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earidentical copies of the Bell telephone without having to pay royalties. The establishment of the International Bell Telephone Company in Brussels, Belgium in 1880, as well as a series of agreements in other countries eventually consolidated a global telephone operation. The strain put on Bell by his constant appearances in court, necessitated by the legal battles, eventually resulted in his resignation from the company.
Family life
On July 11, 1877, a few days after the Bell Telephone Company was established, Bell married Mabel Hubbard 18571923 at the Hubbard estate in Cambridge, Massachusetts. His wedding present to his bride was to turn over 1,487 of his 1,497 shares in the newly formed Bell Telephone Company. Shortly thereafter, the newlyweds embarked on a yearlong honeymoon in Europe. During that excursion, Bell took a handmade model of his telephone with him, making it a "working holiday". The courtship had begun years earlier; however, Bell waited until he was more financially secure before marryin |
g. Although the telephone appeared to be an "instant" success, it was not initially a profitable venture and Bell's main sources of income were from lectures until after 1897. One unusual request exacted by his fiance was that he use "Alec" rather than the family's earlier familiar name of "Aleck". From 1876, he would sign his name "Alec Bell". They had four children
Elsie May Bell 18781964 who married Gilbert Hovey Grosvenor of National Geographic fame.
Marian Hubbard Bell 18801962 who was referred to as "Daisy". Married David Fairchild.
Two sons who died in infancy Edward in 1881 and Robert in 1883.
The Bell family home was in Cambridge, Massachusetts, until 1880 when Bell's fatherinlaw bought a house in Washington, D.C.; in 1882 he bought a home in the same city for Bell's family, so they could be with him while he attended to the numerous court cases involving patent disputes.
Bell was a British subject throughout his early life in Scotland and later in Canada until 1882 when he became a naturalized c |
itizen of the United States. In 1915, he characterized his status as "I am not one of those hyphenated Americans who claim allegiance to two countries." Despite this declaration, Bell has been proudly claimed as a "native son" by all three countries he resided in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom.
By 1885, a new summer retreat was contemplated. That summer, the Bells had a vacation on Cape Breton Island in Nova Scotia, spending time at the small village of Baddeck. Returning in 1886, Bell started building an estate on a point across from Baddeck, overlooking Bras d'Or Lake. By 1889, a large house, christened The Lodge was completed and two years later, a larger complex of buildings, including a new laboratory, were begun that the Bells would name Beinn Bhreagh Gaelic Beautiful Mountain after Bell's ancestral Scottish highlands. Bell also built the Bell Boatyard on the estate, employing up to 40 people building experimental craft as well as wartime lifeboats and workboats for the Royal Canadia |
n Navy and pleasure craft for the Bell family. He was an enthusiastic boater, and Bell and his family sailed or rowed a long series of vessels on Bras d'Or Lake, ordering additional vessels from the H.W. Embree and Sons boatyard in Port Hawkesbury, Nova Scotia. In his final, and some of his most productive years, Bell split his residency between Washington, D.C., where he and his family initially resided for most of the year, and Beinn Bhreagh, where they spent increasing amounts of time.
Until the end of his life, Bell and his family would alternate between the two homes, but Beinn Bhreagh would, over the next 30 years, become more than a summer home as Bell became so absorbed in his experiments that his annual stays lengthened. Both Mabel and Bell became immersed in the Baddeck community and were accepted by the villagers as "their own". The Bells were still in residence at Beinn Bhreagh when the Halifax Explosion occurred on December 6, 1917. Mabel and Bell mobilized the community to help victims in Halif |
ax.
Later inventions
Although Alexander Graham Bell is most often associated with the invention of the telephone, his interests were extremely varied. According to one of his biographers, Charlotte Gray, Bell's work ranged "unfettered across the scientific landscape" and he often went to bed voraciously reading the Encyclopdia Britannica, scouring it for new areas of interest. The range of Bell's inventive genius is represented only in part by the 18 patents granted in his name alone and the 12 he shared with his collaborators. These included 14 for the telephone and telegraph, four for the photophone, one for the phonograph, five for aerial vehicles, four for "hydroairplanes", and two for selenium cells. Bell's inventions spanned a wide range of interests and included a metal jacket to assist in breathing, the audiometer to detect minor hearing problems, a device to locate icebergs, investigations on how to separate salt from seawater, and work on finding alternative fuels.
Bell worked extensively in medi |
cal research and invented techniques for teaching speech to the deaf. During his Volta Laboratory period, Bell and his associates considered impressing a magnetic field on a record as a means of reproducing sound. Although the trio briefly experimented with the concept, they could not develop a workable prototype. They abandoned the idea, never realizing they had glimpsed a basic principle which would one day find its application in the tape recorder, the hard disc and floppy disc drive, and other magnetic media.
Bell's own home used a primitive form of air conditioning, in which fans blew currents of air across great blocks of ice. He also anticipated modern concerns with fuel shortages and industrial pollution. Methane gas, he reasoned, could be produced from the waste of farms and factories. At his Canadian estate in Nova Scotia, he experimented with composting toilets and devices to capture water from the atmosphere. In a magazine interview published shortly before his death, he reflected on the possibil |
ity of using solar panels to heat houses.
Photophone
Bell and his assistant Charles Sumner Tainter jointly invented a wireless telephone, named a photophone, which allowed for the transmission of both sounds and normal human conversations on a beam of light. Both men later became full associates in the Volta Laboratory Association.
On June 21, 1880, Bell's assistant transmitted a wireless voice telephone message a considerable distance, from the roof of the Franklin School in Washington, D.C., to Bell at the window of his laboratory, some away, 19 years before the first voice radio transmissions.
Bell believed the photophone's principles were his life's "greatest achievement", telling a reporter shortly before his death that the photophone was "the greatest invention I have ever made, greater than the telephone". The photophone was a precursor to the fiberoptic communication systems which achieved popular worldwide usage in the 1980s. Its master patent was issued in December 1880, many decades before the |
photophone's principles came into popular use.
Metal detector
Bell is also credited with developing one of the early versions of a metal detector through the use of an induction balance, after the shooting of U.S. President James A. Garfield in 1881. According to some accounts, the metal detector worked flawlessly in tests but did not find Guiteau's bullet, partly because the metal bed frame on which the President was lying disturbed the instrument, resulting in static. Garfield's surgeons, led by selfappointed chief physician Doctor Willard Bliss, were skeptical of the device, and ignored Bell's requests to move the President to a bed not fitted with metal springs. Alternatively, although Bell had detected a slight sound on his first test, the bullet may have been lodged too deeply to be detected by the crude apparatus.
Bell's own detailed account, presented to the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1882, differs in several particulars from most of the many and varied versions now in |
circulation, by concluding that extraneous metal was not to blame for failure to locate the bullet. Perplexed by the peculiar results he had obtained during an examination of Garfield, Bell "proceeded to the Executive Mansion the next morning ... to ascertain from the surgeons whether they were perfectly sure that all metal had been removed from the neighborhood of the bed. It was then recollected that underneath the horsehair mattress on which the President lay was another mattress composed of steel wires. Upon obtaining a duplicate, the mattress was found to consist of a sort of net of woven steel wires, with large meshes. The extent of the area that produced a response from the detector having been so small, as compared with the area of the bed, it seemed reasonable to conclude that the steel mattress had produced no detrimental effect." In a footnote, Bell adds, "The death of President Garfield and the subsequent postmortem examination, however, proved that the bullet was at too great a distance from the |
surface to have affected our apparatus."
Hydrofoils
The March 1906 Scientific American article by American pioneer William E. Meacham explained the basic principle of hydrofoils and hydroplanes. Bell considered the invention of the hydroplane as a very significant achievement. Based on information gained from that article, he began to sketch concepts of what is now called a hydrofoil boat. Bell and assistant Frederick W. "Casey" Baldwin began hydrofoil experimentation in the summer of 1908 as a possible aid to airplane takeoff from water. Baldwin studied the work of the Italian inventor Enrico Forlanini and began testing models. This led him and Bell to the development of practical hydrofoil watercraft.
During his world tour of 191011, Bell and Baldwin met with Forlanini in France. They had rides in the Forlanini hydrofoil boat over Lake Maggiore. Baldwin described it as being as smooth as flying. On returning to Baddeck, a number of initial concepts were built as experimental models, including the Dhonnas |
Beag Scottish Gaelic for little devil, the first selfpropelled BellBaldwin hydrofoil. The experimental boats were essentially proofofconcept prototypes that culminated in the more substantial HD4, powered by Renault engines. A top speed of was achieved, with the hydrofoil exhibiting rapid acceleration, good stability, and steering, along with the ability to take waves without difficulty. In 1913, Dr. Bell hired Walter Pinaud, a Sydney yacht designer and builder as well as the proprietor of Pinaud's Yacht Yard in Westmount, Nova Scotia, to work on the pontoons of the HD4. Pinaud soon took over the boatyard at Bell Laboratories on Beinn Bhreagh, Bell's estate near Baddeck, Nova Scotia. Pinaud's experience in boatbuilding enabled him to make useful design changes to the HD4. After the First World War, work began again on the HD4. Bell's report to the U.S. Navy permitted him to obtain two engines in July 1919. On September 9, 1919, the HD4 set a world marine speed record of , a record which stood for ten years |
.
Aeronautics
In 1891, Bell had begun experiments to develop motorpowered heavierthanair aircraft. The AEA was first formed as Bell shared the vision to fly with his wife, who advised him to seek "young" help as Bell was at the age of 60.
In 1898, Bell experimented with tetrahedral box kites and wings constructed of multiple compound tetrahedral kites covered in maroon silk. The tetrahedral wings were named Cygnet I, II, and III, and were flown both unmanned and manned Cygnet I crashed during a flight carrying Selfridge in the period from 1907 to 1912. Some of Bell's kites are on display at the Alexander Graham Bell National Historic Site.
Bell was a supporter of aerospace engineering research through the Aerial Experiment Association AEA, officially formed at Baddeck, Nova Scotia, in October 1907 at the suggestion of his wife Mabel and with her financial support after the sale of some of her real estate. The AEA was headed by Bell and the founding members were four young men American Glenn H. Curtiss, a |
motorcycle manufacturer at the time and who held the title "world's fastest man", having ridden his selfconstructed motor bicycle around in the shortest time, and who was later awarded the Scientific American Trophy for the first official onekilometre flight in the Western hemisphere, and who later became a worldrenowned airplane manufacturer; Lieutenant Thomas Selfridge, an official observer from the U.S. Federal government and one of the few people in the army who believed that aviation was the future; Frederick W. Baldwin, the first Canadian and first British subject to pilot a public flight in Hammondsport, New York; and J. A. D. McCurdyBaldwin and McCurdy being new engineering graduates from the University of Toronto.
