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M we take these results at [ace value. we infer jut the dust in ΤΗ10 is not cistributed in a disk. and may » interspersed with the stars in a way that dust absorption ominates. resembling the effects of a simple screen model. unο, the stars may. be strongly embedded in the dust. | If we take these results at face value, we infer that the dust in HR10 is not distributed in a disk, and may be interspersed with the stars in a way that dust absorption dominates, resembling the effects of a simple screen model, i.e. the stars may be strongly embedded in the dust. |
This uso shows how such modeling may provide new clues on 1e internal cust distribution in unresolved. distant galaxies. | This also shows how such modeling may provide new clues on the internal dust distribution in unresolved, distant galaxies. |
The Ho. emission line properties observed by Craham Dev (1996) suggests that ΕΠ10 may be a very dusty galaxy with star formation and/or AGN activity. | The $\alpha$ emission line properties observed by Graham Dey (1996) suggests that HR10 may be a very dusty galaxy with star formation and/or AGN activity. |
Adopting the model B with Τι=6 and a 1 Gyr old stellar population. we estimate wt the rest-frame dereddened I&-band absolute magnitude is Mays 355 (ify=50 km s+ 1 (o0.5). about 9 times brighter than Mg of the luminosity function of the ocal field galaxies (Mobasher. Sharples Ellis 1993). | Adopting the model B with $\tau_V=6$ and a 1 Gyr old stellar population, we estimate that the rest-frame dereddened K-band absolute magnitude is $M_{K_{rest}}$ =-27.5 $H_0=50$ km $^{-1}$ $^{-1}$, $q_0$ =0.5), about 9 times brighter than $M_{K}^{*}$ of the luminosity function of the local field galaxies (Mobasher, Sharples Ellis 1993). |
Figure 3 illustrates the results relative to ΤΠ. a ealaxy with /AN -62 αμα Ricdeway 1904). | Figure 3 illustrates the results relative to HR14, a galaxy with $I-K^{'}$ =6.2 (Hu Ridgway 1994). |
The case of this galaxy is more ambiguous because its spectroscopic redshift is not known. | The case of this galaxy is more ambiguous because its spectroscopic redshift is not known. |
Llu Rideway (1094) estimated a photometric redshift’ 2,,,,22.3. with a x36. acceptable fit range Ls<z «30. | Hu Ridgway (1994) estimated a photometric redshift $z_{phot}$ =2.3, with a $\pm3\sigma$ acceptable fit range $<z<$ 3.0. |
Although its redshift is uncertain. we have decided to investigate the case of this galaxy in three different cases : z—1.8. 2.3 and 3.0. which represent the acceptable range of photometric redshifts. | Although its redshift is uncertain, we have decided to investigate the case of this galaxy in three different cases : $z$ =1.8, 2.3 and 3.0, which represent the acceptable range of photometric redshifts. |
For z—1.8. we find that its SED can be reproduced. successfully without | For $z$ =1.8, we find that its SED can be reproduced successfully without |
For each tidal theory. we determined: the maximunir separation for which companions might be tically engulfed (i.c. plunge into the primary star). | For each tidal theory, we determined the maximum separation for which companions might be tidally engulfed (i.e. plunge into the primary star). |
These results serve as initial conditions for the onset of the common envelope phase for low-mass companions. | These results serve as initial conditions for the onset of the common envelope phase for low-mass companions. |
Previous population svnthesis predictions for post-AGB stars and PNe can be refined. by incorporating the methods outlined in this paper. | Previous population synthesis predictions for post-AGB stars and PNe can be refined by incorporating the methods outlined in this paper. |
For companions that incur a CE. under the assumption of maximum orbital energv deposition. to the common envelope. we determined the maximum. orbital radius. at which a companion survives the interaction. | For companions that incur a CE, under the assumption of maximum orbital energy deposition to the common envelope, we determined the maximum orbital radius at which a companion survives the interaction. |
