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We then took the period to be the time till the next rise to maximum. | We then took the period to be the time till the next rise to maximum. |
We estimate the uncertainty on the phase of the beat period to be ~0.01- eveles. | We estimate the uncertainty on the phase of the beat period to be $\sim$ 0.01-0.02 cycles. |
The resulting beat phase is reported in Table L.. along with the cates of the observations and the mean X-rav brightness. | The resulting beat phase is reported in Table \ref{obslog}, along with the dates of the observations and the mean X-ray brightness. |
Note that the last observation has been taken during an eclipse of the primary by. the secondary star: this corresponds to the point with the lowest X-ray. count rate in Figure I.. | Note that the last observation has been taken during an eclipse of the primary by the secondary star: this corresponds to the point with the lowest X-ray count rate in Figure \ref{asm}. |
The phase coverage of the observations over the 35 day period is shown in Figure 1.. | The phase coverage of the observations over the 35 day period is shown in Figure \ref{asm}. |
For comparison. we also show the ASAL light curve recorded during a typical cvcle. | For comparison, we also show the ASM light curve recorded during a typical cycle. |
We note that. since the actual period. of the X-ray modulation varies around its nominal value of 35 d. the determination of the state of the system (either low. main on or short on) based on a direct comparison with the ASAI lighteurve in the top panel must be taken only as indicative. | We note that, since the actual period of the X-ray modulation varies around its nominal value of 35 d, the determination of the state of the system (either low, main on or short on) based on a direct comparison with the ASM lightcurve in the top panel must be taken only as indicative. |
As we can see. the beat evele is reasonably well sampled. with most of the exposures taken outside the main-on and short-on phases. | As we can see, the beat cycle is reasonably well sampled, with most of the exposures taken outside the main-on and short-on phases. |
Fhree observations have been. performed during states of high intensity: in addition to the main-on and short-on datasets. discussed by 02 (5;=0.17 and 0.60) we have a further exposure at 5;=0.02. | Three observations have been performed during states of high intensity: in addition to the main-on and short-on datasets discussed by R02 $\Phi_{35}=0.17$ and 0.60) we have a further exposure at $\Phi_{35}=0.02$. |
We note that the ASM lighteurve The UV emission. probably originates from a blend. of a least. two clilferent components: the illuminated. face of the secondary star and the accretion disk. | We note that the ASM lightcurve The UV emission probably originates from a blend of at least two different components: the illuminated face of the secondary star and the accretion disk. |
Vheir relative contribution varies during the orbital motion. and in genera is οΙσ to. disentangle. | Their relative contribution varies during the orbital motion, and in general is difficult to disentangle. |
Unlike the N-ravs. the UV. emission does not show an obvious correlation with the bea xriod. | Unlike the X-rays, the UV emission does not show an obvious correlation with the beat period. |
This is in agreement with the fact that the disk contribution is on average small (less than as estimatec » Boroson οἱ al. | This is in agreement with the fact that the disk contribution is on average small (less than as estimated by Boroson et al. |
2001). | 2001). |
Llowever. it is modulated over the jnarv orbital period. | However, it is modulated over the binary orbital period. |
Phe UV. count rate detected: using he two OM filters is shown in Figure 2.. as a function of he orbital phase. | The UV count rate detected using the two OM filters is shown in Figure \ref{uv}, as a function of the orbital phase. |
Note that observations were not always »rformed in both filters. and in the last (wo exposures no UV measurements were mace. | Note that observations were not always performed in both filters, and in the last two exposures no UV measurements were made. |
The illuminated: secondary star is expected to dominate around. O57,»0.5. | The illuminated secondary star is expected to dominate around $\phi_{binary}\sim0.5$. |