The AEA's work progressed to heavierthanair machines, applying their knowledge of kites to gliders. Moving to Hammondsport, the group then designed and built the Red Wing, framed in bamboo and covered in red silk and powered by a small aircooled engine. On March 12, 1908, over Keuka Lake, |
the biplane lifted off on the first public flight in North America. The innovations that were incorporated into this design included a cockpit enclosure and tail rudder later variations on the original design would add ailerons as a means of control. One of the AEA's inventions, a practical wingtip form of the aileron, was to become a standard component on all aircraft. The White Wing and June Bug were to follow and by the end of 1908, over 150 flights without mishap had been accomplished. However, the AEA had depleted its initial reserves and only a 15,000 grant from Mrs. Bell allowed it to continue with experiments. Lt. Selfridge had also become the first person killed in a powered heavierthanair flight in a crash of the Wright Flyer at Fort Myer, Virginia, on September 17, 1908.
Their final aircraft design, the Silver Dart, embodied all of the advancements found in the earlier machines. On February 23, 1909, Bell was present as the Silver Dart flown by J. A. D. McCurdy from the frozen ice of Bras d'Or ma |
de the first aircraft flight in Canada. Bell had worried that the flight was too dangerous and had arranged for a doctor to be on hand. With the successful flight, the AEA disbanded and the Silver Dart would revert to Baldwin and McCurdy, who began the Canadian Aerodrome Company and would later demonstrate the aircraft to the Canadian Army.
Heredity and genetics
Bell, along with many members of the scientific community at the time, took an interest in the popular science of heredity which grew out of the publication of Charles Darwin's book On the Origin of Species in 1859. On his estate in Nova Scotia, Bell conducted meticulously recorded breeding experiments with rams and ewes. Over the course of more than 30 years, Bell sought to produce a breed of sheep with multiple nipples that would bear twins. He specifically wanted to see if selective breeding could produce sheep with four functional nipples with enough milk for twin lambs. This interest in animal breeding caught the attention of scientists focused |
on the study of heredity and genetics in humans.
In November 1883, Bell presented a paper at a meeting of the National Academy of Sciences titled "Upon the Formation of a Deaf Variety of the Human Race". The paper is a compilation of data on the hereditary aspects of deafness. Bell's research indicated that a hereditary tendency toward deafness, as indicated by the possession of deaf relatives, was an important element in determining the production of deaf offspring. He noted that the proportion of deaf children born to deaf parents was many times greater than the proportion of deaf children born to the general population. In the paper, Bell delved into social commentary and discussed hypothetical public policies to bring an end to deafness. He also criticized educational practices that segregated deaf children rather than integrated them fulling into mainstream classrooms. The paper did not propose sterilization of deaf people or prohibition on intermarriage, noting that We cannot dictate to men and women |
whom they should marry and natural selection no longer influences mankind to any great extent.
A review of Bell's "Memoir upon the Formation of a Deaf Variety of the Human Race" appearing in an 1885 issue of the "American Annals of the Deaf and Dumb" states that "Dr. Bell does not advocate legislative interference with the marriages of the deaf for several reasons one of which is that the results of such marriages have not yet been sufficiently investigated." The article goes on to say that "the editorial remarks based thereon did injustice to the author." The paper's author concludes by saying A wiser way to prevent the extension of hereditary deafness, it seems to us, would be to continue the investigations which Dr. Bell has so admirable begun until the laws of the transmission of the tendency to deafness are fully understood, and then by explaining those laws to the pupils of our schools to lead them to choose their partners in marriage in such a way that deafmute offspring will not be the result."
Hist |
orians have noted that Bell explicitly opposed laws regulating marriage, and never mentioned sterilization in any of his writings. Even after Bell agreed to engage with scientists conducting eugenic research, he consistently refused to support public policy that limited the rights or privileges of the deaf.
Bell's interest and research on heredity attracted the interest of Charles Davenport, a Harvard professor and head of the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. In 1906, Davenport, who was also the founder of the American Breeder's Association, approached Bell about joining a new committee on eugenics chaired by David Starr Jordan. In 1910, Davenport opened the Eugenics Records office at Cold Spring Harbor. To give the organization scientific credibility, Davenport set up a Board of Scientific Directors naming Bell as chairman. Other members of the board included Luther Burbank, Roswell H. Johnson, Vernon L. Kellogg, and William E. Castle.
In 1921, a Second International Congress of Eugenics was held in New York |
at the Museum of Natural History and chaired by Davenport. Although Bell did not present any research or speak as part of the proceedings, he was named as honorary president as a means to attract other scientists to attend the event. A summary of the event notes that Bell was a "pioneering investigator in the field of human heredity".
Death
Bell died of complications arising from diabetes on August 2, 1922, at his private estate in Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, at age 75. Bell had also been afflicted with pernicious anemia. His last view of the land he had inhabited was by moonlight on his mountain estate at 200 a.m. While tending to him after his long illness, Mabel, his wife, whispered, "Don't leave me." By way of reply, Bell signed "no...", lost consciousness, and died shortly after.
On learning of Bell's death, the Canadian Prime Minister, Mackenzie King, cabled Mrs. Bell, saying
Bell's coffin was constructed of Beinn Bhreagh pine by his laboratory staff, lined with the same red silk fabric used in his te |
trahedral kite experiments. To help celebrate his life, his wife asked guests not to wear black the traditional funeral color while attending his service, during which soloist Jean MacDonald sang a verse of Robert Louis Stevenson's "Requiem"
Upon the conclusion of Bell's funeral, for one minute at 625 p.m. Eastern Time, "every phone on the continent of North America was silenced in honor of the man who had given to mankind the means for direct communication at a distance".
Alexander Graham Bell was buried atop Beinn Bhreagh mountain, on his estate where he had resided increasingly for the last 35 years of his life, overlooking Bras d'Or Lake. He was survived by his wife Mabel, his two daughters, Elsie May and Marian, and nine of his grandchildren.
Legacy and honors
Honors and tributes flowed to Bell in increasing numbers as his invention became ubiquitous and his personal fame grew. Bell received numerous honorary degrees from colleges and universities to the point that the requests almost became burdenso |
me. During his life, he also received dozens of major awards, medals, and other tributes. These included statuary monuments to both him and the new form of communication his telephone created, including the Bell Telephone Memorial erected in his honor in Alexander Graham Bell Gardens in Brantford, Ontario, in 1917.
A large number of Bell's writings, personal correspondence, notebooks, papers, and other documents reside in both the United States Library of Congress Manuscript Division as the Alexander Graham Bell Family Papers, and at the Alexander Graham Bell Institute, Cape Breton University, Nova Scotia; major portions of which are available for online viewing.
A number of historic sites and other marks commemorate Bell in North America and Europe, including the first telephone companies in the United States and Canada. Among the major sites are
The Alexander Graham Bell National Historic Site, maintained by Parks Canada, which incorporates the Alexander Graham Bell Museum, in Baddeck, Nova Scotia, close |
to the Bell estate Beinn Bhreagh
The Bell Homestead National Historic Site, includes the Bell family home, "Melville House", and farm overlooking Brantford, Ontario and the Grand River. It was their first home in North America;
Canada's first telephone company building, the "Henderson Home" of the late 1870s, a predecessor of the Bell Telephone Company of Canada officially chartered in 1880. In 1969, the building was carefully moved to the historic Bell Homestead National Historic Site in Brantford, Ontario, and was refurbished to become a telephone museum. The Bell Homestead, the Henderson Home telephone museum, and the National Historic Site's reception centre are all maintained by the Bell Homestead Society;
The Alexander Graham Bell Memorial Park, which features a broad neoclassical monument built in 1917 by public subscription. The monument depicts mankind's ability to span the globe through telecommunications;
The Alexander Graham Bell Museum opened in 1956, part of the Alexander Graham Bell Nation |
al Historic Site which was completed in 1978 in Baddeck, Nova Scotia. Many of the museum's artifacts were donated by Bell's daughters;
In 1880, Bell received the Volta Prize with a purse of 50,000 French francs approximately US in today's dollars for the invention of the telephone from the French government. Among the luminaries who judged were Victor Hugo and Alexandre Dumas, fils. The Volta Prize was conceived by Napoleon III in 1852, and named in honor of Alessandro Volta, with Bell becoming the second recipient of the grand prize in its history. Since Bell was becoming increasingly affluent, he used his prize money to create endowment funds the 'Volta Fund' and institutions in and around the United States capital of Washington, D.C.. These included the prestigious 'Volta Laboratory Association' 1880, also known as the Volta Laboratory and as the 'Alexander Graham Bell Laboratory', and which eventually led to the Volta Bureau 1887 as a center for studies on deafness which is still in operation in Georgeto |
wn, Washington, D.C. The Volta Laboratory became an experimental facility devoted to scientific discovery, and the very next year it improved Edison's phonograph by substituting wax for tinfoil as the recording medium and incising the recording rather than indenting it, key upgrades that Edison himself later adopted. The laboratory was also the site where he and his associate invented his "proudest achievement", "the photophone", the "optical telephone" which presaged fibre optical telecommunications while the Volta Bureau would later evolve into the Alexander Graham Bell Association for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing the AG Bell, a leading center for the research and pedagogy of deafness.
In partnership with Gardiner Greene Hubbard, Bell helped establish the publication Science during the early 1880s. In 1898, Bell was elected as the second president of the National Geographic Society, serving until 1903, and was primarily responsible for the extensive use of illustrations, including photography, in the magaz |
ine. He also served for many years as a Regent of the Smithsonian Institution 18981922. The French government conferred on him the decoration of the Lgion d'honneur Legion of Honor; the Royal Society of Arts in London awarded him the Albert Medal in 1902; the University of Wrzburg, Bavaria, granted him a PhD, and he was awarded the Franklin Institute's Elliott Cresson Medal in 1912. He was one of the founders of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers in 1884 and served as its president from 1891 to 1892. Bell was later awarded the AIEE's Edison Medal in 1914 "For meritorious achievement in the invention of the telephone".
The bel B and the smaller decibel dB are units of measurement of sound pressure level SPL invented by Bell Labs and named after him. Since 1976, the IEEE's Alexander Graham Bell Medal has been awarded to honor outstanding contributions in the field of telecommunications.
In 1936, the US Patent Office declared Bell first on its list of the country's greatest inventors, leading to t |
he US Post Office issuing a commemorative stamp honoring Bell in 1940 as part of its 'Famous Americans Series'. The First Day of Issue ceremony was held on October 28 in Boston, Massachusetts, the city where Bell spent considerable time on research and working with the deaf. The Bell stamp became very popular and sold out in little time. The stamp became, and remains to this day, the most valuable one of the series.