By following the orbital evolution of the closest companion that evacles tidal engulfment. we predict a period gap for each. binary syslem. | By following the orbital evolution of the closest companion that evades tidal engulfment, we predict a period gap for each binary system. |
Fora binary system consisting of a l Al. primary with al Aly companion. we predict a paucity of Jupiter-mass companions with period below ~270 days. | For a binary system consisting of a 1 $M_\odot$ primary with a 1 $M_{\rm J}$ companion, we predict a paucity of Jupiter-mass companions with period below $\sim$ 270 days. |
For a 1 AL. wimarv with a LO AZ) companion. the gap occurs between 7-0.1 and 7380 days corresponding to ~0.003-0.75 AU. | For a 1 $M_\odot$ primary with a 10 $M_{\rm J}$ companion, the gap occurs between $\sim$ 0.1 and $\sim$ 380 days corresponding to $\sim$ 0.003-0.75 AU. |
Note hat our estimated gaps are conservative ancl are obtainec w finding the minimum gap that might be expected for a range of mass-loss rates and a range of assumptions abou idal dissipation. | Note that our estimated gaps are conservative and are obtained by finding the minimum gap that might be expected for a range of mass-loss rates and a range of assumptions about tidal dissipation. |
Lt is unlikely that the true gaps woulc xc narrower than the ranges quoted above. but they easily could. be wider. | It is unlikely that the true gaps would be narrower than the ranges quoted above, but they easily could be wider. |
As our knowledge of stellar evolution anc ical clissipation improves. so will our estimates of the ranges or these gaps. | As our knowledge of stellar evolution and tidal dissipation improves, so will our estimates of the ranges for these gaps. |
Finally. we note that the results of surveys searching for low mass companions to white dwarfs mieh 1elp to constrain theories of both stellar evolution and tides. | Finally, we note that the results of surveys searching for low mass companions to white dwarfs might help to constrain theories of both stellar evolution and tides. |
provided that αι2 0, a»=0, as usual. | provided that $\alpha_1 \geq 0$ , $\alpha_2 \geq 0$, as usual. |
The []+9 brackets in Eq. (38)) | The $[ \,]_{\ge0}$ brackets in Eq. \ref{eq:area_total_fin}) ) |
mean that the enclosed expression Qmax, if negative, must be set to zero. | mean that the enclosed expression $(L\alpha)_{\mathrm{min}} - Q_{\mathrm{max}}$ , if negative, must be set to zero. |
For this reason, the integration cannot be carried out independently for the two terms. | For this reason, the integration cannot be carried out independently for the two terms. |
Moreover, because of the presence of in Eq. (39)) | Moreover, because of the presence of $\Psi$ in Eq. \ref{eq:Lamin}) ) |
and the different values of and X in Eq. (40)), | and the different values of $\Phi$ and $\Sigma$ in Eq. \ref{eq:Qmax}) ), |
the computation is asymmetric with respect to the y-axis, also when 6=0. | the computation is asymmetric with respect to the $y$ -axis, also when $\delta =0$. |
Therefore, the integral in Eq. (38)) | Therefore, the integral in Eq. \ref{eq:area_total_fin}) ) |
is not equivalent to twice the same integral over [0,2/2], these conditions are fulfilled (as in Sect. 22)): | is not equivalent to twice the same integral over $[0, \pi/2]$, these conditions are fulfilled (as in Sect. \ref{geometric}) ): |
i) ó20, ii) «X, and iii) there is no vignetting of the second kind. | i) $\delta =0$, ii) $\Phi \simeq \Sigma$, and iii) there is no vignetting of the second kind. |
We now discuss the conditions for the mirror shell to be obstruction-free. | We now discuss the conditions for the mirror shell to be obstruction-free. |
It can be seen, from Eqs. (39)) | It can be seen, from Eqs. \ref{eq:Lamin}) ) |
and (40)), that there is no obstruction if, and only if, for all o If these inequalities are fulfilled, Eq. (38)) | and \ref{eq:Qmax}) ), that there is no obstruction if, and only if, for all $\varphi$ If these inequalities are fulfilled, Eq. \ref{eq:area_total_fin}) ) |
correctly reduces to Eq. (7)). | correctly reduces to Eq. \ref{eq:Aeff_fin_offaxis}) ). |
