it is no longer possible to underestimate the extent of this phenomenon: through institutional environment, a healthy political competition may only encourage a country growth and on this point, all economic literature agrees. In fact, despite the differences we will find among the mentioned scholars, there is no denying that the economic institutions of a country evidently represent an attraction for foreign investments, investments that are always generative of economic growth. Thus, the problem is to identify how the direct impact of parties competition on the institutional arrangements and then, how much part of the economic development is attributable to improvements in the institutional domain due to a better political competition outcome.
Theoretical Background
The term political competition has been largely used in different studies to describe different things. One more general interpretation of political competition is “competition for political power. It is a competition to shape and control the content and direction of public policy-rivalry for the capacity to influence or determine official governmental decision-making and action on questions of public policy” (Djeudo, 2013, pag.71). Under a free and competitive democratic society different groups compete to obtain the legal power to govern the political community for a direct control of the government and for the right to formal decide how and for what purposes governmental authority will be used. In this environment, the main source of political conflict/ competition may be identified in the unequal redistribution of costs and benefits deriving from public policy choices. The literature, by analysing political competition’s costs and benefits, underlines its crucial role in the institutional process which leads to the policies and behaviours necessary for the realization of investments, technologies, skills and other productive factors progrowth [16-20]. Various authors explain how political competition has a different impact on economic results, in fact, the presence of distorting policies preferences in order to strengthen political power positions and economic rents, the asymmetric information between citizens and representatives, the distributive conflict between groups of citizens and the public investment opportunities features, explain a distorting effect through the political process that can culminate in the creation and consolidation of institutions which block the development and economic growth of a nation.
By considering the economic effects of political competition it is possible to identify three main channels through which political competition influences the institutional efficiency. The first channel revolves around a process of political turnover and is called accountability for incumbents [21-22]. This perspective is founded on inter-temporal perspective of political competition and is strictly correlated with the concept of political accountability. In fact, political competition determines the current behaviour of incumbent through the threats of citizens’ substitution of the previous period, so the direct benefit is the increasing level of incumbent’s accountability for his action when the level of political competition in the system increases. Another positive effect of the political turnover is the major degree of reciprocity and cooperation between the groups competing for public authority. Because elected officials are aware that they will not hold office forever, they would build “insulating structures” that will reduce the degree of offices sabotage but also decrease their effectiveness (De Figueiredo, 2002). Instead, based on turnover perspective, the so-called “political replacement effect” [23-24] represents the main cost of political competition, in fact, in public decision-making processes, the adoption of investments or public changes (innovation), that are economically productive but could destabilizing political system, leads the incumbent to inefficient political decisions for country’s development. The second channel through which political competition impact on institutional efficiency is the decentralized political authority and looks at the number of agents that hold the political authority [25- 26]. The effects of political competition are investigated by using the same models adopted to study market competition in which the level of system’s efficiency increases with the increasing of the number of subjects holding political authority. In a “governance market”, by favouring the competition of public offer, political decentralization transfers resources, services and functions from inefficient authorities to efficient authorities characterized by limited corruption, pro-market policies, and so on [25,27-31]. Finally, last channel involves electoral politics and concerns the conflict between parties and elites in order to obtain electoral support (Skilling and Zeckhauser ; Dixit & Londregan . In competition between parties and elites the use of “economic power” to achieve electoral support in current period, hinders the adoption of efficient electoral policies in the long run. This mechanism identifies in the earnings’ distribution the source of both non-neutrality and losses resulting from reforms. Basically, the electoral policies leading to ex-post improvements in efficiency are not adopted, if ex-ante it is not possible to identify the subjects in charge of the benefits and costs of these reforms .
Final Remarks
All these mentioned works show how in different scenarios, groups in power adopt choices that involve the manipulation of public policies or economic conditions as a strategy for ensuring themselves economic and political power and advantages by reducing the well-being of the other groups. Political institutions directly affect the development of a society: the level of political competition in democratic systems characterizes the political process that determines the choices to adopt more or less efficient policies. In turn, the current level of political competition of a country is determined by the “rules that govern the political game”, i.e. by political institutions. Finally, through the process of public choices, political competition leads to a compromise between social costs and benefits, deriving from public policies which, due to various distorting factors, can lead to the development or economic backwardness of a nation. Studying political competition is useful to understand as the mixing of some subjective and normative requirements and the presence of altruistic or opportunistic purposes are able to “humanize” the institutional system, leading it towards dynamics capable or not to improve the social well-being [35-37]. In brief, the asymmetric information between citizens and government, the distributive conflicts between groups of citizens and the characteristics of public investment opportunities show how conflict among parties - through the political process - may culminate in the setting of institutions that have a different impact on economic growth, performance and well-being of a country. However, in democratic systems a higher political competition allows to citizens both to choose the most competent candidates and provide a mechanism for controlling moral hazard by binding governments to forms of responsibility towards citizens [21-22]. From this perspective the competition among parties is the main instrument for monitoring the work of public officials. The electoral race, by improving voter control over possible abuses of elected representatives, increases the voters’ utility which may extract information by eliminating any informational rent through the process of political turnover. Furthermore, competition among parties in presence of great electoral uncertainty, in systems with few veto limits, increases the likelihood of a cooperative outcome (De Figueiredo, 2002). In addition, if cooperation’s gains are wide, compromises and cooperation are realized among parties and better public plans will be adopted. Moreover, with a high level of political competition ex ante, in order to preserve his political power, the incumbent is strongly incentivized to adopts investments or public policies economically productive in order to obtain electoral consensus . Eventually, during the electoral period parties tend to modify their electoral policies stance working in the same way to get electoral support: therefore, the increases in political competition are associated with ex post lower tax revenue, a higher level of capital spending and a higher probability that a state uses a rightto- work law [19-20]. In summary, by increasing the citizens’ power to control the incumbent’s political actions and by changing the incentives of politicians, political competition leads ex post to implement policies rise their performance and efficiency.
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What Is China Clay?
China clay is a type of clay first used by the Chinese for making chinaware and porcelain. From the hill, Kao-ling, close to the famous pottery-producing center of China, comes the clay’s other name of Kaolin. Samples of kaolin were first sent to Europe by a French Jesuit missionary around 1700 as examples of the materials used by the Chinese in the manufacture of porcelain.
Kaolin is produced by the disintegration of muscovite-biotite-granite rock which is easily decomposed by atmospheric agents into its present form. It is composed of 46 per cent silica, 40 per cent alumina and 14 per cent water.
One of the most famous and largest of china clay deposits is to be found in the far west of England, in Cornwall and West Devon. This clay has been produced by ascending hydrothermal solutions from the inside of the earth’s crust, such as superheated steam, boron and florine compounds, or carbon dioxide, as opposed to descending atmospheric solutions.
The uses of china clay are varied. By far the largest amount goes into the manufacture of paper. It is also used in the production of pottery, some chemicals and cosmetics, and in pharmacy. Kaolin also makes a good poultice, as it retains heat.
Approximately 40 percent of the kaolin produced is used in the filling and coating of paper. In filling, the kaolin is mixed with the cellulose fibre and forms an integral part of the paper sheet to give it body, colour, opacity, and printability. In coating, the kaolin is plated along with an adhesive on the paper’s surface to give gloss, colour, high opacity, and greater printability. Kaolin used for coating is prepared so that most of the kaolinite particles are less than two micrometres in diameter.
Kaolin is used extensively in the ceramic industry, where its high fusion temperature and white burning characteristics makes it particularly suitable for the manufacture of whiteware (china), porcelain, and refractories. The absence of any iron, alkalies, or alkaline earths in the molecular structure of kaolinite confers upon it these desirable ceramic properties.
In the manufacture of whiteware the kaolin is usually mixed with approximately equal amounts of silica and feldspar and a somewhat smaller amount of plastic light-burning clay known as ball clay. These components are necessary to obtain the proper properties of plasticity, shrinkage, vitrification, etc., for forming and firing the ware. Kaolin is generally used alone in the manufacture of refractories.
Substantial tonnages of kaolin are used for filling rubber to improve its mechanical strength and resistance to abrasion. For this purpose, the clay used must be extremely pure kaolinite and exceedingly fine grained. Kaolin is also used as an extender and flattening agent in paints.
It is frequently used in adhesives for paper to control the penetration into the paper. Kaolin is an important ingredient in ink, organic plastics, some cosmetics, and many other products where its very fine particle size, whiteness, chemical inertness, and absorption properties give it particular value. | http://www.juniorsbook.com/tell-me-why-numerous-questions-and-answers/what-is-china-clay/ |
Convert angles from degrees to radians., Convert a degree array to radians. >>> >>> deg = np.arange(12.) * 30. >>> np.radians(deg) array([ 0. , 0.52359878, 1.04719755, 1.57079633, 2.0943951 , 2.61799388,, Created using Sphinx 1.2.1.
arcsec, rad. 1, = 4.848137E-6. 2, = 9.696274E-6. 3, = 1.454441E-5. 4, = 1.9392547E-5. 5, = 2.4240684E-5. 6, = 2.9088821E-5. 7, = 3.3936958E-5.
Angle conversion convert between units of angle including radians, gradians, degrees, angular mils, arcminutes, arcseconds, sextants and, 6.1728395061728E-6, 1, 0.00030864197530864, 9.2592592592593E-6, 9.2592592592593E-6.
Size in Astronomy Often. angular size!
Convert radian to arc-second [rad to arcsec] and back., How many arc-seconds in a radian: If θrad = 1 then θarcsec = 206 300 × 1 = 206 300 arcsec.
, One degree contains 60 arc minutes and 3,600 arc seconds,, If R = 1, then C = 2π, so the radian is defined such that a circle has 2π radians.
Convert Radians to Arcseconds, rad to arcsec conversion, 1 radians = 206264.8062471 arcseconds, Calculator radians to arcseconds.
How to convert angle between degrees and radians in Excel? | https://earthtravels.eu/hi-visi/1-radian-in-arcseconds.html |
The Handbook is designed to frame the organizational climate and culture constructs in their full breadth of potential causes, correlates, and consequences from both academic and practice vantage points. In addition, links between climate and culture and organizational effectiveness are explored. The conceptual and methodological underpinnings of climate and culture thinking and research are also documented.
Friends and Enemies in Organizations pp Cite as. This chapter examines the interplay between three interdependent concepts — climate, culture and interpersonal relationships. We present organizations as life-worlds in which climate and culture have a reciprocally influencing relationship which, in turn, impacts upon workplace peer relationships. Unable to display preview.
Skip to search form Skip to main content You are currently offline. Some features of the site may not work correctly. DOI: Schneider and Mark G. Ehrhart and W. Schneider , Mark G.
This new quantitative culture research also bears a strong resemblance to earlier research on organizational climate. This article examines the implications of this development by first considering the differences between the literatures on organizational culture and organizational climate and then examining the many similarities between these two literatures. The literatures are compared by focusing on their definition of the phenomena, their epistemology and methodology, and their theoretical foundations. The implications of the differing theoretical foundations and their underlying assumptions about the phenomenon are discussed at some length, as are some of the consequences of the continued separation of these two literatures. The final discussion focuses on the implications of these developments for future research on organizational cultures and contexts. Learn About the New eReader.
Organizational culture is tied to organizational purpose. Why do your business? What do you hope to achieve? How will your employees help to get you there in a way they can believe in, too? Creating a sustainable work environment where employees feel engaged, loyal, and satisfied should be the goal of every organization. Good company culture breeds employees who enjoy their workplace, the work they do, and those they work with.
Here we detail out the meaning and definition of organisational climate, its characteristics, factors, impact and dimensions! The concept of organisational climate was formally introduced by the human relationists in the late s. Now it has become a very useful metaphor for thinking about and describing the social system. Some persons have used organisational culture and organisational climate interchangeably. But there are some basic differences between these two terms. Climate of an organisation is somewhat like the personality of a person. Just as every individual has a personality that makes him unique and different from other persons.
This paper begins with a comprehensive review of the management literature on culture, and demonstrates close parallels with research and writings on organisational climate and values. The paper then reports the findings from an empirical investigation into the relationship between the organisational culture, climate, and managerial values of a large Australian public sector agency. Added to this were items from a questionnaire developed by Ryder and Southey, derived from the Jones and James instrument measuring psychological climate and providing scores across six specific dimensions of organisational climate. Measures of managerial values, drawn from a questionnaire by Flowers and Hughes, were also incorporated. Results show that levels of culture within this particular organisation are at variance with those reported by Hofstede from his Australian data. Findings indicate a strong link between specific organisational climate items and a number of managerial values dimensions.
Мотоцикл пересек крохотный парк и выкатил на булыжную мостовую Матеус-Гаго - узенькую улицу с односторонним движением, ведущую к порталу Баррио - Санта-Крус. Еще чуть-чуть, подумал. Такси следовало за Беккером, с ревом сокращая скорость. Свернув, оно промчалось через ворота Санта-Крус, обломав в узком проезде боковое зеркало. Беккер знал, что он выиграл.
Старик вздохнул. - Очень печальная история. Одному несчастному азиату стало плохо. Я попробовал оказать ему помощь, но все было бесполезно. - Вы делали ему искусственное дыхание.
Файлы, содержащие программы, незнакомые устройству, немедленно отвергались. Их затем проверяли вручную. Иногда отвергались абсолютно безвредные файлы - на том основании, что они содержали программы, с которыми фильтры прежде не сталкивались. В этом случае сотрудники лаборатории систем безопасности тщательно изучали их вручную и, убедившись в их чистоте, запускали в ТРАНСТЕКСТ, минуя фильтры программы Сквозь строй. Компьютерные вирусы столь же разнообразны, как и те, что поражают человека.
Мечта, которой он жил все эти годы, умерла. Он никогда не получит Сьюзан Флетчер. Никогда.
Проваливай и умри. Дэвид даже вздрогнул от неожиданности. - Простите. - Проваливай и умри, - повторил немец, приложив левую ладонь к жирному правому локтю, имитируя итальянский жест, символизирующий грязное ругательство. Но Беккер слишком устал, чтобы обращать внимание на оскорбления. Проваливай и умри. Он повернулся к Росио и заговорил с ней по-испански: - Похоже, я злоупотребил вашим гостеприимством.
Клушар увидел яркую вспышку света… и черную бездну. Человек ослабил нажим, еще раз взглянул на прикрепленную к спинке кровати табличку с именем больного и беззвучно выскользнул из палаты. Оказавшись на улице, человек в очках в тонкой металлической оправе достал крошечный прибор, закрепленный на брючном ремне, - квадратную коробочку размером с кредитную карту. Это был опытный образец нового компьютера Монокль, разработанного ВМС США для проверки напряжения аккумуляторов в труднодоступных отделениях подводных лодок - миниатюрный аппарат, совмещенный с сотовым модемом, последнее достижение микротехнологии. Его визуальный монитор - дисплей на жидких кристаллах - был вмонтирован в левую линзу очков.
Беккер совсем забыл о кольце, об Агентстве национальной безопасности, обо всем остальном, проникшись жалостью к девушке.
Телефон заливался еще секунд пятнадцать и наконец замолк. Джабба облегченно вздохнул. Через шестьдесят секунд у него над головой затрещал интерком.
А теперь, если не возражаешь… - Стратмор не договорил, но Чатрукьян понял его без слов. Ему предложили исчезнуть. - Диагностика, черт меня дери! - бормотал Чатрукьян, направляясь в свою лабораторию.
Теперь у него осталась только Сьюзан. Впервые за много лет он вынужден был признать, что жизнь - это не только служение своей стране и профессиональная честь. Я отдал лучшие годы жизни своей стране и исполнению своего долга. А как же любовь. Он слишком долго обделял . | https://ebezpieczni.org/and-pdf/70-difference-between-organisational-culture-and-climate-pdf-246-236.php |
cyanosis indicates a blue or purple discoloration of the skin, usually on the lips or under the fingernails.
causes
The purple or bluish color in cyanosis is mostly due to a lack of oxygen in the blood in the affected area.
The red blood pigment hemoglobin, which is otherwise responsible for a healthy rosy color of the skin, turns bluish as soon as it has no longer bound oxygen.
The reasons for the lack of oxygen in the blood in cyanosis can be many. A central and a peripheral (i.e. external) cause of cyanosis can be roughly distinguished.
Central causes usually include a disease of the heart or lungs. For example, the oxygen loading of the blood in the lungs may be disturbed, for example due to pulmonary hypertension, or a reduced heart rate may not pump enough blood into the body to supply it with sufficient oxygen.
