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8)SSSs? A natural suggestion is that they are BHs.
8) A natural suggestion is that they are BHs.
In facet. if there are BHs with masses filling the gap between the ~10M BHs thought to be stellar remnants. and the >109M.. BHs.. found at the centers of galaxies. then SSS behavior is predicted for a wide range of masses. source luminosities. and efficiency factors.
In fact, if there are BHs with masses filling the gap between the $\sim 10 M_\odot$ BHs thought to be stellar remnants, and the $> 10^6 M_\odot$ BHs found at the centers of galaxies, then SSS behavior is predicted for a wide range of masses, source luminosities, and efficiency factors.
If BHs with masses in this intermediate range do not exist. or are not found in binartes. then the explanation of ultraluminous SSSs may be more complicated. (
If BHs with masses in this intermediate range do not exist, or are not found in binaries, then the explanation of ultraluminous SSSs may be more complicated. (
9)VSSs? The data provide a hint of a population of sources with temperatures near or over 100 eV. but with luminosities between 10°° ere s! and 1077 erg s7!.
9) The data provide a hint of a population of sources with temperatures near or over $100$ eV, but with luminosities between $10^{36}$ erg $^{-1}$ and $10^{37}$ erg $^{-1}$.
NBWDs at this temperature are generally expected to be more luminous.
NBWDs at this temperature are generally expected to be more luminous.
If evidence for this high-T/low-L SSS population is found in other investigations. à new model for some SSSs will be required.
If evidence for this high-T/low-L SSS population is found in other investigations, a new model for some SSSs will be required.
At present. there is no "canonical" model for QSSs.
At present, there is no “canonical” model for QSSs.
Intermediate-mass BHs provide one possible explanation.
Intermediate-mass BHs provide one possible explanation.
Consider. e.g.. à 200 eV source with Ly~5<10" ere s!.
Consider, e.g., a 200 eV source with $L_X\sim 5\times10^{37}$ erg $^{-1}$.
This could correspond to a BH of roughly 50 . acereting at a rate of roughly siggy. (
This could correspond to a BH of roughly 50 $_\odot$ accreting at a rate of roughly $\dot{m}_{Edd}$. (
Note that if the bolometric luminosities were significantly smaller. the source might not be expected to be in the soft state.) (
Note that if the bolometric luminosities were significantly smaller, the source might not be expected to be in the soft state.) (
10)sources? Some of the SSSs and QSSs may be SNRs.
10) Some of the SSSs and QSSs may be SNRs.
If so. we expect the flux we measure in observations taken during the next few years to be comparable to the values already measured: some may be associated in optical nebulae.
If so, we expect the flux we measure in observations taken during the next few years to be comparable to the values already measured; some may be associated in optical nebulae.
It will be important to search for quasisoft sources that are not SNRs. (
It will be important to search for quasisoft sources that are not SNRs. (
11)they? Some of them may be SNRs. but we have argued (35.4.2) that the majority of them are not SNRs.
11) Some of them may be SNRs, but we have argued 5.4.2) that the majority of them are not SNRs.
Some may be BHs. some may be neutron stars. perhaps analogs of RX J0059.2-7138.
Some may be BHs, some may be neutron stars, perhaps analogs of RX J0059.2-7138.
It is even possible that some may be NBWDs.
It is even possible that some may be NBWDs.
One scenario we propose (R. DiSStefano. in preparation) is one in which a primordial binary with 2 relatively massive stars (>3M.) evolves into a binary with a massive WD in orbit with a massive star.
One scenario we propose (R. Stefano, in preparation) is one in which a primordial binary with $2$ relatively massive stars $> 3\, M_\odot$ ) evolves into a binary with a massive WD in orbit with a massive star.
Even if the primary never fills its Roche lobe. the system could become a symbiotic which experiences an SSS phase.
Even if the primary never fills its Roche lobe, the system could become a symbiotic which experiences an SSS phase.
If the primaryw7// fill its Roche lobe. an epoch of irradiation-driven winds prior to contact could also lead to SSS behavior.
If the primary fill its Roche lobe, an epoch of irradiation-driven winds prior to contact could also lead to SSS behavior.
Finally. in some of these wind-driven systems. the primary mass may be decreased enough that mass transfer is not dynamically unstable when contact is established. and the SSS behavior can continue.