The first two conditions are simply met if the maximum values of αι and a? do not exceed ® and Σ, respectively. | The first two conditions are simply met if the maximum values of $\alpha_1$ and $\alpha_2$ do not exceed $\Phi$ and $\Sigma$ , respectively. |
The third condition requires that either αι«P a<zy, which in turn are to i.e., using Eq. (5)), | The third condition requires that either $\alpha_1 < \Psi$ $\alpha_2 < \frac{L_1}{L_2}\Psi$, which in turn are to i.e., using Eq. \ref{eq:anglesum}) ), |
which reduces to ag«V if Lj=L». | which reduces to $\alpha_0 < \Psi$ if $L_1 = L_2$. |
The definition of 'V then allows us to write Eq. (43)) | The definition of $\Psi$ then allows us to write Eq. \ref{eq:noV2_cond2}) ) |
as This result has an immediate geometric interpretation, by noting that left-hand of Eq. (44)) | as This result has an immediate geometric interpretation, by noting that left-hand of Eq. \ref{eq:noV2_cond3}) ) |
is exactly the maximum possible distance from the reflective shell of a ray reflected twice (Fig. 8)). | is exactly the maximum possible distance from the reflective shell of a ray reflected twice (Fig. \ref{fig:interpr}) ). |
All other rays undergoing a double reflection cannot exceed this distance, which therefore represents the minimum separation for the two shells at z=0. | All other rays undergoing a double reflection cannot exceed this distance, which therefore represents the minimum separation for the two shells at $z~=~0$. |
Finally, we define L to be themirror and using Eqs. (3)) | Finally, we define $\tilde{L}$ to be the and using Eqs. \ref{eq:angle1}) ) |
and (4)), we can express the obstruction avoidance conditions as We note that if Lj=LyL, then also L=L, and that thelast condition solely depends on the mirror pair geometry, not on the off-axis angle. | and \ref{eq:angle2}) ), we can express the obstruction avoidance conditions as We note that if $L_1 = L_2 = L$, then also $\tilde{L} = L$, and that thelast condition solely depends on the mirror pair geometry, not on the off-axis angle. |
As a first application, we derive some expressions for the area (i.e., in the ideal case γ](α)=1for all a) of an obstructed mirror as a function of 6. | As a first application, we derive some expressions for the area (i.e., in the ideal case $r_{\lambda}(\alpha) =1$for all $\alpha$ ) of an obstructed mirror as a function of $\theta$ . |
For simplicity, we only considerthe case that 6=0 and Li=LyLj L5, and we suppose the mirror to be unobstructed on-axis, i.e., that Φ>ao (Eq. (23))). | For simplicity, we only considerthe case that $\delta =0$ and $L_1 = L_2 = L_1^* = L_2^*$ , and we suppose the mirror to be unobstructed on-axis, i.e., that $\Phi \ge \alpha_0$ (Eq. \ref{eq:phi}) )). |
Finally, we reasonably assume that f> L, | Finally, we reasonably assume that $f \gg L$ , |
In this subsection. we show how to apply the parabolic Ixozouo-Taniuchi inequality iu order to give some estimates for the solution of certain parabolic equatious. | In this subsection, we show how to apply the parabolic Kozono-Taniuchi inequality in order to give some estimates for the solution of certain parabolic equations. |
These estimates provide a good control ou the solution in order to avoid singularities at a finite time. aud heuce serve for the loug-time existence. | These estimates provide a good control on the solution in order to avoid singularities at a finite time, and hence serve for the long-time existence. |
The application that will be given here deals with a model that ean be considered as a toy model. | The application that will be given here deals with a model that can be considered as a toy model. |
Ludeed. this is a simplification of the one treated iu [?].. where a rigorous proof of the loug-time existence of solutions of a singular parabolic coupled system was presented (see [?.Theorem 1.1])). | Indeed, this is a simplification of the one treated in \cite{IJM_PI}, where a rigorous proof of the long-time existence of solutions of a singular parabolic coupled system was presented (see \cite[Theorem 1.1]{IJM_PI}) ). |