The 150th anniversary of Bell's birth in 1997 was marked by a special issue of commemorative 1 banknotes from the Royal Bank of Scotland. The illustrations on the reverse of the note include Bell's face in profile, his signature, and objects from Bell's life and career users of the telephone over the ages; an audio wave signal; a diagram of a telephone receiver; geometric shapes from engineering structures; representations of sign language and the phonetic alphabet; the geese which helped him to understand flight; and the sheep which he studied to understand genetics. Additionally, the Government |
of Canada honored Bell in 1997 with a C100 gold coin, in tribute also to the 150th anniversary of his birth, and with a silver dollar coin in 2009 in honor of the 100th anniversary of flight in Canada. That first flight was made by an airplane designed under Dr. Bell's tutelage, named the Silver Dart. Bell's image, and also those of his many inventions have graced paper money, coinage, and postal stamps in numerous countries worldwide for many dozens of years.
Alexander Graham Bell was ranked 57th among the 100 Greatest Britons 2002 in an official BBC nationwide poll, and among the Top Ten Greatest Canadians 2004, and the 100 Greatest Americans 2005. In 2006, Bell was also named as one of the 10 greatest Scottish scientists in history after having been listed in the National Library of Scotland's 'Scottish Science Hall of Fame'. Bell's name is still widely known and used as part of the names of dozens of educational institutes, corporate namesakes, street and place names around the world.
Honorary degrees
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Alexander Graham Bell, who could not complete the university program of his youth, received at least a dozen honorary degrees from academic institutions, including eight honorary LL.D.s Doctorate of Laws, two Ph.D.s, a D.Sc., and an M.D.
Gallaudet College then named National DeafMute College in Washington, D.C. Ph.D. in 1880
University of Wrzburg in Wrzburg, Bavaria Ph.D. in 1882
Heidelberg University in Heidelberg, Germany M.D. in 1886
Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts LL.D. in 1896
Illinois College, in Jacksonville, Illinois LL.D. in 1896, possibly 1881
Amherst College in Amherst, Massachusetts LL.D. in 1901
St. Andrew's University in St Andrews, Scotland LL.D in 1902
University of Oxford in Oxford, England D.Sc. in 1906
University of Edinburgh in Edinburgh, Scotland LL.D. in 1906
George Washington University in Washington, D.C. LL.D. in 1913
Queen's University at Kingston in Kingston, Ontario, Canada LL.D. in 1908
Dartmouth College in Hanover, New Hampshire LL.D. in 1913, possibly |
1914
Portrayal in film and television
The 1939 film The Story of Alexander Graham Bell was based on his life and works.
The 1992 film The Sound and the Silence was a TV film.
Biography aired an episode Alexander Graham Bell Voice of Invention on August 6, 1996.
Eyewitness No. 90 A Great Inventor Is Remembered, a 1957 NFB short about Bell.
Bibliography
Also published as
See also
Alexander Graham Bell Association for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing
Alexander Graham Bell National Historic Site
Bell Boatyard
Bell Homestead National Historic Site
Bell Telephone Memorial
Berliner, Emile
Bourseul, Charles
IEEE Alexander Graham Bell Medal
John Peirce, submitted telephone ideas to Bell
Manzetti, Innocenzo
Meucci, Antonio
Oriental Telephone Company
People on Scottish banknotes
Pioneers, a Volunteer Network
Reis, Philipp
The Story of Alexander Graham Bell, a 1939 movie of his life
The Telephone Cases
Volta Laboratory and Bureau
William Francis Channing, submitted telephone ideas to Bell
Refer |
ences
Notes
Citations
Further reading
Mullett, Mary B. The Story of A Famous Inventor. New York Rogers and Fowle, 1921.
Walters, Eric. The Hydrofoil Mystery. Toronto, Ontario, Canada Puffin Books, 1999. .
Winzer, Margret A. The History Of Special Education From Isolation To Integration. Washington, D.C. Gallaudet University Press, 1993. .
External links
Alexander and Mabel Bell Legacy Foundation
Alexander Graham Bell Institute at Cape Breton University
Bell Telephone Memorial, Brantford, Ontario
Bell Homestead National Historic Site, Brantford, Ontario
Alexander Graham Bell National Historic Site of Canada, Baddeck, Nova Scotia
Alexander Graham Bell Family Papers at the Library of Congress
Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online
Science.ca profile Alexander Graham Bell
Alexander Graham Bell's notebooks at the Internet Archive
"Tlphone et photophone les contributions indirectes de Graham Bell l'ide de la vision distance par l'lectricit" at the Histoire de la tlvision |
Multimedia
Alexander Graham Bell at The Biography Channel
Shaping The Future, from the Heritage Minutes and Radio Minutes collection at HistoricaCanada.ca 131 audio drama, Adobe Flash required
1847 births
1922 deaths
19thcentury Scottish scientists
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
Alumni of University College London
American agnostics
American educational theorists
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Canadian agnostics
Canadian Aviation Hall of Fame inductees
Canadian emigrants to the United States
Canadian eugenicists
19thcentury Canadian inventors
Canadian physicists
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Deaths from diabetes
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
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Language teachers
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ety
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People educated at the Royal High School, Edinburgh
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Anatolia, also known as Asia Minor, is a large peninsula in Western Asia and the westernmost protrusion of the Asian continent. It constitutes the major part of modernday Turkey. The region is bounded by the Turkish Straits to the northwest, the Black Sea to the north, the Armenian Highlands to the east, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, and the Aegean Sea to the west. The Sea of Marmara forms a connection between the Black and Aegean seas through the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits and separates Anatolia from Thrace on the Balkan peninsula of Southeast Europe.
The eastern border of Anatolia has been held to be a line between the Gulf of Alexandretta and the Black Sea, bounded by the Armenian Highlands to the east and Mesopotamia to the southeast. By this definition Anatolia comprises approximately the western twothirds of the Asian part of Turkey. Today, Anatolia is sometimes considered to be synonymous with Asian Turkey, thereby including the western part of the Armenian Highlands and northern Mesopotam |
ia; its eastern and southern borders are coterminous with Turkey's borders.
The ancient Anatolian peoples spoke the nowextinct Anatolian languages of the IndoEuropean language family, which were largely replaced by the Greek language during classical antiquity as well as during the Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine periods. The major Anatolian languages included Hittite, Luwian, and Lydian, while other, poorly attested local languages included Phrygian and Mysian. HurroUrartian languages were spoken in the southeastern kingdom of Mitanni, while Galatian, a Celtic language, was spoken in Galatia, central Anatolia. The Turkification of Anatolia began under the rule of the Seljuk Empire in the late 11th century and it continued under the rule of the Ottoman Empire between the late 13th and the early 20th century and it has continued under the rule of today's Republic of Turkey. However, various nonTurkic languages continue to be spoken by minorities in Anatolia today, including Kurdish, NeoAramaic, Armenian, Ar |
abic, Laz, Georgian and Greek. Other ancient peoples in the region included Galatians, Hurrians, Assyrians, Hattians, Cimmerians, as well as Ionian, Dorian, and Aeolic Greeks.
Geography
Traditionally, Anatolia is considered to extend in the east to an indefinite line running from the Gulf of Alexandretta to the Black Sea, coterminous with the Anatolian Plateau. This traditional geographical definition is used, for example, in the latest edition of MerriamWebster's Geographical Dictionary. Under this definition, Anatolia is bounded to the east by the Armenian Highlands, and the Euphrates before that river bends to the southeast to enter Mesopotamia. To the southeast, it is bounded by the ranges that separate it from the Orontes valley in Syria and the Mesopotamian plain.
Following the Armenian genocide, Western Armenia was renamed the Eastern Anatolia Region by the newly established Turkish government. In 1941, with the First Geography Congress which divided Turkey into seven geographical regions based on d |
ifferences in climate and landscape, the eastern provinces of Turkey were placed into the Eastern Anatolia Region, which largely corresponds to the historical region of Western Armenia named as such after the division of Greater Armenia between the RomanByzantine Empire Western Armenia and Sassanid Persia Eastern Armenia in 387 AD. Vazken Davidian terms the expanded use of "Anatolia" to apply to territory in eastern Turkey that was formerly referred to as Armenia which had a sizeable Armenian population before the Armenian genocide an "ahistorical imposition" and notes that a growing body of literature is uncomfortable with referring to the Ottoman East as "Eastern Anatolia."
The highest mountain in the Eastern Anatolia Region also the highest peak in the Armenian Highlands is Mount Ararat 5123 m. The Euphrates, Araxes, Karasu and Murat rivers connect the Armenian Highlands to the South Caucasus and the Upper Euphrates Valley. Along with the oruh, these rivers are the longest in the Eastern Anatolia Region.
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Etymology
The Englishlanguage name Anatolia derives from the Greek meaning "the East" and designating from a Greek point of view eastern regions in general. The Greek word refers to the direction where the sun rises, coming from anatello ' rise up,' comparable to terms in other languages such as "levant" from Latin levo 'to rise,' "orient" from Latin orior 'to arise, to originate,' Hebrew mizra 'east' from zara 'to rise, to shine,' Aramaic midna from dena 'to rise, to shine.'
The use of Anatolian designations has varied over time, perhaps originally referring to the Aeolian, Ionian and Dorian colonies situated along the eastern coasts of the Aegean Sea, but also encompassing eastern regions in general. Such use of Anatolian designations was employed during the reign of Roman Emperor Diocletian 284305, who created the Diocese of the East, known in Greek as the Eastern Anatolian Diocese, but completely unrelated to the regions of Asia Minor. In their widest territorial scope, Anatolian designations |
were employed during the reign of Roman Emperor Constantine I 306337, who created the Praetorian prefecture of the East, known in Greek as the Eastern Anatolian Prefecture, encompassing all eastern regions of the Late Roman Empire and spaning from Thrace to Egypt.
Only after the loss of other eastern regions during the 7th century and the reduction of Byzantine eastern domains to Asia Minor, that region became the only remaining part of the Byzantine East, and thus commonly referred to in Greek as the Eastern Anatolian part of the Empire. In the same time, the Anatolic Theme "the Eastern theme" was created, as a province theme covering the western and central parts of Turkey's presentday Central Anatolia Region, centered around Iconium, but ruled from the city of Amorium.
The Latinized form "," with its ia ending, is probably a Medieval Latin innovation. The modern Turkish form Anadolu derives directly from the Greek name A Anatol. The Russian male name Anatoly, the French Anatole and plain Anatol, |
all stemming from saints Anatolius of Laodicea d. 283 and Anatolius of Constantinople d. 458; the first Patriarch of Constantinople, share the same linguistic origin.
Names
The oldest known name for any region within Anatolia is related to its central area, known as the "Land of Hatti" a designation that was initially used for the land of ancient Hattians, but later became the most common name for the entire territory under the rule of ancient Hittites.
