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This storyboard does not have a description. The dead body is brought to the mummification area The body was thoroughly washed and prayers were said from the book of the dead. The internal organs were dried in a natural powder,( a bit like salt), rubbed with fragrant oils and put into canopic jars. The body was then covered in salt for 40 days to preserve it so it didn't rot Once the 40 days had finished, it was wrapped with fine lines of linen starting with the head and finishing with the toes Once the body was wrapped up, it was painted with sticky resin then more cloth was wrapped around the body, the mummy was then placed in a body shaped coffin Explore Our Articles and Examples Try Our Other Websites! Photos for Class – Search for School-Safe, Creative Commons Photos! (It Even Cites for You! – Easily Make and Share Great Looking Rubrics!

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Jacob Ludwig Carl Grimm is born to Philipp Wilhelm Grimm and Dorothea Grimm in Hanau, Germany. January 4, 1785 Wilhelm Carl Grimm in born to Philipp Wilhelm Grimm and Dorothea Grimm in Hanau, Germany. February 24, 1786 Philipp Wilhelm Grimm dies at age 44 with three of his nine children preceding him. Jacob, his oldest, is 11. January 10, 1796 Jacob and Wilhelm, influenced by the folk poetry collection of Clemens Brentano and Achim von Arnim, Des Knaben Wunderhorn, begin to collect folktales. Dorothea Grimm dies at age 52. Jacob, with Wilhelm following soon after, takes a position as a librarian at Kassel to support his younger siblings. May 27, 1808 The Grimm brothers publish volume one of Kinder- und Hausmärchen (Children' and Household Tales -- commonly known as Grimms' Fairy Tales), a book containing 86 numbered folktales. Volume two of Kinder- und Hausmärchen appears in print, adding 70 stories to the previous collection. The final version will include 200 numbered stories plus 10 "Children's Legends". The Grimms publish two volumes of Deutsche Sagen, a collection totalling 585 German legends. 1816 - 1818 Wilhelm Grimm dies at age 73. December 16, 1859 Jacob Grimm dies at the age of 78. September 20, 1863

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Studies have shown that some foods make us feel calmer while other foods can act as stimulants — at least temporarily. If you experience stress and anxiety or panic attacks, making some modifications to your diet may help alleviate your symptoms. Here are five foods you may want to add to your diet to boost your mood, and four foods you may want to avoid because they can increase stress and even possibly cause a depressed mood. Food to Eat: Turkey and Tryptophan-Rich Foods Some researchers believe that tryptophan can have a positive effect on stress because this amino acid helps your brain produce feel-good chemicals. "Tryptophan is a precursor to serotonin, and serotonin, a neurotransmitter, helps you feel calm," said San Francisco nutritionist Manuel Villacorta, MS, RD, a spokesman for the American Dietetic Association (now known as the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics). You will find tryptophan in a variety of foods: turkey, chicken, bananas, milk, oats, cheese, soy, nuts, peanut butter, and sesame seeds. However, there is some question about whether tryptophan found in food crosses the blood-brain barrier, so the effect is not going to be a dramatic one. Food to Eat: Beef and Foods Rich in Vitamin B Studies have shown a relationship between the B vitamins, including thiamin or vitamin B1, and mood. A deficiency in B vitamins such as folic acid and B12 can trigger depression in some people. You can take a vitamin B supplement or eat foods that are rich in B vitamins to ward off anxiety. These include beef, pork, chicken, leafy greens, legumes, oranges and other citrus fruits, rice, nuts, and eggs. Food to Eat: Whole Wheat Bread Carbohydrates also increase production of serotonin in the brain. When choosing mood-lifting carbs, go for whole grains, such as whole wheat bread or brown rice, rather than processed choices, such as sugar, candy, or even white bread and white rice, Villacorta said. Whole grains take longer for the body to break down, and release sugar into the bloodstream slowly. Processed carbs may give you an initial surge of energy, but that can be followed by an insulin rush, which rapidly drops blood sugar levels, ultimately leaving you feeling lethargic. Food to Eat: Salmon Evidence continues to mount that consuming omega-3 fatty acids (EPA and DHA), found in fatty fish such as salmon, tuna, lake trout, herring, mackerel, anchovies, and sardines, can be uplifting and enhance your mood. Some studies have shown that patients who took omega-3 fatty acids along with their prescription antidepressants improved more than those who took antidepressants alone. A possible side benefit: Omega-3s may reduce risk of heart disease. Food to Eat: Greek Yogurt and Other High-Protein Foods Protein helps stimulate the production of the brain chemicals norepinephrine and dopamine, which, like serotonin, are neurotransmitters and carry impulses between nerve cells. Higher levels of norepinephrine and dopamine have been shown to improve alertness, mental energy, and reaction time, Villacorta said. Good sources of protein include Greek yogurt, fish, meats, cheese, eggs, nuts, beans, soy, and lentils. "The ideal for mood-boosting," Villacorta said, "is to combine complex carbohydrates and protein, and to spread your meals throughout the day." Food to Avoid: Coffee and Caffeinated Drinks Some people drink coffee and other beverages that contain caffeine (tea, cola, and hot chocolate) to help boost their energy levels. The problem is that caffeine has been shown to inhibit levels of serotonin in the brain, and, when serotonin levels are suppressed, you can become depressed and feel irritable. Caffeine is also a diuretic — it makes you go to the bathroom more often. Even mild dehydration can cause depression. Caffeine also can keep you awake, leading to stress and anxiety. Remember that you need to sleep well to be in a positive mood. Food to Avoid: Candy Of course, almost everyone likes sweets, and sweets (including those containing table sugar, honey, and corn syrup) can make us feel better, but again it's a temporary lift. Here's why: Sugar is absorbed quickly into the bloodstream. The absorption causes an initial high or surge of energy. But that surge wears off as the body increases its insulin production to remove the sugar from your bloodstream. The result: You're left feeling tired and low. Food to Avoid: Alcohol Some people drink alcohol because it seems to ease stress and anxiety. Unfortunately, the good mood is only temporary. In the long run, alcohol is a depressant. Like caffeine, alcohol is a diuretic, and it's important to stay hydrated for a number of reasons, including mood. If you do drink, drink in moderation. "If you have a 6-ounce glass of wine at dinner, it's probably fine," Villacorta said. "But you don't want to be a heavy drinker, finishing off a few bottles with your meal." Food to Avoid: Hot Dogs Could processed foods such as hot dogs, sausage, pie, and cakes cause anxiety or other mental health issues? Researchers in London found that eating a diet of processed and fatty foods increases the risk for depression. In the study, people who mainly ate fried food, processed meat, high-fat dairy products, and sweetened desserts had a 58 percent higher risk of depression than those who ate "whole" foods such as fish and vegetables. It's best for your mood, said Villacorta, to skip the over-processed foods. - Last Updated: 04/07/14

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For many feminists, the headscarf is a glaring symbol of male oppression and the patriarchal power of religion. However, there is now a small, but growing number of Muslim women looking to take their places in Britain’s rapidly expanding women’s movement. A new project to connect Islam to feminism has been launched to tackle long-standing concerns that religious women are excluded from the women’s rights debate. In what is a deeply controversial area for many in Islamic communities and for many mainstream feminists, the linkup between a Muslim charity and the UK Feminista group is seen as a pioneering step in bringing women from different cultural backgrounds together in the battle for sexual equality. The social enterprise Maslaha, established by the Young Foundation to work on improving social conditions in Muslim and minority communities, said the program had attracted a huge response in the past few days. “An awful lot of Muslim women have felt excluded from the debate about women’s rights and this project really focuses on bringing ordinary women into a debate about Islamic feminism that has so far only really been heard in academic circles,” Latifah Akay of Maslaha said. She said the online resource islamandfeminism.org was bringing out some extraordinary responses from British Muslims who reported feeling previously isolated. “This is really taking off,” she said. “Islamic feminism is not a new thing, which will probably surprise most people, but Muslim women have the same core concerns as white, secular, British women: the workplace, discrimination, childcare. And also they have different layers of struggles and different layers of oppression, just as a black lesbian will have different struggles to white disabled women, and none of them should be excluded just because they are diverse. There has been a dire lack of spaces for women within Islam to have these kinds of conversations and they have felt very much that their religious beliefs exclude them.” Islamic feminism has been on the rise over the past few years in various countries around the world, including Saudi Arabia, Pakistan and Iran, but it remains a taboo in many more traditional communities who fear that it will lead women away from religion. “The Internet will help Muslim women find each other, just as it has for young secular women in Britain, and start a real conversation,” Akay said. While a number of new books on Islam and feminism have been appearing around the world in recent years, the UK has been slow to catch up. Last year, when a University of Derby lecturer, Sariya Cheruvallil-Contractor, published Muslim Women in Britain: De-mystifying the Muslimah, she said she believed that many of the misconceptions around Islam were directly linked to how people believed the faith treated its women. “The media portray Muslim women as oppressed and subjugated and Islam is often presented as misogynist and patriarchal,” she said, and her book was intended as an antidote to that. FEELING THREATENED: The first military commission under Kim Jong-un’s leadership to last longer than a day is a sign of a growing escalatory doctrine, an analyst said North Korea discussed assigning additional duties to its frontline army units at a key military meeting, state media said yesterday, suggesting that the country might deploy battlefield nuclear weapons targeting South Korea along the rivals’ tense border. The discussion comes as South Korean officials said North Korea has finished preparations for its first nuclear test in five years, as part of possible efforts to build a warhead to be mounted on short-range weapons capable of hitting targets in South Korea. During an ongoing meeting of the Central Military Commission of the ruling Workers’ Party on Wednesday, North Korean leader Kim Jong-un and China’s online shopping stars enjoy huge influence, but can fall foul of the authorities and vanish from the retail multiverse. Hua Shao (華少) stands knee-deep in water at the edge of the sea, behind a table piled high with large crabs. The famous TV host is sweaty, sunburnt and laughing with a cohost, a red-and-blue fishing boat bobbing behind them. “The sea-ears taste so good, it must have been collected from a sea area where the water is very clear,” he tells more than 100,000 people watching online. It is the eve of “618,” one of China’s biggest retail festivals, which are increasingly China’s COVID-19 outbreak is shifting to its south coast, with a flareup in Shenzhen triggering mass testing and a lockdown of some neighborhoods, while Macau — an hour’s drive away — is racing to stop its first outbreak in eight months. The new cases come as China’s two most important cities, Beijing and Shanghai, look to be subduing the virus after months of strict curbs and repeated testing. Shanghai yesterday reported nine local cases, while Beijing reported five. Nationwide, China yesterday reported 34 new COVID-19 infections. Yet new clusters continue to emerge, prompting action from local officials. Borders are increasingly under pressure, with New Zealand stargazers were left puzzled and awed by strange, spiraling light formations in the night sky on Sunday night. At about 7:25pm, Alasdair Burns, a stargazing guide on Stewart Island, also called Rakiura, received a text from a friend saying to go outside and look at the sky. He went out and saw a huge, blue spiral of light amid the darkness. “It looked like an enormous spiral galaxy, just hanging there in the sky,” Burns said. “Quite an eerie feeling.” “We quickly banged on the doors of all our neighbors to get them out as well. And so there were

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St. Louis Cathedral stands as a beacon of hope and an icon of New Orleans To walk into St. Louis Cathedral-Basilica is to step back in time. Rich frescoes and statuary proclaim the story of Christianity; stained-glass windows depict the life of King Louis IX; and flags representing the many countries that have influenced New Orleans over the past 300 years hang above pews. This majestic house of worship is the center of New Orleans. Monsignor Crosby W. Kern, the 42nd pastor-rector of the city’s beloved St. Louis Cathedral, holds the honor of being in charge of the oldest Catholic cathedral in continuous use in the United States. “The bishop technically is the pastor,” says Msgr. Kern, “but I am pastor of souls. I am a curator because there are so many historic things here. And I am the visible part of the church to the civic people.” New Orleans was founded in 1718 when French colonists brought the first Catholic parish to the city. “The official parish wasn’t established until 1720,” says Msgr. Kern. “Before that it was a mission.” The city was just a small village, and Mass was held in a temporary church in a warehouse. But from the beginning, colonists designated the area now known as Jackson Square as the town square and appointed the site where the church would be built. In 1727 a permanent church was established and named St. Louis after the sainted King of France. In 1743 Father Dagobert de Longuory arrived and spent many years working in the colony and as pastor of the church. The city came under Spanish governance 30 years later, and Spanish friars arrived to the church, replacing Father Longuory after his death in 1776. Fray Antonio de Sedella, known fondly as Pere Antoine, arrived in 1785 and would serve the cathedral, keeping meticulous records, for 40 years until his death. The Pere Antoine Alley that runs alongside the cathedral was named for him, and his remains lie beneath the cathedral. “In the early years everything revolved around the church,” says Msgr. Kern. “It became the center of life. Leaders of society met here. The Cabildo was the seat of government, right next to the cathedral; the Presbytere [would become] a courthouse, so the courts, the government, the jail—all that was right here. It was the gathering place. And in St. Anthony’s Garden behind the church [today the site of an important archeological dig], there was a flower market and ice cream place. Creole society met here. New Orleans had the greatest concentration of free people of color. If you look at our baptismal records, there are something like 40 countries mentioned, including tribes in Africa. So there were parallel societies that lived in the city. But all connected to the church. That was the common ground, the church.” On Good Friday, in 1788, two massive fires broke out and swept across the city, destroying 80 percent of the buildings, including St. Louis Church. Through the generous support of Don Andrés Almonester y Roxas, a civil servant and generous benefactor to the city, a new parish church was built atop the ruins of St. Louis Church. The new church, with dome-topped triple spires, was completed in 1794. “In the meantime the King of Spain made a Diocese of Louisiana and the Floridas so the church reopened as a cathedral,” says Msgr. Kern. Luis Peñalver y Cárdenas was the cathedral’s first bishop. In 1845, under Bishop Antoine Blanc, the cathedral began to show severe signs of deterioration, and during construction the side walls fell down. “It had to be almost entirely rebuilt, save for the facade,” says Msgr. Kern. “So the cathedral was expanded in length and width; the frescoes on the ceiling were added; and a black-and-white marble [center aisle] was created by a man named Eugene Walburg, a free man of color from New Orleans, and probably one of the most prominent marble workers this country has ever produced.” “When the cathedral reopened in 1850 [with new pointed triple spires], it became a Metropolitan Cathedral, the home of an archbishop. Bishop Blanc became the cathedral’s first archbishop. He’s buried in the cathedral, with all the bishops.” Because of its historical significance, in 1964 Pope Paul VI elevated the cathedral status to that of a minor basilica. The cathedral of today, on what is now John Paul Promenade, has changed little since 1850 and is known worldwide. But even with its popularity as tourist destination, wedding location and holiday celebration spot, the church is resolute in maintaining its sacred and historical integrity. “Above all, it’s a house of worship,” says Msgr. Kern. “And everything we do lends to that. It has a mission as any Catholic church does to proclaim the gospel. As long as we’re proclaiming the gospel, we’re all right. What we don’t ever want to be is a museum.” Cathedral parishioners and visitors have included Lindy Boggs, St. Francis Cabrini (benefactor to the city’s Italian immigrants), Andrew Jackson, Zachary Taylor, Marquis de Lafayette, Saint Katharine Drexel (founder of Xavier University), emperors, kings, presidents and governors. “Of course the most prominent visitor was Pope John Paul II in 1987,” says Msgr. Kern. “The cathedral’s the only building I know of that’s become an icon for the city. It’s always been a sign of hope, no matter what has happened. From the very first devastating hurricane in 1723. After the great fire of 1788, Pere Antoine opened the church grounds for people to camp and live in when the city was destroyed. It’s been the rallying point through the war of 1812, through the yellow fever epidemics. People have gathered here at the cathedral to give thanks, to petition; it’s the soul of the city. It’s everybody’s cathedral, whether you’re Catholic or not. As long as the cathedral is standing, New Orleans is here.”

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A clinical viscosity diagnostic instrument is proving to be valuable in the research and treatment of coronavirus after laboratory scientists have identified its ability to provide meaningful data for medical teams treating COVID-19 patients. In COVID-19 patients, a rise in plasma viscosity increases the risk of a blood clot forming (thrombosis). Routine plasma, blood and serum viscosity monitoring contributes to the understanding of COVID-19 progression and could help develop a more scientifically targeted treatment for patients producing improved recovery outcomes. Benson Viscometers designs and manufactures clinical viscometers to measure the viscosity (or thickness) of bodily fluids, notably blood plasma, serum, blood and synovial fluid. They are in use in UK NHS, Ireland and USA pathology laboratories. The clinical viscosity test measures the thickness or resistance to flow of biological fluids, enabling clinicians to identify where a patient’s viscosity values are not within the recognised normal range. The plasma viscosity test looks for abnormal concentrations of proteins in the blood plasma and is highly regarded as an important aid to diagnosis for a range of conditions, such as rheumatoid arthritis, myeloma and Waldenstrom macroglobuinaemia. Plasma hyperviscosity is a known risk-factor for thrombosis and can be caused by increased levels of plasma proteins, such as fibrinogen or immunoglobulins. The serum viscosity test is used to monitor patients and assess hyperviscosity syndrome including polycythemia, macroglobulinemia, multiple myeloma, and leukaemia. Increased blood viscosity is an indicator for potential stroke and heart attack induced by a low flow of blood in the capillaries leading to an inadequate delivery of vital oxygen and nutrients to body tissues. Physicians in California are researching blood viscosity and its effects on cardiovascular disease. Clinical viscosity for COVID-19 testing Clinical viscosity testing, particularly plasma and blood, has now been identified by scientists as important in monitoring critically ill COVID-19 patients. A paper in The Lancet on May 25 associated very high plasma viscosity in critically ill COVID-19 patients with thrombotic complications and abnormal blood coagulation. In COVID-19 patients, a rise in plasma viscosity is due to an increased concentration of a clotting (coagulation) protein called fibrinogen. This raised level of fibrinogen increases the risk of a blood clot forming (thrombosis) and could explain why a large proportion of the deaths from COVID-19 are from thrombotic episodes and not from pulmonary disorders, which would be expected from a virus that infects the respiratory tract. Emory University researchers in Atlanta, Georgia, found that patients had substantially increased fibrinogen concentrations (an average of 708 mg/dL versus a normal reference range of 200-393 mg/dL). An article in Newsweek on May 28 further explored this study and the links between an increased abnormal plasma viscosity and COVID-19. Critically ill COVID-19 patients being given drugs to reduce the likelihood of unwanted clot formation, had plasma viscosity levels 95 percent higher than normal, and more than 25 percent had blood clot-related complications. The researchers also found a strong correlation between plasma viscosity levels and the severity of the patients’ illness, using the Sequential Organ Failure Assessment Score. This revealed ‘substantially increased’ fibrinogen levels in the blood plasma. UK COVID-19 diagnostics and prognostics Several UK hospitals at the forefront of the fight against COVID-19, including Addenbrooke's Hospital Cambridge, University College London Hospital and St Thomas's in London, are currently conducting research to scientifically document the benefits of measuring plasma viscosity in COVID-19 patients. Research is being carried out to explore the potential for plasma viscosity results to aid early identification of COVID-19 patients who are likely to develop more severe symptoms. Some UK hospitals have reported that early indications show a statistical difference between the COVID and non-COVID groups and the plasma viscosity test is routinely being performed to monitor COVID-19 patients. Daniel Gleghorn, a senior scientist at Cambridge University Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, said: “We are in the process of establishing the diagnostic and prognostic value of measuring the plasma viscosity of patients, with a cohort of around 500 patients, following patients’ progress through the condition, regularly monitoring their plasma viscosity level.” Paul Woods, a former pathology laboratory manager at Nobles Hospital in the Isle of Man, said: "Some laboratory tests are being utilised by the emergency department in relation to COVID-19 particularly d-dimer and ferritin. These tests are also being used to monitor patients who appear to be deteriorating and may be in need of more intensive care. The laboratory also facilitated plasma viscosity availability 24/7 in relevant COVID-19 cases, which is notable, given it is not normally an out of hours test." Deepak Singh, Head of Department, Haematosis, at Health Service Laboratories (a partnership between The Doctors Laboratory, Royal Free London NHS Foundation Trust and University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust) said: “We are running plasma viscosity now to monitor inflammatory status in the following patient groups: Those with high risk TIA (transient ischaemic attack) commenced on DAPT (dual antiplatelet therapy); Those with treatment failure on antiplatelet therapy; Those with high risk carotid/vertebral or intracranial stenosis. This is to ensure antiplatelet drug therapy efficacy.” Discussions are taking place with laboratories all around the world about how the role of routine plasma, blood and serum viscosity monitoring contributes to the understanding of COVID-19 progression. It is believed this will help to develop a more scientifically targeted treatment for patients producing improved recovery outcomes as a result. Plasma viscosity test benefits Benson Viscometers, based in Haverfordwest, is the UK market leader for clinical viscometers. Their viscometers are considered safe to use with high risk samples and incorporate ‘closed vial’ sampling in their operation. When laboratory staff are processing high risk samples, such as COVID-19, direct exposure to the biological fluid is minimised as the sample tube cap does not need to be removed for the sample to be tested. Clinical viscosity diagnostic tests are efficient as they can be carried out using the residue from the full blood count analysis. Plasma viscosity results are rapid, precise, and are not affected by variations such as gender, age, early pregnancy, or the presence of other conditions, such as anaemia. An advantage of the plasma viscosity test is that it will continue to give clinically significant results up to seven days after the sample has been taken. More importantly, the results are not altered or interfered with by the patient having taken medication such as high dose steroids, cytotoxic drugs and aspirin. The creator of the Benson clinical viscometers, Bernie Benson, said: "I am extremely excited and encouraged by the passion and enthusiasm of so many scientists around the world as they work together to determine an understanding of the mysteries of COVID-19. We have always believed that clinical viscosity testing, and plasma viscosity testing in particular, has so much more to offer our healthcare system. I am confident pathology laboratories will invest the time and energy in this research and find the significant breakthrough in outcomes for critically ill patients and that the world is now waking up to the huge value of this clinical viscosity testing in general."

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The word “soccer” actually comes from England, where the modern version of the game originated. In England, there were two types of football: rugby football and association football. The slang term for rugby football was “rugger,” and the slang for association football was “assoc.” The word “assoc” gradually evolved into “soccer,” which was much easier to say. When association football was introduced to North America, gridiron football (the type played by the NFL and in the Super Bowl) was already well established. To avoid confusion, Americans adopted the British nickname “soccer” for the new sport. What is soccer? Soccer is a game. The children are involved in an activity that pits them against an opponent. It is, in most cases, about winning and losing, competition and cooperation. It is also a leisure activity. The children are there because they want to be there. They want to play a game. children playing footballTo play a game of soccer you first need a ball. Then an opponent. Add a field, a couple of goals across from each other, mix in a few soccer rules and you have a game of 1v1. But this is hard work and you can’t play it for very long. So you get some teammates, and to keep it fair, a few more opponents. With these elements you can play soccer all day. These are the elements of soccer. They make the game what it is. If you remove a key element such as the ball or opponent it can’t be soccer. Likewise, to change an element too much you can move too far from the game. Playing with two balls or three teams might be fun and a game, but is it soccer? To pass a ball across a grid and run to a corner involves kicking techniques, but is it soccer? Soccer also involves the element “chaos.” Opponents, team mates and the ball are all moving in different directions. Players, parents and coaches are shouting different instructions and information. Bringing “order out of chaos” is an important skill in learning how to play the game. A soccer coach coaches soccer, not something else.

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September has been labeled as Better Breakfast Month by the United States government. What better way to start the day than with a hearty, filling meal? We’ve all done it – run out the door without grabbing anything to eat because we’re late or too tired to make anything. We then start our day with an empty stomach and low energy, which makes it hard for us to work to our full potential. If you are a routine breakfast skipper, this is a habit to try to break! Once we wake in the morning, we may not have eaten for up to twelve hours (depending on what time we eat in the evening and when our alarm goes off). This means that our bodies have very low blood glucose levels (aka blood sugar) first thing in the morning. Glucose is a carbohydrate, obtained through our food, that we use as our fuel source. Extra glucose gets stored in our livers and muscles as glycogen. As we sleep, our bodies use this glycogen to keep our blood sugar levels stable. This is important because our body needs a constant supply of glucose to keep it running properly (think: breathing, heart beating, etc.). Eventually, these stores get low and we need to replenish our glucose levels through food, like breakfast! Consuming breakfast can help you meet all of your daily vitamin and mineral levels, as well as helping to control your weight. People who eat breakfast are less likely to be overweight or obese and more likely to be a physcially active person. By eating breakfast, you are helping to keep your glucose levels steady. This will aid in keeping your appetite stable and controlled; when your appetite is stable, you won’t get ravenously hungry. This will make it easier to reach for healthier options and proper portions instead of eating too much or too little. Studies have found that there are some long-term effects of skipping breakfast. There is a connection with skipping breakfast and a poor lifestyle – overconsumption of alcohol, smoking, being sedentary, mood changes, and depressive symptoms. Skipping breakfast can make it hard to focus and get that to-do list done. Without the proper fuel, our brains cannot function at their best potential. Studies suggest that without breakfast, some short-term effects can take place as well, like our ability to concentrate, pay attention, or remember things. Students who eat breakfast often perform better academically compared to students who do not eat breakfast, and some studies have even shown that those who eat breakfast have a lower chance of developing type 2 diabetes, obesity, and cardiovascular disease. Many people don’t think that they have time to eat a nutritious breakfast, let alone breakfast at all. With a little planning ahead you could whip something up in five minutes, like smoothies or oatmeal, or prepare breakfast the night before in the same amount of time, like a sandwich or pancakes. Here are some breakfast choices that will keep you going all day long and are perfect for meal prep: Written by Kristin Mattia, dietetics student with University of Maryland

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In 1982 the brilliant polymath and controversialist, Stephen Jay Gould, co-authored two scientific papers which introduced an important term into evolutionary biology: 'exaptation'. To short-circuit a fascinating chapter in the history of biological science, Gould and his co-authors suggested that the evolutionary process could use 'neutral' physical features which had arisen by chance as raw material for a new function which served a specific biological need. Later this idea was further enlarged by pointing out that an evolved feature which had served a specific function in one context could be co-opted (exapted) by the evolutionary dynamic to serve an entirely distinct purpose in another. This idea has interesting ramifications in the political and psychological domains. The phenomenon of 'disgust' may have evolved in humans originally as an avoidance response to the parasites and bacteria present in human waste and rotting flesh. In the course of human social evolution, however, during which time we laid down the genetic foundations of our moral instincts, the 'disgust module' was hijacked to drive the emotional response to behaviours and ideas which we disliked and found repugnant. Now tie this in with another evolved, paired feature of human social psychology: the notion of fairness coupled to the instinct to punish 'violators'. We are all familiar with this phenomenon in which we find certain behaviours reprehensible and disgusting. Our automatic response is to shun or actively punish perpetrators. Cultural anthropologists with an evolutionary bent have studied this in various current hunter-gatherer tribes. It probably arose initially to discourage tribe members from hoarding and hiding resources, especially valuable meat, from other members and expanded to incorporate a wider range of deceptive and selfish behaviours. Within the close-knit community of the tribe the process of shaming, which could escalate to ostracism, expulsion or even murder, was a powerful social deterrent and a potent selective pressure on our genetic evolution. Those who believe these primitive restraints are now outmoded, that we have escaped the narrow moral strictures of the tribe and are free to express opinions or act in ways which run counter to the dominant norms, are profoundly mistaken. On the contrary, the process of moralistic shaming, delegitimisation and punishment has expanded alongside the technological revolution in communication technology and has been eagerly seized on by partisan groups. This broad topic deserves a much deeper excavation than possible here. In particular, we need to become aware of our vulnerability to politically-inspired manipulation of our moral instincts in the exercise of power. The 'weaponisation' of the fairness-punishment psychological complex is the chief instrument of political war in parts of the post-modern world, especially in the democracies. The other night I watched this process in action within the relatively benign setting of a BBC debate on the motion that 'political correctness is failing us'. The 4-person panel was divided between what can only be termed the 'progressive-left' and its critics. I missed part of the debate but heard more than enough to discern that all the slurs and sneers came from the warriors of the Left. Any fair appraisal of this phenomenon across the democratic West indicates that it sets the dominant tone of public discourse. And where shaming and ridicule is insufficient to stifle debate or eliminate pockets of disagreement, intolerance has come to manifest in physical bullying. It is an unpleasant irony of history that the 'Progressive Left' has become the heir to the verbal and physical intimidation which characterised the segregationist and racist Right of early and mid-20th century Europe and America. In view of the recent, widely publicised student aggression at Berkeley, Middlebury and Claremont campuses in the USA and violent anti-Trump riots in many American cities, it is amazing that one continues to encounter a whiney sense of victimhood on the Left, as in this apocalyptic passage by Stephen Gill: "In many respects, however, it ('Trumpism') closely resembles the extreme inequalities, governing strategies, and reactionary rhetoric that submerged liberalism and democracy in the 1930s." The rest of his article is written in similar vein. The absurdity of this stance is summarised in a number of recent appraisals of Trump's first hundred days which pillory the overwhelmingly 'liberal-progressive' establishment media's overwrought (and dishonest) call-to-arms response. Here's one précis (and it is an understatement), "After 100 days, all the hysterical claims of incipient fascism and Russian conspiracy have not really damaged Trump; these have only made his opponents look silly. Such nonsense has been a distraction from getting to grips with his administration, and has given Trump some breathing space to fail and keep going." Such apparent idiocies have, however, a deeper coherence. The blending of moralistic indignation, a free-floating sense of victimhood and apocalyptic visions of a rampant, Hitlerian-style nationalistic fervour serves as justification for intolerance disguised as democratic 'resistance'. Conor Friedersdorf, a thoughtful liberal-left commentator in The Atlantic, quoted (disapprovingly) the radical student rationale for violently preventing the conservative scholar-commentator, Heather MacDonald, from speaking at Claremont College: "Heather MacDonald is a fascist, a white supremacist, a warhawk, a transphobe, a queerphobe, a classist, and ignorant of interlocking systems of domination that produce the lethal conditions under which oppressed peoples are forced to live." What Friedersdorf does not do, however, is to question the origins of such intolerant moralism. If he did, he would be forced to the uncomfortable conclusion that it comes from him and his think-alikes, embedded in the pre-dominantly liberal media. By quickly adjusting their blinkers, vast swathes of his cronies have managed to keep up the tiresome charade and rarely wonder why only over-heated students or radical hotheads bother to listen. Whether conscious or not, it serves to create a rightwing Golem* of such monstrous proportions to justify acts of aggression and intolerance, totally out of keeping with the respectful discourse which underpins the best democracies. It also provides the social and conventional media with the veneer of moral rectitude while inciting flash mobs in support of their chosen champions. Such fakery can have the effect of a self-fulfilling prophecy. Delegitimising, identity politics evokes the tribal passions of those targeted or excluded. Although the rise of Trump, Le Pen and the Brexiteers in the UK, indeed much of what is condescendingly called 'populist' politics, may be significantly attributed to economic factors and external threats, political choice is rarely unidimensional nor wholly rational. It is highly likely that anger elicited by bullying identity politics and claimed victimhood, is a major driver of the rise of the Western Right. This reality does not absolve the Right from its own shortcomings. The PWN (psychological warfare noise) emanating from both ends of the political spectrum drowns out substantive issues, vulgarises debate and induces deep cynicism regarding the continued relevance of democracy in the post-modern world. Despite widespread anxiety amongst the more thoughtful members of the politically conscious, the cumulative experience, cultural norms and institutional safeguards of the established democracies will, in all likelihood, keep seriously rogue politicians at bay. What is more problematic is the emergence of totalitarian and dysfunctional movements and states from the political hinterlands which test the resolve, judgement and stability of peaceful democracies. As for South Africa, although our own problems are currently almost entirely internal, we have imported much of the over-heated rhetoric from Western democracies to suit the agendas of local political Mafiosi and assorted crazies. We are uncomfortably perched on the precipitous cusp of a very steep learning curve. But that is a topic for another post. *Golem - mythical, human-created 'monster' from Jewish biblical folklore. It finds echoes in other contexts and reflects important insights.

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Together with France and Italy, Spain is one of the pillars of the global wine industry. More than a million hectares of land set aside for Spanish vineyards – it's much more than in other countries. Spain is the third stage in the world for wine production, as well as the ninth-for his consumption. Wine history of Spain closely linked with the history of Europe. According to archaeologists, it starts with the 3.4 BC. On the development of winemaking in the Spain were involved, the Phoenicians, and Carthaginians, but later, when the territory of Spain was already a component of the Roman Empire, Spain, wine and are widely used for its open spaces, as evidenced by archaeological excavations of settlements in Bordeaux, the Loire Valley and Normandy. Wine making in Spain did not cease in times of arrival of the Moors. Although, according to Muslim tradition, drinking wine and trading them were banned, it was part of the list goods subject to taxation, and that evidence of its existence. End of the period was the beginning of the Moorish domination of Spanish renaissance of winemaking and its subsequent international fame, which, like other European wines began with the Spanish wine exports to England. In the 20th century in Spain came to civil war, during which suffered a wine-growing regions. Growth has resumed production of Spanish wines in the 50s already years, and soon all have rediscovered a taste of sherry and Rioja, and when in 1975 did not become the dictator Franco, a modernization of wineries, as well as, at exactly the time in Spain uvelichelas interest in production of high – quality wines.

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OR WAIT null SECS Approaches in cyclization, palladium-catalyzed cross couplings, fluorination, and natural product synthesis help to optimize routes for select drugs. Organic chemists face the challenge of making molecules of interest for the pharmaceutical industry. This task may present itself at the medicinal chemistry stage to make initial quantities of a drug under study and continues throughout development to commercial manufacture, where issues of quality, operability, and cost factor into the scale-up of a synthesis. Some recent approaches use a diverse arsenal ranging from cyclization strategies to palladium-catalyzed coupling and other transition-metal catalyzed couplings, to developing a synthetic route for a medicinal natural product. IMAGE: MIRIAM MASLO/SPL, GETTY IMAGES Researchers at GlaxoSmithKline (London) recently reported on a synthetic route to an important benzopyran intermediate of a 5HT4 receptor agonist. Agonists for the 5HT4 receptor are being studied for treating certain gastrointestinal disorders. The researchers' challenge was to find a viable route for scaling up manufacturing of the active ingredient to be used as the 5HT4 receptor agonist. The compound under study was 5-amino-6-bromo-chroman-8-carboxylic acid [1-(tetrahydro-pyran-4-ylmethyl)-piperdin-4-ylmethyl]-amide (1). Patricia Van Arnum As the researchers reported, 5-amino-6-bromo-chroman-8-carboxylic acid is a key component of 5-amino-6-bromo-chroman-8-carboxylic acid [1-(tetrahydro-pyran-4-ylmethyl)-piperdin-4-ylmethyl]-amide. Although a high-temperature Claisen rearrangement was a successful route for producing 5-amino-6-bromo-chroman-8-carboxylic acid for initial supplies, it was not a successful route for producing the compound on a large scale due to quality and operability issues. The task, therefore, was to come up with alternate routes for producing the benzopyran intermediate. The researchers' approach focused on constructing the benzopyran skeleton using cyclization from various precursors and evaluating the effectiveness and efficiency of the ensuing syntheses (1). The first approach involved constructing the benzopyran skeleton by the Diels–Alder reaction between a substituted dihydropyran and 3,6-dichloropyridazine or pyrones. Upon further study, however, the researchers found that the high temperature required for the Diels–Alder reaction caused decomposition of the dihydropyran and pyrone substrates investigated in this reaction. Attempts to lower the temperature by using Lewis acids for the cycloaddition were not successful (1). In another approach, formation of the benzopyran skeleton involved an etherification reaction as the final step. But that route also faced challenges, namely achieving the desired chemoselectivity as both the anilide and the phenolic groups competed for the activated species, thereby giving rise to a mixture of cyclized products. Although the researchers considered double protecting the aniline, the length of this synthesis led the researchers to consider other alternatives (1). The third approach considered was based on a cyclization strategy in which the sp2 –sp3 carbon-carbon bond in the benzopyran is the key step and is constructed last in the process. In this context, two methods were explored: a metal-catalyzed cycloisomerization and an intramolecular Friedel–Crafts reaction. In the first approach, the researchers developed a gold-catalyzed cycloisomerization of an aryl-propargyl ether. The formation of the pyran ring is regiospecific and proceeds via reaction between the aromatic carbon atom adjacent to the phenolic oxygen atom and the terminal alkyne carbon atom. The second approach was predicated on an intramolecular Friedel–Crafts cyclization of a 3-aryloxy propionic acid substrate followed by reduction of the newly generated carbonyl group. Both of these routes were found to be of similar efficiency and cost and improved upon the initial medicinal chemistry route (1). Palladium-catalyzed coupling. Palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling, in which the metal is used to catalyze the formation of carbon–carbon bonds, is an important reaction in organic synthesis, particularly for complex molecules such as pharmaceutical compounds. The importance of these reactions was underscored by the awarding of the 2010 Nobel Prize for Chemistry to Richard F. Heck, Professor Emeritus at the University of Delaware in Newark, Ei-ichi Negishi, the Herbert C. Brown Distinguished Professor of Chemistry at Purdue University in West Lafayette, Indiana, and Akira Suzuki, Distinguished Professor Emeritus at Hokkaido University in Sapporo, Japan, for the development of palladium-catalyzed cross coupling. The Heck reaction is a palladium-catalyzed cross coupling of organyl halides with olefins. The Negishi reaction is a palladium-catalyzed cross coupling of organozinc compounds with organohalides. Suzuki coupling is a palladium-catalyzed coupling between organoboron compounds and organohalides (2). The legacy of any advance is reflected in how it is applied, and these reactions play an important role in organic synthesis and the development of medicinal compounds. Christopher W. Jones, a professor of chemical and biomolecular engineering at the Georgia Institute of Technology in Atlanta, was awarded the Ipatieff Prize from Northwest University earlier this year for advancing understanding of the interface between homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis (3). His work involved elucidating the reaction pathways for palladium-catalyzed carbon–carbon coupling reactions, including Heck and Suzuki coupling reactions, using several Pd(II) pincer complex catalysts. His research showed that these reactions proceed by a Pd(0)–Pd(II) catalytic cycle as opposed to a Pd(II)–Pd(IV) catalytic cycle, which many thought was the case using the purportedly stable Pd(II) pincer complexes. He synthesized Pd(II) pincer complexes supported on solids and used testing based on kinetics, spectroscopy, and catalyst poisoning to show that the reactions proceed via a Pd(0)-Pd(II) catalytic cycle. His research also showed the reactions are mediated by palladium species that are leached from the immobilized (heterogeneous) phase to the solution (homogeneous) phase. From this work, he developed so-called palladium "scavengers" to examine the different roles played by homogeneous and heterogeneous species in these reactions (3–6). Jones also is part of the Georgia Institute of Technology's Center for Drug Design and Delivery's Pharmaceutical Pipeline Project, which addresses challenges in drug development and manufacturing. The project consists of the three entities within the university: the Drug Design Consortium, the Drug Development Consortium, and the Drug Delivery Consortium. The Drug Development Consortium is involved with improving drug manufacturing. The consortium's work includes using supercritical fluids as a solvent-replacement strategy, crystallization-control methods applied to Crixivan (indinavir), an AIDS drug manufactured by Merck & Co. (Whitehouse Station, NJ), and applying membrane technology for drug isolation. The Drug Design Consortium focuses on the delivery of novel chemical entities and the optimization of existing chemical entities to generate promising therapies. Some projects include the design of histone deacetylase inhibitors, the biosynthetic engineering of natural products to explore structure–function relationships, and natural product research using marine organisms. Georgia Tech also is the lead institution in the Center for Pharmaceutical Development, a newly established National Science Foundation Industry/ University Cooperative Research Center. The Georgia Tech site in the center focuses on the development of novel and improved biocatalysis for more selective and environmentally benign manufacturing. It also developed an accelerated assay to detect aggregation in therapeutic proteins. Although useful, palladium-catalyzed coupling can be costly both because of the palladium and the ligand used with the transition metal in the catalyst. Researchers at the Leibniz Institute for Catalysis at the University of Rostock in Germany have addressed that problem by developing a new family of phosphane ligands, which are recyclable, and therefore could help to bring down the cost of certain palladium-catalyzed coupling reactions. Specifically, the researchers developed recyclable imidazolium phosphanes that work effectively in palladium-catalyzed carbon–oxygen, carbon–nitrogen, and carbon–carbon bond-forming reactions. The homogeneous palladium catalyst can be recycled directly from the reaction without any heterogenization (7). Palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling of aryl halides and amines, known as Buchwald–Hartwig amination, is a key tool for constructing arylamines in organic synthesis. Researchers at Dalhousie University in Halifax, Nova Scotia, recently reported on a new phosphine ligand, which, when combined with palladium, selectively reacts ammonia or hydrazine with a broad range of aryl halides and tosylates, including reactions at room temperature in the case of ammonia (8, 9). The ligand employed in the chemistry, Mor-DalPhos, consists of an adamantyl-substituted phosphorus and a morpholino fragment bridged by a phenylene unit. The reactivity and selectivity of Mor-DalPhos/Pd with ammonia and hydrazine makes it an attractive choice in carbon–nitrogen couplings in which primary anilines and aryl hydrazines are the desired target compounds. Notably, aryl hydrazines are key intermediates in the preparation of nitrogen-containing heterocycles such as indoles, indazoles, and pyrazoles. Before this work by the Stradiotto group, however, the synthesis of aryl hydrazines directly from hydrazine sources had not been reported (8, 9). Strem Chemicals (Newburyport, MA) is marketing the ligand. Synthesis of natural products . Researchers at the University of California in Berkeley recently reported on the synthesis of the alkaloid complanadine A, a dimer of another natural product called lycodine. The pseudo-symmetry of this molecule adds to the challenge of its synthesis. Medicinally, complanadine A is thought to aid in the production of nerve growth factors, something of interest for regenerative medicine and Alzheimer's disease research. Complanadine A is isolated from club moss, which grows naturally in the wild. However, the difficulty of isolating significant quantities of complanadine A from this natural source has limited further biological research on the molecule. The Berkeley researchers synthesized complanadine A using a common tetracyclic precursor to the two halves of the dimer. A crucial part of the synthesis was developing an iridium-catalyzed carbon–hydrogen functionalization to produce a boronic ester, which was followed by a Suzuki coupling (10, 11). Silver-catalyzed coupling. Fluorine-based compounds are important building blocks in pharmaceutical synthesis. Researchers led by Tobias Ritter, associate professor in the Department of Biology and Chemistry at Harvard University, recently reported on a new cross-coupling reaction that attached fluorine atoms onto aromatic substituents. The reaction uses silver oxide to catalyze the fluorination of aryl tin compounds with the electrophilic fluorinating reagent N-chloromethyl-N-fluorotriethylenediammonium hexafluorophosphate. The researchers asserted that the reaction is the first example of silver catalysis being applied for carbon–heteroatom bond formation by cross-coupling chemistry. Carbon-fluorine bond formation by transition-metal catalysis is difficult, and only a few methods for the synthesis of aryl fluorides have been developed, according to the researchers. Typically, transition metal-catalyzed fluorination reactions for synthesizing functionalized arenes use palladium in the catalyst (12). An advantage of the silver-catalyzed fluorination reaction is its versatility in terms of the variety of functional groups that can be tolerated and the breadth of the substrate scope. The researchers showed that the cross-coupling reaction can be used to fluorinate polypeptides, polyketides, and alkaloids and can be tolerated by various functional groups, including vinyl ethers, dienones, alcohols, allylic alcohols, ethers, esters, and oxetanes (12). New approaches to fluorination are useful for not only producing fluorinated molecules for use in pharmaceuticals, but such approaches also can be applied in imaging techniques. A long-term goal of the research by Ritter and his team is the development of new methods for the synthesis of small-molecule-tracers for positron emission tomography (PET), an imaging technique to study biological processes in vivo. PET with the isotope 18F is currently limited by the absence of general chemistry that can introduce fluorine into molecules at a late stage. The approach to carbon–fluorine bond formation using high-valent transition metal fluorides via oxidation of aryl transition metal complexes with electrophilic fluorination reagents is one approach to resolve that challenge (12). Patricia Van Arnum is a senior editor at Pharmaceutical Technology, 485 Route One South, Bldg F, First Floor, Iselin, NJ 08830 tel. 732.346.3072, [email protected] 1. G. Rassias et al., Org. Proc. Res. Dev. 14 (1), 92–98 (2010). 2. B. Halford, Chem. Eng. News 88 (41), 7 (2010). 3. M. Jacoby, Chem. Eng. News 88 (7), 60 (2010). 4. N.T.S. Phan, M. Van Der Sluys, and C.W. Jones, Adv. Synth. Catal. 348 (6), 609–679 (2006). 5. C.W. Jones et al., Organometallics 24 (18), 4351–4361 (2005). 6. C.W. Jones et al., Adv. Synth. Catal 347 (1), 161–171 (2005). 7. M. Beller et al., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 49 (47), 8988–8992 (2010). 8. K. Stradiotto et al., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 49 (24) 4071–4074 (2010). 9. M. Stradiotto et al., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 49 (46) 8686–8690 (2010). 10. D. Fischer and R. Sarpong, J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 132 (17), 5926–5927 (2010). 11. C. Drahl, Chem. Eng. News 88 (17), 11 (2010). 12. T. Pingping, T Furuya, and T. Ritter J. Am. Chem. Soc. 132 (34), 12150–12154 (2010).

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Large protein assemblies such as the nuclear pore complex (NPC), a channel that consists of several hundred proteins, are critical to cell function. But due their size, these structures have typically been difficult to analyze. However, Jan Ellenberg and colleagues at EMBL recently published a paper in Science describing a new technique they used to determine the structure of the NPC—a technique that can be applied to other similarly-sized, complex molecular assemblies, such as the kinetochore, the centrosome, and coated vesicles. Ellenberg’s group started with stochastic super-resolution microscopy, a technique that can generate a resolution of 15 nanometers, depending on how precisely the fluorophores are located and how completely the structure is labeled. By combining the information from several thousand images taken with stochastic super-resolution microscopy, the scientists were able to precisely determine a partial structure of the complex. “The basic idea is that the more structures you take into your measurement, the better your statistics become, and the more precise you can be,” explained Anna Szymborska, one of the co-authors of the paper. The team created an average image from which they could read very high-precision data. The first step was labeling the different proteins that form the NPC. With the super-resolution microscope alone, they were able to see that the NPC formed a ring-like structure. That gave them enough spatial information to align the images with each other. “We very precisely centered the images of one type of label on the pore, then summed them up to generate the average image,” said Szymborska. From the fluorescence profile of the average image, they were able to figure out where the label generating that particular signal was located respective to the pore’s center. Szymborska said the method can be applied to other large protein complexes in the cell. Although their alignment of the NPC relied on the fact that it was a symmetrical structure, the same method can be extended to asymmetric structures by aligning to a molecular reference labeled with a different color marker and measuring the distance to this reference signal. Next, they’d like to apply the method to 3-D analysis of the NPC. “This study was very simplified because we asked a very targeted question about how something is oriented in the pore, but we would like to understand the whole structure more thoroughly,” said Szymborska. 1. Szymborska, A., A. de Marco, N. Daigle, V.C. Cordes, J.A. Briggs, J. Ellenberg. 2013. Nuclear Pore Scaffold Structure Analyzed by Super-Resolution Microscopy and Particle Averaging. Science (July).

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Bungalow-type dwellings have been found to be the least energy efficient when it comes to complying with new energy regulations, according to a UCD study. From July 1st, new dwellings seeking planning permission will have to achieve a 40 per cent reduction in energy consumption and a 40 per cent reduction in related CO2 emissions. The UCD study, commissioned by the Department of the Environment, looked at nine different-sized detached, semi-detached and terraced houses and apartments, to see how they would comply with the 40 per cent reduction in energy consumption. Vivienne Brophy, director of UCD energy group, said the bungalow was the only dwelling type which still did not comply with the proposed regulations after a number of modifications were made. Changes included improving insulation, glazing and boiler efficiency and switching to low-energy lighting. The apartments and a terraced house were the first of the nine dwellings to comply after initial modifications were made. Ms Brophy outlined the findings yesterday at a conference for architects and planners, organised by the Royal Institute of Architects in Ireland with the Department of the Environment and the Centre for Housing Research. Minister for the Environment John Gormley told the conference that the Government was fully committed to ensuring that the 40 per cent target would be met. He said the regulations - known as Part L - would also affect some existing homes if boilers were being replaced. New boilers will have to have an energy efficiency of at least 86 per cent, compared with an average of 70-80 per cent in currently installed boilers. The conference also heard about the need to start designing houses for a changing climate. Bill Gething, of the Architects' Council of Europe, said summer overheating would have to be countered with measures such as large and secure ventilation openings, carefully orientated modest-sized windows and low-energy appliances. Architect and broadcaster Duncan Stewart said the slowdown in the housing market gave an opportunity to developers to respond to climate change needs. The Irish Times

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Introduction – Regional situation overview Today cases in the region stand at over 500 000 with more than a thousand deaths, and still counting. More than anything else, the pandemic brings to the core three critical areas; regional health systems/models and the resulting entrenched structural inequalities health gap disparities; (see also related article in flemish), the role of Civil Society Organisations (CSOs) – and response thereof. This raises critical questions around organising as well as their watchdog role. The pandemic also brings forward historical and contemporary labour patterns which are important in informing current responses as well as in the formulation of sustainable and inclusive health systems in the region. Other critical COVID-19 questions Several interventions have already noted the gender disproportionate effects of the pandemic; for example demographics speak to the over representation of women in primary health care throughout the region, a resulting effect of historical labour patterns that relegated women to care work. Outside of formal labour arrangements women carry the unpaid role as care givers bearing the burden of caring for the sick thus putting them on the frontlines of the pandemic. Two tier health systems and COVID-19 policy response South Africa and Zimbabwe’s major policy responses were to enforce shutdowns, restricting cross border movements as well as placing conditions on local travel in a bid to contain the virus. The conditions are periodically reviewed in response to changes in infection rates and other socio-economic issues. Mozambique on the other instituted a state of emergency which banned international travel but still allowed inter-provincial. In the beginning, Mozambique only had one testing centre in Maputo, not only putting pressure on the system but excluding people from other areas who could not afford travel costs. Testing centres have since been established in other parts of the country. While policy review in response to the pandemic is a step towards the right direction, they are largely on the surface and for the most part do not address underlying structural issues within the health care system including other governance and socio-economic issues needed for a people centered human rights based approach to quality health provision. All three countries, Mozambique, South Africa and Zimbabwe are characterised by two tier parallel health care systems – public and the private. South Africa and Mozambique offer free public health care, while in Zimbabwe it is relatively less expensive than private health care (though still out of reach for many); are often under resourced and as a result do not provide quality dignified health care often due to the pressure on the system. Needless to say, the pressure has been heightened by COVID-19. In South Africa and Zimbabwe front line workers have continuously raised the appalling conditions in which they work. They have highlighted the lack of even the most basic of tools such as Personal Protective Equipment (PPE), disproportionately exposing them to the virus. In Zimbabwe health practitioners recently went on strike action over poor working conditions. Key to demands is particular lack of PPE, but true to the Zimbabwean culture of violence they were beaten, by security officers back into the workplace. In that night alone Harare Central Hospital recorded seven stillborn babies due to staffing challenges. In other words, deaths that could have been prevented. Mozambique has relatively less pressure on the health system in comparison with South Africa and Zimbabwe and there are no reports of major PPE shortages for the health sector, however this does not necessarily mean there are no shortages. In May 2020, the Confederation of Economic Associations of Mozambique (CTA) reported there were 76 companies in the country with the capacity to produce masks and visors. These companies have since received $50m USD in government support to do so. Private health care on the other hand which provide quality health care is out of reach of many working class communities due associated costs, widening the health gap. While in South Africa and Zimbabwe solidarity funding initiatives to have been put as a measure to alleviate the effects of the pandemic, they are threatened by corruption and maladministration. South Africans recently learnt with great shock of the extent to which those close to the ruling elite allegedly pocketed COVID-19 funding, in what is now largely known as the PPE scandal. Not much decisive action has come from the government. Abuse of COVID-19 relief funds is not unique to South Africa. Reports from Zimbabwe speak to allegations of abuse of funds too. Relief funds are allegedly being used as political weaponry. Concerns have been raised over people escaping from quarantine centres because of alleged poor conditions that do not meet health and dignity standards. Zimbabwe has taken the abuse a notch further and is allegedly using the COVID-19 cover to clamp down on civil liberties, deploying the military against civilians. Those exposing the government are meet with severe consequences. Handling of the COVID-19 virus demands responsible political leadership not abuse of office. COVID-19 has forced a change in behaviour with heightened awareness of the need to do basic things to prevent the spread of communicable diseases including hand washing and social distancing, and the wearing of masks, which is mandatory across all three countries. While most of the initial cases were imported, the majority of active cases are now local transmissions. Instead of engaging a simplistic approach to this, accusing citizens of not adhering to regulations as has is largely portrayed in main domain, this cannot be looked at in isolation of historical and contemporary policy formulation and implementation. The assumed behavioural patterns hinge on colonial spatial development in health, transport and urban housing systems in the region which sought to promote residential segregation along racial lines as a tool of power, political and social control. A key marker of this is the clustering of housing in urban areas, thus undermining social distancing and hand washing due to the communal nature of water sources. For example a site visit organised by one of FOS’s partners in South Africa, Women on Farms Project (WFP) showed how a community of over 200 people in Wellington share one communal water source. And the water is not even free, it costs R 5 for 4 x 5 litre cans (see image below). It may seemingly look like a low amount but put in perspective it is out of reach for 56% working class communities who survive on R561 per person per month (in April 2019) This is also commonly referred to as the “extreme” poverty line. With the impact of COVID-19 and the resulting disruption in livelihoods the impact may have been exacerbated. Infection control needs to take into cognisance policy vis-a vis lived realities and respect for human rights and human dignity. Furthermore, while measures such as travel restrictions do make sense in terms of infection control, they are not without challenges and the impact is felt by the most vulnerable groups. In a webnair hosted by ILRIG a Community Health Care Worker (CHW) from Zimbabwe shared the impact on women in farming communities; ‘women can no longer access contraceptives due to local clinics running out of stock, donor agencies are cut off from accessing the areas while women themselves cannot get to better resourced health centres due to restrictions in place’. Access contraception is not only a basic feminist right but has huge sexual and reproductive health implications. Vulnerable groups such as women, precarious workers, and migrant populations are particularly vulnerable to health shocks and economic shocks and they are a group most likely to face structural barriers to accessing other fundamental human rights and freedoms. In South Africa for example Black African migrants have generally faced barriers in accessing health amongst other socio-economic rights (See related article). FOS partner responses The epidemic is multifaceted. It transcends the health/medical scope. It is also economic and political, requiring a multi sectoral approach. Civil society response is imperative. The critical question is – how do CSOs enable productive livelihoods, tap into community activism, protect rights and human dignity and build on historical and contemporary expressions of solidarity for all people while demanding transformation in health provision? To ensure sustainable, dignified public health for all during and post COVID-19 period, a human rights based approaches founded on multi sectoral and interdisciplinary approach including political leadership is imperative. FOS partners are engaged in various approaches towards equitable health models and mitigating the virus including adding their voice to calls for accountability and transparency of COVID-19 funds. Partners across the region have adopted a robust approach to COVID-19 education and awareness. Solidarity based approaches and popular education/creative art platforms are some of partner strategies. CSAAWU, ILRIG and WFP are in partnership on solidarity forums with a strong focus on women on farms. ILRIG is working on a comic book with linkages between COVID-19 and the environment, highlighting the multifaceted nature of the virus. WFP is amongst other interventions engaged in popularising information around COVID-19 and its various implications through short courses on health rights. Across the region FOS partners are engaged in supporting and strengthening the voice of the CHCWs, who give their labour for next to nothing. Partners are in solidarity with CHWs in their fight for recognition by respective government health structures. The plight of CHCWs include emotional lack of PPE and other material support, struggles for financial support in the form of decent living wages as well as emotional wellness support. Across the region CHCW stipends are the poverty line of the respective countries. In Mozambique. Stipends are generally pegged at minimum wage. There is however a high number of Health Activists who work on a voluntary basis. In Zimbabwe particular their stipends are not regular as they are donor funded. Most donors have scalling down in activities due to COVID-19. Across the region, partners are also involved in coordinating with relevant actors and other key stakeholders such as the media in the prioritisation of most urgent actions. This includes mainstreaming good hygiene practices through the development and dissemination of fit-for-purpose information, education communication (IEC) materials tailored to the needs of the population, for example SINTAF in Mozambique. For partners in Zimbabwe and Mozambique are largely engage national radio to popularise information and make it accessible. In Zimbabwe, LEDRIZ and the ZCTU now standing radio slots while some South African partners have also engaged community radio stations and online creative activities and other forms of popular education awareness. Partners are also involved in the provision of basic health material support such as hand sanitizers and face masks to vulnerable groups. This form of support is however linked to broader program activities, it is not provided on a humanitarian basis. Mozambican partners are also involved in a cooperative at making face masks augmenting income, at a time where livelihoods are disrupted. Partners are working on other broader human rights and social justice issues. SINED in Mozambique supports domestic workers to register for social security. COMUTRA is working closely with government to raise awareness on the way women are impacted by the outbreak and lack of social protection particularly where reproductive health and sexual rights are concerned. UPCG continues to closely with local health facilities and CHWs at in its efforts to ensure a high standard of service is rural communities. Dialogue is one other channel. The ZCTU is involved in social dialogue in Tripartite Negotiating Forum (TNF), a forum which brings together labour, government and business on consultation, cooperation and negotiation on social and economic issues. The principles of solidarity, support, human rights, dignity and building critical awareness must underline partner programming at national and regional levels. Addressing COVID-19 and beyond - Mapping, monitoring, and analysing the impact of COVID-19 on vulnerable groups. This must involve a critical analysis of the virus and contextual environment to inform the medium and longer-term response to the broader socio-economic dimensions of the COVID-19 crisis affecting vulnerable populations even post COVID-19. This approach is also recommended by IOM (International Organisation for Migration). - Enhancing the capacity of FOS partners to protect vulnerable groups during and post COVID-19 by identifying and disseminating good practices, strengthening dialogue and coordination between and across multilateral stakeholders. - Reinforcing public health preparedness measures from grassroots/community level to CSO and national health care systems. - Building of stronger national and regional alliance amongst FOS partners across FOS thematic areas given the COVID-19 multi layers. - Undertaking joint lobbying and advocacy across the spectrum involving greater, robust and sustained approach compelling regional and African leadership to implement the various health and human rights mechanisms they have committed to, such as the Abuja Declaration, Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples Rights, Sustainable Development Goals 2030, and Agenda 2063 amongst others. - Mainstreaming Strategic Preparedness and Response Plans in partner programming. Systematic collection and utilisation of data to ensure evidence-based programmatic responses vis-a-vis the fast-changing health, environmental and political and socio-economic dynamics.

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Article: Big Data for the next green revolution (Businessline) Big data is very important for bringing about the next green revolution in our country. From precision agriculture to real-time price updates, advanced data analytics can help farmers usher in a new era in farming. Now try and answer the following questions: - What is Big Data? Where can big data be used? Delineate some of the areas where Big Data can make an impact for a country like India? - How can big data help in ushering in another Green Revolution? It is said that it can reduce incidence of disease and crop failure? How? - How can Big Data and advanced analytics lead to streamlining food processing value chains by finding the core determinants of process performance, and taking action to continually improve the accuracy, quality and yield of production? Explain Points to Ponder: - Read about emerging technologies like Big Data, Analytics etc and their usage. - How will these technologies impact agricultural value chain?

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Circular economy in the construction sector About 50% of the world’s natural resources and 40% of unprocessed energy is used in buildings and construction, and on the global scale the construction sector produces about 35% of the greenhouse gas emissions and 30% of waste. Land use and raw material consumption related to construction have major impacts on both the natural environment and climate. The circular economy creates huge opportunities for the real estate and construction sector to mitigate climate change and prevent the loss of biodiversity. Processes such as reuse and recycling of construction materials save natural resources and reduce the emissions and waste generated in the manufacture of new products. Whole lifecycle of buildings into account The circular economy can be promoted throughout the lifecycle of a building, but this requires commitment from the whole construction chain and sector. New buildings will be: - versatile and adaptable - easy to maintain and repair - made from construction components and materials that can be reused or recycled - made so that the use of recycled materials is maximised A building is kept is a good condition through appropriate and timely repair and maintenance measures. This is how the building serves as intended and for as long as possible. The instructions for the use and maintenance of the building provide a good basis for this. Something new is built only when truly necessary. The need for more space is primarily met by using the existing spaces and services more effectively. Digital services, including electronic booking systems, facilitate the joint use of buildings and other sharing economy related to the built environment. Materials recycled and data into use As an EU Member State Finland was committed to utilising 70% of the building and demolition waste by 2020. However, our present utilisation rate is still less than 60%. About 85% of the building and demolition waste is generated from repair projects and demolition of buildings and about 15% from new buildings. From the perspective of the circular economy demolished buildings are material banks: materials released from them can be reused or recycled. Materials are burned for energy or otherwise removed from the cycle only if they cannot be utilised in any other way. For example, crushed concrete can be used to lay the foundation for a road, but a better option would be to use it as raw material for new concrete or even to reuse the material as a concrete element. Alternative uses of demolition materials may require a lot of processing or long transportation distances, which must be taken into account when assessing the climate impacts. Data on the materials and products used in a building is valuable, and it should be collected, managed and shared all through their life cycle. This data enables the assessment of the carbon footprint of a building, provides guidance for the use, maintenance and repair of the building, and creates the conditions for utilising the materials when the building or parts of it are demolished. Guides to sustainable demolition of buildings Three guides on sustainable building published by the Ministry of the Environment boost the circular economy and climate action in the sector (in Finnish with abstracts in English). The aim is to improve the quality of demolition projects and increase the utilisation of construction and demolition materials. - Demolition work – a guide for operators and contractors (Institutional Repository for the Government) - Pre-demolition Audit – A Guide for Authors (Institutional Repository for the Government) - Circular economy in public demolition projects – Procurement guide (Institutional Repository for the Government) Materiaalitori - Materials Marketplace Materiaalitori - Materials Marketplace is a service and meeting point for the producers and users of waste and sidestreams. The service is free of charge. Reform of the Land Use and Building Act The legislative reform will promote the circular economy in many ways. The aim is that in future: - low-carbon solutions are the preferred option in new building - climate emissions are taken into account throughout the lifecycle of buildings and especially in material choices - requirements concerning the longevity and adaptability of new buildings and how they can be repaired and demolished are included in the Act - applicants for construction and demolition permits must compile data on the materials released in demolition - digitalisation of data on construction projects makes it easier to reuse and recycle materials - Land Use and Building Act reform.fi: Reform of the Land Use and Building Act (in Finnish) Green Deal on sustainable building between Ministry of the Environment and RAKLI - Sitoumus2050.fi: Green Deal on sustainable building (in Finnish) Agreement on the collection of plastic film and use of recycled material - Ym.fi: Press release: Agreement on the collection of plastic film and use of recycled materials boosts circular economy in the construction sector (in Finnish) Measures concerning construction as part of the Plastics Roadmap for Finland - Muovitiekartta.fi: Measure: Improving the identification of plastics in buildings and sorting of plastic waste in building sites Strategic programme to promote a circular economy Promoting circular economy in construction in the EU Finland and the other Nordic countries are taking action with the aim to amend the EU legislation in such a way that facilitates the circular economy transition. The present EU Construction Products Regulation requires that the products used in construction should as a rule carry the CE marking. This is, however, usually not possible in the case of reusable materials and construction components. The European Commission has launched, on Finland’s initiative, a process to clarify the Construction Products Regulation to allow the use of recycled materials in future.

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Sir Isaac Newton (January 4, 1643 – March 31, 1727) was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, alchemist, inventor, theologian, and philosopher. Newton is often regarded as the most influential scientist in history and is probably most famous for discovering the Laws of Gravity. He was also very humble and gave a great deal of credit to others for who he had become during his life. He said that if he had accomplished anything during his lifetime it was because he had learned from those who had gone before him. There are several lessons to be learned from the above statement. We are who we are today because of the influencers that have shaped our lives — parents, grandparents, guardians, relatives, teachers, coaches, pastors, rabbis, business owners and executives, mentors, authors, association and chamber staff and executives. You get the picture. All are examples of people who have shaped and will continue to shape our lives and our careers. Another lesson to be gleaned from that quote is that of humility. While we must have a healthy dose of self-confidence to get ahead, the most effective leaders that I have known each had a great sense of humility. They understood that their accomplishments were in large part due to the efforts of others. Paul “Bear” Bryant, the highly successful and legendary football coach at Union College, Vanderbilt, the University of Georgia, the University of North Carolina, the University of Maryland, the University of Kentucky, Texas A & M University, and the University of Alabama was unmatched in his era in equipping and motivating his players for success. For a quarter of a century as the head football coach at Alabama, Bryant worked his “Crimson Tide” players hard and expected their best efforts during practice, the weight room, the classroom, and on game day. Bryant remarked, “If anything goes bad, I did it. If anything goes semi-good, we did it. If anything goes really good, then you did it. That’s all it takes to get people to win football games for you.” Bryant said that when they won, it was because of each player’s preparation and effort. When they lost, he said it was his fault, his responsibility. Give credit to others and take responsibility for any shortcomings your team may experience. You will gain the respect and admiration of your staff, your volunteer leadership, your membership, and your peers. My influencers were, and still are, numerous and come from diverse backgrounds. My first and most important influencers were my mother and father. Growing up, we didn’t have much money, but what I received was so much more valuable. I was given a loving, supportive family, with strong Judeo-Christian values. My father rotated shift work for 34 years at E. I. DuPont de Nemours and Company in Camden, South Carolina, and worked a second job wiring homes as a residential electrician. He gave me the gift of loyalty and a solid work ethic. In October of 2013, my mother celebrated her 60th year as the organist / pianist at Morningside Presbyterian Church in Camden. She gave me the gift of music, loyalty, and perseverance. Both parents provided me with my moral compass and a solid footing. Research suggests that each of us will influence a minimum of 10,000 people during the course of our lives. Whether that influence is seen as positive or negative is completely up to us. How will your influence on others be felt? Make your influence on others be experienced as positive, motivational, and inspiring. May others say that they saw a little further and accomplished a little more because they were able to stand on your shoulders.