Consider. for 0<a«1. the following parabolic equation: the following proposition cau be established: Hewristically. the proof is divided into the following four steps. | Consider, for $0<a<1$, the following parabolic equation: the following proposition can be established: Heuristically, the proof is divided into the following four steps. |
Iu what follows all the coustauts cau depeud on the time /. but are bounded for ay fiuite /. ( | In what follows all the constants can depend on the time $t$, but are bounded for any finite $t$. ( |
First estimate from below on the Writing down the equation satisfied by v:we can show that for every /> 0: (Estimate of [ορ]HALO, | First estimate from below on the Writing down the equation satisfied by $v$:we can show that for every $t\geq 0$ (Estimate of $\|v_{x}\|_{BMO_{p}}$ |
of Pittsburgh. University of Portsmouth. Primcetou University. the United States Naval Observatory. aud the University of Washington. | of Pittsburgh, University of Portsmouth, Princeton University, the United States Naval Observatory, and the University of Washington. |
and timing properties (c.g... Done aud IEKubota. 2006: Dewangan ct al. | and timing properties (e.g., Done and Kubota, 2006; Dewangan et al., |
2006: Goad ct al. | 2006; Goad et al., |
2006: Strohmayer et al. | 2006; Strohmayer et al., |
2007). | 2007). |
Ilowever. one of the reasons dt has been difficult to interpret their nature unequivocally is that their N-rav spectra can often be fitted equally well, in our linited observing window (~0.3 10 keV). with a variety of phenomenological or oivsical models. each correspouding to a very different plivsical scenario. | However, one of the reasons it has been difficult to interpret their nature unequivocally is that their X-ray spectra can often be fitted equally well, in our limited observing window $\sim 0.3$ $10$ keV), with a variety of phenomenological or physical models, each corresponding to a very different physical scenario. |
Examples ofthis degeneracy are discussed for exanple in Gongaalves aud Soria (2006). Stobbart ct al. ( | Examples of this degeneracy are discussed for example in Gonçaalves and Soria (2006), Stobbart et al. ( |
2006). Feng and IKaaret (2007). | 2006), Feng and Kaaret (2007). |
In addition, sometimes he sanie phenomenological fitting model can lave wo completely different plysical interpretations. | In addition, sometimes the same phenomenological fitting model can have two completely different physical interpretations. |
Iu he "standard" phenomenological model (sometimes shown as the "cool disk model”). which seems to be applicable to the majority of sources, ULX spectra rave a dominant power-law component, with a thermal (disk?) | In the “standard” phenomenological model (sometimes known as the “cool disk model”), which seems to be applicable to the majority of sources, ULX spectra have a dominant power-law component, with a thermal (disk?) |
component contributing LO 50% of tle X-ray Hux (Stobbart et al. | component contributing $\sim 10$ $50\%$ of the X-ray flux (Stobbart et al. |
2006). | 2006). |
Their fitted. teniperatures wwe typically a few times lower than in stellaruass BIT disks. aud their apparent imner-cdisk radii are two orders of magnitude higher. | Their fitted temperatures are typically a few times lower than in stellar-mass BH disks, and their apparent inner-disk radii are two orders of magnitude higher. |
Spectral hardening and partial covering of the disk cannot explain this difference. | Spectral hardening and partial covering of the disk cannot explain this difference. |
If ULXs lie near or on the rielt-hand-side of their thermal tracks, their DIT masses ought to be two orders of magnitude higher than in Calactic svstenis. | If ULXs lie near or on the right-hand-side of their thermal tracks, their BH masses ought to be two orders of magnitude higher than in Galactic systems. |
This argunent has been invoked in support of iutermediate-niass DIIS (Miller et al. | This argument has been invoked in support of intermediate-mass BHs (Miller et al., |
2001). | 2004). |