Finally, in some of these wind-driven systems, the primary mass may be decreased enough that mass transfer is not dynamically unstable when contact is established, and the SSS behavior can continue.
observations are beginning to help us answer key questions about SSSs and to demonstrate that there are new horizons in SSS research.
observations are beginning to help us answer key questions about SSSs and to demonstrate that there are new horizons in SSS research.
An unanticipated result of this research is the discovery that galaxies contain a significant 035umber of X-ray sources that appear to be hotter than the anonical SSSs that established the class.
An unanticipated result of this research is the discovery that galaxies contain a significant number of X-ray sources that appear to be hotter than the canonical SSSs that established the class.
Discovering the aOature of these QSSs presents a fresh challenge.
Discovering the nature of these QSSs presents a fresh challenge.
Continuing observations with both andXMM should lead to important results.
Continuing observations with both and should lead to important results.
With the publication of this paper we will make our code available to other researchers. and hope that it can facilitate comparative studies of the VSS populations of different galaxies.
With the publication of this paper we will make our code available to other researchers, and hope that it can facilitate comparative studies of the VSS populations of different galaxies.
galaxy or QSO then the maximum likelihood redshift determined was recorded, along with the width of the likelihood peak in Photometric redshifts were determined for the Andromeda pointings with matched UBVRi’ data and figure 19 shows the determined redshifts against o, for a subsection of this data.
galaxy or QSO then the maximum likelihood redshift determined was recorded, along with the width of the likelihood peak in Photometric redshifts were determined for the Andromeda pointings with matched $UBVR{\emph i^{\prime}}$ data and figure \ref{fig:photoz} shows the determined redshifts against $\sigma_{z}$ for a subsection of this data.
Objects were chosen to have R<23 in order to avoid including the fainter objects which have larger associated photometric errors.
Objects were chosen to have $R < 23$ in order to avoid including the fainter objects which have larger associated photometric errors.
Within this representative sample, ~8000 (81%) were found to have o;<0.1 and α΄6000 to have e;<0.05 (60%). An estimate for the median redshift of the ODTS was obtained using the redshift distributions of ?,, ?,, ? and ?..
Within this representative sample, $\approx 8000$ $81\%$ ) were found to have $\sigma_{z} < 0.1$ and $\approx 6000$ to have $\sigma_{z} < 0.05$ $60\%$ An estimate for the median redshift of the ODTS was obtained using the redshift distributions of \scite{Fsoto}, \scite{Cohen}, \scite{goods} and \scite{goods2}. .
From ?,, a magnitude dependent redshift distribution can be defined using where zo(R)=2m(R)/1.4 and 2m(R) is the median redshift as a function of R band magnitude.
From \scite{BaughEfst}, a magnitude dependent redshift distribution can be defined using where $z_0(R) = z_m(R)/1.4$ and $z_m(R)$ is the median redshift as a function of R band magnitude.
The zm(A) is estimated from the redshift distribution of galaxies with known spectroscopic or photometric redshifts sampled in R band magnitude bins of width 0.5 magnitudes.
The $z_m(R)$ is estimated from the redshift distribution of galaxies with known spectroscopic or photometric redshifts sampled in R band magnitude bins of width 0.5 magnitudes.
Summing the magnitude dependent model redshift distributions, weighted according to the magnitude distribution of the ODTS, results in anestimate of the redshift distribution for the
Summing the magnitude dependent model redshift distributions, weighted according to the magnitude distribution of the ODTS, results in anestimate of the redshift distribution for the
A\Gillimeterwave observations of circtuustellar casks provide fje best tool to measure the distribution and kinematics of the circumstellar material.
Millimeter-wave observations of circumstellar disks provide the best tool to measure the distribution and kinematics of the circumstellar material.
These observatiois have for vears aclicved aangular resolutiou to resolve the disk euission ou scales down to an orbital radius of about ~70 AU at the distance o: the nearby star foriuing regions (e.g.?77)..
These observations have for years achieved angular resolution to resolve the disk emission on scales down to an orbital radius of about $\sim$ 70 AU at the distance of the nearby star forming regions \citep[e.g.][]{Koerner95,Guilloteau98,Kitamura02}.
More recent observations are reaching subarceseconud resolutiou hat are resolving disks on scales of the I&uiper Belt aud viekliug 1uprecedented informations on the innermost disk regiois (800.e.c.772???)..
More recent observations are reaching subarcsecond resolution that are resolving disks on scales of the Kuiper Belt and yielding unprecedented informations on the innermost disk regions \citep[see, e.g,][]{Andrews09,Brown09,Hughes09,Isella09,Isella10,Pietu06}.
