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Small shifts of the arc along the slit were made between exposures to improve the flat [ielding and hence | Small shifts of the arc along the slit were made between exposures to improve the flat fielding and hence |
Such mass discrepancies are deduced not ouly by following the motion of massive objects bound to the system such as stars and eas. | Such mass discrepancies are deduced not only by following the motion of massive objects bound to the system such as stars and gas. |
A powerful method that complements such studies involves the measureucut of the bending of helt ravs comiug from far objects in the background. as they pass near the object uuder studyso called gravitational lensing. | A powerful method that complements such studies involves the measurement of the bending of light rays coming from far objects in the background, as they pass near the object under study–so called gravitational lensing. |
The results of such iieasureimneuts are consistent with those of bound particles imieasureiments in regions where the two coincide. | The results of such measurements are consistent with those of bound particles measurements in regions where the two coincide. |
The method also enables us to measure the discrepancy at very lavee radi. where the first method is not applicable for lack of probing objects. | The method also enables us to measure the discrepancy at very large radii, where the first method is not applicable for lack of probing objects. |
The need for DA arises also iu the context of cosmology. in particular iu comection with the way ealactic svstenis lave ormed out of the uniforii. primordial sou>». | The need for DM arises also in the context of cosmology, in particular in connection with the way galactic systems have formed out of the uniform, primordial soup. |
It is thought that he universe. which has been expanding since the initial "big bane”. contained in the early stages a rather 1wiform. hot mixture of known matter (protons. electrons. photous. some nuclei. ete.) | It is thought that the universe, which has been expanding since the initial “big bang”, contained in the early stages a rather uniform, hot mixture of known matter (protons, electrons, photons, some nuclei, etc.) |
ane| DM in roughly a one to five xoportion. | and DM in roughly a one to five proportion. |
As the universe expanded andl cooled. the snall seed non-uniforiiies iu the mass distribution ave gradually increased in imagnuituce. due to gravitational self attraction. a process that eventualv led to the formation of ealactic svstenis. | As the universe expanded and cooled, the small seed non-uniformities in the mass distribution have gradually increased in magnitude, due to gravitational self attraction, a process that eventually led to the formation of galactic systems. |
Noral natter was initially hot aud ionized (charged) and so subiissive to the black body radiation anibiaice the1 preseut iu abundance. | Normal matter was initially hot and ionized (charged) and so submissive to the black body radiation ambiance then present in abundance. |
Tu πιchas ate. the normal mater could uot efficiently collapse to enhance the streποτ] of the mass agelomerates. because the donmiueeriue radiatiou docs nof collapse. | In such a state, the normal matter could not efficiently collapse to enhance the strength of the mass agglomerates, because the domineering radiation does not collapse. |
However. at a certain stage. matter cooled euoush aud formed neutral atoms. | However, at a certain stage, matter cooled enough and formed neutral atoms. |
Its free of the restraints of he radiationcould then couluce o erow effectively. | Its non-uniformities--now free of the restraints of the radiation–could then continue to grow effectively. |
Alas. without auxiliaries. standard dvuauies tells us tlat sich non-uniformities of normal matter did not have enough time to grow ilo the structures we see today in tlje time since it became neutral. | Alas, without auxiliaries, standard dynamics tells us that such non-uniformities of normal matter did not have enough time to grow into the structures we see today in the time since it became neutral. |
Dark matter conies to the rescue because. beiug neutral. it could have coapsecd freely even before the neuvalization. | Dark matter comes to the rescue because, being neutral, it could have collapsed freely even before the neutralization. |
