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SMNMLJJIIOTI]0252 is one of the first subiuillimeter galaxies (x50, 71522 unuJs. Ivison et 22000) that has been detected in CO emissiou (Fraver et 11999. J=3: Downes Solomon 2005. 7=3. J—1). | J14011+0252 is one of the first submillimeter galaxies $_{850\mu
m}$ $\pm$ mJy, Ivison et 2000) that has been detected in CO emission (Frayer et 1999, $J$ =3; Downes Solomon 2003, $J$ =3, $J$ =7). |
Downes Solomon argue that the source is strougly leused. with a maguification factor ~=25+5. | Downes Solomon argue that the source is strongly lensed, with a magnification factor $\mu$ $\pm$ 5. |
The line is shown iu Figure 10 (see also Table 3). | The line is shown in Figure 10 (see also Table 3). |
This source is a triplelensed system in which all three nuages are bright in the subiuillimeter (brightest imaee BY 1722 muy. πο ct 22001). | This source is a triple–lensed system in which all three images are bright in the submillimeter (brightest image `B': $_{850\mu
m}$ $\pm$ mJy, Kneib et 2004). |
All images rave Sssojnsubsequently been detected in CO oemissiou (Sheth et 22001. J—3. ἵνα et 22005. 7=3). | All images have subsequently been detected in CO emission (Sheth et 2004, $J$ =3, Kneib et 2005, $J$ =3). |
νο et ((2001) have argued that the magnifications for he three damages are 11432. 2242 aud 942. respectively. | Kneib et (2004) have argued that the magnifications for the three images are $\pm$ 2, $\pm$ 2 and $\pm$ 2, respectively. |
J CO transitions have been preseuted in et ((2005a). | $J$ CO transitions have been presented in et (2005a). |
The beams are 18 aud 11" at our tuned requencies at 21umnaà aud τα respectively. ic. only he brighest image CD) is covered in our observations. | The beams are $''$ and $''$ at our tuned frequencies at mm and mm respectively, i.e. only the brighest image (`B') is covered in our observations. |
Iu Figure 11 we show the (Cleft) and the (Giehlt) spectra (see also Table 3). | In Figure 11 we show the (left) and the (right) spectra (see also Table 3). |
JJ2322|19LL is a lensed source (j(/95.123:0.3. Riechers ct 22008b) which is bright in the stbmillmeter (54509,," 222.552. ΗΝ. Isaak et 22002: S4599,,,"9.623:0.5 Omout et 22001). | J2322+1944 is a lensed source $\mu$ $\pm$ 0.3, Riechers et 2008b) which is bright in the submillimeter $_{850\mu
m}$ $\pm$ mJy, Isaak et 2002; $_{1300\mu
m}$ $\pm$ mJy, Omont et 2001). |
Strong CO oenmissiou has been nuanJy..reported bv Cox et ((2002. J=Ll. J=h) aud resolved imaging has revealed nolecular Einstein ving in this source by Carilli et 20050, 2003. 7=2) aud Riechers et ((2008b. 5-5]. | Strong CO emission has been reported by Cox et (2002, $J$ =4, $J$ =5) and resolved imaging has revealed a molecular Einstein ring in this source by Carilli et (2002b, 2003, $J$ =2) and Riechers et (2008b, $J$ =2). |
The Tine has been detected by Pety et ((2001). | The line has been detected by Pety et (2004). |
We detect the lime at high significance (Table 3. Figure 12 shows a wider bandwidth spectrum after combining the ddata with the CO(76) data presented in W11). | We detect the line at high significance (Table 3, Figure 12 shows a wider bandwidth spectrum after combining the data with the CO(7–6) data presented in W11). |
system with the specific angular momentum of the accretor. | system with the specific angular momentum of the accretor. |
In the case of WD accretors. mass transfer is by default conservative. however the accretion rate is Eddington-limited. | In the case of WD accretors, mass transfer is by default conservative, however the accretion rate is Eddington-limited. |
The e-scenario for CE evolution is used. with discrete values for at. | The $\alpha$ -scenario for CE evolution is used, with discrete values for $\alpha\lambda$. |
The DTD is given both for an instantaneous burst of star formation and a constant star formation rate during 10 Gyr. | The DTD is given both for an instantaneous burst of star formation and a constant star formation rate during 10 Gyr. |
Adopting the elements of the respective codes described above. we carried out DTD calculations with the Brussels code. | Adopting the elements of the respective codes described above, we carried out DTD calculations with the Brussels code. |
We find a good agreement with all of them. both in DTD shape and absolute number of SNe la. A comparison with the output obtained using our own assumptions (with B=| and the a-formalism) is shown in Figure 6 for the DD scenario and in Figure 7 for the SD scenario. | We find a good agreement with all of them, both in DTD shape and absolute number of SNe Ia. A comparison with the output obtained using our own assumptions (with $\beta=1$ and the $\alpha$ -formalism) is shown in Figure 6 for the DD scenario and in Figure 7 for the SD scenario. |