Tn anany cases ialluneter observations confini he radii distribution of dust and gas interred roni the analysis of the disk spectral energv (listribution (hereafter SED).
In many cases millimeter observations confirm the radial distribution of dust and gas inferred from the analysis of the disk spectral energy distribution (hereafter SED).
The laree imajoritv of xenadn sequence stars exhibit a flux excess over the stellar photosphere from near-infrared to centimeter wavelengths.
The large majority of pre-main sequence stars exhibit a flux excess over the stellar photosphere from near-infrared to centimeter wavelengths.
This excess arises frou, ao 7eassical”. or primordial. disk that extends from few stellar radii to fow hundreds. of astronomical mts.
This excess arises from a “classical”, or primordial, disk that extends from few stellar radii to few hundreds of astronomical units.
Towever. about of the observed svsteuis (?) exhibit a «eficit of flix in the nem- axd mud-intrared compared to a “classical” disk. but have siwilar level of &u-infrared. emission (1.6..“transition¢isk: ?)..
However, about of the observed systems \citep{Muzerolle10} exhibit a deficit of flux in the near- and mid-infrared compared to a “classical” disk, but have similar level of far-infrared emission \citep[i.e., ``transition'' disk;][]{Strom89}.
The SED shape sugecsts that these stars ack the emission from warm dust close to the ceutral star.
The SED shape suggests that these stars lack the emission from warm dust close to the central star.
The lack of wart. dust emission may result from several «ifereut effects such as the presence of a stellar conrxudüon. the formation of a plauetary svsteun. disk photoevaporation. magucto-rotational iustabilities. disk viscosity. aid exiün growth (277??7)..
The lack of warm dust emission may result from several different effects such as the presence of a stellar companion, the formation of a planetary system, disk photoevaporation, magneto-rotational instabilities, disk viscosity, and grain growth \citep{Alexander07,Chiang07,Ireland08,Isella09,Strom89,Tanaka05}.
Subsequent ]ieνο uilinieter-wave Tages have confine that severa ‘transition disks are iudeed dust depletec witiu the radius predicted by the SED modcling (???)..
Subsequent high-resolution millimeter-wave images have confirmed that several “transition” disks are indeed dust depleted within the radius predicted by the SED modeling \citep{Pietu06,Brown09,Hughes09}.
The Increasing sensitivitv and resolution of |SHonadldlinieter-wawoe interferometers is now providing unexpected insights about the structure of “classical” disks.
The increasing sensitivity and resolution of (sub)millimeter-wave interferometers is now providing unexpected insights about the structure of “classical” disks.
Sub-aresecoud observations of AB Aur and RY Ται sVsclus show indeed that these two circiuustellar disks may be dust depleted within orbital radii of 70 AU anc
Sub-arcsecond observations of AB Aur and RY Tau systems show indeed that these two circumstellar disks may be dust depleted within orbital radii of 70 AU and
(
.
?).. K-band luminosities were extracted from the online database for the Two Micron All-Sky Survey
$K$ -band luminosities were extracted from the online database for the Two Micron All-Sky Survey.
Fig.
Fig.
1. shows the coronal soft X-ray luminosity as a function of K-band luminosity for our samples of disc (blue symbols) and elliptical (red symbols) galaxies.
\ref{fig:LxLk} shows the coronal soft X-ray luminosity as a function of $K$ -band luminosity for our samples of disc (blue symbols) and elliptical (red symbols) galaxies.
Systems with X-ray detections are denoted by filled symbols, whilst upper limits are denoted by open symbols.
Systems with X-ray detections are denoted by filled symbols, whilst upper limits are denoted by open symbols.
Remarkably, the two morphological classes populate the pplane in a very similar way: the relation between these two properties has similar slope, normalisation and scatter for both classes.
Remarkably, the two morphological classes populate the plane in a very similar way: the relation between these two properties has similar slope, normalisation and scatter for both classes.
We conclude that, for fixed stellar mass, the X-ray luminosity of hot coronae is unrelated to the morphology of the host galaxy.
We conclude that, for fixed stellar mass, the X-ray luminosity of hot coronae is unrelated to the morphology of the host galaxy.
Since the X-ray emission has been explicitly corrected for non-thermal point-source contamination, the correlation in Fig.
Since the X-ray emission has been explicitly corrected for non-thermal point-source contamination, the correlation in Fig.
is not a reflection of the linear correlation between X-ray luminosity (i.e. uncorrected for point sources) and optical luminosity that is known to exist for low optical luminosity ellipticals(?).