When normal matter neutralized it already: found itselfi1 the preseuce of 1)etter develoed. clumps of DM. which then pulled the Loyual matter mto them. hasteuius f16. collapse. | When normal matter neutralized it already found itself in the presence of better developed clumps of DM, which then pulled the normal matter into them, hastening the collapse. |
Thus begins a conrOX process of continued collapse. inter‘action and mergers between clamys. dissipation of the nornalimatter gas. its forming stars. aud its οxpusion from galaxies bv various procesess otc This. still ongoing. process has led to the matter agelomeratesCoco» that we see todav as Oogalaxies. Oogalaxy C»groups. clusters. aud stper-clusters. | Thus begins a complex process of continued collapse, interaction and mergers between clumps, dissipation of the normal-matter gas, its forming stars, and its expulsion from galaxies by various processes, etc.. This, still ongoing, process has led to the matter agglomerates that we see today as galaxies, galaxy groups, clusters, and super-clusters. |
These agelomierates are conipOSCC of an extended imvisible “halo” o|: DM. at the center of which sits the normal latter. whic Lis visible as radiation ciitting aud absorbing eas. aud as shiniug (ancl dea) stars that formed later. | These agglomerates are composed of an extended invisible “halo” of DM, at the center of which sits the normal matter, which is visible as radiation emitting and absorbing gas, and as shining (and dead) stars that formed later. |
All this is what the DM paradigin would have us believe. ( | All this is what the DM paradigm would have us believe. ( |
Dark energy will be discussed later.) | Dark energy will be discussed later.) |
The DA piradienài can make hardly any prediction without further svecification of the nature of the DM. | The DM paradigm can make hardly any prediction without further specification of the nature of the DM. |
As à general concept DM is only a filler. whose preseuce is assume wrere needed. | As a general concept DM is only a filler, whose presence is assume where needed. |
However. there is a class of caucdicdates for tre DM substance that is now favored. called cold DA (CDMD. | However, there is a class of candidates for the DM substance that is now favored, called cold DM (CDM). |
Attention on CDM lias converecd afer several other candidates have been ruled out aud discarded «ver the vears. such as neutrinos. and massive. dead. stelay objects. | Attention on CDM has converged after several other candidates have been ruled out and discarded over the years, such as neutrinos, and massive, dead, stellar objects. |
This paricular choice does leud itself ο certain predictions. and from now on I shall refer to lus option. | This particular choice does lend itself to certain predictions, and from now on I shall refer to this option. |
There are. at preseut. two types of paricles that are considered the cading candidates for the CDM constitueuts: supersviuuetric counterpart of ordinary particles is tle one. tie so called "axiou is the other. | There are, at present, two types of particles that are considered the leading candidates for the CDM constituents: supersymmetric counterpart of ordinary particles is the one, the so called “axion” is the other. |
Doth are wpothetical particles whose existeice Is rooted in differeut elemeitary particle theories. | Both are hypothetical particles whose existence is rooted in different elementary particle theories. |
They are of very different nature. so the wavs to detect them are very different. aud the wavs they have appeared in the cosmos. in the first place. are very different. | They are of very different nature, so the ways to detect them are very different, and the ways they have appeared in the cosmos, in the first place, are very different. |
However. their effects 1 cosinoloey are simular. as they suplv ac as inert. hardly interacting. relatively Leavy particles. | However, their effects in cosmology are similar, as they simply act as inert, hardly interacting, relatively heavy particles. |
Neither of the two has been produced in the laboratory. or is even known to exist on other secure erounds. ct alone to have been caught in the act of plaving the role of DM (even if such particles do exist. they need not be the DM particles). | Neither of the two has been produced in the laboratory, or is even known to exist on other secure grounds, let alone to have been caught in the act of playing the role of DM (even if such particles do exist, they need not be the DM particles). |