As we can see. near this orbital phase the UV. flux measured. by OAL reaches à broad maximunr. similar to that found. using IUE in the band (eg. Vrtilek Cheng 1996). | As we can see, near this orbital phase the UV flux measured by OM reaches a broad maximum, similar to that found using $IUE$ in the band (e.g. Vrtilek Cheng 1996). |
However. | However, |
Establishing the role of star formation in the early universe is key to understanding the formation and evolution of galaxies. | Establishing the role of star formation in the early universe is key to understanding the formation and evolution of galaxies. |
Early searches for the fingerprints of star formation at high-redshift received a tremendous boost with the identification of the IRAS source 4724 as a hyperluminous infrared galaxy at z=2.286. | Early searches for the fingerprints of star formation at high-redshift received a tremendous boost with the identification of the IRAS source $+$ 4724 as a hyperluminous infrared galaxy at $z=2.286$. |
Millimetre and submillimetre observations pointed to the presence of ~105 M. of dust (Clements et 11992). and a molecular gas mass of ~10! (Solomon. Downes Radford 1992b). | Millimetre and submillimetre observations pointed to the presence of $\sim 10^8$ $_\odot$ of dust (Clements et 1992), and a molecular gas mass of $\sim 10^{10}$ (Solomon, Downes Radford 1992b). |
Subsequent observations and analysis showed that 102144-4724 was gravitationally lensed (e.g.. Downes. Solomon Radford 1995). | Subsequent observations and analysis showed that 10214+4724 was gravitationally lensed (e.g., Downes, Solomon Radford 1995). |
Nonetheless. F1021444724 remains a ultraluminous infrared galaxy (ULIRG). most likely undergoing one of its first massive bursts of star formation. | Nonetheless, F10214+4724 remains a ultraluminous infrared galaxy (ULIRG), most likely undergoing one of its first massive bursts of star formation. |
ULIRGs represent a remarkable class of object. emitting a significant fraction of their considerable bolometric luminosity at infrared wavelengths. | ULIRGs represent a remarkable class of object, emitting a significant fraction of their considerable bolometric luminosity at infrared wavelengths. |
With Lyi102 L. there is increasing evidence to suggest that a large fraction of ULIRGs have recently been in. or are currently undergoing. some sort of merger or galaxy-galaxy interaction (e.g. Sanders Mirabel 1996). | With $L_{\rm FIR} > 10^{12}$ $_{\odot}$ there is increasing evidence to suggest that a large fraction of ULIRGs have recently been in, or are currently undergoing, some sort of merger or galaxy-galaxy interaction (e.g., Sanders Mirabel 1996). |
These tidal interactions are believed to trigger both extreme bursts of star formation and the turn-on of a central active galactic nucleus (AGN). both of which are observed. often simultaneously. in ULIRGs. | These tidal interactions are believed to trigger both extreme bursts of star formation and the turn-on of a central active galactic nucleus (AGN), both of which are observed, often simultaneously, in ULIRGs. |
Local ULIRGs have been studied extensively at millimetre/submillimetre wavelengths to assess the relative importance of star formation. primarily through measurements of the molecular gas (e.g. Solomon. Downes Radford 1992a: Solomon et 11997: Gao 1996). | Local ULIRGs have been studied extensively at millimetre/submillimetre wavelengths to assess the relative importance of star formation, primarily through measurements of the molecular gas (e.g., Solomon, Downes Radford 1992a; Solomon et 1997; Gao 1996). |
Important results have come from these studies: in spite of the extreme CO luminosities observed in ULIRGs. the ratio of Liqg/Lco is an order of magnitude larger than normal spiral galaxies: also. measurements of the dense gas tracer HCNCI-0). show that a considerable fraction of the molecular gas in ULIRGs has densities commonly observed in star forming cores. | Important results have come from these studies: in spite of the extreme CO luminosities observed in ULIRGs, the ratio of $L_{\rm FIR}/L_{\rm CO}$ is an order of magnitude larger than normal spiral galaxies; also, measurements of the dense gas tracer HCN(1–0) show that a considerable fraction of the molecular gas in ULIRGs has densities commonly observed in star forming cores. |
These two results can be interpreted as high star formation rate per unit molecular gas mass. and a high star formation potential. | These two results can be interpreted as high star formation rate per unit molecular gas mass, and a high star formation potential. |