\ref{fig:LxLk} is not a reflection of the linear correlation between X-ray luminosity (i.e. uncorrected for point sources) and optical luminosity that is known to exist for low optical luminosity ellipticals.
. Nor is the correlation driven by a contribution from faint thermal point sources (e.g. accreting white dwarfs and cataclysmic variable stars) that cannot be removed spectrally, since only a small number of faint ellipticals in our sample have coronal luminosities that are comparable to, or less than, the integrated luminosity of thermal point sources inferred from the relation of
Nor is the correlation driven by a contribution from faint thermal point sources (e.g. accreting white dwarfs and cataclysmic variable stars) that cannot be removed spectrally, since only a small number of faint ellipticals in our sample have coronal luminosities that are comparable to, or less than, the integrated luminosity of thermal point sources inferred from the relation of.
lmainBodyCitationEnd2212]Revnivtsevetalo8.Severalo four fcoir te DeeRNdnces dnscticlie sip Bonstteta tin ursi seSapa refLx—relation discgalaxies,theluminosities f romStr04,W05, T06, LOW RO9areattributedezclusivelytoextra- emission, and are therefore, unlikely to be contaminated by point sources.
Several of our faint disc galaxies also lie below this relation but, as discussed in \\ref{sec:disc_galaxies}, the luminosities from Str04, W05, T06, L07, and R09 are attributed exclusively to emission, and are therefore unlikely to be contaminated by point sources.
The correlation between the optical and X-ray luminosities of disc and elliptical galaxies has been explored previously?).
The correlation between the optical and X-ray luminosities of disc and elliptical galaxies has been explored previously.
. However, such studies analysed data from the aand ttelescopes, which i) lacked the sensitivity to detect diffuse X-ray emission in low (optical) luminosity galaxies and ii) lacked the spatial and spectral resolution to enable the subtraction of point-source contributions to the X-ray flux.
However, such studies analysed data from the and telescopes, which i) lacked the sensitivity to detect diffuse X-ray emission in low (optical) luminosity galaxies and ii) lacked the spatial and spectral resolution to enable the subtraction of point-source contributions to the X-ray flux.
As a result, those studies were not able to find the similarity in the correlation between the X-ray luminosity and stellar mass for disc and elliptical galaxies that we have uncovered here.
As a result, those studies were not able to find the similarity in the correlation between the X-ray luminosity and stellar mass for disc and elliptical galaxies that we have uncovered here.
The similarity of the rrelations for disc and elliptical galaxies revealed in Fig.
The similarity of the relations for disc and elliptical galaxies revealed in Fig.
1 indicates that the X-ray luminosity of hot coronal gas does not depend on the morphology of the visible galaxy for systems of fixed mass, insofar as the K-band luminosity reflects the stellar mass and the stellar mass reflects the total mass.
\ref{fig:LxLk} indicates that the X-ray luminosity of hot coronal gas does not depend on the morphology of the visible galaxy for systems of fixed mass, insofar as the $K$ -band luminosity reflects the stellar mass and the stellar mass reflects the total mass.
It is conceivable, however, that normal disc and elliptical galaxies could have different stellar mass fractions and that the similarity of their rrelations could therefore be the result of some ‘conspiracy’ or coincidence.
It is conceivable, however, that normal disc and elliptical galaxies could have different stellar mass fractions and that the similarity of their relations could therefore be the result of some `conspiracy' or coincidence.
For example, ellipticals could be more X-ray luminous at a fixed total mass, but also have higher stellar mass fractions.
For example, ellipticals could be more X-ray luminous at a fixed total mass, but also have higher stellar mass fractions.
We can rule out any potential conspiracy of this sort by examining the rrelation.
We can rule out any potential conspiracy of this sort by examining the relation.
The temperature of the gas is a measure of the depth of the total (stars+gas+dark matter) potential well of the galaxy?),, so long as the gas is relatively close to hydrostatic equilibrium.
The temperature of the gas is a measure of the depth of the total (stars+gas+dark matter) potential well of the galaxy, so long as the gas is relatively close to hydrostatic equilibrium.
This is a reasonable assumption, since if the gas were far from hydrostatic equilibrium, it would quickly collapse or leave the system.
This is a reasonable assumption, since if the gas were far from hydrostatic equilibrium, it would quickly collapse or leave the system.
Fig.
Fig.
2 shows the X-ray luminosity as a function of the hot gas spectral temperature for those galaxies from the sample presented in Fig.