A malformation, a "hole" in the heart (ventricular septal defect), which leads to the mixing of oxygen-poor with oxygen-rich blood, with "used" blood being pumped back into the body's circulation is possible.
In principle, any disorder that affects breathing can also become one central cyanosis to lead.
- Choking on foreign objects
- Asthma attacks
- Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) after many years Smoke
or
- Water in the lungs (edema)
are just a selection of the possible causes that the lung affect. The blue coloration in the case of severe hypothermia can also be counted as central cyanosis. Here, the blood vessels in the extremities contract to keep more warm blood in the core of the body.
In the central cyanosis Large parts of the body are usually affected - lips, tongue and oral mucosa, as well as toes and fingers on all limbs.
Causes a peripheral cyanosis are mostly Occlusions of blood vessels which then disrupt the flow of blood to the affected part of the body. Closures of larger sizes come into question here Arteries by blood clots or mechanical compression (binding) or clogging of the finest vessels, the capillaries, as can occur with some autoimmune diseases. The small amount of blood that continues to reach the sub-perfused area does not carry enough oxygen for a correct supply, is "discharged" faster and thus causes a blue coloration.
Various poisons (chemicals such as nitrites) can also ensure that the blood can no longer transport enough oxygen and is “discharged” faster. However, this does not result in typical cyanosis, as the skin tends to greyish color accepts.
Symptoms
In addition to the characteristic blue coloration of the skin, people with cyanosis (especially if the cause is central) often feel a strong feeling of cold. | https://lifeafterjob.com/class-zyanose-EHN |
Approaching Learning with Mindfulness and Gratitude
I usually write about nonprofit fundraising in some form or fashion, adding humorous anecdotes to the experiences and lessons. Today, however, I am going to shift a bit and focus not on the work, but the approach to the work, whatever the work may be.
The reason for this momentary shift is because as a consultant in the nonprofit field and a professor here at JWU, I encounter a startling lack of gratitude and an even greater void of mindfulness in the workplace and in the classroom. Please know, I am not shaming anyone, just stating observations of a stressed-out population of hard workers and dedicated learners.
I often argue that the aforementioned lack is the root of the disconnect and disharmony many of us feel as we traipse through our daily lives. This disconnect sets us on edge; we become defensive and contribute the disharmony that irks us, which set us further on edge, and now we are in a nasty cycle.
Before I continue, I promise y’all, this is not going to be some woo-woo self-help piece. I fully acknowledge that the combo gratitude and mindfulness, has, in some ways been, reduced to the verbal equivalent of essential oils, spewing forth from a philosophical diffuser as a promise to cure your emotional measles. I’m not making any promises of the sort, but I can tell you that as you become more grateful and mindful, you generate an existential shift, one that builds genuine connectedness, inner peace, and outward harmony. Practicing mindfulness and gratitude will make your academic life simpler and better.
What is mindfulness?
It is, quite simply, being aware in the moment. Take note of all five senses (or six, if you’ve got that going for you), and how you are feeling and existing in the moment. It’s the exercise of bringing your whole person into the moment and honoring what is happening in that moment.
What is gratitude?
Simply put, it’s the quality of being thankful. Within that, it is humility, empathy, understanding, and genuine appreciation. You are being thankful for the lessons and experiences … even the not-so-great ones. It’s noticing, finding, or creating the silver lining.
I suggest engaging in your academic activities with “mindful gratitude” as mindfulness and gratitude go hand in hand. What you’re doing is a meditation, an honoring of space and person — lotus position and tingsha bells not required.
Mindful gratitude means focusing on the present moment, tuning in to physical sensations, the emotional sensations, and being fully aware of everything that you’re doing. It also means being genuinely grateful for the moment, appreciating what is happening within it, and letting go of anxious thoughts about the future or past. Be in the right now.
Read More: The unexpected benefits of meditation
How can you use it in the classroom?
My challenge to you is this: The next time log in to class, view being in class as a positive activity. Instead of thinking of it as a chore, view it as an opportunity. Shift from “I have to write to a discussion board post” to “I get to write a discussion board post.” Rather than looking at your phone every few minutes, sit still and focus on the moment. Find your breath and flow with it. Observe the environment around you and your purpose for being in this space. Notice the sounds, scents, energy, and tactile objects and then settle yourself into learning mode. Fully invest your attention to what is happening in the classroom and in the work that needs to be done and you will feel a sense of purpose for the tasks and connectedness with others in the class.
Once you are still, settled, and focused, shift your mindset to one of gratitude. Trust me, I know that it’s easy to complain about having to log in to class/work because you are busy/tired/overwhelmed/cranky/annoyed/you’ll-never-use-this-info-in-the-real-world. Alter your perspective; you have a brilliant opportunity to intellectually engage with interesting, driven people at a phenomenal learning institution. Your instructor is a living, breathing fountain of practical knowledge, sharing insights and experience with you so that you are set up for success inside and outside of the classroom. You’re living an opportunity not afforded to everyone. Be grateful and you will feel a sense of peace and harmony.
As a JWU student, you have much for which to be grateful, and you owe it to yourself and those around you to be mindfully involved in class and related work. Even if you believe that you’ll never use this info again (I’m looking at you, geology), the process of mindfulness fosters the formation of new neural pathways, decreases volume of stress receptors, and increases emotional regulation including empathy and patience. You’ll also be armed with random trivia to be tossed about at parties, meetings, what have you. (Did you know that people who wade into the Dead Sea automatically float as the dissolved salts make the water denser than humans … thus, we float! Thanks, geology! Seriously … life of the party here.)
Mindfulness takes practice and effort. No one is good at it when they first start. Your mind is likely to wander repeatedly. You’re likely to get caught up in stresses and worries. But, with practice and patience, you’ll get better. And eventually, you’ll recognize that you’re living a more mindful academic life enjoying benefits like decreased stress, better connectedness, a happier outlook ... and random party trivia.
Namaste, y’all.
For more information on pursuing your degree at Johnson & Wales University College of Online Education, complete the “Request Info” form on this page or call 855-JWU-1881 or email [email protected]. | https://online.jwu.edu/blog/approaching-learning-mindfulness-and-gratitude |
Thousands of wildebeests have trotted back from Tanzania’s Serengeti National Park to Maasai Mara Game Reserve, catching ecologists and park officials off guard.
The gnus moved from Kenya to Tanzania in September to breed and were not expected to return until April next year.
The animals usually spend three months in the Maasai Mara and nine months in the Serengeti but they have returned after two and 10 months respectively.
Mr Nicholas Murero, coordinator of the Mara-Serengeti ecosystem, said that this is the second such occurrence since 2015.
“In September, the wildebeests were supposed to still be in Maasai Mara but by then, they had started their return journey to Serengeti. Their return has brought concerns of a change in the pattern, leading to rescheduling of bookings by tourists who troop to the reserve annually to watch the spectacular migration,” said Mr Murero.
Ecologists speculate that challenges ranging from climate change, variation in land use in the Mara ecosystem, political and economic factors as well as human and cultural challenges disrupted the movement.
Mr Moses Kuyuoni, the chief warden at the reserve, said it is too early to comment but that preliminary observations show the change in weather patterns is the reason.
The warden added that the odd behaviour resulted in destruction of acres of vegetation and blocked the gnus migration corridor two months ago.
Mr Kuyuoni said conservationists in Kenya and Tanzania are monitoring the development.
He said many were surprised when the animals returned early to the Serengeti. As of late August, some wildebeests were seen in the northern part of the park and in the southern part of the Maasai Mara, around Sand River and in Trans-Mara.
According to a source at the Kenya Tourist Board (KTB), the change in the animal’s migration pattern calls for thorough investigations.
The wildebeest migration attracts thousands of tourists every year, generating millions of dollars for both countries.
The wildebeest’s life is an endless pilgrimage, a constant search for food and water. An estimated 400,000 of their calves are born during a six-week period early in the year — usually between late January and mid-March at Serengeti.
The annual event is so great a natural spectacle that it was named the eighth wonder of the world.
It is the world’s largest migration, involving more than two million animals in search of greener pastures in Kenya. It usually starts in July and ends in October.
The migration lights up tourism in the park and reserve, with the huffing and snorting of the animals kicking it off. | https://www.dailyactive.info/2018/10/29/wild-beast-migration-change-affects-tourism/ |
The width of a rectangular garden is 4 m less than the length. If the area of a rectangular garden is 96 square meters, what is the dimension of the garden?
- Given 2
Given g(x)=x2+x+1 where x=t2. What is g(t²)?
- The isosceles
The isosceles trapezoid ABCD has bases of 18 cm and 12 cm. The angle at apex A is 60°. What is the circumference and content of the trapezoid?
- Trapezoids
In the isosceles trapezoid ABCD we know: AB||CD, |CD| = c = 8 cm, height h = 7 cm, |∠CAB| = 35°. Find the area of the trapezoid.
- Diagonals of rhombus
Find a length of the diagonal AC of the rhombus ABCD if its perimeter P = 112 dm and the second diagonal BD has a length of 36 dm.
- One of
One of the internal angles of the rhombus is 120° and the shorter diagonal is 3.4 meters long. Find the perimeter of the rhombus.
- The ratio 4
The ratio of two number is 5:4 if 40% of the first number is 12, what will be 50% of the second number?
- Cost structure
You are currently trying to decide between two cost structures for your business: one that has a greater proportion of short-term fixed costs and another that is more heavily weighted to variable costs. Estimated revenue and cost data for each alternative
- Two fifth
Two fifth of the worker in a factory are men. The rest are women. If there 28 men . how many more women than men are there?
- Language test
Your language test scores are 58, 68, 89 and 95. What is the lowest you can earn on the next test and still achieve an average of at least 79?
- Boys and girls 8
In a class of 35 boys and girls that has a ratio of 2:5, 5 boys are absent and 5 boys are present. How many students are present?
- Consider 2
Consider the following formula: y = 3 ( x + 5 ) ( x - 2 ) Which of the following formulas is equivalent to this one? A. Y=3x2+9x-30 B. Y=x2+3x-10 C. Y=3x2+3x-10 D. Y=3x2+3x-30
- Profit, revenue, cost
Profit, P(x), is the difference between revenue, R(x), and cost, C(x), so P(x) = R(x) - C(x). Which expression represents P(x), if R(x) = 3x3 + 2x - 1 and C(x) = x4 - x2 + 2x + 3?
- Michael 2
Michael has a 35 foot ladder leaning against the side of his house. If the bottom of the ladder is 21 feet away from his house, how many feet above the ground does the ladder touch the house?
- The temperature 13
The temperature in Toronto at noon during a winter day measured 4°C. The temperature started dropping 2° every hour. Which inequality can be used to find the number of hours, x, after which the temperature will measure below -3°C?
- The length 4
The length of a rectangular room measures twice a number x increased by 5. The width measures a number x increased by 3. What is the perimeter of the room?
- The temperature 12
The temperature of a liquid was 25°C before it was warmed at a rate of 10°C per minute for 5 minutes. It was then cooled at 3.5°C per minute for 6 minutes. What was the temperature of the liquid after cooling?
- Centre of the hypotenuse
For the interior angles of the triangle ABC, alpha beta and gamma are in a ratio of 1: 2: 3. The longest side of the AB triangle is 30 cm long. Calculate the perimeter of the triangle CBS if S is the center of the side AB.
- Parallelogram diagonals
Find the area of a parallelogram if the diagonals u1 = 15 cm, u2 = 12 cm and the angle formed by them is 30 degrees.
- Center of gravity and median
In the isosceles triangle ABC, the center of gravity T is 2 cm from the base AB. The median parallel to the AB side measures 4 cm. What is the area of the ABC triangle?
Do you have an exciting math question or word problem that you can't solve? Ask a question or post a math problem, and we can try to solve it.
Expression of a variable from the formula - math problems. Examples for 9th grade. | https://www.hackmath.net/en/word-math-problems/expression-of-a-variable-from-the-formula?tag_id=104 |
Learn how to design an icon of a locomotive.
- [Instructor] The design challenge…for this course is to design an icon.…I'm going to give ya two choices for…a theme that you can pick from.…The first theme is this one, a locomotive.…No, you don't have to have…the whole train, just the locomotive,…but this locomotive is a classic vintage one,…not a modern bullet train or anything like that.…So, look at the complexity and simplify the form.…I'll let you decide how many colors it should be.…
Now, the second theme that you…might want to do is a scooter.…Now, this, in and of itself,…is far less complex tham the locomotive,…but, still, how would you go about…iconifying this image of a scooter?…So, pick one or both, and use the methods…and functionality I've covered…in this course to create your iconic motif.…I look forward to seeing how…you solve this iconic challenge.…
AuthorVon Glitschka
Released3/28/2017
- Developing icon ideas
- Simplifying complex shapes
- Drawing visual metaphors
- Establishing visual continuity
- Creating flat icons
- Creating long shadow icons
- Detailing icons
- Creating pixel perfect icons
- Reviewing how icon art is used in a variety of design contexts
Skill Level Intermediate
Duration
Views
Related Courses
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Drawing Vector Graphics: Patternswith Von Glitschka3h 59m Intermediate
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Introduction
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Welcome1m 22s
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Using exercise files1m 13s
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1. Iconic Fundamentals
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Simplifying complex shapes14m 27s
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Restrained creativity10m 19s
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Drawing visual metaphors9m 35s
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Iconic exploration10m 2s
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2. Vector Icon Design
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Shape building icons8m 11s
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Creating flat icons14m 59s
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Creating stroke-based icons11m 53s
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Creating long shadow icons12m 3s
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Creating loose-style icons13m 31s
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Creating engraved icons7m 48s
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Detailing icons15m 33s
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Using badges with icons6m 8s
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Exporting vector icons6m 41s
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3. Raster Icon Design
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Creating pixel perfect icons15m 52s
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Icon sizing5m 13s
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Exporting raster icons7m 57s
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4. Iconography Samples
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Paul Howalt5m 4s
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Brian Brasher6m 7s
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Leighton Hubbell3m 14s
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Felix Sockwell3m 52s
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Gedeon Mahuex6m 29s
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Icon usage examples7m 29s
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Solution: Design an icon2m 7s
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Conclusion
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Next steps54s
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Be a Critical Thinker!
Generalization, Replication, Alternative Explanation
Validity, Research Method
Ethics in Research
Evaluating a Theory: PEAR
WRITING WORKSHOPS
How to Write SAQ's
How to write Essays
Writing about Research
Evaluating Research
Writing the Intro
Writing the Conclusion
BIOLOGICAL
Brain localization
Brain imaging technology
Neuroplasticity
Neurotransmission
Hormones
Pheromones
Genetic Research
Evolutionary Psychology
Animal Research (HL)
COGNITIVE
Schema Theory
Models of Memory
Reliability of memory
Flashbulb memory
Thinking Fast, Thinking Slow
Heuristics & Biases
Emotion & Decisions
Technology and Memory (HL)
Technology & Decisions (HL)
SOCIOCULTURAL
Social identity theory
Social cognitive theory
Stereotypes
Culture & Norms
Cultural dimensions
Enculturation
Acculturation
RELATIONSHIPS
ABNORMAL
INTERNAL ASSESSMENT
IA Overview
Choosing a Study
Exploration
Statistical analysis
EXTENDED ESSAY
REVISION
GOING FURTHER
PSYCH IN THE NEWS
Acculturation
Walk the streets of nearly every major world city - whether New York, Paris or Bangkok - and you will come across people from an astonishing variety of cultures. In today's world, human migration is the norm -- whether it be migrants fleeing from conflicts, immigrants hoping for a brighter future, or simply travelers seeking exotic experiences. Spending time in a foreign culture means coming into contact with values, attitudes, norms and expectations which may be very different from your own. Imagine, for instance, the bewilderment of a Syrian refugee, who may have never met an openly gay person in his life, seeing a Gay Pride event in Berlin for the first time. Acculturation is the process of change when cultures blend together, and it is a topic which is more relevant today than at any other time in human history.
Video Activity
In the film "Bend it Like Beckham", an 18-year old girl named Jess lives in London, but her family is from a conservative state in India. Jess loves football, but her family is strongly against her taking the sport seriously.
Watch the trailer of the film below, and reflect on the following: (if you can see the full movie, it is highly recommended!)
How are the norms and expectations for a young girl different in Indian and British culture?
If you were Jess, what would you do? Do you think she must choose between following one culture or the other, or is there any way that she can acknowledge both? If so, how?