The discovery of ULIRGs at early epochs thus raises the question of whether star formation in high-redshift sourees is similar to that seen in local analogues? | The discovery of ULIRGs at early epochs thus raises the question of whether star formation in high-redshift sources is similar to that seen in local analogues? |
The current generation of millimetre/submillimetre cameras (MAMBO and SCUBA operating at the IRAM-30m and. the James Clerk Maxwell Telescopes respectively) has identified many candidate high-redshift ULIRGs. both through targeted observations of objects known to be at high-redshift (e.g.. Archibald et 22001: Carilli et 22001) and through blank-sky surveys (e.g.. Bertoldi et 22000: Hughes et 11998). | The current generation of millimetre/submillimetre cameras (MAMBO and SCUBA operating at the IRAM-30m and the James Clerk Maxwell Telescopes respectively) has identified many candidate high-redshift ULIRGs, both through targeted observations of objects known to be at high-redshift (e.g., Archibald et 2001; Carilli et 2001) and through blank-sky surveys (e.g., Bertoldi et 2000; Hughes et 1998). |
Optica studies have shown that low-redshift quasars are located in massive host galaxies (e.g... Boyce et 11998: Pagani. Falomo Treves 2003). | Optical studies have shown that low-redshift quasars are located in massive host galaxies (e.g., Boyce et 1998; Pagani, Falomo Treves 2003). |
By extension. high-redshift quasars provide a convenien means by which to pinpoint very distant. massive galaxies. | By extension, high-redshift quasars provide a convenient means by which to pinpoint very distant, massive galaxies. |
Many high-redshift quasar host galaxies have been detected in the (subjmm continuum (e.g. McMahon et 11994: Barvainis Ivison 2002: Omont et 22003: Bertoldi et 22003). indicating the presence of massive quantities of dust 10?? M. at early epochs. | Many high-redshift quasar host galaxies have been detected in the (sub)mm continuum (e.g., McMahon et 1994; Barvainis Ivison 2002; Omont et 2003; Bertoldi et 2003), indicating the presence of massive quantities of dust $10^{8-9}$ $_\odot$ at early epochs. |
The interpretation of the (subjmm continuum observations is not without complications. however. since the underlying source of the UV energy heating the dust can be due to either AGN and/or starburst activity. | The interpretation of the (sub)mm continuum observations is not without complications, however, since the underlying source of the UV energy heating the dust can be due to either AGN and/or starburst activity. |
CO emission has also been detected from | CO emission has also been detected from |
enshrouding the main components and. extending towards the tail can be explained possibly assuming. additional stochastic mechanisms taking place across the whole hotspot In the case of 4445 South the optical observations probe a scenario where the interaction between jet and the ambient medium is very complex. | enshrouding the main components and extending towards the tail can be explained possibly assuming additional stochastic mechanisms taking place across the whole hotspot In the case of 445 South the optical observations probe a scenario where the interaction between jet and the ambient medium is very complex. |
Two optical components pinpointeck by LIST. observations mark cither the locations where particle acceleration is most cllicient or the remnants of the most recent episodes of acceleration. | Two optical components pinpointed by HST observations mark either the locations where particle acceleration is most efficient or the remnants of the most recent episodes of acceleration. |
Although projection effects may play an important role. the morphology and the spatial extension of the dilfuse optical emission suggest that particle accelerations. such as stochastic mechanisms. add to the standard. shock acceleration in the hotspot region. | Although projection effects may play an important role, the morphology and the spatial extension of the diffuse optical emission suggest that particle accelerations, such as stochastic mechanisms, add to the standard shock acceleration in the hotspot region. |
The X-rays detected by cannot be the counterpart at higher energies. of the two main components. | The X-rays detected by cannot be the counterpart at higher energies of the two main components. |
It might be due to IC-CMD from the fast. part of a decelerating Dow. | It might be due to IC-CMB from the fast part of a decelerating flow. |