The first recorded name the Greeks used for the Anatolian peninsula, though not particularly popular at the time, was Asa, perhaps from an Akkadian expression for the "sunrise" or possibly echoing the name of the Assuwa league in western Anatolia. The Romans used it as the name of their province, comprising the west of the peninsula plus the nearby Aegean Islands. As the name "Asia" broadened its scope to apply to the vaster region east of the Mediterranean, some Greeks in Late Antiquity came to use the name Asia Minor , Mikr Asa, meaning "Lesser Asia" |
to refer to presentday Anatolia, whereas the administration of the Empire preferred the description Anatol "the East".
The endonym Rmana "the land of the Romans, i.e. the Eastern Roman Empire" was understood as another name for the province by the invading Seljuq Turks, who founded a Sultanate of Rm in 1077. Thus land of the Rm became another name for Anatolia. By the 12th century Europeans had started referring to Anatolia as Turchia.
During the era of the Ottoman Empire, mapmakers outside the Empire referred to the mountainous plateau in eastern Anatolia as Armenia. Other contemporary sources called the same area Kurdistan. Geographers have variously used the terms East Anatolian Plateau and Armenian Plateau to refer to the region, although the territory encompassed by each term largely overlaps with the other. According to archaeologist Lori Khatchadourian, this difference in terminology "primarily results from the shifting political fortunes and cultural trajectories of the region since the nineteenth |
century."
Turkey's First Geography Congress in 1941 created two geographical regions of Turkey to the east of the Gulf of IskenderunBlack Sea line, the Eastern Anatolia Region and the Southeastern Anatolia Region, the former largely corresponding to the western part of the Armenian Highlands, the latter to the northern part of the Mesopotamian plain. According to Richard Hovannisian, this changing of toponyms was "necessary to obscure all evidence" of the Armenian presence as part of the policy of Armenian genocide denial embarked upon by the newly established Turkish government and what Hovannisian calls its "foreign collaborators."
History
Prehistoric Anatolia
Human habitation in Anatolia dates back to the Paleolithic. Neolithic settlements include atalhyk, ayn, Nevali Cori, Akl Hyk, Boncuklu Hyk Hacilar, Gbekli Tepe, Noruntepe, Kosk, and Mersin. atalhyk 7.000 BCE is considered the most advanced of these.
Neolithic Anatolia has been proposed as the homeland of the IndoEuropean language family, although |
linguists tend to favour a later origin in the steppes north of the Black Sea. However, it is clear that the Anatolian languages, the earliest attested branch of IndoEuropean, have been spoken in Anatolia since at least the 19th century BCE.
Ancient Anatolia
The earliest historical data related to Anatolia appear during the Bronze Age and continue throughout the Iron Age. The most ancient period in the history of Anatolia spans from the emergence of ancient Hattians, up to the conquest of Anatolia by the Achaemenid Empire in the 6th century BCE.
Hattians and Hurrians
The earliest historically attested populations of Anatolia were the Hattians in central Anatolia, and Hurrians further to the east. The Hattians were an indigenous people, whose main center was the city of Hattush. Affiliation of Hattian language remains unclear, while Hurrian language belongs to a distinctive family of HurroUrartian languages. All of those languages are extinct; relationships with indigenous languages of the Caucasus have b |
een proposed, but are not generally accepted. The region became famous for exporting raw materials. Organized trade between Anatolia and Mesopotamia started to emerge during the period of the Akkadian Empire, and was continued and intensified during the period of the Old Assyrian Empire, between the 21st and the 18th centuries BCE. Assyrian traders were bringing tin and textiles in exchange for copper, silver or gold. Cuneiform records, dated circa 20th century BCE, found in Anatolia at the Assyrian colony of Kanesh, use an advanced system of trading computations and credit lines.
Hittite Anatolia 18th12th century BCE
Unlike the Akkadians and Assyrians, whose Anatolian trading posts were peripheral to their core lands in Mesopotamia, the Hittites were centered at Hattusa modern Boazkale in northcentral Anatolia by the 17th century BCE. They were speakers of an IndoEuropean language, the Hittite language, or nesili the language of Nesa in Hittite. The Hittites originated from local ancient cultures that grew |
in Anatolia, in addition to the arrival of IndoEuropean languages. Attested for the first time in the Assyrian tablets of Nesa around 2000 BCE, they conquered Hattusa in the 18th century BCE, imposing themselves over Hattian and Hurrianspeaking populations. According to the widely accepted Kurgan theory on the ProtoIndoEuropean homeland, however, the Hittites along with the other IndoEuropean ancient Anatolians were themselves relatively recent immigrants to Anatolia from the north. However, they did not necessarily displace the population genetically; they assimilated into the former peoples' culture, preserving the Hittite language.
The Hittites adopted the Mesopotamian cuneiform script. In the Late Bronze Age, Hittite New Kingdom c. 1650 BCE was founded, becoming an empire in the 14th century BCE after the conquest of Kizzuwatna in the southeast and the defeat of the Assuwa league in western Anatolia. The empire reached its height in the 13th century BCE, controlling much of Asia Minor, northwestern Syri |
a, and northwest upper Mesopotamia. However, the Hittite advance toward the Black Sea coast was halted by the seminomadic pastoralist and tribal Kaskians, a nonIndoEuropean people who had earlier displaced the Palaicspeaking IndoEuropeans. Much of the history of the Hittite Empire concerned war with the rival empires of Egypt, Assyria and the Mitanni.
The Egyptians eventually withdrew from the region after failing to gain the upper hand over the Hittites and becoming wary of the power of Assyria, which had destroyed the Mitanni Empire. The Assyrians and Hittites were then left to battle over control of eastern and southern Anatolia and colonial territories in Syria. The Assyrians had better success than the Egyptians, annexing much Hittite and Hurrian territory in these regions.
PostHittite Anatolia 12th6th century BCE
After 1180 BCE, during the Late Bronze Age collapse, the Hittite empire disintegrated into several independent SyroHittite states, subsequent to losing much territory to the Middle Assyrian |
Empire and being finally overrun by the Phrygians, another IndoEuropean people who are believed to have migrated from the Balkans. The Phrygian expansion into southeast Anatolia was eventually halted by the Assyrians, who controlled that region.
Luwians
Another IndoEuropean people, the Luwians, rose to prominence in central and western Anatolia circa 2000 BCE. Their language belonged to the same linguistic branch as Hittite. The general consensus amongst scholars is that Luwian was spoken across a large area of western Anatolia, including possibly Wilusa Troy, the Seha River Land to be identified with the Hermos andor Kaikos valley, and the kingdom of MiraKuwaliya with its core territory of the Maeander valley. From the 9th century BCE, Luwian regions coalesced into a number of states such as Lydia, Caria, and Lycia, all of which had Hellenic influence.
Arameans
Arameans encroached over the borders of southcentral Anatolia in the century or so after the fall of the Hittite empire, and some of the SyroHittit |
e states in this region became an amalgam of Hittites and Arameans. These became known as SyroHittite states.
NeoAssyrian Empire
From the 10th to late 7th centuries BCE, much of Anatolia particularly the southeastern regions fell to the NeoAssyrian Empire, including all of the SyroHittite states, Tabal, Kingdom of Commagene, the Cimmerians and Scythians and swathes of Cappadocia.
The NeoAssyrian empire collapsed due to a bitter series of civil wars followed by a combined attack by Medes, Persians, Scythians and their own Babylonian relations. The last Assyrian city to fall was Harran in southeast Anatolia. This city was the birthplace of the last king of Babylon, the Assyrian Nabonidus and his son and regent Belshazzar. Much of the region then fell to the shortlived Iranbased Median Empire, with the Babylonians and Scythians briefly appropriating some territory.
Cimmerian and Scythian invasions
From the late 8th century BCE, a new wave of IndoEuropeanspeaking raiders entered northern and northeast Anatoli |
a the Cimmerians and Scythians. The Cimmerians overran Phrygia and the Scythians threatened to do the same to Urartu and Lydia, before both were finally checked by the Assyrians.
Early Greek presence
The northwestern coast of Anatolia was inhabited by Greeks of the AchaeanMycenaean culture from the 20th century BCE, related to the Greeks of southeastern Europe and the Aegean. Beginning with the Bronze Age collapse at the end of the 2nd millennium BCE, the west coast of Anatolia was settled by Ionian Greeks, usurping the area of the related but earlier Mycenaean Greeks. Over several centuries, numerous Ancient Greek citystates were established on the coasts of Anatolia. Greeks started Western philosophy on the western coast of Anatolia PreSocratic philosophy.
Classical Anatolia
In classical antiquity, Anatolia was described by Herodotus and later historians as divided into regions that were diverse in culture, language and religious practices. The northern regions included Bithynia, Paphlagonia and Pontus; |
to the west were Mysia, Lydia and Caria; and Lycia, Pamphylia and Cilicia belonged to the southern shore. There were also several inland regions Phrygia, Cappadocia, Pisidia and Galatia. Languages spoken included the late surviving Anatolic languages Isaurian and Pisidian, Greek in Western and coastal regions, Phrygian spoken until the 7th century CE, local variants of Thracian in the Northwest, the Galatian variant of Gaulish in Galatia until the 6th century CE, Cappadocian and Armenian in the East, and Kartvelian languages in the Northeast.
Anatolia is known as the birthplace of minted coinage as opposed to unminted coinage, which first appears in Mesopotamia at a much earlier date as a medium of exchange, some time in the 7th century BCE in Lydia. The use of minted coins continued to flourish during the Greek and Roman eras.
During the 6th century BCE, all of Anatolia was conquered by the Persian Achaemenid Empire, the Persians having usurped the Medes as the dominant dynasty in Iran. In 499 BCE, the Io |
nian citystates on the west coast of Anatolia rebelled against Persian rule. The Ionian Revolt, as it became known, though quelled, initiated the GrecoPersian Wars, which ended in a Greek victory in 449 BCE, and the Ionian cities regained their independence. By the Peace of Antalcidas 387 BCE, which ended the Corinthian War, Persia regained control over Ionia.
In 334 BCE, the Macedonian Greek king Alexander the Great conquered the peninsula from the Achaemenid Persian Empire. Alexander's conquest opened up the interior of Asia Minor to Greek settlement and influence.
Following the death of Alexander and the breakup of his empire, Anatolia was ruled by a series of Hellenistic kingdoms, such as the Attalids of Pergamum and the Seleucids, the latter controlling most of Anatolia. A period of peaceful Hellenization followed, such that the local Anatolian languages had been supplanted by Greek by the 1st century BCE. In 133 BCE the last Attalid king bequeathed his kingdom to the Roman Republic, and western and ce |
ntral Anatolia came under Roman control, but Hellenistic culture remained predominant. Further annexations by Rome, in particular of the Kingdom of Pontus by Pompey, brought all of Anatolia under Roman control, except for the eastern frontier with the Parthian Empire, which remained unstable for centuries, causing a series of wars, culminating in the RomanParthian Wars.