Thismodel may be unsatisfactory. uutil independent evidence is found for the formation of intermediate-uass DIIS in the local Universe. | This may be unsatisfactory, until independent evidence is found for the formation of intermediate-mass BHs in the local Universe. |
We need to search for a simpler physical interpretation of the cool disk model that docs not require new astroplivsical objects. | We need to search for a simpler physical interpretation of the cool disk model that does not require new astrophysical objects. |
NTE 56 Lis one of the best-kunowmn nmicroquasars: its BIT has a dynamical mass cm1041, (Orosz et al.. | XTE $-$ 564 is one of the best-known microquasars; its BH has a dynamical mass $\approx 10 M_{\odot}$ (Orosz et al., |
2002). | 2002). |
There is some evidence that the source was in a low/hlard state at the beeinning of the 1998 September 1999 April outburst. just before the initial steep rie (Sobczak et al.. | There is some evidence that the source was in a low/hard state at the beginning of the 1998 September – 1999 April outburst, just before the initial steep rise (Sobczak et al., |
2000). | 2000). |
In the carly phase of the outburs. when the integrated N-rav. huninositv and presumably the accretion rate were at their peaks. the A-ray spectrum was dominated bv a power-law, with a relatively minor disk contribution. | In the early phase of the outburst, when the integrated X-ray luminosity and presumably the accretion rate were at their peaks, the X-ray spectrum was dominated by a power-law, with a relatively minor disk contribution. |
This. aud the presence of characteristic low-frequency quasi-periodic-oscillations (LF-QPOs). are typical signatures of the very high state (Remillard and AlcClintock, 2006). | This, and the presence of characteristic low-frequency quasi-periodic-oscillations (LF-QPOs), are typical signatures of the very high state (Remillard and McClintock, 2006). |
However, there was an iniportanut difference. | However, there was an important difference. |
During the first (brightest) four weeks of the outburst. the source | During the first (brightest) four weeks of the outburst, the source |
To reach the sensitivity of the 3 1013 1. galaxies at high-z. we need to have à very good angular resolution not to be limited. by the confusion. | To reach the sensitivity of the 3 $^{11}$ $_{\odot}$ galaxies at high-z, we need to have a very good angular resolution not to be limited by the confusion. |
Table 9. gives the angular resolution. together with the telescope diameter needed to reach 10. 30. 60 and SO fX of the CIB at 350. 850 and. 1300 pam. Fo resolve 80% of the background at. 1300 fam. we need a telescope diameter of about 173 m (0) | Table \ref{resol_pred} gives the angular resolution, together with the telescope diameter needed to reach 10, 30, 60 and 80 $\%$ of the CIB at 350, 850 and 1300 $\mu$ m. To resolve $\%$ of the background at 1300 $\mu$ m, we need a telescope diameter of about 173 m (!) |
and a diameter of about 113 m (0) | and a diameter of about 113 m (!) |
at 850 yam and 23 m at 350 yam. In conclusion. finding the objects that are making the bulk of 1e CID at long wavelengths will be a very challenging task! | at 850 $\mu$ m and 23 m at 350 $\mu$ m. In conclusion, finding the objects that are making the bulk of the CIB at long wavelengths will be a very challenging task! |
This leaves to an open question: how we find these objects? | This leaves to an open question: how we find these objects? |
In the mic-LR. the Next Generation. Space Telescope GST) will be a great tool. | In the mid-IR, the Next Generation Space Telescope (NGST) will be a great tool. |
However. NGST observations will have two limitations: (1) the redshift up to which the lust component can be observed. is limited to 4-5 and. (2) rw stellar. component. can be observed. at higher z but we experience of combined. opticalfnear-LR ancl far-LR observations shows how it is dillieult to identify the galaxies which have most of their output energy in the Par-LR from optical and. near-H1t data alone. | However, NGST observations will have two limitations: (1) the redshift up to which the dust component can be observed is limited to 4-5 and (2) the stellar component can be observed at higher z but the experience of combined optical/near-IR and far-IR observations shows how it is difficult to identify the galaxies which have most of their output energy in the Far-IR from optical and near-IR data alone. |