\ref{fig:LxTx} shows the X-ray luminosity as a function of the hot gas spectral temperature for those galaxies from the sample presented in Fig.
1 that have temperature estimates.
\ref{fig:LxLk} that have temperature estimates.
Note, however, that we have excluded those galaxies from the samples of D06 and MJ10 for which the inferred X-ray luminositylies below the estimated contribution from faint thermal point sources (see discussion in 2.1 and 2.2)).
Note, however, that we have excluded those galaxies from the samples of D06 and MJ10 for which the inferred X-ray luminositylies below the estimated contribution from faint thermal point sources (see discussion in \ref{sec:elliptical_galaxies} and \ref{sec:disc_galaxies}) ).
For reference, we also include measurements of galaxy groups, taken from the studies of and?,, galaxy clusters from Horner (2001), and of the Milky Way and M31(?).
For reference, we also include measurements of galaxy groups, taken from the studies of and, galaxy clusters from Horner (2001), and of the Milky Way and M31.
. We find, once again, the remarkable result that disc and elliptical galaxies follow the same relation.
We find, once again, the remarkable result that disc and elliptical galaxies follow the same relation.
This provides a strong argument against the notion that an astrophysical coincidence or conspiracy is responsible for the similarity of the rrelations for the two morphological types.
This provides a strong argument against the notion that an astrophysical coincidence or conspiracy is responsible for the similarity of the relations for the two morphological types.
The relation shown in Fig.
The relation shown in Fig.
2 reinforces our previous conclusion that the X-ray properties of hot coronal gas do not depend on stellar morphology.
\ref{fig:LxTx} reinforces our previous conclusion that the X-ray properties of hot coronal gas do not depend on stellar morphology.
It is also interesting to note that the addition of our galaxy samples to the well-known rrelation obeyed by galaxy groups and galaxy clusters forms a broken power-aw with the break at approximately 1keV.
It is also interesting to note that the addition of our galaxy samples to the well-known relation obeyed by galaxy groups and galaxy clusters forms a broken power-law with the break at approximately $1\keV$ .
We discuss this intriguing result further in , refsec:interpretation..
We discuss this intriguing result further in \\ref{sec:interpretation}. .
where f»<<fq is adopted because the total iron iuass is uo more than a few percent of the total gas αν».
where $f_2 << f_1$ is adopted because the total iron mass is no more than a few percent of the total gas mass.
The ratio F3/ Fi is the same as the iron mass fraction of the injection from the stellar uiass loss. independent of the spatial lunipiuess in the iron distribution.
The ratio $F_2$ $F_1$ is the same as the iron mass fraction of the injection from the stellar mass loss, independent of the spatial lumpiness in the iron distribution.
Eq.
Eq.
9 thus illustrates tliat the faster the trou-rich gas component moves relative to the rest of the outflow. tlie lower its mean iron αραασ sl10uld be.
\ref{eq:Feabundef} thus illustrates that the faster the iron-rich gas component moves relative to the rest of the outflow, the lower its mean iron abundance should be.
We ave exatuined the evolution of Ia SN iron ejecta iu the hot gas uudergoing outflows [roi a typical interimecdiate-1nass galactie stellar spheroid.
We have examined the evolution of Ia SN iron ejecta in the hot gas undergoing outflows from a typical intermediate-mass galactic stellar spheroid.
3-D hydrodyuamic simulations of this hot gas are condcted for both supersouic aid subsonic cases.
3-D hydrodynamic simulations of this hot gas are conducted for both supersonic and subsonic cases.
These simulations show no evidence for the iron ejecta to significantly cool aud d‘op out of the hot gas.
These simulations show no evidence for the iron ejecta to significantly cool and drop out of the hot gas.
The largely inhomogeneous eurichimeut aud heatiig. inherited from sporadic Ia SNe. can siguilicantly affect the N-ray measurement of the mean Wo abunudauce of the hot gas li tWO ways: These two efects Logeher provide a uatural explanatio1 for the low iron abundance aud its »ositive racial gracient. as iuferred rou existing X-ray measurements of hot gas i various galactic stellar spheroids.
The largely inhomogeneous enrichment and heating, inherited from sporadic Ia SNe, can significantly affect the X-ray measurement of the mean iron abundance of the hot gas in two ways: These two effects together provide a natural explanation for the low iron abundance and its positive radial gradient, as inferred from existing X-ray measurements of hot gas in various galactic stellar spheroids.
and subgiants with [Fe/H]=[0.0.—1.0] (see 33).
and subgiants with $\rm[Fe/H]=[0.0,-1.0]$ (see 3).