What is acculturation?
In "Bend it Like Beckham", Jess and her family must find a way to reconcile the conflicting values of Indian and British culture, especially in relation to the role of women. It is a classic story of acculturation, of what happens when different cultures mix together. Acculturation can be defined as the
process of social, psychological and cultural change that results from blending between cultures.
When different cultures come into contact, as when Indians migrate to Britain, there will be changes both in the original, native culture, as well as the newly adopted, host culture. Indians immigrants like Jess might become exposed to British football mania and a more independent role for women, while British people might discover a love for Indian food or Bollywood films.
Acculturation can be studied at both the individual or group level. On the group level, acculturation looks at cultural shifts that occur due to contact between different peoples, but this is largely outside the domain of Psychology. On an individual level, however, the focus is on the processes of socialization in which foreigners become exposed to - and may adopt - the values, attitudes, norms and expectations of their new home. Just as enculturation involves learning one's "first culture", acculturation involves learning a "second culture". Direct tuition, participatory learning, and observational learning all play a role in acculturation, just as they do in enculturation. Ultimately, this process may result in changes to one's beliefs, values, and daily behaviors - from something as simple as eating a sandwich instead of a curry, to something as complex as the role of women in the family.
Models of Acculturation
The original, simplest way of thinking about acculturation was a
unidimensional model
, in which an immigrant gradually leaves behind her heritage culture, adopting the host culture in its place. For example, a Chinese immigrant to the United States would be expected to gradually move away from traditional Chinese values and behaviors, and move closer to those of American culture. This is known as
assimilation
, and is supposed to result in immigrants fully embracing the culture of their new home. This model can be illustrated by the diagram below:
However, this model suffers from some obvious limitations:
The model assumes that assimilation is the goal of acculturation. In fact, not all immigrants may want to embrace their host culture or leave behind their original culture.
The model also assumes that adopting the host culture requires abandoning the heritage culture. This may not be the case - for instance, a Turkish immigrant to Germany may begin to enjoy German bread and sausages without giving up on traditional Turkish cuisine
In response to the limitations of this unidimensional model, John Berry proposed a
bidimensional model
, in which there are two independent dimensions, combining to form four strategies of acculturation. These are summarized in the table below:
Marginalization
occurs when an immigrant in neither interested in keeping their original culture, nor interested in taking on the culture of their new home. This can result in feelings of alienation, as the person no longer has a firm connection with either cultural background.
Separation
occurs when an immigrant is primarily interested in maintaining their cultural background, and has no desire to integrate with the larger society. For instance, in some of the older Chinatown districts in some American cities, some immigrants could live for decades speaking primarily Chinese, buying Chinese products from Chinese-owned businesses, and maintaining their own set of values and cultural practices
Assimilation
is when an immigrant has little interest in keeping their own cultural heritage, and fully embraces the culture of their new home. This was once considered the goal of acculturation, but is no longer considered the only desirable outcome. In fact, many countries with large immigrant populations (such as Canada) embrace multiculturalism, in which immigrants are encouraged to maintain their rich cultural traditions
Integration
occurs when an immigrant wants to maintain their cultural heritage, but also wants to learn some of the values, attitudes, norms and behaviors of their new home. This is also known as biculturalism, as the person acquires and integrates two distinct cultures. Someone who has integrated two cultures can feel equally at home in their original, native culture as they do in their newly adopted, foreign culture.
Think Critically
Have you ever spent an extended period in a foreign country? Or do you have a friend who was born abroad? Write a journal in which you reflect on acculturation strategies:
Identify some of the differences in values, attitudes, norms and expectations between the two cultures
Which strategy do you feel that you (or your friend) adopted in transitioning to a new culture? Give some specific examples or anecdotes to support your answer
Why do you think that some people choose one strategy over another? Which strategy do you think is the optimal one? Give some reasons why
Acculturation Stress
For many foreigners, adjusting to a new culture can be a difficult and stressful process. As you saw in the trailer for
Bend it Like Beckham
, Jess and her family experience a great deal of stress and tension in trying to find the right balance between traditional Indian values and British football mania. Some reasons why acculturation can be so stressful include:
the pressure to learn a foreign language, which may be essential for finding a job or being successful in school
the challenge of maintaining one's language, values and belief system in a culture which may not acknowledge their worth
trying to find the right "balance" between the values and social behaviors of one's native culture and one's new home
feelings of being stereotyped or discriminated against as a result of one's cultural heritage
All of these stresses can add up, and can result in feelings of loneliness, isolation, and fatigue. Acculturation stress has been linked to anxiety, depression, and substance abuse. Supporting immigrants in the acculturation process - for instance, providing counseling and translation services - is important to ensure that they are able to cope with the many challenges they will face.
Research: Lueck & Wilson
Aim:
Investigate the factors that can affect acculturation stress in Asian immigrants to America
Procedure:
The sample of this study was around 2,000 Asian-Americans. Around half of the sample were born in Asia and had immigrated to America, while the other half were the children of immigrants. A variety of Asian cultures were represented (including Chinese, Vietnamese, and others). The interviewers had a similar cultural background to the participants, and could speak their native language.
The participants were interviewed about their acculturation experiences. The interviews were semi-structured, meaning that all participants were asked a number of prepared, standard questions, while additional follow-up questions could also be asked later.
Results
Around 70% of participants reported feelings of acculturation stress
Participants who were fully bilingual had the lowest rates of acculturation stress. Being fully bilingual helped participants maintain strong ties to their Asian culture while also being able to integrate in American society.
Experiences of discrimination, prejudice or stereotyping significantly increased acculturation stress
Participants who shared similar values with their family had lower acculturation stress, perhaps because of less family conflict over different cultural values
Participants who were very satisfied with their economic opportunities in American also had lower acculturation stress
Conclusion
Acculturation stress is very common amongst immigrants. Language proficiency, family cohesion, economic opportunities, and prejudice are all factors that affect acculturation stress
Evaluation
Strengths of this study include a very large sample size, a diverse sample comprised of different cultures, and the use of interviewers who had the same cultural and language background as the participants
It is difficult and time-consuming to analyze such a large amount of interview data. There is the risk of researcher bias, in which researchers only look for patterns in the data that confirm their hypotheses
It may be difficult to translate questions reliably from one language to another, and people from different cultures may interpret the questions differently
Checklist
I can define acculturation, explaining how it can be studied on both an individual or a group level
I can explain the unidimensional model of acculturation and the bidimensional model, discussing the similarities and differences between the two models
I can explain the term acculturation stress, discussing some of the reasons why acculturation can be stressful
I can describe the Aim, Procedure, Findings, and Conclusion of Lueck & Wilson's study of acculturation stress. I can also evaluate the study
Quiz Yourself!
1. Which statement about acculturation is false?
(a) Acculturation is the process in which an immigrant gives up their original culture and assimilates to their new culture
(b) Acculturation is the process of second-culture learning
(c) Direct tuition, observational learning, and participatory learning are relevant for acculturation
(d) Psychologists mainly study acculturation on an individual level
2. According to the bi-dimensional model of acculturation, an immigrant who values their heritage culture, and has little interest in relationships with the larger society, will adopt which acculturation strategy?
(a) Marginalization
(b) Assimilation
(c) Separation
(d) Integration
3. Fill in the blanks. "According to the unidimensional model, the goal of acculturation is ______, while the bimendional model asserts that _________ of two cultures is also possible".
(a) integration / assimilation
(b) assimilation / integration
(c) integration / separation
(d) separation / integration
4. What research method was used in the study carried out by Lueck & Wilson?
(a) Survey
(b) Observational study
(c) Structured interview
(d) Semi-structured interview
5. Which was NOT one of the findings of the study carried out by Lueck & Wilson? | https://ibpsychmatters.com/acculturation/ |
Mathematical reasoning and proofs are a fundamental part of geometry. Several tools used in writing proofs will be covered, such as reasoning (inductive/deductive), conditional statements (converse/inverse/contrapositive), and congruence properties. The purpose of a proof is to prove that a mathematical statement is true.
Proof: A logical argument that uses logic, definitions, properties, and previously proven statements to show a statement is true.
Definition: A statement that describes a mathematical object and can be written as a biconditional statement.
Postulate: Basic rule that is assumed to be true. Also known as an axiom.
Theorem: Rule that is proven using postulates, definitions, and other proven theorems.
Congruent: When two geometric figures have the same shape and size.
Solving an algebraic equation is like doing an algebraic proof. Algebraic proofs use algebraic properties, such as the properties of equality and the distributive property.
Basic Algebraic Properties
Reflexive Property of Equality
a = a
Symmetric Property of Equality
a = b and b = a
Transitive Property of Equality
a = b and b = c, than a = c
Substitution Property of Equality
If a = b, then b can be used in place of a and vice versa
Addition Property of Equality
If a = b, then a + c = b + c
Subtraction Property of Equality
If a = b, then a - c = b - c
Multiplication Property of Equality
If a = b, then ac = bc
Division Property of Equality
If a = b, then a ÷ c = b ÷ c
Distributive Property
a(b + c) = ab + ac
Although we may not write out the logical justification for each step in our work, there is an algebraic property that justifies each step.
Example:
- 3 = n + 1
Given
-3 -1 = n +1 -1
Subtraction Property of Eguality
-4 = n
Simplify
n = -4
Symmetric Property of Equality.
Since segment lengths and angle measures are real numbers, the following properties of equality are true for segment lengths and angle measures:
A proof is a logical argument that shows a statement is true.
Definitions, postulates, properties, and theorems can be used to justify each step of a proof.
Be careful when interpreting diagrams. There are some things you can conclude and some that you cannot.
• Collinear points
• Measures of segments
• Coplanar points
• Measures of angles
• Straight angles and lines
• Congruent segments
• Adjacent angles
• Congruent angles
• Linear pairs of angles
• Right angles
• Vertical angles
A direct geometric proof is a proof where you use deductive reasoning to make logical steps from the hypothesis to the conclusion. Each logical step needs to be justified with a reason.
There are several types of direct proofs:
A two-column proof is one way to write a geometric proof. Starting from GIVEN information, use deductive reasoning to reach the conjecture you want to PROVE.
Example of a Two-Column Proof:
1. Hypothesis
1. Given
2.
2.
...
...
n. Conclusion
n.
An indirect proof is where we prove a statement by first assuming that it’s false and then proving that it’s impossible for the statement to be false (usually because it would lead to a contradiction). If the statement cannot be false, then it must be true.
Steps to write an indirect proof:
Use variables instead of specific examples so that the contradiction can be generalized. | https://www.ck12.org/studyguides/geometry/proofs-study-guide.html |
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Haitink’s tempos also support the sections of the piece, and his phrasing allows the lines to be heard distinctly. This clear, lucid approach is audible from the opening, which is inviting for its nuanced phrasing, subtle dynamic shadings, and balance of tone colors. With regard to the latter, the CSO’s woodwind section is particularly effective in the second section, “The Hero’s Adversaries”. A similar sensitivity to color may be found in the brass (especially those off-stage) in “The Hero’s Battlefield”. Yet for an overall idea of the sensitive ensemble, “The Hero’s Works of Peace” merits attention because of the ways in which the softer sections remain full-voiced and compelling, as Strauss shifts the tone colors that are essential to conveying his extra-musical ideas in this section. The chamber-music-like sonorities which Strauss uses to fine effect in the middle sections of many of his tone poems emerge here distinctively, with his responsive leadership giving fine shape to some of the contrapuntal passages. Elsewhere, the atmospheric quality of the low strings is reproduced nicely, without risking any distortion in the aggregate sound. Moreover, the quotations and reminiscences of Strauss’s other works are clear and appropriately prominent when they occur, and Haitink is perceptive to blend those elements expertly into the structure of this outstanding reading of this important symphonic work.
Along with the clarity in his interpretation of Ein Heldenleben is a sense of restraint in some of the fanfares. Haitink’s precision is remarkable, but the excitement that emerges with some conductors - at times at the expense of accuracy - is absent from some passages. This is a small point, but evident at various points in the recording, as in fanfares that usher the section entitled “The Hero’s Companion”. Some conductors might take some risks in “The Hero’s Battlefield”, though, and the solid clarity of Haitink’s reading is useful when he can bring out the various layers of sound that are part of Strauss’s score. This also allows Haitink to invest the score with a welcome intensity.
Also included on this disc is Haitink’s 2009 reading of Webern’s early tone poem Im Sommerwind, a work that was never heard during the composer’s lifetime, but one which has been brought into the concert performance in recent decades. Composed just a few years after Strauss’s Ein Heldenleben, Webern’s youthful tone poem echoes both the extended chromatic harmony of the time and also some aspects of the young composer’s own style. Since Webern had not yet arrived at the serial concision with which he is associated, the style of Im Sommerwind exists between those two worlds. It is closer, perhaps, to Schoenberg’s Pelleas und Melisande (completed 1903, premiered 1905). In this piece, Haitink gives full rein to the rich harmonies, allowing the tonal space to resound fully. The sonorities along merit attention in this richly performed reading. In this piece Webern took his cue from a poem by Bruno Wille, which describes the various perceptions of a summer day; it is, in a sense a series of impressions influenced by the poem. Here the work succeeds not only through its musical structure, but also as a result of the timbres the young composer used in this impressive piece. It benefits from the sensitive ensemble of the CSO, an aspect that is present in this fine recording. Haitink has given the work clear shape in presenting the structure of this engaging, but less familiar composition. It complements nicely the more familiar music of Ein Heldenleben.
Haitink invests the score with a welcome intensity. | http://www.musicweb-international.com/classrev/2010/Aug10/strauss_csor9011002p.htm |
FIELD OF THE INVENTION
DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
Description of the Related Art
The present invention relates to representing precise values and performing arithmetic operations on operands comprising precise within a computer system. More specifically, the present invention relates to a method and an apparatus for representing arithmetic precisions within a computer system to facilitate efficient arithmetic operations on the precise values.
FIG. 1
FIG. 1
FIG. 1
shows interval representation and arithmetic, which is a prior art of this invention. is adopted from U.S. Pat. No. 6,658,443, which contains detailed description for .
FIG. 2
101
102
103
104
105
106
exponent
exponent
shows precise representation, which is the primary figure of this patent application. In this representation, a precise value is a floating-point value comprising a sign , a significand , and an exponent . The precise value is interpreted as a value of “sign significand×2” and a precision of “2”.
FIG. 3
shows a simplified C++ interface of CPrecise class, which is an embodiment of the precise representation and arithmetic. All implementation-oriented codes are removed. The CPrecise class uses the same bit partition as IEEE 754-1985 64-bit conventional floating-point format. The reduction and round-off arithmetic operations are considered implementation details for the CPrecise class. So CPrecise class can be compared directly with the 64-bit conventional floating-point type.
FIG. 4
201
205
202
202
207
208
202
206
203
204
207
208
208
shows a standard making scheme for the CPrecise class. A source code containing CPrecise class is compiled and linked into a targeted program . The target program is specific for each platform comprising an execution unit and a storage and I/O unit . The target program is executed on the platform, to process input data and to generate output data . In PC, the execution unit comprises CPU and other processors, while the storage and I/O unit is conventionally separated as a storage unit comprising memory, hard disk and CD-RAM, and an I/O unit comprising monitor, mouse, keyboard, and communication ports. However, the network functionality is better described by the storage and I/O unit .
FIG. 5
shows some examples of empirical significand error distribution using “C10” precise arithmetic. The left chart shows the empirical significand error distribution of the imaginary results of “FFT” calculation of different order, while the right chart shows the empirical significand error distribution of the real results of “Rev” calculation of different order. In both charts, the x-axis shows the significand error, the y-axis shows the normalized population of the empirical distribution (which is equivalent to the probability density in a theoretical probability distribution), while the inlet label shows the symbol, the input index frequency, the input precision, the calculation order, and the precise value that contains the maximal significand error for each curve.
FIG. 6
shows some examples of empirical significand error distribution using “C11” precise arithmetic. The left chart shows the empirical significand error distribution of the imaginary results of “FFT” calculation of different order, while the right chart shows the empirical significand error distribution of the real results of “Rev” calculation of different order. In both charts, the x-axis shows the significand error, the y-axis shows the normalized population of the empirical distribution (which is equivalent to the probability density in a theoretical probability distribution), while the inlet label shows the symbol, the input index frequency, the input precision, the calculation order, and the precise value that contains the maximal significand error for each curve.