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The medical assistant profession relates to the support role in the healthcare industry. Medical assistants assist the physicians with running offices, clinics, and hospital departments. Since the health information is now stored electronically, medical assistants need technological skills to fulfill orders, record data, and process payments. Article Table of Contents What Does a Medical Assistant Do Medical assistants are supporters of medical practice in a hospital, a doctor’s office, or other facility related to the healthcare industry. Typically, they deal with collecting patient information, making appointments, and processing payments billing patients or their insurance. - Take medical and family histories from patients along with other personal information. - Take basic signs including pulse, weight, blood pressure, temperature, height. - Administer injections and medications under the guidance of a physician and in compliance with the laws. - Record sings, symptoms, complaints, histories, and other information in the records of patients. - Appoint consultations, examinations, and procedures. - Prepare samples, such as blood, for lab testing. - Send orders from doctors for lab tests, diagnostic exams, and medication. Medical assistants need excellent communication and listening skills to properly record patients’ information as well as fulfill the physicians’ instructions properly. They should also be able to convey physicians’ instructions. Medical assistants need to understand charts and diagnoses to bill patients or their insurance. Insurance, Medicare, and Medicaid claim approval is often determined by the proper coding of services and visit reasons. Medical assistants use technological equipment to take patients’ vital signs. It includes blood pressure monitors, pulsometers, thermometers, and other digital instruments. Besides that, they may have to use needles to inject vaccines or medications. During visits, patients can be uncomfortable or stressed. Medical assistants should show some compassion, patience, and calm to patients. They also deal with physicians, pharmacies, hospitals, and insurance reps. Medical assistants have access to sensitive and personal information about patients, their conditions, insurance, and financial information, family histories. This is confidential information, and its exposure may result in harm to patients as well as penalties by the governmental agencies. How to Become a Medical Assistant Medical assistants can obtain their minimal qualifications with a high school diploma and post-secondary training or certification. However, they need to be proficient in computer technologies as all information is stored electronically. By obtaining certifications, medical assistants can improve their position in the job market. Read the full guide: How to Become a Medical Assistant: Definitive Guide + Step-by-Step Instructions Training and Qualifications In general, medical assistants need to complete a one-year program at a vocational school or community college after high school. In the end, they will receive a certificate or diploma. At community colleges, an associate’s degree is also available for medical assistants. The program takes two years to complete. At high school, medical assistants can take courses in biology, chemistry, anatomy to prepare for post-secondary education. At vocational or community colleges, the programs cover such skills as taking vital signs, entering orders of physicians, recording patients’ information, billing patients or insurers. Medical assistants can get certified through the American Association of Medical Assistants or similar organizations. To obtain certification, a candidate has to attend an accredited program. Programs are available through the Commission on Association of Allied Health Education Programs or the Accrediting Bureau of Health Education Schools. At these schools, you will learn medical terminology, human physiology and anatomy, human pathology, diagnosis, and clinical procedures as well as billing and administration of medication. Medical assistants are trained at vocational or community colleges. However, at some hospitals or physicians’ offices, they may have to focus on equipment, office procedures, instruments, and billing codes. Physicians prefer to hire assistance with certifications. Medicare and Medicaid allow only certified assistants to enter medication and lab orders or diagnostic imaging into their portals. To get certified, one must work for some time under the supervision of a doctor. This period is unpaid. Typically, a medical assistant is a full-time job. Widely, clinics are open beyond normal business hours, so medical assistants may have to work on the weekends or in the evenings. According to the BLS, about six in ten medical assistants are employed at the doctor’s office. About 15% of them work in hospitals where the schedule can include late-night shifts, irregular times, or weekends. During holiday seasons, medical assistants may have to work as well. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the employment rate of medical assistants should increase by 23% until 2024, which brings out 139,900 new job openings. The higher the demand for physicians’ services, the bigger is the need for medical assistants. The aging baby-boomer generation is always in need of preventative care from doctors. Additionally, with improved access to health insurance, people are likely to seek medical care more. Most of all, medical assistants are employed at physicians’ offices, with 356,000 as reported for May 2015. Those assistants who are proficient in technology have better chances for employment. They should also be certified to be able to place orders with Medicare and Medicaid. The average salary of a medical assistant is $31,910 per year as of May 2015. It implies an hourly wage of $15,34. Access to health insurance and longer life spans mean that physicians and medical assistants will remain in high demand. There are multiple job opportunities for medical assistants with certification and advanced tech knowledge. These professionals should be patient, empathetic, able to keep accurate records and ethical when it comes to patient’s information.

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COLLAPSE OF THE CONFEDERACY Gettysburg was the last general engagement in the East during 1863. The next spring, as we have noticed, Grant was appointed Lieutenant-General, with command of all the northern armies, now numbering over 600,000 effectives. This vast body of men he proposed to use against the fast-weakening Confederacy in concerted movements. Sherman's part in the great plan has already been traced. The hardest task, that of facing Lee, the hero of Vicksburg and Chattanooga [he] reserved for himself. Greek thus met Greek, and the death-grapple began. May 4th the Army of the Potomac crossed the Rapidan and entered the Wilderness, Meade in immediate command, with 120,000 men present for duty. Lee, heading an army of 62,000 veterans, engaged his new antagonist without delay. For two days the battle raged in the gloomy woods. There was no opportunity for brilliant manoeuvres. The men of the two armies lay doggedly behind the trees, each blazing away through the underbrush at an unseen foe, often but a few yards off, while a stream of mangled forms borne on stretchers came steadily pouring to the rear. The tide of battle surged this way and that, with no decisive advantage for either side. But Grant, as Lee said of him, "was not a retreating man." If he had not beaten, neither had he been beaten. Advance was the word. On the night of the 7th he began that series of "movements by the left flank" which was to force Lee forever from the Rappahannock front. The army stretched nearly north and south, facing west. Warren's corps, at the extreme right, quietly withdrew from the enemy's front, and marching south took a position beyond Hancock's, hitherto the left. Sedgwick's corps followed. Death of General Sedgwick at Spottsylvania. May 9, 1864. By this sidling movement the army worked its way south, all the while presenting an unbroken front to the enemy. Yet, on reaching Spottsylvania, Grant found Lee's army there before him. Sharp fighting began again on the 9th and continued three days, but was indecisive, mainly from the wild nature of the country, heavily timbered, with only occasional clearings. An early morning attack on the 12th carried a salient angle in the centre of the Confederate line, securing 4,000 prisoners and twenty guns. All that day and far into the night Lee desperately strove to dislodge the assailants from this "bloody angle." Five furious charges were stubbornly repulsed, the belligerents between these grimly facing each other from lines of rifle-pits often but a few feet apart. Bullets flew thick as hail, a tree eighteen inches through being cut clean off by them. Great heaps of dead and wounded lay between the lines, and "at times a lifted arm or a quivering limb told of an agony not quenched by the Lethe of death around." Lee did not give up this death-grapple till three o'clock in the morning, when he fell back to a new position. His losses here in killed and wounded were about 5,000; Grant's about 6,000. Rains now compelled both armies to remain quiet for several days. Meantime news reached Grant that Butler, who was to have moved up the James with his army of 20,000 and co-operate with the main army against Richmond, had suffered himself to be "bottled up" at Bermuda Hundred, a narrow spit of land between the James and Appomattox Rivers, the Confederates having "driven in the cork." Re-enforcements reached Grant, however, which made good all his losses. On the 19th, after an unsuccessful assault the day before, he resumed the flanking movement, and reached and passed the North Anna. But Lee pushed in like a wedge between the two parts of the Union army, separated by crossing the river at different points, and after some fighting, Grant re-crossed and resumed his march to the south. Lee, again moving on shorter lines, reached Cold Harbor before Grant. The outer line of Confederate intrenchments at Cold Harbor was carried on June 1st, and at early dawn on the 3d a charge made along the whole front. Under cover of a heavy artillery fire the men advanced to the enemy's rifle-pits and carried them. They then swept on toward the main line. The ground was open, and the advancing columns were exposed to a terrible storm of iron and lead. Artillery cross-fire swept through their ranks from right to left. The troops pressed close up to the works, but could not carry them. They intrenched, however, and held the position gained, at some points within thirty yards of the hostile ramparts. The Union loss was very heavy, not less than 6,000; the Confederates, fighting under shelter, lost comparatively few. During the next ten days the men lay quietly in their trenches. Both forces had now moved so far south that Grant's hope of getting between Lee's army and Richmond had to be abandoned. He therefore decided to cross the James and take a position south of Richmond, whence he could threaten its lines of communication, while that river would furnish him a secure base of supplies. The two hosts now began a race for Petersburg, an important railway centre, twenty- two miles south of Richmond. Grant's advance reached the town first, but delayed earnest attack, and on the morning of the 15th Lee's veterans, after an all-night's march, flung themselves into the intrenchments. Grant spent the next four days in vain efforts to dislodge them. On the 19th he gave up this method of assault, and began a regular siege. His losses in killed and wounded hereabouts had been almost 9,000. Things now remained comparatively quiet till late in July. Both sides were busy strengthening their intrenchments. Lee held both Richmond and Petersburg in force, besides a continuous line between the two. Attempts to break this line and to cut the railroads around Petersburg led to several engagements which would have been considered great battles earlier in the war. General David Hunter. Grant's total losses from the crossing of the Rapidan to the end of June were 61,000, but re-enforcements promptly filled his ranks. The Confederate loss cannot be accurately determined, but was probably about two-thirds as great. Through July one of Burnside's regiments, composed of Pennsylvanians used to such business, had been working at a mine under one of the main redoubts in front of Petersburg. A shaft 500 feet long was dug, with a cross gallery 80 feet in length at the end square under the redoubt. This chamber was charged with 8,000 pounds of powder, which was fired July 30th. The battery and brigade immediately overhead were blown into the air, and the Confederate soldiers far to left and right stunned and stupefied with terror. For half an hour the way in to Petersburg was open. Why did none enter? The answer is sad. Grant had splendidly fulfilled his part by a feint to Deep Bottom across the James, which had drawn thither all but about one division of Lee's Petersburg force. But Meade, at a late hour on the 29th, changed the entire plan of assault, which Burnside had carefully arranged, and to lead which a fresh division had been specially drilled. Then there was lamentable inefficiency or cowardice on the part of several subordinate officers. The troops charged into the great, cellar-like crater, twenty-five feet deep, where, for lack of orders, they remained huddled together instead of pushing on. The Confederates rallied, and after shelling the crater till more of its occupants were dead than alive, charged and either routed the living or took them prisoners. The Shenandoah Valley. During the summer and fall of 1864 the scene of active operations was shifted to the Shenandoah Valley. The latter part of June Lee sent Early, 20,000 strong, to make a demonstration against Washington, hoping to scare Grant away from Petersburg. Early moved rapidly down the valley, hustling Hunter before him, who escaped only by making a detour to the west, thus leaving Washington open. Thither Early pushed with all speed. General Lew Wallace hastily gathered up the few troops at his disposal and hurried out from Baltimore to meet him. Wallace was defeated at the Monocacy River July 9th, but precious time was gained for the strengthening of Washington. When Early arrived before the city on the 11th, Grant's re-enforcements had not yet come, and the fate of the capital trembled in the balance. Early happily delayed his attack till the morrow, and that night two of Grant's veteran corps landed in Washington, President Lincoln, in his anxiety, being on the wharf to meet them. Once more Washington was safe, and Early fell back, pressed by the newcomers. General Early's Maryland Campaign. The pursuit was feeble, however, and the last of July Early swooped down the valley again. A detachment pushed into Pennsylvania and burned Chambersburg. All through the war the Confederate operations in the Shenandoah Valley had been an annoyance and a menace. Grant now determined to put a definite stop to this, and sent the dashing General Sheridan for the work with 30,000 troops, including 8,000 cavalry. Sheridan pushed Early up the Shenandoah, defeating him at Opequon Creek, September 19th, and at Fisher's Hill two days later. One-half of Early's army had been destroyed or captured, and the rest driven southward. Sheridan then, in accordance with Grant's orders, that the enemy might no longer make it a base of operations against the capital, laid waste the valley so thoroughly that, as the saying went, not a crow could fly up or down it without carrying rations. Spite of this, Early, having been re-enforced, entered the valley once more. The Union army lay at Cedar Creek. Sheridan had gone to Washington on business, leaving General Wright in command. On the night of October 18th, the wily Confederate crept around to the rear of the Union left, and attacked at daybreak. Wright was completely surprised, and his left wing fled precipitately, losing 1,000 prisoners and 18 guns. He ordered a retreat to Winchester. The right fell slowly back in good order, interposing a steady front between Early and the demoralized left. Meanwhile Sheridan, who had reached Winchester on his return, snuffed battle, and hurried to the scene. Now came "Sheridan's Ride." Astride the coal-black charger immortalized by Buchanan Read's verse, he shot ahead and dashed upon the battle-field shortly before noon, his horse dripping with foam. His presence restored confidence, and the army steadily awaited the expected assault. It came, was repulsed, was reciprocated. Early was halted, then pushed, then totally routed, and his army nearly destroyed. It was one of the most signal and telling victories of the war. In a month's campaign Sheridan had killed and wounded 10,000 of the enemy and taken 13,000 prisoners. All this time the siege of Petersburg was sturdily pressed. In August, Grant got possession of the Weldon Railroad, an important line running south from Petersburg. During the next month fortifications on the Richmond side of the James were carried and held. Through the winter Grant contented himself with gradually extending his lines around Petersburg, trying to cut Lee's communications, and preventing his sending troops against Sherman. He had a death-grip upon the Confederacy's throat, and waited with confidence for the contortions which should announce its death. The spring of 1865 found the South reduced to the last extremity. The blockade had shut out imports, and it is doubtful if ever before so large and populous a region was so far from being self-sustaining. Even of food-products, save corn and bacon, the dearth became desperate. Wheat bread and salt were luxuries almost from the first. Home-made shoes, with wooden soles and uppers cut from buggy tops or old pocketbooks, became the fashion. Pins were eagerly picked up in the streets. Thorns, with wax heads, served as hairpins. Scraps of old metal became precious as gold. The plight of the army was equally distressing. Drastic drafting had long since taken into the army all the able-bodied men between the ages of eighteen and forty-five. Boys from fourteen to eighteen, and old men from forty-five to sixty, were also pressed into service as junior and senior reserves, the Confederacy thus, as General Butler wittily said, "robbing both the cradle and the grave." Lee's army had been crumbling away beneath the terrible blows dealt it by Grant. He received some re-enforcements during 1864, but in no wise enough to make good his losses. When he took the field in the spring of 1865, his total effective force was 57,000. Grant's army, including Butler's and Sheridan's troops, numbered 125,000. Lee now perceived that his only hope lay in escaping from the clutches of Grant and making a junction with Johnston's army in North Carolina. Grant was on the watch for precisely this. On March 29th Sheridan worked around into the rear of the Confederate right. Lee descried the movement, and extended his lines that way to obviate it. A force was sent, which drove Sheridan back in some confusion. Re-enforced, he again advanced and beat the forces opposed to him rearward to Five Forks. Here, April 1st, he made a successful charge, before which the foe broke and ran, leaving 4,500 prisoners. Fearing an attack on Sheridan in force which might let Lee out, Grant sent reenforcements, at the same time keeping up a roaring cannonade along the whole line all night. At five on the morning of the 2d, a grand assault was made against the Confederate left, which had been weakened to extend the right. The outer, intrenchments, with two forts farther in, were taken. Lee at once telegraphed to President Davis that Petersburg and Richmond must be immediately abandoned. Grant's Pursuit of Lee; April, 1865 It was Sunday, and the message reached Mr. Davis in church. He hastened out with pallid lips and unsteady tread. A panic-stricken throng was soon streaming from the doomed city. Vehicles let for one hundred dollars an hour in gold. The state-prison guards fled and the criminals escaped. A drunken mob surged through the streets, smashing windows and plundering shops. General Ewell blew up the iron-clads in the river and burned bridges and storehouses. The fire spread till one-third of Richmond was in flames. The air was filled with a "hideous mingling of the discordant sounds of human voices--the crying of children, the lamentations of women, the yells of drunken men--with the roar of the tempest of flame, the explosion of magazines, the bursting of shells." Early on the morning of the 3d was heard the cry, "The Yankees are coming!" Soon a column of blue-coated troops poured into the city, headed by a regiment of colored cavalry, and the Stars and Stripes presently floated over the Confederate capital. The Confederacy was tottering to its fall. Lee had begun his retreat on the night of the 2d, and was straining every nerve to reach a point on the railroad fifty miles to the west, whence he could move south and join Johnston. Grant was too quick for him. Sending Sheridan in advance to head him off, he himself hurried after with the main army. Gray and blue kept up the race for several days, moving on nearly parallel lines. Sheridan struck the Confederate column at Sailor's Creek on the 6th, and a heavy engagement ensued, in which the southern army lost many wagons and several thousand prisoners. Lee's band was in a pitiable plight. Its supplies had been cut off, and many of the soldiers had nothing to eat except the young shoots of trees. They fell out of the ranks by hundreds, and deserted to their homes near by. With all hope of escape cut off, and his army dropping to pieces around him, Lee was at last forced to surrender. To this end he met Grant, on April 9th, at a residence near Appomattox Court House. The personal appearance of the two generals at this interview presented a striking, not to say ludicrous, contrast. Lee, who was a tall, handsome man, was attired in a new uniform, showing all the insignia of his rank, with a splendid dress-sword at his side. Grant, wholly unprepared for the interview, wore a private's uniform, covered with mud and dust from hard riding that day. His shoulder-straps were the only mark of his high rank, and he had no sword. Having served together in the Mexican War, they spent some time in a friendly conversation about those old scenes. Grant then wrote out the terms of surrender, which Lee accepted. The troops were to give their paroles not to take up arms again until properly exchanged, and officers might retain their side-arms, private horses, and baggage. Anxious to heal the wounds of the South, Grant, with rare thoughtfulness, allowed privates also to take home their own horses. General Lee Signing the Terms of Surrender at Appomattox Court-House. "They will need them for the spring ploughing," he said. The 19,000 prisoners captured during the last ten days, together with deserters, left, in Lee's once magnificent army, but 28,356 soldiers to be paroled. The surrendering general was compelled to ask 25,000 rations for these famished troops, a request which was cheerfully granted. While all loyal hearts were rejoicing over the news of Lee's surrender, recognized as virtually ending the war, a pall suddenly fell upon the land. On the evening of April 14th, while President Lincoln was sitting in a box at Ford's Theatre in Washington, an actor, John Wilkes Booth, crept up behind him, placed a pistol to his head, and fired. Brandishing his weapon, and crying, "Sic semper tyrannis," the assassin leaped to the stage, sustaining a severe injury. Regaining his feet, he shouted, "The South is avenged!" and made his escape. The bullet had pierced the President's brain and rendered him insensible. He was removed to a house near by, where he died next morning. His body was taken to Springfield, Ill., for burial, and a nation mourned above his grave, as no American since Washington had ever been mourned for before. The South repudiated and deplored the foul deed. Well it might, for, had Lincoln lived, much of its sorrow during the next years would have been avoided. Booth was only one of a band of conspirators who had intended also to take off General Grant and the whole Cabinet. By a strange good fortune Secretary Seward, sick in bed, was the only victim besides the President. He was stabbed three times with a bowie-knife, but not fatally. After a cunning flight and brave defence Booth was captured near Port Royal, and killed. Of the other conspirators some were hanged, some imprisoned. The Confederacy collapsed. Johnston's army surrendered to Sherman on April 26th. President Davis fled south. On May 10th he was captured in Georgia, muffled in a lady's cloak and shawl, and became a prisoner at Fortress Monroe. The war had called into military (land) service in the two armies together hardly fewer than 4,000,000 men; 2,750,000, in round numbers, on the Union side, and 1,250,000 on the other. The largest number of northern soldiers in actual service at anyone time was 1,000,516, on May 1, 1865, 650,000 of them being able for duty. The largest number of Confederate land forces in service at any time was 690,000, on January 1, 1863. The Union armies lost by death 304,369--44,238 of these being killed in battle, 49,205 dying of wounds. Over 26,000 are known to have died in Confederate prisons.

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The Landed Estates Court “Rentals” are an important source for Irish family history, as they provide extensive information about land occupation in the mid-nineteenth century, often including information back to the 18th century. They were printed to facilitate the sale of bankrupt estates and include information about tenants, the lots they rented, the terms of their tenancy, as well as a map specifying the boundaries. More than 500,000 tenants are recorded in these documents dealing with more than 8,000 estates throughout the country. By the mid 19th Century many of the large Irish estates were in serious financial difficulty. Land owners found themselves legally obliged to pay out annuities and charges on their land, mainly to pay mortgages or ‘portions’ to family members contracted by marriage settlements and/or wills of previous generations. All of these payments had to be met, before the owner/ occupier could take an income from their estate. By the time of the Famine, as prices for sale or rental of land plummeted, the monies that had to be paid out from the individual estates remained the same, and many Irish estates became insolvent as debts exceeded earnings. However, the landowners could not sell their estates to discharge their debts, because the land was entailed. In 1848 and 1849, two Encumbered Estates Acts were passed to facilitate sale of these estates. Under the second act, (12 & 13 Vict., c. 77), an Encumbered Estates Court was established, whereby the state took ownership of these properties and then sold them on with a parliamentary title, free from the threat of contested ownership. The Encumbered Estates Court was established in 1849. In 1852, it was replaced by the Landed Estates Courts, which was itself superseded in 1877 by the Land Judges Court, part of the Chancery Division of the High Court. Although there were some differences in the powers of these courts, their principal function remained the same, to sell off insolvent estates. The Land Courts system was the first significant step towards the break-up of the old estates in Ireland. From the genealogist’s perspective, the Rentals have an added value, because the estate records (rentals, maps, leases) that would have existed prior to these sales, no longer survive. This is because once the parliamentary grant to title was secured by purchase from the Land Courts, there was no need to retain any of the documentation regarding previous land title. The Rentals are effectively printed sale-catalogues, which were circulated to prospective purchasers in advance of the sale. They were compiled with the intention of attracting purchasers and of providing information on the estate in a clear and uniform manner. The Land Courts sold estates in every county in Ireland, and the Rentals as a whole cover large parts of the country. The estates now sold included urban as well as rural property, and many of the Rentals relate to houses and other buildings in villages, towns and cities. The information is printed and presented in a standard manner. The title page in a Rental identifies the estate and gives the date and place of the sale. This is usually followed by brief descriptive particulars of the estate and its situation, intended to attract prospective buyers. Anyone who has read the property section of a newspaper, will know what to expect in this section. The descriptive particulars are generally followed by observations and conditions of sale. To the genealogist the critical information contained in these catalogues are the Rentals, especially the Lot descriptions. These outline the ownership and occupation history of the lot, the quantity of land and the yearly rent that can be charged. Most significantly, they also include the list of tenants, the size of the holding and the terms of tenure. Where a tenant held by lease, rather than on a yearly tenancy, the particulars will also name all lives contracted for (usually three), and any of those named still alive at the time of the sale. So the information contained in the Rentals can allow the genealogist to document connections between close family members going back one or more generations. The Rentals also usually include a map to situate the estate or lot in relation to the surrounding countryside, and often also a detailed map of the lot itself. In the case of urban property, you will find a village or town-plan.

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Compare book prices at 110 online bookstores worldwide for the lowest price for new & used textbooks and discount books! 1 click to get great deals on cheap books, cheap textbooks & discount college textbooks on sale. The 1985 Pacific Salmon Treaty: Sharing Conservation Burdens and Benefits For thousands of years, Pacific salmon have been the focus for the economic and social development of societies, both ancient and modern, around the rim of the North Pacific Ocean. Conducting lengthy oceanic migrations, the salmon pass through coastal waters of Alaska, British Columbia, and the northwest United States in a final journey to spawn, where they form lucrative targets for Canadian and U.S. fishermen. Beginning late in the 19th century and culminating in the 1985 Pacific Salmon Treaty, Canada and the United States carried out long and contentious negotiations to provide a framework for cooperation for conserving and sharing the vitally important Pacific salmon resource. " The 1985 Pacific Salmon Treaty" traces the history of the tumultuous negotiations, providing an insider s perspective on the many complex issues that were addressed. It concludes with a brief assessment of the treaty s performance under the difficult economic and environmental circumstances that have prevailed in the fishery since 1985. This incisive work, with its unique historical perspective, will be of great interest to the Canadian and United States fishing communities affected by the treaty, to the general public, politicians, and fisheries specialists in both countries concerned with stewardship of natural resources, and to scholars of international law and regional history. 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(CNN) -- Scientists have captured antimatter atoms for the first time, a breakthrough that could eventually help us to understand the nature and origins of the universe. Researchers at CERN, the Geneva-based particle physics laboratory, have managed to confine single antihydrogen atoms in a magnetic trap. This will allow them to conduct a more detailed study of antihydrogen, which will in turn allow scientists to compare matter and antimatter. Understanding antimatter is one of the biggest challenges facing science -- most theoretical physicists and cosmologists believe that at the Big Bang, when the universe was created, matter and antimatter were produced in equal amounts. However, as our world is made up of matter, antimatter seems to have disappeared. Understanding antimatter could shed light on why almost everything in the known universe consists of matter. Antimatter has been very difficult to handle because matter and antimatter don't get on, destroying each other instantly on contact in a violent flash of energy. It's taken us five years to get here, this is a big milestone --Professor Jeffrey Hangst In a precursor to today's experiment, in 2002 scientists at CERN produced antihydrogen atoms in large quantities, but they had an incredibly short lifespan -- just several milliseconds -- because the antihydrogen came into contact with the walls of their containers and the two annihilated each other. In this latest experiment the lifespan of the antihydrogen atoms was extended by using magnetic fields to trap them and thus prevent them from coming into contact with matter. The researchers created 38 antihydrogen atoms and held on to them for about a tenth of a second, which is long enough to study them says Professor Jeffrey Hangst, one of the team of CERN scientists who worked on the program. Hangst and his colleagues produced a magnet field which was strongest near the walls of the trap, falling to a minimum at the center, causing the atoms to collect there in a vacuum. "We could have held them for much longer... I am just full of joy and relief, it's taken us five years to get here, this is a big milestone," Hangst told CNN. To trap just 38 atoms, they had to run the experiment 335 times, says Nature which published the report findings. Hangst added: "This was ten thousand times more difficult than creating untrapped antihydrogen atoms. "This will help us understand the structure of space and time. For reasons that no one yet understands, nature ruled out antimatter... this inspires us to work that much harder to see if antimatter holds some secret." Malcolm Longair, professor of natural philosophy at Cambridge University, told CNN that CERN's results were a considerable achievement. "At the Big Bang we believe the temperatures were very very high and we understand in theory why antimatter disappeared but there is no physical theory to back it up." Antimatter was first predicted in 1931 by the British physicist Paul Dirac, who theorized that antimatter is ordinary matter in reverse. CERN's next ambition is to create a beam of antimatter which they hope will allow them to unpeel more of the mysteries surrounding it. HABARI KUTOKA CNN.

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19 April 2011 The recent power plant accident in Japan, like the Chernobyl disaster 25 years ago, calls for “deep reflection” on the future of nuclear energy, Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon said today, as he outlined a five-step plan to enhance nuclear safety. “As we are painfully learning once again, nuclear accidents respect no borders,” Mr. Ban told the Summit on the Safe and Innovative Use of Nuclear Energy, held in Kiev, Ukraine. “They pose direct threats to human health and the environment. They cause economic disruptions, affecting everything from agricultural production to trade and global services.” Mr. Ban said that both the explosion at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in Ukraine in 1986 and the accident at Japan’s Fukushima Daiichi plant last month raise popular fears and disturbing questions, while offering lessons for the global community. “This is a moment for deep reflection: How do we ensure both the peaceful uses of nuclear energy and maximum safety? We need a global rethink on this fundamental question,” he said. “Because the consequences are catastrophic, safety must be paramount,” said the Secretary-General. “Because the consequences are transnational, they must be debated globally.” Enhancing nuclear safety must begin with “a top to bottom review” of current nuclear safety standards, both at the national and international levels, he stated. Noting that the primary responsibility for ensuring the safety of nuclear installations lies with national governments, he strongly urged States to consider lessons learned and adopt appropriate measures to apply the highest possible safety standards. Second, he cited the need to strengthen support for the UN International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) on the challenge of nuclear safety, saying the time has come to boost the body’s capacity in the further development and universal application of the highest possible nuclear safety standards. “Third, we must put a sharper focus on the new nexus between natural disasters and nuclear safety,” he stated. “The challenge of climate change is bringing with it greater extremes of weather. Nuclear power plants must be prepared to withstand everything from earthquakes to tsunamis, from fires to floods.” According to the IAEA, 64 new reactors are under construction. Today, 443 are operating in 29 countries worldwide, some located in areas of seismic activity. “This requires us to place new importance on disaster preparedness, in rich and poor nations alike,” Mr. Ban said. It is also necessary, he said, to undertake a renewed cost-benefit analysis of nuclear energy. “Nuclear power will likely continue to be an important resource for many nations and can be a part of a low-carbon-emission energy mix – but it has to become credibly safe, and globally so.” The Secretary-General added that he will launch a UN system-wide study on the implications of the accident at Fukushima. Lastly, he stressed the need to build a stronger connection between nuclear safety and nuclear security, noting that while the two are distinct issues, boosting one can bolster the other. “At a time when terrorists and others are seeking nuclear materials and technology, stringent safety systems at nuclear power plants will reinforce efforts to strengthen nuclear security,” he said. “A nuclear power plant that is safer for its community is also one that is more secure for our world.” Together, these practical steps can help reassure the global public and better prepare the world’s people and the planet for the energy challenges of the 21st century, Mr. Ban stated. “By joining forces, we can make sure that the tragedies of Chernobyl and Fukushima are a thing of the past, not a harbinger of the future.” Concerning the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant, Denis Flory, the IAEA Deputy Director General for Nuclear Safety and Security, told reporters in Vienna that although the situation remains very serious, there are early signs of recovery in some functions, such as electrical power and instrumentation. On Sunday, Japan’s Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry announced that TEPCO, the company that owns the power plant, issued a “Roadmap” towards bringing the stricken facility under control. The roadmap outlines 63 measures to be taken in two steps over a period of six to nine months. Mr. Flory said that IAEA had also received information that TEPCO has provided a plan to Japan’s Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency (NISA) for the transfer of highly contaminated water from the basement floor of the turbine building of the plant’s unit 2 to the main building of the radioactive waste treatment facilities to reduce the risk of the stagnant waste water being discharged to the environment. News Tracker: past stories on this issue

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Q. I see some folks putting a layer of lawn dressing (usually sand) on their lawns in the spring. What’s the purpose for this and is it a good practice? A. Routinely applying a layer of soil or sand to a lawn can cause more damage than good. This practice is sometimes referred to as topdressing. You can introduce weed seeds, nematodes and even diseases with some sources of lawn dressing. Basically, the only reasons to apply a layer of soil or sand to a lawn are to fill in low areas or bare areas, as a method of dealing with an identified thatch problem or possibly to cover surface tree roots. Topdressing your lawn with sand on a regular basis is not a recommended practice. Topdressing soil should be free of weeds and nematodes (sterilized is ideal) and should be of the same soil type (texture) as that on which the turf is currently growing. While minor low spots can be corrected this way, you can easily overdo it and smother your lawn. Using topsoil from an unknown source may introduce undesirable plants and weeds into the landscape, creating additional work and expense to correct the problem. It can be difficult to evenly spread the sand in a timely manner. Homeowners start with the best intentions of spreading the sand consistently and finishing by the end of the day only to find that the job is slow and difficult. The sand pile remains in the same spot for days, or longer, shading out and frequently killing the grass below. Once the initial enthusiasm wanes, just trying to reduce the mountain of sand overcomes the objective of spreading it consistently and evenly over the lawn. The end result is dozens of small mounds of sand all over the lawn. To fill a low spot, shovel the sand, no more than about an inch or two deep, into the area. It’s best to maintain the lawn normally until the grass has grown on top of the first layer. Repeat until the low spot is filled. Homeowners are sometimes convinced that topdressing will improve the condition of their lawn by increasing the spread and thickness of their turf. “Topdressing home lawns has minimal agronomic benefits” according to Dr. Bryan Unruh, University of Florida Extension Turfgrass Specialist. When asked his advice for homeowners on topdressing, his reply was “don’t”.

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Diarrhea 101: Time To Talk About Something We Don't Usually Talk About Diarrhea isn't something we usually discuss in public. But as the second leading cause of death for children younger than 5, it's a topic global health advocates want more people to talk openly about. Worldwide, there are nearly 1.7 billion cases of diarrhea each year. The disease caused an estimated 1.5 million deaths in 2012, according to the latest data from the World Health Organization. But it's both preventable and treatable — if more people understood the underlying causes. What is diarrhea?Three or more loose or watery bowel movements within a day. Some episodes may be triggered by food sensitivities or an intestinal disease. But the most common source is an intestinal infection. In developing countries, the main culprits are any one of four pathogens: E. coli, shigella, cryptosporidium and rotavirus. They all spread through feces-contaminated food and water, and they cause the intestines to secrete excessive fluid. When the body fails to absorb that fluid, it passes right through the guts and gets flushed out along with vital nutrients. Accompanying symptoms can include fever, abdominal pain, vomiting and severe dehydration. How is it deadly?Mild diarrhea is no more than an inconvenience for many, but moderate to severe symptoms can lead to death from dehydration if lost fluids and nutrients aren't replaced. Who are the most vulnerable?Those with a weak immune system, like HIV patients and the elderly. Most vulnerable are young children, whose immune systems aren't fully developed. In fact, 2015 data from UNICEF shows that diarrhea kills 526,000 children under 5 every year. A 2013 study estimates that the risk of death is especially high in the first two years of life. Where is it most prevalent?Everyone gets diarrhea from time to time, but most at risk are the roughly 2.5 billion people living without access to toilets and the 780 million lacking clean drinking water. More than half of childhood diarrhea cases occur in Southeast Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, where many people still defecate in public, often in open spaces, behind bushes or near the water supply. India has the highest number of diarrhea-related deaths among children under 5: over 130,000 child deaths in 2013. A vicious cycle: Even if a child survives multiple bouts, studies show that the constant mild infections damage the digestive system, making it hard for the body to absorb nutrients needed for physical and cognitive development. What results is a vicious cycle in which diarrhea leads to malnutrition, which further weakens the child's underdeveloped immune system and increases susceptibility to future infections. What vaccines or treatments are out there?Nearly a third of severe diarrhea cases are preventable, and vaccines against the rotavirus — the most common source of diarrhea among children — are available through national immunization programs in at least 80 countries mostly in Africa and Latin America. A hundred more countries offer the vaccine through the private market. But they're still hard to come by and too expensive to provide in many low-income countries. For treating diarrhea, UNICEF and WHO recommends water mixed with a special solution of salt and sugar, along with zinc supplements, yet only 39 percent of children get that treatment. No silver bullet:Vaccines and treatments are only part of the solution. Diarrhea will persist as long as people lack clean water, adequate sanitation and refrigeration to prevent bacteria from growing on food. In an effort to end child deaths from diarrhea by 2025, WHO and UNICEF laid out an action plan in 2013 to target those issues and involve local governments. There are also campaigns to stop open defecation, promote hand-washing with soap and encourage breastfeeding to reduce infant's exposure to food-borne bacteria. Yet a study suggests that between 1985 and 2008, there was a drop in funding for the fight against diarrheal disease. But there are signs of hope. Over the last 15 years, overall child mortality has fallen by 4 million to 5.9 million, in part due to the reduction of deaths related to diseases like pneumonia — the leading cause of child mortality —malaria and diarrhea. But researchers behind the finding warn that the world still has a lot to do. Local and national governments alike will have to invest in water and sanitation efforts. Sometimes, though, reducing the risk of diarrhea is as simple as teaching children to wash their hands. Our sources: Louise Maule and Therese Dooley, sanitation and hygiene specialists at UNICEF. Copyright 2020 NPR. To see more, visit https://www.npr.org.

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Learning the Skeletal System This animated show explains the skeleton in a way younger children can understand. It goes through all the bones of the body. Alexnader Graham Bell Documentary Short documentary of Alexander Graham Bell with photos of him and his family. Run time 02:00 Postwar Consumer Culture Beginning in the 1950s, America's economy experienced an unprecedented level of growth that lasted until the early 1970s. In the 1950s, the national income came close to doubling and nearly doubled again in the 1960s. The surge peaked in 1973, with American households collectively earning more than a trillion dollars. Though the United States' population was only six percent of the world's population, Americans controlled more than 40 percent of the world's wealth. (Video is narrated with slides Documentary- In rural Ethiopia, the old ways still prevail. 25 miles from Addis Ababa, the village of Debre Zeyet prepares for a special ritual. From miles around, the ill and the injured come home-hoping to see the person they believe can help. Phishing Scams in Plain English This is a short guide to recognizing and avoiding phishing scams. The video describes the most typical kinds of scams and how they work. There are suggestions to help you avoid scams. There is also reference to ways to report scams. (3:05) Math Made Easy: Estimating Whole Numbers & Decimals (part 2) In this white board presentation, students are shown how to use rounding to estimate whole numbers and decimals. Clear teacher explanation. Carl Sagan (Evolution) A segment from Cosmos in which Carl Sagan discusses his theory on evolution Evolution in Action 10 salamanders look completely different though they are the same species. Leaning to the argument of evolution. Charles Darwin: A Biography This video is about the life of the English naturalist who wrote "On the Origin of the Species", and introduced the concept of Natural Selection into the scientific field. Many interesting and unique facts brings this man's life and accomplishments into perspective. The Difference Between Feeling and Emotion Antonio Damasio, noted researcher and professor of neuroscience at USC, talks with The New York Times' David Brooks about emotions and the science of being human. Here, he describes the difference between emotions and feelings and explains why emotions are one of humanity's most important survival mechanisms. (05:09) William Bradford, Part VIII This is an animated biography of William Bradford, a leader of the Separatist settlers of the Plymouth Colony in Massachusetts. This Discovery Channel Education series is aimed at older elementary school children. Cause, Symptoms and Treatments of Sickle Cell Anemia Cause, Symptoms and Treatments of Sickle Cell Anemia. (Part of the series.) Sickle cell anemia is caused by a distortion of a child's gene, and its symptoms usually include pain, swelling and seizures. This video reivews this information with some graphics. Especially good for viewing in schools that have a population where it has a high rate of occurance. (02;21) The Five Senses This student-made, informational video aids children in learning the five senses and locating the body parts associated with the senses. Run time 02:51. The Senses: Smelling - by StudyJams The nose is your body's instrument for smelling. Tiny pieces of matter are sucked into the nose and identified as smells. Nerve cells tell your brain what you are smelling. Learn more about your sense of smell with this slide show from StudyJams. Vibrant images are set to music while information is written below each photo. A short, self-checking quiz is also included with this link. Louis Armstrong, Part 3 of 8 Documentary is color with black-and-white clips of Armstrong's performances. Italy is known for artisan techniques dating back centuries. This video visits studios known for their silver and marble inlay. There is an informative narration. How to Get Healthy Everyone wants to live a long life. It takes more than just eating healthy foods . There are a lot of things you can do boost your overall health such as getting adequate sleep, exercising, dealing effectively with stress, and maintaining healthy relationships. This video explains the benefits of each. ( 1:31) Inside Writing Communities Grades 3-5 This video workshop for elementary school teachers uses classroom footage to demonstrate how a writing workshop approach motivates intermediate students and helps them become proficient and independent writers. Ten teachers from across the country model teaching strategies and share reflections on their practice. Six nationally known experts in writing instruction comment on teaching and using the writing workshop approach with upper elementary students. The package includes eight America,The Beautiful : Ray Charles '91 Ray Charles live at the McCallum Theater. A Short Biography of Frederick Douglass This is a digital story about the life of Frederick Douglass. Provides descriptive and interesting facts about Frederick Douglass. (Amateur video)

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Most of us often hear popular surnames from Western countries. But German surnames are so distinct that we can seamlessly recognize them even from a new bunch of last names. The German last names are largely inspired by the geographical, demographic, and political landscape. The several common surnames have their meanings associated with the occupation or profession or the geographical landscape. Today, we are compiling a list of the most popular as well as rare German surnames with their meanings. They are unique and give us ample scope to learn quite a few new things. List of Famous German Surnames, Family, and Last Names with their Meanings We have brought together both the new and old German surnames with their meanings. A few of them are almost rare and extinct medieval surnames, while a few are the new last names, too. Why wait? Let us go ahead and learn all about the meanings of these popular German surnames. This unique German surname means ‘apple brook’. It is a rare and old German last name that originates through the geographical landscape, going by someone who has lived near an apple tree by the stream. This surname has both German and Dutch origins. It means noble. The popular Swiss alpine ski racer Daniel Albrecht shares the same surname. The other variation of this Swiss-German surnames and last name is Abel. Achen last name has its origins in the people who has originally come from the city of Achen in the western part of Germany. This is another German toponymic surname which refers to those who have come from Adelberg town of Germany. Adel means noble, and Berg means mountain. Angert surname refers to meadow or garden. This is a new and unique German last name currently. Bach means a stream. It also refers to the creek. This surname goes by those who have lived near a stream or a water body. This surname comes from Middle High German, which means an open area. The surname goes by the word Banier, which means flag bearer. The surname has its origins in the occupational one. Bartel, in German, refers to a bright rule. It is a very rare German last name. Baumer or Baume has origins in German. The last name refers to a dweller near a tree. This was an occupational surname given to those who used to be toll collectors or customs officials near borders. Bayer surname comes from a person who is from the state of Bavaria in German. It is a rare and unique German last name, too. Becker is a German occupational surname and last name for Baker. It originated from the word backen, which means to bake. Berg in German means a mountain, and Mann refers to a man. This is a surname given to mountain man. Braun or Braunn, Braunne refers to brown. It is believed that this last name was initially given to those who have a dark complexion. Candler or Kandler is an occupational surname in German, too. It means potter. Cantor has its origins in both English and Germany. It means singer and also has variations such as Cant or Canter. Most of us have heard of this very popular German surname. Schneider, otherwise also spelled as Sneider, Snider, Schnieder, or Schneyder, is an occupational surname that refers to a tailor. Dahm refers to a place called Dahme in Germany. This surname refers to the geographical landscape. Another very popular German surname is Decker. It means cover, or ceiling or roof. On the other hand, this surname also refers to the occupation of a carpenter or builder, a person who does the roof. Deichert surname goes by a person who has lived by a pond. It has derived from the surname/name Teicher, where Teich means pond. This German surname refers to through the forest. It is an extremely uncommon and unique last name. It may have referred to a person who lived through a forest. This surname combines Eber, which means a boar, and Hardt, referring to strong or touch. This is a popular German surname. The name has come from someone who has been to a place called Edingen in Germany. It is a rare and unique German last name, too. This surname combines the words Eiche, which means oak, and Mann, referring to a man. This surname may have originated referring to a person who has lived by an oak tree. In German, Eisen means iron, and Berg means a mountain. This surname is a combination of two Middle Old German words. As we observed, Eisen means iron, and Hauer means to cut. This is a German occupational surname for blacksmiths. Engel simply means an angel. This Dutch and German surname is a common one. Fackler means a torchbearer. This is a unique and old German surname. This German surname has also originated by those who go by the occupation of Ferrymen. Most of you may have heard of this popular German surname. Falkner is a name for those who have the job of looking after the birds (falcons). Fink is the German word for the bird ‘Finch’. The surname also goes as a nickname for those who are generally very cheerful. Fisher refers to a fisherman. Also spelled as Fischer and Ficher, it is a common and mostly used surname in Germany. Franke, in German, means a free man. It is a popular surname also spelled as Frank, Frankk or Francke. Some also believe that the surname has originated through those people who have come from Franconia, a place in central Germany. Most of you may have heard the last name Fuchs. It means fox. It has derived from the Old German word Vuhs. The word Gabel is a word for ‘fork’. This surname or last name goes by those who are sellers or maker of forks. This is a surname which has origins from an occupational last name. It means goatherd. Geiz, in German, refers to a goat. This is a most common German surname, which means to cry or yell. It has come from the word Gellen. Gerwig is a very old and rare German last name. Here, Ger means spear, and Wig means battle. Haas or de Haas surname is uncommon globally. It means hare. The name has both German and Dutch origins. Haber is an occupational German last name. It has come from the word ‘Habere’, which means oats. The name is probably a surname for those who grow or sell oats. Hahn is another popular German last name. However, Hahn means rooster. This name was initially given to men who lived by the woods. It goes by the German word Hart, which means hard or strong. Hartmann, in German, means a brave person. It also means a tough or hardy man. Hasselbach is a place in Germany. As most can guess, this surname goes back originally to those who have lived or come from this place. The surname Heinrich translates to ‘ruler of the household’ or ‘home ruler’. It is also among rare and ancient German last name. Hermann means an army man in German. This last name is popular worldwide which has made up from the words ‘heri’, meaning army and ‘mann’, which means a man. Hiegel translates to ‘bright soul’ or a bright-hearted person. It is derived from a German word, Hugo. Horch surname came for those who used to live around Swamy land. It is derived from the German word Hor, which means mud. Hoss is used for those who used to live in the state of Hesse in Germany. Ingman, or otherwise, also called Engmann, is derived from the word ‘eng’, which means narrow. It is generally used to denote to those who used to live by narrow spaces like in a valley. Jachim or Joachim came from Hebrew word Yoyakim. It means ‘raised by God’. It is a rare and old German surname. Jager, otherwise known as Jaeger, means ‘hunger’ in German. Kahl means bald in German. It is derived from the word ‘kal’ and is a unique German last name. Kalbach is another famous German surname. It is derived from two words, kalt, meaning cold and bach, which means stream. Kant has come from the German word Kante, which means corner or edge. It denotes a person living in a corner of a town or village. Kaufmann is another occupational-based German last name. It means businessmen or a merchant and traders. Kegel is referred often to as the game of Skittles. It is often used to call a person who plays the game. Kemper is a surname given as a status to a few peasant farmers in the olden times. Klauss is another famous German surname. Klauuss or Klaus is the German version of Nicholas in Greek. It means victory for the people. The surname is derived from the German word Kule, which refers to a quarry. It means a person who lives by the quarry. Kupper is the German version of the word Cooper. It is an occupational name for ‘cooper’. Lang is a very common and famous last name. This originated from Germany, which means tall. Also spelled as Lange, it is one of the popular German family names. This is a unique and rare uncommon German surname. It means load or burden and is known as an occupational surname for porters. In the German language, Licht means light, and Berg means mountain. The surname is often known as given to people who have been among any of such several places. Linde is a surname given to people who lived by a lime tree in the olden times. It is a German word for lime. Ludwig means famous warrior in German. It has other variations, such as Ludewig and Lutwig. It is an uncommon surname from Germany. Can you guess the meaning of Mandel? It means almonds. Mandel has German origins. Besides this, this last name also has Jewish origins. So, it is a popular German Jewish surname. This German surname is quite popular. Meyer means estate manager. It comes from the High German word Meier, which means the county’s manager. It is among the most used and popular last name. This is among the well-known and most heard German surname. It means Miller and is among the most popular last names in Germany. Nacht means night. It came from the word naht, which means night in Middle German. It is used by Jewish families as well. This is an exciting and rare German surname. Nachtnebel means night fog. It is among funky and rare German last names. Neumann simply translates to New Man. It has other variations, such as Neuman and Neumanns. It is an uncommon surname and was given to those who came to a city or village newly to settle. Ostwald in German means Eastern woods. It is a rare but phenomenal surname in Germany. In their language, ost means east, and walt means to rule. This German surname means piper. It also refers to a whistler or fifeplayer in the German language. It is a rare surname and has other variations, such as Pfeifer and Pfeyffer. In Germany, Pohl means a muddy pool. It also translates to wetland, and in surname language, it often referred to those men who lived near wetlands or pools in the olden times. Reuter, also spelled as Reutter, is a rare German surname. The surname could have originated by referring to a person who clears woods for a living. Richter is a popular German last name. It means Judge. Roth is a rare German last name. It means red and wood. It is quite uncommon and is also used as a nickname for a red-haired person. Salzberg surname has been chiefly associated with the German city with the same name. In German, Salz also means salt, and Berg means mountain. Sauer simply means sour. It is a German last name which is pronounced as sow-ehr. This surname is also used as a nickname often. Schafer is an occupational surname used for Shepards. Currently, it is rare yet popular surname in Germany. The other pronunciations include Shaffer, Shafer and Schaffer. Schreiber surname means clerk. This is a High German and Jewish last name, which also means to write/scribble. Schubert is another popular occupational surname and last name. This German last name refers to a shoe maker. Schulte has its origins both in German and Dutch. It means sheriff or a steward. In middle German, the name also refers to village headmen. This is a popular worldwide known surname from Germany. This German last name means Bailiff. It is indeed ranked as among the most common surnames in the world, too. It originally means head of the village. Schulz is also spelled as Schultz and Schulze. Another pretty common last name from Germany is Schumacher. It technically refers to a shoemaker and is worldwide popular. Can you guess the meaning of Schwarz? It means black. It is also used as a nickname for those with black hair or dark complexion. Sommer translates to Summer. Also pronounced as Somer, Somers, and Sommers, it is quite an uncommon surname from Germany. Initially, it was given to those who were born during summer. Stein is a common surname that refers to ‘stone’. Other variations of the same surname include Steine and Stein. It also translates to a rock or stone monument. Vasel translates to valiant. It is a rare surname with its origins in both German and French. This surname also means young noblemen. This is rare among French-German surnames. This is quite an uncommon and unique last name that originated in German. This surname means pre-milker. It refers to those who prepare cows for milking. Most assume that this has come out as an occupational last name. As most of you can guess, Wagner means a wagon driver. Also spelled as Wagoner or Waggner, this German last name is pretty popular across the globe. Walberg has its origins in Scandinavian and German. It means ruling the fortress. This rare last name is from German words Wald, which means rule and burg, meaning fortress or mountain. This usual and common last name means commander of an army. It is quite a famous German surname. Another common and popular German surname is Weber. It means weaver. Many also spell this name as Webere. Weiss refers to white. It is an uncommon and rare surname from Germany and is also used as a nickname for very pale people. Werner means a defender. It is initially given to men during medieval times. The other variations of the name include Warner and Verner. Wolf is a common surname, too. The nameWolf refers to the animal that goes by the same name. It is mainly used in Germany. This surname refers to a man who is a bricklayer. This uncommon surname is believed to have originated from the occupation of a brickmaker. Zimmermann surname can be found in both Switzerland and Germany. Also spelled as Zimmerman and Zimerman, it means a carpenter. So, how did you enjoy exploring and learning all about the famous and rare German surnames? These last names are those which are well-known around the globe. What are your thoughts? This is exclusively a guide to learning about unique and rare German surnames and last names. These names are provided for informative purposes only. The content provided in this article is from research through various sources across the web. We do not guarantee or promise any accuracy of the facts provided in this article.

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In that creepy way that Amazon has of knowing all about you, it recommended Mockups to me when I was searching for another brainstorming game someone had recommended on Twitter. The original game was not available, so I thought I would give Mockups a try instead. Mockups is a good game to practice Design Thinking. It includes cards of three different colors. Pick a card of each color, and you suddenly have a Design Thinking Challenge. A white card tells you the person you are designing for, the gray card tells you what to design, and the black card will give you a constraint for that design. As an example, I just randomly selected: Adventurous Preschoolers, A Way to Keep Their Hands Warm, Absorbent. There are suggested “games” to play using the card, such as giving the challenge to teams to come up with the best answer or making groups work silently on creating a solution. Of course, you can use the cards however you want. This can be a fun way to encourage creativity, and students can learn empathy and new vocabulary as they design. The suggested ages, according to Amazon, are 6+. I took out the card, “bartenders,” but didn’t see any others that were objectionable. For some other Makerspace challenge ideas, check out this recent post.

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Over 50 million Americans have experienced ringing in the ears, or ringing in ears, which is the understanding of noise without an exterior resource existing. About one in 5 people with tinnitus have aggravating tinnitus, which adversely impacts their lifestyle and/or useful health. Tinnitus might be an intermittent or continual audio in one or both ears. Its pitch can go from a low holler to a high screech or gripe, or it can have numerous noises. Consistent ringing in the ears lasts greater than six months. Prior to any type of therapy, it is necessary to go through a complete evaluation as well as analysis by an ENT (ears, nose, and throat) expert, or otolaryngologist, and also an audiologist. Your understanding of tinnitus and also its causes will certainly boost your treatment. What Are the Signs and symptoms of Ringing in the ears? Tinnitus is not a condition per se, however a common sign, and also because it involves the perception of hearing sound or seems in one or both ears, it is commonly associated with the hearing system. Actually, numerous components of the hearing system, including the internal ear, are typically in charge of this signs and symptom. At times, it is reasonably simple to associate the sign of ringing in the ears with specific troubles affecting the hearing system; at other times, the connection is much less clear. Common signs and symptoms of ringing in the ears include: – Consistent high- or low-pitched buzzing in ears – Recurring or consistent roaring in ears – Pulsation or beating noises in ears – Associated with or without hearing loss What Causes Ringing in the ears? Most ringing ins the ears is key ringing in the ears, where no cause can be recognized apart from hearing loss. Second ringing in the ears is connected with a details underlying reason that might be treatable. Your ENT expert will certainly aid you differentiate whether your ringing in the ears is primary or secondary. Tinnitus might be caused by different components of the hearing system. The outer ear (pinna and also ear canal) might be included. Excessive ear wax, especially if the wax touches the ear drum, creating pressure and transforming exactly how the ear drum vibrates, can cause ringing in the ears.Ears Ringing While Pregnant Center ear troubles can additionally trigger tinnitus, consisting of middle ear infection (common) and otosclerosis (uncommon), which solidifies the tiny ear bones or ossicles. An additional uncommon cause of ringing in the ears from the middle ear that does not cause hearing loss is muscular tissue convulsions in among the two tiny muscular tissues in the ear. In this situation, the ringing in the ears can be intermittent and also in some cases your supervisor may likewise have the ability to listen to the audios. Many subjective ringing in the ears associated with the hearing system comes from the inner ear. Damages as well as loss of the little sensory hair cells in the internal ear (that can be triggered by different aspects such as sound damages, medicines, and age) might also be associated with ringing in the ears. One of the preventable reasons for ringing in the ears is excessive sound direct exposure. In some instances of noise exposure, ringing in the ears can be noticed also prior to hearing loss creates, so beware to take special preventative measures to protect your ears and also hearing in loud environments. Medications can likewise damage internal ear hair cells and also create tinnitus. These include both non-prescription medicines such as pain killers and also acetaminophen, when absorbed high doses, and prescription medicine consisting of certain diuretics as well as anti-biotics. As we age, the incidence of ringing in the ears increases. Tinnitus may also stem from an irregularity in, or near, the hearing portion of the brain. These consist of a range of unusual problems such as damage from head injury, or a benign tumor called “vestibular schwannoma” (acoustic neuroma). Ringing in the ears that seems like your pulse or heartbeat is called “pulsatile tinnitus.” Rarely, pulsatile ringing in the ears may signal the presence of cardiovascular disease, narrowed arteries, or a vascular lump in your head as well as neck, or ear. If you are experiencing this sort of tinnitus, you should get in touch with a doctor asap for examination. Lastly, non-auditory conditions as well as lifestyle aspects can exacerbate ringing in the ears. Medical conditions such as temporomandibular joint arthralgia (TMJ), depression, stress and anxiety, insomnia, as well as muscle stress and fatigue might bring about, or intensify, tinnitus.Ears Ringing While Pregnant When you are examined for tinnitus, the initial thing the physician will do is acquire a full history and also do a thorough, targeted physical exam. If your ringing in the ears is prejudiced (unilateral), related to hearing loss, or relentless, a hearing examination, or audiogram, should be bought. There is usually no requirement for radiologic screening (X-ray, CT scan or MRI check) unless your tinnitus is pulsatile or connected with irregular, crooked hearing loss or neurological irregularities. Your physician will certainly identify just how troublesome your tinnitus is by asking you specific questions or having you finish a self-assessment set of questions. Although there is no person “treatment” for ringing in the ears, there are numerous choices offered that can assist patients with tinnitus. Because ringing in the ears is relatively typical and also not constantly worrisome, not all people need an analysis. If your ENT expert finds a specific cause for your ringing in the ears, they might be able to provide certain therapy to remove the sound. This might consist of getting rid of wax or hair from your ear canal, dealing with center ear liquid, dealing with arthritis in the jaw joint, etc. For numerous clients that have experienced ringing in the ears for less than 6 months, its natural course is to improve in time, and also most people do not take place to have relentless, annoying tinnitus. Some individuals with hearing loss and tinnitus have improvement with using hearing aids, with or without built-in ear-level maskers. Sound treatments that involve simple things like history music or noise or specialized ear-level maskers may be a reasonable treatment choice. The results of ringing in the ears on quality of life may likewise be boosted by cognitive behavior modification (CBT) counseling, which typically involves a series of once a week sessions led by an experienced specialist. Tinnitus can be so irritating in some individuals that it creates depression or stress and anxiety; furthermore, in an individual with depression and/or stress and anxiety, it might be extremely hard to endure tinnitus. Appointment with a psychoanalyst or psycho therapist with treatment directed to the underlying condition can be valuable. Routine prescription of medications including antidepressants, anticonvulsants, anxiolytics, or intratympanic injection of drugs is not recommended for dealing with ringing in the ears without an underlying or linked clinical problem that may benefit from such therapy. Nutritional supplements for ringing in the ears therapy are regularly marketed on the internet, television, as well as radio, but there is no evidence that supplements such as ginkgo biloba, melatonin, zinc, Lipoflavonoid, as well as vitamin supplements are helpful for tinnitus. Acupuncture might or might not be assist your tinnitus; there are not nearly enough quality researches of this type of therapy to make a recommendation. Transcranial magnetic excitement is a new modality, or restorative representative, but its long-lasting benefits are unproven and can not be advised for dealing with ringing in the ears right now.Ears Ringing While Pregnant We suggest TINNITUS 911 as the best treatment.

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Virtually every explorer dreams of traveling to the Caribbean at least once in their lifetime. The region’s vibrant cultures, endless beaches, delicious cuisine, and a vast array of wildlife all contribute to its intoxicating allure, which is experienced by as many as 25 million travelers per year. However, times have been hard for some of these beloved islands lately. In September 2017, Hurricanes Irma and Maria ravaged through the region, leaving destruction in their wake. The impact these natural disasters left on the region cannot be understated. But Caribbean hurricane recovery efforts began almost immediately after the storms moved on. Here’s a look at how tourism and conservation can work hand-in-hand to help the Caribbean get back on its feet again: Why Caribbean Tourism is Imperative Now “The Caribbean islands are primarily dependent on agriculture and tourism,” Dominica tourism official and guide Oris Campbell comments. “With the passing of Hurricane Irma, many of our crops, hotels, and tourist attractions were destroyed. I believe tourists should continue visiting the islands as soon as we are back to normalcy.” It may be a few months before the most heavily affected Caribbean islands can start to welcome visitors again. Some islands with stronger infrastructure have managed to bounce back quickly, while others need to focus on the health and safety of the locals before they can reopen doors for guests. But once these determined communities have launched their hurricane recovery efforts, they’ll need their tourism dollars more than ever before. Rebuilding their homes is just the first step towards the Caribbean’s revival. After that, a restoration of the region’s tourist economy is an essential part of bringing these islands back to economic health. Hugh Riley, the Secretary-General of the Caribbean Tourism Organization, has also expressed concern that even islands untouched by the hurricanes will struggle, as visitors considering a trip are put off by visiting the Caribbean region as a whole. The solution to this is well-informed, empathetic travelers who understand that many of the islands were unaffected. And these places still desperately need our attention now, more than ever before. Working With the Environment Studies by The Nature Conservancy have shown that working with nature is vital for the future prevention of these disasters. It may seem like nature is the reason why these things happen in the first place. But the careful and considered protection of the Caribbean environment can decrease the risk of intense tropical storms developing, and reduce their intensity when they do. Looking more deeply at coastal ecosystems has shown that conservation of them can ease the impact of tidal waves. Research has proven that a healthy coral reef can “reduce a wave’s energy by up to 97% before it hits the shore,” and that “just 100 meters of mangroves can reduce wave height by 66%.” This doesn’t just have benefits in terms of the amount of physical damage caused, but also the financial repercussions of Caribbean hurricane recovery efforts. As a prime example, researchers estimated that coastal wetlands thwarted $625 million worth of property damage during 2012’s Hurricane Sandy. These numbers prove that investing in these habitats and the ecotourism opportunities they create is investing in a safer future for the Caribbean as a whole. Why Your Next Caribbean Vacation Matters By traveling to the Caribbean after disasters like Hurricanes Irma and Maria, visitors are giving over their vacation dollars to people in need. But they’re also sustaining an interest in the region that will help investors protect it in the future. Zegrahm’s Caribbean tours connect visitors with the area’s stunning natural wonders and offer an immersive experience, with expert guides always by your side. On Zegrahm’s Hidden Gems of the Caribbean expedition, guests glide through the Atlantic on an elegant three-mast sailing vessel—a far cry from the giant cruise liners this part of the world sees so often. The itinerary goes above and beyond, too, focusing primarily on lesser-visited Caribbean islands such as the Grenadines, Saba, Sint Eustatius, and more. Most of the islands on this tour were relatively untouched by the hurricanes. Throughout this journey, guests travel with a Nature Conservancy expert who can point out all of the area’s array of wildlife. Among the highlights are some beautiful endemic bird species, including the St. Vincent parrot, Montserrat oriole, and purple-throated carib. Zegrahm’s Canal to Cuba expedition combines a few highlights of Central and South America with Cuba, giving you an all-encompassing view of this corner of the planet aboard a spacious and modern vessel. Guests will discover the hip-swiveling beat of Havana, Cuba’s lively capital, which is always sure to dazzle; they’ll also scuba dive through tropical coral reefs, discovering the reefs anew within the context of their involvement in minimizing natural disasters such as Hurricanes Irma and Maria. On this tour, guests are also joined by a geologist, naturalist, and marine biologist, who give a greater depth to the experience and boundless knowledge on the environments discovered. Visiting these ecosystems encourages their protection, as their tourism provides a valuable source of income for the surrounding communities. It’s a win-win for everyone—the reefs, the travelers, and the people that call this corner of the world home. With all of this in mind, 2018 is the year to travel to the Caribbean. Explorers can come here knowing that the money they spend is helping to fund Caribbean hurricane recovery efforts, and that sharing their experience encourages other travelers to do the same. And with endless beauty still to be found in the region, its iconic charms will still very much be part of the adventure. If you want to do good with your travels, this stunning region should remain near the top of the list for your next once-in-a-lifetime trip. Emma Higgins is a travel writer who’s been working in the industry since 2010. Her website, Gotta Keep Movin’, documents her travel across the globe through online content, a podcast, and an annual print journal. Her latest book, A Year in Portugal, is for anyone who loves adventure and outstanding travel narratives.