Alternatively the X-ravs could pinpoint svnchrotron emission. from. recent episodes of cllicient particle acceleration occurring in. the whole hotspot region. similarly to what proposed. in other hotspots. that would make the scenario even more complex. | Alternatively the X-rays could pinpoint synchrotron emission from recent episodes of efficient particle acceleration occurring in the whole hotspot region, similarly to what proposed in other hotspots, that would make the scenario even more complex. |
A possible evidence supporting this scenario comes fron the hard spectrum of the dilfuse hotspot emission and from the appearance of a new component (SC) in the optical images. | A possible evidence supporting this scenario comes from the hard spectrum of the diffuse hotspot emission and from the appearance of a new component (SC) in the optical images. |
We thank the anonvmous referee for the valuable suggestionsSS that improved. the manuscript. | We thank the anonymous referee for the valuable suggestions that improved the manuscript. |
F.M. acknowledges the Foundation BLANCEFLOR Boncompagni-Ludovisi. nee 211 for the grant awarded. him in 2010 το support his research. | F.M. acknowledges the Foundation BLANCEFLOR Boncompagni-Ludovisi, n'ee Bildt for the grant awarded him in 2010 to support his research. |
The VLA is operated. by the US National Radio Astronomy Observatory which is a facility of the National Science. Foundation. operated: uncer cooperative agreement by Associated: Universities. Inc. Fhis work has mace use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database NED which is operated by the JPL. Californian Institute of ‘Technology. under contract with the National Acronautics and Space Administration. | The VLA is operated by the US National Radio Astronomy Observatory which is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. This work has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database NED which is operated by the JPL, Californian Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. |
This. research has mace used. of SAOLmage DSO. developed. by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAQ). | This research has made used of SAOImage DS9, developed by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAO). |
Part of this work is based on archival data. software or on-line services provided. by ASL Science Data Center (ASDC). | Part of this work is based on archival data, software or on-line services provided by ASI Science Data Center (ASDC). |
The work at SAO is supported by supported by NASA-GRANT GOS-0114A. We acknowledge the use of public cata from the Swift. data archive. | The work at SAO is supported by supported by NASA-GRANT GO8-9114A. We acknowledge the use of public data from the Swift data archive. |
This research has made use of software provided bv the Chandra. N-rav Center (CXC) in the application packages CLAO and ChiPs. | This research has made use of software provided by the Chandra X-ray Center (CXC) in the application packages CIAO and ChIPS. |
3oth the radio hotspot 1105 South and 4445 South have been detected hy in the energy range 0.3-L0 keV. The reduction. procedure. forο cata follows that described. in Alassaroctal.(2008). | Both the radio hotspot 105 South and 445 South have been detected by in the energy range 0.3-10 keV. The reduction procedure for data follows that described in \citet{massaro08}. |
. 1n the following we report only the basic 1105 has been observed by in four occasions (Obs. | In the following we report only the basic 105 has been observed by in four occasions (Obs. |
LD 00035625001-2-3-4) for a total exposure of ~ 22 ks while 4445 only for — 12 ks (Obs. | ID 00035625001-2-3-4) for a total exposure of $\sim$ 22 ks while 445 only for $\sim$ 12 ks (Obs. |
LD 00030944001-2). | ID 00030944001-2). |
During all these observations. the satellite was operated with all the instruments in data taking mode. | During all these observations, the satellite was operated with all the instruments in data taking mode. |
We consider only ΝΤ (Burrowsetal.2005). data. since our sources were not bright enough to be detected by the BAT high energy experiment. | We consider only XRT \citep{burrows05} data, since our sources were not bright enough to be detected by the BAT high energy experiment. |
In particular. ΣΙ observations have been performed in photon-counting mode The ARP cata analysis has been performed. with the ART- DAS software. developed. at the ASL Science Data Center (ASDC) ancl distributed within the LUEAsolt pack- age (v. 6.9). | In particular, -XRT observations have been performed in photon-counting mode The XRT data analysis has been performed with the XRT- DAS software, developed at the ASI Science Data Center (ASDC) and distributed within the HEAsoft pack- age (v. 6.9). |