FIG. 7
shows some examples of empirical significand error distribution using “C11” precise arithmetic. The left chart shows the empirical significand error distribution of the imaginary results of “FFT” calculation of different order, while the right chart shows the empirical significand error distribution of the real results of “Rev” calculation of different order. In both charts, the x-axis shows the significand error, the y-axis shows the normalized population of the empirical distribution (which is equivalent to the probability density in a theoretical probability distribution), while the inlet label shows the symbol, the input index frequency, the input precision, the calculation order, and the precise value that contains the maximal significand error for each curve.
FIG. 8
FIG. 8
FIG. 8
left chart shows the error ratio vs. calculation order. Its x-axis shows the calculation order, its y-axis shows the error ratio, while its inlet label shows the policy for precise arithmetic, the algorithm name, the input signal name, and the real or imaginary part of the result for each curve. It shows that with the increase of calculation order, the error ratio quickly reaches a stable value for each algorithm. right chart shows the error ratio vs. input index frequency. Its x-axis shows the calculation order, its y-axis shows the error ratio, while its curves adopt the symbols of left chart. It shows the variation of error ratio regarding to the variations in the input data.
FIG. 9
FIG. 9
FIG. 9
left chart shows the average uncertainty vs. calculation order. Its x-axis shows the calculation order, its y-axis shows the average uncertainty, while its inlet label shows the policy for precise arithmetic as well as “Intv” for interval arithmetic and “Dbl” for conventional floating-point arithmetic, the algorithm name, the input signal name, and the real or imaginary part of the result for each curve. It shows how the average uncertainty increases for each algorithm with the increase of calculation order. right chart shows the average uncertainty vs. input index frequency. Its x-axis shows the calculation order, its y-axis shows the error ratio, while its curves adopt the symbols of left chart. It shows the variation of average uncertainty regarding to the variations in the input data.
FIG. 10
shows empirical significand error distribution for “Rev” calculation using “C10” precise arithmetic. The left chart and right chart show the empirical significand error distribution of the real and imaginary results of different order. In both charts, the x-axis shows the significand error, the y-axis shows the normalized population of the empirical distribution (which is equivalent to the probability density in a theoretical probability distribution), while the inlet label shows the symbol, the input index frequency, the input precision, the calculation order, and the precise value that contains the maximal significand error for each curve.
FIG. 11
shows empirical significand error distribution for “Rev” calculation using “C01” precise arithmetic. The left chart and right chart show the empirical significand error distribution of the real and imaginary results of different order. In both charts, the x-axis shows the significand error, the y-axis shows the normalized population of the empirical distribution (which is equivalent to the probability density in a theoretical probability distribution), while the inlet label shows the symbol, the input index frequency, the input precision, the calculation order, and the precise value that contains the maximal significand error for each curve.
FIG. 12
shows empirical significand error distribution for “Rev” calculation using “C01” precise arithmetic on cosine input signals. The left chart and right chart show the empirical significand error distribution of the real and imaginary results of different order. In both charts, the x-axis shows the significand error, the y-axis shows the normalized population of the empirical distribution (which is equivalent to the probability density in a theoretical probability distribution), while the inlet label shows the symbol, the input index frequency, the input precision, the calculation order, and the precise value that contains the maximal significand error for each curve.
FIG. 13
FIG. 13
left chart shows the error ratio vs. input precision for sine input signal of a fixed frequency for 15 order calculations. Its x-axis shows the input precision, its y-axis shows the error ratio, while its inlet label shows the policy for precise arithmetic, the algorithm name, the input signal name, and the real or imaginary part of the result for each curve. It shows that the error ratio for each algorithm is independent of the input precision. right chart shows the degradation ratio vs. input precision for sine input signal of a fixed frequency for 15 order calculations. Its x-axis shows the input precision, its y-axis shows the degradation ratio, while its inlet label shows the policy for precise arithmetic, the algorithm name, the input signal name, and the real or imaginary part of the result for each curve. It shows that the degradation ratio for each algorithm is independent of the input precision, except when the input precision is extremely small for the “Inv” calculation.
FIG. 14
FIG. 14
left chart shows the error ratios of different repeat of “rev” calculation. Its x-axis shows the input precision, its y-axis shows the error ratio, while its inlet label shows the policy for precise arithmetic, the algorithm name, the input signal name, and the real or imaginary part of the result for each curve. right chart shows the degradation ratios of different repeat of “rev” calculation. Its x-axis shows the input precision, its y-axis shows the degradation ratio, while its inlet label shows the policy for precise arithmetic, the algorithm name, the input signal name, and the real or imaginary part of the result for each curve. The combination of the two charts shows that the degradation ratio can be used to validate the error ratio when they both deviate from their respective normal values for the algorithm implementation.
exponent
n
exponent−n
exponent
The computer-implemented conventional floating-point representations and arithmetic is incorporated here as the first reference. The conventional floating-point representations partition a floating-point number into three parts: (1) sign, (2) significand, and (3) exponent, and the value of the number is “sign significand×2”. For example, a 64-bit floating-point number in the ANSI/IEEE Standard 754-1985 has (1) one sign bit, (2) 54 significand bits, and (3) 10 exponent bits. The conventional floating-point representations have a problem of polymorph representation, because “sign (significand×2)×2” and “sign significand×2” represent equal values for any integer “n”. To address this problem, the conventional floating-point arithmetic always picks the representation of highest possible accuracy or lowest possible precision: If after some operation the most significant bit of a non-zero significand is zero, the significand is left shifted while the exponential is decremented until the most significant bit of the significand becomes 1. This normalization process is a fundamental operation of all conventional floating-point representations and arithmetic, including ANSI/IEEE Standard 754-1985.
The conventional floating-point representations and arithmetic have one fundamental weakness due to its normalization: It has no error tracking strategy. This fundamental weakness leads to several fundamental problems in using the conventional floating point representations and arithmetic.
−17
−2
−4
−10
−3
First, while the conventional floating-point representations always assuming highest possible accuracy or lowest possible precision, except simplest count, real-world measured values all have limited accuracy or precision. For example, while the accuracy of 64-bit representation defined in ANSI/IEEE Standard 754-1985 is always 10, the accuracies of measured values range from order-of-magnitude estimation of astronomical measurements, to 10˜10of common measurements, to 10of state-of-art measurements of basic physics constants. When a value of commonly 10accuracy is stored in the 64-bit floating-point format, only the most significant 10 bits contain true information, while the rest 43 bits contains garbage information generated in the normalization process, and the storing and processing of these excessive garbage bits in the conventional floating-point arithmetic is a huge waste both in time and in resource. More seriously, the accuracy of the original value is forever lost in the normalization process. Then, during subsequential calculations, these garbage information mixes in or even takes over the true information during repeated round off and normalization process, as described in the following.
Second, it is well known that the conventional floating-point arithmetic can amplify error greatly. For example, when calculating (64919121×205117922−159018721×83739041) using the 64-bit floating-point representation and arithmetic defined in ANSI/IEEE Standard 754-1985, both products exceed the 54-bit accuracy of the floating point representation, so they are rounded off during the calculations, as 13316075197586562 and 13316075197586560 respectively, and the result becomes 2 instead of the correct answer 1. Then, in the normalization process, this 2 will become 2.0000000000000000, which gives a wrong accuracy or precision of the value as large as 1017 fold than the true accuracy. Such amplification of round-off errors happens constantly in using floating point representations and arithmetic, because round-off happens for almost every addition and multiplication, while normalization happens for almost every subtraction and division. In fact, self-discipline is the sole method in trying to avoid gross error amplification by round-off and normalization, such as avoiding subtraction of large products. When nowadays calculations become more and more complicated, especially when they are regressive, dispersive, or evolutionary over long period of time, the effect of error amplification during calculation using the conventional floating-point representations and arithmetic is untraceable, and the correctness of the results—let along their precisions—is very difficult or even impossible to be known by the calculation itself.
So this invention describes a new system of computer-implemented floating-point representation and arithmetic which corrects the above fundamental weakness and fundamental problems of the conventional floating-point representations and arithmetic. In this new representation, each floating-point value contains a value-precision pair, which is traced automatically in the new arithmetic.
There are three traditional techniques of specifying a value-precision pair: (1) by statistics, (2) by interval representation & arithmetic, and (3) by affine representation & arithmetic. All these techniques are incorporated in this patent application as both references and prior arts.
1 Sylvain Ehrenfeld and Sebastian B. Littauer, Introduction to Statistical Methods (McGraw-Hill, 1965);
2 John R. Taylor, Introduction to Error Analysis: The Study of Output Precisions in Physical Measurements (University Science Books, 1997);
3 Michael Evans and Jeffrey S. Rosenthal, Probability and Statistics: The Science of Uncertainty (W. H. Freeman, 2003).
The following is a reference list on statistics:
Statistics views a value-precision pair as a mean-deviation pair. In fact, many experimental value-precision pairs are obtained as the empirical mean-deviation pair by statistical inference from multiple measurements of a value. However, the precision is an indicator of reliable order-of-magnitude of the value, and it is different from the deviation. For example, a single reading of a 16-bit ideal analog-to-digital converter has well defined precision, but this precision can not be viewed as a deviation. Also, unlike the deviation in a mean-deviation pair, the precision of a value-precision pair is not expected to participate in statistical hypothesis-testing, so its accuracy can be as low as 1 bit, so that storing a precision as a conventional floating point value is not efficient at all. Treating a value-precision pair as a mean-deviation pair generally faces insurmountable challenges in obtaining result precision from arithmetic operations. For an example, the deviation of subtracting X from Y depends strongly how X and Y are statistically correlated, which is usually not known. Even if both X and Y are obtained as mean-deviation pairs, and both their individual underline distributions are precisely known, the test of their correlation is still very complicated and hypothesis-dependent.
X+Y
X
Y
X+Y
δX+δY
X−Y
X−δY|
X+Y
X−Y
2
2
Let X-δX be a value-precision pair on X. It is very useful to borrow some statistical technical in handling the X-δX pair by treating it also as a mean-deviation pair. When X and Y are not correlated at all:
δ()=√((δ)+(δ)) (1)
When X and Y are fully correlated:
δ()= (2)δ()=|δ (3)
Generally:
(1)<=δ()<=(2) (4)(1)>=δ()>=(3) (5)
1 R. E. Moore, Interval Analysis (Prentice Hall, 1966).
2 W. Kramer, A prior worst case error bounds for floating-point computations, IEEE Trans. Computers, vol. 47, pp 750-756, July 1998
3 Some experiments on the evaluation of functional ranges using a random interval arithmetic, Mathematics and Computers in Simulation, 2001, Vol. 56, pp. 17-34.
4 U.S. Pat. No. 6,658,443, Method and apparatus for representing arithmetic intervals within a computer system
5 U.S. Pat. No. 6,751,638, Min and max operations for multiplication and/or division under the simple interval system
6 U.S. Pat. No. 6,842,764, Minimum and maximum operations to facilitate interval multiplication and/or interval division
The following is a reference list on interval arithmetic:
FIG. 1
FIG. 1
X+Y
X+δY
X−Y
X+δY
The interval floating-point representations assumes that the true value of X is always in the range defined by [X−δX, X+δX]. shows the interval floating-point representation and arithmetic. According to :
δ()=δ (6)δ()=δ (7)
So equation (6) is an over-estimation of equation (4), and equation (7) is a vast over-estimation of equation (5). Generally, it is well known that the interval arithmetic over-estimates error greatly. Attempts has been made to narrow the interval randomly during some calculation, however, such heuristic technique is proven to be poor generally.
−6
3
−6
Another problem is that although most experimental results are in the format of empirical mean-deviation pairs, an empirical mean-deviation pair can not be turned easily into an interval, unless some hypothesis about the underline distribution of the measured data be made and tested. Even the underline distribution of the measured data is known precisely, the interval has to be quite large to make sure that the probability for the true value to be outside the interval is negligible. For example, while the theoretical probability for a random value of Gaussian distribution to be outside the theoretical range of [mean−3*deviation, mean+3*deviation] is about 10, but if a data set is generated randomly from the Gaussian distribution, the data count has to exceed at least 10for the inference probability to be close to 10to be outside the empirical range of [mean−3*deviation, mean+3*deviation]. In another word, the requirements on sample count and data consistency is usually too high to turn a mean-deviation pair into a sharp interval, or the interval may be too large to be meaningful. The interval arithmetic will then broaden these initial intervals needlessly more.
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
X=Σ
x
Y=Σ
y
X+Y
x
+y
X−Y
x
−y
Because the vast broadening of equation (6) for subtraction, affine arithmetic is developed as an improvement to interval arithmetic. Affine arithmetic associates with each value an error in term of linear combination of each error source ε:
δ(ε) δ(ε) (8)
Then, it calculates the error of addition and subtraction as:
δ()=Σ(()ε) (9)δ()=Σ(()ε) (10)
1 J. Stolfi, L. H. de Figueiredo, An introduction to affine arithmetic, TEMA Tend. Mat. Apl. Comput., 4, No. 3 (2003), 297-312.
Because of its expense in storage and execution, and dependence on approximate modeling for operations even as basic as multiplication and division, affine arithmetic has not been widely used. The following is reference list on affine arithmetic:
Is the strictness of interval arithmetic necessary in most cases? In real world, there is almost nothing absolute, so some statistical techniques and concepts are very helpful in handling the X-δX pair. Let error ratio of a value-precision pair X-δX be the possibility of the true value X to be outside the range[X−δX, X+δX]. The error ratio of an algorithm is the increase of the error ratio between its input and output. Thus, the conventional floating point arithmetic has representation-specific and very high accuracy, but very large and algorithm-specific error ratio, so its accuracy is not all true; while the interval arithmetic has universal zero error ratio, but very small and algorithm-specific true accuracy. Most experimental input data ranges are obtained statistically as empirical mean-deviation pairs and they do not have zero error ratio, e.g., for Gaussian distribution, their error ratio is always more than 0.174, the value when the sampling count is large enough to satisfy limit theorems. So arithmetic with error-tracking capability that contributes an additional small amount to the error ratio should be justified in normal uses. Or in another word, there should be a compromise between higher accuracy and lower error ratio in floating point calculations, as the classical compromise between higher gain and lower error for an amplifier with negative feedback. Small compromise on error ratio will improve the true accuracy noticeably, or there seems to be reasonable middle grounds between conventional floating point algorithm and interval arithmetic.
The New Floating-Point Representation of this Invention
FIG. 2
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exponent
exponent
is the primary figure shown this invention. This invention contains a new floating-point representation called the precise representation , comprising a sign portion , a significand portion , and an exponent portion . The exponent portion contains the exponent of 2 of the floating point number. The precise representation interprets the value of a floating-point precise value as “sign significand×2”, and the precision of the floating-point precise value as “2”. Let the content of a floating point number be denoted as “sign significand @ exponent”. The precise representation interprets 1@0 and 2@−1 differently as 1±1 and 1±0.5 respectively, instead of interpreting both of them as precise 1 as in the polymorphic representation of the conventional floating-point representation. The value of the least significant bit of the “significand” is viewed as imprecise and somewhat random.
In the precise representation, every combination of “sign significand@ exponent” represents a valid and unique value except negative zeros, which can be reinterpreted as error codes, each of which is generated due to illegal arithmetic operation, such as underflow or overflow of either significand portion or exponent portion, and dividing by zero. An operand error code is directly transferred to the operation result. In this way, illegal operations can be traced back to the source.
Each precise value can be initialized with a value and a precision, both of which could be in a conventional floating-point format. If the precision is not specified, the precise value will have the smallest possible precision for the value. An integer value is assumed to be accurate by itself. If a pair of integer values is to be used as a value-precision pair, the pair of integer values can be first converted to a pair of conventional floating-point values in conventional ways.
In reality, experimental data are usually collected with a constant precision but variable accuracy, such as the data collected by a 16-bit analog-to-digital Converter, rather than with a constant accuracy but variable precision as suggested by the conventional floating point arithmetic. The precise arithmetic thus represents the real world better.
A precise representation can have the same partition as one of the conventional floating-point representation (such as according to ANSI/IEEE Standard 754-1985) but without the normalization process of the conventional floating-point representation.