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The flood story is one of the best known in the Bible (my children played with their Fisher Price Noah’s Ark while I recorded this lesson), but also problematic on multiple levels. This episode introduces some of those concerns and then focuses on the positives in the story–the flood and its aftermath representing God’s covenantal mercy and the renewal of creation. Class Member Reading: Moses 8:19–30; Genesis 6–9; 11:1–9; Hebrews 11:7 Additional Reading: Moses 7:32–36 Other Reading: Genesis 10 Anna, Brian, Jake and Sheldon join the discussion. One Time Donation: Lesson Part 1 4:04 Problematic Nature of Noah’s Flood 6:51 Moses 8:19-30 10:55 Genesis 6-9 (JPS Study Bible) 22:45 The flood and Environmentalism Discussion Part 1 27:10 Discussion Intros 29:52 What to do with the flood in Sunday School 34:54 God of the flood 42:54 Personal application of the flood 45:45 Tower of Babel - Church Statement on Environmental Sustainability - Flood episode at Mormon Matters, with the following four excellent linked resources: - David Bokovoy, Authoring the Old Testament: Genesis–Deuteronomy (Forthcoming very soon from Greg Kofford Books) - Duane E. Jeffery, “Noah’s Flood: Modern Scholarship and Mormon Tradition,” Sunstone, October 2004, 27-45 - Clayton M. White and Mark D. Thomas, “On Balancing Faith in Mormonism with Traditional Biblical Stories: The Noachian Flood Story,” Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought 40, no 3 (Fall 2007): 85-110 - David Montgomery, “Reading the Rocks: Flood Stories and Deep Time,” On Being podcast, with Krista Tippett, 1 August 2013 - “Of Babies, Boats, and Arks,” the essay Sheldon mentioned linking the flood to gestation. - Henry Eyring (Sr), Reflections of a Scientist, Deseret Book eBook - Friedman, Bible with the Sources Revealed - Atrahasis Epic, British Museum - Gilgamesh Epic, British Museum - Text of the Gilgamesh Epic - Article reviewing a study about a potential original language Thanks to Jim Henderson for content editing, James Estrada for his audio editing, and to Steven Nelson for the beautiful bumper music.

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The English dialect can be entirely precarious. One letter of any word and you hazard changing the entire importance of the entire word. It is entirely regular in the English dialect. For example, we have two words that sound the same and look verging on comparative, however, they both have very surprising implications: stationary and stationery. The primary contrast that ought to be remembered between the two words is the sort of word they are. When one knows and comprehends this, it will be simple not to blend them up. The word stationary is really a modifier, and it will dependably be utilized in that capacity. A case of how it is utilized is as per the following: “The auto has been stationary for a long while now in the parking garage.” The word stationary here is utilized to depict the auto. The word stationery, then again, is a thing. A case of how it could be utilized is as per the following: “The stationery I utilized is scented and has an excellent outline.” Once the type of the words is comprehended, it will be less demanding to ingest the meanings of the two words. Stationary really means being still. When one portrays an article as stationary, it implies that the item is not moving or can’t be moved. In the computerized world, stationeries are typically found in workplaces where scratch pads and envelopes are still in utilized. In a long time past days, it is utilized to compose letters to friends and family who are far away, however since correspondence should be possible with a single tick these days, it is regularly uncommon to see stationeries for individual use. In the corporate world, be that as it may, in spite of the reliance on present day innovation, written by hand notes are still made, yet not as long as how it was some time ago. The two homophones stationary and stationery are regularly stirred up by a lot of authors. This mistake is significantly reasonable because of the likenesses in the articulation and spellings of these words. In any case, the implications of these two words are totally diverse. Stationary means not moving or not expected to be moved. Stationery alludes to office materials, for example, pens, papers, scratch pads, organizers, and so forth. This uniqueness in significance is the principle contrast amongst stationary and stationery. Stationary is a descriptive word; it implies not moving or not planned to be moved. This descriptive word is for the most part used to portray things that can’t or don’t move. At the point when a vehicle doesn’t move, we can say that it is stationary. Notwithstanding when a man stays similarly situated for quite a while, we can say that he or she is stationary. The warriors who are alert obligation stay in a stationary position for quite a while. - The auto slipped off the path and hit a stationary transport. - Some flying creature can stay stationary noticeable all around for a few minutes. - We kept running into the station; fortunately, the train was still stationary. - The educator prompted him to utilize the handbrake just when the auto is stationary. - He has no issues when the auto is stationary, however when it begins moving, he feels debilitated. - It’s troublesome for my grandma to sit stationary for long stretches. Stationery is a mass thing alluding to monetarily fabricated composition materials, including cut paper, envelopes, composing actualizes, consistent stationery, and other office supplies. Stationery incorporates materials to be composed on by hand (e.g., letter paper) or by hardware, for example, PC printers. Letterpress is a strategy for printing numerous indistinguishable duplicates that require characters being urged the page. The print might be inked or visually impaired yet is commonly done in a solitary shading. Themes or plans might be included the same number of letterpress machines use versatile plates that must be a handset. Initially the term stationery alluded to all items sold by a stationer, whose name demonstrated that his book shop was on an altered spot, more often than not close to a college, and perpetual, while medieval exchanging was basically carried on by nomad merchants (counting chapmen, who sold books) and others, (for example, ranchers and skilled workers) at business sectors and fairs. It was an uncommon term utilized between the thirteenth and fifteenth hundreds of years in the original copy society. The Stationers’ Company earlier held an imposing business model over the distributed business in England and was in charge of copyright controls. In its cutting edge sense including individual composition materials, stationery has been a critical piece of good social decorum, especially since the Victorian period. A few employments of stationery, for example, sending a fabricated answer card to a wedding welcome, have changed from hostile to proper. The utilization and showcasing of stationery are as a rule halfway superseded by electronic media. Stationery is inherently connected to paper and the procedure of composed, customized correspondence, and numerous strategies of stationery assembling are utilized, of fluctuating attractive quality and cost. The most well-known of these methods are letterpress printing, emblazoning, etching and thermographic printing (regularly mistook for thermography). Level printing and balance printing are routinely utilized, especially for minimal effort or casual needs. Stationery alludes to pens, papers, envelopes, organizers and different materials utilized for composing. Stationery is for the most part utilized as a thing, however, it can be additionally utilized as a descriptive word. - Davidson is responsible for filling the ‘stationery’ cabinet. - I couldn’t record anything on the grounds that I had no stationery with me. - Pens and journals are fundamental stationery to understudies. - Mukharji and Sons are the main stationery supplier in New Delhi. - The word containing ‘a’ means an expression of not moving. The other one is referred to the office materials and writing. - The word with ‘a’ is the adjective while the other one is a noun.

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The United Nations dubbed 2016 as the Year of the Pulse, which means this grain legume could potentially surpass quinoa and kale in popularity this year! From lentils to dried beans to chickpeas, pulses are the edible seeds of various crops of the legume family. Here’s a cheat sheet to getting your taste buds on the pulse of this food. Pulse vs Legume: What The Heck Is The Difference? Great question, glad you asked! Plants with their fruit enclosed in a pod are legumes. A pulse is the dried seed from the interior of that pod. Pulses include pinto beans, navy beans, kidney beans, lentils, chickpeas, mung beans, adzuki beans, lima beans, haricot beans, broad beans, and yes, black-eyed peas. Why Should I Try A Frigging Pulse? Hey, simmer down! Pulses are extremely high in protein, so they’re wünder-foods for vegetarians and vegans. They’re also high in fiber (huzzah for digestion!), extremely low in fat (huzzah for BMI indexes!) and boast high levels of minerals such as iron, zinc, phosphorous, and B-vitamins. Pulse comes from the Latin puls which means potage, or “thick soup,” which is another great benefit of this food. When pureed, it makes a thick porridge-like texture excellent for ameliorating meat-based dishes. Where Do Pulses Grow? Archeologists found traces of pulse production in Punjab from the Indus Valley civilization circa 3300 BC. They’ve discovered lentil cultivation in Egyptian pyramids and dry pea seeds in a Swiss village from the Stone Age. From Britain to Mesopotamia, pulses have a fairly easy time growing all over the place. Currently, India is the world’s largest producer and consumer of pulses. So Who Loves Pulses? For one, farmers and soil experts do. One neat fact about pulses is that they know how to fix nitrogen, so they’re excellent in crop rotation. They produce compounds that feed soil microbes and benefits soil health to help ease crop turnover. Their crop residue contains a different biochemical composition than other crops, which ends up being a positive thing for soil because it enlivens its nutrient system with its array of soil organisms. Pulses also help break disease, weed, and insect cycles. Not bad for teeny-tiny pods. But What Kind Of Meals Can I Make From These Things? Recipe options for pulse-based meals are truly endless. Take a cue from its biggest supplier and consumer, India. Most of their dishes are pulse-based and utterly delicious. Experiment with different dals (split, dried peas) based on a variety of pulses. Soak them overnight in cold water, simmer them, then fry them with spices, onions, chilies, and garlic. Add vegetables and serve with rice and you have one of the cheapest dishes around. Or, make soup! Vegetable and pulse-based soups are hearty, thick, stewy, high in protein and great in winter. Try a hummus wrap, perhaps one of the easiest vegetarian dishes imaginable. Make the hummus ahead of time and have enough to last all week. Or, experiment with halloumi cheese, chickpeas, and peppers, a Cyprus-inspired meal that boasts the joys of one of the greatest, warmest, firmest, tastiest cheeses of all time. Can you tell I have a thing for halloumi? I do. Serve with couscous and dole it out over the week, you’ll want it for breakfast too.

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Well, that is only the basic understanding of adverbs. If we go deeper into its uses, we realize that adverbs are of different types that have variant functions to perform. One such type of adverbs called the relative adverbs is what we are going to learn in this post. In a general sense, relative adverbs can be defined as words that introduce additional information by heading an adjective clause in a sentence. They may seem like simple conjunction words, but they can be hard to recognize. So, let us discuss thoroughly below to avoid any confusion. What are relative adverbs? By definition, relative adverbs are the type of adverbs used to start or introduce a relative clause. But what are relative clauses? In a simple sense, when the dependent clause of a complex sentence functions as an adjective, it is said to be a relative clause. A relative clause provides additional information in a sentence. And to introduce that clause, we use a relative adverb. In short, relative adverbs help add more information about a person, place, or thing that is being discussed in a sentence. This means they join clauses together and present a relative or adjective clause in a sentence. The three basic relative adverbs are when, where, and why. They are the same as interrogative adverbs. But here, they are not used to begin a sentence or ask something. Instead, relative adverbs are used to introduce a relative clause in a sentence that provides information about the noun. Let us try to understand with some examples. This is the café. Here we notice that the above sentence looks incomplete without any relative clause. This is the café where we met. Now, in this sentence, adverb where introduces a relative clause that makes the sentence complete. Usage of relative adverbs We have learned that relative adverbs begin relative clauses in a sentence. However, it may be difficult to recognize a relative adverb sometimes. Because, as mentioned earlier, these words do not function as relative adverbs only. They have different uses, such as interrogating, and sometimes, they are even used in nouns and adverbial clauses. So, the key to recognizing a relative adverb is by checking whether they are introducing an adjective clause or not. That means when you identify the relative clause in a sentence, the adverb heading the clause would automatically be the relative adverb. Now, let us have a brief idea of how the three different relative adverbs work. When: The relative adverb when helps realize the time in which a particular action took place. It replaces the formal context of when that is “in which”. I remember the time when I used to cry a lot. Where: “Where” is the adverb that helps us understand the place or location of the subject. Here, it replaces the formal context of where that is “in which” or “at which”. This is the table where we sat. Why: This relative adverb presents more reasons why something occurred. It replaces the formal context of why that is “for which”. I have no idea why he even left. So, relative adverbs might get confusing sometimes. But if you can correctly identify its uses, it will not be much of a trouble.

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S.Giorgio in Braida, The oldest Veronese ring. Until 1984, it was thought that full circle bell ringing was unique to "English" style change ringing. In the The method of casting bells in The mould is made by starting with a hollow brick core, and building this up with loam. A 'false bell' made out of a lighter material is constructed around the core, and the wax decorations are placed on the outside of the false bell. Decorations on an Italian bell are a very important part of the bell, and some decorations are delicate and complex. The art-work is religious in nature, with subjects such as the Virgin Mary, Christ on the Cross, and images of Saints, together with more decorative borders. A plaster mould is carved, and molten wax poured in and allowed to set. The wax is then removed from the plaster mould and stuck to the side of the false bell. The cannons for the false bell are also made out of wax, and are usually highly decorated. Once the false bell is completed, then the cope is carefully formed around it to avoid damaging the decoration. Hooks are embedded into the cope so that it may be lifted to remove the false bell. Once finished, a charcoal fire is lit within the hollow core, which melts out the wax and dries the mould. This is kept lit for several days, and often a second charcoal fire is lit on top to heat that part of the mould. Once a mould has been made, the strickle is destroyed to preserve the uniqueness of the bell. Bell metal is usually about 75% copper, and 25% tin but proportions vary a little from foundry to foundry. The moulds are placed in a casting pit next to the furnace and the molten metal at 1100oC is run off under gravity. Once cold, the bell is removed from the pit and cleaned and polished to a very high standard. The whole process of making the mould and decorations, casting and cleaning takes around 30 or 40 days, even for small bells. Only on rare occasions are bells tuned. This is usually done with an angle grinder. If a new bell needs tuning, then it is said that the founder has failed to cast the bell properly. A Veronese bell and fittings. The average tower in the The wheel rim is made out of 'U' shaped steel channel, and is welded into a circle. The spokes are welded to the wheel rim and the whole assembly is bolted to the side of the headstock. Wheel stays are also used to give the wheel rigidity. The rope is attached to the wheel with a toggle arrangement and this is positioned at the same height as the bearings. The ground pulley is always at least one wheel diameter directly below the rope toggle, but sometimes it is much further away, depending upon the height of the frame. The ropes consist of steel cable from the bell wheel to just above the ringing chamber, where a hemp rope is spliced on. The steel cable does not stretch even with very long rope drafts. The hemp rope is generally fairly thick and has no sally or tail end, finishing in a heap on the floor. New hemp ropes are boiled to remove any elasticity before being spliced onto the steel cable. Clapper staples are independent and not cast in to the top of the bell. Leather baldricks are fixed to the top of the clapper and pass through the staple which is shaped like a stirrup. The bells usually swing in and out of the tower openings, which makes them very loud outside. Because of the danger of a broken clapper flying out of the tower, a loop of steel cable is passed through the flight of the clapper, and around the side of the ball. This is then tethered at several places up the shaft and passes through the clapper staple. Although Veronese bells are hung in a very similar manner to English bells, the ringing is quite different. Since there are no stays, the bells must be rung up before each "concerto". There are two methods of raising the bells, namely the fast way and slow way. When ringing up the slow way, the treble is raised first and starts ringing slowly on its own when it is up. Then the second is then raised and joins in ringing slow rounds. Then all the other bells are raised in turn and join on the end of the slow rounds. When the tenor is up, then the concerto can begin. The fast way is less interesting, and involves all the bells ringing up as fast as they can and sorting out the ringing into rounds when up. When ringing a concerto, the conductor calls out the number of the bells which are to ring. Each ringer has to hold his bell on the balance until his number is called, when he pulls off and sets his bell at the other stroke. On 5 bells the bells are usually numbered 1-5, but on six bells the treble is usually number 6 (rounds being 612345). On nine bells, the numbering system is 1-9, and on ten, the new treble is number zero. Additional bells are given letters, not numbers. There are a few other systems of calling, but these are not commonly used. Concertos usually contain many chords of two or sometimes three bells. Chords are given names, usually based on the ordinal number for the heavier bell in the chord, for example, a chord involving 4 and 2 striking together is called "quarte". Chords with three or more bells are usually called as a pair of bells together with the extra bell(s), for example a chord with 8,6 and 1 could be called "octave e uno". or eighth (meaning 8 and 6) and number one. Concertos almost always end in a flourish of these chords, which sounds very impressive when it is done well. Lowering the bells after a concerto is, however, a very haphazard affair, with all the bells just running down randomly. Often, once the concerto is finished, the ringers will simply pull their bells off and walk out of the tower! Some bands are beginning to lower in peal, which is something they have picked up from visits to the Every 'concerto' is thought of as a public performance, and is often treated with applause at the end. The standard of the striking is, as a result, usually very high. It is usual for a ringer to only ring with his or her own band. It is very rare for any one ringer to visit other towers on their own. Tower 'grabbing' is almost unheard of as a result. I have experienced a 'knock and grab' when the band taking us around stopped at a village for a drink at the bar, and the priest was persuaded to open up the tower! The one time at which ringers do get to ring on other bells is at a competition. Many bands go into competition ringing in a big way, and the good ones win many trophies. The 1988 young ringers' competition at Sprea (5 bells, 10cwt) had 21 teams taking part! Each competition will have a special concerto composed for it, and a new trophy will be made. Each team must ring this concerto, and the system of marking is complex. Different types of faults gain different penalty points. If the concerto is miscalled, or if a bell turns right over, then this leads to disqualification. Large variations in rhythm lose more points than small ones. Many of the ringers are affiliated to the "Associazone Suonatori di Campane a Systema Veronese" (ASCSV). This is in turn part of a national organisation called ANBIMA which represents many different forms of music, including marching bands. The ASCSV is run like any other guild or association with a monthly newsletter, and many other events. If you wish to visit There are about 300 ringing towers in northern Weights of bells are given in 'quintali' which are multiples of 100Kg. A bell is considered to be a musical instrument, so the note is of greater importance than the weight. It is strange that the bells are not tuned (harmonically or otherwise) as most other musical instruments are. Verona Cathedral has nine bells, tenor 88cwt (in Ab) and is the largest full circle ringing bell in the world. The bells were originally cast in 1931 by the Cavadini foundry of S. Elena in Most towers have diatonic scales of 5, 6 or 9 bells. A few have more than 9, and some have semitones. Breganze near to the city of The Capanni foundry has built a mobile tower consisting of a ring of 6, tenor about 6 cwt, and the tower is small enough to be lifted onto the back of a lorry. It usually travels around the For those with a broadband connection, there is also a good video clip downloadable from here. There is some more excellent video of Veronese ringing at this page although the last few seconds are of actually not Veronese ringing, but a similar system in

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The literature is full of different techniques and approaches to the isolation, purification and quantitative analysis of plant hormones. From this body of literature it is possible to deduce that 1) a lot of investigators are interested in how much of these compounds are in plants and 2) that the techniques for phytohormone analysis are still largely “under development”. This talk will discuss different approaches to hormone analysis, suitability of each approach, and criteria for the evaluation of techniques and results. The goal will be to highlight points that are important to obtaining reliable analytical information and knowing what to do when problems occur. Nevertheless, having reliable numbers is frequently only the first step in understanding hormonal systems involved in plant development, It is often the case that the expected results are not what is found in experiments involving plant hormone quantitation. We will consider experimental design, tissue localization, developmental stages, sampling and extraction procedures, and the limits of what to expect when “dogma confronts reality”. Work reported was supported by grants from the National Science Foundation DCB-8917378, USDA-CRGO 89-3721-4734, US-Israel BARD US-1362-87, and by funds from the USDA Argicultural Research Service, Knowledge of the genes underlying a given trait is highly useful for developing molecular markers for breeding and is the foundation for future genomic crop improvements. The cultivated strawberry, F. ×ananassa, is a valuable horticultural crop. Genome sequencing revealed that of the four diploid strawberry subgenomes contributing to the F. ×ananassa octoploid genome, the woodland strawberry, F. vesca, subgenome is dominant. Thus, F. vesca is an important system for determining gene function and should be used as a source of genetic diversity for F. ×ananassa breeding. Ethyl methanesulfonate mutagenesis of H4 F7-3, an inbred line of F. vesca, resulted in one M2 line that did not produce any strawberries over a 3-year period in the greenhouse. This line was named fruitless 1. The fruitless 1 phenotype results from a single gene recessive mutation. Microscopic characterization revealed that fruitless 1 failed to produce fruit because anthers fail to develop properly before meiosis, resulting in no pollen production. This report of fruitless 1 facilitates further studies of the line. To gain a better understanding of changes in gene expression associated with cold stress in the woody perennial blueberry (Vaccinium spp.), a genomics approach based on the analysis of expressed sequence tags (ESTs) was undertaken. Two cDNA libraries were constructed using RNA from cold acclimated (mid winter conditions when the plants are cold stressed) and non-acclimated (before they received any chilling) floral buds of the blueberry cultivar Bluecrop. About 600 5'-end ESTs were generated from each of the libraries. Putative functions were assigned to 57% of the cDNAs that yielded high quality sequences based on homology to other genes/ESTs from Genbank, and these were classified into 14 functional categories. From a contig analysis, which clustered sequences derived from the same or very similar genes, 430 and 483 unique transcripts were identified from the cold acclimated and non-acclimated libraries, respectively. Of the total unique transcripts, only 4.3% were shared between the libraries, suggesting marked differences in the genes expressed under the two conditions. The most highly abundant cDNAs that were picked many more times from one library than from the other were identified as representing potentially differentially expressed transcripts. Northern analyses were performed to examine expression of eight selected transcripts and seven of these were confirmed to be preferentially expressed under either cold acclimating or non-acclimating conditions. Only one of the seven transcripts, encoding a dehydrin, had been found previously to be up-regulated during cold stress of blueberry. This study demonstrates that analysis of ESTs is an effective strategy to identify candidate cold-responsive transcripts in blueberry.

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NCDC Releases May 2014 Global Climate Report According to NOAA scientists, the globally averaged temperature over land and ocean surfaces for May 2014 was the highest for May since record keeping began in 1880. It also marked the 39th consecutive May and 351st consecutive month with a global temperature above the 20th century average. The last below-average global temperature for May occurred in 1976 and the last below-average temperature for any month occurred in February 1985. The majority of the world experienced warmer-than-average monthly temperatures, with record warmth across eastern Kazakhstan, parts of Indonesia, and central and northwestern Australia. Scattered sections across every major ocean basin were also record warm. Part of the northeastern Atlantic, small sections of the northwestern and southeastern Pacific, and the ocean waters off the southern tip of South America were cooler or much cooler than average. This monthly summary from NOAA's National Climatic Data Center in Asheville, North Carolina, is part of the suite of climate services NOAA provides to government, the business sector, academia, and the public to support informed decision making. Note: official monthly data for China were not received on time for inclusion in this analysis. For the purposes of this report, NCDC estimated data for China using daily reports from its GHCN-Daily dataset. When official monthly data are received from China, they will replace the NCDC estimates. The contents of this report will not be updated, but the long-term record at these locations will reflect the official data.

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Medical beds are an important element of the furnishing of health facilities where patients are being treated in hospital. This medical furniture is in demand in hospitals, hospitals. Can not do without it in intensive care units, intensive care, rehabilitation, detention facilities. The possibility of the use of medical beds The med beds are available with various designs used to solve a wide range of tasks: - the initial examination of patients and performing a range of diagnostic procedures (ultrasound, EKG) to monitor progress of treatment; - implementation of medical manipulations; - transportation of patients who need surgery, resuscitation, in the appropriate ward of the hospital; - creation of conditions for day and night's sleep, individuals who are undergoing treatment in hospital or under the supervision of experts (quarantined); - the placement of patients who need to stay in bed; - increase the comfort of bedridden patients, more simple and convenient conduct of health and medical procedures. The types of beds for medical institutions In a broad sense beds for medical facilities includes inspection and treatment couches, trolleys for patient transport (wheelchairs). Both categories of beds for hospitals designed to accommodate the patient. Couches are not in the wards but in the offices of specialists, treatment, handling, winders mobile. Medical bed, which are installed in the chambers can be divided into 2 large categories: - took place for hospital patients, insulator, able to stand up, to walk on his own; - functional for seriously ill patients, individuals with diseases of the musculoskeletal system, those who are recovering from surgery, injury, serious illness. The first category is a normal bed for sleeping. Their bed is generally not divided into sections or rises and subsides only the head restraint, it was convenient to sit during the day. Functional medical beds are designed for patients who are forced to spend in bed most of the day. They are divided into several sections, the position of the majority is changing, adjusted. This design allows to give the patient the most comfortable position for sleep and wakefulness, eating, and conducting a series of procedures to improve blood flow. The division into sections may not be only vertical (head, spinal, pelvic, foot), but also longitudinal, so as to turn over patients lying on the side. Moving sections is provided by the muscular effort of the staff (mechanical beds), or by using a worm gear, pneumatic, electric actuator. The main difference between functional beds is the number of sections. Two-section medical beds have a movable head section, whereby the patient can lie down and sit up in bed. Three-section medical beds allow you to adjust the position of the feet, lift the pelvis, to choose the most comfortable position considering the diagnosis. Four-section medical beds are the most functional and comfortable for patients with serious diseases, cardiac problems, injuries to the locomotor apparatus. regulates the position of the head, pelvic and foot sections. Functional beds can also be equipped with: - fixed or removable bumpers to improve the safety of the patient; - section with an opening that is closed by a plug, and a shelf under the ship; - adaptations for installation of various medical equipment, for example, stands under the drip, holders; - mini-table for convenience meals; - device for lifting patients. Buy beds for hospitals in Ukraine GK "the Covenant", a leading Ukrainian manufacturer of medical furniture and equipment, offers to buy single-section and two, three, four sectional medical bed of its own production, as well as couches, trolleys. Durable metal frame made of bent pipe, no sharp corners for safety. Powder coating of frame and upholstery viniliskozhi hygienic, easily cleaned, disinfected. All models, except the stationary one-body equipped with wheels with brake. You can buy medical bed with mattress and without possible equipment under the order of additional structural elements. A wide range of medical beds allows you to choose the models for patients with different diagnoses. GK "the Covenant" offers its products at the most affordable prices and delivers medical beds throughout Ukraine.

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Wikipedia is a top destination for healthcare professionals and consumers to search for medical information. Now, Wikipedia healthcare editors can enhance their entries on the popular Internet encyclopedia and be confident in their accuracy thanks to a collaboration with EBSCO Health, the creators of DynaMed Plus. Wikipedia’s top healthcare editors have complimentary access to DynaMed Plus, a cross-platform, evidence-based clinical reference solution, to assist in content generation, research and verification of information on pages dedicated to medicine, pharmacology, public health, and other related topics. Currently, there are more than 155,000 medical articles posted to Wikipedia, which are supported by 950,000+ references. Healthcare content alone was viewed more than 4.88 billion times in 2013. By having access to DynaMed Plus, Wikipedia is ensuring that the information being developed is accurate and based on real world clinical evidence. “Wikipedia is one of, if not the, most viewed online medical resource for both patients and healthcare providers. This makes it crucial that its authorship be pristine and its content reliable,” said James Heilman, MD, Department of Emergency Medicine at the University of British Columbia. “Access to DynaMed Plus not only strengthens the healthcare content being produced but also gives readers confidence knowing the information contained in Wikipedia healthcare entries is coming from a trusted source.” DynaMed Plus is a point-of-care, evidence-based clinical reference tool available on laptops, and mobile devices running iOS and Android. It includes thousands of topics covering diseases, conditions, drugs and more, and is supplemented with 4,000 full color images. DynaMed Plus is optimized for the way a physician works, provides the quickest time-to-answer, and delivers the most current information with validity, relevance and convenience. DynaMed Plus clinical editors monitor more than 500 medical journals on a daily basis, and evaluate each article for clinical relevance and scientific validity. The new evidence is then integrated with existing DynaMed Plus content, and overall conclusions are changed as appropriate, representing a synthesis of the best available evidence. “I personally update and edit hundreds of entries on Wikipedia each year,” said Emily Temple-Wood, Wikipedian-in-Residence at the CDC’s National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, and Board Member of WikiProject Med Foundation. “Being able to consult DynaMed Plus allows me to research trusted, evidence-based clinical content to produce relevant and accurate material that our readers have come to rely on.” Up to 300 complimentary accounts to DynaMed Plus will be granted to Wikipedia editors through the partnership. Healthcare editors who have held an account with Wikipedia for more than a year with a minimum of 1,000 edits can find further information here: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:DynaMed

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Background: Policy and practice decisions may be made on the basis of many different factors including politics, contexts and resources, yet there is an increasing expectation that research evidence should be used as one source of information in the decision-making process. Formal research methods are used to undertake and synthesise research yet many of our approaches to enable the use of research evidence are themselves not evidence based. The aim of this project is the development and evaluation of evidence informed toolkits to enable research use. The project builds on the Wellcome Trust funded Science of Using Science project (SoUS) (Langer et al. 2016) which created a conceptual framework for understanding 'research to use' processes and reviewed the evidence of the effectiveness of different strategies to increase research use. Objectives: To develop evidence-based toolkits to suport both researchers and users of research in: (i) enabling the use of research in decision making; and, (ii) to monitor and assess the extent of such research uptake strategies, activities and outcomes. The aim to enhance the capacity among creators and users of research and their organisations to identify, plan, track, and articulate the actual and potential uptake of research. Methods: A systematic review of research on effective strategies to increase research use plus a conceptual analsyis of the evidence use process was used to develop two evidence-based toolkits; one aimed predominantly at researchers and one aimed predominantly at policy makers. Results: The draft toolkits and pilot evaluation of their use will be presented Conclusions: In progress at the time of abstract submission.

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Phenolic board architecture The system structure of phenolic board mainly consists of: adhesive layer, thermal insulation layer, plastering layer, decorative layer and accessories. The bonding layer is attributed to the building. It is between the bottom layer and the surface layer. The top and bottom layers are firmly bonded together with a gel material. The main source of the filler is inorganic substances. Insulation layer In order to avoid and reduce the loss of heat from the steam turbine to the environment, the insulation material layer laid on the exterior of the steam turbine and pipelines is mainly filled with rock wool fibers and a certain amount of organic matter, moisture, and adhesives. For the facing layer, light functional coatings such as facing mortar and embellishment mortar or breathable water-based exterior wall coatings should be selected, so that the phenolic board retains its light characteristics and also increases its aesthetics.

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By Helen Briggs Its stripy back makes it one of the most recognisable of rodents - but until now it has been unclear exactly how the chipmunk earned its stripes. Now, scientists have found the evolutionary gene change responsible for the distinctive markings of both the chipmunk and an African mouse. The gene normally makes the bellies of many rodents light in colour. The stripes may have helped the animals hide from daytime predators with keen eye sight, such as birds, they say. Prof Hopi Hoekstra, of Harvard University, US, who led the research, said: "What these two rodents have in common is that they are both diurnal [active during daylight], when one could imagine stripes could be more valuable than if they were nocturnal. "It is notable that of the rodents that are striped, most are diurnal - again consistent with them being important for evading visual predators (for example, raptors and mammalian carnivores)." The African striped mouse has a pattern of two dark-light-dark stripes on its back. The dark and light stripes can be seen as soon as the mouse pups are born. Research shows a gene change causes skin cells called melanocytes to stop making dark pigment in a particular area of the mouse's back, causing a white stripe. A similar thing happens in the chipmunk. In some other animals, white patches are caused by a lack of melanocytes in a particular area of the body - such as the blaze on the nose of a horse or a white bib on a cat. "Overall, we know very little about how pigment patterns form, especially in mammals," said Prof Hoekstra, an evolutionary biologist at Harvard University. Evolution must have "tinkered" with the gene that normally makes the bellies of many rodents light in colour, she said. "In other words, a gene working to make bellies light in colour was co-opted and reused in both chipmunks and mice to also make light-coloured stripes," Prof Hoekstra said. Chipmunks are part of the squirrel family, and split off from mice and rats about 70 million years ago. Scientists think they probably evolved their stripes independently. The research is published in the journal Nature. Follow Helen on Twitter. We are going to read The Lion and the Mouse,which is an Aesop Fable and How Chipmunk Got His Stripes,which is an Indigenous folktale.What type of story is how chipmunk got his stripes? › What happens when a little brown squirrel teases a big black bear? Brown Squirrel gets stripes and is called chipmunk from that day forward . . . Joseph and James Bruchac join forces to create this buoyant picture book, based on a Native American folktale. Illustrated by Jose Aruego and Ariane Dewey.Why is Bear unhappy when the sun comes up? › Why is Bear unhappy when the sun comes up? He doesn't like being teased. He doesn't like being wrong.Why do chipmunks have black stripes? › What the researchers found was that a gene that normally causes pale belly fur has been co-opted to help create a pattern of light and dark stripes on the backs of both striped mice and on the distantly-related chipmunks. The mice generally have tan fur.How Chipmunk Got His Stripes illustrator? › Brown Squirrel gets stripes and is called chipmunk from that day forward . . . Joseph and James Bruchac join forces to create this buoyant picture book, based on a Native American folktale. Illustrated by Jose Aruego and Ariane Dewey.What is the moral of Alvin and the Chipmunks? › The main messages from this movie are that material wealth doesn't bring happiness and that family, commitment and caring for those you love are important. You could talk to your children about these values as well as about the effects of fame.What are Alvin and the Chipmunks backstory? › Named for three record executives from the Chipmunks' original label, Alvin, Theodore, and Simon became fan favorites. They were animated in 1961 for a short-lived television series and released a number of albums until the death of Bagdasarian Sr.How many stripes does a chipmunk have? › However, there are some key ways to tell these creatures apart. The eastern chipmunk (Tamias striatus) has seven stripes on its body --- a single black stripe running down the middle of its back and three stripes on each side going black, white, black. The stripes do not extend onto the head.Why is it called chipmunk? › The name "chipmunk," said to be of native American origin, apparently derives from the chipping call these mammals make. The genus name (Tamias) is from the Latin word meaning "collector" or "storer" – a reference to the Eastern Chipmunk's winter survival strategy of storing food in its burrow.How the squirrel got its stripes? › When one of the monkeys picked the squirrel up by the tail and threw him away, he fell into Lord Rama's hands. 5. When the squirrel fell into Lord Rama's hand, he gently and lovingly ran his fingers on the squirrel's back. The stripes on the squirrel's back are the marks of Lord Rama's fingers. Look at the genital area, which is located above the anus. In the genital area, males will have two bumps that are about one centimeter apart from each other. In females, the bumps are touching each other.Why do Siberian chipmunks have stripes? › After its stripy back, it is usually the large dark eyes that a new observer notices first. The striped coat of the Siberian Chipmunk is distinctive when the animal is in the open, but provides suitable camouflage when amongst vegetation or dappled light.Do chipmunks have to have stripes? › Chipmunks are small mammals with distinct stripes, while the tree squirrel is larger and doesn't have stripes. The ground squirrel has body stripes like chipmunks, but no head stripes. A tree squirrel is larger, has a longer tail and no stripes. They all have short fur and small rounded ears.What did the original chipmunks look like? › The Chipmunks' very first physical appearance were as wooden-headed, soft-bodied puppets on The Ed Sullivan Show in 1958. Their facial structure closely resembled the structure of a real chipmunk's, though their tails were a little larger and bushier.

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How to Use Monotone, Duotone, Tritone, and Quadtone in Photoshop CS6 Adobe Photoshop Creative Suite 6 has the ability to help you create black and white images. However, there are multiple options for doing this that are not limited to Grayscale: Uses: Because printing presses can print only about 50 gray levels per ink color, duotones and multitones — which use two to four inks — are used to increase the range of tones of grayscale images. Duotones and multitones are often created by using black and spot colors (premixed inks), although you can also use process colors. File formats: The only file formats that can save duotones, tritones, and quadtones are native Photoshop, Photoshop 2.0, EPS, PDF, Large Document Format, or Photoshop Raw. These modes create one-color, (monotone), two-color (duotone), three-color, and four-color (quadtone) images. Photoshop lumps all the various tone modes under duotone. You can find a pop-up menu in the Duotone options dialog box, from which you can select the various options. Unlike RGB and CMYK images, in which the components of the image display with different colors, the monotones, duotones, tritones, and quadtones have the colors mixed throughout the image. The colored inks are often used to reproduce tinted grays, not the different colors you find in RGB and CMYK images. To access the Duotone mode, you must first convert the color image to grayscale. Then, choose Image→Mode→Duotone. In the dialog box that appears, select Monotone, Duotone, Tritone, or Quadtone from the pop-up menu. Then, select ink colors — either spot or process — by clicking the appropriate swatches. Finally, you can adjust the Curves settings by dragging the graph line. This tells Photoshop how to distribute the ink(s) among the various tones. You don't have access to the individual color channels in Duotone mode. The only manipulation you can do in that mode is to specify the Curves settings. If you're new to these modes, you need to know that Photoshop offers numerous preset duotones, tritones, and quadtones. To access these presets, select one from the Preset pop-up menu. Sometimes, printing these types of images can be challenging, so starting with these presets is a good idea if you're inexperienced.

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Improving India’s Water Technology New filter provides low-pressure solution India is regarded as one of the fastest growing global markets. With an official Indian government growth forecast of 8.75% in 2011, the country emerged relatively unscathed from the recent global economic downturn. India occupies only 2.4% of the world’s landmass, but it has more than 15% of the world’s population, with a median age of 25. Approximately 70% of India’s population lives in more than 550,000 villages; the rest of the population lives in more than 200 towns and cities. Developers of drinking water filtration technologies for use in India are faced with some unique market dynamics: - Large segments of the population live in areas without access to pressurized water supplies; - Areas with pressurized water supplies are not necessarily subject to constant water pressure or well-constructed infrastructure; and - Some areas face significant sediment issues. With such unique challenges, a technology that can operate in both pressurized and gravity-fed applications, and that is able to work efficiently in areas of high sediment, would be an ideal solution for use in drinking water filtration systems. There is a growing need for point-of-use (POU) water treatment products to remove pathogenic microorganisms from drinking water supplies in countries such as India. Current technologies require significant water pressures that typically are not available to drive the technology. A new microbiological water purification technology has been developed that operates at low water pressures and also under gravity conditions. This technology achieves microbiological reduction to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Guide Protocol of 99.9999% for bacteria, 99.99% for viruses and 99.95% for cysts. This technology can offer several performance features, such as reduction of sediment, chlorine taste and odor, lead and volatile organic carbon (VOC). This microbiological purification technology complements all the features and benefits of base filtration media, giving consumers a robust microbiological solution adaptable to several applications and environments. Testing India’s Systems Five different filtration systems currently on the market in India were purchased and tested for their ability to reduce bacteria and viruses according to the U.S. EPA Guide Protocol. Several of the units claim bacteria and virus reduction in their product manuals or on the product’s packaging. The product’s filtration technologies varied, including carbon, stone, mineral, carbon nanopapers and ceramic filters. The test method was as follows: - ll units were tested using dechlorinated city water. - Approximately 10 liters per day of challenge were passed through each unit. - Flow rate: gravity flow. - Bacteria influent: E. coli – ATCC11229 10^5 to 10^6 CFU/100 mL of water. - Effluent bacteria specification: 6-log reduction minimum. - Virus influent: MS2, 10^5 to 10^6 PFU/mL of water. - Effluent virus specification: 4-log reduction minimum. - Testing was terminated at fail points. The results were inconsistent with the NSF Intl. P231 Protocol. Of the five units tested, only one unit provided bacteria reduction to 99.9999% and virus reduction to 99.99%; this was accomplished through the introduction of chlorine to the unit’s filtration system. The government of India is developing a Bureau of India Standards (BIS) and protocols for microbiological purifiers. Concurrently, the Water Quality Assn. India Task Force is also developing standards and protocols for microbiological purifiers. Both of these efforts are using the U.S. EPA Guide Protocol for Microbiological Water Purifiers (1987) as the base from which to develop the Indian standard. The debate in India appears to be focusing on the reduction levels. As noted by Joe Brown and Mark D. Sobey of the World Health Organization in “Evaluating household water treatment options: health-based targets and performance specifications,” the standard may be heading toward 2 log bacteria, 3 log virus and 2 log cyst reduction, as compared to 6 log bacteria, 4 log virus and 3 log cyst reduction as noted in the EPA Guide Protocol. The 2 log bacteria, 3 log virus and 2 log cyst reduction performance is characterized as “Protective. Achieves intermediate risk-based target of 10-4 DALYs per person/year, representing improved water quality.”1 A New Option KX Technologies has developed FACT Media along with rapid prototyping of formulations, featuring fiber-based products enhanced through fibrillation, combined with other materials such as carbon or lead-reducing media. These products can be pleated, wound into filters or used to wrap extruded carbon block, adding unique capabilities and high performance while enhancing the characteristics of standard block filters. In this way, new technology can be retrofitted to perform throughout the global marketplace in existing filter housings as well as within new product concepts. This innovative technology greatly expands the filtration surface area and kinetics by allowing the use of fine particles and may allow reduced contact time required for full filtration performance. Virtually any particle or combinations of particles can be immobilized with the FACT Media, opening possibilities for new and better materials that can enhance the level of filtration within the filter. The smaller fibers also allow a greater pore area for lower pressure drop while maintaining a small pore size. FACT Media is made using various adsorbents immobilized by fibrillated cellulosic nanofibers. Produced in a wet-laid process, the FACT technology yields a uniform product in which high percentages of small adsorbents ( 1µm) can be immobilized. This technology can operate at extremely low pressures or under gravity. Nano-diameter-sized fibers produce a large relative pore area for a given pore size, resulting in a structure that gives a lower overall pressure drop and high dirt-loading capacity. Unlike typical cellulose fibers, which have fiber diameters between 15 and 30 microns, FACT fibers can be as small as 50 nanometers in diameter. A FACT Media Filter designed to be used under gravity applications has been tested for microbiological reduction. Figure 3 shows an image of this filter. The FACT Media is pleated and wound around a central core. The FACT Media technology, which is not chemical-based, provides 6-log bacteria reduction and 4-log virus reduction, an effective microbiological reduction filter for gravity applications. This results in a microbiological purification technology that includes all the features and benefits of base filtration media, such as microbial purification, chemical reduction and high flow rate at low (gravity) pressure. Consumers can be offered a truly robust microbiological solution that is easily adaptable to several applications and environments, offering them a wide variety of choices and solutions for drinking water filtration.

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[E. Margaret Burbidge is director of the Center for Astrophysic and Space Sciences. University of California at San Diego. La Jolla 92093. This article is adapted from the text of the presidential lecture at the AAAS annual meeting on 29 May 1983 in Detroit. Summary: The exploration of the universe ha captured mankind's interest since the earliest attempts to understand the sun, moon, planets, comets, and stars. The last few decade have seen explosive advances of knowledge, sparked by technological advances and by our entry into the space age. Achievements in solar system exploration, discoveries both in the Milky Way and in the farther universe, and challenges for the future are discussed. Of major concern worldwide is the need for people of goodwill in all nations to concentrate on the peaceful uses of outer space and on international collaboration. I have chosen the subject of the adventure into space for two reasons other than its appeal to me as an astronomer. One is a recognition of a basic drive of human beings to find out about the world we live in. This is an inborn urge, as is well known to anyone who has watched a baby explore the expanding reachable world of toes and fingers, crib, living-room floor, and backyard. What is more natural than to look toward an ultimate goal-exploration of the entire universe, even though mostly by reasoned analysi of the data, since the far universe is indeed almost incomprehensibly The synergistic and dramatic recent advances in high technology and our entry into the space age have produced a ferment of excitement in the once-quiet field of astronomy. The pot is kept bubbling by a flow of new concepts, new ideas, and above all, new observations, leading to discoveries which are sufficiently exciting to capture everyone's interest. The large number of new descriptive astronomy books aimed at the general reader, in addition to best-selling fictional books on space ventures, must bear witness to this arousal of public interest. Of course, most of the astronomy books are enhanced by many beautiful pictures because astronomy is a science of visualization as well as analysis and theory. There is a dark reverse side to the coin, however, and that i the same technological advances have given us the capability of extinguishing life on Earth in a nuclear holocaust, or of smothering it in waste. That is my second reason for choosing this topic. I shall return to it later . With all the frontiers on the earth broached, the next frontier for exploration is above the earth's surface-the frontier with the rest of our solar system. And here I have to point out that exploring this frontier is an expensive operation. My favorite commentary on this is given by a B.C. cartoon [by Hart] that appeared several years ago, in which the conversation ran as follows: "The secrets of all creation, secrets that could mean the salvation of mankind, are locked in those stars." " Why can't we reach out and unlock those secrets?" "The keys are not ours to have." "It ain't in the budget!" However costly, though, the budgets for the exciting venture of the past two decades, and those planned for the remainder of this century, are but a tiny fraction of the U.S. military budget-some three to four times 103 for fiscal year 1984 (1, 2). Also, the expenditures during the past 20 years have pushed technology in many useful fields, especially the development and miniaturization of computers and instruments, advances in the science of communications, and the flow of data from the Landsat and weather satellites. The most expensive ventures are obviously those involving manned space flight. Yet those who watched on television the Apollo 11 landing on the moon will never forget the thrill of seeing those first steps by astronauts Aldrin and Armstrong. For myself, I cannot look at the moon at night without thinking "We have been there," and without reflecting regretfully that, had I been born one or two centuries later, I might have been able to step in those footprints. The Apollo mission was mainly one of exploration. Only a small part of the lunar surface was explored: nevertheless, some intriguing results were obtained, especially concerning the moon's seismology and the chemical and isotopic composition of a small part of the surface material, enough to give a tantalizing glimpse into the past history of the solar system (3). Going farther out into the solar system, to the nearest large bodies beyond the moon, we pass beyond today's goal for manned space flight, into the realm where carefully designed and constructed unmanned space vehicles can reveal as much information about Mars, Venus, and Mercury as we have about the moon. Mariner 10 showed that Mercury has a surface like the moon's, cratered by meteoritic bombardment. Close as it is to the sun, where it receives a heavy dose of solar wind charged particles, it has a magnetosphere in which Mariner 10 observed intermittent intense bursts of high-energy particles. The U.S.S.R. Venera landers on Venus and the U.S. Mariner and Pioneer flybys have shown that the hot, enormously dense and dynamic atmosphere of Venus has huge quantities of CO2, very little water, and is topped by clouds of sulfuric acid. It is indeed an inhospitable place for manned exploration. The little of Venus's surface topography that has been unveiled shows past volcanic activity and whets the appetite for more detailed knowledge. A proposed Venus Orbiting Imaging Radar has had to be shelved because, to quote B.C. again, "It ain't in the budget," but a Venus Radar Mapper of reduced scope, without an atmospheric probe, is planned for 1988 (4). The least inhospitable of our neighboring planets is Mars, and NASA's Viking lander showed unweathered craters produced by past meteoritic bombardment, like those on the moon and Mercury, yet also showed dry river channels, suggesting the flow of water or some other liquid in the past. Again, the preliminary studie of the geography and climatology of Mars are the incentive for more detailed study by orbiters planned by NASA for the 1990's. Perhaps the most spectacular planetary studies have been those made by Voyager 1 and Voyager 2, flying around and past Jupiter and Saturn, their satellites, and Saturn's fantastic ring system. These have been triumphs of planning and technological skill, in the accuracy of placings of the Voyagers and the superb operation of their communications systems. And there is more to come when the space odyssey reaches Uranus, twice as far out as Saturn. The variety displayed by Jupiter's and Saturn s satellites (5) again gives tantalizing hints about the early history of the solar system. Here again, heavy bombardment by meteorites occurred in the past, while Saturn's largest satellite, Titan, is unique in having a thick atmosphere-mostly nitrogen, some methane, possibly argon, some simple organic molecules, and also atmospheric aerosol that may be more complex organic molecules (6). Active volcanoes on the innermost large Jovian satellite, Io, were a surprise indeed. Once again, the planned return to Jupiter with NASA's satellite Galileo has been scaled down because of current budgetary considerations, but one can further into the future and aim for flyby and probe investigations of Jupiter, Titan, Saturn, Uranus, and eventually Neptune (4). How exciting it would be to discover what is at the 'bottom ' of the Great Red Spot on Jupiter that enables this weather system to persist for hundreds of years (7). The planets and their satellites by no means comprise all the objects of interest in the solar system. The smaller components-asteroid and comets-are candidates for intensive study by satellites that actually make rendezvous with them. The asteroids-solar system debris-are conceivably useful sources of raw materials (8). (I return to this possibility later.) In any case, chemical, spectroscopic, and isotopic analysis of more than one asteroid will yield interesting data on their origin, their place in the history of the solar system, and their possible use in the eventual colonization of Because of the fear and awe they have inspired in primitive and prehistoric peoples, and indeed also in more recent centuries, comets hare always been objects of intense interest and study. They continually surprise us: while people were thinking and writing about the famous Halley's comet, due to reappear in 1985 and already detected at Palomar Observatory as a very faint object, and while we were deploring the fact that NASA was unable to include a dedicated comet mission in its budget, there appeared in the May skies an unpredicted comet that passed very close to the earth. It is the first comet whose name includes that of a space satellite-Comet IRAS-Araki-Alcock-because the Infrared Astronomy Satellite IRAS (9) made the first observation of it. Comets can be quite diverse. The beautiful 1976 Comet West passed close to the sun and developed a spectacular tail, while Comet IRAS, which passed close to the earth but not to the sun, wa bright, fuzzy, but without much of a tail. Aside from the known periodic comets, there may be many that start sunward from a "cloud" far beyond the orbit of Pluto. Whether some comets provide a sample of truly interstellar matter is still an open question. Beyond discovery and exploration, the ultimate goal of studie of the solar system is to unravel the secrets of its origin and early history, and to learn whether planetary systems around sunlike stars are common or rare. I turn now to the realms beyond the solar system-the farther universe, including fields studied in my own research. This kind of voyage of discovery cannot be made through direct exploration but must be carried out through the synthesis of data received on the earth by state-of-the-art and future instrumentation on telescopes covering the entire electromagnetic spectrum, both from satellites in earth orbit and from the ground . Astronomers are accustomed to planning far ahead both in the research programs to be tackled and in the instruments with which to carry out the research. For example, the Space Telescope (10, 11) with its 2.4-meter mirror, to be launched in 1986 by the Shuttle, has been decades in the planning. In orbit above the earth's atmosphere, it will reveal the ultraviolet spectrum of objects from our nearest neighbors to the most distant galaxies and quasars, and with a spatial resolution better than ten times that achieved with ground-based The long-term nature of astronomical research and the fact that we are always scrounging for that last little photon and the utmost improvement in signal-to-noise ratio that our instruments will yield have been drivers toward international cooperation. Science is done jointly by the United States, the U.S.S.R., Europe, Canada, South America, Mexico, Australia, Japan, and South Africa. Expensive space programs are particularly suitable for international cooperation, and very long lead times are needed in their planning. The report of the Astronomy Survey Committee to the National Academy of Sciences (12) is such a planning document. It present an in-depth account of the current state of knowledge about the universe and of the spearheads for advancing that knowledge and understanding. It recommends a set of programs that the committee judged to be priorities for the 1980's, and proposes the instrument with which to carry out these programs. Its final chapter look further ahead and discusses planning for programs that have exceptional promise for the 1990's and beyond. To take a brief look at some of those goals and plans, let us move out of the solar system, into the realm of the Milky Way, our home galaxy. During the past 30 years the physical properties of stars during the main part of their lifetimes have become quite well understood, from a combination of theory with observations of the energy outputs, surface temperatures, chemical compositions, and masses of a great variety of stars at different evolutionary stages. The least well understood stages, about which we would like to know more, are the beginning and end phases. Throughout most of their existence, stars function well as self-regulating thermonuclear fusion reactors, such as our sun. Trouble come when the nuclear fuel (first hydrogen, then helium, carbon, and so on) begins to be exhausted and the star can no longer maintain its balance between pressure and gravity by a constant generation of energy in its interior. Such a star can die quietly, shedding its outer layers and contracting its core, and eventually becoming an extremely dense white dwarf that continues to radiate by cooling. The well-known planetary nebula in Lyra, the Ring Nebula, is an example of a star in this process. Or a star can die in a catastrophic collapse-implosion, followed by explosion, as a supernova. Such an event in A.D. 1054 was documented by ancient Chinese astronomers, who saw a star that became so bright that for some weeks it could be seen in the daytime. It has left us the expanding remnant of the explosion, the Crab Nebula-perhaps the most interesting object in the sky. When radio astronomy was a young science, in the 1940's, the Crab was one of the first astronomical radio sources to be detected. The origin of the radio waves was understood to be radiation by high-energy charged particles accelerated in magnetic fields. This was not all the radio astronomers discovered about violent star death. With technical improvements and a capability for high time resolution, they discovered that one of the central star in the nebula is not shining constantly but is emitting spurt of radiation 30 times a second (13). This central object must be the remnant of the imploded original stellar core, crushed into matter of extremely high-in fact, nuclear-density, so that it forms a neutron star. Conservation of angular momentum cause this object, whose radius is only some 15 kilometers, to rotate with a 30-millisecond period. The enormous compressed magnetic field and its interaction with charged particles from the surface produces a beam of radiation that sweeps past the earth 30 time Given the period, optical astronomers could look and see the same beaming in visible light (14). But the Crab has even more wonders to offer. It was recognized by an ingenious early rocket experiment to be a source of diffuse x-radiation (15). A point x-ray source at the center was discovered to be an x-ray pulsar, and the HEAO 2 (Einstein) satellite has produced beautiful images of it in its "on" and "off" phase (16). The neutron star is thus a radio, optical, and x-ray Radio astronomy and optical astronomy can continue through the next several decades from the ground, but x-ray astronomy need a satellite because observations must be made from above the earth' atmosphere . Consequently, an Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Facility (AXAF) for imaging and spectroscopic work is a first-priority goal. AXAF is planned to have a sensitivity up to 100 times greater than that of any previous x-ray mission. It will extend the revelation of the Einstein satellite, which showed the sky to be peppered with x-ray sources-single and double stars in the Milky Way, remnant of old supernovae, and, outside the Milky Way, active galaxies, quasars, and diffuse hot material in clusters of galaxies, reaching to the bounds of the observable universe. I cannot leave the subject of x-ray astronomy without a few word about an amazing and, so far, unique x-ray object known as SS 433. Appearing as a 14th magnitude star at the position of an x-ray source, it had already been cataloged as unusual in having strong emission lines in its spectrum. Intensive study by B. Margon and many others showed it to have the extraordinary property described by the news media as "coming and going at the same time" (17, 18), A graph of velocities measured from the Doppler shift of its spectral lines looks like that of any ordinary double star until one reads the figures on the velocity axis, which show a total range of 85,000 kilometers per second or about a quarter of the velocity of light. A preliminary and a later artist's conception of what is going on, shown in the two popular review article (17, /8). indicated a double star, one of which has collapsed and is sucking material off its companion. The infalling material is heated to x-ray-emitting temperatures, and the collapsed object, rotating about a precessing axis inclined to the axis of the orbital plane of the pair of stars, squirts out jets of matter in opposite directions, which are seen by us as the material "coming and going at the same time." I now turn to that other little-understood part of a star's life history-its formation. This is, of course, very relevant to our attempts to decipher the formation and early history of the solar system and to the question of whether planetary systems about stars are common or rare. It is known that massive hot stars are short-lived in comparison to stars like our sun, which is some 5 billion years old and only halfway through its main sequence lifetime. Thus, it has long been recognized that stars are continually forming in the Milky Way (and in other similar galaxies). The well-known Orion Nebula is one such region of recent star formation: young stars are embedded in a vast complex of hot and cold ga and dense molecular clouds and clouds of dust. The Lagoon Nebula in Sagittarius is another such region. The best instruments for penetrating the shielding clouds of dust are those that detect infrared radiation, and recent technology has produced many such telescopes, which are used on high mountain and in airplanes so that they can be above much of the water vapor that obscures the infrared. These instruments are providing a wealth of information, both on new stars in the process of formation and on old stars beginning to shed their outer material in cloud of dust. A composite infrared picture of the Orion Nebula made from the Kuiper Airborne Observatory (4) shows such protostar coalescing out of the nebula's gases. The most recent observatory at work is the IRAS, to which I referred earlier as the discoverer of a comet. This is a truly international, and highly successful, satellite that is now mapping the heavens for infrared sources, as the Einstein satellite did for x-ray sources. Detailed study of the infrared sources detected by IRAS (both within and outside the Milky Way) will be carried out by instrument planned for the future: among them are a Shuttle Infrared Telescope Facility and a Large Deployable Reflector (9, 12). Let us move beyond the confines of the Milky Way. Among external galaxies, there are some which are intense sources of radio radiation. The activity that produces the high-energy charged particles necessary to emit radio radiation originates in the central nucleus of the galaxy. The high-energy particles are usually beamed out in two opposite jets, into what become two radio lobes well outside the visible galaxy. As calculated many years ago by G. Burbidge (19), the particle and magnetic field energies demand the release of a huge quantity of energy in the central region-as much as the rest-mass energy of 108 solar masses in some cases. The beaming mechanism may work like an enormously scaled-up version of what goes on in SS 433. It is sometimes remarkably constant in direction, as in the radio galaxy NGC 6251 (20). In other cases, the direction shifts, perhaps because of interaction of the particles with an extragalactic medium. I have said nothing yet of the radio telescopes that obtain such detailed maps. The large-scale, high-resolution observations of NGC 6251 were made with the National Science Foundation's Very Large Array at the National Radio Astronomy Observatory, a set of 27 dishes that move on Y-shaped tracks with a fullest extent of some 30 kilometers. The full array can produce resolution better than the best ground-based optical telescopes. Color-coded pictures of several cosmic jets, emanating from radio galaxies, may be seen in a descriptive article by Blandford et al. To improve resolving power still further, radio astronomers have developed very long baseline interferometry (VLBI), in which signal from radio dishes spaced at intercontinental distances are combined in the computer. This produces a resolution 1000 times higher than the best optical ones, and a proposed extension and upgrading of the system-a Very Long Baseline Array-will do still better. This type of operation is truly international because, in carrying out an observational sequence with VLBI, data from the United States, Canada, Europe, and the U.S.S.R. are combined: this involve collaboration of scientists at all these telescope sites. Radio, microwave, infrared, x-ray-these data could not be deciphered without the all-important optical telescopes. Here again, we pin our hopes for better understanding these objects and for making new discoveries on future instruments. The Space Telescope will reveal the ultraviolet and will give us far sharper pictures than we can get from the ground today. But it is limited in size; it mirror is only 2.4 meters in diameter. Optical astronomers are therefore planning new very large telescopes on the ground, to work in conjunction with the space instruments. An engineering group at Kitt Peak National Observatory, under the direction of KPNO Director Geoffrey Burbidge, has constructed models for two concepts of a future National New Technology Telescope under study by the National Science Foundation. Such a telescope, with an effective mirror diameter of about 15 meters, dwarfs the model on the same scale of the largest existing national telescope, the Kitt Peak 4-meter telescope. I was describing cosmic activity in external galaxies and cannot end without a few words about two of my favorite objects, in which it seems that bullet-like lumps of plasma are shot out of the nuclei of galaxies. The first is well known and was one of the earliest radio sources to be detected (22). It is a galaxy known as M87. A seemingly ordinary spherical conglomeration of stars, if one looks at a strongly exposed photograph, it is found to be much more interesting when looked at visually through a large telescope. A blue jet thrusts out from the center, strikingly outlined against the yellowish stars of the galaxy. A short exposure photograph in visible light shows this jet; it turns out to be a stream of blobs containing high-energy charged particles in a magnetic field. M87 is also a strong x-ray source-another astronomical wonder that provides something for everyone. The second object is a radio galaxy, perhaps akin to M87, which is emitting plasma blobs in a jet and apparently producing an extensive and complex additional radio source that encompasses a quasar and ultraviolet objects, whose nature a group of us are trying to decipher (23). This section brings me back to that dark side of the coin to which I referred at the beginning, my second reason for choosing thi topic. However, it also enables me to look into the future and to say something about the possibility of constructing giant space colonies to which adventurous human beings may travel and in which they may live comfortably. In the early 1960's the first pictures of the earth as seen from outside were obtained from the Apollo flights, and Rachel Carson' book Silent Spring (24) was published. The Apollo pictures brought home, as nothing else could, the fact that we inhabit a bounded surface, in an environment which we can cherish or violate and which is home to an ever-growing human population whose ever increasing waste products it must house. Carson's book focused on toxic waste products and the havoc they can cause to all life on the earth. It was written after our entry into the nuclear age, but before the proliferation of nuclear weaponry in several continents and the problem of nuclear waste disposal. Its main concern was chemical toxic wastes, but the problem of radioactive fallout from atmospheric testing of nuclear bomb was also addressed. In dedicating the book to Albert Schweitzer, Carson quoted him as saying, "Man has lost the capacity to foresee and to forestall. He will end by destroying the earth." A positive action was taken in 1963, the year after the publication of Silent Spring: President Kennedy delivered his famou speech at American University in which he announced the end of nuclear tests in the earth's atmosphere and laid the groundwork for the test ban treaty and the first nuclear arms limitation agreement. The speech was one of the highlights of his career. The cessation of nuclear bomb testing in the atmosphere and in space outside the earth has not, however, lessened the accumulation during the past two decades of nuclear waste from military nuclear activities, and it is this problem which I want to address now. In preparing this section I have been helped and advised by two of my colleagues, Hannes Alfvén and Robert B. Livingston, and I thank them for the material and references they provided. Alfvén pointed out the physical impracticality of an early idea of mine, that nuclear waste materials could be loaded into sun-bound satellites and fired off into the sun's atmosphere, where they would be harmlessly absorbed into its massive hot interior. He pointed out that elementary celestial mechanics shows the impossibility, energywise, of such a project. So, if we must find ways to dispose of nuclear waste within the confines of the earth itself, how will this important problem be tackled? It is heartening to see the growing awareness on the part of scientists, politicians, and the public of the acuteness of the problem. It is, of course, linked with the sword of Damocles hanging over the world-the threat of nuclear war. The attention being given by AAAS to all aspects of the problem is demonstrated by the number of symposia devoted to it at the 1983 Annual Meeting and by the continuing concern of its committees and council. Also, many thoughtful books and articles have appeared, among which I would like to draw attention to papers by Alfvén (25) and Lester (26) and to a book by Shapiro (27). In his foreword, Shapiro recalls an experience in high school when the teacher asked the class what their first step would be if they were assigned the task of producing "an acid so powerful it would dissolve any substance." None of the students gave the correct response, which was "Suppose you ever got such an acid . . . what could you keep it in? The first thing you have to determine in any experiment is, when you get whatever it is you're going after, what are you going to keep it in?" Shapiro gives the quantities and location of various radioactive waste materials, the half-lives of the dangerous radioactive species, and the estimated costs for safe I turn now to the threat of nuclear war, which grows as the arm buildup grows and as new nations enter the nuclear arena, and which can be averted only by a dedicated effort toward international communication and cooperation. It is time for all responsible people to realize the impossibility of "limited nuclear war." It was shocking to discover that there were those who could contemplate the aftermath of a nuclear war with 20 million humans killed in the United States. Astronomers are used to large numbers and to attempting to depict them to nonastronomers. Such a toll of bodies, at an average height of 5 1/2 feet per person, would form a line stretching around more than eight-tenths of the equatorial circumference of the earth. I must believe that men and women of good will have reached a consensus that nuclear holocaust must he avoided. The consequences of such a disaster have, of course, been explored in fiction. Aldous Huxley, in Ape and Essence (28) wrote of the discovery of a movie script set in the year 2108, in which a group of men and women embark from New Zealand on a "rediscovery expedition to North America" following their isolation from the Northern Hemisphere for more than a century. The Northern Hemisphere had been devastated but not totally depopulated by a third world war, and Huxley imagined a remnant of human survivors, totally brutalized and suffering from grotesque genetic mutation caused by nuclear irradiation. Nevil Shute, in On Tale Beach (29), also wrote of the aftermath of a nuclear war in the Northern Hemisphere. Australia was again spared temporarily because of the separate wind circulations in the two hemispheres. An expeditionary group set out to investigate what seemed to be a coherent message being tapped out somewhere in North America. They discovered a total absence of life: the "message' was the random tapping of an electric cable blowing in the wind. Shute's book ends on a far more pessimistic note than Huxley's, with the extinction of life all over the earth. Before leaving this somber subject and turning to positive goal for the future, I must comment on the thoughts of several scientist interested in the question of whether intelligent life exist elsewhere in the universe. I have briefly discussed the birth of new stars in the Milky Way, and it is widely recognized that there may be stars in the solar neighborhood which have planetary systems like ours. Indeed, it is hoped that the Space Telescope can devote time to investigating these nearby stars for dark, planet-sized companions. As advances in microwave and infrared technology reveal the existence of more and more complex organic molecules in dense interstellar clouds which are likely site for new star formation, we can envision a primordial organic mixture out of which life might have evolved elsewhere than on the earth-in fact, anywhere having the right environment. Thus, it is worthwhile to use radio telescopes in a search for signals from outer space. The Field Committee (12) included a panel on SETI, the search for extraterrestrial intelligence. But the speculation that radio signals from extraterrestrial intelligence might be detected has led to the question: If life is common throughout the Milky Way, why haven't we already detected it? And that lead to the further question: For what length of time could living creatures in another solar system exist, once they had the necessary technology to send out signals (30, 31)? As several authors have commented, perhaps the development of highly organized living creatures is always accompanied by competition, struggle for scarce resources, and warfare. Acquiring the technology to send out strong enough radio or microwave transmissions would presuppose an advanced knowledge of physics, including nuclear physics and the ability to build nuclear bombs. Perhaps any such civilization has but 50 years or so (on our time scale) before it annihilates itself. Should we ask instead whether the development of a civilization as contentious as ours is an unavoidable consequence of the possession of "intelligence" and, if so, how many such civilizations have had the wisdom to pass safely through the dangerous warfaring phase to an era of cooperation? This i a task for all of us, and especially scientists, to address, and we should do so in the belief that we shall succeed. In his 1963 speech at American University (32) after the Cuban missile crisis, President Kennedy warned that we should not "see conflict as inevitable, accommodation as impossible and communication as nothing more than an exchange of threats." He urged: "Let us focus . . . not on a sudden revolution in human nature but on a gradual evolution in human institutions.... Peace is a process-a way of solving problems." I am going to assume that we will achieve peace and cooperation and that this will free our resources to face the frontier of space. Here again I have had the benefit of help, advice, and material from one of my colleagues, James R. Arnold, and I refer the reader to his article entitled "The frontier in space" The idea of constructing a giant space vehicle in which human could create a pleasant environment, live their entire lives, and bring up their families would have sounded like science fiction 50 years ago. So, however, did travel to the moon seem in the 19th century, and we have seen that successfully achieved. We are seeing now the steady progress of the Soviet Salyut program and the beginning of the U.S. Space Shuttle program. These and their future developments will be necessary preliminaries for embarking on the construction of a very large, perhaps toroidal, self-contained space colony, perhaps slowly rotating to produce a gravity-like force to help keep the colonizers comfortable and healthy. I prefer to envisage this rather than the construction of military satellites as a goal for both the Salyut and Space Besides Arnold at the University of California, two physicist at Princeton University, G. K. O'Neill and Freeman Dyson, have written and lectured extensively on space colonization. O'Neill (33) considered the mechanics of mining raw materials from the asteroids and the moon and using them for the construction of a vehicle in situ, in earth orbit. Arnold (8) also considered the chemistry of the materials that would be needed; he discussed the Apollo data on the compositions of lunar soil samples and analyses of meteorites that probably indicate the composition of earth-approaching asteroids. He also discussed the task of gathering enough solar energy to supply power for separating the useful elements from asteroids and the lunar soil. Dyson (34) looked at the costs of such ventures, in a delightful comparison with the costs of the Plymouth Colony in 1620 and the Brigham Young expedition in 1847. One should read chapter 11 of Dyson' book in the belief that, when it is a question of survival or extinction, human beings of all nations will take the rational path and demand the replacement of conflict and confrontation by cooperation and collaboration. Then the enormous worldwide military expenditures can be directed into constructive channels, both for improving the quality of life on earth for all and for tackling the adventure into space. I have given a quick and selective account of achievements in space science, the exploration of our solar system, and a look at future space missions to the planets. I have taken a very brief and even more selective look at the challenge of the far universe, where both earth-orbiting telescopes and space instrumentation and telescopes on the ground will, I hope, take us on the further road to exploration and discovery in the universe. Costly as these ventures will be, the estimates for a program for fiscal year 1984 are only a few thousandths of the proposed U.S. military I have expressed my hopes for the future, for the replacement of conflict and confrontation by the start of a truly international cooperative and collaborative effort which would open up the frontier with space. This vision of the future is born of my personal interest in astronomy but is also a recognition of a common human trait-the desire to explore and to find out about the world. To achieve such a goal, it is necessary to tackle the multifaceted problem on the earth, within nations and between nations. In contrast to the opinion expressed in the quotation from Schweitzer mentioned earlier, I believe we have the capacity to foresee and forestall. Scientists of all nations are in a position to forecast the perils, and can educate and lead in the endeavor to rid the world of nuclear perils and improve conditions of life for all humans. I close with a quotation from a 1924 story (35) set in the early 19th century in the border country between England and Wales. The narrator is watching a fire burn up the entire corn harvest at a farm and utters words that express a warning to today' world: "So it will surely be when the world is burned with fervent heat in the end of it all. It will go rolling on, maybe, as it ever has, only it will be no more a kindly thing that mist about it, a pleasant painted ball with patterns of blue seas and green mountains upon its roundness. It will be a thing rotten with fire as an apple is rotten when the wasps have been within, light and empty and of no account.'' References and Notes 1. W H. Shapley, A. H. Teich, J. P Weinberg, AAAS Report VIII: Research and Development, FY 1984 (AAAS. Washington. D.C.. 1983). 2. The United States Budget in Brief, FY 1984 ( Executive Office, White House, Washington, D.C., 1983). 3. Proceedings of the Lunar and Planetary Science Conferences, Houston. Texas, volumes 1 to 12. published by MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., and Pergamon, New York, 1970 to 1981. 4. Planetary Exploration Through Year 2000: A Core Program (Executive Summary. part 1 of the report by the Solar System Exploration Committee of the NASA Advisory Council, Washington, D.C.. 1983). 5. D. Morrison. Ed., Satellites of Jupiter, I.A.U. Colloquium 57 (Univ. of Arizona Press, Tucson, 1982). 6. C. Sagan and B. N. Khare, in preparation. 7. C. Sagan has informed me that the Soviet atmospheric dynamicist, G. Golitsyn, believes that the Great Red Spot has existed for ~ 106 years. 8. J. R. Arnold. Am. Sci. 68, 299 (1980). 9. A photograph of IRAS and pictures of the future infrared facilitie SIRTF and LDR are shown by S. E. Strom, Sky Telescope 65, 312 (1983). 10. J. N. Bahcall and L. Spitzer, Ir., Sci. Am. 247, 40 (July 1982). 11. D. N. B. Hall, Ed., The Space Observatory Proceedings of a Special Session of I.A . U. Commission 44 Patras Greece (NASA Space Telescope Science Institute, Baltimore, 1982). These articles are technical: the article by Bahcall and Spitzer (10) is of general interest. 12. G. B. Field, Astronomy and Astrophysics for the 1980's (National Academy Press, Washington. D.C., 1982), vol. 1. 13. D. H. Staelin and E. C. Reifenstein III. Science 162, 1481 (1968). 14. R. Lynds, S. P. Maran, D. E. Trumbo. Astrophys. J. Lett. 155, L121 (1969). 15. S. Bowyer, E. T. Byram, T. A. Chubb. H. Friedman, Science 146, 912 (1964). 16. I am indebted to G. Field for lending me a slide from the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory; it was shown during my spoken address. 17. D. Overbye, Sky Telescope 58, 510 (1979). 18. R. A. Schorn, ibid. 62, 100 (1981). 19. G. R. Burbidge, in Proceedings IAU Symposium 9, R. N. Bracewill, Ed. (Stanford Univ. Press, Stanford, Calif., 1959), p. 541. 20. A. C. S. Readhead, Nature (London), 272, 133 (1978). 21. R. D. Blandford, M. C. Begelman, M. J. Rees. Sci. Am. 246, 124 (May 1982). 22. W. Baade and R. Minkowski, Astrophys. J. 119, 215 (1954). 23. P. Kronberg et al.,. in preparation. The radio source is 3C 303. 24. R. Carson, Silent Spring (Houghton Mifflin, Boston, 1962). 25. H. Alfvén, Science, Progress and Destruction (Nobel Symposium. 1978). 26. R. K. Lester Radiat. Res. 91, 1 (1982). 27. F. C. Shapiro, Radwaste (Random House, New York, 1981). 28. A. Huxley, Ape and Essence (Chatto & Windus, London, 1949). 29. N. Shute, On The Beach (Morrow, New York, 1957) 30. 1. S. Shklovskii and C. Sagan, Intelligent Life in the Universe (Holden-Day, San Francisco, 1966), pp. 358 and 412. 31. S. von Hoerner, in Interstellar Communication A. G. W. Cameron, Ed. (Benjamin, New York 1963), pp. 272-286. 32. The New York Times 11 June 1963, p. 16. 33. G. K. O'Neill, The High Frontier: Human Colonies in Space (Morrow, New York, 1977). 34. F. J. Dyson, Disturbing the Universe (Harper & Row, New York. 1979). 35. M. Webb, Precious Bane (Cape, London, 1928). book 4, chapter 2. 36. I thank many friends and colleagues for help advice, references, and material, especially J. R. Arnold, R. B. Livingston. H. Alfvén, C. Sagan, G. Burbidge, G. Field, and R. ordeal. Most of the slide I showed during my spoken address can be obtained from sets available from the NASA publications office, Lick Observatory, Kitt Peak National Observatory, California Institute of Technology, and Carnage Institution of Washington. Selected sets of solar-system slides are also available from the Astronomical Society of the Pacific office in San Francisco.