Event. files were calibrated ancl cleaned with standard. filtering criteria using the xrtpipeline task. combined with the latest calibration files available in the CXALDDB cistributed by LIEASARC. | Event files were calibrated and cleaned with standard filtering criteria using the xrtpipeline task, combined with the latest calibration files available in the CALDB distributed by HEASARC. |
Events in. the energy range 0.8-10 keV with eraces 0-12 (PC mode) were used in the analysis (see Hill et al. | Events in the energy range 0.3-10 keV with grades 0-12 (PC mode) were used in the analysis (see Hill et al. |
2004 for more details). | 2004 for more details). |
No signatures of pile-up were found in our NIRE observations. | No signatures of pile-up were found in our XRT observations. |
Events are extracted using a 17 aresec radius circle centered on the radio position of the southern hotspots in both cases of 1105 ancl 4445 (see Fig. X1)). | Events are extracted using a 17 arcsec radius circle centered on the radio position of the southern hotspots in both cases of 105 and 445 (see Fig. \ref{appendice}) ). |
we nmieasured. 15 counts in the southern hotspot. of 1105 and 12 counts for that of 4445. while the background estimated [rom a nearby source-free circular region of the same radius is 1.8 counts and 0.9 respectively. | we measured 15 counts in the southern hotspot of 105 and 12 counts for that of 445, while the background estimated from a nearby source-free circular region of the same radius is 1.8 counts and 0.9 respectively. |
A-1. €vg N-3 and GRS 1915|105. | X-1, Cyg X-3 and GRS 1915+105. |
Phe simultaneous racioinfrared. oscillations observed in CARS 1915]105 constitute evidence against both shocks which cool via radiative losses (as the decav rate is the same at 2 em and 2 (jum) and an optically thin solution (as the infrared.radio delay. as well as clelavs within the radio band. suggest. significant optical depth ellecets). | The simultaneous radio--infrared oscillations observed in GRS 1915+105 constitute evidence against both shocks which cool via radiative losses (as the decay rate is the same at 2 cm and 2 $\mu$ m) and an optically thin solution (as the infrared–radio delay, as well as delays within the radio band, suggest significant optical depth effects). |
Furthermore. all the conical jet and related models only predict a flat spectrum over at most three decades in frequeney: the problem in all cases is the prediction of a high-frequency. eut-olf somewhere in the mm. band. | Furthermore, all the conical jet and related models only predict a flat spectrum over at most three decades in frequency; the problem in all cases is the prediction of a high-frequency cut-off somewhere in the mm band. |
This is observed in nearly all cases for ‘Lat-spectruny AGN. where the mean spectral index in the mnm band is in [act Oan=0.75d:0.05 (Bloom et al. | This is observed in nearly all cases for `flat-spectrum' AGN, where the mean spectral index in the mm band is in fact $<\alpha_{\rm mm}> = -0.75 \pm 0.05$ (Bloom et al. |
1994). | 1994). |
lt is therefore clear that the three X-ray binaries in question nave much Latter (consistent with completely. Hat) radiommíinfrared) spectra than the "at-spectrum! AGN. and he applicability of the self-absorbed synchrotron models to hese X-ray binary spectra remains to be established. | It is therefore clear that the three X-ray binaries in question have much flatter (consistent with completely flat) radio--mm(--infrared) spectra than the `flat-spectrum' AGN, and the applicability of the self-absorbed synchrotron models to these X-ray binary spectra remains to be established. |
If the emissive mechanism svnchrotron.. then assuming that the mm emission is not significantly Doppler »oosted. we can estimate a minimum size for the emitting region from the inverse Compton brightness temperature imital of Sly1077Ix. At −−220 ο].⋠⋠ this nis only 107: em. which is relatively close to the compact object and well within the . . 1E ⋡↓⊔⋜⊔⋅∙∖⇁⊳∖⋖⋅↓≻⋜⊔⋅⋜⊔↓∪⊔↿∖∿↓∪≼∼⊔↓∃∪⇂∣⇂↥⋖⋅≱∖∙∖ | If the emissive mechanism synchrotron, then assuming that the mm emission is not significantly Doppler boosted, we can estimate a minimum size for the emitting region from the inverse Compton brightness temperature limit of $10^{12}$ K. At 220 GHz, this is only $10^{10}$ cm, which is relatively close to the compact object and well within the binary separation $\sim 10^{12}$ cm) of the system. |