1 if the conventional floating-point value is not a numerical value, the floating-point conversion arithmetic operation results in an exceptional condition;
2 if the conventional floating-point value is zero, the precise value is the most precise zero;
(a) assigning the significand of the conventional floating-point value to the significand of the precise value;
(b) assigning the exponent of the conventional floating-point value to an integer;
(c) when the most significant bit of the significand of the precise value is zero, left shifting the significand of the precise value while decrementing the integer for each left shift of the significand of the precise value;
(d) assigning the integer to the exponent of the precise value; and
(e) assigning the sign of the conventional floating-point value to the sign of the precise value;
3 if the significand of the conventional floating-point value is not larger than the largest possible significand of the precise value, obtain the precise value by the sequence of:
(a) assigning the exponent of the conventional floating-point value to the exponent of the precise value;
(b) assigning the significand of the conventional floating-point value to a unsigned integer;
(c) when the unsigned integer is larger than the largest possible significand of the precise, right shifting unsigned integer while incrementing the exponent of the precise value for each right shift of the unsigned integer;
(d) assigning the unsigned integer value to the significand of the precise value; and
(e) assigning the sign of the conventional floating-point value to the sign of precise value.
4 if the significand of the conventional floating-point value is larger than the largest possible significand of the precise value, obtain the precise value by the sequence of:
The following is a method to turn a conventional floating-point value into a precise value:
Similarly, the reverse process can be use to obtain the conventional floating-point values of either “Sign Significand @ Exponent” or “1 @ Exponent”, which represent the value and the precision of a precise value respectively.
1 if the integer value is zero, the precise value is the most precise zero;
(a) assigning zero to the exponent of the precise value;
(b) assigning the magnitude of the integer value to the significand of the precise value;
(c) when the most significant bit of the significand of the precise value is zero and the exponent of the precise value is larger than the smallest possible value of the exponent, left shifting the significand of the precise value while decrementing the exponent of the precise value for each left shift of the significand of the precise value; and
(d) assigning the sign of the integer value to the sign of precise value;
2 if the magnitude of the integer is not larger than the largest possible significand of the precise value, obtain the precise value by the sequence of:
(a) assigning zero to the exponent of the precise value;
(b) assigning the magnitude of the integer value to a unsigned integer;
(c) when the unsigned integer is larger than the largest possible value of the significand of the precise value, right shifting the unsigned integer while incrementing the exponent of the precise value for each right shift of the unsigned integer;
(d) assigning the unsigned integer to the significand of the precise value; and
(e) assigning the sign of the integer value to the sign of precise value.
3 if the magnitude of the integer is larger than the largest possible significand of the precise value, obtain the precise value by the sequence of:
The following is a method to turn a integer value into a precise value:
1 if the significand of the precise value before reduction is either 0 or 1, the precise value is the required result;
(a) when the significand of the precise value being larger than 3, right shifting the significand of the precise value while incrementing the exponent of the precise value for each right shift of the significand of the precise value;
(b) incrementing the exponent of the precise value once if the significand of the precise value is 2, or incrementing the exponent of the precise value twice if the significand of the precise value is 3; and
(c) right shifting the significand of the precise value.
2 if the significand of the precise value before reduction is larger than 1, obtain the precise value after reduction by the sequence of:
A reduction operation is required to turn a value-precision pair both in conventional floating-point representations into a precise value. A precise value after reduction has the closest value to the precise value before reduction, but the precise value after reduction has significand of either 0 or 1. The following is a method to reduce a precise value:
1 if the conventional floating-point precision is zero, convert the conventional floating-point value to the precise value;
(a) converting the conventional floating-point precision to the precise value;
(b) reducing the precise value;
(c) assigning the exponent of the precise value to an integer;
(d) converting the conventional floating-point value to the precise value; and
(e) rounding-off the precise value to the integer.
2 if the conventional floating-point precision is not zero, obtain the precise value by the sequence of:
The following is a method to turn a value-precision pair both in conventional floating-point representations into a precise value:
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One embodiment of the present invention is to implement a 64-bit precise floating-point representation as a CPrecise type in C++. The CPrecise uses the 64-bit ANSI/IEEE Standard 754-1985 floating-point partition, but without normalization and the hidden most significant bit for the significand. Due to this hidden bit, the maximal accuracy of a CPrecise value is one bit less than the 64-bit ANSI/IEEE Standard 754-1985 floating-point value. When a CPrecise variable is initialized with a value without precision, such as an integer, the precision is twice of that of the 64-bit ANSI/IEEE Standard 754-1985 floating-point variable of the same value, such as the DBL_EPSILON for the double type with value of 1.
1=2@−51=1±2DBL_EPSILON=2
Similar to a conventional floating-point representation, the bit limitation of significand of a CPrecise variable brings a limit to accuracy and precision, so that when a value doubles, the precision of most precise representation also doubles:
2=2@−50=2±2
Different from a conventional floating-point representation, a CPrecise value can be initialized with a value and a precision, such as:
1.000±0.001=1024@−10=1±2
In this embodiment of precise representation, the precision is round up to the closest precision in the representation. In the above example, 1024@−10 is used instead of 512@−9, and the true precision is slightly smaller than the input precision. In other embodiment of precise representation, the precision is round up to the closest larger precision in the representation so that the resultant range is guaranteed to cover the original range.
The New Floating-Point Arithmetic of This Invention
This invention also contains a new floating-point arithmetic on the precise representation called the precise arithmetic, which tries to limit the calculation error at the least significant bit of the significand of each precise value.
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Y)
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The precise arithmetic assumes that the distinct operands of any arithmetic operation are not correlated at all. For example, it uses equation (1) in determining the result precision for addition and subtraction when the two operands are not identical. It represents a statistical underestimation of addition error, and a statistical overestimation of the subtraction error. Because subtraction is much more effective in wronging accuracy than addition, this approach is justified. The following is a summary of equations for calculating result precisions of arithmetic operations, in which X and Y are two distinct operands:
δ()=δ2 (11)δ()=√((δ)+(δ)) (12)δ()=0 (13)δ()=√((δ)+(δ)) (14)δ()=δ2 (15)δ()=√((δ)+(δX) (16)δ()=0 (17)δ()=√((δ)+(δ)) (18)δ(√)=δ/2/√ (19)
X+Y
Y+X
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X+Y
Z
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Y+Z
X Y
Y X
X Y Z
X Y
Z
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Y Z
f
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f′
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The following is an general operations rules that allows construction of result precision for any arithmetic operations, in which X, Y, and Z are three operands:
δ()=δ() (21)δ()=δ(()+)=δ(+()) (22)δ()=δ() (23)δ()=δ(())=δ(()) (24)δ(())=|()|δ (25)
Instead of using the above equations directly in some embodiments of the precise arithmetic, the result of equation (12) can be multiplied by a precision factor of addition, which is slightly larger than 1, to take account of the under-estimation of addition precision by equation (12). The same precision factor may be applied to equation (16) since multiplication is a repeated addition. A larger precision factor means more reliability but less accuracy for addition and multiplication operations, in the same way as a larger feedback parameter of a classical negative feedback amplifier means higher signal quality after amplification but lower signal amplification. Similarly, an amplifying factor of subtraction may be applied to equation (14) and (17). An alternative embodiment is to use (6) instead of (12), and similar equation to replace (16). Different application may require different precision factors.
After a result precision in a conventional floating-point format is calculated, it needs to be turned into the the exponent of the result precise value in two steps A reduction operation is required to turn a result precision into the exponent of the result precise value.
Direct implementation of the above equations and the precision factors may require extensive use of floating-point arithmetic unit. However, some embodiment of the precise arithmetic may take into consideration the precise representation itself and use the following scheme to reduce the requirements on hardware and the amount of calculation greatly. From the above equations, a precise arithmetic operation on two distinct operands generates two intermediate precisions for the result. These two precisions are reduced as two precise values each of which are with significand less than 2 and each of which has value closest to the corresponding precision. If the two result exponents of the two precise values are different, the algorithm result is round off to the larger exponent using a precision round-off rule. If they are equal, a precision fine tune rule is applied to possibly increment the result exponent by 1 and correspondingly right shift the significand of the result precise value. A more aggressive precision fine tune rule increases the range specified by [value−precision, value+precision] faster, thus favors more reliability than accuracy of results. Different application or different algorithm may each have difference best choice of precision fine tune rules. In this patent application, a string policy marker of three characters is used to identify the precision tracking policies in this patent application, whose first character identifies the precision round-off rule, and second and third characters identify the precision fine tune.
“C”: Always carry it over, so that 897@−7 (7.008±0.008) becomes 449@−6 (7.016±0.016).
“T”: Always discard it, so that 897@−7 (7.008±0.008) becomes 448@−6 (7.000±0.016).
“X”: Randomly carry it over or discard it with a 1/2 probability of each choice.
The choices of precision round off rule are analog to the common different ways to cast a floating point value to an integer value, or to normalize a result of addition or multiplication in conventional floating point arithmetic. Different applications or different algorithms may each have difference best choice of precision round-off rules, although most applications and most algorithms may favor the “C” policy.
When a precision value needs to be rounded off to a larger exponent, the immediate bit below the targeted least significant bit of significand is called the half bit. If it is 0, it is simply discarded during round-off, such as rounding off 896@−7 to 448@−6. If it is 1, except always rounding off “1@ exponent” to “0@ (exponent+1)”, there are actually three different ways to round it off, as indicated by the first character of the policy marker:
When two values of different exponents are added or subtracted, the operand with smaller exponent is first rounded off to the larger exponent before the two significands are added or subtracted. So the result of adding zero to or subtracting zero from a precise value may be different from the original value:
898@−7±0@−6=449@−6 7.016±0.008±0±0.016=7.016±0.016
“NV”: Never. The result of “NV” precision fine tune rule mimics the result of using conventional floating-point arithmetic.
“10”: Whenever the least significant bits of the two operands generates a carry for the operation, as shown in the following examples of subtraction:
898@−7−897@−7=0@−6 7.016±0.008−7.008±0.008=0.000±0.016899@−7−897@−7=2@−7 7.023±0.008−7.008±0.008=0.016±0.008
“11”: Whenever the two least significant bits are both 1, as shown in the following examples of subtraction:
898@−7−897@−7=1@−7 7.016±0.008−7.008±0.008=0.008±0.008899@−7−897@−7=1@−6 7.023±0.008−7.008±0.008=0.016±0.016
“01”: Whenever the least significant bit of the second operand is 1. “10” precision fine tune rule is conceptually better, while the results of “11” precision fine tune rule look better. Because these two precision fine tune rules increase precision less than what the statistics calls for, 5/4 fold vs. √2 fold on average, “01” precision fine tune rule increases the result precision to 3/2 fold on average by combining “10” and “11” precision fine tune rules.
“M1: Whenever the least significant bit of the second operand is 1 for subtraction, and whenever the least significant bit of the greater-or-equal significand of the two operands is 1 for addition. Because “01” precision fine tune rule breaks the symmetry for addition, “M1” precision fine tune rule restores the symmetry for addition while being equivalent to the “01” precision fine tune rule. In most cases, “M1” precision fine tune rule gives the most balanced results on both reliability and accuracy.
“L1”: Whenever the least significant bit of the second operand is 1 for subtraction, and whenever the least significant bit of the smaller-or-equal significand of the two operands is 1 for addition. “L1” precision fine tune rule is assumed to be equivalent to “M1” precision fine tune rule but it actually has worse result than “M1” precision fine tune rule in a few algorithms which has been tested. So “L1” precision fine tune rule is provided here for completeness of enumeration.
“00”: Whenever the least significant bit of any of the two significand is 1 for addition, or whenever the least significant bit of the first significand is 0 for subtraction, or whenever the least significant bit of the second significand is 1 for subtraction. “00” precision fine tune rule takes into account that the least significant bit of a significand is somewhat random, so its result is very reliable, with error ratios very close to zero, although its result precision range is often still order-of-magnitudes smaller than the result by interval arithmetic in linear applications.
“AL”: Always. The result of “AL” precision fine tune rule approaches the result of using interval arithmetic.
When two distinctive operands of same exponents are added or subtracted, there are choices of precision fine tune rules, as indicated by the second and third characters of the policy marker:
One interesting property of addition and subtraction in precise arithmetic is that the result accuracy of adding two similar values has more than 1/2 probability to increase by 1 bit, while the result accuracy of subtracting such two values always decreases. This property agrees with both significant arithmetic and statistics. In fact, it is well known that in an algorithm design using conventional floating arithmetic, addition of values of same precision should be promoted, while subtraction of values of similar magnitudes should be avoided. The precise arithmetic just takes care of precision during calculation directly, automatically and universally. Generally, using precise arithmetic, the error accumulation during calculation gradually makes significands smaller, thus reduces the accuracy.
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When two operands “s S @ E” and “s S @ E” are multiplied to produce “s S @ E”, the result exponent of multiplication “E” is first calculated according to equation (31), which is then used to guide the multiplication process of the two operands according to equation (32).
1 3←(reduce)←max(1, 2) @ (12) (31)3 @ (312)=12 (32)
For an example, to calculate 0@−6*897@−7, the result exponent is calculated as 897@−13, and reduced as 1@−3; then the product 0@−13 is round off as 0@−3, and the result is shown in the following:
0@−6*897@−7=0@−3 0+/−0.016*7.008+/−0.008=0+/−0.13
Because the exponent precision can be calculated first, the operand significand bits that will not contribute to the result significand can be ignored during the calculation. Thus, repeated addition can be more efficient than multiplication when combining two operand significands for multiplication.
(a) assigning to the exponent of the third precise value with the result of adding the exponent of the first precise value and the exponent of the second precise value, assigning to the significand of the third precise value with the larger-or-equal significand between the first precise value and the second precise value;
(b) reducing the third precise value; and
(c) if the precision fine-tune rule of addition is true, or if the first precise value and the second precise value have the same identity, incrementing the exponent of the third precise value;
1 the exponent of the third precise value is obtained by:
(a) assigning the exponent of the third precise value to an integer value;
(b) assigning to the exponent of the third precise value the result of adding the exponent of the first precise value and the exponent of the second precise value; assigning to the significand of the third precise value the result of multiplying the significand of the first precise value and the significand of the second precise value;
(c) rounding-off the third precise value to the integer value;
2 the significand of the third precise value is obtained by:
(a) if the sign of the first precise value is different from the sign of the second precise value, and if the significand of the third precise value is not zero, assigning negative to the sign of the third precise value;
(b) if the sign of the first precise value is same as the sign of the second precise value, or if the significand of the third precise value is zero, assigning positive to the sign of the third precise value.
3 the sign of the third precise value is obtained by:
The following is steps for implementing multiplication of a first precise value and a second precise value to produce a third precise value using significand multiplication:
(a) assigning to the exponent of the third precise value with the result of adding the exponent of the first precise value and the exponent of the second precise value, assigning to the significand of the third precise value with the larger-or-equal significand between the first precise value and the second precise value;
(b) reducing the third precise value; and
(c) if the precision fine-tune rule of addition is true, or if the first precise value and the second precise value have the same identity, incrementing the exponent of the third precise value;
1 the exponent of the third precise value is obtained by:
(a) assigning to an integer E with the result of the exponent of the third precise value minus exponent of the first precise value minus exponent of the second precise value; assigning to an integer SL with the larger-or-equal significand between the first precise value and the second precise value; assigning to an integer SS with the smaller-or-equal significand between the first precise value and the second precise value; assigning zero to the significand of the third precise value;
(b) when SS is not zero, decrementing E and right shifting SS, and for each repeat, if the least significant bit of SS is not zero, adding to the significand of the third precise value the result of right shifting SL by E bits;
2 the significand of the third precise value is obtained by:
(a) if the sign of the first precise value is different from the sign of the second precise value, and if the significand of the third precise value is not zero, assigning negative to the sign of the third precise value;
(b) if the sign of the first precise value is same as the sign of the second precise value, or if the significand of the third precise value is zero, assigning positive to the sign of the third precise value.
3 the sign of the third precise value is obtained by:
The following is steps for implementing multiplication of a first precise value and a second precise value to produce a third precise value using repeated addition:
E
/S
, S
S
E
−E
S
=S
E
−E
−E
S
2
Similar technique can be applied to division, to obtaining the result by first calculating the result exponent according to equation (33) and then achieving division by a series of subtraction and shift on contributing significand bits of the two operands only, according to equation (34).