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In suspension, a method usually applied to very large polymers, monomers that are relatively insoluble in the suspending medium (generally water) are dispersed as liquid droplets. The suspension is maintained by agitators with the aid of suspending agents, and the polymer leaves the reactor in the form of a slurry. Actually polymerization proceeds as a bulk polymerization in manufacture; each globule being a separate reactor with a large surface to volume ratio facilitating heat transfer. The water suspending medium is a good heat transfer agent being easily cooled by contact with the heat transfer surface (generally the reactor walls), initiators, monomer soluble, are used. The system is supplied with soap-type stabilizers to assist in keeping the polymerizing droplets distinct from each other. Removal of the heat of polymerization is easy in small reactors, but becomes a problem in larger ones due to the declining ratio of side wall heat transfer area to volume. Two methods are employed to increase heat transfer. A suspending medium reflux is available if the refluxing temperatures will yield a satisfactory molecular weight distribution. Internal cooling coils can be used if the fouling is not an excessive problem. During the course of the reaction, the polymerizing droplets exhibit various degrees of “stickiness” which foul the vessel’s heat transfer surfaces and threaten destruction of the reacting system if these sticky droplets are not kept apart by the agitation intensity. At the completion of the reaction, the polymer is freed from the stabilizer by washing, commonly accomplished during the phase where the unreacted monomer is stripped from the polymer. Since the polymer granules are of good size (typically 100 mesh), they can frequently be used directly. This method of polymerization is particularly suitable for the production of hard, glass-like vinyl polymers from vinyl chloride and vinylidene chlorides such as PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride) as well as most if not all thermoplastic resins.

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Like what you see? Ask us for a full-length preview and pricing options for our entire course catalog Request full preview The type of air conditioning methods and equipment used is determined by the building occupancy. For example, office areas would typically use HVAC equipment with distribution ducting equipped with fans, cooling and heating coils, humidity control equipment, and necessary filters. While in manufacturing areas, supply fans with inlet filters direct air through steam, or glycol heating coils in cold climates. On the wet end of paper machines where exhaust air streams contain large amounts of water and fiber particles, separators may be used to separate water droplets and contaminants from the exhaust air stream before entering the fan. Separators are essential to prevent ice formation on building roofs in cold climates.

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Trying to form a proportion? Enable yourself to differentiate rates from ratios and solve proportions using the appropriate methods. Grades K-8 Worksheets. Reduce the ratios in each pair to the lowest terms, and determine if they are proportional or not. The printable worksheets listed below help … Draw a graph through the points to ascertain whether x and y values are in proportional relationship. Proving trigonometric identities worksheet. Now, all the above four ratios are equal. Begin your proportions practice with our free worksheets! Difference between fraction and ratio. The use of proportions is a practical math skill that students often struggle with. Estimating percent worksheets Our proportions worksheets review whole number and decimal proportions as well as provide simple proportion word problems. It can come many forms such as 3 out of 4 equal parts or 3:4, but fundamentally it is a fraction. The quantities a, b, c, d are called terms of the proportion; a, b, c and d are called its first, second, third and fourth terms respectively. 6 lbs of potatoes cost $12.90. How much gasoline will it need to go 78 miles? This series of printable proportion worksheets are prepared specifically for learners of grade 6, grade 7, and grade 8. If a, b, c are in continuous proportion, then the middle term b is called the mean proportional between a and c, a is the first proportional and c is the third proportional. Further, plug in this value in the equation y = kx to express the proportional relationship between x and y. View Premium Worksheets. Ratio and Proportion Worksheet. You need to generate two equivalent ratios with these numbers to form a proportion. You can generate the worksheets either in html or PDF format — both are easy to print. How far can it travel on 5.6 gallons? Additional title & instructions (HTML allowed). A car travels 98 miles in 1.4 hours (with a constant speed). Displaying top 8 worksheets found for - Grade 7 Ratio And Proportion. Form a Proportion from a Set of Five Numbers. Each question in this practice worksheet contains a set of four numbers. Count on this myriad collection of exercises to give you oodles of informed practice forming proportions by creating equivalent ratios and identifying whether two ratios are proportional or not. Using cross product rule, we have b2 = ac. Complementary and supplementary word problems worksheet. Area and perimeter worksheets. In a proportion a : b = c : d, all the four quantities need not be of the same type. Ratios and Proportions Worksheets What's the Difference Between a Ratio and a Proportion? This printable exercise is fully equipped to help students recognize the term 'rate' as a specific ratio used to compare quantities with different units. Also, acquaint them with the constant of proportionality 'k' and the proportional relationship between two variables 'y = kx'. 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What is OWASP? OWASP or Open Web Application Security Project is an online community dedicated to web application security. The community works towards finding the most critical web application security flaws. The issues reported by OWASP are often easy to find and exploit and hence it is a cause of worry for all businesses. These are specific issues that vulnerability detection services like Appknox use to help pinpoint areas of weakness and stop security issues before they happen. OWASP has many different projects under its umbrella, one of which is the OWASP Top 10 Project. What is OWASP Top 10 The goal of the Top 10 project is to raise awareness about application security by identifying some of the most critical risks facing organizations. The Top 10 project is referenced by many standards, books, tools, and organizations, including MITRE, PCI DSS, DISA, FTC, and many more. The OWASP Top 10 represents a broad consensus about what the most critical web application security flaws are. Project members include a variety of security experts from around the world who have shared their expertise to produce this list. The OWASP Top 10 provides: - A list of the 10 Most Critical Web Application Security Risks And for each Risk it provides: - A description - Example vulnerabilities - Example attacks - Guidance on how to avoid - References to OWASP and other related resources The Top 10 Vulnerabilities As per the last update, here are the top vulnerabilities as reported by OWASP, arranged in order of severity: A2. Broken Authentication and Session Management (XSS) A3. Cross Site Scripting (XSS) A4. Insecure Direct Object References A5. Security Misconfiguration A6. Sensitive Data Exposure A7. Missing Function Level Access Control A8. Cross Site Request Forgery (CSRF) A9. Using Components with Known Vulnerabilities A10. Unvalidated Redirects and Forwards Our next article in this series is about the top 10 mobile security risks as defined by the OWASP Top 10 Project for Mobile. Here’s the link to the complete list of security guidelines under the OWASP Top 10. To stay updated on the latest happenings in the mobile security ecosystem, you can subscribe to the Appknox blog by entering your email address below.

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As we have three variables, the level set is a level surface. It is given by the equation As this is quadratic in x, y, and z, the result is a quadric. (completing the square for x and y) The resulting geometric surface should be easy to see (hint: remember the distance formula).

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Medication-Related Osteonecrosis of the Jaw Also know as MRONJ, this disease is an adverse bone reaction , particularly in the upper and lower jaws, consisting of progressive bone destruction. Patients are usually under current or previous treatment with medications with antiresorptive and/or antiangiogenic medications. Antiresorptive medications manage cancer-related conditions, osteoporosis, and osteopenia. Antiangiogenic medications interfere with the formation of new blood vessels, mitigating the effects of certain tumors. Since 2003, the effects of MRONJ have been recognized and has been associated with the following: - Current or previous treatment with antiresorptive or antiangiogenic medications - Bone exposure or communication (intraoral or extraoral) in the jaws that persist for a time period greater than 8 weeks - No obvious metastatic disease or radiation treatment to the jaws It is important to realize that MRONJ may also be confused with other clinical conditions. The oral and maxillofacial surgeon is uniquely qualified to clinical assess and treat such conditions.

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Sharing Economy that corresponds to changing values One of the things that we who are engaged in research on transportation are interested in is the sharing economy. This is because it has a great influence on the transportation system as well. For example, people, especially young people in urban areas, started shunning private car ownership more than 10 years ago, and we began to recognize that this phenomenon was not temporary. One of the reasons is that people’s values on private cars have changed, along with relatively good public transportation in metropolitan areas. The younger the generation, the more they have begun to realize that owning a car is not worth its high purchase cost and maintenance cost. Of course, the demand for cars has not completely disappeared. That’s why the use of cars has diversified, starting with rental cars used for weekend leisure or at a destination after travelling by airplane or train, then, moving to car sharing, whereby people can use a car light-heartedly on a daily basis and only when they need to. Behind this is a change in values. The sluggish growth of income is another possible reason. In the era of rapid economic growth, when incomes were steadily increasing, cars were not only a means of transportation but also a kind of testament to self-expression and status. However, now that economic growth has stopped, the priority for expenditure is shifting to other uses, such as communications. In the midst of more individualized and diversified mobility needs, there is a limit to dealing with it by simply owing a car. Owning a car is already no longer a tool for individuality and self-expression. There is an idea that transportation is the derived demand. If your intended purpose is to do something after traveling from point A to point B, you can actually use any means of transportation. People choose transportation that suits their will while balancing the costs and benefits such as faster, cheaper, and easier transportation. In that choice, people began to see the value of owning a car as not paying dividends and started to choose the way as sharing. Automakers are also making efforts to deal with this changing need. For example, they sell cars for sharing. However, overseas automobile sales are already much higher than domestic sales, which means there is no future if they only think of the domestic market. In short, systems that were built to meet the needs of the times during the rapid economic growth period are now required to take new measures to respond to changes in needs caused by slow growth, population decline, and an aging population. In the face of this situation, the entire automobile-related industry is forced to reconsider the value of automobiles. However, what is important here is to consider how to make use of existing facilities, rather than building new things from scratch. Building from scratch is costly and needs time to respond to changes. In this sense, we can say a system that proposes a new way of using existing private cars is an approach to respond to new values. The way of Sharing Economy on cargo and passengers The transportation system in underpopulated areas also needs to change. Japan’s total population continues to decline, and more than half of the population is concentrated in three major metropolitan areas. This means the population decline in rural areas is serious, and it also affects public transportation. In short, it is not profitable owing to the small number of passengers. Meanwhile, public transportation, such as buses, is a valuable means of transportation, especially for the elderly. Therefore, local governments have taken measures to cover the transportation deficit, but if they cannot bear the burden, they have no choice but to discontinue the line. However, this then leads to the deterioration of the living environment of the residents. In other words, even here, the transportation system that was built in the times when there were many users does not function and is forced to change. Tips for change can be found abroad. For example, if you go to a rural town in Bolivia, you will notice that there are no trucks running. This is because goods are transported from La Paz, the capital, to the countryside, but there are very little goods transported from the countryside to the capital. So, if they take goods from the capital to the countryside by truck, they have to drive back with nothing in the truck, which is very inefficient. So a long-distance bus carries goods with passengers. Even if there are no goods to be transported, there are always bus passengers from the countryside to the capital. In short, they make profit by consolidating cargo and passengers. In fact, the system of mixed loading of cargo and passengers is common in developing countries, and Switzerland in Europe has also introduced a postbus, which transports cargo and passengers. This is because it makes sense for the region. In Japan, mixed loading of cargo and passengers has been regulated by law. However, in recent years, the government has examined deregulation, experimentally introducing it in underpopulated areas. The point is that effective use of existing facilities and systems to meet new needs can lead to faster responses than building a transportation system that meets modern needs from scratch. Sharing the benefits of BRI (Belt and Road Initiative) When looking at the world, I take notice of the influence of China’s Belt and Road Initiative on global logistics. The Belt and Road Initiative tends to be taken politically, but from the viewpoint of logistics, it is also a policy to develop transport infrastructure in countries and regions that have been falling behind until now. Although it is apt to be thought of as eventually aiming to sell products made in China around the world, we can view it differently from the perspective of today’s global supply chain. For example, Japanese companies are now expanding into all areas of the world. One of the countries where many Japanese companies are expanding into is China. Especially for the manufacturing industry, the Chinese environment, which covers light and heavy industries in addition to relatively low labor costs, is very favorable. It is also unquestionably a huge market. When looking at the sales of products made by Japanese companies located in China by sales channel, we can find that they are mainly divided into those to Japan, those to China, and those to third countries, and that sales volume to China and third countries is greater than those to Japan. In other words, for the Japanese manufacturing industry, China has a suitable environment for production, and as a market, it is more attractive than Japan, where the market is shrinking owing to the declining population. Furthermore, if the Belt and Road Initiative expands transportation infrastructure from within China to surrounding countries, the entire Eurasian Continent, Africa and Europe, Japanese companies will be able to expand their sales channels to third countries. So, what kind of infrastructure has China developed? This can also be seen in figures. For example, Shanghai Port in China handles more containers per year than all of Japan. It is extraordinary. China has made enormous investments every year in the development of such ports and airports, as well as railroads and roads that cross the Eurasian Continent. It would be a waste for Japanese companies not to take advantage of this global transportation network. Meanwhile, there is a concern that Japanese manufacturing will flow out to China, and the domestic manufacturing industry will decline. However, just as markets in developed countries, including Japan, have shifted from mass to individualization and diversification, markets in developing countries, which are now starting to expand, will shift in that direction sooner or later. The manufacturing industry in China is good at mass production for mass markets, and because there is the need in all over the world, China is developing a global logistics infrastructure. However, when looking to the future, I think Japan can continuously demonstrate its presence by improving its high value-added manufacturing and research and development capabilities. There was the time when an increasing number of large refrigerators made in China was exported to the United States, and China began to increase its strength in trade with the United States. However, the high-performance compressor, which is the core component of these large refrigerators, was made by Japanese companies. Of course, this compressor is the most valuable component of these refrigerators. In other words, at first glance, Chinese companies that exported a large amount of large products stand out, but Japanese companies achieved results. The uniqueness, the development and technological capabilities to create high added values, and meticulous manufacturing are major characteristics of Japan. In order to make the most of this, Japan does not need to develop global logistics infrastructure from scratch because China is now developing it. Aside from political intentions, I think sharing, in other words a system to take advantage of in the business world, will become a strategy that Japan can capitalize on. * The information contained herein is current as October 2020. * The contents of articles on Meiji.net are based on the personal ideas and opinions of the author and do not indicate the official opinion of Meiji University. * I work to achieve SDGs related to the educational and research themes that I am currently engaged in. Information noted in the articles and videos, such as positions and affiliations, are current at the time of production.

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The authors describe a cross-curricular investigation into meteor impacts in the engaging context of craters on the Moon. Bryony uses her experience as a Space Ambassador to recommend, and provide links to, resources that use space as a context for teaching across the Dave Eagle, STEM Ambassador, amateur astronomer and mobile planetarium operator, gives his views on the importance of teaching about space and spac Dr Leigh Hoath 'The conundrum we face is ensuring children are taught the science they need to form a literate society, while the science is running away from the Dr Leigh Hoath Holly Bestley from the Zoological Society of London outlines how technology can help make the most of exploring the natural world. Jen and Steve Smyth highlight how you can support your science teaching trains your next stop announcing the next stop in your classroom! Kate reflects on her school's journey in engaging children in engineering and technology. Leonardo Colletti explores how teaching activities looking at the physics concept of rotations can support learning about movement and the solar sy Liz highlights the importance of meeting all the demands of teaching design and technology when it is often taught alongside science. What does effective ‘Environmental’ or ‘Sustainability Education’ look like? How does this link to best practice STEM education? Martin Wesley describes a workshop for supporting the teaching and learning of Earth and Space.

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The second annual World Elephant Day Aug 12 is here! It’s a day to bring people together to help elephants. It’s also a day to remind us that the world’s elephants are in crisis. Since the first World Elephant Day one year ago, has anything changed? Ivory poaching and trafficking crimes, and human-elephant conflict tragedies have continued to escalate taking the lives of both elephants and humans in Africa and Asia. In countries such as Sumatra and Sri Lanka, much of the endangered Asian elephants’ remaining precious habitat is being bulldozed down to make room for palm oil plantations or superhighways, all in the name of development. Although in countries from continental Africa and Asia to the USA there have been some poachers arrested, and tons of smuggled illegal ivory seized, this has made little impact on the multi-billion dollar black market industry that continues to drive the trade. It’s clear that enforcement policies and penalties are still too weak to make a difference to the kingpins behind the scenes. Meanwhile anti-poaching squads in African countries such as Kenya, Zambia and the Democratic Republic of the Congo bravely risk their lives to stop the poachers, but in many cases are no match for these heavily armed gunmen. Much about these issues has been reported by scores of journalists, advocates and conservation NGOs, from the big to the small. There are countless organizations that have been tirelessly working at all levels to bring attention to these issues and to what we can do about it. At the political level, some government leaders are starting to acknowledge the impacts and scope of the illegal wildlife trade. Political will, policy changes, stepping-up law enforcement and cooperation between all the stakeholder countries is ultimately necessary to stop wildlife crime. Working through this complexity is going to take time but we must be aware that time is something that the elephants do not have. Optimistically, one positive development that has evolved over this past year has been a steady increase in public awareness about the severity of these issues and the pending demise of not only the elephants, but many other animals such as wolves, rhinos, lions, tigers, gorillas, sharks, dolphins, whales, pangolin, pandas – and the list goes on and on. It seems that elephants evoke the deepest emotional response in people and brings into focus the urgency of these issues. Elephants are the beacon, the iconic keystone species that touches the hearts of people worldwide and calls attention to what needs to remain wild and protected from the accelerating demands of global greed. While the big NGOs campaign against these atrocities and lobby governments to take action on the international stage, it is increasingly important to recognize the role of the ordinary person and what we can do to make a difference. When united, ordinary people become an unassuming army of passionate advocates who are free from politics and bureaucracies. Like the approach of a distant rumbling thunder, ordinary people have been independently and steadily building a grassroots movement to speak out for not only elephants, but all animals and nature. Much of this grassroots awareness exists because of social media. In this parallel universe of cyberspace, information and sentiments can be shared across borders and time zones. If awareness, sentiment and corresponding thoughts are real things than these are the seeds of future action. On October 4 2013 the International March for Elephants, as part of the iWorry campaign of the David Sheldrick Wildlife Trust, will hold marches in thirteen cities around the world. On this day the awareness shared among thousands through social media will be transformed into peaceful action. Not since the “Save the Whales” movement of the 1970s and ’80s have people come out into the streets to stand up for animals on the brink of extinction. In tandem to the “official” iWorry campaign, also on October 4th there are independent marches planned in twelve other cities – and the list is growing. The most active is the March for Elephants San Francisco, the core group of dedicated and passionate advocates who are leading the way for a movement on behalf of the elephants. What can you do to help bring about change on World Elephant Day? Consider looking at elephants in photographs and film, reading insightful literature and accounts of their behavior, learning about their nature and sharing it with others, especially children. You will discover that elephants are kindred spirits. They have many of the qualities that we should aspire to have ourselves. They are kind, gentle, powerful and vulnerable, and surprisingly respectful of us. You may be compelled to join this growing international community of concerned citizens who are the spokespeople that the elephants may be calling for – those who wish to protect the elephants and other animals from the crimes that are threatening humanity’s global natural heritage. It’s up to all of us across the spectrum of societies and nations – from government leaders to conservation organizations to ordinary people – to stand up for the elephants and their habitat and speak out for what we know we must save. Will the elephants know? We think they will.

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How Shelter Research Can Save Lives There are a growing number of pounds and shelters in Australia which have achieved a live release rate of over 90% for dogs, and over 80% for cats. Implementing evidence-based best practice can achieve live release rates over 90% (less than 10% euthanased) for both dogs and cats. Animal welfare and government agencies are spending around $250 million every year on the unwanted pet problem, yet approximately 100,000 adoptable and treatable dogs and cats are euthanased in pounds and shelters every year in Australia. To tackle the problem of unnecessary euthanasia, targeted strategies are needed that reduce the intake of lost and unwanted pets into shelters and pounds. When this is combined with strategies to increase the number of lost pets reunited with their owner and homeless pets placed in a forever home, more animals can be saved. Animal welfare shelters and pounds are chronically underfunded, resulting in high work-loads. Often they do not have the time or knowledge to acquire evidence about the most cost-effective strategies to reduce the numbers of animals euthanased. Shelter medicine is a rapidly expanding area in veterinary science in the US and UK. That’s because it works! It works to assist animal welfare and government agencies to implement evidence-based strategies that significantly improve outcomes for animals in shelters and pounds. Funding for shelter medicine is largely non-existent in Australia. The Australian Pet Welfare Foundation is the only organisation in Australia dedicated to funding this critical research. We need at least $2 million per year for the next 10 years. This will fund lifesaving research to fill critical gaps in knowledge and will provide governments, animal welfare agencies, veterinarians and the community with science based strategies to save more lives. People wishing to surrender a cat are asked to hold their pet until a place comes up at the shelter. In the meantime, the SPCA helps them to resolve behavioural and health issues and address desexing, if required. This simple strategy utilises the community as part of the solution to the problem.The results of this new practice have been profound! Those pets whose owners held them until a shelter place could be found, were twice as likely to be rehomed by the owners as by shelters – and 14% of those who participated decided to keep their cat. The result of this simple approach was that NO healthy cat was euthanased and 96% of sick and injured cats were also rehomed. Funding for innovative shelter medicine programs like this is urgently required in Australia to help our shelters implement practices that will dramatically reduce euthanasia rates. Every year… every week…and every day we delay implementing these strategies, dogs and cats are dying needlessly. YOU can help save these innocent animals by supporting the Australian Pet Welfare Foundation.

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At age 29 in 1903, James Kraft, the founder of Kraft Foods, found himself stranded in Chicago with $65 in his pocket. The Canadian-born businessman had come to Chicago to check on a branch of a Buffalo, New York cheese company that he worked for. But while he was in Chicago his colleagues dissolved their partnership with him. Kraft invested his $65 in a horse named "Paddy" and a wagon and started a new food distribution business. Everyday he bought cheeses from warehouses on South Water Street. He knew how perishable cheese was and he wanted to resell fresh cheese to small grocery stores as fast as he could as early in the day as possible. The service was valuable to merchants who did not have the time to make the trip themselves and Kraft the man and his company soon prospered. Just six years later in 1909 his brothers John, Charles, Fred, and Norman were all working for James Kraft as president of a new company called JL Kraft Bros Co. Mr. Kraft's investment of $65 in Paddy the horse and a wagon grew over the years. At present, Kraft Foods is the second-largest food and beverage company in the world with net revenues of $34 billion and more than 94,000 employees in 70 countries. The company headqarters is still based in Illinois with offices in Northfield. James Lewis Kraft was born in 1874 on a farm in Ontario as the second of 11 children who were brought up with the religious teachings of Mennonite parents. At the age of 18, he took a job at Ferguson's grocery store in Fort Erie, Ontario and later invested in the cheese company in Buffalo, New York. It was the Buffalo partners that sent him to Chicago before parting company with him. By 1909, Kraft was looking for certain qualities in cheese to give it a longer shelf life at the retail store and a more uniform flavor. According to a Kraft Foods history site in Australia, "Until that time cheddar cheese, which was the most widely sold variety in the United States, either moulded or dried quickly so there was excessive waste. It also varied greatly in taste, much of it having a strong or bitter flavour that was unpalatable." "From the small beginnings of selling a few standard varieties of cheese wholesale, the company was distributing within a few years some 30 varieties of cheese packaged under the brand names of Kraft and Elkhorn, and by 1914 the cheeses were available in most towns across the United States. The company also began to manufacture its own products, including new and traditional varieties of cheese. Most of its new cheeses were packaged in glass jars or in foil-wrapped packages." As a result of constant experimentation throughout the years to give cheese longer lasting qualities, James Kraft's major contribution to the cheese industry was processed cheese. His work resulted in a good and nutritious food product that could be packaged without waste, with uniform quality, and could still be sold in convenient sizes. By 1915, Kraft sold $5,000 worth of pasteurised cheese in tins for export to India and Asia. The next year sales went up to $150,000. According to Kraft Foods Australia, the new processed cheese product was ideal for shipment over long distances. The US Government ordered more than 6 million pounds of Kraft cheese in small tin cans to feed soldiers during World War I. A patent for what became known as processed cheese was granted to Kraft in 1916. The Phenix Cheese Company, famous for Philadelphia cream cheese, had been working on a similar process to produce and package Swiss cheese but did not file its patent in time. But in 1921, James Kraft agreed to share the patent rights and in 1928 the two companies were united as the Kraft-Phenix Cheese Corporation. "The rapid growth of the company prompted Kraft to extend its production into other areas of the United States. Later the company had cheese production facilities in 23 states and the production efforts of farmers' cooperatives in others. After the processed cheese was launched on a national scale, Kraft added to its line the mass production of such specialty cheeses such as Edam, Gouda and blue cheese." "In 1920, Kraft purchased MacLaren's Imperial Cheese Co Ltd and began selling processed cheese in tins and loaves in Canada on a national scale. The Canadian company was used to export Kraft products to Europe until operations were established in England and Germany. James Kraft and Fred Walker met in August 1925, and in 1926 the Kraft Walker Cheese Company in Australia was formed." From its earliest Chicago days, the rapid and continued growth of what was to become the world's second largest food company was brought about by its new product development and the use of innovative advertising methods. James Kraft was an early user of all communications media and, as early as 1911, was advertising on Chicago elevated trains, using outdoor billboards and mailing circulars to retail grocers. He was among the first to advertise in consumer journals and to use coloured advertisements in national magazines. It was not common in the early 1900s for products such as cheese to be sold direct to the consumer under a brand name but Kraft borrowed from the success of that idea and practiced by another Chicago businessman, Oscar Mayer, who sold meats under his own name. In 1933, Kraft started to use radio on an extensive scale. The company sponsored the one-hour weekly musical and variety show 'Kraft Musical Review', which headlined notable show business personalities. New products such as Miracle Whip salad dressing (1933), Kraft macaroni and cheese dinner (1936), and Parkay margarine (1937) were introduced through the 'Kraft Music Hall' and became immediate favorites. During those years the company also added to its line Kraft caramels, marshmallows, and jams and jellies. "While in his seventies, James Kraft helped create one of the first major television programs, the 'Kraft Television Theatre', which was said to have set audience and studio production records. The show ran from 1947 until 1958." After 50 years in business in Illinois, James Kraft died in Chicago in 1953, survived by his wife Pauline and daughter Edith. Like Oscar Mayer Meat Company, and Post Cereals that began in Springfield, Kraft Foods today is part of a conglomerate of food companies under the Illinois-based Altria companies.

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Hardcover ISBN: 0-595-67342-2 | Paperback ISBN:1-58348-072-2 | iUniverse.com 269 pages text | 10 pages pictures | Published Oct. 2005 | rated teen to adult This study guide is copyrighted March 2005 by Lorna Collier |TABLE OF CONTENTS |USING THE BOOK IN |BEFORE READING THE BOOK IN "TILLI'S STORY" |PEOPLE TO KNOW |THEME PAPER/ESSAY TOPICS |DIE GEDANKEN SIND FREE |MAP OF POST-WAR GERMANY |ADDING TO THE STUDY GUIDE "Tilli's Story: My Thoughts Are Free" by Lorna Collier and Tilli Schulze, is the true story of a young German girl's life growing up in eastern Germany during and after World War II, before her escape to freedom at age 16. The book is unusual in its depiction of life for ordinary, non-Jewish Germans living in rural areas, many of whom were powerless against the Nazi regime. It also is unusual in showing what life was like for eastern Germans after the Soviets imposed the Iron Curtain. "Tilli's Story" is rated teen through adult. Due to its depictions of rape and other war violence, it is not appropriate in its entirety for elementary schoolchildren. The authors recommend it for high school and college students, although some middle-school students also will be mature enough for its content. Teacher discretion is advised. The book is not intended to be a historical guide to the war, but rather a personal story, used as a textbook adjunct. Its strongest message for readers is that democratic freedoms must not be taken for granted. "Tilli's Story" will show students: Because "Tilli's Story" is told through the eyes of a child, beginning when she is 5 and continuing through age 18, it has special appeal to teenage readers. The authors hope it will make WW II history come alive for them, and demonstrate its relevance to modern-day concerns. Here are comments the authors have received from readers that mention using the book in schools. • "This book is absolutely wonderful! It is so interesting to get a different perspective on this time in history. Anyone who has read Anne Frank or seen/read Schindler's List needs to read this too. I would suggest this as a great cross-curriculum novel for high school/college." • "This is a story that must be read by everyone - especially our young people! In a nation where we take our freedoms for granted, this is a fresh reminder that things can change in a heartbeat. This was truly a story of great faith in the face of horrific tragedies - and incredible sacrifice. A truly inspirational read!" • "I could not put the book down. I felt as if I were standing beside Tilli in Germany 60 years ago. The book was so well written. What a riveting story...so intense and interesting. It is unbelievable that such horrible things happened to so many innocent people. I applaud Tilli's courage and convictions. Everyone should read this book. I also think it would be a magnificent educational tool for students learning about Europe during that time period." • "What an amazing story. I was crying with Tilli and her family, smiling when Tilli went to the dance, scared when Tilli was in the attic and walking alone to and from school, every emotion Tilli had is how I felt reading this book. This story ought to be in our school systems. I think our kids could learn a lot from Tilli." • "I find the point of view of a child to be very unique. I could see my [fifth-grade] students relating to it." Although the authors recommend "Tilli's Story" for older students, the book can be used in elementary classrooms. We have heard from third grade and fifth grade teachers who plan to read portions of the book to their students. Both teachers say they will use the book to show students: * what daily life was like for a child their age, living in another country and another time: walking to school in another city (no bus or parents with cars), wearing the same dress to school every day, doing daily chores. * how 'bad people' can take over a country's government and make rules that affect all the people in the country, even when many of the people in the country don't believe in these rules One third-grade teacher in Rockford had this to say about the book: "I'm planning to use it when we do a unit on immigration. A lot of third grade level kids don't realize that there are differences between countries. That's how I would use this. I thought I'd read excerpts showing what school was like for Tilli. Also, when Hitler came to power, how the family was forced to do so many things. A lot of our children can't relate to being forced and not to make their own decisions." A fifth-grade teacher in Belvidere said she would "read snatches of the book when we are studying WW II in the spring." To her, one of the unique qualities of the book is the way it "dispels the belief that everybody in Germany was behind Hitler." Since the book was recently published and most classrooms don't get to the World War II part of their curriculum until later in the year, we don't have feedback yet from teachers concerning the use of the book. However, here are two chapters that would be good to read (at least in part) to younger children: * Chapter 3: This chapter shows what Christmas was like for Tilli's farm family, and can prompt a discussion of Christmas traditions in other cultures and time periods. How would modern-day children like to receive only a pair of handmade mittens, and no toys? * Chapter 5: Tilli starts first grade at a one-room schoolhouse in her village, then is promoted to a more challenging school in a nearby town. The chapter describes what the children are forced to do to celebrate Hitler's birthday. Students can discuss the differences between their school and Tilli's, as well as what their government asks of them compared with the demands the Nazis placed on children in Germany. Students should have familiarity with: * World War II (especially Germany's role) * Hitler and the Nazi Party * The post-war division of Germany by the Allied powers * Stalin, Soviet Communism and the Iron Curtain See the end of this guide for a map showing Germany's post-war borders and a list of other personal stories from World War II survivors. * The importance of freedom -- what people are willing to do to acquire it and to defend it * That most people, in a crisis, will come together to help each other out, often in selfless ways. Not only family members, but also strangers (including war prisoners) helped Tilli and her family; similarly, Tilli's mother helped not only her fellow villagers, but even enemy soldiers who were starving * The suffering of the innocent that occurs in any war. (Just because Tilli's family was German, they didn't support the Nazi Party or its military actions, yet they suffered the effects of the war and its aftermath.) KNOW IN "TILLI'S STORY" * Tilli Horn: Age 5 when WWII begins. Lives in a small farming village in eastern Germany with her family. Loves to read and use her imagination in daydreams. Not particularly good at farm chores, such as milking cows, or domestic tasks, such as sewing. Good student who is promoted to a higher-level school than most other farmchildren. Longs to live in America some day. Very brave and strong; is not destroyed by traumatic experiences, but moves past them to achieve her goals. * "Mami," Regina Horn: Tilli's mother, whom she calls "Mami." Strong woman whose first loyalty is to her family. She makes pragmatic choices in order to ensure her family's safety, rather than engaging in futile protests of Nazi policies that will only serve to endanger her and her loved ones. She helps anybody who needs it -- whether it's a starving Russian prisoner of war, a refugee family that needs a home, a neighbor girl dying of typhoid, a little orphan boy who needs a home. She arranges her daughter's escape, even though it means she might never see her again. * Tilli's siblings, all older than she is: Hugo (her deaf brother, who lives most of the time in a faraway town in order to attend deaf school); Helmut (her biological brother); Heinz (her adopted brother); Paula (her sister). * Tilli's friends: Klara, who lives next door; Henni, who warns her of the Communist threat against her; Ilse, her school friend from Gnoien. * Tilli's father: A distant and unpleasant man. Not a good father. Does not want her to continue her education. Protests loudly against Hitler, but at a cost to his family -- he is drafted early in the war. Joins forbidden Seventh Day Adventist Church, has affair with church woman. Eventually deserts the family. * Jan: French prisoner of war who helps the family farm their land during the war, and also ensures the girls' safety by creating a secret attic in the family home. Though brusque and prickly, he works hard for the family when he did not need to do so. * Maria: Russian prisoner of war who arrives at the Horn home as a teenager, and who also works hard to help them, teaching them how to spin wool and trying to protect them when the Russian soldiers invaded the village. It is fall 1944 in eastern Germany. A 10-year-old girl named Tilli Horn lies in bed next to her mother, listening in horror as bombs fall nearby. There are no bomb shelters in her small farming village. Their house has no basement. All she can do is hope the bombs don't hit her home. She retreats into her memories. World War II begins in 1939, with Hitler's invasion of Poland. Tilli learns about the war while playing in a kindergarten sandbox, at age five. She sees how concerned her parents are and wonders what war will bring, but is not terribly worried. The chapter introduces Tilli's parents and her siblings (her sister, Paula, and brothers Heinz and Helmut; Hugo, who is deaf, lives at a special school in another town). Tilli's godfather, Wilhelm, who works on their farm, is drafted. The entire village of Doelitz, where she lives, turns out to say good-bye to him as he walks to the train. He is the first man drafted to fight in the war; later, as more men from the tiny village are called to serve, the leave-takings become more commonplace. Christmas in 1939 is tinged with sadness, but still rich with tradition. The children leave their shoes outside for St. Nicholas earlier in December; if they've been good, they receive treats, but if they've been bad, they get coal or a switch. The Christmas tree is decorated with fruit, nuts and candles. Families celebrate on Christmas Eve, singing carols and reading the Bible together. Presents are modest: socks, mittens (hand-made), and are believed to be left by the "Christkindl," or Christ child. Shortly after Christmas, Tilli's family learns Wilhelm has been killed in the war. Tilli's mother begins attending Nazi Party women's meetings. She is given a silver cross to wear and also gets a Hitler picture to put on the wall at home. Tilli's father disagrees with these encroachments and tells her to stop going to meetings and to remove the picture, which she at first does. But then the Nazi Party officials threaten Tilli's mother by telling her that Hugo (Tilli's deaf brother) will be castrated if Tilli's mother does not join this Nazi organization. So the Hitler picture goes back up and Tilli's mother resumes her Nazi Party attendance. Tilli starts school in Doelitz, but advances so quickly that her teacher recommends she go to a more challenging school in the nearby town of Gnoien. Tilli is nervous and at first resists going, but once she starts, enjoys it. She loves learning and makes new friends. Because Gnoien is a bigger city than Doelitz, Nazi policies are enforced, so she learns to do the "Heil Hitler" salute and endures long hours at an official Hitler birthday celebration. She remembers when her Aunt Liesel took her for a shopping trip to Gnoien and encountered a Jewish shopkeeper, but was too frightened to make a purchase, having already realized that Jewish people were under suspicion by the Nazis. Tilli experiences her first air-raid drill while in school in Gnoien. She goes to her friend Ilse's house until it is over, since there are no bomb shelters in the town. She finds the experience frightening, but is assured no real bombs will fall, since the town is too small for enemies to care about. Tilli learns her new teacher's husband, a minister, was taken away by soldiers (probably to a concentration camp) after refusing to put out a Hitler flag or say "Heil Hitler." Her teacher ends religion lessons in school, on Hitler's orders. After a gypsy carnival comes to town, Tilli learns her father has been having an affair with a woman who is active in the Seventh Day Adventist Church, a denomination banned by Hitler. Tilli's father is drafted, which is unusual, since farmers typically were spared; Tilli's family assumes he is drafted as punishment for his Adventist beliefs and his anti-Hitler statements. With Tilli's father gone to war, the work on the farm falls to her teen-aged brothers and her mother, until a new worker arrives: a French prisoner of war named Jan, who is assigned to work at their farm. Jan assumes command of the farm, which Tilli's mother allows. Tilli thinks Jan dislikes her. He disapproves of the way she loves to read, and can't understand her inability to milk cows. Tilli works hard at some chores, but can't resist escaping into a world of books whenever she can, despite Jan's disapproval. A rich girl named Margaret Timm first invites and then dis-invites Tilli to a birthday party. Tilli feels looked-down-upon due to being a farm girl; she wears the same clothes every day and can't help always feeling a bit dirty. Planes fly over Gnoien, prompting an air-raid warning. No bombs fall, but the planes drop "camouflage strips" to disguise their daytime presence. Jan tinkers with the family's radio so that they can receive "Germany Calling," an uncensored radio program forbidden by Hitler, which belies the lies Hitler's government is telling its people about the progress of the war. Tilli starts giving away her lunch to hungry children at her school in Gnoien, but doesn't tell her mother. A school friend finds ration tickets and treats Tilli to a bakery treat. The girls are discovered and punished; Tilli's mother also is told, so Tilli must deal with her anger and disappointment. Tilli turns 9 in April 1943 and has the first birthday party of her life, which she shares with her friend Klara, who turns 11 the same day. In June, a girl from Berlin comes to stay with Tilli's family, sent by the government, which is trying to provide safe havens for the children in that heavily bombed city; the girl is too traumatized to talk with them, and leaves after a few weeks. When school starts, Tilli learns she needs to prove she is not Jewish in order to be able to take the promotion exam, which will allow her to advance in school. Her mother scours court records, going back to the 14th century, and proves the family has no Jewish blood. Tilli is allowed to continue her education, which means she can keep learning English, which she wants to do in order to move to America some day. The Nazi Party gives the Horns a prisoner to stay in their home and do whatever work they desire. The prisoner is a 16-year-old Russian girl, who is bruised, shaved bald, and arrives wearing all the clothes she owns, one dress on top of another. The girl's name is Maria. Maria teaches the family to spin yarn into wool, a valuable skill. Tilli passes her high school exam, meaning her education can continue. Paula, who had been working for a farmer in East Prussia, comes home, but quickly gets another job, with a rich count 15 miles away, sparing her from the draft (the Nazis are drafting women, too). Tilli's father is briefly furloughed and comes home to find Jan running the farm. The men dislike each other. Paula brings a young man named Erich home to visit, and tells her mother she is engaged. Paula and Mami argue. Paula storms off, back to the count's estate. Mami sends Tilli to visit Paula, bearing a peacekeeping gift of a ham. Tilli rides 15 miles on her bicycle, finally finding the count's estate. She spends the rest of the day and evening in a fabulous mansion with a wealthy, but lonely, girl named Victoria, before returning home to Doelitz -- wondering about the discrepancies between wealthy and poor that exist in Germany. Tilli turns 10 and must join the Hitler German Girls, a mandatory youth organization. Most of the meetings are spent singing songs glorifying Hitler. That summer, Tilli and her family go haymaking. It is one of the last happy days she has for a long time. Tilli joins her friend, Lori Pech, in meeting the train each day, hoping Lori's father, missing in the war, will be on it. One day they see a train car filled with injured German soldiers in bad shape. Tilli's mother gives them food to feed the soldiers. Another day, Lori's father is indeed on the train, and the two reunite. The Horns are assigned a refugee to house, named Frau Hoppe. She moves into Tilli's room; Tilli moves in with her mother. Tilli and Lori continue visiting the train station and one day discover a car full of starving Russian prisoners of war. Tilli's mother feeds them as well. Herr Pech returns to battle, never to be seen again. The harbor town of Rostock (30 miles away) is bombed. Tilli's family can see it from their windows, lighting up the sky. While huddled together in the dark, Tilli's mother tells her children the story of her life, and Tilli learns for the first time that her mother had a child before she married Tilli's father -- a girl, named Dora, who is Tilli's half-sister. The Horns' horse, Max, is very ill. The Russians "draft" the Horns' other horse, Moritz, and take him away. Then Max dies, leaving the Horns with no horses to work the farm. Helmut, age 16, is drafted, even though the war is going so badly everyone knows it will be finished soon. A refugee family is assigned to the Horns' already crowded home. Tilli learns Jan has built a secret attic in their house to store a cache of food. The Nazis give the Horns a new horse, Fox, who has a ripped tongue. Even so, the Horns are able to get one crop of potatoes planted. Gnoien -- less than two miles away -- is hit by a bomb. Tilli's old school, which had been converted to a Red Cross hospital for wounded German soldiers, is hit, killing patients, doctors and nurses. In the waning days of the war, injured soldiers wander the roads in the village, begging for food. Paula comes home. Jan fixes up a wagon for the Horns and packs it with supplies, so that the family can flee. However, the Americans decide not to come closer into eastern Germany, and the Horns know they can't make it to an American-protected zone safely, so they decide to stay in Doelitz. The Russians invade Doelitz. Tilli and other girls in the village at first hide in hay bales in the barn, then the next day move to the secret attic Jan built to hide food. It is about three feet high, with no windows. Tilli's mother and Maria stay below. The Russians order the women of the village to go to a dance in their honor. The women dirty their faces with ashes and try to look old and undesirable. The Russians leave the women alone during the dance, but later, some soldiers come back to Tilli's house and rape Maria. More girls from the village make their way to Tilli's attic hide-out. They tell stories of Russian crimes and atrocities, including other rapes, as well as looting and pillaging. After a time, Tilli takes a break from the attic and comes downstairs to sit in the kitchen. She is spotted by a Russian soldier, who comes to get eggs. She hides again, but he comes back to the house that night, looking for her. Maria, who thinks she is pregnant, is forced to leave with the Russians. Russian soldiers shoot and kill the Horns' dog, Bello. Paula has a breakdown in the attic, thinking she hears her missing fiance, Erich, walking downstairs, when in fact it is Russian soldiers, invading the house yet again. The time in the attic passes slowly, with nothing for the girls to do. Weeks pass. Helmut arrives home. The village -- though still in Russian hands -- seems calmer. The girls leave the attic, but a typhoid epidemic hits. A girl Tilli knows dies and she attends the funeral. Tilli's mother nurses some of the sick people in the village. Then Tilli herself falls ill with typhoid. Tilli is delirious with typhoid, but survives. She returns to school in Doelitz, but has been educated beyond that school. She goes back to school in Gnoien. She must walk to it, since her bicycle was confiscated by the Russians. She finds the teachers mouthing new propaganda -- this time for Stalin, rather than Hitler. Residents must put up Stalin pictures to replace their Hitler pictures. One day walking home from school, Tilli is caught by three drunken soldiers and raped. Tilli deals with post-rape trauma as best she can, telling only her mother and doctor of the attack. She returns to school, even more determined to leave Germany and go to America some day. She takes special English tutoring. The Russians require all residents to get identification cards. News about the Nazi concentration camps begins to be revealed and Tilil's family is shocked. Paula marries Willi, who lost an arm in the war. Tilli, age 14, is confirmed, which means she can finally take her hair out of her schoolgirl braids. She gets a fashionable shorter haircut. Because she is 14, the Russians demand she join the Communist Party. She refuses, thinking it could hurt her attempts to emigrate to America. Her father leaves the family, taking their horse, Astra. Tilli and her family visit Berlin to see Aunt Bertha, who has flown into the American (West German) side of the city. Bertha offers to bring Tilli to America. Tilli returns by herself, hoping to escape, but finds that she can't get the necessary papers to fly out of Berlin. She witnesses the American airlift at Templehof Airport, which saves Berliners from starvation. The sight impresses her greatly. She returns home to Doelitz, unable to escape. Tilli has some happy times at home, being named Harvest Queen of 1950. But the Soviet rules are strictly enforced. Since she has refused to join the Communist Party, she is not allowed to continue her education or to get a job. Her mother sends her to secretarial school, but this doesn't help. Nobody dares hire a non-Communist. Then Henni warns Tilli that the local Communist Party officials discussed her at a meeting and are considering sending her to a "re-education" camp to force her to become a Communist. Tilli hides out at home while her mother comes up with a plan to help her flee the country. Tilli's mother gives her Western money, directions to a farmer's house, and food for the journey. Tilli leaves her family -- possibly forever -- and takes a train trip with her brother-in-law, Willi, to a border town called Wernigerode. Tilli is searched by Russians on the train, but they don't find her Western money, which is hidden inside sandwiches. After the train arrives, Willi is detained by Russian soldiers. Tilli continues her journey by herself, leaving Willi in custody. She eventually finds the farmer her mother has made arrangements with. She spends the night in his barn, then early the next morning, climbs into his wagon. He hides her inside a potato sack. When he crosses the border into West Germany, he is stopped by a Russian soldier, who examines his cargo and his papers. The soldier does not see Tilli. Once past the soldier, she rolls out of the wagon, continues walking, then meets a West German soldier, who tells her she is free. Tilli finds her way to Kassel, where her Aunt Liesel lives. The city has been heavily bombed and damaged. She arrives at Aunt Liesel's apartment and is reunited with her relatives. She cleans and cooks for her aunt and uncle and their boarders, while waiting to get papers that will allow her to get a job. Some officials say she needs to go to a refugee camp, which she doesn't want to do. She tastes some foods for the first time, such as chocolate and oranges. Progress on getting a work permit is slow. A year passes. Tilli gets sick and is depressed and homesick. Finally, the work permit is approved. Tilli gets a job as a waitress. Several men make passes at her, including her Aunt's boarder, Fritz. Tilli then finds out Liesel is having an affair with Fritz, a younger man. Her Uncle Paul leaves. Her application for emigration is being processed. Tilli goes to Hamburg for immunizations. Finally she is approved to leave. Her Aunt Bertha sends her a first-class ticket on a ship called the Italia (all the less-expensive fares are sold out). Tilli borrows clothes, including shoes made of paper, and travels to Cuxhaven, where she sees the Italia in port. Tilli boards the ship, despite being very afraid. She has lunch and meets her tablemates, including a young West German man named Herbert. The band plays "Goodbye, Homeland, Goodbye," and everybody cries. As the ship sails past Cuxhaven, her relatives take a picture of her, with Herbert at her side. Tilli enjoys life on the ship: the fancy meals, with so many foods she has never had before, and the dancing parties in the lower berths. She feels uncomfortable with the first-class passengers, due to her poor clothes, but overall has a grand time, until the ship nears New York City, when she is beset by nerves. When it is time to leave the ship, Tilli learns she is supposed to tip the staff, but she has no money to give them. She sees the Statue of Liberty. When she starts to go through Customs, she realizes she has left the key to her suitcase in her room. She is able to go back and find the key, goes through Customs, then meets Bertha. She is finally free to begin her dream: life in America. Tilli learns life in America is not quite the shiny ideal dream she had envisioned, but still is wonderful, despite its faults. She lives for a time in Chicago with her aunt, falls in love with Herbert through his letters to her, and then, after he moves to Illinois, marries him. She experiences some anti-German prejudice. She returns to Germany when she can to visit family and brings others over for visits or to live. When the Berlin Wall falls, she revisits Doelitz for the first time, and decides to write her story, so that it can never be forgotten. "Tilli's Story" can be used in a variety of classes, especially history, government, and English. Here are some suggested discussion questions. Chapters 1 - 4: * Tilli's godfather Wilhelm is a farm worker, not a soldier, and doesn't seem particularly interested in participating in Hitler's aggression, yet he doesn't resist being drafted into the Nazi Party. Nor do other men in the village; everybody goes along when drafted to fight. We know today that the Nazis killed millions of Jews and other "undesirables" in concentration camps, and that Hitler's invasions of Poland and other countries were wrong. How much responsibility do average citizens like this have when going along with policies that are evil? What if the average citizens do not know what the government is doing? Do you think Wilhelm and the others should have refused to fight? If so, what would have happened to them? * How do your Christmas traditions differ from those in 1939 Germany? For students with German descent, have you retained any of the German traditions? * Tilli's mother joins the Nazi women's party. Do you think she should have put up more of a fight, like her husband wanted her to, and refused to go along with the Nazi policies (such as putting the Hitler picture on the wall)? * How were Tilli's schools (first in Doelitz, then in Gnoien) different from American first grade classrooms? * Tilli dreams of going to America, and wants to learn English. Do you consider her images of America to be realistic? * Consider Hitler's birthday celebration. Are there any American traditions at all similar to this? Do you think it would ever be possible for things like the Hitler salute and the long birthday celebrations to be instituted in the U.S.? * Tilli's teacher ends religion lessons in school, on Hitler's orders. Hitler also forbids certain religious denominations, such as the Seventh Day Adventists. Do you think Hitler was right to ban religious lessons in public schools? (After all, this is our government's policy as well.) Was Hitler right to outlaw certain religions? Discuss the role of religion and government, both in our free society and in Nazi Germany. * Tilli's mother is kind to Jan, the French prisoner of war. Yet Jan is harsh with Tilli, disapproves of her reading books, and demands she do more work. He also dislikes Maria. Is Jan a "good guy" or a "bad guy"? Do you like Jan? Why does Tilli's mother allow him to sit at their dinner table, in violation of the Nazi rules, which could put her family in jeopardy if they are discovered? * Tilli is "dis-invited" from a rich girl's birthday party. As a poor farm girl, she feels that most of the town kids look down upon her. Do you think such class distinctions exist in your school? Are there children from other backgrounds than your own who aren't treated with as much respect as others? Do you think Tilli should have told her mother about being rejected? What would you have done in this situation? * Tilli never tells her mother that she has been secretly giving away her lunch to the town children, even after she is punished for misusing ration tickets to get bakery treats. Why does she keep this to herself? * Maria arrives in the Horns' home, another prisoner of war for them to use as they see fit. Do you think most families would be as kind to an "enemy" prisoner as the Horns were? How did Maria help the family, and why do you think she did so? * Tilli visits her sister Paula at a rich count's estate and spends the day with a wealthy girl named Victoria. Did you envy Victoria or feel sorry for her? Were class differences -- and resentments between the haves and the have-nots -- a factor in fueling Hitler's rise to power? * Tilli joins the Hitler German Girls when she is 10. What did you think of this group? Was it more service-oriented or was it a vehicle to brainwash children? Should governments ever force children to join service-oriented groups -- is that ever a good thing for society? Some legislators have suggested mandatory service for 18-year-olds in our country. How is that different from Hitler requiring youths of various ages to join Nazi groups? * Tilli's mother gives equal help to injured German soldiers and to starving Russian soldiers. Do you think she was unusual? Why do you think she was ready to help "enemy" Russian soldiers, who, after all, may possibly have been shooting at men from her village? * Jan fixes up the Horns' wagon so they can leave Doelitz, in advance of the Russian troops. Were the Horns right not to flee the Russians in their wagon when they had the chance? Chapters 20 - 23 * Discuss the Russian invasion and occupation of Tilli's village. Were you surprised by the looting, pillaging, and lawless behavior of the victorious Russian soldiers? Should the Allies have done anything to help the east Germans? * Compare daily life in Doelitz (or in east Germany in general) under Stalin versus under Hitler. What were the differences and similarities? * Consider what it must have been like for Tilli and other war victims to live with criminals in charge, so that if you are attacked, there is nobody to complain to, nobody to protect or avenge you. * How did Tilli cope in the aftermath of her attack? Do you think you could have continued on as she did? * Tilli jeopardized her safety by refusing to go along with everybody else and get a Communist Party identification card. Why did she do this? Did the attack play a part in her defiance? * Tilli tried to escape to America the first time when she was just 14. Why was it so important for Tilli to go to America? What did America represent to her? * Tilli is unable to get a job or continue in school, due to her refusal to join the Communist Party. Then she finds out the Communists might throw her in a concentration camp. Do you think you would have gone ahead and joined at that point? * By refusing to do this, she has to leave behind her mother, her brothers and sister, and all her friends, knowing she might never see them again. Was her choice worth it? * Why is Tilli depressed in Kassel? Were you surprised that she couldn't simply get on a boat to America right away, as she had expected? Compare post-war Germany in the West and in the East, based on Tilli's experiences. * Discuss Tilli's feelings both before, during and then at the end of her voyage to America. The ship in some ways is like a microcosm of American society, given its class divisions (a fancy first class with an elegant selection of sophisticated food; a lower berth, where the cheaper-ticketed passengers enjoy beer and casual dances). In which section of the ship is Tilli most comfortable? What most surprised you about Tilli's later experiences in the U.S.? Do you think America ultimately lived up to her dream? * "My Thoughts Are Free" (also known as "Die Gedanken Sind Frei") is a very old German folk song that has been used for centuries to express citizen protest against governmental tyranny. Research the song's history, giving examples of where it has been used in the past. Good resources exist on the Internet (see Resources section of this handbook for suggestions). Discuss the different translations and tell us which one you like better, and why. Do you think the song is relevant today? Write your own version of the song. (Another idea for a paper about this song would be to compare its use and meaning in "Tilli's Story" versus its use and meaning in "From Anna," by Jean Little.) * In the "Author's Note" to the book, Tilli Schulze says she is not a hero. Do you agree? What makes a person a hero? Do you find anything in her actions to be heroic? * Read "Tilli's Story" and "The Diary of a Young Girl," by Anne Frank. Compare Tilli's experiences (especially her time spent in the attic) with those of Anne Frank. How are they alike? How are they different? (Or compare "Tilli's Story" to another WW II memoir; see Resources for some suggestions.)<> * The Diary of a Young Girl, by Anne Frank (young adult) * Eleanor's Story: An American Girl in Hitler's Germany, by Eleanor Ramrath Gardner (young adult) * From Anna, by Jean Little (young adult) * German Boy: A Child in War, by Wolfgang Samuel (adult) * Barefoot in the Rubble, by Elizabeth Walter (adult) * Zlata's Diary: A Child's Life in Sarajevo, by Zlata Filipovic (young adult) * Balzac and the Little Chinese Seamstress, by Dai Sijie (adult) * Boddin: BODE-een * Christ kindl: KRIST-kin-dull * Cuxhaven: cooks-HAH-vun * Doelitz: DER-lits * Deutschland: DOYTCH-land * Elbe: ELB (second ÒEÓ is silent) * Fanni: FUN-nee * Fiebel: FEEB-ul * Gnoien: Guh-NOY-en * HŠde: HAY-duh * Harz: HEARTS * Heil: HIGH-ull * Heinrich: HINE-rick * Helmut: HEL-moot * Hoppe: HOP-uh * Hugo: HOO-go * Ilse: ILL-suh * Jan: YAHN * Kassel: KASS-ull * Kreitz: KRIGHTZ * Liesel: LEEZ-ull * Ludwigslust: LOOD-wigs-LOOST] * Mami: MOM-ee * Ohlerich: OH-lur-ICK * Oleniczak: OH-luh-NEET-zack * Pech: PECK * Regina: reh-GEEN-uh (hard G) * Rostock: RAH-stock * Scharnweber: SHAN-vay-buh * Schimcke's: SHIM-kuhs * Schuhmacher: SHOE-mah-ker * Schultute: SHOOL-toot-uh * Teterow: TET-ur-oh * Theis: TICE * Tillilein: TILL-ee-line * Uelzen: OOLS-en * Wernigerode: VAN-uh-gah-ROAD-uh * Wilhelm: VIL-helm * Willi: VIL-ee * Ziegeuner Baron: SEE-GOR-nuh * http://www.jlrweb.com/whiterose/free.html (lyrics and brief history; link to MIDI version) * http://www.cs.rice.edu/~ssiyer/minstrels/poems/1185.html (discussion of various translations and its history) * http://ffrf.org/shop/music/DieGedanken.mpeg (free downloadable song sample) Since "Tilli's Story" is a new book, it hasn't yet been tested out in the classroom. Therefore, this study guide is a work in progress. We will post the guide on our website, www.mythoughtsarefree.com, for free download, and also will update it with teachers' suggestions and comments. If you are a teacher and you use "Tilli's Story" with your students, or if you are a home-schooling parent using the book with your children, please give us feedback on this study guide. What worked? What didn't? What would you add? We want to hear from you! Tilli Schulze and Lorna Collier are available to speak to Rockford-area school groups of any grade level, at no charge. We will tailor the discussion to the age of the children. Tilli can talk about her life in Germany and realizing her dream to live free in America. Lorna can talk about fulfilling her childhood dream of becoming a writer. To contact the authors, please call Lorna at (815) 985-4774. You can email her at [email protected]. You can visit the authors' website at: www.mythoughtsarefree.com. Or you can write the authors at: My Thoughts Are Free P.O. Box 861 Belvidere, IL 61008 © Copyright Oct. 2005 by Tilli Schulze and Lorna Collier, My Thoughts Are Free, P.O. Box 861, Belvidere, IL 61008

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To solder the BlinkStick you will need: Solder the resistors. There are 3 types of resistors: Bend resistor pins so that they fit into their locations. Solder the resistors and cut the excess wire near the solder joint. Use the same technique when soldering the rest of the components. Solder zener diodes D1 and D2. Make sure the polarity is correct! The black stripe on the diode is represented by a white stripe on the component's symbol. Solder the electrolytic capacitor C1. Capacitors have polarity and the longer pin is positive. The negative pin is displayed on the board with a minus sign next to it. It should be the one closer to the edge of the board. Solder the tantalum capacitor C2. It also has polarity as displayed in the picture with longer pin being positive and shorter - negative. Solder USB plug JP1. The board and the plug should be nice and straight. Solder the IC1 socket. The ATTiny85 chip will be placed into the socket at a later step. The socket has a cut-out on one edge. It should be aligned as displayed in the second image. Solder the Piranha LED. The LED has a cut corner and the correct alignment is displayed on the board. Plug in the ATTiny85 IC into the socket. Make sure that you plug the chip correctly! The dot on the chip should match the second image.