Early Christian Period
After the division of the Roman Empire, Anatolia became part of the East Roman, or Byzantine Empire. Anatolia was one of the first places where Christianity spread, so that by the 4th century CE, western and central Anatolia were overwhelmingly Christian and Greekspeaking. For the next 600 years, while Imperial possessions in Europe were subjected to barbarian invasions, Anatolia would be the center of the Hellenic world.
It was one of the wealthiest and most densely populated places in the Late Roman Empire. Anatolia's wealth grew during the 4th and 5th centuries thanks, in part, to the Pilgrim's Road that ran throug |
h the peninsula. Literary evidence about the rural landscape stems from the hagiographies of 6th century Nicholas of Sion and 7th century Theodore of Sykeon. Large urban centers included Ephesus, Pergamum, Sardis and Aphrodisias. Scholars continue to debate the cause of urban decline in the 6th and 7th centuries variously attributing it to the Plague of Justinian 541, and the 7th century Persian incursion and Arab conquest of the Levant.
In the ninth and tenth century a resurgent Byzantine Empire regained its lost territories, including even long lost territory such as Armenia and Syria ancient Aram.
Medieval Period
In the 10 years following the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, the Seljuk Turks from Central Asia migrated over large areas of Anatolia, with particular concentrations around the northwestern rim. The Turkish language and the Islamic religion were gradually introduced as a result of the Seljuk conquest, and this period marks the start of Anatolia's slow transition from predominantly Christian and G |
reekspeaking, to predominantly Muslim and Turkishspeaking although ethnic groups such as Armenians, Greeks, and Assyrians remained numerous and retained Christianity and their native languages. In the following century, the Byzantines managed to reassert their control in western and northern Anatolia. Control of Anatolia was then split between the Byzantine Empire and the Seljuk Sultanate of Rm, with the Byzantine holdings gradually being reduced.
In 1255, the Mongols swept through eastern and central Anatolia, and would remain until 1335. The Ilkhanate garrison was stationed near Ankara. After the decline of the Ilkhanate from 1335 to 1353, the Mongol Empire's legacy in the region was the Uyghur Eretna Dynasty that was overthrown by Kadi Burhan alDin in 1381.
By the end of the 14th century, most of Anatolia was controlled by various Anatolian beyliks. Smyrna fell in 1330, and the last Byzantine stronghold in Anatolia, Philadelphia, fell in 1390. The Turkmen Beyliks were under the control of the Mongols, at |
least nominally, through declining Seljuk sultans. The Beyliks did not mint coins in the names of their own leaders while they remained under the suzerainty of the Mongol Ilkhanids. The Osmanli ruler Osman I was the first Turkish ruler who minted coins in his own name in 1320s; they bear the legend "Minted by Osman son of Ertugrul". Since the minting of coins was a prerogative accorded in Islamic practice only to a sovereign, it can be considered that the Osmanli, or Ottoman Turks, had become formally independent from the Mongol Khans.
Ottoman Empire
Among the Turkish leaders, the Ottomans emerged as great power under Osman I and his son Orhan I. The Anatolian beyliks were successively absorbed into the rising Ottoman Empire during the 15th century. It is not well understood how the Osmanl, or Ottoman Turks, came to dominate their neighbours, as the history of medieval Anatolia is still little known. The Ottomans completed the conquest of the peninsula in 1517 with the taking of Halicarnassus modern Bodrum |
from the Knights of Saint John.
Modern times
With the acceleration of the decline of the Ottoman Empire in the early 19th century, and as a result of the expansionist policies of the Russian Empire in the Caucasus, many Muslim nations and groups in that region, mainly Circassians, Tatars, Azeris, Lezgis, Chechens and several Turkic groups left their homelands and settled in Anatolia. As the Ottoman Empire further shrank in the Balkan regions and then fragmented during the Balkan Wars, much of the nonChristian populations of its former possessions, mainly Balkan Muslims Bosnian Muslims, Albanians, Turks, Muslim Bulgarians and Greek Muslims such as the Vallahades from Greek Macedonia, were resettled in various parts of Anatolia, mostly in formerly Christian villages throughout Anatolia.
A continuous reverse migration occurred since the early 19th century, when Greeks from Anatolia, Constantinople and Pontus area migrated toward the newly independent Kingdom of Greece, and also towards the United States, the |
southern part of the Russian Empire, Latin America, and the rest of Europe.
Following the RussoPersian Treaty of Turkmenchay 1828 and the incorporation of Eastern Armenia into the Russian Empire, another migration involved the large Armenian population of Anatolia, which recorded significant migration rates from Western Armenia Eastern Anatolia toward the Russian Empire, especially toward its newly established Armenian provinces.
Anatolia remained multiethnic until the early 20th century see the rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire. During World War I, the Armenian genocide, the Greek genocide especially in Pontus, and the Assyrian genocide almost entirely removed the ancient indigenous communities of Armenian, Greek, and Assyrian populations in Anatolia and surrounding regions. Following the GrecoTurkish War of 19191922, most remaining ethnic Anatolian Greeks were forced out during the 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey. Of the remainder, most have left Turkey since then, leaving f |
ewer than 5,000 Greeks in Anatolia today.
Geology
Anatolia's terrain is structurally complex. A central massif composed of uplifted blocks and downfolded troughs, covered by recent deposits and giving the appearance of a plateau with rough terrain, is wedged between two folded mountain ranges that converge in the east. True lowland is confined to a few narrow coastal strips along the Aegean, Mediterranean, and the Black Sea coasts. Flat or gently sloping land is rare and largely confined to the deltas of the Kzl River, the coastal plains of ukurova and the valley floors of the Gediz River and the Byk Menderes River as well as some interior high plains in Anatolia, mainly around Lake Tuz Salt Lake and the Konya Basin Konya Ovasi.
There are two mountain ranges in southern Anatolia the Taurus and the Zagros mountains.
Climate
Anatolia has a varied range of climates. The central plateau is characterized by a continental climate, with hot summers and cold snowy winters. The south and west coasts enjoy a typic |
al Mediterranean climate, with mild rainy winters, and warm dry summers. The Black Sea and Marmara coasts have a temperate oceanic climate, with cool foggy summers and much rainfall throughout the year.
Ecoregions
There is a diverse number of plant and animal communities.
The mountains and coastal plain of northern Anatolia experience a humid and mild climate. There are temperate broadleaf, mixed and coniferous forests. The central and eastern plateau, with its drier continental climate, has deciduous forests and forest steppes. Western and southern Anatolia, which have a Mediterranean climate, contain Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub ecoregions.
EuxineColchic deciduous forests These temperate broadleaf and mixed forests extend across northern Anatolia, lying between the mountains of northern Anatolia and the Black Sea. They include the enclaves of temperate rainforest lying along the southeastern coast of the Black Sea in eastern Turkey and Georgia.
Northern Anatolian conifer and deciduous fo |
rests These forests occupy the mountains of northern Anatolia, running east and west between the coastal EuxineColchic forests and the drier, continental climate forests of central and eastern Anatolia.
Central Anatolian deciduous forests These forests of deciduous oaks and evergreen pines cover the plateau of central Anatolia.
Central Anatolian steppe These dry grasslands cover the drier valleys and surround the saline lakes of central Anatolia, and include halophytic salt tolerant plant communities.
Eastern Anatolian deciduous forests This ecoregion occupies the plateau of eastern Anatolia. The drier and more continental climate is beneficial for steppeforests dominated by deciduous oaks, with areas of shrubland, montane forest, and valley forest.
Anatolian conifer and deciduous mixed forests These forests occupy the western, Mediterraneanclimate portion of the Anatolian plateau. Pine forests and mixed pine and oak woodlands and shrublands are predominant.
Aegean and Western Turkey sclerophyllous and m |
ixed forests These Mediterraneanclimate forests occupy the coastal lowlands and valleys of western Anatolia bordering the Aegean Sea. The ecoregion has forests of Turkish pine Pinus brutia, oak forests and woodlands, and maquis shrubland of Turkish pine and evergreen sclerophyllous trees and shrubs, including Olive Olea europaea, Strawberry Tree Arbutus unedo, Arbutus andrachne, Kermes Oak Quercus coccifera, and Bay Laurel Laurus nobilis.
Southern Anatolian montane conifer and deciduous forests These mountain forests occupy the Mediterraneanclimate Taurus Mountains of southern Anatolia. Conifer forests are predominant, chiefly Anatolian black pine Pinus nigra, Cedar of Lebanon Cedrus libani, Taurus fir Abies cilicica, and juniper Juniperus foetidissima and J. excelsa. Broadleaf trees include oaks, hornbeam, and maples.
Eastern Mediterranean conifersclerophyllousbroadleaf forests This ecoregion occupies the coastal strip of southern Anatolia between the Taurus Mountains and the Mediterranean Sea. Plant commu |
nities include broadleaf sclerophyllous maquis shrublands, forests of Aleppo Pine Pinus halepensis and Turkish Pine Pinus brutia, and dry oak Quercus spp. woodlands and steppes.
Demographics
See also
Aeolis
Anatolian hypothesis
Anatolianism
Anatolian leopard
Anatolian Plate
Anatolian Shepherd
Ancient kingdoms of Anatolia
Antigonid dynasty
Doris Asia Minor
Empire of Nicaea
Empire of Trebizond
Gordium
Lycaonia
Midas
Miletus
Myra
Pentarchy
Pontic Greeks
Rumi
Saint Anatolia
Saint John
Saint Nicholas
Saint Paul
Seleucid Empire
Seven churches of Asia
Seven Sleepers
Tarsus
Troad
Turkic migration
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
Further reading
Akat, Ucel, Nee zgnel, and Aynur Durukan. 1991. Anatolia A World Heritage. Ankara Kltr Bakanlii.
Brewster, Harry. 1993. Classical Anatolia The Glory of Hellenism. London I.B. Tauris.
Donbaz, Veysel, and emsi Gner. 1995. The Royal Roads of Anatolia. Istanbul Dnya.
Dusinberre, Elspeth R. M. 2013. Empire, Authority, and Autonomy In Achaemeni |
d Anatolia. Cambridge Cambridge University Press.
Gates, Charles, Jacques Morin, and Thomas Zimmermann. 2009. Sacred Landscapes In Anatolia and Neighboring Regions. Oxford Archaeopress.
Mikasa, Takahito, ed. 1999. Essays On Ancient Anatolia. Wiesbaden Harrassowitz.
Takaolu, Turan. 2004. Ethnoarchaeological Investigations In Rural Anatolia. stanbul Ege Yaynlar.
Taracha, Piotr. 2009. Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia. Wiesbaden Harrassowitz.
Taymaz, Tuncay, Y. Yilmaz, and Yildirim Dilek. 2007. The Geodynamics of the Aegean and Anatolia. London Geological Society.