There are a few differences. which are discussed below: e Our SD DTD shows a very high but short spike at very short delay times. which in shape matches that of the WD+MS events by Hachisuetal.(2008). | There are a few differences, which are discussed below: $\bullet$ Our SD DTD shows a very high but short spike at very short delay times, which in shape matches that of the WD+MS events by \citet{hachisu2008}. |
.. We do however not reproduce the significant number of events they find through the WD+RG channel. since we do not have a non-negligible number of WD systems traversing this progenitor region m the parameter space. | We do however not reproduce the significant number of events they find through the WD+RG channel, since we do not have a non-negligible number of WD systems traversing this progenitor region in the parameter space. |
ο The aforementioned early spike is not present in the studies of Han&Podsiadlowski(2004) and Hachisu (1999a). | $\bullet$ The aforementioned early spike is not present in the studies of \citet{han2004} and \citet{hachisu1999a}. |
. As explained before. this is the result of the inclusion of mass stripping in our WD+MS channel. which was not done in those two studies. | As explained before, this is the result of the inclusion of mass stripping in our WD+MS channel, which was not done in those two studies. |
When we take c,=0. Le. turn the effect off as well. the spike disappears and the early SD DTD is in good agreement with theirs. | When we take $c_1 = 0$, i.e. turn the effect off as well, the spike disappears and the early SD DTD is in good agreement with theirs. |
We do however retain a low background of SD SNe la beyond 1.4 Gyr which ts not present in the comparison ones. | We do however retain a low background of SD SNe Ia beyond 1.4 Gyr which is not present in the comparison ones. |
e This low continuing SD rate is however confirmed by Ruiteretal.(2009).. but these are the only events they find: the early maximum is not present is their study. | $\bullet$ This low continuing SD rate is however confirmed by \citet{ruiter2009}, but these are the only events they find: the early maximum is not present is their study. |
A possible explanation for this is that Ruiteretal.(2009) report that most of their SD events are created through the WD+RG channel (including subgiants) as opposed to the WD+MS channel. whereas in our case the opposite is true. | A possible explanation for this is that \citet{ruiter2009} report that most of their SD events are created through the WD+RG channel (including subgiants) as opposed to the WD+MS channel, whereas in our case the opposite is true. |
It thus seems that the early maximum which is for some reason absent in their study corresponds to these events. | It thus seems that the early maximum which is for some reason absent in their study corresponds to these events. |
ο As far as the DD DTD is concerned. we find a very good agreement with both Yungelson&Livio(2000) and Ruiteral. (2009). | $\bullet$ As far as the DD DTD is concerned, we find a very good agreement with both \citet{yungelson2000} and \citet{ruiter2009}. |
. For the latter. this is however only true for8=0.5 (which corresponds to their mass loss mechanism for RLOF toward a non-degenerate aceretor) 1f we adopt a very small value for 7 (x0.25. simulating their assumption of specific accretor angular momentum loss). | For the latter, this is however only true for $\beta=0.5$ (which corresponds to their mass loss mechanism for RLOF toward a non-degenerate accretor) if we adopt a very small value for $\eta$ $\le0.25$, simulating their assumption of specific accretor angular momentum loss). |
In Sect. | In Sect. |
3. à discrepaney in absolute number between theoretical and observed SN Ia rates was discussed. | 3, a discrepancy in absolute number between theoretical and observed SN Ia rates was discussed. |
A possible solution to this 15 stellar rotation: there seem to be indications (seee.g.Habets&Zwaan1989) that it is common for components in binaries to rotate faster at birth than average single stars. which makes it possible that a significant fraction of primaries rotate. faster than. synchronous. | A possible solution to this is stellar rotation: there seem to be indications \citep[see e.g.][]{habets1989} that it is common for components in binaries to rotate faster at birth than average single stars, which makes it possible that a significant fraction of primaries rotate faster than synchronous. |