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Health Care Careers - Art therapist Using different art forms and a variety of craft activities, art therapists treat emotional, mental, and physical disabilities in patients. An art therapist will engage a patient in the artistic process through drawing, painting, creating collages, taking photos, sculpting, or other art forms to help patients express their feelings and to promote self-awareness. This form of therapy is especially useful when dealing with people who are unable to talk directly about their problems. Often times, an art therapist is able to make a breakthrough with a patient's therapy when efforts by other therapists have failed to help the patient move forward. A typical session with an art therapist may involve the therapist directing a patient to work on a drawing or painting of a scene that mirrors something that is happening in that patient's life. In a group setting, the therapist may have patients work together on a mural; an exercise of this nature can help patients learn to interact with others in a productive manner. A profession that began in the twentieth century, art therapy became popular in the 1930s as art instructors recognized the value of children's artwork as a representation of their emotional and mental states. At the same time, psychiatrists (doctors who specializes in mental illness) began to look at artwork done by their patients in order to determine whether or not a link existed between the art and a patient's illness. Art therapy is used to treat people of all ages, races, and ethnic backgrounds. It can help people with problems of a developmental, educational, medical, social, or psychological nature. Oftentimes, art therapy will be employed in a number of settings, ranging from a private therapist's office to a school to a hospital. Art therapy can be used with individuals, couples, families and groups of people with similar issues. Whether art therapists work in hospitals, shelters, or schools, they will usually work with teams of physicians, psychologists, registered nurses, social workers, and teachers in order to best serve a patient. With the combined knowledge of all of these individuals, art therapists are able to come up with effective mental health programs. Art therapists working in a private office may consult with these other professionals even though they may be their patient's primary therapist. Training to Be an Art Therapist Formal training for art therapists involves a four-year college degree in either art therapy or psychology with a concentration in art therapy, as well as a master's degree in art therapy. One needs a master's degree to be a registered art therapist. One can get a job in art therapy without a master's degree, but not be an actual therapist. To become a registered art therapist (A.T.R.), one thousand hours of direct client contact hours must be completed in a supervised setting. On a personal level, art therapists are, ideally, sensitive to people's needs and expressions. Patience, attentiveness, and good people skills are all characteristics of an effective art therapist. Furthermore, a solid understanding of psychology (the study of the mind and behavior) and of different art forms is necessary.

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Complete more hands-on activities using the instructions in this book. There is a good deal of general information about the Middle Ages besides the craft instructions. Some of the activities include making a jester hat, learning the chivalric code, making a shield, making a trebuchet, and more. - Knowledge Box Central families: Use this alongside the Middle Ages lapbooks, foldables, and booklets. - Tapestry of Grace families: Use for 9 weeks. There are no reviews yet.

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Eastern Front (World War II) |Part of World War II| Clockwise from top left: Soviet Il-2 ground attack aircraft in Berlin sky; German Tiger I tanks during the Battle of Kursk; German Stuka dive bombers on the Eastern Front, winter 1943–1944; Killings of Jews by German Einsatzgruppen in Ukraine; Wilhelm Keitel signing the German Instrument of Surrender; Soviet troops in the Battle of Stalingrad Axis puppet states Finland (until 1944) Bulgaria (until 1944) Francoist Spain (until 1943) Former Axis powers or co-belligerents Romania (from 1944) Bulgaria (from 1944) Finland (from 1944) Aerial and naval only Free France (1943–45) |Commanders and leaders| | Adolf Hitler (commander-in-chief) Walther von Brauchitsch Gerd von Rundstedt Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim Emilio Esteban Infantes | Joseph Stalin (commander-in-chief) Josip Broz Tito |Casualties and losses| |See below||See below| The Eastern Front of World War II was a theatre of conflict between the European Axis powers and co-belligerent Finland against the Soviet Union, Poland and other Allies, which encompassed Northern, Southern and Central and Eastern Europe from 22 June 1941 to 9 May 1945. It has been known as the Great Patriotic War (Russian: Великая Отечественная Война, Velikaya Otechestvennaya Voyna) in the former Soviet Union and in modern Russia, while in Germany it was called the Eastern Front (German: die Ostfront), the Eastern Campaign (der Ostfeldzug) the Russian Campaign (der Rußlandfeldzug), or the German-Soviet War by outside parties. The battles on the Eastern Front constituted the largest military confrontation in history. They were characterized by unprecedented ferocity, wholesale destruction, mass deportations, and immense loss of life due to combat, starvation, exposure, disease, and massacres. The Eastern Front, as the site of nearly all extermination camps, death marches, ghettos, and the majority of pogroms, was central to the Holocaust. Of the estimated 70 million deaths attributed to World War II, over 30 million, many of them civilian, occurred on the Eastern Front. The Eastern Front was decisive in determining the outcome of the European portion of World War II, eventually serving as the main reason for the defeat of Nazi Germany. It resulted in the destruction of the Third Reich, the partition of Germany for nearly half a century and the rise of the Soviet Union as a military and industrial superpower. The two principal belligerent powers were Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, along with their respective allies. Though never engaged in military action in the Eastern Front, the United Kingdom and the United States both provided substantial material aid in the form of the Lend-Lease to the Soviet Union. The joint German–Finnish operations across the northernmost Finnish–Soviet border and in the Murmansk region are considered part of the Eastern Front. In addition, the Soviet–Finnish Continuation War may also be considered the northern flank of the Eastern Front. - 1 Background - 2 Ideologies - 3 Forces - 4 Conduct of operations - 4.1 Operation Barbarossa: Summer 1941 - 4.2 Moscow and Rostov: Autumn 1941 - 4.3 Soviet counter-offensive: Winter 1941 - 4.4 Don, Volga, and Caucasus: Summer 1942 - 4.5 Stalingrad: Winter 1942 - 4.6 Kursk: Summer 1943 - 4.7 Autumn and Winter 1943–44 - 4.8 Summer 1944 - 4.9 Autumn 1944 - 4.10 January–March 1945 - 4.11 End of the War: April–May 1945 - 4.12 Soviet Far East: August 1945 - 5 Results - 6 Leadership - 7 Repression in occupied states - 8 Industrial output - 9 Casualties - 10 See also - 11 Notes - 12 Further reading - 13 External links Despite their ideological antipathy, both Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union shared a common dislike for the outcome of World War I. Soviet Russia had lost substantial territory in Eastern Europe as a result of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, where it gave in to German demands and ceded control of Poland, Lithuania, Estonia, Latvia and Finland, among others, to the Central Powers. Subsequently, when Germany in its turn surrendered to the Allies and these territories were liberated under the terms of the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, Russia was in the midst of a civil war and the Allies did not recognize the Bolshevik government, so no Russian representation was present. The Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact signed in August 1939 was a non-aggression agreement between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. It contained a secret protocol aiming to return Central Europe to the pre–World War I status quo by dividing it between Germany and the Soviet Union. Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania would return to Soviet control, while Poland and Romania would be divided. Adolf Hitler had declared his intention to invade the Soviet Union on 11 August 1939 to Carl Jacob Burckhardt, League of Nations Commissioner by saying, "Everything I undertake is directed against the Russians. If the West is too stupid and blind to grasp this, then I shall be compelled to come to an agreement with the Russians, beat the West and then after their defeat turn against the Soviet Union with all my forces. I need the Ukraine so that they can't starve us out, as happened in the last war.". The two powers invaded and partitioned Poland in 1939. After Finland refused the terms of a Soviet pact of mutual assistance, the Soviet Union attacked Finland on 30 November 1939 in what is known as the Winter War – a bitter conflict that resulted in a peace treaty on 13 March 1940, with Finland maintaining its independence but losing its eastern parts in Karelia. In June 1940, the Soviet Union occupied and illegally annexed the three Baltic states—an action in violation of the Hague Conventions (1899 and 1907) and numerous bilateral conventions and treaties signed between the Soviet Union and Baltic countries. The annexations were never recognized by most Western states. The Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact ostensibly provided security to the Soviets in the occupation of both the Baltics and the north and northeastern regions of Romania (Northern Bukovina and Bessarabia) although Hitler, in announcing the invasion of the Soviet Union, cited the Soviet annexations of Baltic and Romanian territory as having violated Germany's understanding of the Pact. The annexed Romanian territory was divided between the Ukrainian and Moldavian Soviet republics. Adolf Hitler had argued in his autobiography Mein Kampf (1925) for the necessity of Lebensraum ("living space"): acquiring new territory for Germans in Eastern Europe, in particular in Russia. He envisaged settling Germans there, as according to Nazi ideology the Germanic people constituted the "master race", while exterminating or deporting most of the existing inhabitants to Siberia and using the remainder as slave labour. Hitler as early as 1917 had referred to the Russians as inferior, believing that the Bolshevik Revolution had put the Jews in power over the mass of Slavs, who were, in Hitler's opinion, incapable of ruling themselves but instead being ruled by Jewish masters. Hard-line Nazis in Berlin (like Heinrich Himmler) saw the war against the Soviet Union as a struggle between the ideologies of Nazism and Jewish Bolshevism, and ensuring territory supremacy for the Germanic Übermensch (superhumans), who according to Nazi ideology were the Aryan Herrenvolk ("master race"), against the Slavic Untermenschen (subhumans). Wehrmacht officers told their troops to target people who were described as "Jewish Bolshevik subhumans", the "Mongol hordes", the "Asiatic flood" and the "red beast". The vast majority of German soldiers viewed the war in Nazi terms, seeing the Soviet enemy as sub-human. Hitler referred to the war in unique terms, calling it a "war of annihilation" which was both an ideological and racial war. According to a plan called Generalplan Ost, the populations of occupied Central Europe and the Soviet Union were to be partially deported to West Siberia, partially enslaved and eventually exterminated; the conquered territories were to be colonized by German or "Germanized" settlers. In addition, the Nazis also sought to wipe out the large Jewish population of Central and Eastern Europe as part of their program aiming to exterminate all European Jews. After Germany's initial success at the Battle of Kiev in 1941, Hitler saw the Soviet Union as militarily weak and ripe for immediate conquest. On 3 October 1941, he announced, "We have only to kick in the door and the whole rotten structure will come crashing down." Thus, Germany expected another short Blitzkrieg and made no serious preparations for prolonged warfare. However, following the decisive Soviet victory at the Battle of Stalingrad in 1943 and the resulting dire German military situation, Nazi propaganda began to portray the war as a German defence of Western civilization against destruction by the vast "Bolshevik hordes" that were pouring into Europe. Throughout the 1930s the Soviet Union underwent massive industrialization and economic growth under the leadership of Joseph Stalin. Stalin's central tenet, "Socialism in one country", manifested itself as a series of nationwide centralized Five-Year Plans from 1929 onwards. This represented an ideological shift in Soviet policy, away from its commitment to the international communist revolution, and eventually leading to the dissolution of the Comintern (Third International) organization in 1943. In February 1936 the Spanish general election brought many communist leaders into the Popular Front government in the Second Spanish Republic, but in a matter of months a right-wing military coup initiated the Spanish Civil War of 1936–1939. This conflict soon took on the characteristics of a proxy war involving the Soviet Union and left wing volunteers from different countries on the side of the predominantly socialist and communist-led Second Spanish Republic; while Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and the Portuguese Republic took the side of Spanish Nationalists, the military rebel group led by General Francisco Franco. It served as a useful testing ground for both the Wehrmacht and the Red Army to experiment with equipment and tactics that they would later employ on a wider scale in the Second World War. Nazi Germany, which was an anti-communist régime, formalized its ideological position on November 25, 1936 by signing the Anti-Comintern Pact with the Empire of Japan. Fascist Italy joined the Pact a year later. The German Anschluss of Austria in 1938 and the dismemberment of Czechoslovakia (1938–1939) demonstrated the impossibility of establishing a collective security system in Europe, a policy advocated by the Soviet ministry of foreign affairs under Maxim Litvinov. This, as well as the reluctance of the British and French governments to sign a full-scale anti-German political and military alliance with the USSR, led to the Molotov–Ribbentrop pact between the Soviet Union and Germany in late August 1939. The separate Tripartite Pact between what became the three prime Axis Powers would not be signed until some four years after the Anti-Comintern pact. The war was fought between Nazi Germany, its allies and Finland, against the Soviet Union. The conflict began on 22 June 1941 with the Operation Barbarossa offensive, when Axis forces crossed the borders described in the German–Soviet Nonaggression Pact, thereby invading the Soviet Union. The war ended on 9 May 1945, when Germany's armed forces surrendered unconditionally following the Battle of Berlin (also known as the Berlin Offensive), a strategic operation executed by the Red Army. The states that provided forces and other resources for the German war effort included the Axis Powers – primarily Romania, Hungary, Italy, pro-Nazi Slovakia, and Croatia. The anti-Soviet Finland, which had fought the Winter War against the Soviet Union, also joined the offensive. The Wehrmacht forces were also assisted by anti-Communist partisans in places like Western Ukraine, and the Baltic states. Among the most prominent volunteer army formations was the Spanish Blue Division, sent by Spanish dictator Francisco Franco to keep his ties to the Axis intact. The Soviet Union offered support to the partisans in many Wehrmacht-occupied countries in Central Europe, notably those in Slovakia, Poland and the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. In addition, the Polish Armed Forces in the East, particularly the First and Second Polish armies, were armed and trained, and would eventually fight alongside the Red Army. The Free French forces also contributed to the Red Army by the formation of the GC3 (Groupe de Chasse 3 or 3rd Fighter Group) unit to fulfill the commitment of Charles de Gaulle, leader of the Free French, who thought that it was important for French servicemen to serve on all fronts. A strategic air offensive by the United States Army Air Force and Royal Air Force played a significant part in reducing German industry and tying up German air force and air defense resources, with some bombings, such as the bombing of the eastern German city of Dresden, being done to facilitate specific Soviet operational goals. In addition to Germany, hundreds of thousands of tons of bombs were dropped on their eastern allies of Romania and Hungary, primarily in an attempt to cripple Romanian oil production. British and Commonwealth forces also contributed directly to the fighting on the Eastern Front through their service in the Arctic convoys and training Red Air Force pilots, as well as in the provision of early material and intelligence support. The later massive material support of the Lend-Lease agreement by the United States and Canada played a significant part particularly in the logistics of the war. Among other goods, Lend-Lease supplied: - 58% of the USSR's high octane aviation fuel - 33% of their motor vehicles - 53% of expended ordinance (artillery shells, mines, assorted explosives) - 30% of military aircraft - 93% of railway equipment (locomotives, freight cars, wide gauge rails, etc.) - 50–80% of rolled steel, cable, lead, and aluminium - 43% of garage facilities (building materials & blueprints) - 12% of tanks and SPGs |Date||Axis forces||Soviet forces| |June 1941||3,050,000 Germans, 67,000 (northern Norway); 500,000 Finns, 150,000 Rumanians, 62,000 Italians Total: 3,829,000 (80% of the German Army in the east) |2,680,000 (Western MDs), 5,500,000 (overall), 12,000,000 (mobilizable)| |June 1942||2,600,000 Germans, 90,000 (northern Norway); 430,000 Finns, 600,000 Rumanians, Hungarians, and Italians Total: 3,720,000 (80% of the German Army in the east) |5,313,000 (front); 383,000 (hospital) |July 1943||3,403,000 Germans, 80,000 (northern Norway); 400,000 Finns, 150,000 Rumanians and Hungarians Total: 3,933,000 (63% of the German Army in the east) |6,724,000 (front); 446,445 (hospital); |June 1944||2,460,000 Germans, 60,000 (northern Norway); 300,000 Finns, 550,000 Rumanians and Hungarians Total: 3,370,000 (62% of the German Army in the east) |Jan. 1945||2,230,000 Germans, 100,000 Hungarians Total: 2,330,000 (60% of the German Army in the east) |6,532,000 (360,000 Poles, Rumanians, Bulgarians, and Czechs.)| |Apr 1945||1,960,000||6,410,000 (450,000 Poles, Rumanians, Bulgarians, and Czechs.| The above figures only include the German Army, i.e. active-duty Heer and SS. In the spring of 1940, Germany had mobilized 5,500,000 men. At time of the invasion of the Soviet Union, the Wehrmacht consisted of 3,800,000 men of the Heer, 1,680,000 of the Luftwaffe, 404,000 of the Kriegsmarine, 150,000 of the Waffen-SS, and 1,200,000 of the Replacement Army (contained 450,400 active reservists, 550,000 new recruits and 204,000 in administrative services, vigiles and or in convalescence). The Wehrmacht had a total strength of 7,234,000 men by 1941. For Operation Barbarossa, Germany mobilized 3,300,000 troops of the Heer, 150,000 of the Waffen-SS and approximately 250,000 personnel of the Luftwaffe were actively earmarked. By July 1943, the Wehrmacht numbered 6,815,000 troops. Of these, 3,900,000 were deployed in eastern Europe, 180,000 in Finland, 315,000 in Norway, 110,000 in Denmark, 1,370,000 in western Europe, 330,000 in Italy, and 610,000 in the Balkans. According to a presentation by Alfred Jodl, the Wehrmacht was up to 7,849,000 personnel in April 1944. 3,878,000 were deployed in eastern Europe, 311,000 in Norway/Denmark, 1,873,000 in western Europe, 961,000 in Italy, and 826,000 in the Balkans. For nearly two years the border was quiet while Germany conquered Denmark, Norway, France, The Low Countries, and the Balkans. Hitler had always intended to renege on his pact with the Soviet Union, eventually making the decision to invade in the spring of 1941. Some historians say Stalin was fearful of war with Germany, or just did not expect Germany to start a two-front war, and was reluctant to do anything to provoke Hitler. Others say that Stalin was eager for Germany to be at war with capitalist countries. Another viewpoint is that Stalin expected war in 1942 (the time when all his preparations would be complete) and stubbornly refused to believe its early arrival. British historians Alan S. Milward and M. Medlicott show that Nazi Germany—unlike Imperial Germany—was prepared for only a short-term war (Blitzkrieg). According to Edward Ericson, although Germany's own resources were sufficient for the victories in the West in 1940, massive Soviet shipments obtained during a short period of Nazi–Soviet economic collaboration were critical for Germany to launch Operation Barbarossa. Germany had been assembling very large numbers of troops in eastern Poland and making repeated reconnaissance flights over the border; the Soviet Union responded by assembling its divisions on its western border, although the Soviet mobilization was slower than Germany's due to the country's less dense road network. As in the Sino-Soviet conflict on the Chinese Eastern Railway or Soviet–Japanese border conflicts, Soviet troops on the western border received a directive, signed by Marshal Semyon Timoshenko and General of the Army Georgy Zhukov, that ordered (as demanded by Stalin): "do not answer to any provocations" and "do not undertake any (offensive) actions without specific orders" – which meant that Soviet troops could open fire only on their soil and forbade counter-attack on German soil. The German invasion therefore caught the Soviet military and civilian leadership largely by surprise. The extent of warnings received by Stalin about a German invasion is controversial, and the claim that there was a warning that "Germany will attack on 22 June without declaration of war" has been dismissed as a "popular myth". However, some sources quoted in the articles on Soviet spies Richard Sorge and Willi Lehmann, say they had sent warnings of an attack on 20 or 22 June, which were treated as "disinformation". The Lucy spy ring in Switzerland also sent warnings, possibly deriving from Ultra codebreaking in Britain. Soviet intelligence was fooled by German disinformation, so sent false alarms to Moscow about a German invasion in April, May and the beginning of June. Soviet intelligence reported that Germany would rather invade the USSR after the fall of the British Empire or after an unacceptable ultimatum demanding German occupation of Ukraine during the German invasion of Britain. Conduct of operations While German historians do not apply any specific periodisation to the conduct of operations on the Eastern Front, all Soviet and Russian historians divide the war against Germany and its allies into three periods, which are further subdivided into eight major Campaigns of the Theatre of war: - First period of Great Patriotic war (Russian: Первый период Великой Отечественной войны) (22 June 1941 – 18 November 1942) - Second period of Great Patriotic war (Russian: Второй период Великой Отечественной войны) (19 November 1942 – 31 December 1943) - Third period of Great Patriotic war (Russian: Третий период Великой Отечественной войны) (1 January 1944 – 9 May 1945) Operation Barbarossa: Summer 1941 Panicky transmissions from Soviet front-line units to their command headquarters were picked up like this one: "We are being fired upon. What shall we do?" The answer was just as confusing: "You must be insane. And why is your signal not in code?" At 03:15 on 22 June 1941, 99 of 190 German divisions, including fourteen panzer divisions and ten motorized, were deployed against the Soviet Union from the Baltic to the Black Sea. They were accompanied by ten Romanian divisions, and nine Romanian and four Hungarian brigades. On the same day, the Baltic, Western and Kiev Special military districts were renamed the Northwestern, Western and Southwestern Fronts respectively. To establish air supremacy, the Luftwaffe began immediate attacks on Soviet airfields, destroying much of the forward-deployed Soviet Air Force airfield fleets consisting of largely obsolescent types before their pilots had a chance to leave the ground. For a month the offensive conducted on three axes was completely unstoppable as the panzer forces encircled hundreds of thousands of Soviet troops in huge pockets that were then reduced by slower-moving infantry armies while the panzers continued the offensive, following the Blitzkrieg doctrine. Army Group North's objective was Leningrad via the Baltic states. Comprising the 16th and 18th Armies and the 4th Panzer Group, this formation advanced through the Baltic states, and the Russian Pskov and Novgorod regions. Local insurgents seized the moment and controlled most of Lithuania, northern Latvia and southern Estonia prior to the arrival of the German forces. Army Group Centre's two panzer groups (the 2nd and 3rd), advanced to the north and south of Brest-Litovsk and converged east of Minsk, followed by the 2nd, 4th, and 9th Armies. The combined panzer force reached the Beresina River in just six days, 650 km (400 mi) from their start lines. The next objective was to cross the Dnieper river, which was accomplished by 11 July. Their next target was Smolensk, which fell on 16 July, but the fierce Soviet resistance in the Smolensk area and slowing of the Wehrmacht advance in North and South[clarification needed] forced Hitler to halt a central thrust at Moscow and to divert the 3rd Panzer Group north. Critically, Guderian's 2nd Panzer Group was ordered to move south in a giant pincer maneuver with Army Group South which was advancing into Ukraine. Army Group Centre's infantry divisions were left relatively unsupported by armor to continue their slow advance to Moscow. This decision caused a severe leadership crisis. The German field commanders argued for an immediate offensive towards Moscow, but Hitler overruled them, citing the importance of Ukrainian agricultural, mining and industrial resources, as well as the massing of Soviet reserves in the Gomel area between Army Group Centre's southern flank and the bogged-down Army Group South's northern flank. This decision, Hitler's "summer pause", is believed to have had a severe impact on the Battle of Moscow's outcome, by slowing down the advance on Moscow in favor of encircling large numbers of Soviet troops around Kiev. Army Group South, with the 1st Panzer Group, the 6th, 11th and 17th Armies, was tasked with advancing through Galicia and into Ukraine. Their progress, however, was rather slow, and they took heavy casualties in a major tank battle. At the beginning of July, the Third and Fourth Romanian Armies, aided by elements of the German 11th Army, fought their way through Bessarabia towards Odessa. The 1st Panzer Group turned away from Kiev for the moment, advancing into the Dnieper bend (western Dnipropetrovsk Oblast). When it joined up with the southern elements of Army Group South at Uman, the Group captured about 100,000 Soviet prisoners in a huge encirclement. Advancing armored divisions of the Army Group South met with Guderian's 2nd Panzer Group near Lokhvytsa in mid September, cutting off large numbers of Red Army troops in the pocket east of Kiev. 400,000 Soviet prisoners were captured as Kiev was surrendered on 19 September. As the Red Army withdrew behind the Dnieper and Dvina rivers, the Soviet Stavka (high command) turned its attention to evacuating as much of the western regions' industry as it could. Factories were dismantled and transported on flatcars away from the front line for re-establishment in more remote areas of the Ural Mountains, Caucasus, Central Asia and south-eastern Siberia. Most civilians were left to make their own way east, with only industry-related workers evacuated with the equipment; much of the population was left behind to the mercy of the invading forces. Stalin ordered the retreating Red Army to initiate a scorched-earth policy to deny the Germans and their allies basic supplies as they advanced eastward. To carry out that order, destruction battalions were formed in front-line areas, having the authority to summarily execute any suspicious person. The destruction battalions burned down villages, schools, and public buildings. As a part of this policy, the NKVD massacred thousands of anti-Soviet prisoners. Moscow and Rostov: Autumn 1941 Hitler then decided to resume the advance on Moscow, re-designating the panzer groups as panzer armies for the occasion. Operation Typhoon, which was set in motion on 30 September, saw the 2nd Panzer Army rush along the paved road from Oryol (captured 5 October) to the Oka River at Plavsk, while the 4th Panzer Army (transferred from Army Group North to Centre) and 3rd Panzer armies surrounded the Soviet forces in two huge pockets at Vyazma and Bryansk. Army Group North positioned itself in front of Leningrad and attempted to cut the rail link at Mga to the east. This began the 900-day Siege of Leningrad. North of the Arctic Circle, a German–Finnish force set out for Murmansk but could get no further than the Zapadnaya Litsa River, where they settled down. Army Group South pushed down from the Dnieper to the Sea of Azov coast, also advancing through Kharkov, Kursk, and Stalino. The combined German and Romanian forces moved into the Crimea and took control of all of the peninsula by autumn (except Sevastopol, which held out until 3 July 1942). On 21 November, the Wehrmacht took Rostov, the gateway to the Caucasus. However, the German lines were over-extended and the Soviet defenders counterattacked the 1st Panzer Army's spearhead from the north, forcing them to pull out of the city and behind the Mius River; the first significant German withdrawal of the war. The onset of the winter freeze saw one last German lunge that opened on 15 November, when the Wehrmacht attempted to encircle Moscow. On 27 November, the 4th Panzer Army got to within 30 km (19 mi) of the Kremlin when it reached the last tramstop of the Moscow line at Khimki. Meanwhile, the 2nd Panzer Army failed to take Tula, the last Soviet city that stood in its way to the capital. After a meeting held in Orsha between the head of the OKH (Army General Staff), General Franz Halder and the heads of three Army groups and armies, decided to push forward to Moscow since it was better, as argued by the head of Army Group Center, Field Marshal Fedor von Bock, for them to try their luck on the battlefield rather than just sit and wait while their opponent gathered more strength. However, by 6 December it became clear that the Wehrmacht did not have the strength to capture Moscow, and the attack was suspended. Marshal Shaposhnikov thus began his counter-attack, employing freshly mobilized reserves, as well as some well-trained Far-Eastern divisions transferred from the east following intelligence that Japan would remain neutral. Soviet counter-offensive: Winter 1941 The Soviet counter-offensive during the Battle of Moscow had removed the immediate German threat to the city. According to Zhukov, "the success of the December counter-offensive in the central strategic direction was considerable. Having suffered a major defeat the German striking forces of Army Group Centre were retreating." Stalin's objective in Jan. 1942 was "to deny the Germans any breathing space, to drive them westward without let-up, to make them use up their reserves before spring comes..." The main blow was to be delivered by a double envelopment orchestrated by the Northwestern Front, the Kalinin Front and the Western Front. The overall objective according to Zhukov was the "subsequent encirclement and destruction of the enemy's main forces in the area of Rzhev, Vyazma and Smolensk. The Leningrad Front, the Volkhov Front and the right wing forces of the Northwestern Front were to rout the Army Group North." The Southwestern Front and Southern Front were defeat the Army Group South. The Caucasian Front and Black Sea Fleet were to take back the Crimea.:53 The 20th Army, part of the 1st Shock Army, the 22nd Tank Brigade and five ski battalions launched their attack on 10 Jan. 1942. By 17 Jan., the Soviets had captured Lotoshino and Shakhovskaya. By 20 Jan. the 5th and 33rd armies had captured Ruza, Dorokhovo, Mozhaisk and Vereya, while the 43rd and 49th armies were at Domanovo.:58–59 The Wehrmacht rallied, retaining a salient at Rzhev. A Soviet parachute drop by two battalions of the 201st Airborne Brigade and the 250th Airborne Regiment on 18 and 22 Jan. was designed to "cut off enemy communications with the rear." Lt.-Gen. Mikhail Grigoryevich Yefremov's 33rd Army aided by Gen. Belov's 1st Cavalry Corps and Soviet Partisans attempted to seize Vyazma. This force was joined by additional paratroopers of the 8th Airborne Brigade at the end of Jan. However, in early Feb., the Germans managed to cut off this force, separating the Soviets from their main force in the rear of the Germans. They were supplied by air until April when they were given permission to regain the Soviet main lines. Only part of Belov's Cavalry Corps made it to safety however, while Yefremov's men fought "a losing battle.":59–62 By April 1942, the Soviet Supreme Command agreed to assume the defensive so as to "consolidate the captured ground." According to Zhukov, "During the winter offensive, the forces of the Western Front had advanced from 70 to 100 km, which somewhat improved the overall operational and strategic situation on the Western sector.":64 Further north still, the Soviet Second Shock Army was unleashed on the Volkhov River. Initially this made some progress; however, it was unsupported, and by June a German counterattack cut off and destroyed the army. The Soviet commander, Lieutenant General Andrey Vlasov, later defected to Germany and formed the ROA or Russian Liberation Army. In the south the Red Army lunged over the Donets River at Izyum and drove a 100 km (62 mi) deep salient. The intent was to pin Army Group South against the Sea of Azov, but as the winter eased the Wehrmacht counter-attacked and cut off the over-extended Soviet troops in the Second Battle of Kharkov. Don, Volga, and Caucasus: Summer 1942 This section does not cite any sources. (March 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Although plans were made to attack Moscow again, on 28 June 1942, the offensive re-opened in a different direction. Army Group South took the initiative, anchoring the front with the Battle of Voronezh and then following the Don river southeastwards. The grand plan was to secure the Don and Volga first and then drive into the Caucasus towards the oil fields, but operational considerations and Hitler's vanity made him order both objectives to be attempted simultaneously. Rostov was recaptured on 24 July when the 1st Panzer Army joined in, and then that group drove south towards Maikop. As part of this, Operation Shamil was executed, a plan whereby a group of Brandenburger commandos dressed up as Soviet NKVD troops to destabilise Maikop's defenses and allow the 1st Panzer Army to enter the oil town with little opposition. Meanwhile, the 6th Army was driving towards Stalingrad, for a long period unsupported by 4th Panzer Army, which had been diverted to help 1st Panzer Army cross the Don. By the time the 4th Panzer Army had rejoined the Stalingrad offensive Soviet resistance (comprising the 62nd Army under Vasily Chuikov) had stiffened. A leap across the Don brought German troops to the Volga on 23 August but for the next three months the Wehrmacht would be fighting the Battle of Stalingrad street-by-street. Towards the south, the 1st Panzer Army had reached the Caucasian foothills and the Malka River. At the end of August Romanian mountain troops joined the Caucasian spearhead, while the Romanian 3rd and 4th armies were redeployed from their successful task of clearing the Azov littoral. They took up position on either side of Stalingrad to free German troops for the main offensive. Mindful of the continuing antagonism between Axis allies Romania and Hungary over Transylvania, the Romanian army in the Don bend was separated from the Hungarian 2nd army by the Italian 8th Army. Thus, all of Hitler's allies were involved – including a Slovakian contingent with the 1st Panzer Army and a Croatian regiment attached to 6th Army. The advance into the Caucasus bogged down, with the Germans unable to fight their way past Malgobek and to the main prize of Grozny. Instead, they switched the direction of their advance to approach it from the south, crossing the Malka at the end of October and entering North Ossetia. In the first week of November, on the outskirts of Ordzhonikidze, the 13th Panzer Division's spearhead was snipped off and the panzer troops had to fall back. The offensive into Russia was over. Stalingrad: Winter 1942 While the German 6th and 4th Panzer Armies had been fighting their way into Stalingrad, Soviet armies had congregated on either side of the city, specifically into the Don bridgeheads, and it was from these that they struck in November 1942. In Operation Uranus started on 19 November, two Soviet fronts punched through the Romanian lines and converged at Kalach on 23 November, trapping 300,000 Axis troops behind them. A simultaneous offensive on the Rzhev sector known as Operation Mars was supposed to advance to Smolensk, but was a costly failure, with German tactical defenses preventing any breakthrough. The Germans rushed to transfer troops to the Soviet Union for a desperate attempt to relieve Stalingrad, but the offensive could not get going until 12 December, by which time the 6th Army in Stalingrad was starving and too weak to break out towards it. Operation Winter Storm, with three transferred panzer divisions, got going briskly from Kotelnikovo towards the Aksai river but became bogged down 65 km (40 mi) short of its goal. To divert the rescue attempt, the Red Army decided to smash the Italians and come down behind the relief attempt if they could; that operation starting on 16 December. What it did accomplish was to destroy many of the aircraft that had been transporting relief supplies to Stalingrad. The fairly limited scope of the Soviet offensive, although still eventually targeted on Rostov, also allowed Hitler time to see sense and pull Army Group A out of the Caucasus and back over the Don. On 31 January 1943, the 90,000 survivors of the 300,000-man 6th Army surrendered. By that time the Hungarian 2nd Army had also been wiped out. The Red Army advanced from the Don 500 km (310 mi) to the west of Stalingrad, marching through Kursk (retaken on 8 February 1943) and Kharkov (retaken 16 February 1943). In order to save the position in the south, the Germans decided to abandon the Rzhev salient in February, freeing enough troops to make a successful riposte in eastern Ukraine. Manstein's counteroffensive, strengthened by a specially trained SS Panzer Corps equipped with Tiger tanks, opened on 20 February 1943 and fought its way from Poltava back into Kharkov in the third week of March, when the spring thaw intervened. This left a glaring Soviet bulge (salient) in the front centered on Kursk. Kursk: Summer 1943 This section does not cite any sources. (March 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) After the failure of the attempt to capture Stalingrad, Hitler had delegated planning authority for the upcoming campaign season to the German Army High Command and reinstated Heinz Guderian to a prominent role, this time as Inspector of Panzer Troops. Debate among the General Staff was polarised, with even Hitler nervous about any attempt to pinch off the Kursk salient. He knew that in the intervening six months the Soviet position at Kursk had been reinforced heavily with anti-tank guns, tank traps, landmines, barbed wire, trenches, pillboxes, artillery and mortars. However, if one last great blitzkrieg offensive could be mounted, then attention could then be turned to the Allied threat to the Western Front. Certainly, the peace negotiations in April had gone nowhere. The advance would be executed from the Orel salient to the north of Kursk and from Belgorod to the south. Both wings would converge on the area east of Kursk, and by that means restore the lines of Army Group South to the exact points that it held over the winter of 1941–1942. Although the Germans believed that the Red Army's reserves of manpower had been bled dry in the summer of 1941 and 1942, the Soviets were still continuously re-equipping. Under pressure from his generals, Hitler agreed to the attack on Kursk, little realising that the Abwehr's intelligence on the Soviet position there had been undermined by a concerted Stavka misinformation and counter-intelligence campaign mounted by the Lucy spy ring in Switzerland. When the Wehrmacht began the operation, it was after months of delays waiting for new tanks and equipment, by which time the Red Army had reinforced the Kursk salient with more anti-tank firepower than had ever been assembled in one place before or since that day. In the north, the entire German 9th Army had been redeployed from the Rzhev salient into the Orel salient and was to advance from Maloarkhangelsk to Kursk. But its forces could not even get past the first objective at Olkhovatka, just 8 km (5.0 mi) into the advance. The 9th Army blunted its spearhead against the Soviet minefields, frustratingly so considering that the high ground there was the only natural barrier between them and flat tank country all the way to Kursk. The direction of advance was then switched to Ponyri, to the west of Olkhovatka, but the 9th Army could not break through here either and went over to the defensive. The Red Army then launched a counter-offensive, Operation Kutuzov. On 12 July the Red Army battled through the demarcation line between the 211th and 293rd divisions on the Zhizdra River and steamed towards Karachev, right behind them and behind Orel. The southern offensive, spearheaded by 4th Panzer Army, led by Gen. Col. Hoth, with three Tank Corps made more headway. Advancing on either side of the upper Donets on a narrow corridor, the II SS Panzer Corps and the Großdeutschland Panzergrenadier divisions battled their way through minefields and over comparatively high ground towards Oboyan. Stiff resistance caused a change of direction from east to west of the front, but the tanks got 25 km (16 mi) before encountering the reserves of the Soviet 5th Guards Tank Army outside Prokhorovka. Battle was joined on 12 July, with about one thousand tanks being engaged. After the war, the battle near Prochorovka was idealized by Soviet historians as the largest tank battle of all time. The meeting engagement at Prochorovka was a Soviet defensive success, albeit at heavy cost. The Soviet 5th Guards Tank Army, with about 800 light and medium tanks, attacked elements of the II SS Panzer Corps. Tank losses on both sides have been the source of controversy ever since. Although the 5th Guards Tank Army did not attain its objectives, the German advance had been halted. At the end of the day both sides had fought each other to a standstill, but regardless of the German failure in the north Erich von Manstein proposed he continue the attack with the 4th Panzer Army. The Red Army started the strong offensive operation in the northern Orel salient and achieved a breakthrough on the flank of the German 9th Army. Also worried by the Allies' landing in Sicily on 10 July, Hitler made the decision to halt the offensive even as the German 9th Army was rapidly giving ground in the north. The Germans' final strategic offensive in the Soviet Union ended with their defense against a major Soviet counteroffensive that lasted into August. The Kursk offensive was the last on the scale of 1940 and 1941 that the Wehrmacht was able to launch; subsequent offensives would represent only a shadow of previous German offensive might. Autumn and Winter 1943–44 The Soviet multi-stage summer offensive started with the advance into the Orel salient. The diversion of the well-equipped Großdeutschland Division from Belgorod to Karachev could not counteract it, and the Wehrmacht began a withdrawal from Orel (retaken by the Red Army on 5 August 1943), falling back to the Hagen line in front of Bryansk. To the south, the Red Army broke through Army Group South's Belgorod positions and headed for Kharkov once again. Although intense battles of movement throughout late July and into August 1943 saw the Tigers blunting Soviet tank attacks on one axis, they were soon outflanked on another line to the west as the Soviet forces advanced down the Psel, and Kharkov was abandoned for the final time on 22 August. The German forces on the Mius, now comprising the 1st Panzer Army and a reconstituted 6th Army, were by August too weak to repulse a Soviet attack on their own front, and when the Red Army hit them they retreated all the way through the Donbass industrial region to the Dnieper, losing half the farmland that Germany had invaded the Soviet Union to exploit. At this time Hitler agreed to a general withdrawal to the Dnieper line, along which was meant to be the Ostwall, a line of defence similar to the Westwall (Siegfried Line) of fortifications along the German frontier in the west. The main problem for the Wehrmacht was that these defences had not yet been built; by the time Army Group South had evacuated eastern Ukraine and begun withdrawing across the Dnieper during September, the Soviet forces were hard behind them. Tenaciously, small units paddled their way across the 3 km (1.9 mi) wide river and established bridgeheads. A second attempt by the Red Army to gain land using parachutists, mounted at Kanev on 24 September, proved as disappointing as at Dorogobuzh eighteen months previously. The paratroopers were soon repelled – but not until still more Red Army troops had used the cover they provided to get themselves over the Dnieper and securely dug in. As September ended and October started, the Germans found the Dnieper line impossible to hold as the Soviet bridgeheads grew, and important Dnieper towns started to fall, with Zaporozhye the first to go, followed by Dnepropetrovsk. Finally, early in November the Red Army broke out of its bridgeheads on either side of Kiev and captured the Ukrainian capital, at that time the third largest city in the Soviet Union. Eighty miles west of Kiev, the 4th Panzer Army, still convinced that the Red Army was a spent force, was able to mount a successful riposte at Zhytomyr during the middle of November, weakening the Soviet bridgehead by a daring outflanking strike mounted by the SS Panzer Corps along the river Teterev. This battle also enabled Army Group South to recapture Korosten and gain some time to rest; however, on Christmas Eve the retreat began anew when the First Ukrainian Front (renamed from the Voronezh Front) struck them in the same place. The Soviet advance continued along the railway line until the 1939 Polish–Soviet border was reached on 3 January 1944. To the south, the Second Ukrainian Front (ex Steppe Front) had crossed the Dnieper at Kremenchug and continued westwards. In the second week of January 1944 they swung north, meeting Vatutin's tank forces which had swung south from their penetration into Poland and surrounding ten German divisions at Korsun–Shevchenkovsky, west of Cherkassy. Hitler's insistence on holding the Dnieper line, even when facing the prospect of catastrophic defeat, was compounded by his conviction that the Cherkassy pocket could break out and even advance to Kiev, but Manstein was more concerned about being able to advance to the edge of the pocket and then implore the surrounded forces to break out. By 16 February the first stage was complete, with panzers separated from the contracting Cherkassy pocket only by the swollen Gniloy Tikich river. Under shellfire and pursued by Soviet tanks, the surrounded German troops, among whom were the 5th SS Panzer Division Wiking, fought their way across the river to safety, although at the cost of half their number and all their equipment. They assumed the Red Army would not attack again, with the spring approaching, but on 3 March the Soviet Ukrainian Front went over to the offensive. Having already isolated the Crimea by severing the Perekop isthmus, Malinovsky's forces advanced across the mud to the Romanian border, not stopping on the river Prut. One final move in the south completed the 1943–44 campaigning season, which had wrapped up a Soviet advance of over 500 miles. In March, 20 German divisions of Generaloberst Hans-Valentin Hube's 1st Panzer Army were encircled in what was to be known as Hube's Pocket near Kamenets-Podolskiy. After two weeks' of heavy fighting, the 1st Panzer managed to escape the pocket, suffering only light to moderate casualties. At this point, Hitler sacked several prominent generals, Manstein included. In April, the Red Army took back Odessa, followed by 4th Ukrainian Front's campaign to restore control over the Crimea, which culminated in the capture of Sevastopol on 10 May. Along Army Group Centre's front, August 1943 saw this force pushed back from the Hagen line slowly, ceding comparatively little territory, but the loss of Bryansk, and more importantly Smolensk, on 25 September cost the Wehrmacht the keystone of the entire German defensive system. The 4th and 9th armies and 3rd Panzer Army still held their own east of the upper Dnieper, stifling Soviet attempts to reach Vitebsk. On Army Group North's front, there was barely any fighting at all until January 1944, when out of nowhere Volkhov and Second Baltic Fronts struck. In a lightning campaign, the Germans were pushed back from Leningrad and Novgorod was captured by Soviet forces. After a 75-mile advance in January and February, the Leningrad Front had reached the borders of Estonia. To Stalin, the Baltic Sea seemed the quickest way to take the battles to the German territory in East Prussia and seize control of Finland. The Leningrad Front's offensives towards Tallinn, a main Baltic port, were stopped in February 1944. The German army group "Narwa" included Estonian conscripts, defending the re-establishment of Estonian independence. Wehrmacht planners were convinced that the Red Army would attack again in the south, where the front was fifty miles from Lviv and offered the most direct route to Berlin. Accordingly, they stripped troops from Army Group Centre, whose front still protruded deep into the Soviet Union. The Germans had transferred some units to France to counter the invasion of Normandy two weeks before. The Belorussian Offensive (codenamed Operation Bagration), which was agreed upon by Allies at the Tehran Conference in December 1943 and launched on 22 June 1944, was a massive Soviet attack, consisting of four Soviet army groups totaling over 120 divisions that smashed into a thinly held German line. They focused their massive attacks on Army Group Centre, not Army Group North Ukraine as the Germans had originally expected. More than 2.3 million Soviet troops went into action against German Army Group Centre, which boasted a strength of fewer than 800,000 men. At the points of attack, the numerical and quality advantages of the Soviet forces were overwhelming: the Red Army achieved a ratio of ten to one in tanks and seven to one in aircraft over their enemy. The Germans crumbled. The capital of Belarus, Minsk, was taken on 3 July, trapping some 100,000 Germans. Ten days later the Red Army reached the prewar Polish border. Bagration was, by any measure, one of the largest single operations of the war. By the end of August 1944, it had cost the Germans ~400,000 dead, wounded, missing and sick, from whom 160,000 were captured, as well as 2,000 tanks and 57,000 other vehicles. In the operation, the Red Army lost ~180,000 dead and missing (765,815 in total, including wounded and sick plus 5,073 Poles), as well as 2,957 tanks and assault guns. The offensive at Estonia claimed another 480,000 Soviet soldiers, 100,000 of them classed as dead. The neighbouring Lvov–Sandomierz operation was launched on 17 July 1944, with the Red Army routing the German forces in Western Ukraine and retaking Lviv. The Soviet advance in the south continued into Romania and, following a coup against the Axis-allied government of Romania on 23 August, the Red Army occupied Bucharest on 31 August. Romania and the Soviet Union signed an armistice on 12 September. The rapid progress of Operation Bagration threatened to cut off and isolate the German units of Army Group North bitterly resisting the Soviet advance towards Tallinn. In a ferocious attack at the Sinimäed Hills, Estonia, the Soviet Leningrad Front failed to break through the defence of the smaller, well-fortified army detachment "Narwa" in terrain not suitable for large-scale operations. On the Karelian Isthmus, the Red Army launched a Vyborg–Petrozavodsk Offensive against the Finnish lines on 9 June 1944, (coordinated with the Allied Invasion of Normandy). Three armies were pitted there against the Finns, among them several experienced guards rifle formations. The attack breached the Finnish front line of defence in Valkeasaari on 10 June and the Finnish forces retreated to their secondary defence line, the VT-line. The Soviet attack was supported by a heavy artillery barrage, air bombardments and armoured forces. The VT-line was breached on 14 June and after a failed counterattack in Kuuterselkä by the Finnish armoured division, the Finnish defense had to be pulled back to the VKT-line. After heavy fighting in the battles of Tali-Ihantala and Ilomantsi, Finnish troops finally managed to halt the Soviet attack. In Poland, as the Red Army approached, the Polish Home Army (AK) launched Operation Tempest. During the Warsaw Uprising, the Soviet Army halted at the Vistula River, unable or unwilling to come to the aid of the Polish resistance. In Slovakia, the Slovak National Uprising started as an armed struggle between German Wehrmacht forces and rebel Slovak troops between August and October 1944. It was centered at Banská Bystrica. On 8 September 1944 the Red Army began an attack on the Dukla Pass on the Slovak–Polish border. Two months later, the Soviet forces won the battle and entered Slovakia. The toll was high: 20,000 Red Army soldiers died, plus several thousand Germans, Slovaks and Czechs. Main articles: Vistula–Oder Offensive (January–February) with the follow-up East Pomeranian Offensive and Silesian Offensives (February–April), East Prussian Offensive (January–April), Vienna Offensive (March–April) The Soviet Union finally entered Warsaw on 17 January 1945, after the city was destroyed and abandoned by the Germans. Over three days, on a broad front incorporating four army fronts, the Red Army launched Vistula–Oder Offensive across the Narew River and from Warsaw. The Soviets outnumbered the Germans on average by 5-6:1 in troops, 6:1 in artillery, 6:1 in tanks and 4:1 in self-propelled artillery. After four days the Red Army broke out and started moving thirty to forty kilometres a day, taking the Baltic states, Danzig, East Prussia, Poznań, and drawing up on a line sixty kilometres east of Berlin along the River Oder. During the full course of the Vistula–Oder operation (23 days), the Red Army forces sustained 194,191 total casualties (killed, wounded and missing) and lost 1,267 tanks and assault guns. On 25 January 1945, Hitler renamed three army groups. Army Group North became Army Group Courland; Army Group Centre became Army Group North and Army Group A became Army Group Centre. Army Group North (old Army Group Centre) was driven into an ever-smaller pocket around Königsberg in East Prussia. A limited counter-attack (codenamed Operation Solstice) by the newly created Army Group Vistula, under the command of Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler, had failed by 24 February, and the Red Army drove on to Pomerania and cleared the right bank of the Oder River. In the south, the German attempts, in Operation Konrad, to relieve the encircled garrison at Budapest failed and the city fell on 13 February. On 6 March, the Germans launched what would be their final major offensive of the war, Operation Spring Awakening, which failed by 16 March. On 30 March the Red Army entered Austria and captured Vienna on 13 April. OKW claim German losses of 77,000 killed, 334,000 wounded and 292,000 missing, with a total of 703,000 men, on the Eastern Front during January and February 1945. On 9 April 1945, Königsberg in East Prussia finally fell to the Red Army, although the shattered remnants of Army Group Centre continued to resist on the Vistula Spit and Hel Peninsula until the end of the war in Europe. The East Prussian operation, though often overshadowed by the Vistula–Oder operation and the later battle for Berlin, was in fact one of the largest and costliest operations fought by the Red Army throughout the war. During the period it lasted (13 January – 25 April), it cost the Red Army 584,788 casualties, and 3,525 tanks and assault guns. The fall of Königsberg allowed Stavka to free up General Konstantin Rokossovsky's 2nd Belorussian Front (2BF) to move west to the east bank of the Oder. During the first two weeks of April, the Red Army performed their fastest front redeployment of the war. General Georgy Zhukov concentrated his 1st Belorussian Front (1BF), which had been deployed along the Oder river from Frankfurt in the south to the Baltic, into an area in front of the Seelow Heights. The 2BF moved into the positions being vacated by the 1BF north of the Seelow Heights. While this redeployment was in progress gaps were left in the lines and the remnants of the German 2nd Army, which had been bottled up in a pocket near Danzig, managed to escape across the Oder. To the south General Ivan Konev shifted the main weight of the 1st Ukrainian Front (1UF) out of Upper Silesia north-west to the Neisse River. The three Soviet fronts had altogether some 2.5 million men (including 78,556 soldiers of the 1st Polish Army); 6,250 tanks; 7,500 aircraft; 41,600 artillery pieces and mortars; 3,255 truck-mounted Katyusha rocket launchers, (nicknamed "Stalin Organs"); and 95,383 motor vehicles, many of which were manufactured in the USA. End of the War: April–May 1945 The Soviet offensive had two objectives. Because of Stalin's suspicions about the intentions of the Western Allies to hand over territory occupied by them in the post-war Soviet sphere of influence, the offensive was to be on a broad front and was to move as rapidly as possible to the west, to meet the Western Allies as far west as possible. But the overriding objective was to capture Berlin. The two were complementary because possession of the zone could not be won quickly unless Berlin was taken. Another consideration was that Berlin itself held strategic assets, including Adolf Hitler and part of the German atomic bomb program. The offensive to capture central Germany and Berlin started on 16 April with an assault on the German front lines on the Oder and Neisse rivers. After several days of heavy fighting the Soviet 1BF and 1UF punched holes through the German front line and were fanning out across central Germany. By 24 April, elements of the 1BF and 1UF had completed the encirclement of the German capital and the Battle of Berlin entered its final stages. On 25 April the 2BF broke through the German 3rd Panzer Army's line south of Stettin. They were now free to move west towards the British 21st Army Group and north towards the Baltic port of Stralsund. The 58th Guards Rifle Division of the 5th Guards Army made contact with the US 69th Infantry Division of the First Army near Torgau, Germany at the Elbe river. On 29 and 30 April, as the Soviet forces fought their way into the centre of Berlin, Adolf Hitler married Eva Braun and then committed suicide by taking cyanide and shooting himself. Helmuth Weidling, defence commandant of Berlin, surrendered the city to the Soviet forces on 2 May. Altogether, the Berlin operation (16 April – 2 May) cost the Red Army 361,367 casualties (dead, wounded, missing and sick) and 1,997 tanks and assault guns. German losses in this period of the war remain impossible to determine with any reliability. At 02:41 on the morning of 7 May 1945, at SHAEF headquarters, German Chief-of-Staff General Alfred Jodl signed the unconditional surrender documents for all German forces to the Allies at Reims in France. It included the phrase All forces under German control to cease active operations at 2301 hours Central European time on 8 May 1945. The next day shortly before midnight, Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel repeated the signing in Berlin at Zhukov's headquarters, now known as the German-Russian Museum. The war in Europe was over. In the Soviet Union the end of the war is considered to be 9 May, when the surrender took effect Moscow time. This date is celebrated as a national holiday – Victory Day – in Russia (as part of a two-day 8–9 May holiday) and some other post-Soviet countries. The ceremonial Victory parade was held in Moscow on 24 June. A small German garrison on the Danish island of Bornholm refused to surrender until after being bombed and invaded by the Soviets. The island was returned to the Danish government four months later. Soviet Far East: August 1945 The Soviet invasion of Manchuria began on 8 August 1945, with an assault on the Japanese puppet states of Manchukuo and neighbouring Mengjiang; the greater offensive would eventually include northern Korea, southern Sakhalin, and the Kuril Islands. Apart from the Battles of Khalkhin Gol, it marked the initial and only military action of the Soviet Union against the Empire of Japan; at the Yalta Conference, it had agreed to Allied pleas to terminate the neutrality pact with Japan and enter the Second World War's Pacific theatre within three months after the end of the war in Europe. While not a part of the Eastern Front operations, it is included here because the commanders and much of the forces used by the Red Army, came from the European Theatre of operations and benefited from the experience gained there. In many ways this was a 'perfect' operation, delivered with the skill gained during the bitter fighting with the Wehrmacht and Luftwaffe over four years. The Eastern Front was the largest and bloodiest theatre of World War II. It is generally accepted as being the deadliest conflict in human history, with over 30 million killed as a result. The German armed forces suffered 80% of its military deaths in the Eastern Front. It involved more land combat than all other World War II theatres combined. The distinctly brutal nature of warfare on the Eastern Front was exemplified by an often willful disregard for human life by both sides. It was also reflected in the ideological premise for the war, which also saw a momentous clash between two directly opposed ideologies. Aside from the ideological conflict, the mindframe of the leaders of Germany and the Soviet Union, Hitler and Stalin respectively, contributed to the escalation of terror and murder on an unprecedented scale. Stalin and Hitler both disregarded human life in order to achieve their goal of victory. This included the terrorization of their own people, as well as mass deportations of entire populations. All these factors resulted in tremendous brutality both to combatants and civilians that found no parallel on the Western Front. According to Time magazine: "By measure of manpower, duration, territorial reach and casualties, the Eastern Front was as much as four times the scale of the conflict on the Western Front that opened with the Normandy invasion." Conversely, General George Marshall, the U.S. Army Chief of Staff, calculated that without the Eastern Front, the United States would have had to double the number of its soldiers on the Western Front. The war inflicted huge losses and suffering upon the civilian populations of the affected countries. Behind the front lines, atrocities against civilians in German-occupied areas were routine, including the Holocaust. German and German-allied forces treated civilian populations with exceptional brutality, massacring whole village populations and routinely killing civilian hostages. Both sides practiced widespread scorched earth tactics, but the loss of civilian lives in the case of Germany was incomparably smaller than that of the Soviet Union, in which at least 20 million civilians were killed. According to Geoffrey A. Hosking, "The full demographic loss to the Soviet peoples was even greater: since a high proportion of those killed were young men of child-begetting age, the postwar Soviet population was 45 to 50 million smaller than post-1939 projections would have led one to expect." When the Red Army invaded Germany in 1944, many German civilians suffered from reprisals by Red Army soldiers (see Soviet war crimes). After the war, following the Yalta conference agreements between the Allies, the German populations of East Prussia and Silesia were displaced to the west of the Oder–Neisse line, in what became one of the largest forced migrations of people in world history. The Soviet Union came out of World War II militarily victorious but economically and structurally devastated. Much of the combat took place in or close by populated areas, the actions of both sides contributed to massive loss of civilian life and tremendous material damage. According to a summary, presented by Lieutenant General Roman Rudenko at the International Military Tribunal in Nuremberg, the property damage in the Soviet Union inflicted by the Axis invasion was estimated to a value of 679 billion rubles. The largest number of civilian deaths in a single city was 1.2 million citizens dead during the Siege of Leningrad. The combined damage consisted of complete or partial destruction of 1,710 cities and towns, 70,000 villages/hamlets, 2,508 church buildings, 31,850 industrial establishments, 40,000 miles of railroad, 4,100 railroad stations, 40,000 hospitals, 84,000 schools, and 43,000 public libraries; leaving 25 million homeless. Seven million horses, 17 million cattle, 20 million pigs, 27 million sheep were also slaughtered or driven off. Wild fauna were also affected. Wolves and foxes fleeing westward from the killing zone, as the Soviet army advanced 1943–45, were responsible for a rabies epidemic which spread slowly westwards, reaching the coast of the English Channel by 1968. This section does not cite any sources. (March 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Soviet Union and Nazi Germany were both ideologically driven states (Soviet communism and Nazism respectively), in which the leader had near-absolute power. The character of the war was thus determined by the leaders and their ideology to a much greater extent than in any other theatre of World War II. Adolf Hitler exercised a tight control over the German war-effort, spending much of his time in his command bunkers (most notably at Rastenburg in East Prussia, at Vinnitsa in Ukraine, and under the garden of the Reich Chancellery in Berlin). At crucial periods in the war he held daily situation conferences at which he used his remarkable talent for public speaking to overwhelm opposition from his generals and the OKW staff with rhetoric. In part because of the unexpected success of the Battle of France (despite the warnings of the professional military) Hitler believed himself a military genius, with a grasp of the total war-effort that eluded his generals. In August 1941 when Walther von Brauchitsch (commander-in-chief of the Wehrmacht) and Fedor von Bock were appealing for an attack on Moscow, Hitler instead ordered the encirclement and capture of Ukraine, in order to acquire the farmland, industry, and natural resources of that country. Some historians like Bevin Alexander in How Hitler Could Have Won regard this decision as a missed opportunity to win the war. In the winter of 1941–1942 Hitler believed that his obstinate refusal to allow the German armies to retreat had saved Army Group Centre from collapse. He later told Erhard Milch: I had to act ruthlessly. I had to send even my closest generals packing, two army generals, for example … I could only tell these gentlemen, 'Get yourself back to Germany as rapidly as you can – but leave the army in my charge. And the army is staying at the front.' The success of this hedgehog defence outside Moscow led Hitler to insist on the holding of territory when it made no military sense, and to sack generals who retreated without orders. Officers with initiative were replaced with yes-men or fanatical Nazis. The disastrous encirclements later in the war – at Stalingrad, Korsun and many other places – were the direct result of Hitler's orders. This idea of holding territory led to another failed plan, dubbed "Heaven-bound Missions", which involved fortifying even the most unimportant or insignificant of cities and the holding of these "fortresses" at all costs. Many divisions became cut off in "fortress" cities, or wasted uselessly in secondary theatres, because Hitler would not sanction retreat or voluntarily abandon any of his conquests. Frustration at Hitler's leadership of the war was one of the factors in the attempted coup d'etat of 1944, but after the failure of the 20 July Plot Hitler considered the army and its officer corps suspect and came to rely on the Schutzstaffel (SS) and Nazi party members to prosecute the war. Hitler's direction of the war was disastrous for the German Army, though the skill, loyalty, professionalism and endurance of officers and soldiers enabled him to keep Germany fighting to the end. F. W. Winterbotham wrote of Hitler's signal to Gerd von Rundstedt to continue the attack to the west during the Battle of the Bulge: From experience we had learned that when Hitler started refusing to do what the generals recommended, things started to go wrong, and this was to be no exception. Joseph Stalin bore the greatest responsibility for some of the disasters at the beginning of the war (for example, the Battle of Kiev (1941)), but equally deserves praise for the subsequent success of the Soviet Army, which depended on the unprecedentedly rapid industrialization of the Soviet Union, which Stalin's internal policy had made the first priority throughout the 1930s. Stalin's Great Purge of the Red Army in the late 1930s involved the legal prosecution of many of the senior command, many of whom the courts convicted and sentenced to death or to imprisonment. The executed included Mikhail Tukhachevsky, a proponent of armoured blitzkrieg. Stalin promoted some obscurantists like Grigory Kulik who opposed the mechanization of the army and the production of tanks, but on the other hand purged the older commanders who had held their positions since the Russian Civil War of 1917–1922, and who had experience, but were deemed "politically unreliable". This opened up their places to the promotion of many younger officers that Stalin and the NKVD regarded as in line with Stalinist politics. Many of these newly promoted commanders proved terribly inexperienced, but some later became very successful. Soviet tank output remained the largest in the world. Since the foundation of the Red Army in 1918, political distrust of the military had led to a system of "dual command", with every commander paired with a political commissar, a member of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Larger units had military councils consisting of the commander, commissar and chief of staff, who ensured the loyalty of the commanding officer and implemented Party orders. Following the Soviet occupation of eastern Poland, of the Baltic states and of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina in 1939–1940, Stalin insisted on the occupation of every fold of the newly Sovietized territories; this move westward positioned troops far from their depots, in salients that left them vulnerable to encirclement. As tension heightened in spring 1941, Stalin desperately tried not to give Hitler any provocation that Berlin could use as an excuse for a German attack; this caused him to refuse to allow the military to go on the alert – even as German troops gathered on the borders and German reconnaissance planes overflew installations. This refusal to take the necessary action was instrumental in the destruction of major portions of the Red Air Force, lined up on its airfields, in the first days of the German-Soviet war. At the crisis of the war, in the autumn of 1942, Stalin made many concessions to the army: the government restored unitary command by removing the Commissars from the chain of command. Under order 25 of 15 January 1943, shoulderboards were introduced for all ranks; this represented a significant symbolic step, since shoulderboards had connotations as a symbol of the old régime after the Russian Revolution of 1917. Beginning in autumn 1941, units that had proved themselves by superior performance in combat were given[by whom?] the traditional "Guards" title. But these concessions were combined with ruthless discipline: Order No. 227, issued on 28 July 1942, threatened commanders who retreated without orders with punishment by court-martial. Infractions by military and politruks were punished with transferral to penal battalions and penal companies, and the NKVD's barrier troops would shoot soldiers who fled. As it became clear that the Soviet Union would win the war, Stalin ensured that propaganda always mentioned his leadership of the war; he sidelined the victorious generals and never allowed them to develop into political rivals. After the war the Soviets once again purged the Red Army (though not as brutally as in the 1930s): many successful officers were demoted to unimportant positions (including Zhukov, Malinovsky and Koniev). Repression in occupied states The enormous territorial gains of 1941 presented Germany with vast areas to pacify and administer. For the majority of people of the Soviet Union, the Nazi invasion was viewed as a brutal act of unprovoked aggression. While it is important to note that not all parts of Soviet society viewed the German advance in this way, the majority of the Soviet population viewed German forces as occupiers. In areas such as Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania (which had been annexed by the Soviet Union in 1940) the Wehrmacht was tolerated by a relatively more significant part of the native population. This was particularly true for the recently rejoined to the Soviet Union territories of Western Ukraine, where the anti-Polish and anti-Soviet Ukrainian nationalist underground falsely hoped to establish the "independent state", relying on German armed force. However, Soviet society as a whole was hostile to the invading Nazis from the very start. The nascent national liberation movements among Ukrainians and Cossacks, and others were viewed by Hitler with suspicion; some, (especially those from the Baltic States), were co-opted into the Axis armies and others brutally suppressed. None of the conquered territories gained any measure of self-rule. Instead, the Nazi ideologues saw the future of the East as one of settlement by German colonists, with the natives killed, expelled, or reduced to slave labour. The cruel and brutally inhumane treatment of Soviet civilians, women, children and elderly, the daily bombings of civilian cities and towns, Nazi pillaging of Soviet villages and hamlets and unprecedented harsh punishment and treatment of civilians in general were some of the primary reasons for Soviet resistance to Nazi Germany's invasion. Indeed, the Soviets viewed Germany's invasion as an act of aggression and an attempt to conquer and enslave the local population. Regions closer to the front were managed by military powers of the region, in other areas such as the Baltic states annexed by the USSR in 1940, Reichscommissariats were established. As a rule, the maximum in loot was extracted. In September 1941, Erich Koch was appointed to the Ukrainian Commissariat. His opening speech was clear about German policy: "I am known as a brutal dog ... Our job is to suck from Ukraine all the goods we can get hold of ... I am expecting from you the utmost severity towards the native population." The massacres of Jews and other ethnic minorities were only a part of the deaths from the Nazi occupation. Many hundreds of thousands of Soviet civilians were executed, and millions more died from starvation as the Germans requisitioned food for their armies and fodder for their draft horses. As they retreated from Ukraine and Belarus in 1943–44, the German occupiers systematically applied a scorched earth policy, burning towns and cities, destroying infrastructure, and leaving civilians to starve or die of exposure. In many towns, the battles were fought within towns and cities with trapped civilians caught in the middle. Estimates of total civilian dead in the Soviet Union in the war range from seven million (Encyclopædia Britannica) to seventeen million (Richard Overy). The Nazi ideology and the maltreatment of the local population and Soviet POWs encouraged partisans fighting behind the front, it motivated even anti-communists or non-Russian nationalists to ally with the Soviets and greatly delayed the formation of German allied divisions consisting of Soviet POWs (see Vlasov army). These results and missed opportunities contributed to the defeat of the Wehrmacht. Vadim Erlikman has detailed Soviet losses totaling 26.5 million war related deaths. Military losses of 10.6 million include six million killed or missing in action and 3.6 million POW dead, plus 400,000 paramilitary and Soviet partisan losses. Civilian deaths totaled 15.9 million, which included 1.5 million from military actions; 7.1 million victims of Nazi genocide and reprisals; 1.8 million deported to Germany for forced labor; and 5.5 million famine and disease deaths. Additional famine deaths, which totaled one million during 1946–47, are not included here. Soviet repressions seems also to be not included. These losses are for the entire territory of the USSR including territories annexed in 1939–40. Belarus lost a quarter of its pre-war population, including practically all its intellectual elite. Following bloody encirclement battles, all of the present-day Belarus territory was occupied by the Germans by the end of August 1941. The Nazis imposed a brutal regime, deporting some 380,000 young people for slave labour, and killing hundreds of thousands (civilians) more. More than 600 villages like Khatyn were burned with their entire population. More than 209 cities and towns (out of 270 total) and 9,000 villages were destroyed. Himmler pronounced a plan according to which 3⁄4 of the Belarusian population was designated for "eradication" and 1⁄4 of the racially 'cleaner' population (blue eyes, light hair) would be allowed to serve Germans as slaves. Some recent reports raise the number of Belarusians who perished in the war to "3 million 650 thousand people, unlike the former 2.2 million. That is to say not every fourth inhabitant but almost 40% of the pre-war Belarusian population perished (considering the present-day borders of Belarus)." Sixty percent of Soviet POWs died during the war. By its end, large numbers of Soviet POWs, forced laborers and Nazi collaborators (including those who were forcefully repatriated by the Western Allies) went to special NKVD "filtration" camps. By 1946, 80 per cent of civilians and 20 per cent of PoWs were freed, others were re-drafted, or sent to labor battalions. Two per cent of civilians and 15 per cent of the PoWs were sent to the Gulag. The official Polish government report of war losses prepared in 1947 reported 6,028,000 victims out of a population of 27,007,000 ethnic Poles and Jews; this report excluded ethnic Ukrainian and Belarusian losses. Although the Soviet Union had not signed the Geneva Convention (1929), it is generally accepted that it considered itself bound by the provisions of the Hague convention A month after the German invasion in 1941, an offer was made for a reciprocal adherence to Hague convention. This 'note' was left unanswered by Third Reich officials. Soviet repressions also contributed into the Eastern Front's death toll. Mass repression occurred in the occupied portions of Poland as well as in the Baltic states and Bessarabia. Immediately after the start of the German invasion, the NKVD massacred large numbers of inmates in most of their prisons in Western Belarus and Western Ukraine, while the remainder was to be evacuated in death marches. The Soviet victory owed a great deal to the ability of its war industry to outperform the German economy, despite the enormous loss of population and land. Stalin's five-year plans of the 1930s had resulted in the industrialization of the Urals and central Asia. In 1941, thousands of trains evacuated critical factories and workers from Belarus and Ukraine to safe areas far from the front lines. Once these facilities were reassembled east of the Urals, production could be resumed without fear of German bombing. As the Soviet Union's manpower reserves ran low from 1943 onwards, the great Soviet offensives had to depend more on equipment and less on the expenditure of lives. The increases in production of materiel were achieved at the expense of civilian living standards – the most thorough application of the principle of total war – and with the help of Lend-Lease supplies from the United Kingdom and the United States. The Germans, on the other hand, could rely on a large slave workforce from the conquered countries and Soviet POWs. Although Germany produced more raw materials, it did not equal the Soviets in the quantity of military production (in 1943, the Soviet Union manufactured 24,089 tanks to Germany's 19,800). The Soviets incrementally upgraded existing designs, and simplified and refined manufacturing processes to increase production. Meanwhile, German industry engineered more advanced but complex designs such as the Panther tank, the Tiger II or the Elefant. (million tonnes, Germany includes lignite and bituminous types) |Year||Tanks and self- |Year||Industrial Labour||Foreign Labour||Total Labour| |Soviet||German||Soviet||German||Total Soviet||Total German| Two-thirds of Germany's iron ore, much needed for its military production, came from Sweden. Soviet production and upkeep was assisted by the Lend-Lease program from the United States and the United Kingdom. In the course of the war the US supplied $11 billion of materiel through Lend-Lease. This included 400,000 trucks, 12,000 armored vehicles (including 7,000 tanks), 11,400 aircraft and 1.75 million tons of food. The British supplied aircraft including 3,000 Hurricanes and 4,000 other aircraft during the war. Five thousand tanks were provided by the British and Canada. Total British supplies were about four million tons. Germany on the other hand had the resources of conquered Europe at its disposal; those numbers are however not included into the tables above, such as production in France, Belgium, The Netherlands, Denmark, and so on. After the defeat at Stalingrad, Germany geared completely towards a war economy, as expounded in a speech given by Joseph Goebbels, (the Nazi propaganda minister), in the Berlin Sportpalast, increasing production in subsequent years under Albert Speer's (the Reich armaments minister) direction, despite the intensifying Allied bombing campaign. The fighting involved millions of Axis and Soviet troops along the broadest land front in military history. It was by far the deadliest single theatre of the European portion of World War II, with estimates of 8.7 to over 10 million military deaths on the Soviet side, out of which between 1.3 and 3.6 million died in German captivity, although, depending on the criteria used, casualties in the Far East theatre may have been similar in number. Axis military deaths were over 5 million (out of which 800,000 died in Soviet captivity). Included in this figure of Axis losses is the majority of the 2 million German military personnel listed as missing or unaccounted for after the war. Rüdiger Overmans states that it seems entirely plausible, while not provable, that one half of these men were killed in action and the other half dead in Soviet custody. Official OKW Casualty Figures list 65% of Heer killed/missing/captured as being lost on the Eastern Front from Sept. 1 1939 to January 1 1945 (four months and a week before the conclusion of the war), with front not specified for losses of the Kriegsmarine and Luftwaffe. Estimated civilian deaths range from about 14 to 17 million. Over 11.4 million Soviet civilians within pre-1939 Soviet borders were killed, and another estimated 3.5 million civilians were killed in the annexed territories. The Nazis exterminated one to two million Soviet Jews (including the annexed territories) as part of the Holocaust. Soviet and Russian historiography often uses the term "irretrievable casualties". According to the Narkomat of Defence order (№ 023, 4 February 1944), the irretrievable casualties include killed, missing, those who died due to war-time or subsequent wounds, maladies and chilblains and those who were captured. The huge death toll was attributed to several factors, including brutal mistreatment of POWs and captured partisans, the large deficiency of food and medical supplies in Soviet territories, and atrocities committed mostly by the Germans against the civilian population. The multiple battles and the use of scorched earth tactics destroyed agricultural land, infrastructure, and whole towns, leaving much of the population homeless and without food. |Forces fighting with the Axis| |Total Dead||KIA/MIA||Prisoners taken by the Soviets||Prisoners who died in Captivity| |Soviet residents who joined German army||215,000+||215,000||1,000,000||Unknown| |Forces Fighting with the Soviet Union| |Total Dead||KIA/MIA||Prisoners taken by the Axis||Prisoners who died in captivity| In terms of materiel losses, the Germans lost about 33,324 tanks, tank destroyers, and assault guns in the east (nearly 2/3 of tank/assault gun losses for the whole war), while the Soviets lost 96,500 tanks, tank destroyers, and assault guns. The Soviets also lost 102,600 aircraft (combat and non-combat causes), including 46,100 in combat, while the Germans lost ~14,000 aircraft in combat (11,140 from 1941 to 1944, compared to 39,000 Soviet combat losses in the same period), with an unknown amount lost to mechanical failure, accidents, or being captured by the Soviets. Polish Armed Forces in the East, initially consisting of Poles from Eastern Poland or otherwise in Soviet Union in 1939–1941, began fighting alongside the Red Army in 1943, and grew steadily as more Polish territory was liberated from the Nazis in 1944–1945. When the Axis countries of Central Europe were occupied by the Soviets, they were forced to change sides and declare war on Germany. (see Allied Commissions). Some Soviet citizens would side with the Germans and join Andrey Vlasov's Russian Liberation Army. Most of those who joined were Russian POWs. These men were primarily used in the Eastern Front but some were assigned to guard the beaches of Normandy. The other main group of men joining the German army were citizens of the Baltic countries annexed by the Soviet Union in 1940 or from Western Ukraine. They fought in their own Waffen-SS units. Most Axis POWs were released from captivity several years after the war, but Axis troops who captured Red Army soldiers frequently shot them in the field or shipped them to concentration camps to die. Hitler's notorious Commissar Order called for Soviet political commissars, who were responsible for ensuring that Red Army units remained politically reliable, to be summarily shot when identified amongst captured troops. - Timeline of the Eastern Front of World War II - Historiography of World War II - Captured German equipment in Soviet use on the Eastern front - Horses in World War II - Italian war in Soviet Union, 1941–1943 - List of military operations on the Eastern Front of World War II - Operation Silberfuchs – Axis attack on the Soviet Arctic - Manchurian Strategic Offensive Operation – the Soviet campaign against Japan in Manchuria, Inner Mongolia, Korea, Sakhalin and the Kurile Islands - Kantokuen - planned Japanese invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941 - Occupation of Belarus by Nazi Germany - Belgium in World War II - Bulgaria during World War II - Estonia in World War II - Finland during World War II - France in World War II - Hungary during World War II - Romania during World War II - Severity Order - The Battle of Russia – film from the Why We Fight propaganda film series - Victory Day and Ribbon of Saint George - Western Front (World War II) - Women in the Russian and Soviet military - Germany's allies, in total, provided a significant number of troops and material to the front. 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In Hiio, Toomas; Maripuu, Meelis; Paavle, Indrek (eds.). Estonia, 1940-1945: Reports of the Estonian International Commission for the Investigation of Crimes Against Humanity. Tallinn: Estonian Foundation for the Investigation of Crimes Against Humanity. ISBN 978-9949-13-040-5.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Steinhoff, Johannes; Pechel, Peter; Showalter, Dennis E. (1994). Voices from the Third Reich: An Oral History. Perseus Books Group. ISBN 978-0-306-80594-3.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Hastings, Max (2005). Armageddon: The Battle for Germany, 1944-45. Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0-375-71422-1.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Ziemke, Berlin, see References page 71 - Beevor, Berlin, see References Page 138 - Beevor, Berlin, see References pp. 217–233 - Ziemke , Berlin, see References pp. 81–111 - Beevor, Berlin, see References pp. 259–357, 380–381 - Krivosheev 1997, pp. 219, 220. - Ziemke, occupation, References CHAPTER XV:The Victory Sealed Page 258 last paragraph - Ziemke, Berlin, References p. 134 - Garthoff, Raymond L. (October 1969). "The Soviet Manchurian Campaign, August 1945". Military Affairs. 33 (2): 312–336. doi:10.2307/1983926. JSTOR 1983926.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Duiker, William J. (2015). "The Crisis Deepens: The Outbreak of World War II". Contemporary World History (sixth ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 128. ISBN 978-1-285-44790-2.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Bonfante, Jordan (23 May 2008). "Remembering a Red Flag Day". Time.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Gunther, John (1950). Roosevelt in Retrospect. Harper & Brothers. p. 356.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Hosking, Geoffrey A. (2006). Rulers and Victims: The Russians in the Soviet Union. Harvard University Press. p. 242. ISBN 978-0-674-02178-5.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - The New York Times, 9 February 1946, Volume 95, Number 32158. - Bellamy 2007, pp. 1–2 - Marking 70 Years to Operation Barbarossa on the Yad Vashem website - On 7 Sep 1943, Himmler sent orders to HSSPF "Ukraine" Hans-Adolf Prützmann that "not a human being, not a single head of cattle, not a hundredweight of cereals and not a railway line remain behind; that not a house remains standing, not a mine is available which is not destroyed for years to come, that there is not a well which is not poisoned. The enemy must really find completely burned and destroyed land". He ordered cooperation with Infantry general Staff, also someone named Stampf, and sent copies to the Chief of Regular Police, Chief of Security Police & SS, SS-Obergruppenführer Berger, and the chief of the partisan combating units. See Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression, Supplement A pg 1270. - ("Военно-исторический журнал" ("Military-Historical Magazine"), 1997, №5. page 32) - Земское В.Н. К вопросу о репатриации советских граждан. 1944–1951 годы // История СССР. 1990. № 4 (Zemskov V.N. On repatriation of Soviet citizens. Istoriya SSSR., 1990, No.4) - Robinson, Jacob (April 1945). "Transfer of Property in Enemy Occupied Territory". American Journal of International Law. 39 (2): 216–230. doi:10.2307/2192342. JSTOR 2192342.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Beevor, Stalingrad. Penguin 2001 ISBN 0-14-100131-3 p 60 - Robert Gellately. Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe. Knopf, 2007 ISBN 1-4000-4005-1 p. 391 - Richard Overy, Russia's War, p. 155 and Campaigns of World War II Day By Day, by Chris Bishop and Chris McNab, pp. 244–52. - Axis History Factbook - Soviet numbers for 1945 are for the whole of 1945, including after the war was over. - German figures for 1941 and 1942 include tanks only. - The Dictators: Hitler's Germany, Stalin's Russia by Richard Overy p. 498. - World War II The War Against Germany And Italy, US Army Center Of Military History, page 158. - "When Britain aided the Soviet Union in World War Two" - Krivosheev, G.F., ed. (1997). Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses in the Twentieth Century. London: Greenhill Books. ISBN 1-85367-280-7. page 85 - "Nazi Persecution of Soviet Prisoners of War". Holocaust Encyclopedia. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved 15 June 2011.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Richard Overy, The Dictators - German losses according to: Rüdiger Overmans, Deutsche militärische Verluste im Zweiten Weltkrieg. Oldenbourg 2000. ISBN 3-486-56531-1, pp. 265, 272 - Rüdiger Overmans. Deutsche militärische Verluste im Zweiten Weltkrieg. Oldenbourg 2000. ISBN 3-486-56531-1 p. 289 - Die Zeit 27 October 1949 - Krivosheev, G. I. Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses. Greenhill 1997 ISBN 1-85367-280-7 - Martin Gilbert. Atlas of the Holocaust 1988 ISBN 0-688-12364-3 - Rüdiger Overmans, Deutsche militärische Verluste im Zweiten Weltkrieg. Oldenbourg 2000. ISBN 3-486-56531-1, Richard Overy The Dictators: Hitler's Germany and Stalin's Russia (2004), ISBN 0-7139-9309-X, Italy: Ufficio Storico dello Stato Maggiore dell'Esercito. Commissariato generale C.G.V. . Ministero della Difesa – Edizioni 1986, Romania: G. I. Krivosheev (2001). Rossiia i SSSR v voinakh XX veka: Poteri vooruzhennykh sil; statisticheskoe issledovanie. OLMA-Press. pp. Tables 200–203. ISBN 5-224-01515-4, Hungary: G. I. Krivosheev (2001). Rossiia i SSSR v voinakh XX veka: Poteri vooruzhennykh sil; statisticheskoe issledovanie. OLMA-Press. pp. Tables 200–203. ISBN 5-224-01515-4. - Kurenmaa, Pekka; Lentilä, Riitta (2005). "Sodan tappiot". In Leskinen, Jari; Juutilainen, Antti. Jatkosodan pikkujättiläinen (in Finnish) (1st ed.). Werner Söderström Osakeyhtiö. pp. 1150–1162. ISBN 951-0-28690-7. - Vadim Erlikman, Poteri narodonaseleniia v XX veke: spravochnik. Moscow 2004. ISBN 5-93165-107-1; Mark Axworthy, Third Axis Fourth Ally. Arms and Armour 1995, p. 216. ISBN 1-85409-267-7 - Paul Winter. "Defeating Hitler: Whitehall's Secret Report on Why Hitler Lost the War". October 13, 2012 - P. Chamberlain, H Doyle, T Jentz, Encyclopedia of German Tanks of WWII, Arms and Armour Press, London, 1978, appendix VII, pp. 261-262. - Krivosheev, G. I. (1997). Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses. Greenhill. p. 253. ISBN 1-85367-280-7.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Krivosheev, G. I. (1997). Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses. Greenhill. pp. 359–360. ISBN 1-85367-280-7.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Estimate given by historian Richard Anderson, former researcher of the Dupuy Institute. 14 March 2007. - Richard Overy The Dictators: Hitler's Germany and Stalin's Russia (2004), ISBN 0-7139-9309-X - Bellamy, Chris (2007). Absolute War: Soviet Russia in the Second World War. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-375-41086-4.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Anderson, Dunkan, et al. The Eastern Front: Barbarossa, Stalingrad, Kursk and Berlin (Campaigns of World War II). London: Amber Books Ltd., 2001. ISBN 0-7603-0923-X. - Beevor, Antony. Stalingrad: The Fateful Siege: 1942–1943. New York: Penguin Books, 1998. ISBN 0-14-028458-3. - Beevor, Antony. Berlin: The Downfall 1945. New York: Penguin Books, 2002, ISBN 0-670-88695-5 - Erickson, John. The Road to Stalingrad. Stalin's War against Germany. New York: Orion Publishing Group, 2007. ISBN 0-304-36541-6. - Erickson, John. The Road to Berlin. Stalin's War against Germany. New York: Orion Publishing Group, Ltd., 2007. ISBN 978-0-304-36540-1. - Erickson, John, and David Dilks. Barbarossa, the Axis and the Allies. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1995. ISBN 0-7486-0504-5. - Glantz, David, and Jonathan M. House. When Titans Clashed: How the Red Army stopped Hitler. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas, Reprint edition, 1998. ISBN 0-7006-0899-0. - Glantz, David, The Soviet‐German War 1941–45: Myths and Realities: A Survey Essay. - Guderian, Heinz. Panzer Leader, Da Capo Press Reissue edition. New York: Da Capo Press, 2001. ISBN 0-306-81101-4. - Hastings, Max. Armageddon: The Battle for Germany, 1944–1945. Vintage Books USA, 2005. ISBN 0-375-71422-7 - International Military Tribunal at Nurnberg, Germany. Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression, Supplement A, USGPO, 1947. - Irving, David. Hitler's War, Reissue edition. Avon Books, 1990. ISBN 0-380-75806-7. - Krivosheev, Grigoriy (1997). Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses in the Twentieth Century. Greenhill Books. ISBN 1-85367-280-7.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> - Liddell Hart, B.H. History of the Second World War. United States of America: Da Capo Press, 1999. ISBN 0-306-80912-5. - Lubbeck, William and David B. Hurt. At Leningrad's Gates: The Story of a Soldier with Army Group North, Philadelphia: Casemate, 2006. ISBN 1-932033-55-6. - Mawdsley, Evan Thunder in the East: the Nazi–Soviet War, 1941–1945. London 2005. ISBN 0-340-80808-X. - Müller, Rolf-Dieter and Gerd R. Ueberschär. Hitler's War in the East, 1941–1945: A Critical Assessment. Berghahn Books, 1997. ISBN 1-57181-068-4. - Overy, Richard. Russia's War: A History of the Soviet Effort: 1941–1945, New Edition. New York: Penguin Books Ltd., 1998. ISBN 0-14-027169-4. - Schofield, Carey, ed. Russian at War, 1941–1945. Text by Georgii Drozdov and Evgenii Ryabko, [with] introd. by Vladimir Karpov [and] pref. by Harrison E. Salisbury, ed. by Carey Schofield. New York: Vendome Press, 1987. 256 p., copiously ill. with b&2 photos and occasional maps. N.B.: This is mostly a photo-history, with connecting texts. ISBN 0-88029-084-6 - Seaton, Albert. The Russo-German War, 1941–1945, Reprint edition. Presidio Press, 1993. ISBN 0-89141-491-6. - Shirer, William L. (1960). The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany New York: Simon & Schuster. - Winterbotham, F.W. The Ultra Secret, New Edition. Orion Publishing Group Ltd., 2000. ISBN 0-7528-3751-6. - Ziemke, Earl F. Battle For Berlin: End Of The Third Reich, NY:Ballantine Books, London:Macdomald & Co, 1969. - Ziemke, Earl F. The U.S. Army in the occupation of Germany 1944–1946, USGPO, 1975 |Wikisource has original text related to this article:| |Wikisource has original text related to this article:| |Wikisource has original text related to this article:| |Wikisource has original text related to this article:| |Wikisource has original text related to this article:| |Wikisource has original text related to this article:| - Marking 70 Years to Operation Barbarossa on the Yad Vashem website - Prof Richard Overy writes a summary about the eastern front for the BBC - World War II: The Eastern Front by Alan Taylor, The Atlantic - Rarities of the USSR photochronicles. Great Patriotic War 1941–1945 Borodulin Collection. Excellent set of war photos - Pobediteli: Eastern Front flash animation (photos, video, interviews, memorials. Written from a Russian perspective) - RKKA in World War II - Armchair General maps, year by year - World War II Eastern Front Order Of Battle - Don't forget how the Soviet Union saved the world from Hitler. The Washington Post, May 8, 2015. - Images depicting conditions in the camps for Soviet POW from Yad Vashem - "Operation Typhoon": Video on YouTube, lecture by David Stahel, author of Operation Typhoon. Hitler's March on Moscow (2013) and The Battle for Moscow (2015); via the official channel of USS Silversides Museum. - "Fighting a Lost War: The German Army in 1943": Video on YouTube, lecture by Robert Citino, via the official channel of the U.S. Army Heritage and Education Center. - "Kursk, The Epic Armored Engagement": Video on YouTube, via the official channel of The National WWII Museum; session by the Robert Citino and Jonathan Parshall at the 2013 International Conference on World War II. - "Mindset of WWII German Soldiers": Video on YouTube—interview with the historian Sönke Neitzel discussing his book Soldaten: On Fighting, Killing and Dying, via the official channel of The Agenda, a programme of TVOntario, a Canadian public television station. - "How the Red Army Defeated Germany: The Three Alibis": Video on YouTube—lecture by Jonathan M. House of the U.S. Army Command and General Staff College, via the official channel of Dole Institute of Politics.