External links
Peninsulas of Asia
Geography of Western Asia
Geography of the Middle East
Near East
Geography of Armenia
Geography of Turkey
Peninsulas of Turkey
Regions of Turkey
Regions of Asia
Ancient Near East
Ancient Greek geography
Physiographic provinces
Historical regions
Eurasia |
Apple Inc. is an American multinational technology company that specializes in consumer electronics, software and online services. Apple is the largest information technology company by revenue totaling in 2021 and, as of January 2021, it is the world's most valuable company, the fourthlargest personal computer vendor by unit sales and secondlargest mobile phone manufacturer. It is one of the Big Five American information technology companies, alongside Alphabet, Amazon, Meta, and Microsoft.
Apple was founded as Apple Computer Company on April 1, 1976, by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak and Ronald Wayne to develop and sell Wozniak's Apple I personal computer. It was incorporated by Jobs and Wozniak as Apple Computer, Inc. in 1977 and the company's next computer, the Apple II became a best seller. Apple went public in 1980, to instant financial success. The company went onto develop new computers featuring innovative graphical user interfaces, including the original Macintosh, announced in a critically acclaimed a |
dvertisement, "1984", directed by Ridley Scott. By 1985, the high cost of its products and power struggles between executives caused problems. Wozniak stepped back from Apple amicably, while Jobs resigned to found NeXT, taking some Apple employees with him.
As the market for personal computers expanded and evolved throughout the 1990s, Apple lost considerable market share to the lowerpriced duopoly of the Microsoft Windows operating system on Intelpowered PC clones also known as "Wintel". In 1997, weeks away from bankruptcy, the company bought NeXT to resolve Apple's unsuccessful operating system strategy and entice Jobs back to the company. Over the next decade, Jobs guided Apple back to profitability through a number of tactics including introducing the iMac, iPod, iPhone and iPad to critical acclaim, launching memorable advertising campaigns, opening the Apple Store retail chain, and acquiring numerous companies to broaden the company's product portfolio. Jobs resigned in 2011 for health reasons, and died |
two months later. He was succeeded as CEO by Tim Cook.
Apple became the first publicly traded U.S. company to be valued at over 1 trillion in August 2018, then 2 trillion in August 2020, and most recently 3 trillion in January 2022. The company receives criticism regarding the labor practices of its contractors, its environmental practices, and its business ethics, including anticompetitive practices and materials sourcing. The company enjoys a high level of brand loyalty, and is ranked as one of the world's most valuable brands.
History
19761980 Founding and incorporation
Apple Computer Company was founded on April 1, 1976, by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, and Ronald Wayne as a business partnership. The company's first product was the Apple I, a computer designed and handbuilt entirely by Wozniak. To finance its creation, Jobs sold his only motorized means of transportation, a VW Bus, for a few hundred dollars, and Wozniak sold his HP65 calculator for . Wozniak debuted the first prototype Apple I at the H |
omebrew Computer Club in July 1976. The Apple I was sold as a motherboard with CPU, RAM, and basic textualvideo chipsa base kit concept which would not yet be marketed as a complete personal computer. It went on sale soon after debut for . Wozniak later said he was unaware of the coincidental mark of the beast in the number 666, and that he came up with the price because he liked "repeating digits".
Apple Computer, Inc. was incorporated on January 3, 1977, without Wayne, who had left and sold his share of the company back to Jobs and Wozniak for 800 only twelve days after having cofounded Apple. Multimillionaire Mike Markkula provided essential business expertise and funding of to Jobs and Wozniak during the incorporation of Apple. During the first five years of operations, revenues grew exponentially, doubling about every four months. Between September 1977 and September 1980, yearly sales grew from 775,000 to 118 million, an average annual growth rate of 533.
The Apple II, also invented by Wozniak, was i |
ntroduced on April 16, 1977, at the first West Coast Computer Faire. It differed from its major rivals, the TRS80 and Commodore PET, because of its character cellbased color graphics and open architecture. While the Apple I and early Apple II models used ordinary audio cassette tapes as storage devices, they were superseded by the introduction of a inch floppy disk drive and interface called the Disk II in 1978.
The Apple II was chosen to be the desktop platform for the first "killer application" of the business world VisiCalc, a spreadsheet program released in 1979. VisiCalc created a business market for the Apple II and gave home users an additional reason to buy an Apple II compatibility with the office. Before VisiCalc, Apple had been a distant third place competitor to Commodore and Tandy. By the end of the 1970s, Apple had become the leading computer manufacturer in the United States.
On December 12, 1980, Apple ticker symbol "AAPL" went public selling 4.6 million shares at 22 per share .39 per share |
when adjusting for stock splits , generating over 100 million, which was more capital than any IPO since Ford Motor Company in 1956. By the end of the day, 300 millionaires were created, from a stock price of 29 per share and a market cap of 1.778 billion.
19801990 Success with Macintosh
A critical moment in the company's history came in December 1979 when Jobs and several Apple employees, including humancomputer interface expert Jef Raskin, visited Xerox PARC in to see a demonstration of the Xerox Alto, a computer using a graphical user interface. Xerox granted Apple engineers three days of access to the PARC facilities in return for the option to buy 100,000 shares 5.6 million splitadjusted shares of Apple at the preIPO price of 10 a share. After the demonstration, Jobs was immediately convinced that all future computers would use a graphical user interface, and development of a GUI began for the Apple Lisa, named after Jobs's daughter.
The Lisa division would be plagued by infighting, and in 1982 Jobs |
was pushed off the project. The Lisa launched in 1983 and became the first personal computer sold to the public with a GUI, but was a commercial failure due to its high price and limited software titles.
Jobs, angered by being pushed off the Lisa team, took over the company's Macintosh division. Wozniak and Raskin had envisioned the Macintosh as lowcostcomputer with a textbased interface like the Apple II, but a plane crash in 1981 forced Wozniak to step back from the project. Jobs quickly redefined the Macintosh as a graphical system that would be cheaper than the Lisa, undercutting his former division. Jobs was also hostile to the Apple II division, which at the time, generated most of the company's revenue.
In 1984, Apple launched the Macintosh, the first personal computer to be sold without a programming language. Its debut was signified by "1984", a 1.5 million television advertisement directed by Ridley Scott that aired during the third quarter of Super Bowl XVIII on January 22, 1984. This is now hai |
led as a watershed event for Apple's success and was called a "masterpiece" by CNN and one of the greatest TV advertisements of all time by TV Guide.
The advertisement created great interest in the original Macintosh, and sales were initially good, but began to taper off dramatically after the first three months as reviews started to come in. Jobs had made the decision to equip the original Macintosh with 128 kilobytes of RAM, attempting to reach a price point, which limited its speed and the software that could be used. The Macintosh would eventually ship for , a price panned by critics in light of its slow performance. In early 1985, this sales slump triggered a power struggle between Steve Jobs and CEO John Sculley, who had been hired away from Pepsi two years earlier by Jobs using the famous line, "Do you want to sell sugar water for the rest of your life or come with me and change the world?" Sculley decided to remove Jobs as the head of the Macintosh division, with unanimous support from the Apple boa |
rd of directors.
The board of directors instructed Sculley to contain Jobs and his ability to launch expensive forays into untested products. Rather than submit to Sculley's direction, Jobs attempted to oust him from his leadership role at Apple. Informed by JeanLouis Gasse, Sculley found out that Jobs had been attempting to organize a boardroom coup and called an emergency meeting at which Apple's executive staff sided with Sculley and stripped Jobs of all operational duties. Jobs resigned from Apple in September 1985 and took a number of Apple employees with him to found NeXT. Wozniak had also quit his active employment at Apple earlier in 1985 to pursue other ventures, expressing his frustration with Apple's treatment of the Apple II division and stating that the company had "been going in the wrong direction for the last five years". Despite Wozniak's grievances, he officially remained employed by Apple, and to this day continues to work for the company as a representative, receiving a stipend estimated |
to be 120,000 per year for this role. Both Jobs and Wozniak remained Apple shareholders after their departures.
After the departures of Jobs and Wozniak, Sculley worked to improve the Macintosh in 1985 by quadrupling the RAM and introducing the LaserWriter, the first reasonably priced PostScript laser printer. PageMaker, an early desktop publishing application taking advantage of the PostScript language, was also released by Aldus Corporation in July 1985. It has been suggested that the combination of Macintosh, LaserWriter and PageMaker was responsible for the creation of the desktop publishing market.
This dominant position in the desktop publishing market allowed the company to focus on higher price points, the socalled "highright policy" named for the position on a chart of price vs. profits. Newer models selling at higher price points offered higher profit margin, and appeared to have no effect on total sales as power users snapped up every increase in speed. Although some worried about pricing themsel |
ves out of the market, the highright policy was in full force by the mid1980s, notably due to JeanLouis Gasse's mantra of "fiftyfive or die", referring to the 55 profit margins of the Macintosh II.
This policy began to backfire in the last years of the decade as desktop publishing programs appeared on PC clones that offered some or much of the same functionality of the Macintosh, but at far lower price points. The company lost its dominant position in the desktop publishing market and estranged many of its original consumer customer base who could no longer afford their highpriced products. The Christmas season of 1989 was the first in the company's history to have declining sales, which led to a 20 drop in Apple's stock price. During this period, the relationship between Sculley and Gasse deteriorated, leading Sculley to effectively demote Gasse in January 1990 by appointing Michael Spindler as the chief operating officer. Gasse left the company later that year.
19901997 Decline and restructuring
The comp |
any pivoted strategy and in October 1990 introduced three lowercost models, the Macintosh Classic, the Macintosh LC, and the Macintosh IIsi, all of which saw significant sales due to pentup demand. In 1991, Apple introduced the hugely successful PowerBook with a design that set the current shape for almost all modern laptops. The same year, Apple introduced System 7, a major upgrade to the Macintosh operating system, adding color to the interface and introducing new networking capabilities.
The success of the lowercost Macs and PowerBook brought increasing revenue. For some time, Apple was doing incredibly well, introducing fresh new products and generating increasing profits in the process. The magazine MacAddict named the period between 1989 and 1991 as the "first golden age" of the Macintosh.
The success of Apple's lowercost consumer models, especially the LC, also led to the cannibalization of their higherpriced machines. To address this, management introduced several new brands, selling largely identica |
l machines at different price points, aimed at different markets the highend Quadra models, the midrange Centris line, and the consumermarketed Performa series. This led to significant market confusion, as customers did not understand the difference between models.
The early 1990s also saw the discontinuation of the Apple II series, which was expensive to produce, and the company felt was still taking sales away from lowercost Macintosh models. After the launch of the LC, Apple began encouraging developers to create applications for Macintosh rather than Apple II, and authorized salespersons to direct consumers towards Macintosh and away from Apple II. The Apple IIe was discontinued in 1993.