⇁≱∖⊓⋅⊔↓⋡ ⋅ An obvious candidate for the emissive mechanism of a flat spectral Component is optically thin free-free emission. | An obvious candidate for the emissive mechanism of a flat spectral component is optically thin free-free emission. |
For optically thin free-[ree emission from a thermal plasma. we need to have a sullicienthy large emission. measure whilst keeping the spectrum optically thin tov<2 Cllz. | For optically thin free-free emission from a thermal plasma, we need to have a sufficiently large emission measure whilst keeping the spectrum optically thin to $\nu \leq 2$ GHz. |
Assuming a fully ionised pure hydrogen plasma and a Gaunt factor of unity (neither of which assumptions will alfect an orcer-ol-magnitude estimate). and a distance to the svstem of 2.5 kpe. we find that we need to satisfy the following criteria: and where r is the dimension of the cloud (cm) along the line of sight. AN, is the electron number density (em. 7) and T; is he electron temperature CE). | Assuming a fully ionised pure hydrogen plasma and a Gaunt factor of unity (neither of which assumptions will affect an order-of-magnitude estimate), and a distance to the system of 2.5 kpc, we find that we need to satisfy the following criteria: and where $r$ is the dimension of the cloud (cm) along the line of sight, $N_e$ is the electron number density $^{-3}$ ) and $T_e$ is the electron temperature (T). |
Ehe first eriterion is necessary o produce the observed level of emission. the second. to event the cloud becoming optically thick to free-f[ree self-absorption. | The first criterion is necessary to produce the observed level of emission, the second to prevent the cloud becoming optically thick to free-free self-absorption. |
As a result we can determine a minimum. size ofa (spherical) cloud. (ancl corresponding Ay.) for cdillerent emperatures. | As a result we can determine a minimum size of a (spherical) cloud (and corresponding $N_e$ ) for different temperatures. |
For a cloud of 2= 101. ie. in approximate vernal equilibrium with the OD star wind. kccLO! em CN.—10 ο). | For a cloud of $T = 10^4$ K, i.e. in approximate thermal equilibrium with the OB star wind, $r \geq
10^{16}$ cm $N_e \sim 10^6$ $^{-3}$ ). |
Por a much hotter cloud of temperature ]0"Ix a dimension of ο1044 em CN,~10" 7) is still required. | For a much hotter cloud of temperature $10^9$ K a dimension of $r \geq 10^{14}$ cm $N_e \sim
10^9$ $^{-3}$ ) is still required. |
This is very large indeed. compared. to the dimensions of the binary orbit. anc a significantly larger emission measure than would be expected for the OD star ione. | This is very large indeed compared to the dimensions of the binary orbit, and a significantly larger emission measure than would be expected for the OB star alone. |
In this case the variability. timescale. would be >Lhe fora 10" IN cloud. and 2 days for Ίο=104M. ‘Phe smal (1)4.4.101773 correction for relativistic frec-Lrec emission is insullicicnt to significantly. alter the result. | In this case the variability timescale, would be $\geq 1$ hr for a $10^9$ K cloud, and $\geq$ days for $T=10^4$ K. The small $(1+4.4 \times
10^{-10}T)$ correction for relativistic free-free emission is insufficient to significantly alter the result. |
Nontherma optically thin frec-free emission should. also produce a [a spectral component. with (potentially) a greater emissivity than thermal free-[ree emission. but. precise determination of this (including calculation of the relevant nonthermal Gaun factors) is bevond the scope of this paper. | Nonthermal optically thin free-free emission should also produce a flat spectral component, with (potentially) a greater emissivity than thermal free-free emission, but precise determination of this (including calculation of the relevant nonthermal Gaunt factors) is beyond the scope of this paper. |
Regardless. as noted above it is dillieult to invoke a purely opticallv-thin solution as there is evidence for frequeney-dependent delavs. indicating a significant optical depth. | Regardless, as noted above it is difficult to invoke a purely optically-thin solution as there is evidence for frequency-dependent delays, indicating a significant optical depth. |
Wrieht Barlow (1975) have caleulated the spectrum and flux expected. from a spherically symmetric: stellar wind as a result of frec-free emission. | Wright Barlow (1975) have calculated the spectrum and flux expected from a spherically symmetric stellar wind as a result of free-free emission. |