If so. their MS convective core masses will be larger (seee.g.Maeder&Meynet2000:Decressinetal. 2009). | If so, their MS convective core masses will be larger \citep[see e.g.][]{maeder2000,decressin2009}. |
. Hence. the same will be true for their remnant masses after RLOF and the number of double WD binaries which in total mass exceed the Chandrasekhar mass will increase. leading to more SNe Ia through the DD scenario. | Hence, the same will be true for their remnant masses after RLOF and the number of double WD binaries which in total mass exceed the Chandrasekhar mass will increase, leading to more SNe Ia through the DD scenario. |
We find that a convective core mass increase of only is enough for the theoretical rate at 11 Gyr to match the observed one. | We find that a convective core mass increase of only is enough for the theoretical rate at 11 Gyr to match the observed one. |
The thus obtained DTD. for both the SD and DD scenario combined. is rendered in Figure 8. | The thus obtained DTD, for both the SD and DD scenario combined, is rendered in Figure 8. |
This figure also includes the very recent observational DTD as reported by Maozetal.(2010). | This figure also includes the very recent observational DTD as reported by \citet{maoz2010}. |
. Also recently. Wangetal.(2010) proposed a SD mechanism in which instabilities in an aceretion disk formed around the WD can lead to SNe Ia with very long delay times. of up to the Hubble time. | Also recently, \citet{wang2010} proposed a SD mechanism in which instabilities in an accretion disk formed around the WD can lead to SNe Ia with very long delay times, of up to the Hubble time. |
However. the absolute number of events thus obtained at long delay times (beyond 3 Gyr) lies about an order of magnitude or more below that obtained through the DD scenario in the current paper. and hence even further below the observations. | However, the absolute number of events thus obtained at long delay times (beyond 3 Gyr) lies about an order of magnitude or more below that obtained through the DD scenario in the current paper, and hence even further below the observations. |
As à result such mechanism. while beyond the scope of this work. does not alter our conclusions. | As a result such mechanism, while beyond the scope of this work, does not alter our conclusions. |
At the other end of the DTD. the earliest SD events obtained in this paper are a result of the mass stripping effect and are therefore dependent on its efficiency. | At the other end of the DTD, the earliest SD events obtained in this paper are a result of the mass stripping effect and are therefore dependent on its efficiency. |
Another way to obtain such early SD events is a WD + He star channel. as proposed by Wangetal.(2009). | Another way to obtain such early SD events is a WD + He star channel, as proposed by \citet{wang2009}. |
. However. even without including this channel. our computations are assured of very early events (at 50 Myr) through the DD scenario. | However, even without including this channel, our computations are assured of very early events (at 50 Myr) through the DD scenario. |
The argument can also be extended to spiral galaxies. e.g. the Milky Way Galaxy. | The argument can also be extended to spiral galaxies, e.g. the Milky Way Galaxy. |
For the latter. it has been demonstrated in the past that the DD scenario can explain the Galactic birthrates well (seee.g.Hanetal.1995:1998). | For the latter, it has been demonstrated in the past that the DD scenario can explain the Galactic birthrates well \citep[see e.g.][]{han1995,han1998}. |
. The same has been done in previous studies with the Brussels code (seeDeDonder&Vanbeveren2004). which is an additional indication that the difference between theoretical and observed rates in ellipticals may at least be partially caused by uncertainties on the observations in such galaxies. | The same has been done in previous studies with the Brussels code \citep[see][]{dedonder2004}, which is an additional indication that the difference between theoretical and observed rates in ellipticals may at least be partially caused by uncertainties on the observations in such galaxies. |
We conclude that the single degenerate scenario alone cannot reproduce the observed distribution of delay times of type Ia supernovae. | We conclude that the single degenerate scenario alone cannot reproduce the observed distribution of delay times of type Ia supernovae. |