1@ 3←(reduce)←max(111/2) @ (12) (33)31 @ (123)/2 (34)
1 if the first precise value and the second the precise value have the same identity, the third precise value is the most precise one;
(a) assigning to the exponent of the third precise value the result of subtracting the exponent of the second precise value from the exponent of the first precise value;
(b) (a) if the significand of the first precise value is not larger than the significand of the second precise value: (i) assigning one to the significand of the third precise value, and (ii) while the significand of the third precise value is not larger than the significand of the second precise value, left shifting the significand of the third precise value and decrementing the exponent of the third precise value for each left shift of the significand of the third precise value; or (b) otherwise: (i) assigning the significand of the first precise value to the significand of the third precise value; and (ii) while the significand of the third precise value is not larger than the square of the significand of the second precise value, left shifting the significand of the third precise value and decrementing the exponent of the third precise value for each left shift of the significand of the third precise value; and
(c) if the precision fine-tune rule of subtraction is true, incrementing the exponent of the third precise value;
2 the exponent of the third precise value is obtained by the sequence of:
(a) assigning to an integer S with the result of left shifting the significand of the first precise value by a bit count of the exponent of the first precise value minus the exponent of the second precise value minus the exponent of the third precise value;
(b) assigning to the significand of the third precise value with the quotient of dividing the S by the significand of the second precise value;
(c) incrementing the significand of the third precise value if the reminder of dividing the S by the significand of the second precise value is not less than half of the significand of the second precise value;
3 the significand of the third precise value is obtained by the sequence of:
(a) if the sign of the first precise value is different from the sign of the second precise value, and if the significand of the third precise value is not zero, assigning negative to the sign of the third precise value;
(b) if the sign of the first precise value is same as the sign of the second precise value, or if the significand of the third precise value is zero, assigning positive to the sign of the third precise value.
4 the sign of the third precise value is obtained by:
The following is steps for implementing division of a first precise value and a second precise value to produce a third precise value:
Without the need for conventional floating-point normalization, conventional floating-point multiplication, and conventional floating-point division, a precise arithmetic unit can be much simpler than a corresponding conventional floating-point arithmetic unit. It is conceivable that a precise floating unit is implemented using much simpler technologies than those technologies normally required by conventional floating-point arithmetic unit. Such simpler technologies include implementing the precise arithmetic unit as a library component, programmed into a reconfigurable structure, etc.
FIG. 3
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In the CPrecise embodiment of precise arithmetic, two operands of an arithmetic operation are considered distinct when these two operands do not have the same address. shows a simplified interface of the CPrecise type. This embodiment of precise representation and arithmetic is done in a computer system comprising an execution unit and a storage and I/O unit . The source code containing CPrecise class is compiled and linked into target program . The target program is executed in combination with input data , to generate output data . The execution unit can be a central processing unit of a computer, or a precise arithmetic unit, or other hardware such as a reconfigurable system programmed to perform precise arithmetic, or any combination of the above hardware. The storage and I/O unit may comprise hard disk, memory, keyboard, pointing device, communication ports, and all hardware that is capable of interacting with exchanging data with the execution unit, directly or indirectly. In addition to normal data on any medium, the input data and the output data also comprise specified or designed state changes of the computer, such as performing a desired action by the computer when the input data confirms to certain specified conditions.
When (64919121×205117922−159018721×83739041) is calculated using CPrecise type of “CM1” or “C01” policy, the result is 0±4. If the significand of CPrecise type also had 54-bits as the conventional floating point representation and the interval representation, the result would be 2±2. As a comparison, the correct answer is 1, the result of conventional floating-point arithmetic is 2.0000000000000000, and the result of interval arithmetic is 2±17.74. In this case, the precise arithmetic is superior to both the conventional floating point arithmetic and the interval arithmetic by providing a correct and tightest precision range allowed by the representation significance.
The Validation of Precise Value of this Invention
This invention also contains methods for validate the precision range defined by a precise value. Each precise value has a corresponding error ratio, which is the probability of the true value to be outside the precision range of a precise value. The initial error ratio may be obtained as a result of statistical inference. The error ratio of a reading from an ideal 16-bit analog-to-digital converter can be regarded as zero. How to obtain the initial error ratio for a precise value is not the concern of the precise arithmetic. On the other hand, precise arithmetic provides a method of measuring contribution to error ratio by a precise implementation of algorithm if the algorithm has a few known accurate outputs for specific inputs. The accurate inputs of specific values are input into such an implementation of algorithm, and the precise outputs from the algorithm implementation are compared with the expected accurate outputs. The expected accurate outputs have been rounded off to the exponent of corresponding precise outputs, and each absolute difference between the significand of expected accurate output and the corresponding significand of precise output contributes to the empirical error distribution in significand. The error ratio is obtained by counting the population of the significand difference larger than 1.
L
L
L−1
L
L−1
L−1
L
L−1
L
L
n, F
n, F
In this patent application, only the error ratio of FFT will be presented, although the error ratio for other algorithms can be obtained similarly. FFT is the most popular implementation of discrete Fourier transformation to a series of 2data, in which L is a positive integer called the FFT order in this patent application. For a waveform of h[k]=sin(2 π F/2k), in which F is another positive integer less than 2, and k is the time index running from 0 to 2−1, the discrete Fourier transformation is H[n]=i δ2, in which n is the frequency index running from 0 to 2. Similarly, for a waveform of h[k]=cos(2 π F/2k), the discrete Fourier transformation is H[n]=δ2. The total operation count for each H[n] is exactly the FFT order L, and more error can be accumulated by increasing the order L. The result of a FFT calculation contains 2real values and 2imaginary values, which enables reliable statistical analysis. Discrete Fourier transformation is invertible, and the inverse Fourier transformation differs from the forward Fourier transformation only by the sign of a constant. For any of the above waveforms, forward Fourier transformation condenses the waveform to a single frequency component by mutual cancellation, thus more sensitive to calculation error. Inverse Fourier transformation spreads a single frequency component to whole waveform, thus less sensitive to calculation error. The subsequentially forward and inverse transformed signal can be compared with the original signal for overall calculation error. These three algorithms are identified as “FFT”, “Inv” and “Rev” respectively.
First, different precision fine tune rules are compared.
FIG. 5
FIG. 6
FIG. 7
L
Using precise arithmetic, the extent of error propagation in significand depends on its policy. , and show the significand error distributions for “FFT” and “Rev” algorithms using either “C10” or “C11” or “C01” policies with smallest possible input precisions. The results of “Inv” algorithm are very similar to those of “Rev” algorithm except with slightly less error propagation. In each figure, the x-axis shows the significand error, the y-axis shows the error population normalized to the transform size 2, while the label shows the sine frequency, the input precision, the order of FFT calculation, and the maximal calculation error. All the results of “C10” policy are very similar to those of “C11” policy, and these two policies are statistically indistinguishable. The precise arithmetic tracks the calculation errors by increasing precision, and only allows the errors to be beyond the least significant bit of significand by few counts. With the increased FFT order, the calculation error distributions stabilize along a same histogram profile, suggesting statistical nature of the error propagation during error tracking by the precise arithmetic. In any algorithm using any policy, the stable distribution of the calculation errors beyond the least significant bit of significand follows a straight line when the population is drawing in logarithm scale, suggesting exponential distribution, which is expected from incremental propagation nature of calculation errors. The “C01” policy is more aggressive than either “C10” or “C11” policies in error tracking, so it allows less error propagation in significand.
FIG. 8
FIG. 9
FIG. 9
The difference between accurate and numerical results of precision calculation is described as uncertainty, which is mostly due to the output exponents, rather than the errors in output significand. When the precision fine tune rule tracks error propagation in significand more aggressively, it raises the precisions more frequently, so that the output exponents increase more quickly while error ratio is kept lower. and shows such relation between error ratio and output uncertainty of different precision policies. Their left charts show that with increased FFT order, both error ratios and average output uncertainties increase until stabilized, while their right charts show the variation of these two values for the same amount of calculations due to difference in input data. In , the output precisions provided by interval arithmetic are several order-of-magnitudes larger than those by precise arithmetic, and they increases exponentially with the FFT order, rather than linearly for this linear algorithm. Although the errors of conventional floating point arithmetic are smaller than the uncertainties of precise arithmetic, they are always clueless true errors, and their distributions are very specific to algorithm.
FIG. 10
FIG. 11
The above properties of error tracking by the precision policies are not limited to input data of smallest precision. and show that the error distributions of “Rev” calculation of different input precisions using either “C10” or “C01” policies are all along a same exponential distribution for each policy.
FIG. 11
FIG. 10
FIG. 11
FIG. 12
n, F
n, F
L−1
L−1
Because all three algorithms do not distinguish real and imaginary parts of input data in their algorithm execution, a good error tracking policy should track the error propagation in these two parts with similar effects, regardless of the input data. This is the case for “C01”, policy, as shown in , but not the case for “C10” policy, as shown in . In this respect, “C01”, is the better policy. The discrete Fourier spectrum of a perfect sine signal of an index frequency F is (δ2i), while it is (δ2) for a perfect cosine signal. Thus, the major dataflow of a perfect sine signal during the execution of either “FFT” or “Inv” algorithm is crossover between real and imaginary parts, which is just opposite from that of a perfect cosine signal. Still, using “C01” policy, the error distributions of either algorithm are statistically identical for either real or imaginary data, as shown by the strong similarity between and . This is another numerical proof of data independence of “C01” policy in tracking errors. If this independence is generally true, the error characteristics of an algorithm using “C01” policy can be found by a simple case of known result, and then applied to all other cases for the algorithm.
FIG. 13
FIG. 13
−11
Once a precise arithmetic policy for an implementation of an algorithm is selected, the policy of the algorithm is characterized by error ratio and degradation ratio. The ratio of average output precisions to average input precisions is defined as degradation ratio of an algorithm. In addition to the stability of error distribution, both error ratio and degradation ratio are stable for each algorithm using “C01” policy regardless of input precisions, as shown in . The abnormal increase of degradation ratio below 10input precision for the “Inv” algorithm in is probably due to the bit limit on significand when the single frequency-component is spread to construct the entire sine signal. Such increase also happens to the “Inv” algorithm using interval arithmetic due to the bit limit on significand of 64-bit IEEE floating point type.
e=
e[i]=Σ
e[i]
i
i
i
Both error ratio and degradation ratio has simple and clear meaning. Suppose data is processed by a series of different algorithms, each of which has known error ratio e[i] and degradation ratio d[i]. Conceptually, the combined error ratio and degradation ratio for the series is:
1−Π (41)d=Πd[i] (42)
FIG. 13
As shown by , error ratio seems to obey equation (41) statistically, e.g., at each input precision, the error ratio of “Rev” algorithm are slightly larger than that of “Inv” algorithm when the error ratio of “FFT” algorithm is much smaller. Although correctly lying between those of “FFT” and “Inv” algorithms, the degradation ratio of “Rev” algorithm calculated by equation (42) is about one order-of-magnitude smaller than the actual value at each input precision. This discrepancy is probably due to the averaging of precisions in defining the degradation ratio. Among input data, if those with larger precisions have larger contribution to the error accumulation, the current definition will give a smaller-than-expected theoretical value. As an algorithm-independent and easily measurable value, it is actually not important for the currently defined degradation ratio to satisfy equation (42) strictly, because it has an important role of rejecting meaningless calculation result, as described in the following.
FIG. 16
FIG. 14
−9
Repeat
Precision
Avg Uncertainty
Max Uncertainty
0
10<sup>−2</sup>
0.24
4
1
10<sup>−3</sup>
0.59
8
2
10<sup>−5</sup>
0.46
8
3
10<sup>−7</sup>
0.21
4
4
10<sup>−9</sup>
0.21
4
If an algorithm has a constant error ratio and a constant degradation ratio, when the algorithm is repeated, each iteration increases the precisions by a degradation ratio fold, while retains the same error ratio. This characterization of repeating an algorithm is confirmed by at input precisions smaller than 10. The deviations of error ratio and degradation ratio from their respective normal values at larger input precisions deserve closer look. The following table lists the input precision and output uncertainties of each repeat when its error ratio deviates from the normal values for the “Rev” algorithm:
From the above table and , when the average output precision is comparable to the amplitude of the original sine signal, the error ratio for “Rev” algorithm starts to deviate from the normal value, and then suddenly drops to zero with larger input precision. Exactly at the same time, the degradation ratio deviates from its normal value as well. The error accumulation makes significand gradually smaller, until become frequently zero across the board, to upset the precision tracking mechanism of the precise arithmetic.
In the above scheme, the precision fine tune rule is inactivated when the significand is zero. It is possible to inactivate the precision fine tune rule for larger significand, so that of the error tracking policy breaks down for larger input precision, to guarantee better output accuracy for normal degradation ratio.
Conventionally, to reject meaningless result due to error accumulation, calculation result is evaluated by compared with the expected order-of-magnitude estimation from simplified models. However, if the algorithm is complicated, regressive, dispersive, or evolutionary over long period of time, a reliable estimation of order of magnitude is very difficult or even impossible, so that qualification of calculation results is an intrinsic problem of conventional floating point arithmetic. Because degradation ratio of an algorithm can be measured simply in real time without any knowledge of the true result, compared with the normal value of the algorithm, it can be used independently as an indicator to reject meaningless calculation result due to error accumulation using precise arithmetic.
Claim Structure
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[Claim ]->[Claim ] minimal significand for precise fine-tune rule
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[Claim ]->[Claim ] best precision fine-tune rule of addition
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[Claim ]->[Claim ] precision fine-tune rule of addition
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[Claim ]->[Claim ] precision fine-tune rule of addition
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[Claim ]->[Claim ] precision fine-tune rule of addition
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[Claim ]->[Claim ] precision fine-tune rule of addition
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[Claim ]->[Claim ] best precision fine-tune rule of subtraction
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[Claim ]->[Claim ] precision fine-tune rule of subtraction
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[Claim ]->[Claim ] precision fine-tune rule of subtraction
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[Claim ]->[Claim ] multiplication
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[Claim ]->[Claim ] best addition
[Claim ]->[Claim ] round-off and reduction
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[Claim ]->[Claim ] error ration for a process
[Claim ]->[Claim ] obtain error ratio for a precise value group
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[Claim ]->[Claim ] degradation ratio
[Claim ]->[Claim ] error ratio
[Claim ] broadest method claim
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[Claim ] broadest medium claim
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[Claim ] broadest apparatus claim
To help the patent examination process, and better understanding of the claims, the following is a map showing relations among claims, with each claim having a descriptive and informal title. However, the following map is not in any way a replacement to the claims, or a limitation on the claims. | |
On November 9, 2015, the Council for Quality Growth hosted our 6th annual Community Improvement District Recognition Luncheon at Westin Atlanta Perimeter North. With over 200 in attendance, the event highlighted the current and future projects of the twenty-one Metro Area CIDs. Specifically, it highlighted the work they do to improve quality of life and access to opportunity throughout the Metro region.
Following lunch and a video presentation of top area projects, was a Technology and Innovation panel featuring Kinetic Ventures Managing Director Nelson Chu, Southern Company Vice President of Innovation Centers Michael Britt, and General Manager of AT&T Smarter Cities Michael Zeto. The panel was moderated by Craig Lesser, Managing Partner of Pendleton Consulting Group. The panelists were asked questions pertaining to the role which CIDs can play in cultivating technology and innovation hubs throughout the Metro Region.
In response, the panelists shone light on the fragile nature of emerging businesses, highlighting the powerful role CIDs could play in breaking down communication silos and in helping emerging businesses to develop relationships with long established firms. The panelists encouraged CIDs to play a more active role in identifying and reaching out to start ups, as at times, start-up entrepreneurs may not even recognize they are within CID boundaries. They also emphasized the importance of strengthening regional core competencies and collaborating across jurisdictions to develop interconnected communities which allow entrepreneurs access to their customer base, preserving their awareness of ‘hair on fire’ problems which can be transformed into 21st century competitive business opportunities.
Following the panel, the luncheon’s Keynote Speaker, Congressman Rob Woodall (R- Lawrenceville), presented an overview of the 2015 Surface Transportation Reauthorization and Reform Act that recently passed in the House of Representatives. A member of the House Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure, Congressman Woodall stated that policy makers tackling the nation’s infrastructure challenges are slowly coming around to the idea that providing state and local governments more flexibility in infrastructure investments can be an effective way to maximize returns on investments. He commended CID leaders on the work they’ve done to restore trust in the efficiency of local organizations, stating that restoring trust in government and local organizations is the first step towards expanding the type of strategies which can be adopted to address infrastructure needs.