One of the declared goals of the LIC accelerator in CERN is to produce | One of the declared goals of the LHC accelerator in CERN is to produce |
Several eclipses of PTFI1.441 were observed 1n. short-cadence mode at BOS. | Several eclipses of PTF11.441 were observed in short-cadence mode at BOS. |
We used an Astrodon Photometrics UV-blocked clear filter in order to maximize the signal to noise ratio (SNR) per unit time. | We used an Astrodon Photometrics UV-blocked clear filter in order to maximize the signal to noise ratio (SNR) per unit time. |
We used 3x3 binning (0.8587 / pixel). and set the camera to only readout a small subsection of the CCD encompassing the target star. and three nearby stars of similar brightness to be used as comparison stars. | We used $\times$ 3 binning (0.858" / pixel), and set the camera to only readout a small subsection of the CCD encompassing the target star, and three nearby stars of similar brightness to be used as comparison stars. |
This reduced the readout plus dead time ofthe instrument from z]Os to «5s. and allowed us to achieve a photometric noise rate of =1.66/min. | This reduced the readout plus dead time ofthe instrument from $\approx$ 10s to $\approx$ 5s, and allowed us to achieve a photometric noise rate of $\rm \approx 1.6\% / min$. |
PTF28.852 was observed photometrically on 2010-11-10 and 2010-11-16 using the 2.0mm Faulkes Telescope North (FTN. Maui. Hawar1) operated by LCOGT. | PTF28.852 was observed photometrically on 2010-11-10 and 2010-11-16 using the m Faulkes Telescope North (FTN, Maui, Hawai'i) operated by LCOGT. |
In both cases. the Spectral CCD was used along with a Pan-STARRS-z filter. | In both cases, the Spectral CCD was used along with a Pan-STARRS-z filter. |
The Spectral instrument contains a Fairchild CCD486 back-illuminated 4096x pixel CCD which was binned 2x2 giving 0.3037. pixels and a field of view of 10%x10’. | The Spectral instrument contains a Fairchild CCD486 back-illuminated $4096\times4096$ pixel CCD which was binned $\times$ 2 giving 0.303" pixels and a field of view of $10\arcmin \times 10\arcmin$. |
Exposure times were 130 sseconds respectively on the two nights. | Exposure times were 130 seconds respectively on the two nights. |
The frames were pre-processed using standard techniques for bias subtraction and flat-fielding: dark current subtraction was not performed as it is negligibly small for this instrument. | The frames were pre-processed using standard techniques for bias subtraction and flat-fielding; dark current subtraction was not performed as it is negligibly small for this instrument. |
Object detection and aperture photometry were performed using the DAOPHOT photometry package within the IRAF environment. | Object detection and aperture photometry were performed using the DAOPHOT photometry package within the IRAF environment. |
The aperture sizes used were 7 and 5 pixels in radius on the two nights. | The aperture sizes used were 7 and 5 pixels in radius on the two nights. |
Differential photometry was performed relative to 5-6 comparison stars within the field of view. | Differential photometry was performed relative to 5–6 comparison stars within the field of view. |
The Dunlap Institute Arctic Telescope is a 20-inch robotic telescope currently undergoing testing at the New Mexico Skies observatory at Clouderoft. NM. | The Dunlap Institute Arctic Telescope is a 20-inch robotic telescope currently undergoing testing at the New Mexico Skies observatory at Cloudcroft, NM. |
Once testing is complete. the telescope will be based at the PEARL research station on Ellesmere Island at a latitude of 80 degrees North. where it will perform a search for transiting planets. | Once testing is complete, the telescope will be based at the PEARL research station on Ellesmere Island at a latitude of 80 degrees North, where it will perform a search for transiting planets. |
The telescope is equipped with a 16-megapixel Apogee UIGM camera with a 34’x34 field of view. | The telescope is equipped with a 16-megapixel Apogee U16M camera with a $34\arcmin \times 34\arcmin$ field of view. |
We observed PTFEBI1.441 on the night of October 23 2011. | We observed PTFEB11.441 on the night of October 23 2011. |
120-second exposure g. r. and i-band images were taken in sequence throughout an eclipse of the target. | 120-second exposure g, r, and i-band images were taken in sequence throughout an eclipse of the target. |