The double degenerate delay time distribution. possibly combined with the single degenerate one. does agree with the morphological shape of the observed distribution. | The double degenerate delay time distribution, possibly combined with the single degenerate one, does agree with the morphological shape of the observed distribution. |
However. assuming the a-formalism for common envelope evolution. this is only true if Roche lobe overflow is treated to occur quasi-conservatively. | However, assuming the $\alpha$ -formalism for common envelope evolution, this is only true if Roche lobe overflow is treated to occur quasi-conservatively. |
In. this. case. most type la | In this case, most type Ia |
in the sense that ils nucleosvnthesis does not appear (o depend on preexisting nuclides (Burbidgeetal.1957:Woosley1994:Wallerstein1997;Farouqiοἱ90091. | in the sense that its nucleosynthesis does not appear to depend on preexisting nuclides \citep{b2fh,woosley94,wallerstein97,farouqi09}. |
In this latter context. its production of the heavier r-process nuclides in many metal poor stars appears (to be very uniform (Snecden&Cowan2003).. and il also produces. relative r-process abundancees that are essentially the same as those found in more modern stars. | In this latter context, its production of the heavier r-process nuclides in many metal poor stars appears to be very uniform \citep{sneden03a}, and it also produces relative r-process abundances that are essentially the same as those found in more modern stars. |
A standard interpretation of the r-process suggests that it occurs in (he neutrino wind that emanales [rom core-collapse supernovae (Wooslevetal.1994:Takahashi.Witt.1994:Farouqietal. 2009).. although that interpretation is not without iis issues (Qian&2010:Roberts.Woosley.&Hoffman 2010). | A standard interpretation of the r-process suggests that it occurs in the neutrino wind that emanates from core-collapse supernovae \citep{woosley94, takahashi94,farouqi09}, although that interpretation is not without its issues \citep{qian96, meyer98, hudepohl10a,hudepohl10b, fischer10, roberts10}. |
. Even with these difficulties. though. there are a sullicient number of uncertainties. e.g.. (he possibility of sterile neutrinos (McLaughlin1999:McLaughlinetal. 2003).. that (his r-process site mieht (urn out to be viable. | Even with these difficulties, though, there are a sufficient number of uncertainties, e.g., the possibility of sterile neutrinos \citep{mclaughlin99, mclaughlin03}, that this r-process site might turn out to be viable. |
At the same time. other metal poor stars exhibit some of the features of r-process nucleosvithesis. but (heir abundances represent a surprisingly poor match wilh (he “standard” abundance template (Aokietal.2000:Honda2007:Roeclerer2010a).. perhaps most frequently identified as that observed in C'S-22892-052 (Sneden&Cowan2003).. | At the same time, other metal poor stars exhibit some of the features of r-process nucleosynthesis, but their abundances represent a surprisingly poor match with the “standard” abundance template \citep{aoki00, honda07, roederer10a}, perhaps most frequently identified as that observed in CS-22892-052 \citep{sneden03a}. |
A recent paper (Roecererοἱal.2010a) has summarized the situation that exists lor poor stars. | A recent paper \citep{roederer10a}
has summarized the situation that exists for metal-poor stars. |
The data in that paper seem to suggest that a distribution of r-process abundances exisis in metal poor stars. wilh some resembling the standard abundance set. bul with a significant. fraction of stus having abundances that do not match the standard. template. | The data in that paper seem to suggest that a distribution of r-process abundances exists in metal poor stars, with some resembling the standard abundance set, but with a significant fraction of stars having abundances that do not match the standard template. |
These latter stars appear to favor (he lighter r-process nuclides at varving levels. aud many seen (o have abundance patterns (hat terminate around Dy. that is. around mass 160. | These latter stars appear to favor the lighter r-process nuclides at varying levels, and many seem to have abundance patterns that terminate around Dy, that is, around mass 160. |
In this Letter we point out that the abundance patterns observed for the stars that do not fit the standard r-process template could be produced by stars that are sufficiently massive (hat (heir core collapse first produce neutron stars but that the infall (hat occurs following the formation of the neutron star subsequently results in collapse to a black hole - so called "Iallback supernovae.” | In this Letter we point out that the abundance patterns observed for the stars that do not fit the standard r-process template could be produced by stars that are sufficiently massive that their core collapse first produce neutron stars but that the infall that occurs following the formation of the neutron star subsequently results in collapse to a black hole - so called “fallback supernovae.” |