Community Improvement Districts’ ability to invest in local infrastructure and their ability to coordinate and help reshape policy frameworks makes them powerful agents of change. Monday’s luncheon highlighted how CIDs can leverage these abilities to form coalitions where disruptive technology entrepreneurs, business interests, and policy makers can come together to guide Georgia’s economy into the future.
Thank you to all of our sponsors, Congressman Woodall, our panelists and attendees for making this event yet again a successful recognition of our region’s CIDs. To view the Council’s video of CID visions and accomplishments, see below:
To view reports on Congressman Woodall’s presentation on the new federal transportation bill, click HERE, HERE, or HERE.
To download Congressman Woodall’s presentation, click HERE. | https://www.councilforqualitygrowth.org/council-for-quality-growth-hosts-6th-annual-community-improvement-district-luncheon-2/ |
Cambodia and the Lao PDR actively promote tourism because it produces substantial national income, local employment, private investment and trade in services. Tourism directly contributes 12.4% to Cambodia's gross domestic product (GDP) and 4.6% to Lao PDR's GDP, generating 70% 78% of service exports and $1.1 billion annual investment. There are about 1.1 million tourism workers in the two countries. Most are women employed by small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). Tourist visa on arrival is permitted for 180 countries and 15-day tourist visa exemptions granted to ASEAN citizens. Government efforts to upgrade gateway airports, transnational railways and highways, and secondary roads to facilitate travel and tourism are supported by the Asian Development Bank (ADB) and other development partners. ASEAN and GMS policies to liberalize aviation services and ease cross-border vehicle movements complement physical infrastructure investments.
Even with these strengths and opportunities Cambodia and the Lao PDR rank low in the World Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Index, mainly because secondary destinations lack modern transport infrastructure and quality urban environmental services. Other underlying constraints are inadequate tourism planning, low service standards, and a weak business enabling environment. Consequently, in 2016 the two countries received only 8% of ASEAN's total tourist arrivals. In the same year Cambodia's international tourist arrival growth decelerated to 5%, about half the medium-term rate, and Lao PDR's arrivals fell 9.5% compared to 2015. Fewer visitors and lower spending because of poor sanitation and hygiene reduces economic benefits by about $90 million per year. Average expenditure per visitor in Cambodia ($641) and the Lao PDR ($171) is far below Asia and the Pacific's benchmark $1,500. Imbalances within the countries is also a problem. About half of international tourist arrivals and corresponding visitor expenditure, destination investment, and direct tourism employment accrue to just 3 cities: Phnom Penh, Siem Reap, and Vientiane Capital.
The GMS central and southern corridors are vulnerable to climate change, particularly increasingly severe weather events in Cambodia's coastal zone and flooding in Lao PDR's Mekong and Nam Xong River valleys. Climate vulnerability and risk are exacerbated by limited country capacity to integrate adaptation and mitigation solutions. Countering climate change requires finance and knowledge to retrofit and construct climate-resilient infrastructure and better prepare for natural disasters. Resource-efficiency certification programs, including the ASEAN green hotel standard, and public awareness campaigns to promote lower-carbon travel, emissions offsets, and environmentally-friendly tourism services are also needed.
To help address these constraints the project builds on the ongoing GMS Tourism Infrastructure for Inclusive Growth Project by strategically financing climate-resilient road, water transport, and urban infrastructure in areas with comparative tourism advantages. Priority investments include (i) road improvements to decongest urban areas and link secondary towns with nearby tourist attractions; (ii) coastal and river passenger ports to increase handling capacity and provide private operators with the facilities needed to expand water transport and recreation services; (iii) storm water drains and riverbank protection in flood-prone areas; and (iv) modern solid waste and septic management systems with expanded collection services, materials recovery, and hygienic disposal facilities
|Impact||Sustainable, inclusive, and more balanced tourism development achieved.|
|Project Outcome|
|Description of Outcome||Tourism competitiveness of secondary towns in Cambodia and the Lao PDR increased.|
|Progress Toward Outcome|
|Implementation Progress|
|Description of Project Outputs||
|
Output 1. Urban-rural access infrastructure and urban environmental services improved.
Output 2. Capacity to implement ASEAN tourism standards strengthened.
Output 3. Institutional capacity for tourism destination management and infrastructure O&M strengthened.
|Status of Implementation Progress (Outputs, Activities, and Issues)|
|Geographical Location||Cambodia - Nation-wide; Lao People's Democratic Republic - Nation-wide|
|Safeguard Categories|
|Environment||B|
|Involuntary Resettlement||B|
|Indigenous Peoples||B|
|Summary of Environmental and Social Aspects|
|Environmental Aspects||The safeguards categorization for environment is B. IEEs and EMPs for each infrastructure subprojects have been prepared in compliance with the Governments' regulatory requirements and ADB's Safeguards Policy Statement (SPS, 2009).|
|Involuntary Resettlement||The safeguards categorization for involuntary resettlement is B. Potential land acquisition impacts were assessed in accordance with ADB''s SPS (2009). Resettlement Plans have been prepared for Preah Sihanouk province, Cambodia; and Vientiane province, Lao PDR following ADB's SPS (2009) and were endorsed by the respective Governments. Project information was disclosed to all affected persons during project preparation. The Resettlement Plans will be updated based on detailed engineering designs.|
|Indigenous Peoples||The safeguards categorization for indigenous peoples is B. There will be positive impacts on the livelihoods of any indigenous people living within proposed project areas. Negative impacts are not expected. The Indigenous People's Plan was prepared based on meaningful consultation with all ethnic groups living in project areas, and in compliance with ADB's SPS (2009) and endorsed by the Government. The plan will be updated based on detailed engineering designs.|
|Stakeholder Communication, Participation, and Consultation|
|During Project Design||
|
The main stakeholders are: (i) urban and rural residents living in/near secondary towns in the GMS economic corridors, including ethnic groups and women; (ii) owners and operators of tourism-related enterprises, and; (iii) public agencies responsible for tourism, urban environmental management, and urban-rural transportation networks. A series of national and site-specific workshops including women, men, ethnic groups, youth and the elderly will be conducted in each country to gain the views of project stakeholders on project scope, implementation arrangements, community participation and grievance redress mechanisms, and other social, environmental and economic aspects of the project.
Representatives of nongovernment organizations, civil society, mass organizations, community-based organizations, and private sector associations will participate in workshops and focus group discussions to formulate the project's participation plan and stakeholder communication strategy. Household surveys and focus groups discussions with key stakeholders will establish baseline conditions and provide opportunities for stakeholders to provide inputs into the design of infrastructure and capacity building programs.
The project information was shared with civil society organizations active in tourism and urban development in CLMV, including several international nongovernment organizations, non-profit associations, tourism industry associations, and foundations that provide skills training for the urban and rural poor, and support women's and child protection.
|During Project Implementation|
|Business Opportunities|
|Procurement||Procurement and consultant recruitment will follow ADB's Procurement Policy and Procurement Regulations for ADB Borrowers (2017) and government regulations acceptable to ADB.|
|Responsible ADB Officer||Hasanah, Siti|
|Responsible ADB Department||Southeast Asia Department|
|Responsible ADB Division||Urban Development and Water Division, SERD|
|Executing Agencies||
Ministry of Economy and Finance
|
[email protected]
Street 92, Sangkat Wat Phnom
Khan Daun Penh, Phnom Penh City
Cambodia Ministry of Tourism
Lot 3A, St. 169, Sangkat Vealong, Khan 7 Makara,
Phnom Penh
Cambodia
|Timetable|
|Concept Clearance||14 Mar 2016|
|Fact Finding||09 Jan 2018 to 19 Jan 2018|
|MRM||20 Apr 2018|
|Approval||31 Aug 2018|
|Last Review Mission||-|
|Last PDS Update||31 Aug 2018|
Grant 0599-REG
|Milestones|
|Approval||Signing Date||Effectivity Date||Closing|
|Original||Revised||Actual|
|31 Aug 2018||16 Oct 2018||25 Dec 2018||30 Jun 2025||-||-|
|Financing Plan||Grant Utilization|
|Total (Amount in US$ million)||Date||ADB||Others||Net Percentage|
|Project Cost||49.69||Cumulative Contract Awards|
|ADB||47.00||31 Aug 2018||10.83||0.00||23%|
|Counterpart||2.69||Cumulative Disbursements|
|Cofinancing||0.00||31 Aug 2018||3.46||0.00||7%|
Loan 3701-REG
|Milestones|
|Approval||Signing Date||Effectivity Date||Closing|
|Original||Revised||Actual|
|31 Aug 2018||24 Oct 2018||25 Dec 2018||30 Jun 2024||-||-|
|Financing Plan||Loan Utilization|
|Total (Amount in US$ million)||Date||ADB||Others||Net Percentage|
|Project Cost||30.00||Cumulative Contract Awards|
|ADB||30.00||31 Aug 2018||2.83||0.00||9%|
|Counterpart||0.00||Cumulative Disbursements|
|Cofinancing||0.00||31 Aug 2018||1.46||0.00||5%|
Project Data Sheets (PDS) contain summary information on the project or program. Because the PDS is a work in progress, some information may not be included in its initial version but will be added as it becomes available. Information about proposed projects is tentative and indicative.
The Access to Information Policy (AIP) recognizes that transparency and accountability are essential to development effectiveness. It establishes the disclosure requirements for documents and information ADB produces or requires to be produced.
The Accountability Mechanism provides a forum where people adversely affected by ADB-assisted projects can voice and seek solutions to their problems and report alleged noncompliance of ADB's operational policies and procedures.
In preparing any country program or strategy, financing any project, or by making any designation of, or reference to, a particular territory or geographic area in this document, the Asian Development Bank does not intend to make any judgments as to the legal or other status of any territory or area.
Safeguard Documents See also: Safeguards
Safeguard documents provided at the time of project/facility approval may also be found in the list of linked documents provided with the Report and Recommendation of the President.
Evaluation Documents See also: Independent Evaluation
None currently available.
Related Publications
None currently available.
The Access to Information Policy (AIP) establishes the disclosure requirements for documents and information ADB produces or requires to be produced in its operations to facilitate stakeholder participation in ADB's decision-making. For more information, refer to the Safeguard Policy Statement, Operations Manual F1, and Operations Manual L3.
Requests for information may also be directed to the InfoUnit. | https://www.adb.org/projects/49387-002/main |
Industrial heritage is a symbol of human wisdom and civilization in a specific period of time, with unique historical, cultural, scientific, technological, economic and other values, and plays an important role in human social development and urban construction . Since the founding of the People’s Republic of China, China urgently needed to change the industrial structure and faced with the severe international situation, and built a series of industrial enterprises. Under the background of that time, the rise of these industrial enterprises cemented China’s national defense and promoted the development of China’s economy. After entering the 21st century, the world is moving from the industrial age to the information age, from the industrial society to the post-industrial society, with the formation of new industrial mode, which accelerated the transformation of economic development. Western countries have carried out industrial upgrading earlier. With the development of China’s economy, these traditional industries have been eliminated, and the industrial cities and towns have declined . Then, these abandoned industrial plants have caused a series of adverse effects, such as the waste of land, waste of resources, hindering the development of towns and cities. Secondly, a series of pollution produced in the process of traditional industrial production also aggravates the deterioration of urban environment. In addition, during the period of rapid economic development in China, the urban construction was generally influenced by the “technology-based” modernist trend of thought, and a large number of cities appeared the phenomenon of “thousands of cities looking the same” . With the development of human society gradually entered into an era of information and global economic integration, the developed countries and developing countries throughout the world’s major cities are gradually into the post-industrial era, dominated by the concept of sustainable development, building a harmonious society to become a human view of the world, the consensus of the world foundation . For the city, the traditional industrial heritage is the original form and texture of the town, which is the forgotten wealth of the city. In the process of urban planning and construction, the protection and utilization of industrial heritage have become an urgent task in China, and industrial heritage has become an urgent problem to be solved. The characteristics of industrial heritage in different regions are different. Therefore, to study the protection and reuse design of industrial heritage, different analyses should be made in combination with the actual situation of industrial heritage, and corresponding solutions should be formulated. In the field of industrial heritage in China, it increasingly presents its important theoretical and practical significance, and puts forward targeted suggestions for the protection and reuse of industrial heritage. With the wide application of advanced scientific tools, it provides important technical tools for the research on the impact of industrial heritage protection and reuse, provides theoretical support through scientific analysis, and applies new methods and new technologies to solve the problems in the field of industrial heritage protection and reuse in town planning.
Taking Guangyuan Dahua Mill industrial heritage protection and reuse design as the base, the author studies the protection and reuse design of industrial heritage. Guangyuan Dahua yarn factory in the Anti-Japanese War period, the formation of Xi’an, Guangyuan two factories. After liberation in the mid-1960s, facing the severe international situation, the country responded to the call to carry out the “three-line construction”. Cotton factory air-raid shelter increased to nearly 7000 square meters, constituting a considerable scale of civil air defense system. Therefore, Guangyuan Dahua Mill is an important industrial heritage . At present, the main factory of Guangyuan Dahua Yarn Factory has been transformed into a second-hand goods trading market, and the details of the original industrial remains inside have been destroyed. The facade of the annex building of the factory is dilapidated, and the structure needs to be strengthened. It is in urgent need of repair and reinforcement. After the scheme design, the reuse design.
He Guanghua (2020) analyzed the Anti-Japanese War course of Dahua Yarn Factory from the perspective of history and affirmed the historical value of Dahua Yarn Factory; Fu Yubing (2019) listed the relevant status quo and reuse methods of Guangyuan City in the study of the value evaluation system of the third-line industrial heritage in Sichuan; Peng Lijun (2017) studied the urbanization on the industrial heritage of Guangyuan’s third-line construction, mainly discussing the pressure of urbanization on third-line construction. In this paper, the research would be added to improve the industrial heritage protection and reuse of Guangyuan Dahua cotton in the field of deficiency, Guangyuan Dahua mills at the same time as one of representatives of the industrial heritage, industrial heritage value of itself is worthy of protection and reuse, the southwest national area of industrial heritage protection and reuse, is a typical value.
2. History and Development Status Quo
2.1. The Historical Evolution of the Development of Guangyuan Dahua Cotton Mill
Guangyuan Dahua Gauze Factory is the predecessor of Xi’an Dahua Gauze Factory, 1940 to prevent the Japanese bombing (Figure 1). The better power equipment and yarn machines of Xi’an Dahua Factory will be removed and transported to Guangyuan, and the factory will be built in caves. Dahua has two factories in Xi’an and Guangyuan. Since the mid-1960s after liberation, in the face of the grim international situation, the state has responded to the call to carry out the “three-line construction” . Cotton mill air raid shelter increases overall to close to 7000 square meters or so, forming a considerable scale of civil air defense system. The relics of the Anti-Japanese War, the industrial history and the modern civil air defense project of Guangyuan have been preserved completely in this way. It is not only the cultural treasure of the people of Guangyuan, but also the historical memory and an important industrial heritage.
2.2. Guangyuan Dahua Cotton Mill Protection Status Quo
In October 1999, Guangyuan Textile Mill went bankrupt under the national policy. The main building was transformed into a second-hand trade market, and
Figure 1. Historical thread of Dahua Textile Factory (the author participated in the production).
the original details of the industrial remains inside were destroyed. Facades of auxiliary buildings of the workshop are relatively dilapidated, and the structure needs to be strengthened, which is in urgent need of repair and reinforcement. The scheme of the main body of the workshop, its auxiliary buildings and new buildings covers a total land area of 71,027.02 square meters (106.54 mu) (Figure 2). The building is mainly multi-story, with the coexistence of brick-concrete and frame structure. The main types of buildings are: main body and auxiliary buildings of the workshop, air-raid shelter and landscape square (Figure 3). Dahua cotton mill construction status: the old buildings in the factory are well preserved, and there are a lot of ancient trees in the factory.
Dahua cotton mill architectural style is not unified, mostly 2 - 4 layers, multi-purpose brick structure, part of the building quality is better, retain the elements of the Republic of China, from the overall view of the building distribution is more disorderly. The height difference on the north side of the site is slightly larger. The lack of sanitation facilities (toilets, garbage cans) has seriously affected the landscape. Ground pavement, tree pool, billboards lack of unified design management, and most of the damage, single format, low quality and chaotic management.
3. Protection and Reuse Design
3.1. Project Positioning
The primary objective of the project is to address the continuing preservation of the industrial heritage and to enhance the cultural competitiveness and economic development of the region and even the cultural name card of the whole city after the master plan. Guangyuan Dahua Textile Factory is located at the edge of the core area of the traditional city center, with Jialing River on the west and Phoenix Mountain on the east. Relying on the beautiful landscape environment and the precious cultural and historical resources of the ancient city of
Figure 2. Design scope diagram (taken by the author).