After standard calibrations. differential photometry was performed using the pipeline described in section 2.].. | After standard calibrations, differential photometry was performed using the pipeline described in section \ref{sec:p48_reduction}. |
We obtamed low-resolution optical spectra of PTFEB28.235 and— PTFEB28.852 —on 2010 Nov 30 UT. and PTFEBI1.441 on 2011 Oct 25 UT. | We obtained low-resolution optical spectra of PTFEB28.235 and PTFEB28.852 on 2010 Nov 30 UT, and PTFEB11.441 on 2011 Oct 25 UT. |
Spectra were acquired with the dual-arm Kast spectrograph (?) on the 3-m Shane telescope at Lick Observatory. | Spectra were acquired with the dual-arm Kast spectrograph \citep{ms93} on the 3-m Shane telescope at Lick Observatory. |
The spectra used à 2 aresee wide slit. a 600/4310 grism on the blue side and à 300/7500 grating on the red side. yielding FWHM resolutions of =4 .aand =10ΑΑ. | The spectra used a 2 arcsec wide slit, a 600/4310 grism on the blue side and a 300/7500 grating on the red side, yielding FWHM resolutions of $\approx 4$ and $\approx 10$. |
. All observations were aligned along the parallactic angle to reduce differential light losses. | All observations were aligned along the parallactic angle to reduce differential light losses. |
All spectra were reduced using standard techniques (e.g.. ?)). | All spectra were reduced using standard techniques (e.g., \citealt{fps+03}) ). |
Routine CCD processing and spectrum extraction were completed withinIRAF.. and the data were extracted with the optical algorithm of ?.. | Routine CCD processing and spectrum extraction were completed within, and the data were extracted with the optical algorithm of \citet{h86}. |
We obtained the wavelength scale from low-order polynomial fits to calibration-lamp spectra, | We obtained the wavelength scale from low-order polynomial fits to calibration-lamp spectra. |
Small wavelength shifts were then applied to the data after cross-correlating a template sky to the night-sky lines that were extracted with the supernova. | Small wavelength shifts were then applied to the data after cross-correlating a template sky to the night-sky lines that were extracted with the supernova. |
Using our own routines. we fit spectrophotometric standard-star spectra to the data to flux calibrate our spectra and to remove telluric lines (?2).. | Using our own routines, we fit spectrophotometric standard-star spectra to the data to flux calibrate our spectra and to remove telluric lines \citep{wh88,mfh+00}. |
We obtained high-dispersion spectra for the whte-dwarf / M-dwarf systems using the High-Resolution Echelle Spectrometer (HIRES) on the Keck-I 10m telescope. | We obtained high-dispersion spectra for the whte-dwarf / M-dwarf systems using the High-Resolution Echelle Spectrometer (HIRES) on the Keck-I 10m telescope. |
HIRES is a single-slit echelle spectrograph permanently mounted on the Nasmyth platform. | HIRES is a single-slit echelle spectrograph permanently mounted on the Nasmyth platform. |
All observations were performed using the red channel. and span a wavelength range of 4300-8600 angstroms. | All observations were performed using the red channel, and span a wavelength range of 4300-8600 angstroms. |
All were obtained using the C2 decker. which yields a spectral resolution of Ro~45000. | All were obtained using the C2 decker, which yields a spectral resolution of $R \sim 45000$. |
We processed our HIRES data using the standard pipeline MAKEE. which automatically extracts. flat-fields. and wavelength-calibrates spectra taken in most standard HIRES configurations. | We processed our HIRES data using the standard pipeline MAKEE, which automatically extracts, flat-fields, and wavelength-calibrates spectra taken in most standard HIRES configurations. |
In table 2. we list the epochs and exposure times for all of our HIRES observations. | In table \ref{tab:rvs}, we list the epochs and exposure times for all of our HIRES observations. |
In order to remove small drifts in the wavelength calibration over the course of the night. we cross-correlated each spectrum's telluric features at 7600. angstroms with. the telluric features for standard stars selected from ?.. placing all observations into a common frame set by the Earth's atmosphere. | In order to remove small drifts in the wavelength calibration over the course of the night, we cross-correlated each spectrum's telluric features at 7600 angstroms with the telluric features for standard stars selected from \citet{Nidever2002}, placing all observations into a common frame set by the Earth's atmosphere. |