Combining optically thick and optically thin regimes they. predict a radiomm spectrum. with spectral index ~10.6. | Combining optically thick and optically thin regimes they predict a radio–mm spectrum with spectral index $\sim +0.6$. |
The flux density expected from the stellar wind of the OB-type mass donor in (νο ας] (assuming AMo2510 and euc2000 km 1) would be around 0.1 mJy at 100. GlLIz. | The flux density expected from the stellar wind of the OB-type mass donor in Cyg X-1 (assuming $\dot{M} \sim 2.5 \times 10^{-6}$ and $v_{\inf} \sim 2000$ km $^{-1}$ ) would be around 0.1 mJy at 100 GHz. |
Therefore we can see that neither the spectrum nor (lux density are compatible with the "standard! spherically svmametrie stellar wind model. | Therefore we can see that neither the spectrum nor flux density are compatible with the `standard' spherically symmetric stellar wind model. |
Another possibility is that the radiomm. spectrum is a combination of some emissive mechanism at radio wavelengths. probably svnchrotron. with a thermal component at (sub-)nm wavelengths. | Another possibility is that the radio–mm spectrum is a combination of some emissive mechanism at radio wavelengths, probably synchrotron, with a thermal component at (sub-)mm wavelengths. |
In the case that this hermal emission arose in an optically thick cust cloud which »ealked at a frequeney of~107 LEz (305). this corresponds o à temperature of150 Is for the dust cloud. | In the case that this thermal emission arose in an optically thick dust cloud which peaked at a frequency of $\sim 10^{13}$ Hz $30 \mu$ m), this corresponds to a temperature of $\sim 150$ K for the dust cloud. |
Xt a distance of 2.5 kpe. a spherical eloud. of radius 231055 em woul xf required. | At a distance of 2.5 kpc, a spherical cloud of radius $\geq 3 \times 10^{13}$ cm would be required. |
This would casily enclose. the entire. binary system. and. presumably significantly recelen the colours of he OB companion star. | This would easily enclose the entire binary system, and presumably significantly redden the colours of the OB companion star. |
In. addition. such a large. clouc would impose a minimum timescale for variability of =IO min. | In addition, such a large cloud would impose a minimum timescale for variability of $\geq 10$ min. |
This cloud. size is not unfeasible for a massive OB-type companion. although in order to be in therma equilibrium at 150k the dust. cloud would. ποσά to be much further from the star (at 107 em from the star the equilibrium temperature is likely to still be = 10001Ix). | This cloud size is not unfeasible for a massive OB-type companion, although in order to be in thermal equilibrium at $\sim 150$ K the dust cloud would need to be much further from the star (at $10^{13}$ cm from the star the equilibrium temperature is likely to still be $\geq 1000$ K). |
Cve N-1 was previously known to have a [lat radio spectrum from 2 15 11 (Pooley ct al. | Cyg X-1 was previously known to have a flat radio spectrum from 2 – 15 GHz (Pooley et al. |
1999) with a mean [lux density of ~14 αν. | 1999) with a mean flux density of $\sim 14$ mJy. |
This corresponds to an integrated svnchrotron Luminosity of 107 ere | This corresponds to an integrated synchrotron luminosity of $
10^{30}$ erg $^{-1}$. |
A single previous observation at 250 Cillz had implied that this [at spectrum extended. to mm. wavelengths. CXltenhol et al. | A single previous observation at 250 GHz had implied that this flat spectrum extended to mm wavelengths (Altenhoff et al. |
1994). | 1994). |
Ln multiple simultaneous radio and mam observations we have confirmed the existence of a spectral component extending from cm through mnm wavelengths with a very flat spectrum and no evidence of either low- or high-frequency: eut-olfs. | In multiple simultaneous radio and mm observations we have confirmed the existence of a spectral component extending from cm through mm wavelengths with a very flat spectrum and no evidence of either low- or high-frequency cut-offs. |
Furthermore. the likelihood that adiabatic expansion losses dominate in the emitting region shows that the generation of the outllow may be far more important to the energeties of accretion in (νο X-1 than previously suspected. | Furthermore, the likelihood that adiabatic expansion losses dominate in the emitting region shows that the generation of the outflow may be far more important to the energetics of accretion in Cyg X-1 than previously suspected. |
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