This class of stars spans a mass range Irom roughly 25 to 40 solar masses (llegeretal.1992) for low-metallicity stars. | This class of stars spans a mass range from roughly 25 to 40 solar masses \citep{heger92} for low-metallicity stars. |
When the neutron star collapses to a black hole the r-process enrichment of the interstellar medium would cease. terminating either when the r-processed regions were swallowed by (he black hole. or when the electron antineutrinos fell below the event horizon (Sasaqui.Ixajino.&Balantekin2005). | When the neutron star collapses to a black hole the r-process enrichment of the interstellar medium would cease, terminating either when the r-processed regions were swallowed by the black hole, or when the electron antineutrinos fell below the event horizon \citep{sasaqui05}. |
. Thus. this iyuncated r-process. or i-process. nucleosvnthesis would terminate al different stages of that process. depending on the precise time at which the black hole prevented further r-process production or emission of nuclides into the interstellar medium. | Thus, this truncated r-process, or tr-process, nucleosynthesis would terminate at different stages of that process, depending on the precise time at which the black hole prevented further r-process production or emission of nuclides into the interstellar medium. |
We suggest that (he delaved collapse to the black hole. combined with another effect. namely. (he difficulties in observing (he higher mass rare earths. could produce (he cutoff in the r-process distributions observed around 160 u. | We suggest that the delayed collapse to the black hole, combined with another effect, namely, the difficulties in observing the higher mass rare earths, could produce the cutoff in the r-process distributions observed around 160 u. |
repeated: classical channel solution presenting before being destroved and the evcle repeating. | repeated classical channel solution presenting before being destroyed and the cycle repeating. |
In the light of the images show above. one of the most natural questions concerns whether the same behaviour is still found. if the length-seale for the dissipation scale is decreased. | In the light of the images show above, one of the most natural questions concerns whether the same behaviour is still found if the length-scale for the dissipation scale is decreased. |
In this problem. this is akin to increasing the number of grid points that are used. | In this problem this is akin to increasing the number of grid points that are used. |
As such we have examined the case when the number of grid. points in cach spatial direction and the findings are shown in figure 4.. | As such we have examined the case when the number of grid points in each spatial direction and the findings are shown in figure \ref{kin_64}. |
Note that. while the climb to the saturated state is slightly slower in this case. a transition from one cquasisstatistically steady state to another still occurs. | Note that, while the climb to the saturated state is slightly slower in this case, a transition from one quasi-statistically steady state to another still occurs. |
Similar was found at a resolution of 1287 and so we conclude that this behaviour is independent of the length-scale for dissipation. | Similar was found at a resolution of $128^3$ and so we conclude that this behaviour is independent of the length-scale for dissipation. |
ln the above calculations we have not included a resistivity or à viscosity of any kind and have just left the dissipation to be the result of the eric. | In the above calculations we have not included a resistivity or a viscosity of any kind and have just left the dissipation to be the result of the grid. |
LLowever. there in several of the local shearing box calculations the was an artificial viscosity term included in the equation of motion of the form Gamnie&Balbus (1996))): The motivation for such a termi was to provide Limited extra dissipation in the case when there is à strong compressional solution. | However, there in several of the local shearing box calculations the was an artificial viscosity term included in the equation of motion of the form \cite{HGB1}) ): The motivation for such a term was to provide limited extra dissipation in the case when there is a strong compressional solution. |