As we have previously shown (?).. this reduces the systematic uncertainty in the measured velocities to ~0.3 km/s. We then measured the position and equivalent width (EW) of the H-alpha line at each epoch. | As we have previously shown \citep{Kraus2011}, this reduces the systematic uncertainty in the measured velocities to $\sim$ 0.3 km/s. We then measured the position and equivalent width (EW) of the H-alpha line at each epoch. |
The results are summarized in table 2.. | The results are summarized in table \ref{tab:rvs}. |
Robo-AO is a visible and near-infrared laser guide star adaptive optics system specifically engineered for 1-3 m class telescopes (?).. | Robo-AO is a visible and near-infrared laser guide star adaptive optics system specifically engineered for 1-3 m class telescopes \citep{Baranec2011}. . |
The Robo-AO system comprises an ultraviolet Rayleigh laser guide star. an integrated adaptive optics and science camera system. and a robotic control system. | The Robo-AO system comprises an ultraviolet Rayleigh laser guide star, an integrated adaptive optics and science camera system, and a robotic control system. |
The | The |
temperature of (he shell is »200 keV and its cvnamics is well approximated by the relativistic sell-similar solution. | temperature of the shell is $\sim 200$ keV and its dynamics is well approximated by the relativistic self-similar solution. |
Shells with 0.5κ5;5;«1 also have an initial temperature ol ~200 keV but their dynamics is better described by Newtonian approximation. | Shells with $0.5 < \g_i \beta_i < 1$ also have an initial temperature of $\sim 200$ keV but their dynamics is better described by Newtonian approximation. |
Namely. shock propagation according to the self similar solution of Sakurai(1960) and no significant acceleration alter shock breakout. | Namely, shock propagation according to the self similar solution of \cite{Sakurai60} and no significant acceleration after shock breakout. |
The transition time between the relativistie and Newtonian phases is calculated below and it takes place around: During the Newtonian phase /4,xο+. | The transition time between the relativistic and Newtonian phases is calculated below and it takes place around: During the Newtonian phase $t_{obs} \propto \vh^{-4}$. |
The end of the phase in which the initia temperature of the shell is constant. takes place when ¢20.5c. which is at lays02AMLOIS. | The end of the phase in which the initial temperature of the shell is constant takes place when $\vh \approx 0.5$ c, which is at $t_{obs} \approx 10 t_{NW}^{obs}$. |
IIere we present Iuminositv ancl temperature evolution duringoO the spherica phase up to that point (62 0.5¢). | Here we present luminosity and temperature evolution during the spherical phase up to that point $\vh \approx 0.5$ c). |
At later times the temperature crops quickly until (hernia. equilibrium is obtained. | At later times the temperature drops quickly until thermal equilibrium is obtained. |
Therefore (here is a sharp break in the temperature evolution al 10/ sq. | Therefore there is a sharp break in the temperature evolution at $10
t_{NW}$ . |
The light eive evolution al />10/44 is covered by Nakar&Sari(2010). | The light curve evolution at $t>10 t_{NW}$ is covered by \cite{Nakar10}. |
. The relativistic velocity of the shells dictates 7~1 and since 7xm/r? the mass of the shell is /7x/?. | The relativistic velocity of the shells dictates $\tauh \sim 1$ and since $\tau \propto m/r^2$ the mass of the shell is $\mh \propto
t^{2}$. |
The photons from the shell arrive to the observer al lpg39WAG and (heir arrival is distributed over a comparable duration. | The photons from the shell arrive to the observer at $t_{obs} \approx t/\gfh^2$ and their arrival is distributed over a comparable duration. |
Therefore the shell satisfies mox(UP. 5;x|obs0.12 andT0.33 EY x[m;...|↽while0.5obs ⋅ PXIXaspxX!O31vi and equation 10 dictates 7"x0,36(0°. | Therefore the shell satisfies $\mh \propto
t_{obs}^{0.69}$, $\gih \propto t_{obs}^{-0.12}$, $\gfh \propto
t_{obs}^{-0.33}$ and $\Eh_i' \propto \mh \gih \propto
t_{obs}^{0.57}$, while $\rh \propto t \propto t_{obs}\gfh^2 \propto
t_{obs}^{0.34}$ and equation \ref{eq Ttag} dictates $\Th' \propto
t_{obs}^{-0.36}$. |
The observed luminosity and (emperature are: The relativistic phase ends once 5;21 αἱ a time given in equation 30.. | The observed luminosity and temperature are: The relativistic phase ends once $\gih \approx 1$ at a time given in equation \ref{eq tNW}. |