Fherefore. the alternative today is to make the interlerometres cllicient enough. to Carry out large For the second. requirement. Le study. in. detail the physics of the objects. observations have to have enough sensitivity. to. observe. sub-components of the merging objects. at high. z (a 32 107lu L. sub-component at z=5 has a Hux of about 0.014 mJy at 350 jm and of about 0.028 mJv at SSO yom). | Therefore, the alternative today is to make the interferometres efficient enough to carry out large For the second requirement, i.e study in detail the physics of the objects, observations have to have enough sensitivity to observe sub-components of the merging objects at high z (a 3 $^{10}$ $_{\odot}$ sub-component at z=5 has a flux of about 0.014 mJy at 350 $\mu$ m and of about 0.028 mJy at 850 $\mu$ m). |
Moreover. an angular resolution of about 0.2 to 1 aresee. together with spectroscopic capabilities are needed. | Moreover, an angular resolution of about 0.2 to 1 arcsec, together with spectroscopic capabilities are needed. |
For that. the submm and mam interferometres are the only tools. as shown by the recent spectacular observations of high-redshift quasar with the LANL interferometre (Cox ο al. | For that, the submm and mm interferometres are the only tools, as shown by the recent spectacular observations of high-redshift quasar with the IRAM interferometre (Cox et al. |
2002). | 2002). |
Lower uminositv sources will require the (httpf/www.eso.org/projects/alma httpz//www.mma.nrao.edu/) or SPECS/SPIRIT (Leisawitz et al. | Lower luminosity sources will require the (http://www.eso.org/projects/alma/, http://www.mma.nrao.edu/) or SPECS/SPIRIT (Leisawitz et al. |
2001) interferometres. | 2001) interferometres. |
Thanks to the negative Ix-correction. high redshift’ sources are accessible. from. the ground. at submm and mim wavelengths. | Thanks to the negative K-correction, high redshift sources are accessible from the ground at submm and mm wavelengths., |
a svnthesis radio telescope (about 64 12-metre diameter telescopes) that will operate at subnim and mim wavelengths will image the Universe with unprecedented: sensitivity and angular resolution from the high-altituce Llano de Chajnantor. in northern Chile. | a synthesis radio telescope (about 64 12-metre diameter telescopes) that will operate at submm and mm wavelengths will image the Universe with unprecedented sensitivity and angular resolution from the high-altitude Llano de Chajnantor, in northern Chile. |
Ht will be one ofthe largest eround-based astronomy. project ofthe next decade after VET/VLTL and. together with the NOST. one of the two major new facilities for world. astronomy coming into operation by the end of the next. decade.A | It will be one of the largest ground-based astronomy project of the next decade after VLT/VLTI, and, together with the NGST, one of the two major new facilities for world astronomy coming into operation by the end of the next decade., |
LALA. with its angular resolution. great sensitivity and spectroscopic capabilities will reveal in detail. in the high-z ealaxies. the astrophysical processes at work. | with its angular resolution, great sensitivity and spectroscopic capabilities will reveal in detail, in the high-z galaxies, the astrophysical processes at work. |
Moreover. will be free of limitation due to source confusion and will therefore. allow very faint galaxies to be detected. | Moreover, will be free of limitation due to source confusion and will therefore allow very faint galaxies to be detected. |
In this section. we cliscuss mostly abilities to find large enough samples of high. recshift sources to do statistical studies anc probe the CLB source. population. | In this section, we discuss mostly abilities to find large enough samples of high redshift sources to do statistical studies and probe the CIB source population. |
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