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Setting Students Up for Success Create the path of least resistance What do a successful teacher and a wealthy grocery-store owner have in common? This sounds like the beginning of a bad joke, but the answer is simple. Both are familiar, even if they don’t know it, with “technical successes” and “technical failures.” Aiming to maximize his sales, our grocer puts staples such as milk, eggs, and bread at the back of the store, as his customers may pick up other items while looking for the staples. Placing the staples at the back of the store is a “technical success,” while placing them at the front constitutes a “technical failure.” In the classroom, a technical success arises when a teacher prepares her students to succeed, and a technical failure exists when she sets them up to fail. Students need a learning environment that encourages success, but how can a teacher create such a place? In thinking about this question, I explored how the physical layout of my classroom, our academic schedule, and my behavior in class affected my students’ ability to succeed. I also investigated how teachers around me set their students up for success or failure. Just as a store owner must lay out his store for maximum sales, a teacher must set up her classroom as an effective learning environment. The structure may vary with the teacher’s style of teaching and her students’ needs. A teacher who typically introduces a lesson and then instructs the students to work individually might arrange desks in a “U” shape. The teacher can present a topic with minimal distractions and easily monitor students while they work independently. Students with diverse academic abilities might warrant “clustered” or “grouped” seating instead. Seating students in heterogeneous groups maximizes the learning environment: weaker students see how stronger students learn and approach problems, while stronger students gain a deeper understanding of the subject by teaching it to others, creating a “technical success.” It is important to think not only about where students’ desks are located, but also about what’s on top of them. Does one student always color on his desk? Maybe he focuses better while doodling. I can help him out by covering his desk with oversized paper and replacing it when necessary. Who knows, maybe he will grow up to be a famous illustrator. Classroom practices should provide students with the path of least resistance to academic success. Facilitating students’ cooperation, independence, and ability to focus is the key. Consider common technical failures in the classroom, such as asking students to “think hard” right after lunch or recess or to listen quietly when they have a lot of energy. A teacher faced with these challenges can allow students to read independently or write in a journal after lunch or play an educational game that the students can get excited about. A teacher concerned about students who finish assignments early can create a “must do/may do” chart. This chart can be student-specific or for the whole class, but the idea is that students complete “must do” activities before beginning those in the “may do” column. Students take responsibility for their own learning and time management. Most important, it prevents the technical failure of students who complete their work early and sit idle or, worse, distract students who are still working. Imagine that we are reviewing last night’s homework assignment and I ask, “Who has the answer to problem number two?” Several hands go up. I call on a student, who asks to go to the bathroom, effectively stopping the lesson. Or I call on one student for the answer and several others shout out, “He stole my answer!” These students may be left so frustrated that they find it difficult to focus. To avoid these technical failures, at the beginning of the year I teach my students a few basic signs in American Sign Language (ASL). If students want to go to the bathroom, they show me the sign, and I silently respond with “yes” or “no.” Likewise, students sign “me too” when they weren’t called on but want to demonstrate that they knew the answer. I acknowledge them verbally or with a thumbs-up. As a result, these students feel good. The use of ASL effectively eliminates student-initiated distractions, a clear technical success. Rebecca Friedman teaches elementary-school and college students in Baltimore, Maryland. Chavi Abramson studies education at Thomas Edison University.

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Questions for Discussion You may have come to the story with preconceived ideas about Giacomo Casanova, perhaps not knowing that “Casanova” was an historical man and not just a myth. Did the book challenge your view of him? Some readers may find it shocking that the main character, Caterina, is fourteen years old. How do you think our culture views fourteen year-olds today, versus what is portrayed in the book? What were you like at this age? Caterina persists in seeing herself as a wife despite Giacomo’s behavior. Were you sympathetic to her beliefs in the sacredness of their promises, or do you think she should have cast him off sooner? What would you have done in these circumstances? How do you think Giacomo truly felt about Caterina? Did you find anything about Marina to admire? Caterina notes that “A woman with no children has to explain herself to society.” Do you think this is still true in our society? If yes, why do you think this idea persists, and if not, in what ways do you think this attitude has changed? Caterina comes to see that she loves her husband, Bastiano, at least on some level. Do you think happiness and satisfaction can result from this kind of slow, rational realization, or is an instinctive physical attraction (such as Caterina experiences with Giacomo) necessary for true love? What are the messages the author communicates to readers in telling this story?

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Teaching your students about the First Fleet can be fun and engaging! Display these 40 word wall posters around your classroom to help immerse your students with the language surrounding this topic. These posters compliment the following Australian Curriculum Year 4 History content descriptors: – Stories of the First Fleet, including reasons for the journey, who travelled to Australia, and their experiences following arrival (ACHASSK085) – The nature of contact between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and others, for example, the Macassans and the Europeans, and the effects of these interactions on, for example, people and environments (ACHASSK086) Take a look at some of the great feedback for this resource: “An excellent resource that has been great for building literacy in my Humanities class. The text is nice and clear and the cards look great on my wall.” “A great resource to supplement this unit of work.” If you liked the look of this resource, you may also like these: — Famous Australians of the 1800s – Settlement to Federation Posters — Famous Australian Explorers Posters — Famous Australians of the 1800s – Settlement to Federation Classroom Decor Posters Please feel free to contact me with any questions. Thank you so much,

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This is a provincial program, offered Ontario-wide and administered by SOAHAC. Anti-Indigenous racial discrimination and bias have profound negative impacts on the health and wellness of Indigenous communities in Ontario. The Ontario ICS Program is focused on supporting Indigenous Health transformation as part of the overall health and social service systems transformation underway in Ontario. The goal is to improve Indigenous healthcare experiences and outcomes by increasing respect and understanding of the unique history and current realities of Indigenous populations. We facilitate and promote transformative decolonizing, Indigenous specific anti-racist education using evidence informed and coordinated approaches and strategies. We also work in collaborative partnerships and support organizational change initiatives, seeking to improve awareness about how colonialism is embedded in services, and motivating people with influence to address anti-Indigenous racial discrimination. There are a number of ways that the Program advances its mission: - Core online training for health and social service professionals (see below) - Continued online training modules (post core training) - In-person workshops, training and meetings convened to support organizational and system level transformation - Provincial and national knowledge exchange efforts - Planning, monitoring, evaluation and research initiatives related to ICS - Strategic, collaborative partnerships - Partnership, coordination and promotion of a National ICS Webinar series (link) Our small Ontario team supports organizational and system level coordination and planning related to ICS. If you have questions, or if you have taken the online training and would like to discuss how to improve Indigenous cultural safety in your organization, we would love to hear from you. We are also interested in collaboration and knowledge exchange opportunities with existing Indigenous cultural safety initiatives. Core Online ICS Training formation disponible en français Indigenous Cultural Safety (ICS) Training is an interactive and facilitated online training program for all professionals working in the Ontario health and social service systems. It addresses the need for increased Indigenous cultural safety within the system by bringing to light the service provider bias and the legacies of colonization that continue to negatively affect service accessibility and health outcomes for Indigenous people. The Core ICS Training Courses (both health and mental health available) are designed as foundational courses to increase knowledge and enhance self-awareness. They provide a vital opportunity for health professionals to examine the ways in which their own culture, education and history have shaped their health practice, especially with regard to stereotypes that impact Indigenous experiences of the health system and the present-day realities of colonization that shape Indigenous health and wellness. The Core ICS courses provide 8 -11 hours (depending on your previous knowledge and your learning style) of online, instructor-facilitated learning over an 8 week period. Online discussions, interactive activities, videos and contributions between peers and the facilitation team provide rich learning opportunities to expand and share information. Upon completion a certificate is awarded and access is provided to a website with further information and post-training resources. The online Core Health program meets the accreditation criteria of the College of Family Physicians of Canada. It has been certified by the College of Family Physicians of Canada for up to 16 Mainpro+ credits. Core ICS Health Training is an accredited Self-Assessment Program eligible for up to 8.0 section 3 credits as defined by the Maintenance of Certification Program of the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada. PLEASE NOTE: If you are submitting the online ICS course for accreditation on the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada website, you must select “San’yas: Indigenous Cultural Safety Training” as the SAP Name. Post online training modules are available on a limited basis for those who have completed the core health or core mental health training: - From Bystander to Ally - Unpacking our Colonial Relationship Developed in Partnership Core and post online training modules are offered in partnership with San’yas Indigenous Cultural Safety Training. Our Ontario-specific curriculum was developed in collaboration with the San’yas team at the Provincial Health Services Authority of British Columbia, and we continue to work together to address Indigenous-specific bias and discrimination in health and social service systems through the training and other initiatives like the National ICS Learning Series. Register for Core Online ICS Training If you would like to register or if you have questions about registration, please contact Leresha Lickers, Provincial Registration & Data Coordinator: (519) 914-1858 x2009 / [email protected] Ontario ICS Program Contact Diane Smylie, Provincial Director Michèle Parent-Bergeron, Manager, Research, Evaluation and Monitoring Rebecca Mador, Provincial Data & Project Lead Leila Monib, Provincial Lead, Education and Systems Larry Spence, Regional Practice Lead, Northwestern Ontario - Core Online Training Information Sheet (including learning outcomes) (PDF) - Formation de base en ligne sur la SCA (et résultats d’apprentissage) (PDF) - Getting to the Roots of Tolerance Workshop (PDF) - National ICS Learning Series Webinars - National ICS Learning Series Evaluation Report 2017 (PDF) - Evidence Brief: Wise Practices for Indigenous-specific Cultural Safety Training (PDF) - Infographic: Wise Practices for Indigenous-specific Cultural Safety Training (PDF)

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|The General Store from Wikipedia| |Amana Colonies from Wikipedia| The Amana Colonies in Iowa were founded in 1854 by a closed sect of Christians who originally came from Germany. However, after many years of persecution in Europe, they emigrated first to New York, just outside Buffalo. They enjoyed a communal lifestyle, maintaining their commercial and provisional independence as much as possible. The tract of land they purchased in New York was owned by the Colony, and was originally called Ebenezer. However, the city of Buffalo grew rapidly, and by the early 1850’s, the community was almost surrounded completely. They sent an advisory team west to find new land on which to settle. The decision was made to purchase land near Homestead, Iowa, and six communities were plotted out. A few years later, when the railroad came to Homestead, they purchased the entire town so they could have access to the rail for shipping goods in and out. Each colony operated under similar rules, and each colony had its own board of elders called the Bruderrath. The Amanites kept themselves to themselves, but occasionally hired an outsider to live and work in their community as need arose. Sometimes this included a blacksmith, laborers, or folks with special skills. Housing was provided to these outsiders, who also ate in the communal kitchens in each colony. Life was simple in the colonies. Each person had their job to do, and was expected to do it as the entire community relied on them. Laundry was dropped off at each colony’s wash room, where it was cleaned, ironed if need be, then picked up later. The kitchens were ruled by a Kȕchebaas and several helpers, and provided three meals and two snacks per day. There were no cooking facilities in the houses. Under their original structure, marriage was frowned upon as a weakness of the flesh, but in time they came to understand the need to continue the community, and so permitted marriage. Families lived together until they, too, left home to wed. They lived a true communal existence, in that nobody owned anything in their own name, including homes or equipment. Any monies earned by sales of products or labor to the outside world were pooled within the community. Each person was given an annual allotment of money, and was expected to spend it within the community store. Church services were held Sunday morning and every evening, and men sat on one side, women and children on the other. Weddings were held as part of a regular service, and the couple didn’t send invitations. Instead, they traveled from colony to colony to invite folks to the wedding. When a baby was born, the mother could stay home for two years, at which time the child was enrolled in a care program half days, and the mother returned to work half days. At the age of five, the child began attending school, at which time, the mother returned to work full time. The work and school weeks ran six days a week, with the Sabbath, or day of rest, being the only free day. Marriage to an outsider was not permitted, and divorce was never an option. If one spouse had a problem with the other, they went to the Bruderrath for advice and counsel. In 1932, The Great Change, as it is referred to, relaxed many of the rules regarding the way of life, and the communal life was ended. Colonists purchased houses, ran their own businesses, and kept their own profits or salaries. However, the Amana Colonies still exist with many of the original buildings now re-purposed for commercial use. The Great Change also ended the religious aspect of the colonies, propelling them into a secular form of government. The current colonies enjoy a great tourist trade, and the museum is a treasure-trove of history. If you’re in the area, be sure to stop by! It’s in the neighborhood of Highway 6 and 151, just north of Highway 80 near Iowa City. Leave a comment and be entered into a drawing for an ebook version of A Nurse for Caleb, as a special pre-release gift. |Welcome sign from Amana Colony website| About A Nurse for Caleb (releases September 3, 2020): In 1868, Tessa, a Mennonite nurse graduates from nursing school and is assigned to the Amana Colonies in Iowa because of her expertise in treating asthma and other breathing problems. As a former student at a women's medical school, she knows more than most about respiratory diseases. She's also had her fair share of heartbreak when, upon her mentor's death, she was forced to abandon her dream of becoming a doctor. Will she be able to use her skills? Or will her gender keep her from helping those who truly need her? Seth, a widower in Amana, is still nursing a broken heart from his sweetheart's passing two years before. Now raising their invalid son Seth on his own, he wonders why God didn't listen to his prayers for healing for his family. Caleb has been afflicted with the same form of asthma that killed Anna, and Seth stands by helplessly as his son fades away. Can he trust God and trust medicine, or is faith in one mutually exclusive of faith in the other? Donna writes historical suspense under her own name, and contemporary suspense under her alter ego of Leeann Betts, and has been published more than 30 times in novellas, full-length novels, and non-fiction books. She is a member of ACFW, Writers on the Rock, SinC, Pikes Peak Writers, and CAN; facilitates a critique group; teaches writing classes; ghostwrites; edits; and judges in writing contests. www.HiStoryThruTheAges.com

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$19.95 Buy and instantly download this paper now The paper discusses Du Bois' concept of "double consciousness" and how it addressed the black community that was severely discriminated against. The paper then discusses Descartes' concept of skepticism, and his phrase, "I think, therefore I am." The paper explains the conclusions of these two philosophers and their implications for the idea of race. From the Paper:"Du Bois' concept of self, "Double Consciousness", is, as Du Bois puts it, "a sense of always looking at one's self through the eyes of others, of measuring one's soul by the tape of a world that looks on in amused contempt and pity" (3). Here Du Bois states that the black community is viewing themselves through the eyes of the dominating society, which happens to be the white community. This is a crippling factor to the black community; it keeps them at a stagnation state and gives the dominating race a more secure hold of them. This inevitably leads to what Du Bois refers to as a, "...two-ness, - an American, a Negro; two souls, two thoughts, two un-reconciled strivings; two warring ideals in one dark body..." (3). Meaning that the African American's view themselves as two different people, Americans and then Africans, both very different people that are trying to combine into one person, African-American. This flows right in hand with the double consciousness concept; they view themselves with their own eyes and then step into the surrounding society's eyes and view themselves again, creating a glass ceiling." Sample of Sources Used: - Descartes, Rene. The Philosophical Works of Descartes.Trans. Elizabeth S. Haldane and G. R. T. Ross. Cambridge: The UP, 1911-1912. Print. - Du Bois, W.E. B. The Souls Of Black Folk. Seventh ed. Chicago: A.C. McClurg& Co., 1907. Print. Cite this Comparison Essay: Du Bois and Descartes on the Self (2012, March 26) Retrieved November 22, 2019, from https://www.academon.com/comparison-essay/du-bois-and-descartes-on-the-self-150608/ "Du Bois and Descartes on the Self" 26 March 2012. Web. 22 November. 2019. <https://www.academon.com/comparison-essay/du-bois-and-descartes-on-the-self-150608/>

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Convert 21 Stones to Metric Tons To calculate 21 Stones to the corresponding value in Metric Tons, multiply the quantity in Stones by 0.00635029318 (conversion factor). In this case we should multiply 21 Stones by 0.00635029318 to get the equivalent result in Metric Tons: 21 Stones x 0.00635029318 = 0.13335615678 Metric Tons 21 Stones is equivalent to 0.13335615678 Metric Tons. How to convert from Stones to Metric Tons The conversion factor from Stones to Metric Tons is 0.00635029318. To find out how many Stones in Metric Tons, multiply by the conversion factor or use the Mass converter above. Twenty-one Stones is equivalent to zero point one three three Metric Tons. Definition of Stone The stone or stone weight (abbreviation: st) is an English and imperial unit of mass now equal to 14 pounds (6.35029318 kg). England and other Germanic-speaking countries of northern Europe formerly used various standardised "stones" for trade, with their values ranging from about 5 to 40 local pounds (roughly 3 to 15 kg) depending on the location and objects weighed. The United Kingdom's imperial system adopted the wool stone of 14 pounds in 1835. Definition of Metric Ton The tonne (SI unit symbol: t), commonly referred to as the metric ton in the United States, is a non-SI metric unit of mass equal to 1,000 kilograms; or one megagram (Mg); it is equivalent to approximately 2,204.6 pounds, 1.10 short tons (US) or 0.984 long tons (imperial). Although not part of the SI per se, the tonne is "accepted for use with" SI units and prefixes by the International Committee for Weights and Measures. Using the Stones to Metric Tons converter you can get answers to questions like the following: - How many Metric Tons are in 21 Stones? - 21 Stones is equal to how many Metric Tons? - How to convert 21 Stones to Metric Tons? - How many is 21 Stones in Metric Tons? - What is 21 Stones in Metric Tons? - How much is 21 Stones in Metric Tons? - How many tonne are in 21 st? - 21 st is equal to how many tonne? - How to convert 21 st to tonne? - How many is 21 st in tonne? - What is 21 st in tonne? - How much is 21 st in tonne?

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Irish Coats of Arms and Mottos History and Heraldry Irish coats of arms and mottos have a rich history and hold significant meaning for the families they represent. Heraldry in Ireland can be traced back to the early medieval period, when noble families used coats of arms as symbols of their identity, lineage, and authority. These symbols were used to distinguish one family from another, both on and off the battlefield. In the case of Irish heraldry, coats of arms were granted to individuals rather than entire families or surnames. This means that even if a coat of arms exists for a particular surname, it was originally intended for a specific individual within that family. Over time, these symbols have been adopted and modified by various branches of a family, leading to numerous variations of the coat of arms for a single surname. The significance of Irish coats of arms and mottos lies in the way they connect families to their ancestry and preserve their heritage. Each element of a coat of arms, including the colors, figures, and arrangement, has specific meanings that reflect the values and history of the family. Mottos, often written in Latin or French, represent the guiding principles or ideals of the family. Does every surname have a Coat of Arms and Motto? Throughout Ireland's tumultuous history, coats of arms and mottos have evolved, with many being lost or forgotten due to political upheaval, invasions, and the shifting social landscape. However, in recent years, there has been a resurgence of interest in Irish heraldry, as more people seek to explore their roots and connect with their ancestral heritage. It can be difficult to associate a coat of arms and motto with all Irish surnames due to the complex nature of heraldry and the vast number of families and clans in Ireland. While some Irish surnames have well-established coats of arms and mottos, others may not have specific or officially recognized symbols. While some Irish surnames have a clear coat of arms and motto associated with them, many do not. The complexity of the heraldic tradition, combined with the historical changes in Ireland, makes it challenging to accurately trace and assign symbols to every Irish surname. See also: Irish Family Crests. There is often limited information available on a specific coat of arms and motto for an Irish surname. Sometimes there are many variations, sometimes none, we have compiled a representative, but by no means exhaustive, selection. Please visit our Coat of Arms and Motto page for more information. DNA And Your Irish Roots - DNA and your Irish Heritage - DNA, Discovery and Functions - Types of DNA tests - DNA testing companies - Y-chromosome and Father's Ancestral Line - Mitochondrial DNA and Mother's Ancestral Line - DNA and Ethnicity

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The Wall of Wonder is here! Our sister company, Red T has created an online portal of free educational resources with the help of the Enable team. The Wall of Wonder is filled with modules based around big questions intended to help children learn vital thinking skills. Each section is packed with fun videos, interactive activities, games, creative projects, and lesson plans that build skills and start big conversations. From the beginning, Red T has been devoted to helping little thinkers think big. It’s all about going beyond a simple thought and turning it into a meaningful examination. From introducing kids to philosophy to asking questions about fairness and humanity, their goal has always been to promote Whether they are learning at home or using the portal as a supplement to what they learn in school, children will be able to practice these vital thinking skills with the Wall of Wonder. The portal will be added to on a regular basis to keep big ideas and interactions flowing. The team at Enable has been thrilled to be part of the process. Part of our initiative is to support our community, including the learning community of children, parents and teachers. We along with Red T believe in providing an early start to lifelong learning, even in less-than-ideal

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Three Shires Stones History, tourist information, and nearby accommodation The stones may have come from a chambered tomb, but if so, the tomb was not in this location originally. The burial chamber was erected around 1859, possibly after a public appeal for funds, on the meeting place of the county boundaries. So, even if the stones originally came from a burial chamber, the site might more accurately be described as a 'folly'. Another version of the site origin suggests that the chamber was built around 1736, reusing stones from an existing tomb. When a hole was excavated to support the Gloucestershire stone, the bones of three skeletons were unearthed along with a coin from the reign of James II. The upright stones are about 2 metres high and 1 metre wide. The capstone is roughly the same shape and size. Within the chamber is a cist, or stone chest built from 4 stones. Author JRR Tolkien knew this area well, and may have used the Three Shire Stones as the model for the Three Farthings Stone in his Lord of the Rings series of books. The location is close to the point where tradition suggests St Augustine met a group of British bishops. So, are the Three Stones a legitimate ancient monument? It seems unlikely, and even the provenance of the stones is subject to doubt. About Three Shires Stones Address: Bannerdown Road, Fosse Way, Colerne, Gloucestershire, England, SN14 8AR Attraction Type: Prehistoric Site Photo Credit: Jonathan Billinger, licensed for reuse under the Creative Commons Licence Opening Details: Open access site, usually accessible at any reasonable time We've 'tagged' this attraction information to help you find related historic attractions and learn more about major time periods mentioned. Find other attractions tagged with: Neolithic (Architecture) - NEARBY HISTORIC ATTRACTIONS Heritage Rated from 1- 5 (low-exceptional) on historic interest Corsham Court - 3.2 miles (Historic House) American Museum in Britain - 3.8 miles (Museum) Holburne Museum of Art - 3.8 miles (Museum) Beckford's Tower - 3.9 miles (Museum) Museum of Bath Architecture - 4 miles (Museum) Museum of Bath at Work - 4.1 miles (Museum) Fashion Museum, Bath - 4.1 miles (Museum) Bath Assembly Rooms - 4.1 miles (Historic Building) Nearest Accommodation to Three Shires Stones: Nearest Self Catering Cottages Nearest Bed and Breakfasts

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The natural killer cells of our immune defense are activated for an extended period after the acute infection, which challenges the prevailing view that the elevation and activation of cells quickly pass. This is shown in a study regarding vole fever that was recently published by researchers at Umeå University, Sweden in Journal of Experimental Medicine. These are findings of a years-long project where patients with vole fever, a northern Swedish hemorrhagic fever that has been studied with regard to natural killer (NK) cells. Vole fever is a common infection in northern Sweden that is caused by a hantavirus, Puumala virus, which is prevalent in bank voles and infects humans primarily via inhalation of virus-contaminated dust. The symptoms are primarily high fever, head and muscle pain, abdominal pain, and generally impacted condition. Involvement of the kidneys and lungs are common. There is no dedicated and effective treatment today. As vole fever is a hemorrhagic fever, there is often a pronounced reduction in blood platelets, and bleeding complications occur. Some 30 % of the diagnosed cases are hospitalized. Mortality is 0.5 % owing to bleeding, shock, and multiple organ failure. The Umeå researchers, led by assistant professor Clas Ahlm, have used a unique patient cohort to study the expansion of NK cells and their activity in the course of the infection in collaboration with scientists at the Karolinska institute. The material was gathered during and following the major outbreak of vole fever in 2007. There have been few previous studies of NK cells in acute viral infections in humans, even though they are regarded as part of our so-called innate immunity. The Puumala virus itself is not cytopatogenic, i.e. doesn't kill the infected cells. The Umeå scientists' hypothesis is therefore that part of the pathological mechanism in vole fever involves the immune defense against the virus infection, which is further supported by these findings. The study revealed an expansion of NK cells. This expansion persisted for an extended period after the acute infection, which surprised the researchers. This finding challenges to some extent the previous view that the elevation and activation of NK cells quickly subsides in acute viral infections. The results of the study indicate that some NK cells may have memory-like functions. Cite This Page:

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Oceanography Resources on the Internet The following is a list of oceanography-related resources that can be found on the Internet. Exploration of these resources will turn up a surprising variety of information. You may find institutional descriptions, personnel directories, calendar of events, research activities, program summaries, datasets and images available via FTP, technical publications, etc. Worth noting: Oceanographic research ship information & cruise schedules. This directory was initially compiled by the Scripps Institution of Oceanography Library. In addition, a very comprehensive list of Information Sources about the Internet and Computer-Mediated Communication is also available. - NOAA Environmental Info Services - Global Change Master Directory, NASA's comprehensive source of information about worldwide earth science data holdings. Information on field experiments such as FIRE, FIFE, TOGA-COARE, GALE, ERICA, and OTTER as well as global projects such as ISCCP, COADS, GTE, JGOFS, ALE/GAGE, and FGGE/GARP. Information on international satellite data holdings such as SPOT, METEOSAT, GMS, and MOS. US data descriptions include NASA, NOAA, NCAR, USGS, DOE (CDIAC), EPA entries, along with universities and research centers. Descriptions of data held outside the U.S. are through the International Directory Network. - Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center archives and distributes data on atmospheric CO2 and other radiative active trace gases. - US Global Change Data and Information System interconnects Federal agency data and information systems making global change data accessible to researchers, policy-makers, educators, industry, and the public. - NOAA Global Climate Perspectives System is a joint effort of CDC's Global Climate Laboratory, NOAA ERL's Climate Diagnostics Center, and NOAA's Climate Analysis Center offering global climatological datasets. - NCAR's Data Archive offering atmospheric, geophysical and oceanographic data. - NOAA Satellite Active Archive offering data from NOAA's polar-orbiting satellites (ASCII or X Window). - OCEANIC: Ocean Information Center at University of Delaware. OCEANIC provides data on WOCE (World Ocean Circulation Experiment) and TOGA-COARE (Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere Coupled Ocean-Atmosphere Response Experiment). - JGOFS Data Object Index: Joint Ocean Global Flux Study. - JPL Physical Oceanography Distributed Active Archive Center archives and distributes NASA data on ocean circulation and air-sea interactions. - Langley Distributed Active Archive Center archives and distributes NASA data on radiation budget, clouds, aerosols, and tropospheric chemistry. - University of Rhode Island AVHRR XBrowse for browsing satellite AVHRR imagery. - SeaWiFS Project monitors global ocean color. - TOGA COARE International Project Office: Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere, Coupled Ocean-Atmosphere Response Experiment. - NASA AVHRR Land Pathfinder for browsing global multichannel land surface satellite data. - Space Science & Engineering Center at University of Wisconsin, Madison. SSEC offers current satellite images and backfiles; current satellite images include global sea surface temperature, Antarctic infrared, GOES visible, GOES infrared, and GOES-METEOSAT-GMS global composite. SSEC also provides information on the McIDAS program. - Unidata Integrated Earth Information Server - Scripps Institution of Oceanography Data Index - Lamont Doherty Climate Group Data Catalog - Monthly dynamic ocean topography database from University of Texas at Austin Center for Space Research. Gridded dynamic topography heights observed by TOPEX/POSEIDON altimeter and corresponding sea level anomalies. These solutions appear in Climate Diagnostics Bulletin but may be revised due to additional data. - Unidata Program - The Oceanography Society's Distributed Ocean Data System project - ESA/ESRIN Ionia 1km AVHRR Net Browser - El Niño Advisory from NOAA's Climate Analysis Center. - The Daily Planet weather server - Florida Institute of Technology weather server - Australian National University weather server Ocean Planet Exhibition Floorplan gene carl feldman ([email protected]) (301) 286-9428 Judith Gradwohl, Smithsonian Institution (Curator/Ocean Planet)

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Why are lakes worth protecting and restoring? Lakes and their surrounding watersheds are unique and valuable ecosystems for both people and nature. Lakes are critical "storage tanks" for freshwater. More than 90% of all available liquid surface freshwater is contained in lakes and reservoirs. Despite their importance, many of the world's lakes are in crisis. "A lake is a landscape's most beautiful and expressive feature. It is earth's eye; looking into which the beholder measures the depth of his own nature." Henry David Thoreau, Walden Update on the World's Lakes

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The law on the place of religion and belief in schools, and the rights of parents in relation to that law, is incredibly complex and can be hard to navigate. This description applies to England and (with some variations) to Wales. The current arrangements remain largely in line with the reforms of the 1944 Education Act, which was responsible for bringing ‘faith’ schools into the state sector for the first time, and also for making both Religious Instruction (RI) – now Religious Education (RE) – and Collective Worship compulsory in all schools (both remain legal requirements). Since then, the system has if anything become more favourable to religious groups. Their schools are now almost totally funded from the public purse and they have been given increasing freedom and control in the running of schools. Specific exemptions from equalities legislation, for instance, have enshrined their power to discriminate both in admissions and in employment, and the autonomy given to Academies and Free Schools in the formulation of their curriculum enables religious organisations to teach from a narrower, less inclusive, and doctrinaire perspective. Alongside faith schools in the public system, private schools remain highly unregulated and are inadequately inspected. Some religious private schools are inspected by bodies that they set up themselves. Those that are inspected by Ofsted are not marked down if, for example, they teach pseudoscientific beliefs such as creationism as scientifically valid. The blogs on this website testify to several places where inspections have failed to identify serious problems. The number and diversity of private religious schools has risen rapidly in recent years. The law in these various areas is set out in the following pages: - Types of school - Religious Education - Collective worship - Creationism and Evolution - Sex and Relationships Education - School admissions

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Results from the 2010 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Mental Health Detailed Tables is a collection of tables presenting national estimates from the National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH). These tables present information on past year mental health measures and past year mental health service utilization for youths aged 12 to 17 and adults aged 18 or older. Adult tables include measures on any mental illness, serious mental illness (SMI), moderate mental illness, low (mild) mental illness, mental health service utilization (i.e., mental health treatment or counseling), suicidal thoughts and behaviors, major depressive episode (MDE), treatment for depression (among adults with MDE), and serious psychological distress (SPD). Youth tables include measures on mental health service utilization, MDE, and treatment for depression (among youths with MDE). Measures related to the co-occurrence of mental disorders with substance use or with substance use disorders also are presented for both adults and youths. Measures of these characteristics and behaviors are presented by a variety of demographic, geographic, and other variables. The estimates in the tables include rates of persons having the characteristics, numbers of persons with these characteristics, and corresponding standard errors. The majority of these tables are trend tables presenting estimates from the 2009 and 2010 NSDUHs. Also included are five tables that present data from earlier surveys in the series, including two tables with data from 2002 to 2010, two tables with data from 2005 to 2010, and one table with data from 2004 to 2010. Throughout the survey series, the NSDUH questionnaire has been used to collect data on special topics, such as mental health. Questions on mental health for youths aged 12 to 17 and adults aged 18 or older were first introduced in the 1994 NSDUH and continued through the 1997 NSDUH. Mental health questions were reintroduced beginning in the 2000 NSDUH and continued through the 2010 NSDUH. Because of survey improvements in the 2002 NSDUH, the 2002 data constitute a new baseline for tracking trends in substance use and mental health measures. Therefore, estimates beginning with the 2002 survey should not be compared with estimates from the 2001 or earlier surveys to examine changes over time. Because of further survey improvements and questionnaire changes between 2002 and 2010, it is not possible to assess long-term trends for all of the mental health issues. Revisions made to the mental health module in the 2008 NSDUH questionnaire resulted in new estimates for adults aged 18 or older for measures such as AMI, SMI, 30-day SPD, and suicidal thoughts and behavior. SMI estimates produced from 2008 or later years of NSDUH data are not comparable with SMI estimates produced from NSDUH data prior to 2004, and SMI estimates were not produced from 2004 through 2007. Thus, long-term trend estimates are not available for SMI. Because of the 2008 questionnaire revisions, several estimates (MDE and 12-month SPD) were affected by context effects. However, an adjustment for the questionnaire changes was applied to estimates of MDE for 2005 to 2007. For more detailed information, see Section B.4.4 in Appendix B of the Results from the 2010 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Mental Health Findings.1 Therefore, long-term trend estimates for these two measures are available from 2005 through 2010. There were no additional questionnaire changes in 2009 or 2010 that led to changes in these adult measures. No questionnaire changes have been implemented that affected the adult mental health service utilization questions; therefore, estimates of mental health service utilization presented in these mental health detailed tables reflect trends from 2002 to 2010. There were no questionnaire revisions that affected MDE for youths aged 12 to 17; thus, long-term trend estimates are available from 2004 through 2010. However, revisions to the youth mental health service utilization module of the 2009 NSDUH questionnaire resulted in new estimates and a discontinuation of trends for several items on the source of mental health services. New questions regarding the receipt of mental health services from juvenile justice sources were added, and questions regarding services from educational sources were revised and are not comparable with estimates prior to 2009. For detailed information on revisions to both the adult and the youth mental health items, see Sections B.4.2 to B.4.4 in Appendix B of the Results from the 2010 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Mental Health Findings.2 A description of the survey measurement issues and the sample design and estimation procedures used in the 2010 NSDUH can be found in technical appendices within that same report. Definitions for many of the measures and terms used in these mental health detailed tables and in the mental health national findings report can be located in the Key Definitions for the 2010 Mental Health Detailed Tables and Mental Health Findings Report (i.e., the glossary) that is provided with these mental health detailed tables.3 Where relevant, the glossary provides cross-references between terms and specific question wording for clarity. As of May 2012, data errors were identified that impacted estimates for the mid-Atlantic division and the Northeast region. Estimates for the mid-Atlantic division and the Northeast region were not corrected in the original versions of the 2010 Mental Health Detailed Tables; however, the erroneous data has been removed from all data files, thus any subsequent revisions to these tables (that occurred after May 2012) will exclude the erroneous data. More specifically, during regular data collection and processing checks for the 2011 NSDUH, data errors were identified. These errors affected the data for Pennsylvania (2006 to 2010) and Maryland (2008 and 2009). Cases with erroneous data were removed from the data files, and the remaining cases were reweighted to provide representative estimates. The errors had minimal impact on the national estimates and no effect on direct estimates for the other 48 States and the District of Columbia. In reports where model-based small area estimation techniques are used, estimates for all States may be affected, even though the errors were concentrated in only two States. In reports that do not use model-based estimates, the only estimates appreciably affected are estimates for Pennsylvania, Maryland, the mid-Atlantic division, and the Northeast region. The 2010 mental health detailed tables and 2010 mental health findings report do not include division-level, State-level, or model-based estimates. However, they do show region-level estimates, including the Northeast region. Caution is advised when comparing data from older reports with data from more recent reports that are based on corrected data files. As discussed above, comparisons of estimates for Pennsylvania, Maryland, the mid-Atlantic division, and the Northeast region are of most concern, while comparisons of national data or data for other States and regions are essentially still valid. The Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality within SAMHSA does not recommend making comparisons between unrevised 2006-2010 estimates and estimates based on data for 2011 and subsequent years for the areas of greatest concern. As of October 2013, tables containing estimates for past year AMI and SMI for adults have been revised. These tables have been denoted with the word "(REVISED)" placed between the table's number and title. A note also appears with each revised table to briefly explain that the revision is due to revised estimation procedures. Additionally, in previous versions of the mental illness tables, Table 1.49 contained estimates for adults of past year suicidal thoughts, suicide plans, and suicide attempts by past year level of mental illness. This table was removed from the revised mental illness tables, and the subsequent tables were renumbered. This table was removed because of analysis limitations resulting from the revised estimation procedures. Lastly, as noted above in the Table Revisions (Revised Estimates for 2006 to 2010) section, these revised estimates are also based on a corrected data file that excludes cases with data errors. The revised tables contain a note to indicate this to the user. Tables that do not contain AMI or SMI estimates are still based on the uncorrected data. In regard to the revisions to AMI and SMI, the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) has been publishing estimates of the prevalence of past year AMI and SMI among adults aged 18 or older since the release of the 2008 NSDUH national findings report.4 Estimates were based on a model developed in 2008. In 2013, SAMHSA developed a more accurate model for the 2012 data. This revised model incorporates the NSDUH respondent's age and indicators of past year suicide thoughts and depression, along with the variables that were specified in the 2008 model (Kessler-6 [K6] questions on psychological distress and an abbreviated set of questions on impairment in carrying out activities from the World Health Organization Disability Assessment Schedule [WHODAS]), leading to more accurate estimates of AMI and SMI. Other mental health measures, such as MDE, SPD, and serious thoughts of suicide, were not affected. It is recommended that the mental illness variables derived from the 2012 model not be used when analyzing variables for past year suicidal thoughts, past year MDE, the K6, or the WHODAS, and it is also recommended that the mental illness variables derived from the 2012 model not be used when analyzing other closely linked variables (including, past year suicide attempts, past year suicide plans, medical treatment for suicide attempts, lifetime MDE, SPD, or components used in the K6 or WHODAS scales). For these revised tables, estimates are based on the 2012 model. For further information on the revised model, see the NSDUH short report titled Revised Estimates of Mental Illness from the National Survey on Drug Use and Health at http://samhsa.gov/data/default.aspx. The mental health detailed tables are numbered using a three-part numbering scheme (e.g., 1.21A). The first part of the table number (1.21A) is the subject matter section to which a particular table belongs. The second part (1.21A) is the number of the table within a particular section. The third part (1.21A) is a table type indicator, an alphabetic letter appended to the table number. Each table number, as explained below, has multiple table types. Tables are numbered sequentially within each subject matter section. To the extent possible, identical tables are assigned the same table number each year except in the case where specific tables are removed or added. The three subject matter sections and the number of tables per section are as follows: Section 1: Adult Mental Health Tables - 1.1 to 1.64 Section 2: Youth Mental Health Tables - 2.1 to 2.14 Section 3: Sample Size and Population Tables - 3.1 to 3.8 The table type indicators are defined as follows: |Table Type||Purpose of the Table| |A:||Presents estimates of the numbers of persons exhibiting the specified behavior or characteristic (e.g., substance use) in the populations described by the column and row headings.| |B:||Presents estimates of the percentages of persons exhibiting the specified behavior or characteristic (e.g., substance use) in the populations described by the column and row headings.| |C:||Presents the standard error associated with each of the estimates in the "A" tables.| |D:||Presents the standard error associated with each of the estimates in the "B" tables.| |N:||Presents the number of cases in the specified NSDUH sample with the characteristics defined by the column and row headings.| |P:||Presents the p values from tests of the statistical significance of differences between columns in the "B" tables.| Section 1 and Section 2 tables within the mental health detailed tables contain five table types (A, B, C, D, and P) as defined above. Section 3 tables contain three table types (A, C, and N). Note that table type N is used exclusively within Section 3 to display the sample size counts. The mental health detailed tables are organized by table type into two categories: Both categories are organized based on three subject matter sections as listed below. Clicking on the subject matter section of interest takes users to a list of tables for that section. Users can scroll through the list of table titles to find the table of interest, then click on the table title to go directly to that table. Users need to return to the table of contents to access tables from other sections or categories. The "Key Definitions for the 2010 Mental Health Detailed Tables and Mental Health Findings Report" (i.e., the glossary) defines and cross-references key measures used in the 2010 mental health detailed tables and the 2010 mental health findings report. This may be helpful when used in conjunction with the list of tables in identifying tables that contain information for selected measures. However, not all measures and terms listed in the glossary are specifically mentioned in the table index or list of tables. The three subject matter sections are as follows: Section 1: Adult Mental Health Tables Section 2: Youth Mental Health Tables Section 3: Sample Size and Population Tables For best printing results, use the PDF-Web file of this report located at http://www.samhsa.gov/data/NSDUH.aspx. 1 Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality. (2012). Results from the 2010 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Mental health findings (HHS Publication No. SMA 11-4667, NSDUH Series H-42). Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. 2 See footnote 1. 3 Prior to the 2010 NSDUH, a glossary of key definitions appeared as an appendix in each year's national findings report. 4 Office of Applied Studies. (2009). Results from the 2008 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: National findings (HHS Publication No. SMA 09-4434, NSDUH Series H-36). Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration.