Throughout this period, Microsoft continued to gain market share with its Windows graphical user interface that it sold to manufacturers of generally less expensive PC clones. While the Macintosh was more expensive, it offered a more tightly integrated user experience, but the company struggled to make the case to consu |
mers.
Apple also experimented with a number of other unsuccessful consumer targeted products during the 1990s, including digital cameras, portable CD audio players, speakers, video game consoles, the eWorld online service, and TV appliances. Most notably, enormous resources were invested in the problemplagued Newton tablet division, based on John Sculley's unrealistic market forecasts.
personal computers, while Apple was delivering a richly engineered but expensive experience. Apple relied on high profit margins and never developed a clear response; instead, they sued Microsoft for using a GUI similar to the Apple Lisa in Apple Computer, Inc. v. Microsoft Corp. The lawsuit dragged on for years before it was finally dismissed.
The major product flops and the rapid loss of market share to Windows sullied Apple's reputation, and in 1993 Sculley was replaced as CEO by Michael Spindler.
With Spindler at the helm Apple, IBM, and Motorola formed the AIM alliance in 1994 with the goal of creating a new computing |
platform the PowerPC Reference Platform; PReP, which would use IBM and Motorola hardware coupled with Apple software. The AIM alliance hoped that PReP's performance and Apple's software would leave the PC far behind and thus counter the dominance of Windows. The same year, Apple introduced the Power Macintosh, the first of many Apple computers to use Motorola's PowerPC processor.
In the wake of the alliance, Apple opened up to the idea of allowing Motorola and other companies to build Macintosh clones. Over the next two years, 75 distinct Macintosh clone models were introduced. However, by 1996 Apple executives were worried that the clones were cannibalizing sales of their own highend computers, where profit margins were highest.
In 1996, Spindler was replaced by Gil Amelio as CEO. Hired for his reputation as a corporate rehabilitator, Amelio made deep changes, including extensive layoffs and costcutting.
This period was also marked by numerous failed attempts to modernize the Macintosh operating system M |
acOS. The original Macintosh operating system System 1 was not built for multitasking running several applications at once. The company attempted to correct this with by introducing cooperative multitasking in System 5, but the company still felt it needed a more modern approach. This led to the Pink project in 1988, AUX that same year, Copland in 1994, and the attempted purchase of BeOS in 1996. Talks with Be stalled the CEO, former Apple executive JeanLouis Gasse, demanded 300 million instead of the 125 million Apple wanted to pay.
Only weeks away from bankruptcy, Apple's board decided NeXTSTEP was a better choice for its next operating system and purchased NeXT in late 1996 for 429 million, bringing back Apple cofounder Steve Jobs.
19972007 Return to profitability
The NeXT acquisition was finalized on February 9, 1997, and the board brought Jobs back to Apple as an advisor. On July 9, 1997, Jobs staged a boardroom coup that resulted in Amelio's resignation after overseeing a threeyear recordlow stock p |
rice and crippling financial losses.
The board named Jobs as interim CEO and he immediately began a review of the company's products. Jobs would order 70 of the company's products to be cancelled, resulting in the loss of 3,000 jobs, and taking Apple back to the core of its computer offerings. The next month, in August 1997, Steve Jobs convinced Microsoft to make a 150 million investment in Apple and a commitment to continue developing software for the Mac. The investment was seen as an "antitrust insurance policy" for Microsoft who had recently settled with the Department of Justice over anticompetitive practices. Jobs also ended the Mac clone deals and in September 1997, purchased the largest clone maker, Power Computing. On November 10, 1997, Apple introduced the Apple Store website, which was tied to a new buildtoorder manufacturing that had been successfully used by PC manufacturer Dell.
The moves paid off for Jobs, at the end of his first year as CEO, the company turned a 309 million profit.
On May 6 |
, 1998, Apple introduced a new allinone computer reminiscent of the original Macintosh the iMac. The iMac was a huge success for Apple selling 800,000 units in its first five months and ushered in major shifts in the industry by abandoning legacy technologies like the 3inch diskette, being an early adopter of the USB connector, and coming preinstalled with internet connectivity the "i" in iMac via Ethernet and a dialup modem. The device also had a striking eardrop shape and translucent materials, designed by Jonathan Ive, who although hired by Amelio, would go on to work collaboratively with Jobs for the next decade to chart a new course the design of Apple's products.
A little more than a year later on July 21, 1999, Apple introduced the iBook, a laptop for consumers. It was the culmination of a strategy established by Jobs to produce only four products refined versions of the Power Macintosh G3 desktop and PowerBook G3 laptop for professionals, along with the iMac desktop and iBook laptop for consumers. Jo |
bs felt the small product line allowed for a greater focus on quality and innovation.
At around the same time, Apple also completed numerous acquisitions to create a portfolio of digital media production software for both professionals and consumers. Apple acquired of Macromedia's Key Grip digital video editing software project which was renamed Final Cut Pro when it was launched on the retail market in April 1999. The development of Key Grip also led to Apple's release of the consumer videoediting product iMovie in October 1999. Next, Apple successfully acquired the German company Astarte in April 2000, which had developed the DVD authoring software DVDirector, which Apple would sell as the professionaloriented DVD Studio Pro software product, and used the same technology to create iDVD for the consumer market. In 2000, Apple purchased the SoundJam MP audio player software from Casady Greene. Apple renamed the program iTunes, while simplifying the user interface and adding the ability to burn CDs.
2001 wo |
uld be a pivotal year for the Apple with the company making three announcements that would change the course of the company.
The first announcement came on March 24, 2001, that Apple was nearly ready to release a new modern operating system, Mac OS X. The announcement came after numerous failed attempts in the early 1990s, and several years of development. Mac OS X was based on NeXTSTEP, OPENSTEP, and BSD Unix, with Apple aiming to combine the stability, reliability, and security of Unix with the ease of use afforded by an overhauled user interface, heavily influenced by NeXTSTEP. To aid users in migrating from Mac OS 9, the new operating system allowed the use of OS 9 applications within Mac OS X via the Classic Environment.
In May 2001 the company opened its first two Apple Store retail locations in Virginia and California, offering an improved presentation of the company's products. At the time, many speculated that the stores would fail, but they went on to become highly successful, and the first of mor |
e than 500 stores around the world.
On October 23, 2001, Apple debuted the iPod portable digital audio player. The product, which was first sold on November 10, 2001, was phenomenally successful with over 100 million units sold within six years.
In 2003, Apple's iTunes Store was introduced. The service offered music downloads for 0.99 a song and integration with the iPod. The iTunes Store quickly became the market leader in online music services, with over five billion downloads by June 19, 2008. Two years later, the iTunes Store was the world's largest music retailer.
In 2002, Apple purchased Nothing Real for their advanced digital compositing application Shake, as well as Emagic for the music productivity application Logic. The purchase of Emagic made Apple the first computer manufacturer to own a music software company. The acquisition was followed by the development of Apple's consumerlevel GarageBand application. The release of iPhoto in the same year completed the iLife suite.
At the Worldwide Develo |
pers Conference keynote address on June 6, 2005, Jobs announced that Apple would move away from PowerPC processors, and the Mac would transition to Intel processors in 2006. On January 10, 2006, the new MacBook Pro and iMac became the first Apple computers to use Intel's Core Duo CPU. By August 7, 2006, Apple made the transition to Intel chips for the entire Mac product lineover one year sooner than announced. The Power Mac, iBook, and PowerBook brands were retired during the transition; the Mac Pro, MacBook, and MacBook Pro became their respective successors. On April 29, 2009, The Wall Street Journal reported that Apple was building its own team of engineers to design microchips. Apple also introduced Boot Camp in 2006 to help users install Windows XP or Windows Vista on their Intel Macs alongside Mac OS X.
Apple's success during this period was evident in its stock price. Between early 2003 and 2006, the price of Apple's stock increased more than tenfold, from around 6 per share splitadjusted to over 80. |
When Apple surpassed Dell's market cap in January 2006, Jobs sent an email to Apple employees saying Dell's CEO Michael Dell should eat his words. Nine years prior, Dell had said that if he ran Apple he would "shut it down and give the money back to the shareholders".
20072011 Success with mobile devices
During his keynote speech at the Macworld Expo on January 9, 2007, Jobs announced that Apple Computer, Inc. would thereafter be known as "Apple Inc.", because the company had shifted its emphasis from computers to consumer electronics. This event also saw the announcement of the iPhone and the Apple TV. The company sold 270,000 iPhone units during the first 30 hours of sales, and the device was called "a game changer for the industry".
In an article posted on Apple's website on February 6, 2007, Jobs wrote that Apple would be willing to sell music on the iTunes Store without digital rights management DRM , thereby allowing tracks to be played on thirdparty players, if record labels would agree to drop the |
technology. On April 2, 2007, Apple and EMI jointly announced the removal of DRM technology from EMI's catalog in the iTunes Store, effective in May 2007. Other record labels eventually followed suit and Apple published a press release in January 2009 to announce that all songs on the iTunes Store are available without their FairPlay DRM.
In July 2008, Apple launched the App Store to sell thirdparty applications for the iPhone and iPod Touch. Within a month, the store sold 60 million applications and registered an average daily revenue of 1 million, with Jobs speculating in August 2008 that the App Store could become a billiondollar business for Apple. By October 2008, Apple was the thirdlargest mobile handset supplier in the world due to the popularity of the iPhone.
On January 14, 2009, Jobs announced in an internal memo that he would be taking a sixmonth medical leave of absence from Apple until the end of June 2009 and would spend the time focusing on his health. In the email, Jobs stated that "the cur |
iosity over my personal health continues to be a distraction not only for me and my family, but everyone else at Apple as well", and explained that the break would allow the company "to focus on delivering extraordinary products". Though Jobs was absent, Apple recorded its best nonholiday quarter Q1 FY 2009 during the recession with revenue of 8.16 billion and profit of 1.21 billion.
After years of speculation and multiple rumored "leaks", Apple unveiled a large screen, tabletlike media device known as the iPad on January 27, 2010. The iPad ran the same touchbased operating system as the iPhone, and all iPhone apps were compatible with the iPad. This gave the iPad a large app catalog on launch, though having very little development time before the release. Later that year on April 3, 2010, the iPad was launched in the US. It sold more than 300,000 units on its first day, and 500,000 by the end of the first week. In May of the same year, Apple's market cap exceeded that of competitor Microsoft for the first t |
ime since 1989.
In June 2010, Apple released the iPhone 4, which introduced video calling using FaceTime, multitasking, and a new uninsulated stainless steel design that acted as the phone's antenna. Later that year, Apple again refreshed its iPod line of MP3 players by introducing a multitouch iPod Nano, an iPod Touch with FaceTime, and an iPod Shuffle that brought back the clickwheel buttons of earlier generations. It also introduced the smaller, cheaper second generation Apple TV which allowed renting of movies and shows.