Figure 3. The current situation of Dahua Textile Factory. (Photo by the author).
Guangyuan, combined with the core culture of Dahua Textile Factory, protect and continue the overall pattern and style of the historical and cultural city of Guangyuan, and maintain the style and characteristics of the city of Guangyuan as a whole. Build a cultural and commercial place with the most local characteristics of Guangyuan, and build an influential national 4A level tourist destination .
3.2. The Project Design
3.2.1. Overall Planning and Design
First of all, the protection and reuse design of industrial heritage are not isolated or single. It needs multi-dimensional, multi-level and overall planning. Master planning and design is a good way to protect industrial heritage. As Wu Liangyong said, the protection of cultural heritage is indeed facing many difficulties at present, but once the general direction is straightened out, overcoming short-term difficulties will lead to a bright road, and the road will become wider and wider. If the old city is afraid of difficulties and difficulties and does not move forward, it will be difficult for the city to recover .
In the “Guangyuan City North Area Controlled Detailed Planning”, Dahua Textile Factory belongs to the core protection area, the land is residential and commercial and financial land, the design according to the requirements of the upper planning, in line with the property of land use. The overall planning and design mainly focus on the protection of the original historical buildings (Figure 4). The grade assessment of the historical buildings is carried out, and the demolition of the dilapidated buildings within the protection scope is no longer carried out. The demolition area is 9607.79 square meters. In order to meet the development of the business format, the new construction is carried out on the basis of not destroying the principle of historical buildings. The total capacity area of the new construction is 6208.69 square meters. The design of the project is a combination of multiple functional subjects and complex internal functions. The main contents are: fine business; Wenchuang Hotel; Gourmet food and beverage; Supporting garage; KTV bar; Air raid shelter theme education exhibition and other formats layout. At the same time of protection, make it full of new vitality, into the new era of economic development wave (Figure 5).
Figure 4. Upper planning diagram (source: Guangyuan Municipal Planning Bureau).
Figure 5. Design general plan (the author participated in the production).
Figure 6. Business distribution plan (the author participated in the production).
3.2.2. The Special Design
The overall plan involves many factors, and the special design is an important part of the overall plan. The special design is also an important node of the overall planning. The success of the special design is conducive to the smooth implementation of the overall planning and design. The special design of the facade of the building maintains the original appearance of the building, and combines modern design materials and techniques to strengthen and repair the structure and enhance the overall spatial beauty. Through the display and exhibition of the spinning skills, the landscape design reproduces the prosperous scene of Dahua Textile Mill in the industrial period and shows the heritage of the spinning craft industry. Green building design, using solar roof instead of traditional tile roof, and has the function of collecting energy and generating electricity. Solar roofs are made of glass tiles with embedded solar cells, making them more elegant and durable. Responding to the call of “low-carbon revolution”, environmental protection and energy saving. Landscape special design through the design technique, let the material collision, pick up the Dahua yarn mill spinning process industrial memory; Through the extraction, simplification, reconstruction, design and integration of cultural elements such as textile culture and industrial heritage, Dahua 1939 can regain its memory and reappear its history. Live business, food competition, food music festival and other activities can be held regularly to enhance the attention of the project (Figure 6). Make use of the large space of the cotton mill, decorate the food court, special theme catering, such as music restaurant, children’s theme restaurant, etc. .
4. Summary and Discussion
The author thinks based on the current situation of China’s industrial heritage, the implementation of the Guangyuan Dahua Textile Factory specific practice project, to the protection and reuse of industrial heritage strategies for thinking. According to the characteristics of industrial heritage, the corresponding strategies are put forward. In the design, the emergence of “formulation” should be avoided, and the reuse design scheme should be formulated according to the characteristics of specific industrial heritage. To enhance the social attention, advocate public participation in the protection of industrial heritage, enhance their protection awareness, in the process of protection and reuse, both protection and reuse should be paid equal attention to, and the importance of protection should not be ignored in order to simply maximize the interests. Historic buildings should be protected to make them glow with new vitality, integrate into the economic development tide of the new era, and promote healthy economic development .
Today’s era belongs to the post-industrial era. For the products left-over from the industrial era, there are many utilization and protection modes in China today. This project also uses the tourism development mode among them to protect and reuse Dahua Textile Mill. But whether it can be successful, or needs to be tested in practice? Therefore, the author believes that the sustainable development of the protection and reuse of the industrial heritage in today’s era requires not only the protection of the industrial heritage itself, or good design, but also the economic size of the city itself and even the consumption characteristics, not necessarily the tourism mode or other modes. Because there are so many problems, we need new thinking and more practice in this area.
Funding
This paper is supported by Southwest Minzu University’s Innovative Research Project for Postgraduates in 2021 (No. CX2021SP157).
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Xu, H. and Chen, S.J. (2020) The Return and Rebirth of Dahua 1935: National Industrial Heritage. Regeneration of Built Environment of Existing Cities, No. 4, 20-26.
He, G.H. and He, M.Y. (2020) The Anti-Japanese War Legend of Dahua Textile Factory. Economic Crossline, 4, 48-51.
Hou, Jr. (2019) Research on the Protection and Reuse Design of Industrial Building Heritage. Qingdao University of Technology, Qingdao, 10-52.
Xu, D.F. (2012) Protection and Utilization of Chongqing Industrial Heritage and Urban Revitalization. Chongqing University, Chongqing, 99-101.
Wang, K.Y. (2017) Time Relation between Addition and Subtraction: Reconstruction of Workshop and Production Auxiliary Room of Xi’an Dahua Textile Mill. Industrial Construction, 47, 70-73.
Gao, X.G. (2017) Research Progress and Prospect of Industrial Heritage in China in Recent Ten Years. World Geographical Studies, 26, 97-101. | https://m.scirp.org/papers/111191 |
Continually logging and re-growing tropical forests to supply timber is reducing the levels of vital nutrients in the soil, which may limit future forest growth and recovery, a new study suggests. This raises concerns about the long-term sustainability of logging in the tropics.
Logging, pervasive across the lowland tropics, affects millions of hectares of forest, yet its influence on nutrient cycling remains poorly understood. One of the theories suggests that logging affects P cycling because this scarce nutrient is removed in extracted timber and eroded soil, leading to shifts in ecosystem functioning and community composition.
A new study by Cambridge University suggests that continually logging and re-growing tropical woods to supply timber is diminishing the degrees of imperative supplements in the soil. According to scientists, this continual growth may limit forest growth in the future.
Scientists observed that the trees, which are recovering tropical forests- have more robust leaves and lower concentrations of the nutrients phosphorus and nitrogen. Both ingredients are essential for plant and tree growth. Meanwhile, multiple cycles of logging and recovery irreversibly remove phosphorus from the forest system and are pushing the nutrient content towards ecological limits.
Soil absorbs nutrients including phosphorous, from rocks and later taken up by trees via their roots. Cutting down the trees leads these nutrients through soil erosion, gas emissions, and removal of nutrients in the extracted timber.
Almost 30% of the available phosphorus in the soil is being removed from tropical forest systems by repeated logging.
Dr. Tom Swinfield, a plant scientist in the University of Cambridge Conservation Research Institute, said, “We see that as the logged forests start recovering, they’re actually diverging from the old-growth forests in terms of their leaf chemistry and possibly also species composition, as the amount of available nutrients goes down. At the moment, the trees can cope, but the fact that they’re changing indicates phosphorus levels in the soil are dropping. This could affect the speed at which forests recover from future disturbances.”
Scientists captured high-resolution images of the forest landscape in north-eastern Borneo using LIDAR-guided imaging spectroscopy from an aircraft. Data obtained was then merged with nutrient measurements from 700 individual trees in the forest. Doing this enabled scientists to map the concentrations of nutrients in the trees’ leaves over an area containing repeatedly logged forest and old-growth forest, and compare the two.
This is the first landscape-scale study of how leaf function changes in response to logging. Selective logging is carried out extensively across millions of hectares of forest in the tropics so that degraded forests are now more widespread than old-growth forests. The study suggests that each consecutive harvest reduces the level of nutrients in the system, and newly established trees have to adapt to conserve the scarce resources available to them.
Professor David Coomes, Director of the University of Cambridge Conservation Research Institute, said, “Phosphorus limitation is a severe global issue: it’s one of the areas where humans are using a vital resource beyond sustainable levels. The researchers found that differences from old-growth forest become more pronounced as logged forests grow larger over time, suggesting exacerbated phosphorus limitation as forests recover.” | |
Meetings are on the second Monday of each month at 10:30 am. We read a wide variety of fiction and non-fiction. Some of our more recent favorites have been memoirs. Members of the club make suggestions based on books they have already read. The selection must also be available in paperback since some members may have to purchase their own copies. December is the Christmas Party when members bring snacks and copies of books they wish to suggest for the next year. The titles are discussed and voted on by the members. Everyone is welcome!
Upcoming Meetings:
May 10th
MARBLE FALLS LIBRARY CLASSICS BOOK CLUB
First Wednesday of each month at 10:30 AM
Many of us read the classics in school, as assignments, but classics take on a whole new meaning and interest when essays, quizzes and tests are removed from the equation! The titles or authors are discussed and voted on by the members month to month. This is the most relaxed Classics Book Club around. Discover the classics all over again and join the fun today!
Upcoming Meetings:
June 2nd: Rebecca by Daphne du Maurier
MARBLE FALLS LIBRARY MYSTERY BOOK CLUB
First Thursday of each month at 1:00 PM
Meetings are on the first Thursday of every month at 1:00 pm (unless the day is in bold text). Mystery fiction of every type is fair game. The specific books to be read are selected toward the end of the present calendar year for the subsequent calendar year. Titles are chosen by means of suggestions from members, shrewd analysis and divine intervention. Members are expected to occasionally read a book, be somewhat well-behaved and harbor a healthy disregard for authority.
Upcoming Meetings:
May 6th: Where the Crawdads Sing by Della Owens
June 3rd: The Widows of Malabar Hill by Sujata Massey
July 1st: November Road by Lou Berney
August 5th: Navajo Autumn by R. Allen Chappell
September 2nd: House Witness by Mike Lawson
**Even if you haven’t read the books, come join the clubs for their monthly meetings. | https://marblefallslibrary.org/monthly-book-clubs/ |
Beane, Allan L. (2009). Bullying Prevention for Schools: A Step-by-Step Guide to Implementing a Successful Anti-bullying Program, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA.
Beane, Allan L., Miller, Thomas W. and Spurling, Rick. “The Bully Free� Program: A Profile for Prevention in the School Setting” (Book Chapter published in School Violence and Primary Prevention (2008), Thomas W. Miller (Editor), Springer Science + Business Media, LLC, 233 Spring Street, New York, pages 391-406.
Spurling, Rick. (Dec. 2004). The Bully-Free School Zone Character Education Program: A Study of the Impact on Five Western North Carolina Middle Schools. East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, Tennessee.
The program is based on scientific research and includes scientifically proven strategies and curriculum. Prior to developing the program, Bully Free� Systems, LLC carefully conducted an analysis of the current research on the topic and related topics (i.e., promoting acceptance, hate, prejudice, discrimination, peer rejection, conflict, anger, behavior management, violence, assimilation, sense of community, school climate, etc.) and effective instructional practices. Current educational standards were also analyzed. Research was conducted to develop an appropriate scope and sequence of the knowledge and skills to be learned. The administrative and teacher focused strategies and the curriculum were developed and tested through problem-solving teacher and administrator focus groups as well as in a variety of school settings. Since 1999, teachers and other professionals have reported the educational effectiveness of the materials and resources included in the program.
The effectiveness of the program has been evaluated by using widely recognized reliable and valid quantitative and qualitative methods that involve rigorous data analysis. For example, reliable (.91) surveys have been used to collect quantitative data. Pre- and post-program existing data (i.e., attendance, expulsions, suspensions, detentions, vandalism, test scores, aggressive occurrences, etc.) were also examined. Qualitative and continuous assessment methods such as focus groups with school personnel, students, and parents have been used to collect information about the implementation, quality, and effectiveness of the program.
In 2010, the program was piloted in ten school districts. Both formative and summative evaluation strategies were used to test the effectiveness of the program. The school districts used the first year to train school personnel and to plan. The second year they implemented the strategies and curriculum (Bullying Prevention Lesson Plans). The following is a summary of a few of the findings when pre- and post-program data for the elementary, middle, and high schools were analyzed. After looking at the t-test statistical significance (p < .05), improvement was found in 50 of the 59 behavior items measured by the survey. The following is a sampling of the findings in two areas: What Students See and What Happens to Students.
decreased the number of students who see other students have things damaged or stolen from them.
decreased the number of students hit, pinched, kicked, tripped, pushed, elbowed, touched, or grabbed in a hurtful or embarrassing way.
decreased the number of students ignored, rejected, lied about, had rumors told about them, or had hurtful and mean notes written about them.
decreased the number of students called names, teased, made fun of the way they look or dress, or put down in a hurtful way.
decreased the number of students who had things damaged or stolen from them.
decreased the number of students bullied while waiting for the bus to arrive to take them to school.
decreased the number of students bullied while riding the bus home from school. | http://bullyfree.com/school-program/program-effectiveness-data |
Macbeth - Victim or Villain?
Extracts from this document...
Introduction
Macbeth Victim or Villain Upon the opening of the play of Macbeth we hear of him through narrative but do not see him, though the sergeant is biased towards Macbeth and Banquo in his report of them in battle. We find out from the sergeant that Macbeth is someone who portrayed valour on the battlefield. However, this is interesting because we find out later that Macbeth is not as ruthless when he is not on the battlefield. Macbeth was frightened of the witches when he first saw them. Firstly by their appearance and secondly by their predictions, but what is interesting is that the witches predicted things which were positive so Macbeth was afraid of how he might react after hearing their predictions. So we have clues that Macbeth had already thought about plotting to kill the king because of his ambition. All he needed was a little push to carry it through. I will convey to you the changes that take place in Macbeth�s character and his thought process as he changes. It is clear that Macbeth is well respected in the beginning of the play because of the sergeant's report. The sergeant's report made Macbeth sound gallant and the traitor Mackdonwald sound ruthless and not worthy of being killed by Macbeth. ...read more.
Middle
This is a dangerous sign that he is on the turning point of loosing his morals. Lady Macbeth wants her husband to be king but she feels that he is not ruthless enough: "art not without the ambition, but without the illness should attend it". Lady Macbeth wants Macbeth to be as malicious as her so she say's she will "Pour...spirits in thine ear". This means that she will try to convince Macbeth to be evil like her. The fact that Lady Macbeth wants her husband to be capable of murder is very important because she acts as a catalyst in changing her husband's limits when it comes to killing. When Macbeth is thinking about why he shouldn't kill the king he thinks that Duncan has been a good king and there will be an uproar after his death: "Hath born his faculties so meek....his virtues will plead like angels". We can see that at this point Macbeth's conscience is stronger than his ambition and he is weak in that he cannot control his ambition but at the same time his emotions are taking over the way he acts. When Macbeth tries to make a stand up to his wife he say's: "We shall proceed no further in this business". ...read more.
Conclusion
Macbeth believes that the more evil tasks you perform, the easier they become to do: "Bad begun, make strong themselves by ill". Macbeth visits the witches to find out what he should do next and they tell him to beware of Macduff, so when he finds out that he has fled from England he kills his entire family: "The castle of Macduff I will surprise". Throughout the play, we find Macbeth�s character changes. At first he appears to be a brave and honourable soldier. However, his character proves to be more complex. There is a darker side to him; his weakness, his greed and ambition leads him to murder the king. The weak side of his nature lays him open to manipulation and emotional blackmail by his wife. His thirst for power drives him on. However, the remorse he primarily feels upon murdering the king is short lived. Indeed the darker side of his nature overtakes his fears of God forsaking him: "amen stuck in his throat". He is eclipsed by the ruthless side of his nature and is driven to commit more atrocious murders to further his ambitions. We have learnt that Macbeth was not a person who was predictable or to be underestimated. He was a Villain in his own mind. "Fair is foul and foul is fair" ...read more.
This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE Macbeth section.
Found what you're looking for? | http://www.markedbyteachers.com/gcse/english/macbeth-victim-or-villain.html |
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