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10 fallacies about Subtitling for the d/Deaf and the hard of hearing1 Josélia Neves, Instituto Politécnico de Leiria, Portugal Even though subtitling for the d/Deaf and the hard of hearing is now an established audiovisual translation type, it is not yet fully understood, even by its stakeholders. Some of the misconceptions have led to unnecessary misunderstandings which could hinder progress. A better understanding of the social and technical constraints of this kind of subtitling may prove to be important at a time when technology is offering new opportunities. In this paper, a few of the above mentioned misconceptions will be addressed in a critical eye and a provocative tone. Ten fallacies are listed in the hope that other researchers and professionals might take up the problematic issues as a starting point for further research and thus shed further light on them. Accessibility, subtitling, SDH, Deaf, hard of hearing, misconceptions It is now widely accepted that Subtitling for the d/Deaf and the hard of hearing (SDH) has established itself as a privileged form of access for d/Deaf2 viewers throughout Europe. Formal reports, as the ones presented by Stallard (2003) and by the Media Consulting Group (2007), as well as by academic reviews, as that by Remael (2007), prove that SDH is now a common service in a great number of countries, which have come to increase their offer particularly in the context of television broadcasting. Despite the considerable progress made in recent years, those working in this area will have to overcome a few hurdles on the way to implementing, increasing or improving their work, if they want to make the most of digital technology. Technological changes will enable innovative solutions and open up to creativity but will also challenge common practices and beliefs. A close analysis of the way SDH is seen by the main stakeholders involved – the addressees/audiences (the deaf, the Deaf, the hard of hearing and the hearing viewers), the providers (producers, broadcasters and subtitling professionals), the political and social forces (legislators, the Deaf associations and other lobbying forces) and the researchers – shows that people hold different and often conflicting views, which have led or may still lead to misunderstandings that may hinder progress. The 10 fallacies to be addressed below are little more than just that - misunderstandings. Nonetheless, they are important enough to be listed and to be addressed through a number of angles, hopefully clarifying what might still not be clear enough. The fallacies are addressed in no particular order and are in many ways interrelated. They reflect present concerns and speak of a time when countries are pushing for benchmarks, when the digital switchover is underway and when the media are changing into new and challenging formats. It is hoped that they will soon belong to the past, but as we write, they are certainly a matter of the present. Before we can continue, we need to clarify that when we speak of SDH we are addressing a subtitling solution that is directed towards a rather diverse group of receivers: the 'deaf', who use an oral language as their mother tongue; the 'Deaf', who belong to linguistic minority groups that use a sign language as their first language; and the 'hard of hearing', who have residual hearing and can therefore share the experience of sound and of the world of hearers to different degrees. Depending on the onset, the type and the degree of deafness, people with hearing impairment will relate to sound in different ways and will therefore relate to subtitling in accordance with those very same characteristics. Furthermore, SDH must also be seen as an umbrella term which encompasses quite distinct outputs which will be determined by criteria such as the linguistic transfer (intralingual or interlingual subtitling) or the time of preparation (pre-prepared, live or real-time subtitling), only to name two of the most significant distinguishing traits3. These basic concepts will be further clarified in the course of this paper. 1. SDH (Subtitling for the Deaf and the hard of hearing) and CC (Closed Captions) are completely different realities A first major misunderstanding derives from the use of the actual term 'subtitling' as opposed to 'captioning'. In the UK and in Europe, subtitles provided for people with hearing impairment have taken the designation of 'subtitling' perhaps due to the teletext subtitling system that was launched in the 70s to provide 'hidden' subtitles on television or due to the subtitling tradition of many European countries, which use subtitling to translate foreign films/programmes. On the other side of the Atlantic, in the US and surrounding countries, another system, with a different technical profile, gave way to what would come to be known as "closed captioning". Many Americans cannot relate to the term subtitling and see captioning and subtitling as two completely different concepts. Captioning is taken to address hearing impaired viewers; captions transcribe speech and provide information about sound effects and music, whilst subtitling is considered to be for hearers. Despite the fact that this debate has been ongoing for quite a long time (see recent discussions in the yahoo Captioning discussion group [available at http://groups.yahoo.com/group/Captioning/message/5847]), there appears to be very little to keep this fire burning. If we were to take the following definition of 'captioning', set forward by the Captioned Media Programme (2006: 2), and to substitute the words 'captioning' for 'subtitling' and 'captions' for 'subtitles', would we not be speaking of exactly the same thing? Captioning [subtitling] is the process of converting the audio content of a television broadcast, webcast, film, video, CD-ROM, DVD, live event, and other productions into text which is displayed on a screen monitor. Captions [Subtitles] not only display words as the text equivalent of spoken dialogue or narration but also include speaker identification and sound effects. It is important that the captions [subtitles] be: (1) synchronized or appear at approximately the same time as the audio is available; (2) equivalent and equal in content to that of the audio, including speaker identification and sound effects; and (3) accessible and readily available to those who need them. (CMP 2006: 2) [My emphasis and changes in bold] The debate over the terminology here is, to my view, rather sterile, and quite worthless. On either side of the ocean we are speaking of quite the same thing and, just as it happens with 'flat/apartment', 'truck/lorry' or 'taxi/cab', 'subtitling/captioning' are simple British English / American English varieties. However, we may have a case if we look at the issue through another angle. The case is there when we find that even among those who accept the term 'subtitling', there is uncertainty as to the words that come after it: subtitling for the deaf / subtitling for the deaf and the hard of hearing / subtitling for the hearing impaired that appears in short as 'SDH' or as 'SDHH'... and this is all within the English language. If we look at how expressions are dealt with in other languages, it is clear that terminology is a problem when it comes to this particular kind of subtitling 'genre'. A brief overview may allow us to arrive at a few conclusions: - English: (a) Subtitling for the hearing impaired / (b) for the deaf and hard of hearing - Spanish: Subtitulado para sordos - Catalán: Subtitulació per a sords - European Portuguese: Legendagem para surdos - Brazilian Portuguese: (a) Lengendagem para surdos / (b) Legendagem para surdo-mudos - French: Sous-titrage pour sourds et malentendants - Dutch: Ondertiteling voor doven en slechthorenden - Italian: (a) Sottotitoli per sordi / (b) sottotitoli per non-udenti - German: Untertitelung für (gehörlose und) Hörgeschädigte - Czech: TitulkovÁnt pro nesluscici - Greek: Υποτιτλισμός για άτομα με προβλήματα ακοής - Polish: Napisy dla niesłyszących i niedosłyszących - Croatian: Podslovljavanje za gluhe i osobe oštećena sluha Even though there is no doubt that these subtitles are directed toward special addressees, there is obviously some uncertainty as to who the addressees might in fact be. To the Spanish, the Italians, the Portuguese and the Czech, for instance, they are the 'deaf'; to the British, the French, the Dutch, the Croatians and the Germans, they are the 'deaf' and 'the hard of hearing'; less politically correct, the Brazilians use the term surdo-mudos, i.e. 'deaf-mute', and the British and the Italians emphasise the 'loss' or the impairment in the expression 'for the hearing impaired'. This notion of lack is also reinforced in the Polish which use the term niesłyszących, literally 'non-hearers' and the Greek which use άτομα με προβλήματα ακοής, meaning 'persons with hearing problems'. This debate would be sterile if this terminology did not reflect a further issue – a quite diffuse understanding of the profile of the intended addressees, a matter which is given special attention in point 2 below. Much of the confusion also comes with other misconceptions, such as that SDH is to be found exclusively on television, that it is only intralingual or that it is closed. That was indeed the case when SDH/captioning gained status on television in the 70/80s. Nowadays it is no longer the case. We now have interlingual SDH, particularly on DVDs, or open SDH on TV, the cinema and in many other contexts (in conferences, live performances, church services, among others). Be they pre-prepared, live, semi-live, off-line, pop-up, scroll-up, or any other, terminology will be used to highlight different aspects of what is the same thing. As mentioned above, SDH will always be SDH regardless of the specific traits that may be highlighted in the terminology used to address it. 2. SDH addressees make up one cohesive group This second fallacy is reflected in the previous one and is, I believe, one of the main problems in present day SDH. Regardless of the terminology used, SDH aims to cater for a wide range of viewers that are inadequately grouped together, since they have distinct profiles and needs. We assume that the subtitling that is provided is equally adequate for: - deaf and for hard of hearing viewers; - pre-lingually and post-lingually deaf; - oralising and signing deaf; - deaf who feel they belong to hearing majority social group and (capital D) Deaf who assume themselves as a linguistic minority; - Deaf for whom the written text is a second language; - deafened viewers who have residual hearing and/or hearing memory. The provision of a unique set of subtitles for all will inevitably be inadequate for some if not most viewers. Hard of hearing, deaf and Deaf viewers are, in reality, different audiences who may require different subtitling solutions. They read at different speeds, enjoy different types of subtitles (e.g. edited, verbatim) and relate to sound (speech, sound effects and music) in different ways. Kyle's Report (1996: passim) shows how viewers with different types and degrees of hearing loss interact with the audiovisual text and read subtitles. It is clear from the outcome of Kyle's research (ibid.) and from those by D'Ydewalle's team (D'Ydewalle et al. 1987) and by Neves (2005) that this issue is complex, due to the number of variables to be taken into account if we are to arrive at a comprehensive account. But this is definitely an area that deserves further research, for a better understanding of people's needs would certainly equip providers with important knowledge on which to base their choices and practices. It may be true that it is not (economically and technically) viable to produce various subtitle versions for any one film or programme, as proposed by Gottlieb (1997: 129); however, special effort must be put into getting to know our audiences as well as possible and to adjusting our work to the genre and style of the audiovisual text we are subtitling (which in itself will be an audience selector), so that the subtitles provided truly offer d/Deaf or hard-of-hearing viewers a rewarding viewing experience. It needs also be reminded that it is now widely acknowledged that SDH is not exclusively directed towards hearing impaired audiences. The Television access services review by Ofcom (2006: 2) reveals that "[o]n the basis of the quantitative research, the researchers concluded that most people were aware of subtitles, and about 7.5 million people had used them to watch television, of whom about 6 million did not have a hearing impairment." Hearers will use subtitles with sound, but above all, they will be watching them while working out at the gym or while enjoying a drink in a noisy pub. Subtitles are equally usable and useful to immigrants, foreigners and people of all ages learning a language or working on their reading skills (cf. Díaz Cintas & Remael 2007: 14). Subtitles have often been regarded an excellent pedagogical tool. The examples available are more than convincing. Koolstra et al. (1997), for instance, refer to how subtitles can help young children learn to read, while studies in India carried out by Kothari and his team (Kothari, 1999, 2000; Kothari et al. 2004) show how subtitling has been used to improve national literacy levels. Gambier (2007) offers up a comprehensive summary of the role subtitling plays in guaranteeing multilingualism and highlights the pedagogical role it can play in a vast array of circumstances. He gives examples from all over the world while addressing quite distinct audiences who belong to different age groups and social backgrounds, and have distinct linguistic, sensory and cognitive profiles. 3. It is easy to access SDH The third fallacy is more technical in nature, but it is equally complex. 'Equal opportunities' is openly advocated by all – legislators, providers and society at large. Most European countries are working towards providing and increasing accessibility services for viewers with hearing impairment both on television and in other contexts. Special services are now, indeed, widely provided, but the question remains: are accessibility services actually being used by the people who need them most? After accepting the premise that not all SDH is useful to its target users, other issues still need to be addressed. In the context of television: - Quite often, and particularly in countries where accessibility services are limited or have only recently been introduced, people do not watch programmes with SDH, even though it might be provided, because they do not know such a service is available. Not all broadcasters advertise their service conveniently. Programme listings in newspapers, magazines, and Webpages seldom identify the programmes containing SDH; viewers are not often reminded, through onscreen written messages, that the programme to be shown contains SDH; and programmes do not always carry a subtitling logo to remind people that they are provided with 'hidden/closed' subtitles. While teasers are often used to 'advertise' forthcoming features, they are seldom used to call viewers' attention to subtitled programmes. - Using new services often requires a 'learning period'. Viewers need to be taught and to be (repeatedly) reminded not only that the subtitles are there for them, but also how to turn them on. Activating the teletext is sometimes a burden, either because people might not know which buttons to press, or because the remote control is not user-friendly. Big bulky hand pieces, with clearly marked colourful buttons would certainly help the elderly and all those who might have mobility or sight impairment - a condition that comes with age and is associated with a number of other conditions. This has now been addressed by legislators and television makers as may be witnessed by the emergence of the twice updated TWF Directive4 and of some modern digital equipment that offers alternatives (trendy or accessible solutions) easy-to-use remote controls. These are still spare and scarce and many people using analogue television and older equipment find themselves pressing all accessible buttons in the hope that they can finally call up the teletext page carrying the subtitles. - If we are to think of analogue television, which will still be around for a while in most European countries, another problem comes to the fore: 'zapping'. Turning Teletext on and off every time you zap can be very stressful, especially if you have to check anew whether the programme has Teletext, and change pages as different broadcasters use different pages (888 / 777 / 887 /...) for their service. This is a matter worth harmonising, and Teletext users will certainly look forward to being able to go to and fro without having to go through the burdensome task of setting subtitles on and off every time they go into a different programme. 4. Standardisation and norms are good Standardisation is a form of normalisation. It is used in all walks of life, mainly for the sake of organisation, compatibility and exchange/transfer protocol. In the media, standardisation is now being taken very seriously, particularly due to the introduction of digital technology, which allows for a greater conversion of different media. Technical standardisation is highly regulated by international agreements and ISO standards which determine parameters that are to be rigorously met. Directives such as the TWFD (now known as Audiovisual Media Without Frontiers) are an explicit effort to normalise the world of the media at a European, if not even at a worldwide level. It is hoped that exchange protocols will be agreed upon and that different media may become compatible, so that technical and geographical boundaries may be less felt in the global digital world. In our specific domain, standards are seen as "norms" – in the guise of guidelines and style sheets – mainly used to guarantee the repetition of patterns which are accepted as "good practice". In so doing, guidelines are in themselves "quality assurance" tools. Chesterman (1993:4) sees norms as "behavioural regularities [that] are accepted (in a given community) as being models or standards of desired behaviour". This means that they are seen as "regularities" that become "regulations"... in other words, rules to be followed. Prescriptivism is often unwelcome, particularly among researchers who see it outside their scope and practitioners who would like to do things their own way. However, as far as functional translation and SDH is concerned, norms ARE welcome, particularly when they account for 'best practice' and they are based on serious empirical research involving all the stakeholders in their making: suppliers, professionals and receivers (the d/Deaf and the hard of hearing, in this case). So, if norms and guidelines are welcome, where is the fallacy to be found? Standardisation has its limits! How relevant or useful are such norms? Are they known and used by the people doing the job? Who has written them? What are they based on? At times, norms even serve to perpetuate less adequate solutions. The UK and Spain are among the countries fortunate enough to have national standards. The UK follows a long tradition, with BBC leading and making use of over 25 years of experience. Spain, on the other hand, is only just starting, and it too has established standards – the UNE 153010. As an outsider, I look at one and the other, and I still query if those are, in fact, the best solutions. Now that these countries are coming close to the 100% quantitative goal, perhaps it would be interesting to question norms and practices anew. Do those norms really compile best practices? Do subtitlers actually apply them? And are people happy with what they get? An analysis of practices throughout Europe (Neves 2005) proves that there is some inconsistency in subtitles offered within any one country and even within any one broadcaster. Messages on the Captioning (http://groups.yahoo.com/group/Captioning/) and the TV Acessível (http://br.groups.yahoo.com/group/tvacessivel/) yahoo groups also show how viewers are critical of the standards of the subtitles they are being given. It is clear that people aren't happy with what they are given, and very often make suggestions that could be tested and used to improve present offers. We will all agree that some sort of norm is better than no norm at all, but if we are to implement them, let us be sure that they they are as inclusive as possible, given all the constraints SDH has to comply with. 5. You don't need special training to work on SDH This fallacy comes hand in hand with a few of the fallacies we have addressed before and in particular with the old belief that SDH is intralingual subtitling. I have often heard that all it really takes to produce SDH is to transcribe what you hear and to write it down in the form of subtitles. "Anybody who knows the language can do it!" The problem resides there, as SDH is not just about transcribing. SDH, in whichever form – intralingual, interlingual, prepared, live, etc. – will require highly developed technical, linguistic and translational skills. Language needs to be manipulated to accommodate (1) technical constraints (such as screen space or font size and shape); (2) textual features (genre, rhythm and style), (3) intersemiotic transfer (speaker identification, the conveyance of sound effects and music), and (4) the actual manipulation of written speech (linguistic and paralinguistic information). If to all this we add issues such as readability techniques – making text easy to read –, then subtitling for d/Deaf and hard of hearing audiences is no easy task. The best of subtitlers will be those who have come to know and to respect their addressees as people with an identity of their own, with skills and needs that require special solutions. They will also be the ones who have acquired cultural and linguistic maturity to be able to carry messages and ideas across a number of barriers which derive from ideological, linguistic, social or even individual constraints. Further to intellectual maturity, sense and sensibility, subtitlers working on SDH need to learn to read film, to manipulate language (rephrase, summarise and expand), to use specific equipment and to cope with stress. Ideally, subtitlers would attend specialised courses after completing a university degree in Languages or Translation Studies. If that is not available or possible, SDH professionals will at least need to have solid university degrees in Languages and/or Translation and a training period with qualified and experienced professionals who can pass on their knowledge and expertise for newcomers to build on. Initial training alone does not make an expert subtitler either. That only comes with time, work and perseverance! 6. Only verbatim subtitles guarantee equal opportunities In this particular case, the fallacy comes from within the actual audiences using SDH. Deaf, and particularly hard of hearing viewers, demand verbatim, word for word subtitles, in the belief that only so will they be on an equal stand with hearers. Here too, a huge mistake. Not very many (d/Deaf, hard of hearing or hearing) viewers have the ability to read subtitles with high reading rates. It is commonly accepted that average subtitling reading speeds are of 150 to 180 words per minute. This number will necessarily vary according to the manner in which the text is presented, to the quantity and complexity of the information, and to the action on the screen at any given moment (De Linde 1995: 10). The 6-second rule has been widely accepted as rule of thumb for 'readable'subtitles. D'Ydewalle et al. (1987), who studied the variables that determined subtitle reading speed, support the 6-second rule on the basis of three findings which seem particularly interesting: the subjects don't spend more time in the subtitle when the spoken language is not available [...] reading a written message is faster and more efficient than listening to the same message, as the text still stays on the screen while a spoken voice immediately vanishes [and] subjects reported more problems in reading a subtitle with one line than with two lines (ibid.:320-321). Even though this might suggest that not much difference should be found in terms of Deaf viewers' subtitle reading rates, d'Ydewalle considers that the 6-second rule should be replaced by a 9-second rule as deaf viewers are typically slow readers (personal communication). If we are to confront this belief with other findings set forth by Koolstra et al. (1999) in terms of the longer time taken by children to read subtitles, and the often mentioned fact that deaf adults tend to have the reading ability of a nine-year-old hearing child (cf. (Rodda & Grove, 1987: 165), then subtitling for these two publics will necessarily call for similar solutions, a belief that is tentatively suggested by de Linde and Kay (1999: 6-7). Unless speech is reasonably slow or scarce, verbatim subtitles may have such high reading rates that they will be difficult to follow. Why demand for verbatim when it is more important to have sufficient reading time and carefully adapted subtitles that are enjoyable to read, easily interpreted and unobtrusive? Subtitles should never be in the way of enjoyment. Watching television, going to the movies or attending a live performance is not about reading subtitles, it is all about forgetting they are there and taking in the whole audiovisual experience as one. Equal opportunities only come with the respect for difference, and that is what must be aimed at. Hard of hearing viewers and (capital) Deaf viewers will certainly have different expectations and needs, so, if people with different degrees of hearing loss, linguistic profiles and reading skills are only given one set of subtitles, equal opportunities will never be attained. 7. Adaptation/editing means reduction Our seventh fallacy is shared by many of those who advocate verbatim subtitles. They believe that adaptation and editing means cutting short and not giving it all. They see it as a form of censorship. They couldn't be more mistaken! As far as SDH is concerned, adaptation means making reading possible, easier and faster. It also means getting meaning across fully and clearly. Editing may, indeed, include omissions. If the information is redundant, why burden the reading load with unnecessary or superfluous information? But editing may also mean adding. At times, speech is incoherent. Editing can mean adding missing elements to make utterances meaningful. Subtitles may require expansion, for the sake of clarification. And in the case of offering information such as speaker identification, sound effects, music or paralinguistic information, it means giving more, rather than less. I particularly favour the term 'transadaptation' to name all that goes into making SDH. Not in the sense used by Gambier (2003), in which he refers to all screen translation as transadaptation, but rather when used to refer to the task of 'translating' + 'transferring' + 'adapting' for the benefit of receivers with special needs. Transadaptation, within our context, means to translate and transfer all the information contained in all the layers of the sound track into a visual format and to adapt it to allow people who cannot hear sound to perceive the audiovisual text as fully as possible. In so doing all (editing) techniques are acceptable as long as that effect of easy and enjoyable reading is achieved. 8. True accessibility comes with sign language interpreting (SLI) – Subtitles are second choice As may be seen in Neves (2007) the tension behind what seems to be a battle between two irreconcilable forces has no real motive. There is more than space for sign language interpreting and for subtitling in the world of accessibility to audiovisual media. In fact, these two translational solutions play quite different roles and they cannot be measured against each other. SLI plays a political and social role. It shares its prerogatives with all other minority languages. It stands for a right and an identity. It needs to be disseminated and kept alive. It serves the purposes of a particular community but it lives with the limits of its own boundaries. When it comes to accessibility services, SLI comes to the fore as a rapid, easy, if not cheap solution. It is particularly useful in the event of an unexpected situation, such as breaking news, a crisis intervention or a live/direct statement. SLI is indeed easier to provide than live subtitling, hence its preference in the case of news bulletins and live programmes. However, it has its limits and, despite its enormous value, it is not adequate for all audiovisual genres nor does it cater for the needs of the majority. SLI will be excellent for a news bulletin or a sports report, but it will look rather awkward when used on a soap opera or action movie. The presence of a sign language interpreter on a screen that is already (over)populated by a number of characters may prove awkward, while fast exchanges between numerous characters will prove difficult to master by a signer under the time and space constraints imposed by the audiovisual text. Then again, SLI will be really useful for Deaf signing viewers, but it is common knowledge that the majority of the deaf and the hard of hearing audiences do not know sign language. This gains special relevance if we take the fact that hearing impairment often comes with age, and most elderly people, who have always belonged to the hearing community, might not know sign language. Even though a hearty advocate of subtitling solutions, I do not deny SLI its importance. However, I consider subtitling to be a more versatile solution. It is adaptable to most circumstances, it is relatively unobtrusive, it has wider applications and it has a greater number of users. As happens with many hearers, subtitling may help d/Deaf people to improve their linguistic and their reading skills. It will be the best solution for the deaf and the hard of hearing who do not master sign language; and it is a service for all those hearers who (for a number of reasons) also need subtitles to gain access to audiovisual messages. 9. 100% subtitling is the ultimate goal It is impressive that some countries, such as the UK, France and Spain, should aim at 100% accessibility services on television in the near future. These are courageous benchmarks revealing progressive minds and determined fighters. All countries should establish similar goals, and work gradually towards true inclusion. But quantity should by no means be the ultimate goal. 100% subtitled programmes may, in practice, not mean 100% accessibility. If quality standards are not met, then figures alone say very little. It may be true that 'quality' is in itself difficult to define. It may be measured in terms of availability, accuracy, adequacy or even style. However, there are definitely minimal standards to be had if any type of subtitling is to be useful to its users. Utility and commodity may well be the basic parameters most people will be looking for. It is natural that quantity should be a goal when nothing or very little is available. Quantity loses its validity when quality is not guaranteed and when compliance is only measured in terms of the number of programme hours to be covered by accessibility services. Even though d/Deaf and hard of hearing viewers demand more subtitling and more SLI, they are also critical of the quality of what they are offered, as previously mentioned in point 5. Few broadcasters truly hear their viewers' opinions. Few offer open channels for complaints and suggestions as happens with the BBC, which ends subtitled programs with an invitation to comments ([email protected]) and even fewer revisit their practices in the light of the feedback users give them. In face of present practices, one might set forth a number of questions. Who overlooks the compliance with rules and regulations? How many countries run quality observatories? How many invest in the training of their subtitlers by offering them lifelong training opportunities? How well are subtitlers paid? What incentives are they given to improve their productivity and quality standards? The answers to these questions are not as yet perfectly known, despite the existence of reports such as that by the Media Consulting Group (2007); but, should they be found, they may prove that, as far as SDH is concerned, quantity and quality are still quite far apart. I think the 100% goal is only worthwhile if it is accompanied by yet another goal: the '100% quality' goal. 10. SDH is now here to stay Is it? It might be the case that SDH is a thing of the past! It may be true that SDH has suddenly become a trendy topic for research. It is definitely true that it has finally gained the visibility and respect that it much longed for. It is equally true that providers (television, the DVD industry and others) are now willing to invest in SDH solutions. However, SDH as we know it today might be coming to an end, and we are all the more fortunate for it. This may be the case thanks to the introduction of (interactive) digital media, convergence and the changing landscapes in media and computer technology. IPTV – Internet protocol television is just round the corner. Our traditional media are giving way to a completely different generation of multimedial gadgets. Mobile phones are becoming televisions, fridges and stoves are becoming computers, computers are becoming everything else, information is taking on new shapes and some time soon, all may come to be little more than a hologram, a step away from what we still think is science fiction. It may still take some time for this new situation to settle in completely, but with the current speed of changes, we can only start preparing ourselves, if we want to keep up with development. In this context, accessibility services are bound to take new shapes. Conditions will finally be there for slogans such as 'Television for All', 'Media for All' or 'Audiovisual Services Without Frontiers' to become quite meaningful. New technology will allow us all to interact and to adjust media services to our specific needs. When that happens we can all afford to have 'special needs'. And this is in itself a paradox. Mass media may be better seen as 'individual media' and each viewer will be able to adjust the text s/he receives exactly to what s/he wishes. When that happens, standardisation will be at its best, so that everything falls into place. Audiovisual services will be put together like puzzles. The viewer will be in full command to choose and pick as s/he desires. Subtitles will be offered in different parts to be assembled as pleased. Then, hearing, deaf, Deaf and hard of hearing viewers, all alike, will be given the opportunity to chose the parts they want to include in their subtitling solutions. When that happens, SDH will not be the correct term, neither will 'Subtitling for All' be in order. Perhaps the best terminology will be 'personal subtitling' as proposed by Gottlieb (1997: 129) or simply 'Subtitling'. Having gone through these fallacies, what is there in SDH to keep us going? These are only 10 fallacies among the hundreds of reasons there are to continue working on SDH. Subtitling for the d/Deaf and the hard of hearing deserves all the attention it can get. It deserves to be studied, it deserves to be taught, and all the agents involved deserve to be respected. In short, SDH has allowed subtitling in general to take a step forward. If subtitles are well devised for the d/Deaf they will be equally useful for hearers. They may not be ideal for each person, but they will be 'good enough' for most viewers. So rather than having subtitles for the hearing impaired, at a stage when we cannot have individually tailored subtitles, one should be pursuing subtitles that are reasonably adequate 'for All". Inclusive subtitles should not be labelled; they should not reinforce loss or lack. In stressing 'deafness' they are reinforcing discrimination even if positively meant. They could be simply called intralingual subtitles, interlingual subtitles, (stressing the language issue); or prepared and live subtitles (to emphasise production time). Perhaps they could be called 'full subtitles' (to include all the extras that now go with SDH), or they could simply continue to be called 'subtitles'. - AENOR (2003). Subtitulado para personas sordas y personas con discapacidad auditiva. Subtitulado a través del teletexto. Madrid: AENOR. - Captioned Media Programme (2006). Captioning Key. Guidelines and Preferred Techniques. Spartanburg, SC. www.captionedmedia.org (consulted 12.12.2007) - De Linde, Zoé (1995). "'Read my lips'. Subtitling principles, practices and problems". Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 3(1), 9-20. - De Linde, Zoé and Neil Kay (1999).The Semiotics of Subtitling. Manchester: St. Jerome - Díaz Cintas, Jorge and Aline Remael (2007). Audiovisual Translation: Subtitling. Manchester: St. Jerome. - D'Ydewalle, Géry et al. (1987). "Reading a message when the same message is available auditorily in another language: The case of subtitling". O'Regan, J.K. and A. Lévy-Schoen (Eds). Eye Movements: From Physiology to Cognition. Amsterdam and New York: Elsevier Science Publishers, 313-321. - Gambier, Yves (2003). "Screen transadaptation: An overview". Génesis – Revista de Tradução e Interpretação do ISAI 3, 25-34. - Gambier, Yves (2007). "Sous-titrage et apprentissage des langues". Remael, Aline & Josélia Neves (Eds) (2007). A Tool for Social Integration? Audiovisual Translation from Different Angles. Linguística Antverpiensia, New Séries (6/2007). Hoger Instituut voor Vertalers en Tolken, Hogeschool Antwerpen, 97-113. - Gottlieb, Henrik (1997). "Subtitling: Diagonal translation". Gottlieb, Henrik. Subtitles, Translation and Idioms. Copenhagen: Univeristy of Copenhagen. PhD Thesis, 107-134. - Koolstra, Cees M., et al. (1997). "TV's impact on children's reading comprehension and decoding skills. A three-year panel study", Reading Research Quarterly 31, 128-152. - Kothari, Brij (1999). "Literacy skill development for the millions of neo-literates in India, through TV and popular songs". http://www.globalknowledge.org/worldbank/ikd/current/0283.html (consulted 12.12.2007) - Kothari, Brij (2000). "Same-language subtitling on Indian television: Harnessing the power of popular culture for literacy". Wilkins, K. G. (ed.) Redeveloping communication for social change: Theory, Practice and Power. New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 135-146. - Kothari Brij et al. (2004). "Reading out of the 'idiot box': same-language subtitling on TV in India". Information Technologies and International Development 2 (1), 23-44. www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/1544752043971170 (consulted 12.12.2007) - Kyle, Jim (1996). Switched On: Deaf People's Views on Television Subtitling Previous Reports. www.deafstudiestrust.org.U.K./previous_projects/switched_on.htm (consulted 12.01.2004) - Luyken, Georg-Michael et al. (1991). Overcoming Language Barriers in Television: Dubbing and Subtitling for the European Audience. Manchester: European Institute for the Media. - Media Consulting Group (2007). Study on Dubbing and Subtitling Needs and Practices in the European Audiovisual Industry. Final Report, Media Consulting Group, Paris / Peacefulfish, London. http://ec.europa.eu/information_society/media/overview/evaluation/studies/index_en.htm (consulted 26.12.2008) - Neves, Josélia (2005). Audiovisual Translation: Subtitling for the Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing. University of Surrey-Roehampton: PhD Dissertation [available for download at: - Neves, Josélia (2007). "Of Pride and Prejudice: The divide between subtitling and sign language interpreting on television". Leeson, Lorraine & Graham Turner (eds). The Sign Language Translator & Interpreter (SLTI). 1(2), 251-274. - Ofcom (2006). Television Access Services. Review of the Code and Guidance. http://www.ofcom.org.uk/consult/condocs/accessservs/access.pdf (consulted 01.12.2007) - Remael, Aline (2007). "Sampling subtitling for the deaf and the hard-of-hearing in Europe. In Díaz Cintas, Jorge, Aline Remael & Orero, Pilar (eds). Media for All. Amsterdam: RODOPI, 23-52. - Rodda, Michael and Carl Grove (1987). Language, Cognition and Deafness. London: Lawrence Arlbaum Associates. - Stallard, Gerry (2003). Final Report to Cenelec on TV for All. Standardization Requirements for Access to Digital TV and Interactive Services by Disabled People. www.cenelec.org NR/rdonlyres/5C6E5124-6034-422A-A1CC62B2229746C3/664/inalreportTVforall.pdf (consulted 13 .03.2008) Josélia Neves has a PhD in Translation Studies, with a dissertation on Subtitling for the Deaf and the Hard of Hearing by the University of Roehampton, London. She teaches at the Instituto Politécnico de Leiria and at the Universidade de Coimbra, in Portugal. She has carried out a number of projects within the field of sensory accessibility, involving Portuguese broadcasters, distributors and Deaf and blind viewers. [email protected] / [email protected] This paper was originally presented at the II Congreso de Accesibilidad a los medios audiovisuales para personas con discapacidad, AMADIS'07. Congreso Internacional. Universidad de Granada, 21-22 June 2007, and takes up, in a new light, some of the issues addressed in the article "Of Pride and Prejudice; The divide between subtitling and sign language interpreting on Television" (Neves 2007). Return to this point in the text The term "d/Deaf" is used to highlight the fact that two distinct groups are to be considered: people who are deaf but who belong to the social context of the hearing majority and relate to the oral language as their mother tongue, and the Deaf, a social and linguistic minority, who use a sign language as their mother tongue and read the national language as a second language. Return to this point in the text See www.slideshare.net/nilfisq/respeaking-based-realtime-subtitling/3 for a comprehensive list of subtitling types as presented by Lambourne at the Marie Curie EU High Level Scientific Conference Series. Multidimensional Translation: LSP Translation Scenarios, which took place in Vienna, Austria, 30 April - 4 May 2007. Return to this point in the text Slow on the up taking, and 20 years and two amendments after the Television Without Frontiers (TWF) Directive was first drawn up, the Commission of the European Community has recently set forward an "Amended Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council amending Council Directive 89/522/EEC on the coordination of certain provisions laid down by law, regulation or administrative action in Member States concerning the pursuit of television broadcasting activities". This proposal (Brussels 29.03.2007 COM(2007) 170 final 2005/0260 (COD)), which has changed TWF to "Audiovisual media services without frontiers" to accommodate for the technical changes that are expected to derive from interactive digital television (iDTV) and internet protocol television (IPTV), has now found space for the following amendments: (Amendment 65 (Recital 47b)) The right of persons with a disability and the elderly to participate and integrate in the social and cultural life of the community is inextricably linked to the provision of accessible audiovisual media services. The accessibility of audiovisual media services includes, but is not restricted to, sign language, subtitling, audio-description and easily understandable menu navigation.(p.9)

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John 13 = Jesus’ Washes the Disciples’ Feet Bible Background: John 13 begins the long ‘farewell discourse’ in John’s Gospel, that all takes place on the last night of Jesus’ life. Remember, John does things differently than Matthew/Mark/Luke. There is a Last Supper in John, but it’s not about Holy Communion, so much as it is about learning to love and serve as Jesus has loved and served them. John 12 includes a very touching story of Mary anointing Jesus’ feet with expensive ointment. He honors her, even while Judas criticizes her. Now Jesus gets very personal with his disciples. Digging Deeper: 1. We see in this story a few characteristics of John’s Gospel: It’s about love; it’s about an intimate relationship with God/Jesus, and it’s a very embodied story. Since God took on our own flesh and blood in Jesus, our bodies must matter a whole lot! 2. Jesus is in Jerusalem for the 3rd time, for the Passover celebration. In John’s timing though, this is before the actual Passover. In John-Jesus dies on the day the Passover lambs are slaughtered. That’s not a coincidence! Chapter 13 starts with Jesus knowing “that his hour had come”. Previously, we had heard him say “My hour has not yet come!” It has all been building up to this: In the crucifixion, Jesus will lovingly lay down his life for the world, and show the power of love-for God’s glory! 3. Foot washing appears about 8x’s in the Bible, typically as an act of hospitality, sometimes performed by a household slave/servant. For Jesus to take on that role, is upsetting to Peter-who protests-but who then allows Jesus to wash his feet. There’s no “hierarchy” of disciples on John. No “You are Peter, and on this Rock I will build my church.” “A servant is not greater than his master!” 4. There’s plenty of undercurrent in these verses, about Judas, about what will happen next. We aren’t told “Why Judas?” But note, that when Jesus washes feet, Judas is in the room! He too, is the recipient of Jesus’ unswerving love and devotion. 5. “So if I, your Lord and Teacher, have washed your feet, you also ought to wash one another’s feet.” In 13:35, Jesus will give them a “new commandment, that you love one another, just as I have loved you.” And adds, “by this, everyone will know that you are my disciples!” 6. If we only had the Gospel of John to go by, we’d have a Sacrament of Foot Washing instead of the Sacrament of Holy Communion. In the 7th Day Adventist tradition, foot washing is a sacred ordinance. It was, understood by John as an act of hospitality, as well as a symbolic washing away of sin (which has baptismal overtones for us!)

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Each year, smoking accounts for 430,000 premature deaths in the U.S., including the deaths of 11,400 Tennessee citizens. Unless smoking rates decline, about 125,000 Tennesseans currently under the age of 18 will ultimately die from smoking. As we begin the new year, one way families can get off to a healthier start is to focus on reducing kids’ exposure to tobacco. It’s important that they are protected from the dangers of secondhand and thirdhand smoke. Secondhand smoke is smoke from burning tobacco products or smoke breathed out by a smoker. Millions of children are breathing in secondhand smoke in their own homes and communities. It can be especially harmful to children’s health because their lungs are still developing. Thirdhand smoke refers to the chemicals from cigarette smoke—even long after smoking has stopped—that cling to soft surfaces and can be found on things that you touch, such as carpets, clothing and toys. Thirdhand smoke is dangerous because you are exposed to the same chemicals found in tobacco smoke that are known to cause cancer. Protect Your Children’s Health Here are steps you can take to prevent your child from being exposed to the dangers of secondhand and thirdhand smoke: - Do not allow anyone to smoke near your child. Ask smokers to wash their hands and change into smoke-free clothing before holding your baby. - Do not smoke or allow others to smoke in your home or car. - Use a smoke-free daycare center and babysitters who are nonsmokers. - Do not take your child into indoor public places that allow smoking. - Try to keep your child out of homes of smokers. Talk to Your Kids Help your children understand that tobacco use is very harmful and can make them feel sick. Consider telling them why you don't use tobacco or why you intend to quit. Here are some suggestions from the American Cancer Society on how you can talk to your children about avoiding tobacco: - Try not to think of this talk as one big lecture. Instead, begin talking with them when they are 5 or 6 years old and continue the conversation through high school. - Tell kids openly that you disapprove of smoking because it will harm their health. A Dartmouth Medical School study found that kids whose parents took a firm stand were less than half as likely to become established smokers. - Listen even as you set limits. Taking time to answer your kids' questions shows that you respect their learning process. - Remind them that smoking stinks. Cigarettes give you bad breath, stain your teeth and make your clothes smell awful. - If your child has already started smoking, avoid threats and ultimatums. Focus on providing loving guidance to help your son or daughter quit for good. How to Quit Smoking Try writing down the reasons you want to quit tobacco. Be specific. Write things like, "For my family's health," "No more stinky clothes," "Breathing easier," and "To be a role model for my kids." Let all your friends and family know you plan to quit using tobacco. Decide on a date when you will quit, then tell everyone. This way, you won't have to keep explaining yourself over and over. You'll also have a built-in support network and be able to prepare for the transition. Make an appointment with your doctor to talk about quitting tobacco. Your doctor can make helpful recommendations, suggest products and provide prescription medication to help you quit. Check out a strategy to quit smoking under “Breathe Easier” in the Small Starts for Families from Healthier Tennessee. Develop Healthy Habits The Tennessee Tobacco QuitLine is a toll-free telephone service that provides personalized support for Tennesseans who want to quit smoking or chewing tobacco. Call the Tennessee Tobacco QuitLine—800-QUIT-NOW (800-784-8669)—and make a quit plan. Read about why it’s important not to smoke during pregnancy. Electronic cigarettes have been rapidly gaining popularity nationwide among adults and youth. E-cigarettes and vaping pose significant health concerns for adults and children alike. Among the hazards are burns that can occur from using them.

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A specific intervention conducted in schools can help reduce the likelihood that at-risk youths will drink alcohol or engage in binge drinking behavior, according to a new study. The study, conducted in the United Kingdom, specifically identified children with risk-taking personalities and tailored interventions towards these kids. The research may help address a growing problem: substance abuse among minors. The previous decade has witnessed a two-fold increase in both alcohol consumption and intoxication by adolescents age 12 to 17 in the U.K. In a 2009 survey in the United States, 37 percent of 8th graders and 72 percent of 12th graders reported they had tried alcohol, and 15 percent of 8th graders and 44 percent of 12th graders reported they drank during the past month, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Personality-based interventions such as the ones used in this study could "allow schools to implement early prevention strategies with youth most at risk for developing future alcohol-related problems and provide the potential for follow-up of the neediest individuals," said the researchers in a statement. Dr. Patricia Conrod, of King's College London in the U.K., and colleagues evaluated 2,506 adolescents, whose average age was 13.7, using a questionnaire. The 23-item survey assessed personality risk for substance abuse based on four traits: sensation-seeking, impulsivity, anxiety-sensitivity and hopelessness. Of the 1,159 students identified by researchers as being at high risk for substance abuse, 624 received intervention and a control high risk group of 384 received no intervention. School based interventions consisted of two 90-minute group sessions conducted by a trained educational professional. The interventions included exercises that discussed thoughts, emotions and behaviors in a personality-specific way. For example, the exercises identified situations that might trigger the children to have thoughts about sensation seeking. The children were also encouraged to challenge thoughts that might lead to problematic behaviors, including substance abuse. Although the trial was designed to evaluate mental health symptoms, academic achievement and substance use over a 2 year period, the authors have focused their findings on changes in drinking and binge-drinking rates after six months. Those in the control group were 1.7 times more likely to report alcohol use than those in the intervention group. Receiving an intervention also predicted significantly lower binge-drinking rates in students who reported alcohol use before the study. There was a 55 percent decreased risk of binge-drinking among students in the intervention group compared with students in the control group. The trial is the first to evaluate the success of the personality-targeted interventions as delivered by teachers, according to the researchers. The findings at six months suggest that this approach may provide a sustainable school-base prevention program for youth at risk for substance abuse. The results are published in the September issue of the Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry.

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Bringing Together Brain Scientists Over 32, 000 neuroscientists, from around the world, converged in Washington, DC, this week for the 2011 Society for Neuroscience Conference, which included over 16,000 presentations! Here are just a few of the highlights: Christopher Morgan, at the University of Pennsylvania, showed that stress experienced by a pregnant mouse can affect the subsequent behaviour of her sons, and even her sons' sons. Exposing pregnant females to stressors - like the smell of a fox - during pregnancy seems to trigger heritable changes that make subsequent generations of males more stress-sensitive themselves, and also have lower levels of the hormone testosterone. The effect, the researchers found, is down to changes in the levels of a family of gene products called microRNAs, which are used to control the activities of other genes. Exposure to stress switches the profile of these microRNAs so that the brains of developing male foetuses express the same gene pattern as the brains of developing females, triggering a feminising effect. And because the changes are brought about by what are called epigenetic modifications - this is where chemical groups are added to DNA to control the activity of certain gene sequences - the effects are also inherited by future generations. This shows that mothers exposed to stress at a critical point in pregnancy could adversely affect the brain development of male offspring. That said, we need to stress ourselves, that this is a study done in mice and we don't know yet whether the same applies to humans... The conference also has a public lecture series called Dialogues in Society. This year's topic was timely: it focused on how behaviour, and its biological bases, drives the economy. Dr. Robert Shiller, who's an economist, together with a panel of neuroscientists, discussed the role of decision-making in driving the volatility of money markets, currencies, stocks and commodities. What they were asking is whether an understanding of the biological mechanisms of reward anticipation, risk-taking, and emotion also play out in financial scenarios too. This is a relatively new area of inquiry called "neuroeconomics"! There was also a session on risk aversion and decision-making, which looked at how the brain tries to maximise the sizes of rewards and minimise losses, including in gambling settings. Danish scientist Dr. Julian Macoveanu found that a drug called ketanserin, which blocks certain receptors for brain transmitter chemical called serotonin, makes people less likely to take a gambling risk, but only after they've already suffered a loss that they judge to be unfair. According to Macoveanu, "When gambling, people tend to be more sensitive to potential losses than gains of similar amounts, indicating that loss avoidance plays a major role when we make risky decisions." He also points out that the finding "may have clinical significance because patients with mood and anxiety disorders, some of which are associated with dysfunctions in serotonin transmission, often overemphasise the impact of negative outcomes..."

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Why is the velodrome so warm? As cycling enthusiasts gather to watch their favourite athletes compete in the velodrome, one question often comes to mind – why is the velodrome so warm? The answer lies in a combination of factors, ranging from design considerations to the physical demands of track cycling. The Velodrome Design The architecture of a velodrome plays a significant role in the temperature inside the venue. Most velodromes are designed with considerations for optimal air circulation and temperature control. The roof shape and material, ventilation systems, and insulation all contribute to creating an environment that is conducive to high-speed cycling. A well-designed velodrome aims to eliminate drafts and maintain a consistent temperature throughout the arena. This is crucial for both the comfort of spectators and the performance of the athletes, as fluctuations in temperature can affect air density and ultimately impact race times. Physical Demands of Track Cycling The intense nature of track cycling competitions also contributes to the warmth inside the velodrome. Track cyclists push themselves to their limits, exerting an enormous amount of energy as they pedal at high speeds. As a result, their bodies generate a significant amount of heat, which contributes to the overall warmth in the venue. The physics of cycling further enhances this effect. When a cyclist pedals, the friction between the tires and the track generates additional heat. This phenomenon, known as “rolling resistance,” is more pronounced on a velodrome’s smooth surface compared to outdoor road cycling. As a result, the temperature inside the velodrome rises, requiring measures to maintain a comfortable environment. Maintaining Optimal Conditions To ensure the velodrome remains at an ideal temperature, various cooling mechanisms are employed. These include air conditioning systems, strategically placed fans, and ventilation vents. Combining these elements helps to regulate the temperature and provide relief to both athletes and spectators. Additionally, velodromes are designed with insulation features to prevent heat loss during colder periods. This ensures that the venue remains warm even in adverse weather conditions, allowing for year-round usability. The Impact on Performance The warm environment within the velodrome has a direct impact on the performance of track cyclists. It helps to keep their muscles warm and flexible, reducing the risk of injury. Athletic performance is often enhanced in warmer conditions, enabling cyclists to reach their maximum potential. The controlled temperature also ensures a level playing field for all competitors, as external weather factors are eliminated. In a sport where milliseconds can determine the winner, maintaining an optimal temperature is crucial for both safety and performance. Is it cold in the velodrome? When it comes to indoor cycling, one of the most common questions that arises is whether it is cold inside the velodrome. As a spectator or participant, it’s important to know what to expect in terms of temperatures to dress accordingly and ensure a comfortable experience. Temperature conditions at the velodrome The temperature inside a velodrome can vary depending on various factors such as location, weather conditions, and ventilation systems. In general, velodromes aim to maintain a stable environment for optimal performance, so they often have controlled heating or cooling systems in place. During colder seasons, velodromes tend to be kept at a moderate temperature to prevent riders from getting too cold. However, it is worth noting that the temperature may still feel cooler than outdoor conditions due to the constant airflow caused by the fast-moving cyclists. Even though velodromes are temperature-controlled, it is advisable to dress in layers when visiting or participating in indoor cycling activities. This allows you to adjust your clothing according to your comfort level and the specific temperature inside the velodrome. Wearing a base layer made of moisture-wicking material is recommended to keep your body dry and insulated. Adding a mid-layer for extra warmth and a lightweight jacket or vest can provide further protection against any potential chill. Testimonials from cyclists “While the velodrome had a controlled temperature, I found that wearing a long-sleeved base layer and a light jacket kept me warm throughout my training sessions.” – John, avid cyclist. Tips for spectators If you’re planning to watch a velodrome event, keep in mind that the seating area may not have the same temperature regulation as the track itself. It’s a good idea to bring a sweater or jacket to ensure your comfort throughout the session. Additionally, sitting closer to the track can provide some warmth from the cyclists’ exertion and minimize the effects of any cooler air circulation. Why is the velodrome made of wood? The velodrome is a staple feature of cycling events, both amateur and professional. One distinctive aspect of the velodrome is its wooden track surface. You may wonder why wood is chosen as the material for such an important and high-speed sporting arena. Let’s delve into the reasons behind this intriguing choice. The Tradition and History of Wooden Velodromes Wooden velodromes have a rich history that dates back to the early days of cycling. In fact, the first modern indoor velodrome, the Crystal Palace in London, opened in 1891 with a wooden track. Since then, wooden tracks have become the standard for velodromes worldwide due to their unique characteristics and benefits. Advantages of Wood There are several advantages to using wood as the primary material for velodromes: - Surface Grip: The wooden track provides excellent grip, allowing cyclists to maintain control and achieve higher speeds without sacrificing safety. - Shock Absorption: Wood has natural shock-absorbing properties, minimizing the impact on the riders’ bodies and reducing the risk of injuries. - No Water Accumulation: The design of wooden velodromes allows rainwater to drain quickly and efficiently, preventing the accumulation of water on the track. - Durability: Properly maintained wooden tracks can last for decades, ensuring the longevity and sustainability of velodrome facilities. “Wood is the preferred material for velodromes because it offers the perfect combination of grip, safety, and durability,” says John Smith, a renowned velodrome architect. Wooden Velodromes in the UK The United Kingdom is famous for its wooden velodromes, which have hosted numerous national and international cycling events. Notable examples include the Lee Valley VeloPark in London, Manchester Velodrome, and Sir Chris Hoy Velodrome in Glasgow. In conclusion, wood has stood the test of time as the preferred material for velodromes due to its remarkable grip, shock-absorbing qualities, drainage capability, and durability. It continues to play a crucial role in providing optimal conditions for cyclists to reach new heights of speed and performance on the track. In conclusion, while velodromes aim to maintain suitable temperatures for both riders and spectators, it is advisable to dress in layers and come prepared for various conditions. The cycling activity and the natural air movement caused by high speeds may make the environment feel cooler than expected. By dressing appropriately, you can focus on enjoying the experience without worrying about the temperature.

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If HBA1C is 6.8% then it is considered to be Diabetes and you need to consult a Physician. Pregnant women with elevated blood sugar levels may increase the risk of blood vessel dysfunction and congenital heart defects in the child Diabetes mellitus refers to a group of diseases that affect how your body uses blood sugar (glucose) and is diagnosed when fasting blood sugar of 126 mg/dl or more, post prandial blood sugar of 200 or more with glycated hemoglobin of 6.5% or more is seen on tests. Treatment is either tablets or insulin to control blood sugar levels along with life style modifications (Diet + exercise) Increased risk of Heart attack/ Angina/ Stroke, Nerve damage, Kidney damage, Gastroparesis (Nausea/ vomiting) Diarrhea or constipation, Eye damage - blindness, Increased risk of cataract and glaucoma, Foot damage/ amputations, Skin infections, Increased risk of Alzheimer's disease/ Depression/ Hearing impairment. It helps prevent diabetes complications by keeping your blood sugar within your target range.

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Want to grow some everlasting flowers of your own? These varieties are easy to grow and dry: celosia, globe amaranth, yarrow, strawflower, salvia and German statice. Although you can grow these flowers from seed, you may want to begin with young plants for faster starts. Plant everlastings in well-drained soil. To encourage air circulation, place annuals such as salvia 12 inches apart and perennials such as yarrow 18 inches apart. All need full sun. Check plant labels for watering and fertilizing directions. Growing and Harvesting Tips: Celosia -- Some varieties have a dominant center head, which you should cut out by the end of July to en-courage branching and the growth of smaller flowers. Globe amaranth -- Pick flowers before the heads start to elongate and before fall, when their color deteriorates. Yarrow -- Flower heads need to be firm and tight so they'll dry well. The heads deteriorate quickly, so check their progress often. Strawflower -- Pick blossoms once a week, as soon as the bottom row of petals opens. Place at the back of your garden, since the plant isn't pretty. Salvia -- Pick the heads every 10 days just as they start to open, snapping them off with your fingers at a node where leaves meet the stem. German statice -- Pick when the buds are almost open, usually in early July. If you see browning in the crotches of the branches, be sure to remove all of the growth above it.

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Using the Chart Tools Tab in Excel 2007 This tab only appears when a chart is selected. As soon as the chart is deselected, this tab disappears. Tip: If you are unsure what the function of a feature is, let your cursor hover over the button (in Excel) to see a pop-up box explaining the feature. If you want to collapse the ribbon so that none of the buttons are displayed, double-click the name of the tab. Type Change Chart Type - Change to a different type of chart. Save as Template - Save the formatting and layout of this chart as a template you can apply to future charts. Data Switch Row/Column - Swap the data over the axis. Data being charted on the X axis will move to the Y axis and vice versa. Select Data - Change the data range included in the chart. Chart Layouts Chart Layouts - To see all layouts click on the down arrow at the bottom right of this section; the button is outlined in red in the image above. There are eleven layouts available and a small thumbnail of each is given showing where titles, legends and other information will be located. Chart Styles Protect Sheet - To see all styles click on the down arrow at the bottom right of this section; the button is outlined in red in the image above. There are six distinct styles and each is available in one of eight color schemes. Location Location - Move this chart to a new sheet or to imbed the chart as a smaller object in any other sheet of the workbook.

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The medial temporal lobe and the hippocampus located within are critical parts of forming episodic memories. If we had no medial temporal lobe or it was damaged, we would be able to create procedural memories (declarative memory’s counterpart) such as riding a bike but unable to remember when or where we learned to do so. The other important part of the brain with regards to episodic memories is the prefrontal cortex which also forms these type of memories. If our prefrontal cortex suffered an injury, we would still be able to learn new things but it would all be done in a disorganized manner. This would take the form of recognizing an item from our past but being unable to remember how we first encountered it. Some psychologists believe the prefrontal cortex is necessary in order for us to organize and store information in an orderly manner. While semantic memory requires several exposures, episodic needs only one. Semantic memory lets us know what something looks, feels, acts or tastes with our episodic memories depending on this representation. If we have a new experience with something, our semantic memory will be updated to include this new information. Episodic to Semantic? What happens to episodic memory is a subject of much debate amongst psychologists. Some believe that all episodic memories eventually become semantic. This means that all information we have gathered about a specific event is forgotten. Another viewpoint suggests that when we repeat a story often enough, we do not remember the real event and are only telling a story that has already been written in our mind. This view is opposed by those who suggest that episodic memories always remain in our mind. We need semantic knowledge for episodic memories and vice versa. Autobiographical memory refers to recollections of our own personal history. However, it is impossible to recall everything that has happened in our life. The way in which we remember things is greatly affected by past experiences. While our autobiographical memory is reasonably reliable, the memories themselves are not because memory itself can be distorted. Memory Throughout Life Very few people can remember what happened in their childhood in what is known as infantile amnesia. The reminiscence bump occurs when we recall incidents from our teenage and young adult years. The recency effect explains why the majority of people are able to remember a large proportion of events from their last few years. When we first develop autobiographical memories, they become stored as episodic. However, it is still unclear as to whether these memories are the same as episodic ones or if they end up as semantic memories over the course of time. Episodic memories involve general and specific events such as remembering when we first drove a car and how we felt whilst doing it. We also remember facts such as the name of the President when we were born. Even flashbulb memories can come under the episodic banner. An example of this is remembering where you were when the first man landed on the moon. This means you're free to copy, share and adapt any parts (or all) of the text in the article, as long as you give appropriate credit and provide a link/reference to this page. That is it. You don't need our permission to copy the article; just include a link/reference back to this page. You can use it freely (with some kind of link), and we're also okay with people reprinting in publications like books, blogs, newsletters, course-material, papers, wikipedia and presentations (with clear attribution).

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Scientists at the University of Hawai'i at Manoa report heightened concerns over the ecological impacts of deep-seabed mining, saying that commercial operations have more adverse effects on deep-sea ecosystems than previously documented. Their findings are published in the journal Trends in Ecology and Evolution. The thirteen researchers say they hope to change the misconceptions that have been publicized and to collaborate with regulators and society to help manage deep-seabed mining and protect our deep sea-beds. "As a team of deep-sea ecologists, we became alarmed by the misconceptions present in the scientific literature that discuss the potential impacts of seabed mining," said oceanography professor Craig Smith. "We found underestimates of mining footprints and a poor understanding of the sensitivity and biodiversity of deep-sea ecosystems and their potential to recover from mining impacts. All the authors felt it was imperative to dispel misconceptions and highlight what is known and unknown about deep seabed mining impacts." The researchers explain how deep-seabed mining destroys the seafloor and impacts the entire water column above extraction activities. Mining pursuits for copper, cobalt, zinc, and manganese, among other metals, often purposely underestimate these adverse impacts in the name of economic gain. "The bottom line is that many deep-sea ecosystems will be very sensitive to seafloor mining, are likely to be impacted over much larger scales than predicted by mining interests, and that local and regional biodiversity losses are likely, with the potential for species extinctions," said Smith. The deep-sea refers to ocean depths below 650 feet and accounts for over 90% of the biosphere on Earth. Yet, relatively little is still known about these enigmatic worlds beneath us in comparison to terrestrial biomes. Because of this, it is difficult to conduct simulations to determine the full long-term impacts of deep sea-bed mining. "All the simulations conducted so far do not come close to duplicating the spatial scale, intensity and duration of full-scale mining," said Smith. "Further, the computer models use ecosystem sensitivities derived from shallow-water communities that experience orders of magnitude higher levels turbidity and sediment burial (mining-type perturbations) under natural conditions than the deep-sea communities targeted for mining." Due to the temporal proximity of planned mining events, the researchers say it is more urgent than ever to make the public aware of the known and unknown risks. "Polymetallic-nodule mining may ultimately impact 500,000 square kilometers of deep seafloor in the Pacific, an area the size of Spain, yielding perhaps the largest environmental footprint of a single extractive activity by humans," said Smith. "Addressing the misconceptions and knowledge gaps related to deep-sea mining is the first step towards effective management of deep-seabed mining."

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Arizona State University scientists have come up with a new twist in their efforts to develop a faster and cheaper way to read the DNA genetic code. They have developed the first, versatile DNA reader that can discriminate between DNA's four core chemical components⎯the key to unlocking the vital code behind human heredity and health. The present work shows that the two major impediments to sequence readouts by tunnelings - a wide range of molecular orientations and a large contact resistancescan be overcome using functionalized electrodes. Next, Stuart Lindsay's group is hard at work trying to adapt the reader to work in water-based solutions, a critically practical step for DNA sequencing applications. Also, the team would like to combine the reader capabilities with the carbon nanotube technology to work on reading short stretches of DNA. If the process can be perfected, DNA sequencing could be performed much faster than current technology, and at a fraction of the cost In the current issue of Science, Stuart Lindsay, director of Arizona State University's Center for Single Molecule Biophysics at the Biodesign Institute, along with his colleagues, demonstrates the potential of one such method in which a single-stranded ribbon of DNA is threaded through a carbon nanotube, producing voltage spikes that provide information about the passage of DNA bases as they pass through the tube — a process known as translocation. The team carried out molecular simulations to try to determine the mechanism for the anomalously large ionic currents detected in the nanotubes. Observation of current-voltage curves registered at varying ionic concentrations showed that ion movement through some of the tubes is very unusual, though understanding the precise mechanism by which DNA translocation gives rise to the observed current spikes will require further modeling. Nevertheless, the characteristic electrical signal of DNA translocation through tubes with high ionic conductance may provide a further refinement in ongoing efforts to apply nanopore technology for rapid DNA sequencing. Critical to successful rapid sequencing through nanopores is the precise control of DNA translocation. The hope is that genetic reading can be significantly accelerated, while still allowing enough time for DNA bases to be identified by electrical current traces. Carbon nanotubes provide an attractive alternative, making the control of nanopore characteristics easier and more reliable. If the process can be perfected, Lindsay emphasizes, DNA sequencing could be carried out thousands of times faster than through existing methods, at a fraction of the cost. Nanoletters - Electronic Signatures of all Four DNA Nucleosides in a Tunneling Gap Nucleosides diffusing through a 2 nm electron-tunneling junction generate current spikes of sub-millisecond duration with a broad distribution of peak currents. This distribution narrows 10-fold when one of the electrodes is functionalized with a reagent that traps nucleosides in a specific orientation with hydrogen bonds. Functionalizing the second electrode reduces contact resistance to the nucleosides, allowing them to be identified via their peak currents according to deoxyadenosine > deoxycytidine > deoxyguanosine > thymidine, in agreement with the order predicted by a density functional calculation.

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Editor’s note:These brief extracts are paraphrased from live webcast and may not be fully correct. Presentation by Professor S. Schael. Download the full presentation:The Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer Experiment on ISS – An endeavor for a Global Research Collaboration - A mesmerising video on AMS-02 production, 16 years shown in 3 minutes:[youtube jcBTfTScl_M] - What is AMS? “The Space Station crown jewel” consists of several instruments assembled at CERN in Geneva and tested at ESTEC in Noordwijk, Netherlands. - Our view of the Universe is only made possible through space research. Four questions remain. If we can answer these questions we will have a complete picture of the universe. - But what does this have to do with Earth’s real problems such as creating energy from the Sun? Solar cells rely on semiconductors that rely on Max Plank’s discoveries of fundamental physics - Sustainable development is based on research on fundamental physic research. 90% of the Universe is made out of matter we cannot see and know nothing about, so called ‘dark matter’. What will we able to do if we know more about this matter? Prof. Schael has no idea but is sure that something good will come out of it, just as Max Plank could not forsee his discoveries leading to the internet. - AMS has a magnet, so strong NASA scientists were unable to test its breaking point, they gave up before it broke down. AMS has many instruments to measure mass, electric charge and polarity of particles. Due to the redundancy of the instruments AMS can self-calibrate by cross-checking results between different instruments. - Measurements are extremely precise, for example one instrument can measure down to a tenth of the diameter of a human hair. - AMS-02’s future was uncertain at 2005 but after strong international support agreement was reached to send it to the Space Station after all. - The final AMS-02 was tested and calibrated at CERN using particles of which the characteristics were known. AMS-02 passed the test and was shipped to the Launchpad of STS-134 on Shuttle Endeavour. The launch date was May 16 2011 - Four hours after installation AMS was already delivering data. - “AMS is working perfectly, just as we designed it over 15 years ago”. Every year we will collect 16 billion cosmic arrays providing unprecedented data. - AMS has recorded events such as a recent solar flare influencing helium particles. This data allows us to predict the amount of radiation that astronauts will absorb on a mission to Mars. - AMS has to cope with changes in temperature and ISS cargo ships approaching and docking. - AMS-02 is searching for local sources of high energy protons. Its most exciting objective is to probe the unkown. - Some people call AMS the Hubble space telescope of charged particles. Five missions were sent to upgrade Hubble, we could already think of how to upgrade AMS-02.

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The computing curriculum teaches pupils to use computational thinking and creativity to solve problems. They will learn the principles of information and computation, how digital systems work and how to create programs and systems of their own. As a result, our pupils will become responsible, competent, confident and creative users of information and communication technology. |Year 7||Year 8| |Year 9||Year 10||Year 11| Pupils will be able to choose from 2 of the following modules: |N/A – pupils finish this qualification in Year 10| Internal assessments take place every half-term. KS4 Exam Board Specification: OCR Cambridge National Certificate in Creative iMedia The Department offers subject-specific enrichment clubs during lunchtime and after school. Intervention sessions to consolidate prior learning and ensure maximum progress are at the heart of our delivery model. Useful Resources and Revision Support

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Arsenic contamination in groundwater : some analytical considerations Kinniburgh, David G.; Kosmus, Walter. 2002 Arsenic contamination in groundwater : some analytical considerations. Talanta, 58 (1). 165-180. 10.1016/S0039-9140(02)00265-5Before downloading, please read NORA policies. For countries such as Bangladesh with a significant groundwater arsenic problem, there is an urgent need for the arsenic-contaminated wells to be identified as soon as possible and for appropriate action to be taken. This will involve the testing of a large number of wells, potentially up to 11 million in Bangladesh alone. Field-test kits offer the only practical way forward in the timescale required. The classic field method for detecting arsenic (the ‘Gutzeit’ method) is based on the reaction of arsine gas with mercuric bromide and remains the best practical approach. It can in principle achieve a detection limit of about 10 μg l−1 by visual comparison of the coloured stain against a colour calibration chart. A more objective result can be achieved when the colour is measured by an electronic instrument. Attention has to be paid to interferences mainly from hydrogen sulfide. Due to analytical errors, both from the field-test kits and from laboratory analysis, some misclassification of wells is inevitable, even under ideal conditions. The extent of misclassification depends on the magnitude of the errors of analysis and the frequency distribution of arsenic observed, but is in principle predictable before an extensive survey is undertaken. For a country with an arsenic distribution similar to that of Bangladesh, providing care is taken to avoid sources of bias during testing, modern field-test kits should be able to reduce this misclassification to under 5% overall. |Item Type:||Publication - Article| |Digital Object Identifier (DOI):||10.1016/S0039-9140(02)00265-5| |Programmes:||BGS Programmes > Groundwater Management| |Additional Keywords:||Groundwater BGS, Groundwater, Groundwater and health| |Date made live:||23 Nov 2010 15:59| Actions (login required)

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The winter season can be quite a knockout! From torrential downpours in the west to snow and ice in the east – everyone is up against some fierce competition dodging the elements. Every time we head outdoors, we need to consult the weather to ensure we’re properly bundled from head to toe in the necessary hats, jackets, footwear and other accessories that make winter tolerable. But you don’t see birds donning scarves or snuggling under blankets – so, how do our little, feathered friends manage? HOW BIRDS ADAPT TO WINTER WEATHER While exact body temperatures vary from species to species, all wild birds have a higher body temperature than humans. Understandably, cold weather can make it difficult to maintain those high temperatures, especially for young or weak birds. Luckily, like other wildlife, birds are able to adapt and use their instincts to make it through the winter months. Migration is one obvious way that birds manage the winter months. However, not all species do it – as you’ll realize by the numerous birds that stick around in your backyard even after the first snow hits. Here are four other ways birds adapt to the changing conditions of winter: Birds have a natural way to insulate themselves in the cold. That’s right – feathers are for more than just looking pretty! Their down feathers provide plenty of extra warmth that is necessary when the temperature drops. Many birds will even grow extra down feathers in the months leading up to winter so they are better prepared. Wet feathers can prove disastrous in cold weather. But with the wet winter weather, how do birds stay dry? The answer lies in the oil-producing glands birds have. They preen to coat their feathers in this oil to waterproof and insulate their down feathers. In addition, you’ll often see birds fluffing their feathers to create air pockets that trap body heat to keep them warm. Birds have several food-related strategies to help them throughout winter. As you may have guessed, natural food sources become scarce in winter. One way birds attempt to prepare for this is by storing food while the weather is still warm – similar to how people may stock up on bread and milk before and milk before a big storm (French toast, anyone?). Birds like the Black-capped Chickadee can remember hundreds of spots where they have stored food so they can find it quickly later. Another way birds adapt in winter is to change their diet. Most birds will opt for higher energy foods such as suet and black oil sunflower seed when temperatures begin to drop. The additional energy boost allows birds to generate more body heat to keep warm. While many animals hibernate during winter, some species of birds go into torpor. This hibernation-like state allows birds to lower their body temperature and heart rate to conserve body heat. Like hibernation, it helps them to survive the cold temperatures of winter. However, this seemingly lifeless state can make them more vulnerable to predators and other emergencies because reaction times are slower. TOP 10 WORST WINTER WEATHER CITIES In 2010, Forbes.com determined America’s Top 10 Worst Winter Weather Cities by calculating the average annual temperature, average precipitation and average snowfall of the country’s 50 largest cities over a 30-year period. While this doesn’t take less populous areas of the country into account, it’s a good indicator of which states face the most extreme conditions (i.e. the places that are harshest for birds in winter). Some of the cities on the list may surprise you: - Cleveland, OH - Boston, MA - New York City, NY - Milwaukee, WI - Chicago, IL - Minneapolis, MN - Indianapolis, IN - Columbus, OH - Detroit, MI - Baltimore, MD Other locations commonly noted for their harsh winter weather by the Farmer’s Almanac include Casper, WY; and Duluth, MN; Syracuse, NY. If you live in these areas, it’s important to take extra care to help the birds that reside nearby. There are plenty of ways to help, and your local birds are sure to appreciate the assistance. HOW TO HELP BIRDS IN WINTER Now that you have a better understanding of the tough conditions birds are under when winter strikes, you’re probably wondering what you can do to help! You’re in luck – we’ve come up with a few simple ways to give your backyard birds a boost. Best of all, an abundance of safe and happy birds means plenty of great winter bird watching for you! 1. Feed Them Some experts suggest it is not necessary to put out food for our feathered friends, but hobbyists and enthusiasts alike beg to differ. But, as mentioned earlier, other food sources such as insects and plants become scarce. Keep your bird feeders stocked all winter long to ensure that non-migratory birds have a reliable food source. If you’re not sure where to start, pay attention to which birds stick around when winter is approaching and find out what their favorite foods are. For general cold weather bird feeding, it’s best to offer high calorie and high-fat foods such as suet, Nyjer® thistle, and black oil sunflower seed. These will help your resident birds maintain their body heat throughout the long winter months. 2. Provide Water Water is important for birds year round. In the summer, birds have access to a variety of natural water sources – ponds, puddles, streams and so on. But in winter, many of those sources become unavailable because they often freeze. So what can you do to fight Mother Nature? Provide birds with a reliable water source so they can grab a drink as needed. While any water can freeze in winter, you can more easily control your own sources than a pond or puddle. Try adding a bird waterer or shallow dish of water to your backyard. To prevent freezing, bring them in at night and refill with fresh water each day. If you don’t want to monitor water sources daily, consider investing in a heated birdbath that won’t freeze over in cold conditions. 3. Add Shelter Just like food and water, an adequate shelter can be more difficult to find during winter. One obvious way to offer shelter to your feathered friends is to put up a birdhouse. These can help keep birds warm and out of inclement weather. However, not all species of birds use birdhouses. Another way to provide shelter to resident birds is to plant evergreen shrubs and trees around your yard. Unlike some trees and plants that die or lose their leaves when it gets cold, evergreens offer cover for birds year round. Having a few of these plants around your property will ensure birds have plenty of safe places to escape to when inclement weather strikes. Birds are amazing and resilient creatures that give us plenty of entertainment in every month of the year. That’s why it’s important to do our part when they're facing a difficult time. Tell us how you’re helping your backyard birds this winter and share your pictures the next time you visit our Facebook page. Also, be sure to sign up for our e-newsletter to receive more great birding advice, as well as exclusive updates on your favorite products right in your inbox.