The luminosity curing this phase is independent of the temperature since pairs are long eone. | The luminosity during this phase is independent of the temperature since pairs are long gone. |
It is therelore similar to (he Iuminositv evolution of the spherical phase following a | It is therefore similar to the luminosity evolution of the spherical phase following a |
One inuiuediatelv suspects that such a description may uot incorporate the full physical effects of such physical potentials as og, even though this conclusion is consistent with the classical wisdom. | One immediately suspects that such a description may not incorporate the full physical effects of such physical potentials as $\phi_{GA}$ even though this conclusion is consistent with the classical wisdom. |
Iudeed. the classical equation of motion consistent with the approximation in Eq. (33) | Indeed, the classical equation of motion consistent with the approximation in Eq. \ref{gmunu}) ) |
is Invariant under the transformation | is invariant under the transformation r)_E r) + r). |
For this reason ος has no apparent effect on the planetary orbits. | For this reason $\phi_{GA}$ has no apparent effect on the planetary orbits. |
Tu the quantum realii the appropriate equation of motion is the Scliródcdiuger equation with a eravitational interaction enerev ter as has been confined iu the classic neutron interferometry experiments of (οσα, Overhauser. and odWerner.. | In the quantum realm the appropriate equation of motion is the Schröddinger equation with a gravitational interaction energy term as has been confirmed in the classic neutron interferometry experiments of Collela, Overhauser, and \cite{COW,JJS}. |
Equation (7)) is not invariaut under the transformation of the type (3)). | Equation \ref{Schrodinger}) ) is not invariant under the transformation of the type \ref{transformation}) ). |
Moreover. this lack of iuvariance does not disappear in the relativistic reelme where an appropriate relativistic wave equation. such as the Dirac equation. must be considered. | Moreover, this lack of invariance does not disappear in the relativistic regime where an appropriate relativistic wave equation, such as the Dirac equation, must be considered. |
Therefore. the eravitational potential that appears in Eq. (7)) | Therefore, the gravitational potential that appears in Eq. \ref{Schrodinger}) ) |
cannot be identified with of(7) of Eq. (3)). | cannot be identified with $\phi_E(\vec r)$ of Eq. \ref{phie}) ). |
To treat the contributions from the Creat attractor aud the Earth on the same footing of physical reality. the following ideutification las to be made: ll)Yoo Far) eude- v8) | To treat the contributions from the Great attractor and the Earth on the same footing of physical reality, the following identification has to be made: r) r) + r). |
A second observation to be mace is to note that while by setting i;=Ng in Eq. (5)) | A second observation to be made is to note that while by setting $m_i=m_g$ in Eq. \ref{Newton}) ) |
the resulting equation becomes indepeudent of the test-particle mass. this is so for the quantum mechanical equation of motion (7) y! These two distinctious between the classical aud quautun-evolutious lead to the conclusion that the theory of general relativity for the description of | the resulting equation becomes independent of the test-particle mass, this is so for the quantum mechanical equation of motion \ref{Schrodinger}) \cite{JJS}
These two distinctions between the classical- and quantum-evolutions lead to the conclusion that the theory of general relativity for the description of |
the neutral yaction rapidly increases to munity. where the nl condition breaks down and equation 7 becomes invalid. | the neutral fraction rapidly increases to unity, where the $x\ll 1$ condition breaks down and equation \ref{eq:x2} becomes invalid. |
However. his does uot affect the results shown below for the followiug reasons. | However, this does not affect the results shown below for the following reasons. |
First. the dux trausuission shortwiud of the waveleneth that we are concerned with occurs in reeious with optical depth 7xT or c€bνLO. η | First, the flux transmission shortward of the wavelength that we are concerned with occurs in regions with optical depth $\tau\le 7$ or $x\le 5\times 10^{-5}$ . |
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