As such. it retains the original ideal magnetohvdrodynamic (MED) nature of the equations aud only calls for extra assistance is special situations. | As such, it retains the original ideal magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) nature of the equations and only calls for extra assistance is special situations. |
While we | While we |
describe the local state of the gas. | describe the local state of the gas. |
One such technique is described in [20].. | One such technique is described in \cite{pre}. |
This work was supported by the Singapore-MIT. Alliance under the IPCES program. | This work was supported by the Singapore-MIT Alliance under the HPCES program. |
Class IL methanol Ihasers. of which the 6.7 GHz maser is the strongest. are commonly found towards massive star forming regions. | Class II methanol masers, of which the 6.7 GHz maser is the strongest, are commonly found towards massive star forming regions. |
À number of early surveys for 6.7 GHz methanol masers were focused towards IRAS sources with colors suggestive of ultracompact (UC Hu) regions (e.g. ? and references therein). | A number of early surveys for 6.7 GHz methanol masers were focused towards IRAS sources with colors suggestive of ultracompact (UC ) regions (e.g. \citealt{szym00a} and references therein). |
While methanol masers appeared to be associated with regions at low angular resolution. subsequent high-resolution observations demonstrated that the masers are generally not coincident with strong radio sources (e.g. ??)). | While methanol masers appeared to be associated with regions at low angular resolution, subsequent high-resolution observations demonstrated that the masers are generally not coincident with strong radio sources (e.g. \citealt{wals98,phil98}) ). |
Further. statistics from blind surveys showed that most methanol masers did not have associated radio continuum. at least not at the few mJy level at a wavelength of2 cm — only of the sources detected in the Arecibo Methanol Maser Galactic Plane Survey (AMGPS:?) had a counterpart at 21 em within 23" of the naser position, while two-thirds of the methanol masers in the Torun blind survey (2) did not have à 6 cm counterpart within 1. | Further, statistics from blind surveys showed that most methanol masers did not have associated radio continuum, at least not at the few mJy level at a wavelength of 2 cm – only of the sources detected in the Arecibo Methanol Maser Galactic Plane Survey \citep[AMGPS;][]{pand07a} had a counterpart at 21 cm within $''$ of the maser position, while two-thirds of the methanol masers in the Toruń blind survey \citep{szym02} did not have a 6 cm counterpart within $'$. |
The lack of radio continuum towards methanol masers has been interpreted in two ways — (1) The masers are associated with massive stars prior to the origin of an. ultracompact region (?).. | The lack of radio continuum towards methanol masers has been interpreted in two ways – (i) The masers are associated with massive stars prior to the origin of an ultracompact region \citep{wals98}. |
Rapid aceretion onto a massive star can quench the formation of a region (?).. ( | Rapid accretion onto a massive star can quench the formation of a region \citep{walm95}. ( |
11) Alternately. the exciting star has a mass lower than that of a prototypical high-mass star (spectral type B3 or earlier). and is thus too cool to produce a detectable region (2).. | ii) Alternately, the exciting star has a mass lower than that of a prototypical high-mass star (spectral type B3 or earlier), and is thus too cool to produce a detectable region \citep{phil98}. |
?. concluded the latter based on the expected number of UC regions in the Galaxy assuming that methanol masers overlapped with UC regions for only of their lifetimes. | \citet{phil98} concluded the latter based on the expected number of UC regions in the Galaxy assuming that methanol masers overlapped with UC regions for only of their lifetimes. |
However. subsequent work has favored the first hypothesis. | However, subsequent work has favored the first hypothesis. |
For example. ? argue that it is unlikely for the masers to be associated with stars of spectral type BS based on the expected lifetime of maser emission and the number of methanol masers in the Galaxy. | For example, \citet{van03} argue that it is unlikely for the masers to be associated with stars of spectral type B5 based on the expected lifetime of maser emission and the number of methanol masers in the Galaxy. |