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It is well known that volcanoes are powerful enough to inject sulfate aerosols into the stratosphere during an eruption. But, there are also other ways that these particles can reach this atmospheric layer. Pyro cumulonimbus storms thrive above a strong heat source such as a wildfire. When these fires get hot enough, they generate strong upward air currents that carry water vapor, ash, and smoke. The particles absorb the condensed water vapor and turn into cloud droplets. With enough water vapor, these clouds can turn into dangerous thunderstorms and either put out the fire with the rain or start a new one with the lightning. These storms introduce smoke and ash from wildfires into the lower stratosphere via convection of the air currents produced by the intense heat from the fires. Jet stream winds can quickly transport the particles large distances and cause a global effect. It is important to know the composition of the smoke from the wildfires since that can either positively or negatively affect the climate. For example, sulfur aerosols in the stratosphere will have a cooling effect due to their high reflectivity of sunlight. On the other hand, the darker particles tend to absorb radiation and causes a heating effect. Studies from the U.S Naval Research Laboratory on the 2017 wildfire in British Columbia, Canada shows that the event sent 200,000 tons of aerosols into the stratosphere. During the 2018 eruption of Mount Kasatochi, about 1 million tons of aerosols were injected into the stratosphere. Wildfires have been gaining more attention given that California had one of the deadliest wildfire seasons in 2018. Wildfires occur more often than volcanic eruptions and have a detrimental impact to the human health via air quality. For more information on this article click here.

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Jacob's Blessing - Genesis 49:14-15 "Issachar is a strong donkey, Lying down between the sheepfolds. When he saw that a resting place was good And that the land was pleasant, He bowed his shoulder to bear burdens, And became a slave at forced labor." Moses' Blessing - Deuteronomy 33:18b-19 "...And, Issachar, in your tents. They shall call peoples to the mountain; There they shall offer righteous sacrifices; For they shall draw out the abundance of the seas, And the hidden treasures of the sand." THE LAND OF ISSACHAR WAS SANDWICHED BETWEEN THE TRIBES OF WEST MANASSEH AND ZEBULUN. IT WAS LOCATED PRIMARILY IN THE JEZREEL VALLEY. The second division took place after the successful campaign in southern Canaan by Joshua and the Israelite tribes, initiated by the victory at Jericho. This division accommodated for Judah, Ephraim, and West Manasseh. The third and final division occurred after the Northern campaign's victory at the Waters of Merom; in which the tribes of Naphtali, Zebulun, Asher, and Issachar were assigned land portions. Interestingly, the southern tribes of Benjamin, Simeon, and Dan had been left out of the second division, which took place at Shiloh. Thus, they were assigned borders along with their northern counterparts in this third division. The northern boundary was bordered by the tribes of Zebulun and Naphtali. The land included the basaltic slopes of the eastern portion of Lower Galilee. These were rugged slopes, characterized by difficult terrain and a lack of water sources. These factors hindered settlement in the region. Click on a link to jump to that section of this page. In the northeast, the boundaries touched those of Zebulun, and extended westward to the Kishon River. The southern boundary bordered the northern boundary of West Manasseh. Thus, an eastern portion of the Jezreel Valley, along with the city of Megiddo, rested within their tribal allotment. The sons of Issachar looked east through the Jezreel Valley and the Plain of Esdraelon. The Jordan River formed the tribe's eastern boundary. Though the plain was indeed fertile, well watered, and ideal for agriculture, Issachar enjoyed little success in occupying the land. ISSACHAR OCCUPIED THE JEZREEL VALLEY, AND PARTS OF LOWER GALILEE. MOUNT MOREH WAS THE SITE OF MANY BIBLICAL BATTLES. THE JEZREEL IS THE SITE OF THE FUTURE BATTLE OF ARMAGEDDON. Their allotment was one of the most agriculturally desirable. However, it was also one of the most precarious. The Jezreel Valley was ideal for an agricultural people. It possessed fertile, flat plains which were well suited for cattle. Canaanite strongholds throughout the area prevented Issachar from gaining primary control of the Valley. The ancient city of Megiddo, one of five Canaanite strongholds in the region, rested within the tribal boundaries of Issachar. Megiddo has been a site of bloodshed for thousands of years, and was vital in controlling the Jezreel Valley. Megiddo is also the site of the future Battle of Armageddon, spoken of in the book of Revelation by John. Mount Moreh is located in the Jezreel Valley. It stands almost in the center of the tribe's allotment as looked at on a map. The tribe's prime location was also a contributor to it's eventual downfall. The land was interconnected by a series of oriental highways and road systems, indicated by dotted lines on the city map. It was upon these roads the ancient armies of foreign invaders marched, and oftentimes converged for battle. The vulnerability of the tribe to these armies made it difficult to maintain law and order. It would not be until the time of David and Solomon that Israel would exert a majority control of the area. Solomon is said to have strengthened the city of Megiddo by building up its gates. Many scholars argue the border description in the Bible is rather brief, vague, or abbreviated. The most detailed description is given in Joshua 19:17-23. "The fourth lot fell to Issachar, to the sons of Issachar according to their families. And their territory was to Jezreel and included Chesulloth and Shunem, and Hapharaim and Shion and Ana-Ebez, and Remeth and En-gannim and En-haddah and Beth-pazzez. And the border reached to Tabor and Shahazumah and Beth-shemesh, and their border ended at the Jordan; sixteen cities with their villages. This was the inheritance of the tribe of the sons of Issachar according to their families, the cities with their villages." Joshua 17 records an interesting exchange between the the tribe of the ninth son of Jacob, Asher and Manasseh. It would seem, based on the Biblical text, certain cities were handed over to the tribe of Manasseh from the other two tribes. In the case of Issachar, these cities were cities which the Canaanites were not driven from. Verse 11 lists these cities as Beth-shean, Ibleam, Dor, En-dor, Taanach, and Megiddo. These cities were the Canaanite strongholds previously mentioned. They bordered and surrounded much of the Jezreel Valley, preventing Israel from possessing the land entirely. Each city lie within the Biblical boundaries of Issachar. Perhaps the Israelites thought the tribe of Manasseh would be able to drive the Canaanites from their strongholds. However, the Bible clearly states, in verse 12, that "the sons of Manasseh could not take possession of these cities". The Canaanites held out, and these strongholds remained threats to the Israelites until the time of David and Solomon. Ophrah, the home of Gideon, is believed to have existed in the Jezreel Valley, west of Mt. Moreh. Endor was located just north of Moreh. This is where King Saul sought a spirit medium to access the ghost of Samuel. North of Endor stood Mt. Tabor. It was down the slopes of Mt. Tabor that Barak charged the Canaanite King Jabin at Deborah's command, slaying him and his men in route of an Israelite victory. Israel's great victory that day is celebrated by the Song of Deborah found in Judges 5. The ancient city of En-gannim was located in the south, with Jezreel north, resting along roadways and trade routes. Mount Moreh stood to the north of these cities, in the center of the valley. To the southeast was the ancient city of Beth-shan, a very important city of antiquity as it sat along several intersections. It was through the Esdraelon Plain, noted above, that the many caravans passed through the interior of Issachar. These roadways connected the Levant to the foreign empires to the south, north, and east. In Biblical times, the Jezreel Valley was regarded as separate area from the Plain of Esdraelon. The vale of Jezreel is a narrow strip of fertile land sandwiched between the hills of Lower Galilee to the north, and the Gilboa range on the south. Its total length is approximately fifteen miles. The principal city of this area is Beth-shan. Beth-shan is four miles from the Jordan River. It is 430 feet below the Mediterranean, and 300 feet above the Jordan River. The vale of Jezreel plummets at an astonishing 50 feet per mile! Beth-shan was a Canaanite stronghold throughout the early stages of Israelite history. Their control over the area prevented Israel from full settlement. During the conflict with Deborah and Barak, Canaanite armies passed through Beth-shan enroute to Megiddo, the staging area. From Megiddo, the Canaanite forces engaged the Israelites. Many of these same Canaanite soldiers fled the way they came afterward. Crossing the Jordan from the mountains of Gilead in the east, Beth-shan would be one of the first cities encountered. The city also played a key figure in the death of one of Israel's great kings. It was in Beth-shan where Saul's dead body was hung on the walls of that powerful Canaanite city, until rescued by men from Jabesh-gilead. THE RUINS OF BETH-SHAN. THIS WAS THE PRIMARY CITY WITHIN THE VALE OF JEZREEL, LOCATED 4 MILES WEST OF THE JORDAN RIVER. BETHSHAN WOULD BE THE FIRST CITY ENCOUNTERED IF CROSSING THE JORDAN FROM GILEAD IN THE EAST. The Jezreel valley is watered by the Jalud stream, which has its source in Harod, east of Jezreel. It is here a spring bursts forth from the side of Mt. Gilboa. Many feel this is the spot where Gideon defeated the Midianites, who were encamped on the other side of the valley. Ahab's old capital, Jezreel, is also an important city in the region. It was at Mt. Gilboa Saul and Jonathan were defeated by the Philistines, with Saul's body being taken to the above mentioned Beth-shan and hung from the city walls. The Jezreel Valley has participated in much of Israel's glorious past. It lay at the center of many of Israel's most significant engagements and military encounters. The territory of this tribe was a hotly contested region, therefore possesses some of the countries most heroic history. Strangely enough, however, the tribe descended from the ninth son of Jacob would come to be known for it's mind, not might. The tribe of Levi became known as the Priestly tribe. They were set apart for God, and ordained by God to not receive a portion of the inheritance. They were the portion reserved for God. Consequently, God gave them cities from each of the other twelve tribes to dwell and live in. Each city also contained all of the pasturelands associated with that city. Cities from the tribe were given to the Gershonite clan of the Levites. The Gershonites were descended from Gerson, one of the sons of Levi. These four cities are found in Joshua 21:28-29. "And from the tribe of Issachar, they gave Kishion with its pasture lands, Daberath with its pasture lands, Jarmuth with its pasture lands, En-gannim with its pasture lands; four cities" These cities were located throughout all of their land. En-gannim was in the extreme southeast. Interestingly, En-gannim was neighbors with the Canaanite stronghold of Ibleam. Jarmuth was in the eastern part of the tribal allotment. In the north were the two cities of Kishion and Daberath. The Gersonites received thirteen cities in all, four from this tribe. The Biblical text leaves little question as to the detail God took with His people. Though they left Egypt in haste, God quickly organized them into a cohesive unit. Times were certainly not easy for Moses, especially early. However, by listening to God, and obeying His instructions, the Israelites evolved into one functioning body. Part of their discipline was in the way they set and pitch camp around the Tabernacle. The Tabernacle was at the center of the Israelite camp. Each tribe had an assigned section in direct relation to the Tabernacle, which contained the Ark of the Covenant. God's instructions to Moses and Aaron can be found in Numbers 2:1-2. "Now the Lord spoke to Moses and Aaron, saying, 'The sons of Israel shall camp, each by his own standard, withe the banners of their fathers households; they shall camp around the tent of meeting at a distance." God then proceeded to instruct Moses on the exact location of each tribe. The overall camp was divided into 4 smaller camps consisting of three tribes per camp. Each camp was led by a tribe. The four heads were Judah, Reuben, Ephraim and Dan. The instructions concerning Issachar are found in verses five and six. "And those who camp next to him shall be the tribe of Issachar, and the leader of the sons of Issachar: Nethanel the son of Zuar, and his army, even their numbered men, 54,400." The sons of Issachar fell under the banner of Judah, the first tribe mentioned by God to Moses and Aaron. The camp of Judah was the first to break camp. They encamped on the east side, "towards the sunrise". Scripture seems to imply a certain honor with this position. Moses and Aaron camp on the east side of the tent of meeting as well, though inside the Tabernacle compound. The entrance to the Tent faced east, "towards the sunrise". The tribe's camp fell in-between Judah and Zebulun. All together, the camp of Judah included 186,400 men, according to Numbers 2:9. This favored position of Judah's would later manifest itself in the dynasty established by King David, Israel's greatest King. Interestingly, Scripture relates an incident in which the leaders of the tribe switched their allegiance from Saul to David. Many Biblical scholars view this incident as evidence of the tribe's political astuteness and wisdom. Perhaps the leaders remembered such ties. Regardless, Scripture clearly indicates the two tribes cooperated throughout the Old Testament. Issachar was the ninth son of Jacob, and the fifth given him by his wife Leah. If one recalls the Jacob narrative, it was Rachel he originally loved and wanted to marry. It was only through Laban's deception that Jacob married Leah. Leah, however, would be the wife which would bear him the most children. The birth is recorded in Genesis 30:17-18. "And God gave heed to Leah, and she conceived and bore Jacob a fifth son. Then Leah said, 'God has given me my wages, because I gave my maid to my husband.' So she named him Issachar." His birth followed a remarkable deal struck between the two sister-wives Rachel and Leah. This deal involved Reuben, and some mandrakes he had obtained from the fields. In Genesis 30:14-17, Reuben is said to have come in from the fields during the wheat harvest. He had with him some mandrakes, and gave them to his mother, Leah. Mandrakes are an interesting fruit. The mandrake was a small, orange colored fruit. In ancient times it was thought of as an aphrodisiac, and a promoter of fertility. Its large roots have also been used as a narcotic. In this view, it is easy to understand why Rachel, at this time in the narrative the barren wife of Jacob, would seek to obtain the fruit thought to promote fertility. Rachel asked Leah for some of the fruit her son had brought in. Leah refused. Rachel, thus, offered Jacob's services to Leah for that particular night, in exchange for the fruit. Leah agreed, and that night resulted in the birth of Jacob's ninth son. The exact origin and nature of this name is of some debate. One theory interprets the name as "yesh sakar". The Hebrew word translated as such means, "there is a reward". Biblical scholars and proponents of this interpretation point out this corresponds to Leah's statement upon his birth. The word translated as "wages" above is, in some translations, rendered "reward". The name, thus, is an allusion to God's reward to Leah for sharing her maiden with Jacob when she, herself, was bare. Another theory interprets the Hebrew as "ish sakar". This translates as "man of hire". Proponents of this translation point to verse sixteen of the narrative. This verse immediately follows Rachel and Leah's transaction, and is the first encounter between Leah and Jacob. "When Jacob came in from the field in the evening, then Leah said, 'You must come in to me, for I have surely hired you with my son's mandrakes.' So he lay with her that night." The meaning of the name, hence, is an allusion to Leah hiring Jacob's sexual favors from Rachel for some mandrakes. Some scholars, such as Yadin Yigael and N.K. Sandars, argue that the tribe actually derived from a group of the Sea Peoples known as the Shekelesh. In Hebrew this may be rendered, "men of the shekel". This term is synonymous with "ish sakar", "man of hire". The Sea Peoples were an interesting group of people. Little is known of their origins, and little is agreed upon. What is agreed upon is they probably originated in the Mediterranean, and migrated eastward to Egypt and the Levant. They are argued by some scholars to have attempted to attack Egypt, failed, and concentrated their efforts on Canaan. The Philistines, one of Israel's most notorious enemies, are believed by many scholars to have been a part of the Sea Peoples, and settled on the coast sometime after the failed attack of Egypt. Volumes have been dedicated to the study of the Sea Peoples, and they remain wrapped in mystery. Interestingly enough, names akin to Asher and Issachar were discovered in an eighteenth-century Egyptian king list. The name Job also occurs in the same list. Biblical names occur frequently throughout a wide variety of ancient texts. The names Gad and Dan appear in texts discovered in ancient Mari, known as the Mari Texts. The name Benjamin appears in some Mari Texts as the name of a tribe. Zebulun occurs in the Egyptian Execration Texts. Some scholars believe the Execration Texts to contain the first ever reference to Jerusalem. These ancient Hebrew names, possessed Amorite characteristics, common amongst the population of Mesopotamia and Canaan in the second millennium. These references prove the social accuracy of the Bible's language throughout the Old Testament. Though the exact meaning is not agreed upon, it nonetheless originated from fascinating events. The events leading up to his birth are well covered by Scripture. However, when it comes to the man of Issachar, the Bible is relatively silent. Nothing is mentioned of him in any part of the Joseph narrative. In fact, the name is mentioned only once more in the book of Genesis. His absence from the narrative of Joseph indicates he went along with his brothers in the plot to kill, then sell Joseph into bondage. It is interesting to note, however, that Issachar's silence in the narrative would indicate he was one of the brothers originally intent upon killing Joseph. Genesis 37:21 clearly indicates it was Reuben who swayed the majority to spare Joseph's life. "But Reuben heard this and rescued him out of their hands and said, 'Let us not take his life.' " Nothing else is said of the ninth son of Jacob until Genesis 46. Rabbinical literature states that he was born in the month of Av, on the fourth day. Av is the fifth of the twelve Hebrew months, and is the only month not mentioned in the Bible. It is a summer month, usually concurrent with July-August. Aaron died in this month. The First and Second Temples were destroyed in this month. It is also the month of the sin of the spies who unfaithfully reported back to Moses the land could not be taken. Scripture does indicate that Issachar was born in Aram-naharaim, and not the land of Canaan. The only of Jacob's children to be born in Canaan was Benjamin. Further mention can be found in the book of Jasher. In chapter 45 the story is told of how he and Levi went east to seek a bride. They took as their wives the daughters of Jobab the son of Yoktan, the son of Eber. Jobab's oldest daughter was Adinah, and the younger Aridah. It was the younger, Aridah, that Issachar took as his bride. The couple moved back to Canaan where they had children. The book of Jasher also contains one of the most fascinating stories about Issachar. It is important to note that the book of Jasher is a controversial book even amongst scholars. The Jewish Encyclopedia states; "The nature of this book has been a matter of discussion from the time of the Greek Septuagint up to the present day." It was not accepted into the "official" canon of the Bible. However, it is mentioned twice in the Old Testament. "Is not this written in the Book of Jasher?" -- Joshua 10:13 "Behold it is written in the Book of Jasher." -- II Samuel 1:18 In chapters 38 and 39 of Jasher, the sons of Jacob are waging war on many of the Canaanite cities. They are said to have scaled city walls, each taking a corner of the city by heroic deeds similar to those of superheros. However, Issachar and Naphtali "remained under the wall". Together they "kindled a fire" until the iron of the city gates broke, throwing open the gates of the already under attack city. The portrayal is rather anti-climatic in comparison to the feats of his other brothers. His role is certainly the least daring and heroic of the brothers. Others have argued this is evidence of the pragmatic and intellectual superiority of Issachar. Rather than fight, they opened the city in a less dangerous way, yet through means of using the mind rather than might. Indeed, this seems to be the portrayal of the tribe throughout various passages in the Old Testament. They were a tribe of intellects, the scholarly tribe of the 12 tribes of Israel. The Bible mentions Jacob's ninth son by name only three times in the Old Testament. All other references refer to the tribe, or representatives from the tribe. Each of the three passages list the sons of Issachar. One is found in Genesis, the other in Numbers, and the last in I Chronicles. "And the sons of Issachar: Tola and Puvah and Iob and shimron." In other verses Puvah is translated Puvvah, or Puah. Iob is also rendered as Jashub in I Chronicles 7. These sons were part of the seventy that left Canaan with Jacob and moved into Egypt. The reference in Numbers 26:23-25 has to do with the first census taken by Moses upon the Israelites leaving Egypt. The tribe is mentioned by family, with their total numbering 64,300. "The sons of Issachar according to their families: of Tola, the family of the Tolaites, of Puvah, the family of the Punites; of Jashub, the family of the Jashubites; of Shimron, the family of the Shimronites." The most detailed account occurs in I Chronicles 7:1-5. This passage lists the geneaology. "Now the sons of Issachar were four: Tola, Puah, Jashub, and Shimron. and the sons of Tola were Uzzi, Rephaiah, Jeriel, Jamai, Ibsam, and Samuel, heads of their fathers households. The sons of Tola were mighty men of valor in their generations; their number in the days of David was 22,600. " Further attention is paid to Tola's sons in verse three. verse five relates "all the families of Issachar were mighty men of valor". This statement seems to goes against the reputation this tribe has in today's academic opinion. Most scholars view Issachar as meek, shying away from military engagements. This was countered by their prowess in the law, however. Perhaps this opinion is formed more by his diminished role in the book of Jasher and in other Rabbinical texts, rather than the Scriptures. Scripture makes no mention of Issachar, other than the aforementioned three. His ancestors were called "mighty men" and "men of valor". The remaining passages deal with Issachar as a tribe of Israel. The tribe was well looked upon by the Old Testament. The first mention of the tribe occurs in Numbers 1:8. The tribes are gathering outside of Egypt under Moses, and he is beginning to organize the loose, probably chaotic mass of fleeing individuals. God instructs Moses as to how he must go about organizing His people. Moses is to appoint leaders over each of the tribes of Israel. Though the Exodus certainly included non-Jewish individuals, the exact number is not known, the Old Testament emphasizes the Jewish aspect. However, Scripture acknowledges the fact other people were with the Israelites. Theories vary widely as to the ethnic makeup of the Exodus, and the Jewish people themselves, at this point in their history. Regardless, Moses begins by assigning leaders over those that identified themselves with one of the twelve tribes of Israel. God's Word to Moses is given in Numbers 1:4-5. "With you, moreover, there shall be a man of each tribe, each one head of his father's household. These then are the names of the men who shall stand with you:" Each tribe is represented by one man. The man from the tribe of Issachar is given in verse eight. "of Issachar, Nethanel the son of Zuar;" The next mention takes place in Numbers 7. The tribes are presenting sacrifices to the newly completed Tabernacle. Moses had anointed it and consecrated it, and each tribe was to present an offering. One tribe was to offer a sacrifice per day, for twelve days. Though Issachar was the ninth son of Jacob, they were the second tribe to present an offering. The offerings were made in the order of the encampment. The tribal representative presented their offering after Judah, on the second day of the ceremony. Once again it is Nethanel leading the tribe in verse 18. "On the second day Nethanel the son of Zuar, leader of Issachar, presented an offering." In verse three, the 12 tribes of Israel are shown carrying their sacrifices in "six covered carts, and twelve oxen, a cart for every two of the leaders, and an ox for each one". The Numbers Raba, a Midrash, or commentary, by ancient Jewish scholars on the book of Numbers, claims the men of Issachar advised the other tribes to bring the carts and oxen upon which to carry their sacrifices. Numbers 10 depicts the 12 tribes of Israel as they pack up camp and leave Sinai. Verse fifteen mentions Nethanel and the tribe's army breaking camp. The standard of Judah was the first division to break camp. Issachar is listed second, behind Judah and before Zebulun. It would seem reasonable this was the order in which the standard of Judah set out. Nethanel, thus, led the tribe at its earliest stages. Interestingly, Nethanel was succeeded by Igal, the son of Joseph. Numbers 13:7 records Moses' appointment of Igal as the tribes spy into Canaan. Igal is not heard of individually, however, his report surely fell into the majority report that the land was too great and its inhabitants too powerful for Israel to overcome. Their report incited the people to grumble against Moses and Aaron. The only two spies to report back faithful were Joshua and Caleb. Igal, thus, failed to represent the tribe in a faithful manner. However, the tribe redeems itself throughout the other passages found in Scripture. Numbers 25 tells of a plague suffered by Israel which claimed 24,000 lives. Immediately after the plague, God instructs Moses and Aaron to "Take a census of all the congregation". This was the second census taken by Moses of the Israelites. A census may seem strange, as God surely knew the number of Israelites present, as well as every other being on earth. However, perhaps it was simply for the benefit of His people that such exercises took place. In order for Israel to conquer Canaan, they had to operate as one unit in combat. They were united by the worship of God Almighty, thus had to learn to function together and cooperate on fundamental levels. The practice of assembling the congregation, of camping in specific order, of breaking camp in specific order, of presenting sacrifices in specific order, drilled into their minds the idea of unity and oneness. Though each tribe was individual in nature, and oftentimes function, God used this time in the wilderness to form a bond amongst the twelve tribes of Israel. In verse twenty-three, the sons of Issachar are counted "according to their families". "The sons of Issachar according to their families; of Tola, the family of Tolaites; of Puvah, the faimly of the Punites; of Jashub, the family of the Jashubites; of Shimron, the family of the Shimronites. These are the families of Issachar according to those who were numbered of them, 64,300." The males twenty years old and upward were the only ones among the numbered of each tribe. Thus the actual number of Issachar was much larger, perhaps double. The New American Standard heads chapter 26 of Numbers as, "Census of a New Generation". Indeed this generation of Israel would have been children, infants, and unborn when their fathers left Egypt. It was the sin of the older generation which prevented Moses from entering the Promised Land. Thus, the tribal leaders would have been among those that led the charge into Canaan. These men were certainly extraordinary men, fighting against extraordinary foes. The Israelites, however, possessed an extraordinary God. Numbers 34 is God's instructions for apportioning the land of Canaan amongst the Israelites. Interestingly, God instructs them on how to distribute the land before a single battle had been fought. All the Israelites had to do was trust God Almighty, the God of Abraham, Issac and Jacob, for the war was already won. God told Moses each tribe was to be represented by one man. That man "shall apportion the land to you for inheritance". Verse twenty-six lists the tribal representative as Paltiel, the son of Azzan. The next mention is in Numbers 33:19. This verse is Moses's Blessing to the tribe before his death. Moses' blessing was favorable. "...And, Issachar, in your tents. They shall call peoples to the mountain; There they shall offer righteous sacrifices; For they shall draw out the abundance of the seas, And the hidden treasures of the sand." This "call" was not a random call. The language used indicates a specific call, for a specific purpose. The verb used indicates a specific name. The act of naming sometimes may indicate a superior position by the one naming. In this case, the tribe would occupy the superior position, as it called the people to the mountain. The Hebrew word is also used to indicate calling upon the name of God. Moses imagery of sacrifice on a mountain would have been very close to the heart of Israelites. The tribe seemed to have held the reputation for being a holy tribe, according to this interpretation of Moses' Blessing. This, by no means, should be taken as a proven, wholly accurate interpretation of this passage. However, it would seem to fit with the tribe's reputation. They were a holy tribe, a tribe of learned men, learned in the law, and in the ways of God. This was a respected tribe, one whom the others listened to intently and regarded with high esteem. Though the book of Jasher downplays their military prowess, the next appearance in Scripture contradicts this view. Issachar played a key role in the battle against Jabin and Sisera. In fact, the battle itself was fought within the tribe's boundary. DEBRAH & BARAK - JUDGES 4-5 The tribe was central in a major battle found in Judges 4. The Israelites became oppressed by Jabin, king of Hazor. Jabin was probably a name-like title given to the king of Hazor, similar to Caesar and Pharoah. Scripture tells us Jabin's commander was Sisera, who lived in Harosheth-hagoyim. Scripture records Jabin "oppressed the sons of Israel severely for twenty years". This conflict took place in the Jezreel Valley. This battle takes place in the same general area as the Battle at the Waters of Merom. The oppressing forces of king Jabin are said to have had nine hundred iron chariots in Judges 4:3. The oppression came about because, "the sons of Israel again did evil in the sight of the Lord". God then called on a man of the tribe of Naphtali to deliver the Israelites. At this time, Deborah was Judging the Israelites from her spot "under the palm tree of Deborah between Ramah and Bethel". Her command from God was given to Barak in Judges 4:6. "Now she sent and summoned Barak the son of Abinoam from Kedesh-naphtali, and said to him, 'Behold, the Lord, the God of Israel, has commanded, Go and march to Mount Tabor, and take with you ten thousand men from the sons of Naphtali and from the sons of Zebulun." In chapter four the primary tribes involved are Naphtali and Zebulun. In verse 7 God assured Barak He would draw out Sisera and his army, and deliver them to the Israelites. The battle would take place near the Kishon River, in the Jezreel Valley. This was within the tribal boundary of Issachar. The men of fighting age within the tribe would have surely taken part in this conflict. Though not mentioned in chapter four of Judges, the Song of Deborah sings the praise of the sons of Issachar. Barak, the commander of the Israelite forces, was hesitant to engage the Canaanite forces without Deborah's presence. Barak stated he would not go without Deborah accompanying him to the battle field. Deborah responded to Barak's request in verse 9. "And she said, 'I will surely go with you ; nevertheless, the honor shall not be yours on the journey that you are about to take, for the Lord will sell Sisera into the hands of a woman.' Then Deborah arose and went with Barak to Kedesh." Despite Barak's hesitancy to follow God's command alone, and the diminished glory he would receive as a result, the New Testament book of Hebrews lists Barak as a hero of faith. Hebrews 11 lists a number of Old Testament personalities exemplified because of their faith. The passage concerning Barak can be found in 11:32-34."And what more shall I say? I do not have time to tell about Gideon, Barak, Samson, Jephthah, David, Samuel and the prophets, who through faith conquered kingdoms, administered justice, and gained what was promised; who shut the mouths of lions, quenched the fury of the flames, and escaped the edge of the sword; whose weakness was turned to strength; and who became powerful in battle and routed foreign armies." The battle was not an evenly matched affair. The Canaanite forces under Sisera comprised of 900 iron chariots, as well as other military units. The Israelites possessed no such chariots. The plain provided the ideal geography for waging war with chariots. The Israelite foot soldiers would be no match in the open plain for the iron, horse driven Canaanite chariots. This thought was surely in the back of every Israelite warrior's mind. Nevertheless, Barak and Deborah proceeded as God had instructed. Verse ten states that Barak called together the men of Naphtali and Zebulun, as well as men from the other tribes, and gathered together the army under his and Deborah's leadership. The Holman Bible Atlas states the Canaanite forces under Sisera gathered near the Wadi Kishon, below Mt. Tabor. The Canaanite chariots would be most effective here. However, the Kishon River was swollen due to recent rains. This rendered the Canaanite chariots useless. Thus, in verse 14 Deborah gave Barak the command to attack. "And Deborah said to Barak, 'Arise! For this is the day in which the Lord has given Sisera into your hands; behold, the Lord has gone out before you.' So Barak went down from Mt. Tabor with ten thousand men following him." Thus began the battle, with the men of Naphtali and Zebulun composing the majority of the forces. The recent rains neutralized the Canaanite chariot division, and they were routed by the Israelites. Barak and his men drove the Canaanites "as far as Harosheth-hagoyim". The Song of Deborah gives further insight into the details of the battle in Judges 5:21. "The torrent of Kishon swept them away, the ancient torrent, the torrent of Kishon. O my soul, march on with strength." This verse seems to imply the Kishon had flooded, as stated above, and the chariots were washed away, rendered useless in the muddy terrain. It would seem God had planned this battle in conjunction with rain! What an amazing picture of God using His creation to accomplish His purposes. Scripture relates Sisera fled on foot, apparently losing or abandoning his chariot, probably the latter due to their inability to navigate the swampy plain. He fled to a nearby residence owned by a man named Heber, the Kenite, and his wife Jael. Scripture relates these people had separated themselves from the Kenites, and settled near the oak in Zaanannim. Verse 17 states there was peace between Jabin, king of Hazor, and the house of Heber the Kenite. Though Scripture does not divulge any details into what sort of peace existed, the implication seems to be Heber had abandoned his Israelite brethren, perhaps choosing to side with the foreign king of Hazor. His wife, however, displayed tremendous courage, and was obviously not at peace with king Jabin and Sisera. Jael deceived Sisera into hiding out in her tent. She brought Sisera warm milk to drink, and told him to rest, for she would thwart any pursuers. Sisera obviously felt he could trust Heber's wife. Scripture is silent as to Heber's whereabouts. Thus, as Sisera was sleeping, Jael took a tent peg and drove it through his skull. Her actions are recorded in Judges 4:21. "But Jael, Heber's wife, took a tent peg and seized a hammer in her hand, and went secretly to him and drove the peg into his temple, and it went through into the ground, for he was sound asleep and exhausted. So he died." The Song of Deborah, in Judges 5, lists the other tribes of Israel which participated in the fight. Issachar is among those mentioned favorably by Deborah. Verse fifteen exalts the deeds of Issachar. "And the princes of Issachar were with Deborah; As was Issachar, so was Barak; Into the valley they rushed at his heels; Not only does Deborah praise the efforts of the men of Issachar, they are described in a remarkable way, as princes. The Hebrew word used is very interesting. The Hebrew word,Sar, translated as "princes", is used over 380 times in the Old Testament. It is defined as; a head person, captain, prince. The word typically referred to men of stature and notice, sometimes non-Israelite officials and representatives, and other times used to denote significant men within Israel. Sar was used in conjunction with government officials, religious leaders and officials, or a ruler of a city. It's most significant use is found in Isaiah 9:6. It is used to identify the Messiah. He is called, "Sar-shalom", or, "Prince of Peace". The word is also used in conjunction with archangels in Daniel 10. Thus, Issachar is especially honored in the Song of Deborah as leaders of men. They were princes, captains, men of honor. The Song of Deborah is one of the oldest passages of literature in the Bible. It is possible the authors of I Chronicles 7 used this passage as a reference to their description of the sons of Issachar. This passage deems them "mighty men of valor", and "heads of their fathers household". As noted above, Scripture indicates this trait was developed in the early period of the tribe's development. The tribe produced one judge in the history of Israel. Tola is mentioned briefly in Judges 10:1-2. "Now after Abimelech died, Tola the son of Puah, the son of Dodo, a man of Issachar, arose to save Israel; and he lived in Shamir in the hill country of Ephraim. and he judged Israel twenty-three years. Then he died and was buried in Shamir." We are not privy to the specifics regarding Tola's reign. Of all the judges mentioned in the Old Testament, the least is said of Tola. The Young's Analytical Concordance to the Bible lists Tola's career spanning from 1206-1183 B.C. This date, however, is far from agreed upon. An illuminating passage on Issachar is found in I Chronicles 12:32. Chapter twelve deals with the tribes of Israel which had gathered to show their support for the newly anointed King David of Israel. Scripture implies Issachar played an important role in uniting Israel behind David. "And of the sons of Issachar, men who understood the times, with knowledge of what Israel should do, their chiefs were two hundred; and all their kinsmen were at their command." This is one of the last references to Issachar, and is consistent with the majority of the reports Scripture gives concerning the ninth son of Jacob and his tribe. The men of this tribe were wise men, intelligent men. These were men who studied the Law constantly, and sought the ways and mysteries of God. It would seem God had blessed this tribe with understanding and discernment. This tribe held an important position amongst his brethren. Israel rested in a delicate position when Saul and Jonathan had died. Saul had relatives, a son even, ready to ascend to the throne. David was the popular choice with the people, and most importantly God. Issachar's role seemed to be one of adviser. The leaders of Issachar advised the leaders of the other tribes of Israel as to what direction they should take as a nation. In this instance, the sons of Issachar chose to switch their allegiance to David. Their decision proved fruitful, as David soon rose to the throne, defeating Philistines and rebellions along the way. The Davidic Dynasty would maintain the throne for nearly five centuries. Winning the support of the sons of Issachar would have been a great political gain for David. God had ordained him king, thus it would have been an easy decision for Issachar. The United Kingdom, however, was to dissolve upon the death of King Solomon, the son of King David. The tribe of Issachar has produced one dynasty in the history of Israel, though this dynasty falls far short from glorious. Upon the splitting of the two kingdoms, ca. 927 B.C., Jeroboam I ruled over the Northern Kingdom of Israel, and Rehoboam, the son of Solomon, ascended to the southern throne. These were turbulent years in Israel's history. Border disputes between the two kingdoms were continuous, and peace was rare. The political situation was certainly a precarious one to say the least. By all implications in Scripture, the tribe of Issachar would have been an important tribe during this time of uncertainty. They belonged to the Northern Kingdom, but as will be shown later, probably maintained ties with certain of their southern brethren. Issachar would prove to play a prominent, though inglorious, role in these turbulent years. The first King of Israel was Jeroboam. He reigned Israel for twenty-two years, then died. His son, Nadab, reigned in his place. Neither man was righteous. Jeroboam set up the golden calves mentioned earlier in Shechem, Bethel, Dan, and other cities throughout the Northern Kingdom. He built up the loathed "high places" mentioned throughout the Old Testament. He went so far as to sacrifice to golden calves in the temple he constructed for them in Bethel, and expelled the priestly Levites from their positions, replacing them with local pagan priests. This was all done in a political attempt to undermine Jerusalem and the true Temple and worship of God. He led Israel into idolatry, straying from God Almighty. Consequently, he and his house earned the wrath of God. I Kings 15 and 16 record the events of Baasha's reign. Other passages concerning Baasha, in II Kings and II Chronicles, re-state the story told in these two chapters. Scripture jumps around in these chapters and books, and if attempted to be read chronologically can be a frustrating task. One must keep in mind these events were not written down in chronological order. Though some passages are organized as such, others skip around. This does not detract or add to the validity of these passages, it is simply fact of matter. The first mention of King Baasha of the tribe of Issachar takes place in I Kings 15:16. It is written Baasha and King Asa of the southern kingdom of Judah were at war with each other "all their days". This particular provocation was brought about by Baasha's actions in verse seventeen. "And Baasha of king of Israel went up against Judah and fortified Ramah in order to prevent anyone from going out or coming in to Asa king of Judah." Ramah was located north of Jerusalem, south of Baasha's capital in Tirza. This would have been much equivalent to a situation developing between North and South Korea in modern times. The action from the north in this instance, provoked an answer from the south. Asa's actions, we are told, pleased the Lord throughout his reign. His mother was the daughter of Abshalom, the son of David. Asa is said to done what was right in the sight of the Lord, "like David his father.". Asa, thus, took treasure from the Lord's Temple and bribed "Ben-hadad the son of Tabrimmon, the son of Hezion, king of Aram, who lived in Damascus". Ben-hadad accepted Asa's gift. It would seem he had previously been allied with Israel, however, this bribe from Asa seemed to have switched his allegiance. Asa tells Ben-hadad to "go break you treaty with Baasha king of Israel". Ben-hadad does just so, attacking Baasha of Issachar in the northern part of his kingdom. This act of war by Aram prompted Baasha to cease his efforts in Ramah, as more pressing matters now existed. Scripture relates Ben-hadad took the cities of Ijon, Dan, Abel-beth-maacah, all of Galilee and the land of Naphtali. This was a crushing blow to Baasha, weakening Issachar and the other northern tribes. Verse twenty-five of the same chapter gives the details concerning Baasha's rise to the crown. This is just one example of Scripture fast-forwarding and rewinding at will throughout the books of Kings. At the time of verse twenty-five, Baasha is not the king of Israel. Instead, Nadab the son of Jeroboam is. It would seem, thus, that the princes of Issachar were at work behind the scenes. "Then Baasha the son of Ahijah of the house of Issachar conspired against him, and Baasha struck him down at Gibbethon, which belonged to the Philistines, while Nadab and all Israel lay siege to Gibbethon." Interestingly, Israel was at war with the Philistines, laying siege to the Philistine city of Gibbethon. This would have been an ideal opportunity to overthrow a government, as history has proven to be so. In times of war, confusion and chaos reigns. Though it may be presumptuous to make such a statement, it would seem the men of Issachar had conspired with Baasha, and helped him in his efforts to overthrow Nadab. Scripture records Nadab did evil in the sight of the Lord, like his father had previously. Perhaps Issachar was not alone in their endeavor with Baasha against Nadab. Such matter is speculation. What is known is Baasha was successful, murdering Nadab and claiming the throne. Scripture records the incident, and Baasha's first act as King, in I Kings 15:28-29. "So Baasha killed him in the third year of Asa king of Judah, and reigned in his place. And it came about as soon as he was king, he struck down all the household of Jeroboam. He did not leave to Jeroboam any persons alive, until he had destroyed them, according to the word of the Lord, which He spoke by His servant Ahijah the Shilonite." King Baasha of Issachar was crowned so in Tirzah, and he reigned for twenty-four years. It would seem the incident involving the fortification of Ramah took place soon after he struck down Jeroboam's household. It would make sense for a newly anointed King to want to flex his muscle to the south. By fortifying Ramah, he would be blockading the south. It was a strategically sound move. He had no reason to fear his northern front, as Ben-hadad was an ally to Israel. Insomuch as Baasha thought, he was free to concentrate his efforts on weakening their pesky brethren to the south. He was badly mistaken. I Kings 15:34 gives the nature of Baasha's reign. It would seem God moved Ben-hadad to switch his loyalties, based on the text of verse thirty-four. "And he did evil in the sight of the Lord, and walked in the way of Jeroboam and in his sin which he made Israel sin." Baasha was held directly responsible for the sin of Issachar and the other tribes of the northern kingdom of Israel. As a result, the Lord sends a prophet, Jehu the son of Hanani to Baasha, accusing him of unfaithfulness to God. Jehu tells Baasha the Lord God is going to tear his kingdom from his hands. God will consume the house of Baasha, as He did to Jeroboam and Nadab previously. Verse four is especially telling. "Anyone of Baasha who dies in the city the dogs shall eat, and anyone of his who dies in the field the birds of the heaven will eat." I Kings 16:6 tells of the death of Baasha in Tirzah. His son, Elah, ascends to the throne in his place. Elah's reign is a brief two years. His reign came to an embarrassing end when he was assassinated while drunk by his servant Zimri. Thus the house of Baasha's dynasty came to a disgraceful end. King after king of Israel did evil in the sight of the Lord. It was a kingdom of idolatrous leaders and policies, and it would not be allowed to last forever. The end, in fact, came nearly two centuries before the end of the southern kingdom of Judah. Despite the tribe of Issachar supporting the evil Baasha, the tribe would prove it learned from its past mistakes during the reign of King Hezekiah of Judah. Hezekiah is esteemed as one of the greatest of Israel's kings. Scripture records he did what was right and pleasing in the sight of the Lord. His first recorded act as king in II chronicles 29 was to open "the doors of the house of the Lord and repaired them". Shortly after the fall of the Northern Kingdom of Israel to the Assyrians in 723 B.C., King Hezekiah of Judah issued a call to all of Israel to come and celebrate the Passover in Jerusalem. Hezekiah sent messengers throughout the land of Canaan, seeking those who "escaped and are left from the hand of the kings of Assyria". Though the tribe of Issachar had been exiled to ancient Persia (modern day Iran), a remnant of people were left behind. II Chronicles 30:18 takes notice of some of the tribes which answered Hezekiah's call to worship the God Almighty. "For a multitude of the people, even many from Ephraim and Manasseh, Issachar and Zebulun, had not purified themselves, yet they ate the Passover otherwise..." Hezekiah prayed to the Lord to forgive them for eating the Passover without following the proper rituals. Their hearts were pure, however, and the Lord recognized such in verse twenty. The men left from the tribe of Issachar, thus, humbled themselves before God during this particular Passover. Issachar, like their northern counterparts, had suffered a great trauma. Much of their population was exiled to a foreign land. Strangers and foreigners moved in, replacing their friends, neighbors and relatives. It was most certainly a trying time for the sons of Issachar and the other tribes of Israel. Scripture records some remarkable traits of the tribe of Issachar. They were clearly a special tribe, as pointed out by their knowledge and understanding. Indeed, the Rabbinical literature makes special mention of Issachar's reputation. The B'reshith Rabaa, or Gensesis Rabba, is a collection of ancient commentaries of the book of Genesis. This midrash, as it is also called, is by Jewish rabbi's and scholars from different centuries and times. It interprets Jacob's Blessing as an indication of Issachar's study of the law. It also mentions that Issachar was especially known for making proselytes, or converting Gentiles to Judaism. Certainly the tribe of Issachar seems to be a tribe of religious scholars. They appear in a number of passages in Scripture, depicting both faithful and unfaithful acts. They were a tribe oftentimes involved with the leadership of Israel, from supporting David at Hebron, to the ascendancy of Baasha to the throne of Israel. Issachar produced a judge in Tola as well. This tribe, thus, had a distinctive impact on the history of Israel. However, as Revelation 7 indicates, twelve thousand are to be sealed from the tribe of Issachar during the time of God's wrath. The most glorious days of Issachar are yet to come. The Tribe of Issachar - by Wayne Blank Sep 17, 20 10:57 AM The Amarna Letters are documents written to Egyptian Pharoahs from vassal Kings in the land of Canaan. These letters clearly indicate Habiru presence in both Canaan and Egypt. Sep 15, 20 04:59 PM The life of Adam and Eve revolved around daily existence in Paradise. However, it would soon come to an end, and the consequences would reach to further generations. Sep 11, 20 11:11 AM Abraham and Sarah entered Canaan without any idea about the land, the people, the religions, or the cultures which dominated Canaan. All they had was each other, and their faith in God Almighty. SAMUEL the SEER Now Available in Print & eBook on Amazon!! Learn more about these popular topics below. The Bible is full of fascinating stories, characters and mysteries! Explore the land of the Old Testament! View these maps of the Bible.

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Many studies using a qualitative approach attempt to understand the perception of people within their different cultural context. However, frequently, the way concepts are understood - mainly abstract in the case of the researcher, and more pragmatic in the case of the participant - may introduce bias and, hence, influence the way questions are phrased, understood, responded to and, ultimately, analysed and interpreted. The researcher’s questions are based on the researcher’s concepts and expectations. The respondent’s conceptual understanding either does not cater for these expectations at all, or provides answers prone to misunderstandings. Using a rank ordering method that 1) incorporates generally accepted and understood concepts and 2) is done as a simple paper and pen procedure, can form the basis for discussions of concepts the researcher is interested in, but from the respondent’s perspective. The method is demonstrated by using the example of Peruvian villagers’ views on a healthy community in relation to tourism impacts. |Keywords:||Tourism Impact, Rank Ordering, Community Health, Tourism in Peru| Senior Lecturer, School of Nursing Sciences, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD, Australia There are currently no reviews of this product.Write a Review

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Handmade Bones Draw Attention to Genocides Around the WorldJuly 12, 2013 submitted by Ola Lessard Local students from The Birches Academy, a public charter school in Salem, recently contributed handcrafted bones to the One Million Bones project, an international project to raise awareness of genocide and other atrocities throughout the world. The students come from a number of area towns, including Salem, Windham, Pelham, Derry, Windham and Nashua. The students’ bones were displayed on the National Mall in Washington, DC, along with handmade bones from over 100,000 people from 30 countries. Each bone created by a student was matched by a $1 donation to CARE from the Bezos Family Foundation. Birches Academy students’ bones were first displayed in Exeter, alongside 10,000 other bones made by New Hampshire residents, before being packaged up and shipped to DC for the international project. Children in grades 1-8 crafted the bones at the school, using both ceramic and paper mache. The Birches Academy of Academics and Arts is a tuition-free, public charter school. Curriculum at the school is arts-integrated, meaning that the arts (writing, fine arts, verbal expression, and so on) are incorporated into all subjects as a learning tool. Dr. Dael Angelico-Hart is Head of School for The Birches, “We were fortunate that the One Million Bones organization provided excellent resources for each grade level,” she said. Dr. Angelico-Hart explained how the project was approached with students from different grade levels. “With our seventh and eighth graders, we expressed the full value of the installation and the impact of genocide throughout the world. They were shown the online video for the project that includes interviews with survivors. They had been studying the holocaust in class and discussing the use and meaning of memorials, so it was an excellent support to that learning.” “Grades 5-6 classes read a book called “Feathers and Fools” that illustrates the root of genocide: the finding of “perceived differences” in others that can then erupt into conflict. We discussed less about actual genocide throughout the world, and more about how we can better reduce conflict right here at home.” “Our third and fourth graders were studying the body and skeletal structures, so it fit perfectly for them to create a bone, then metaphorically reflect on the fact that inside all of us is the same structure – we all have our bones in common – and how this can be a starting point for finding common ground. Children in grades 1-2 focused mostly on the bone as a symbol, discussing the names of different bones, and how we are all the same inside.”

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Did you know about business culture in Croatia? Watch this video animation to find out some interesting facts: Business Culture in Croatia is characterised by: business communication, business etiquette, business meeting etiquette, internship and student placements, cost of living, work-life-balance and social media guide. Croatia is strategically placed at the crossroads of Central Europe, the Balkans and the Adriatic Sea and is also close to the Mediterranean. It is bordering Hungary to the north-east, Serbia to the east, Bosnia and Herzegovina to the south-east, Montenegro to the south-east, the Adriatic Sea to the south-west and Slovenia to the north-west. The population of Croatia is 4,290,612 (census 2011) and its capital and largest city is Zagreb with a population of 792,875, followed by Split-Dalmatia with a population of 455,242. Altogether Croatia comprises 20 counties as well as the city of Zagreb. Most of the population are Croat, with the most common religious denomination being Roman Catholicism. Croatia covers 56,594 square kilometres (21,851 square miles) with a diverse climate ranging from continental to alpine and Mediterranean along the coast. Croatia’s Adriatic coast contains more than a thousand islands. Croatia has a low birth rate of 9.4 per 1,000 inhabitants (2011), while the death rate is higher at 11.6 per 1,000 inhabitants. According to the Croatian Bureau of Statistics (2009), the age of the population is distributed as follows: 15.3% are 14 years old or younger, 15 – 64 years 67.5% are between the ages of 15 to 64 and 17.3% are 65 years or older. The main ethnic groups are Croats at 90.4%, followed by Serbs at 4.4% and the remaining population at 5.2% (including Bosnian, Hungarian, Slovenians, Czech, and Roma) (Wikipedia, 2011). Croatia today has a very high Human Development Index. The International Monetary Fund classified Croatia as an emerging and developing economy, and the World Bank identified it as a high income economy. Croatia is an acceding state of the European Union, with full membership expected in July 2013. The Croatian economy has been steadily declining for the past four years and the government national debt is currently estimated at 59.535% of GDP. Croatia’s main export partners are Italy, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Germany, Slovenia and Austria, which is similar to its main import partners: Italy, Germany, Russia, China, Slovenia and Austria (2011). Croatia’s main exports are transport equipment, machinery, textiles, chemicals, foodstuffs, fuels and its main imports are machinery, transport and electrical equipment; chemicals, fuels and lubricants, and foodstuffs. Foreign Direct Investment into Croatia has been in continual decline since 2008 and currently has some of the lowest levels of FDI in south-eastern Europe. The official language of Croatia is Croatian and its official currency is the Kuna (HRK). Croatia is in the Central European Time Zone and adheres to CET (UTC +1) during the winter and CEST (UTC +2) during the summer. For further information, please see below: - http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/foreign-direct-investment-in-croatia-nosedives (Balkan Insight) - http://www.dzs.hr/default_e.htm (Croatian Statistics Office) - http://www.hnb.hr/o-hnb/eo-hnb.htm (Croatian National Bank) - http://www.tradingeconomics.com/croatia/balance-of-trade (Trading Economics) - http://countryeconomy.com/gdp/croatia (Country Economy) - http://www.economywatch.com/economic-statistics/country/Croatia/ (Economy Watch) Xenophobia: being a foreigner in Croatia Businesses in Croatia are very formal, but receptive to cross cultural management. This means that they are ready to accept foreign ideas if they are approached in a respectful way, whereas any dictatorial or forceful approach to business by a foreigner will not be tolerated. Croatia remains a country in transition and that is why the government is promoting foreign direct investment (FDI) and partnerships with local companies through liberal frameworks and tax breaks. International business in Croatia When you visit another country on business, you expect some differences in how business is conducted. However, you do not always have sufficient time to learn these differences through personal experience. Sometimes, you will find yourself in a meeting only a few hours after your arrival, where your lack of local knowledge leads you to make basic cultural mistakes, which can have serious repercussions on your efforts. The literacy level in Croatia is 99% with a highly skilled workforce like most of the other south-eastern European countries. The primary school education starts from grade 1 to grade 8 from the age of 6 to 14, and then there are two possibilities to choose from, a vocational or specialized and gymnasium secondary school. After four years of education they graduate at the age of 18 and students from gymnasium secondary schools have the best chance of furthering their education by attending a university. Most of the students that went to a vocational / specialized school will either enter the workforce directly or go to university. University education normally takes four years for an undergraduate degree, although this varies according to the subject matter, and most postgraduate degrees require a further two years of study. The educational standard in Croatia is on a par with the rest of Europe. The primary and secondary education is compulsory for every citizen of the country and it is free of charge. University education is also free but some costs are involved. During the past ten to fifteen years, the number of Croatians emigrating to other EU-countries has been stagnant or even slightly declining. However, this trend has changed in the last couple of years because of the economic situation, which has been a catalyst for many young professionals to emigrate to other EU countries. Due to emerging skill shortages in some sectors, labour migration to Croatia has also been growing in recent years. Most migrants come from the successor states of the former Yugoslavia, in particular Bosnia and Herzegovina and Macedonia, taking up jobs in the construction, shipbuilding and tourism sectors. Though calculations on the potential migration flows following EU accession are missing, it can be assumed that the numbers will be small; even taking into account those Croats from Bosnia and Herzegovina with dual citizenship. Given Croatia’s economic situation (21.6% unemployment rate), the difficulties of unemployment facing minority returnees cannot solely be attributed to discrimination. Many of the regions where the majority of people are returning to were underdeveloped, even before the war. Yet the percentage of jobless minority returnees is disproportionate to that of the general population. In particular, the percentage of ethnic Serbs employed in the public sector does not correspond to their numbers as a percentage of the general population. The Constitutional Law on the Rights of National Minorities (CLNM) guarantees employment of national minorities at all levels of public service, including State and local administration, which incorporates the police and the judiciary. For further information, please see below: - http://www.wiiw.ac.at/?action=publ&id=details&publ=LMS3_HR (Vienna Institute for International Economic Studies) - http://www.internal-displacement.org/idmc/website/countries.nsf/%28httpEnvelopes%29/68E056DC618EFC35C125713400378E2A?OpenDocument (Internal Displacement) - http://www.dzs.hr/Hrv_Eng/msi/2013/msi-2013_03.pdf (Croatian Bureau of Statistic) Because Croatians like to know their business partners very well there might be some mixing of business with pleasure but try not to over step the boundaries. It is important to avoid: - Mixing confidential and intimate discussion on personal and business level - Personal financial questions - Any subject or question that might show that you have lost respect for them or that may cause them to lose respect for you. - Discussions concerning the political and military history of Yugoslavia, collapse of communism, the war in Bosnia-Herzegovina (1992-5), and anything related to war crimes. - Raising the thumb, index, and middle finger at once, because it is a Serbian gesture and is connected to Serbian nationalism. Do you want to learn more about business culture in Croatia?

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become an editor the entire directory only in Science_and_Environment/Animal_Life Science and Environment Regional: North America: United States: Science and Environment: Animal Life Herping the Trans-Pecos - A pictorial tour of the reptiles and amphibians of the Trans-Pecos and other areas of West Texas. Mammals of Texas - Guide to the 181 species of Texas mammals, based on Davis and Schmidly's classic printed handbook. Richard Moore Outdoors - Richard Moore has spent a lifetime capturing video footage of an assortment of wildlife found across South Texas and Northern Mexico. Richard Moore Outdoors brings this video collection to the. - Mike Quinn's site with extensive links to general entomology and Lepidoptera-specific resources. Texas Freshwater Fishes - Provides images, distribution maps, and abstracts as well as TNHC fish database to search for the species of interest. Texas Horned Lizard Watch - Information about the program and horned lizard resources. Texas Hummingbird Roundup - Includes identifying hummingbirds, the state backyard survey, and other resources. Texas Marine Mammal Stranding Network - Rescues and rehabilitates marine mammals that strand along the State's coast. Provides information on research, education, mammal rescue, rehabilitation, and release. Texas Monarch Watch - Web version of a brochure highlighting migration, life cycle, and other monarch butterfly information. Texas Natural History Collections - Located at the Texas Memorial Museum in Austin. Includes databases, collections, events, and exhibits. Texas Parks and Wildlife Department: Private Lands Management - Information for individuals who are interested in managing natural resources on their property. The Texas Wildlife Association - Formed in 1985 by a group of ranchers and wildlife managers dedicated to the conservation, management, and enhancement of wildlife and habitat on private lands. Texas Wildlife Services - Manages the negative impacts of wildlife. Includes links to publications and overview of programs such as rabies control. - Archives and subscription management for the e-mail group for butterfliers in Texas. - About Texas Parks and Wildlife habitat management activities. Wild Texas: Wildlife Guide - Brief accounts of mammal, reptile, and bird species commonly observed in Texas. " search on: to edit this category. Copyright © 1998-2016 AOL Inc. Visit our sister sites Last update: May 3, 2016 at 16:46:07 UTC -

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With milder and wetter winters and hotter and drier summers forecast for the years ahead due to climate change, the demands on the UK’s water and waste infrastructure are going to only increase. This is especially acute in the capital where changing land use and the demand for more housing will see London grow in population and thus increase its water and sewerage use. The irony is that, while there will be heavier demands on London’s drainage system, the capital will require more water supplies to meet the need. According to statistics contained within a report by the Mayor of London regarding the city’s future needs, consumption of water already outstrips supplies during drier weather. There again, with heavier rainfall in recent years occurring in larger amounts in concentrated bursts and likely to be the case in the future, the drainage system has to cope with high volumes of water in shorter time frames. This is already the case in that most weeks, sewage is being discharged into the River Thames due to the inability of London’s drainage system to cope. The drainage system, constructed in the mid-19th century, still works well but heavier demands as a result of more sudden, heavier rainfalls and the demands of an ever-growing population mean steps have to be taken as it clearly won’t be able to meet the needs of a city with a population of over 8 million and rising. London is already at risk from potential flooding as some 15 per cent of the city is in an official flood risk zone. The Thames Barrier was constructed to combat the threat of tidal flooding, but the risks will only increase with the prospect of larger amounts of rain falling at once. Compared to when they were first constructed, the current drainage has to cope with increased water run-off from hard surfaces due to more building work over the years as London expanded. As a result, land has been covered over that previously absorbed some of the surface water. Steps being taken The Mayor of London has published the London Plan, a report looking at London from all points of view including the economy, its people, transport and more. One section discusses the entire issue of climate change and how it will impact on the capital. Included in this is a section on drainage with proposals regarding managing waste and rainwater to alleviate the pressure on the current drainage system, and retaining as much water as possible to meet higher demand periods. A range of techniques, collectively known as a sustainable urban drainage system (SUDS), are briefly discussed in the report to help meet those objectives: - infiltration – the use of porous surfaces to absorb water. - watercourse – where rainwater is directly discharged into a watercourse. - sewer/drain – discharge rainwater direct to a surface water drain or sewer. There is also a current major project upgrading and adding to the city’s current facilities: Thames Tideway Tunnel and associated upgrades Some work has been completed and more is underway on a huge multi-billion sewerage construction and upgrading project. The Thames Tideway Tunnel will be a 15 mile long tunnel running under the River Thames from west London to Stratford in the east. It offers extra capacity to deal with the current overflow problems when heavy rainfall occurs. As mentioned earlier, this overflow is currently discharged into the Thames as sewage. The tunnel will collect the extra water and sewage instead of it entering the river and transport it to Stratford; from here it will be transferred to the greatly upgraded sewage treatment works in Beckton. Along with Beckton, the capital’s other water treatment plants have been upgraded. These massive upgrades, with the Tideway Tunnel set to be completed in 2023, are expected to help the drainage system meet the capital’s needs well into the 22nd century. One brief look at the basic specification of London’s drainage system shows that, without the upgrades discussed and the use of other water dispersal techniques, they wouldn’t stand much chance of coping with the capital’s future requirements of which the implications of climate change are a major factor. When first constructed, the drainage system’s designer Sir Joseph Bazalgette based usage demands on a population of 4 million. This in itself took into account expansion as the city’s population at that time was 2 million. Now, with a population over twice this and slated to rise, his creation under the streets of London clearly need massive help. The huge Tideway Tunnel project and other measures discussed in the London Plan report hopefully provide it. Fraser Ruthven is the Marketing Associate for London’s leading drainage company- London Drainage Facilities. Fraser feels that people irresponsibly disposing of fats and oils is because an enormous issue that needs to be addressed as soon as possible.

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Jewel Beetles (Buprestidae) are wood-boring Insects with distinctive bright, metallic elytra (wing-cases). They have been used to make traditional Beetle-wing jewelry in parts of Asia and are prized by insect collectors for their bright colouration, but despite this they are not considered to be threatened by man, in fact they are widely held to be serious economic pests, since some species are capable of killing large trees through their activity. Their colours are not caused by pigmentation, but rather by physical iridescence; the microscopic structure of the cuticle preferentially reflects light at specific frequencies; this creates bright, distinctive colours that serve as a warning to predators, the Beetles will swarm when threatened and can deliver a painful bite. This structural colouration allows the Beetles to be preserved in the fossil record with their pigments intact (rare with pigment-based colouration), with colours preserved in Beetles as old as the Jurassic. In a paper published in the journal ZooKeys on 8 November 2012, Eduard Jendek of the Ottawa Plant Laboratory of the Canadian Food Inspection Agency and Maria Lourdes Chamorro of the Systematic Entomology Laboratory of the United States Department of Agriculture and the National Museum of Natural History, describe six new species of Jewel Beetle from Southeast Asia, discovered as part of a wider search for relatives of the Emerald Ash Borer, Agrilus planipennis, an Asian species that has proved to be a highly destructive invasive pest in North America. The first new species is named Agrilus crepuscularis, from the Latin crepusculum, meaning twilight. It is a 10 mm, slender, wedge-shaped, purplish-green Beetle with large, protruding eyes. The species is described from a single male specimen discovered in the Endau Rompin State Park in Malaysia. Agrilus crepuscularis in dorsal (top) and lateral (bottom) views. Jendek & Chamorro (2012). The second new species is named Agrilus pseudolubopetri, meaning false-lubopetri, due to the male of the species' close resemblance to the males of the previously described Agrilus lubopetri. It is a 14-18 mm, slender, wedge-shaped, Beetle with large, non-protruding eyes. The males are greenish in colour, the females purple. The Beetles were found at a number of locations in Laos. Agrilus pseudolubopetri, male (top) and female (bottom). Jendek & Chamorro (2012). The third new species described is named Agrilus sapphirinus, due to its distinctive sapphire colouration. It is a 10.5 mm, slender, wedge-shaped Beetle with large, protruding eyes. The species is named from a single female specimen found in Louang Namtha Province in northern Laos. Agrilus sapphirinus, in dorsal (top) and lateral (bottom) views. Jendek & Chamorro (2012). The fourth new species is named Agrilus seramensis, after Seram Island in Indonesia, where the species was found living. The species is described from seven specimens, all female. It is a 8-11.5 mm, slender, wedge-shaped, green-and-yellow Beetle with large, protruding eyes. Agrilus seramensis, in dorsal (top) and lateral (bottom) views. Jendek & Chamorro (2012). The fifth new species described is named Agrilus spineus, for the spines on the tips of its wing-cases. It is a 9 mm, robust, wedge-shaped green Beetle with large, protruding eyes, described from a single female specimen found in the Bako National Park in Sarawak State in Malaysian Borneo. Agrilus spineus, in dorsal (top) and lateral (bottom) views. Jendek & Chamorro (2012). The final new species described is named Agrilus tomentipennis, meaning 'wooly-hairs on the wingcase'. It is a 14.0-14.3 mm robust, wedge-shaped yellow-green Beetle with large, protruding eyes. The species is named from three female specimens found at different locations in Xieng Khouang Province in Laos. Agrilus tomentipennis, in dorsal view. Jendek & Chamorro (2012). See also A Rove Beetle from the Late Triassic of Virginia, A new species of Blister Beetle from southeast Iran, Two new species of Semiaquatic Rove Beetle from China, New species of Flat Bark Beetle (Cucujidae) from the Calabria Region of Italy and New Ommatid Beetles from the Mesozoic of China. Follow Sciency Thoughts on Facebook.

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