On January 17, 2011, Jobs announced in an internal Apple memo that he would take another medical leave of absence for an indefinite period to allow him to focus on his health. Chief Operating Officer Tim Cook assumed Jobs's daytoday operations at Apple, although Jobs would still remain "involved in major strategic decisions". Apple became the most valuable consumerfacing brand in the world. In June 2011, Jobs surprisingly took the stage and unveiled iCloud, an online storage and syncing |
service for music, photos, files, and software which replaced MobileMe, Apple's previous attempt at content syncing. This would be the last product launch Jobs would attend before his death.
On August 24, 2011, Jobs resigned his position as CEO of Apple. He was replaced by Cook and Jobs became Apple's chairman. Apple did not have a chairman at the time and instead had two colead directors, Andrea Jung and Arthur D. Levinson, who continued with those titles until Levinson replaced Jobs as chairman of the board in November after Jobs' death.
2011present PostJobs era, Tim Cook's leadership
On October 5, 2011, Steve Jobs died, marking the end of an era for Apple. The first major product announcement by Apple following Jobs's passing occurred on January 19, 2012, when Apple's Phil Schiller introduced iBook's Textbooks for iOS and iBook Author for Mac OS X in New York City. Jobs stated in the biography "Jobs" that he wanted to reinvent the textbook industry and education.
From 2011 to 2012, Apple released the |
iPhone 4S and iPhone 5, which featured improved cameras, an intelligent software assistant named Siri, and cloudsynced data with iCloud; the third and fourth generation iPads, which featured Retina displays; and the iPad Mini, which featured a 7.9inch screen in contrast to the iPad's 9.7inch screen. These launches were successful, with the iPhone 5 released September 21, 2012 becoming Apple's biggest iPhone launch with over two million preorders and sales of three million iPads in three days following the launch of the iPad Mini and fourth generation iPad released November 3, 2012. Apple also released a thirdgeneration 13inch MacBook Pro with a Retina display and new iMac and Mac Mini computers.
On August 20, 2012, Apple's rising stock price increased the company's market capitalization to a thenrecord 624 billion. This beat the noninflationadjusted record for market capitalization previously set by Microsoft in 1999. On August 24, 2012, a US jury ruled that Samsung should pay Apple 1.05 billion 665m in dama |
ges in an intellectual property lawsuit. Samsung appealed the damages award, which was reduced by 450 million and further granted Samsung's request for a new trial. On November 10, 2012, Apple confirmed a global settlement that dismissed all existing lawsuits between Apple and HTC up to that date, in favor of a tenyear license agreement for current and future patents between the two companies. It is predicted that Apple will make 280 million a year from this deal with HTC.
In May 2014, the company confirmed its intent to acquire Dr. Dre and Jimmy Iovine's audio company Beats Electronicsproducer of the "Beats by Dr. Dre" line of headphones and speaker products, and operator of the music streaming service Beats Musicfor 3 billion, and to sell their products through Apple's retail outlets and resellers. Iovine believed that Beats had always "belonged" with Apple, as the company modeled itself after Apple's "unmatched ability to marry culture and technology." The acquisition was the largest purchase in Apple's h |
istory.
During a press event on September 9, 2014, Apple introduced a smartwatch, the Apple Watch. Initially, Apple marketed the device as a fashion accessory and a complement to the iPhone, that would allow people to look at their smartphones less. Over time, the company has focused on developing health and fitnessoriented features on the watch, in an effort to compete with dedicated activity trackers.
In January 2016, it was announced that one billion Apple devices were in active use worldwide.
On June 6, 2016, Fortune released Fortune 500, their list of companies ranked on revenue generation. In the trailing fiscal year 2015, Apple appeared on the list as the top tech company. It ranked third, overall, with 233 billion in revenue. This represents a movement upward of two spots from the previous year's list.
In June 2017, Apple announced the HomePod, its smart speaker aimed to compete against Sonos, Google Home, and Amazon Echo. Towards the end of the year, TechCrunch reported that Apple was acquiring |
Shazam, a company that introduced its products at WWDC and specializing in music, TV, film and advertising recognition. The acquisition was confirmed a few days later, reportedly costing Apple 400 million, with media reports noting that the purchase looked like a move to acquire data and tools bolstering the Apple Music streaming service. The purchase was approved by the European Union in September 2018.
Also in June 2017, Apple appointed Jamie Erlicht and Zack Van Amburg to head the newly formed worldwide video unit. In November 2017, Apple announced it was branching out into original scripted programming a drama series starring Jennifer Aniston and Reese Witherspoon, and a reboot of the anthology series Amazing Stories with Steven Spielberg. In June 2018, Apple signed the Writers Guild of America's minimum basic agreement and Oprah Winfrey to a multiyear content partnership. Additional partnerships for original series include Sesame Workshop and DHX Media and its subsidiary Peanuts Worldwide, as well as a |
partnership with A24 to create original films.
On August 19, 2020, Apple's share price briefly topped 467.77, making Apple the first US company with a market capitalization of 2 trillion.
During its annual WWDC keynote speech on June 22, 2020, Apple announced it would move away from Intel processors, and the Mac would transition to processors developed inhouse. The announcement was expected by industry analysts, and it has been noted that Macs featuring Apple's processors would allow for big increases in performance over current Intelbased models. On November 10, 2020, the MacBook Air, MacBook Pro, and the Mac Mini became the first Mac devices powered by an Appledesigned processor, the Apple M1.
Products
Macintosh
Macintosh, commonly known as Mac, is Apple's line of personal computers that use the company's proprietary macOS operating system. Personal computers were Apple's original business line, but they account for only about 10 percent of the company's revenue.
The company is in the process of sw |
itching Mac computers from Intel processors to Apple silicon, a customdesigned system on a chip platform.
, there are five Macintosh computer families in production
iMac Consumer allinone desktop computer, introduced in 1998.
Mac Mini Consumer subdesktop computer, introduced in 2005.
MacBook Pro Professional notebook, introduced in 2006.
Mac Pro Professional workstation, introduced in 2006.
MacBook Air Consumer ultrathin notebook, introduced in 2008.
Apple also sells a variety of accessories for Macs, including the Pro Display XDR, Magic Mouse, Magic Trackpad, and Magic Keyboard.
The company also develops several pieces of software that are included in the purchase price of a Mac, including the Safari web browser, the iMovie video editor, the GarageBand audio editor and the iWork productivity suite.
Additionally, the company sells several professional software applications including the Final Cut Pro video editor, Motion for video animations, the Logic Pro audio editor, MainStage for live audio produc |
tion, and Compressor for media compression and encoding.
iPhone
iPhone is Apple's line of smartphones that use the company's proprietary iOS operating system, derived from macOS. The firstgeneration iPhone was announced by thenApple CEO Steve Jobs on January 9, 2007. Since then, Apple has annually released new iPhone models and iOS updates.
The iPhone has a user interface built around a multitouch screen, which at the time of its introduction was described as "revolutionary" and a "gamechanger" for the mobile phone industry. The device has been credited with popularizing the smartphone and slate form factor, and with creating a large market for smartphone apps, or "app economy".
iOS is one of the two largest smartphone platforms in the world alongside Android. The iPhone has generated large profits for the company, and is credited with helping to make Apple one of the world's most valuable publicly traded companies. , the iPhone accounts for more than half of the company's revenue.
, 33 iPhone models ha |
ve been produced, with five smartphone families in production
iPhone 13
iPhone 13 Pro
iPhone 12
iPhone SE 2nd generation
iPhone 11
iPad
iPad is Apple's line of tablet computers that use the company's proprietary iPadOS operating system, derived from macOS and iOS. The firstgeneration iPad was announced on January 27, 2010.
The iPad took the multitouch user interface first introduced in the iPhone, and adapted it to a larger screen, marked for interaction with multimedia formats including newspapers, books, photos, videos, music, documents, video games, and most existing iPhone apps. Earlier generations of the iPad used the same iOS operating system as the company's smartphones before being split off in 2019.
Apple has sold more than 500 million iPads, though sales peaked in 2013. However, the iPad remains the most popular tablet computer by sales , and accounted for nine percent of the company's revenue .
In recent years, Apple has started offering more powerful versions of the device, with the cu |
rrent iPad Pro sharing the same Apple silicon as Macintosh computers, along with a smaller version of the device called iPad mini, and an upgraded version called iPad Air.
, there are four iPad families in production
iPad 9th generation
iPad mini 6th generation
iPad Pro 5th generation
iPad Air 4th generation
Wearables, Home and Accessories
Apple also makes several other products that it categorizes as "Wearables, Home and Accessories." These products include the AirPods line of wireless headphones, Apple TV digital media players, Apple Watch smartwatches, Beats headphones, HomePod Mini smart speakers, and the iPod touch, the last remaining device in Apple's successful line of iPod portable media players.
, this broad line of products comprises about 11 of the company's revenues.
Services
Apple also offers a broad line of services that it earns revenue on, including advertising in the App Store and Apple News app, the AppleCare extended warranty plan, the iCloud cloudbased data storage service, paym |
ent services through the Apple Card credit card and the Apple Pay processing platform, a digital content services including Apple Books, Apple Fitness, Apple Music, Apple News, Apple TV, and the iTunes Store.
, services comprise about 19 of the company's revenue. Many of the services have been launched since 2019 when Apple announced it would be making a concerted effort to expand its service revenues.
Corporate identity
Logo
According to Steve Jobs, the company's name was inspired by his visit to an apple farm while on a fruitarian diet. Jobs thought the name "Apple" was "fun, spirited and not intimidating".
Apple's first logo, designed by Ron Wayne, depicts Sir Isaac Newton sitting under an apple tree. It was almost immediately replaced by Rob Janoff's "rainbow Apple", the nowfamiliar rainbowcolored silhouette of an apple with a bite taken out of it. Janoff presented Jobs with several different monochromatic themes for the "bitten" logo, and Jobs immediately took a liking to it. However, Jobs insisted |
that the logo be colorized to humanize the company. The logo was designed with a bite so that it would not be confused with a cherry. The colored stripes were conceived to make the logo more accessible, and to represent the fact the Apple II could generate graphics in color. This logo is often erroneously referred to as a tribute to Alan Turing, with the bite mark a reference to his method of suicide. Both Janoff and Apple deny any homage to Turing in the design of the logo.
On August 27, 1999 the year following the introduction of the iMac G3, Apple officially dropped the rainbow scheme and began to use monochromatic logos nearly identical in shape to the previous rainbow incarnation. An Aquathemed version of the monochrome logo was used from 1998 to 2003, and a glassthemed version was used from 2007 to 2013.
Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak were fans of the Beatles, but Apple Inc. had name and logo trademark issues with Apple Corps Ltd., a multimedia company started by the Beatles in 1968. This resulted in a |
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