They further argue that the efficiency of exciting à maser would decrease dramatically with decreasing stellar mass. | They further argue that the efficiency of exciting a maser would decrease dramatically with decreasing stellar mass. |
Surveys for 6.7 GHz methanol masers towards sites of low-mass star formation have not yielded any detections (??).. | Surveys for 6.7 GHz methanol masers towards sites of low-mass star formation have not yielded any detections \citep{mini03,xu08}. |
Based on their survey. ? give a lower limit to the stellar mass associated with bright (brightness temperature >3x10° K) 6.7 GHz methanol masers as 3 M... | Based on their survey, \citet{mini03} give a lower limit to the stellar mass associated with bright (brightness temperature $> 3 \times 10^6$ K) 6.7 GHz methanol masers as 3 $M_\odot$. |
The bolometric luminosities of the sources associated with 6.7 GHz maser emission. estimated using mid-infrared and IRAS data. were suggestive of stars with strong ionizing radiation (?).. | The bolometric luminosities of the sources associated with 6.7 GHz maser emission, estimated using mid-infrared and IRAS data, were suggestive of stars with strong ionizing radiation \citep{wals99}. |
? nodeled the spectral energy distributions of the masers using IRAS and near-infrared data and found that sources for which spectral types of the central stars could be unambiguously identified were consistent with massive. ionizing stars. | \citet{wals01} modeled the spectral energy distributions of the masers using IRAS and near-infrared data and found that sources for which spectral types of the central stars could be unambiguously identified were consistent with massive, ionizing stars. |
? carried out a multi-wavelength study of five radio-quiet methanol nasers. and found the environment around the masers to be characteristic of massive star forming clumps in earlier evolutionary phases than regions. | \citet{mini05} carried out a multi-wavelength study of five radio-quiet methanol masers, and found the environment around the masers to be characteristic of massive star forming clumps in earlier evolutionary phases than regions. |
The observation of warm dust around methanol masers with bolometric luminosities greater than 10° Lea (2) also suggested that the masers are associated with Nassive star forming regions. | The observation of warm dust around methanol masers with bolometric luminosities greater than $^3$ $L_\odot$ \citep{wals03} also suggested that the masers are associated with massive star forming regions. |
One of the limitations of these studies has been that the methanol maser sample is not complete. | One of the limitations of these studies has been that the methanol maser sample is not complete. |
They are typically selected from a targeted survey. and are hence potentially biased. | They are typically selected from a targeted survey, and are hence potentially biased. |
The work of ?.. which investigated the mid-infrared colors of the masers using the Galactic Legacy Infrared Mid-Plane Survey Extraordinaire survey (GLIMPSE: ?)). did use a complete sample. but no modeling of the spectral energy distributions (SEDs) was carried out on account of polyeyelic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) emission and silicate absorption lines falling in the Spitzer IRAC bands. | The work of \citet{elli06}, which investigated the mid-infrared colors of the masers using the Galactic Legacy Infrared Mid-Plane Survey Extraordinaire survey (GLIMPSE; \citealt{benj03}) ), did use a complete sample, but no modeling of the spectral energy distributions (SEDs) was carried out on account of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) emission and silicate absorption lines falling in the Spitzer IRAC bands. |
Recently. a grid of 200.000 young stellar object (YSO) models was developed by ? spanning a wide range of evolutionary stages for different stellar masses to model the SED from optical to millimeter wavelengths. | Recently, a grid of 200,000 young stellar object (YSO) models was developed by \citet{robi06} spanning a wide range of evolutionary stages for different stellar masses to model the SED from optical to millimeter wavelengths. |
In addition. 24 μπι data is now available for the Galactic plane from the Spitzer | In addition, 24 $\mu$ m data is now available for the Galactic plane from the Spitzer |
Following the discussion in (1996), consider two pairs of antennas as shown in Figure [1]. | Following the discussion in \citet{Asaki1996}, consider two pairs of antennas as shown in Figure \ref{C-PACS}. |
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