To aid in the comparison we converted the LTE and non-LTE equivalent widths listed in Table | in Pavlenko&Magazzu(1996) to abundance corrections.
To aid in the comparison we converted the LTE and non-LTE equivalent widths listed in Table 1 in \citet{Pavlenko96} to abundance corrections.
The largest difference is ddex between our results and those of Pavlenko& and ddex between our results and those of Takeda Kawanomoto.. but generally the values agree quite well.
The largest difference is dex between our results and those of \citeauthor{Pavlenko96} and dex between our results and those of \citeauthor{Takeda05}, but generally the values agree quite well.
The Carlssonetal.(1994) values agree with ours to within ddex for dwarfs and ddex for giants.
The \citet{Carlsson94} values agree with ours to within dex for dwarfs and dex for giants.
Such differences are reasonable considering differences in the model atom and in the atmospheric models.
Such differences are reasonable considering differences in the model atom and in the atmospheric models.
Carlssonetal. use etal.(1975) MARCS models and Takeda&(2005) and Pavlenko&Magazzu(1996) use Kuruez(1993) ATLAS9 models.
\citeauthor{Carlsson94} use \citet{Gustafsson75} MARCS models and \citet{Takeda05} and \citet{Pavlenko96} use \citet{Kurucz93} ATLAS9 models.
The effects on the non-LTE abundance corrections when using MARCS models from Gustafssonetal.(1975) and Gustafssonetal.(2008) are illustrated in 22.
The effects on the non-LTE abundance corrections when using MARCS models from \citet{Gustafsson75} and \citet{Gustafsson08} are illustrated in 2.
Especially for the two giants. the choice of model atmosphere is important for the corrections.
Especially for the two giants, the choice of model atmosphere is important for the corrections.
The newer models include more line opacity. causing a steeper temperature gradient in the upper part of the photosphere. which increases the ultraviolet J,.—B, excess and leads to more over-ionization.
The newer models include more line opacity, causing a steeper temperature gradient in the upper part of the photosphere, which increases the ultraviolet $J_\nu-B_\nu$ excess and leads to more over-ionization.
The use of newer model atmospheres thus leads to more positive or less negative abundance corrections and partly cancels with the effect of including hydrogen collisions (see 33) Varying the microturbulence between |kms' and 2kms barely affects the abundance corrections (lower panels in 22). especially for low lithium abundances.
The use of newer model atmospheres thus leads to more positive or less negative abundance corrections and partly cancels with the effect of including hydrogen collisions (see 3) Varying the microturbulence between $1\rm\,km\,s^{-1}$ and $2\rm\,km\,s^{-1}$ barely affects the abundance corrections (lower panels in 2), especially for low lithium abundances.
In a giant star. the non-LTE abundance corrections become systematically higher when adopting a microturbulence of 5kms?! instead of 2kms7!. the differences being especially significant when the line is strong (upper panels 22).
In a giant star, the non-LTE abundance corrections become systematically higher when adopting a microturbulence of $5\rm\,km\,s^{-1}$ instead of $2\rm\,km\,s^{-1}$, the differences being especially significant when the line is strong (upper panels 2).
However. the parameter still has some significance at low lithium abundances. when the formation of the line itself is unaffected by the microturbulence.
However, the parameter still has some significance at low lithium abundances, when the formation of the line itself is unaffected by the microturbulence.
This is because the choice of microturbulence influences the amount of line opacity included 1n the computations of the model atmosphere and consequently also the atmospheric temperature gradient. which in turn partly drives the departures from LTE.
This is because the choice of microturbulence influences the amount of line opacity included in the computations of the model atmosphere and consequently also the atmospheric temperature gradient, which in turn partly drives the departures from LTE.
Our results are valid. within. the assumptions of ID model atmospheres in LTE and hydrostatic equilibrium.
Our results are valid within the assumptions of 1D model atmospheres in LTE and hydrostatic equilibrium.
Non-LTE calculations for lithium in 3D. hydrodynamical model atmospheres have to this date been performed only for a few types of stars (Asplundetal. 2003).. and we plan to extend our work to 3D in the future.
Non-LTE calculations for lithium in 3D, hydrodynamical model atmospheres have to this date been performed only for a few types of stars \citep{Asplund03}, , and we plan to extend our work to 3D in the future.
from the above mentioned catalogues.
from the above mentioned catalogues.