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introduction, France

France, officially the French Republic, [b] is a country located primarily in Western Europe. Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the North Atlantic, the French West Indies, and many islands in Oceania and the Indian Ocean, giving it one of the largest discontiguous exclusive economic zones in the world. Metropolitan France shares borders with Belgium and Luxembourg to the north, Germany to the northeast, Switzerland to the east, Italy and Monaco to the southeast, Andorra and Spain to the south, and a maritime border with the United Kingdom to the northwest. Its metropolitan area extends from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean and from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea. Its eighteen integral regions—five of which are overseas—span a combined area of 643,801 km2 (248,573 sq mi) and have a total population of nearly 68.4 million as of January 2024. France is a semi-presidential republic with its capital in Paris, the country's largest city and main cultural and commercial centre. Metropolitan France was settled during the Iron Age by Celtic tribes known as Gauls before Rome annexed the area in 51 BC, leading to a distinct Gallo-Roman culture. In the Early Middle Ages, the Franks formed the Kingdom of Francia, which became the heartland of the Carolingian Empire. The Treaty of Verdun of 843 partitioned the empire, with West Francia evolving into the Kingdom of France. In the High Middle Ages, France was a powerful but decentralized feudal kingdom, but from the mid-14th to the mid-15th centuries, France was plunged into a dynastic conflict with England known as the Hundred Years' War. In the 16th century, French culture flourished during the French Renaissance and a French colonial empire emerged. Internally, France was dominated by the conflict with the House of Habsburg and the French Wars of Religion between Catholics and Huguenots. France was successful in the Thirty Years' War and further increased its influence during the reign of Louis XIV. The French Revolution of 1789 overthrew the Ancien Régime and produced the Declaration of the Rights of Man, which expresses the nation's ideals to this day. France reached its political and military zenith in the early 19th century under Napoleon Bonaparte, subjugating part of continental Europe and establishing the First French Empire. The collapse of the empire initiated a period of relative decline, in which France endured the Bourbon Restoration until the founding of the French Second Republic which was succeeded by the Second French Empire upon Napoleon III's takeover. His empire collapsed during the Franco-Prussian War in 1870. This led to the establishment of the Third French Republic, and subsequent decades saw a period of economic prosperity and cultural and scientific flourishing known as the Belle Époque. France was one of the major participants of World War I, from which it emerged victorious at great human and economic cost. It was among the Allies of World War II, but it surrendered and was occupied in 1940. Following its liberation in 1944, the short-lived Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the defeat in the Algerian War. The current Fifth Republic was formed in 1958 by Charles de Gaulle. Algeria and most French colonies became independent in the 1960s, with the majority retaining close economic and military ties with France. France retains its centuries-long status as a global centre of art, science, and philosophy. It hosts the fourth-largest number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites and is the world's leading tourist destination, receiving 100 million foreign visitors in 2023. A developed country, France has a high nominal per capita income globally, and its advanced economy ranks among the largest in the world by both nominal GDP and PPP-adjusted GDP. It is a great power, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council and an official nuclear-weapon state. France is a founding and leading member of the European Union and the eurozone, as well as a member of the Group of Seven, NATO, OECD, and Francophonie.

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introduction, New York City

New York, often called New York City [b] or NYC, is the most populous city in the United States, located at the southern tip of New York State on one of the world's largest natural harbors. The city comprises five boroughs, each coextensive with a respective county. The city is the geographical and demographic center of both the Northeast megalopolis and the New York metropolitan area, the largest metropolitan area in the U.S. by both population and urban area. New York is a global center of finance [11] and commerce, culture, technology, [12] entertainment and media, academics and scientific output, [13] the arts and fashion, and, as home to the headquarters of the United Nations, international diplomacy. [14][15][16][17][18] With an estimated population in 2023 of 8,258,035 [5] distributed over 300.46 square miles (778.2 km2), [4] the city is the most densely populated major city in the United States. New York City has more than double the population of Los Angeles, the nation's second-most populous city. [19] With more than 20.1 million people in its metropolitan statistical area [20] and 23.5 million in its combined statistical area as of 2020, New York City is one of the world's most populous megacities. [21] The city and its metropolitan area are the premier gateway for legal immigration to the United States. As many as 800 languages are spoken in New York City, [22] making it the most linguistically diverse city in the world. In 2021, the city was home to nearly 3.1 million residents born outside the U.S., [19] the largest foreign-born population of any city in the world. [23] New York City traces its origins to Fort Amsterdam and a trading post founded on Manhattan Island by Dutch colonists around 1624. The settlement was named New Amsterdam in 1626 and was chartered as a city in 1653. The city came under English control in 1664 and was temporarily renamed New York after King Charles II granted the lands to his brother, the Duke of York, [24] before being permanently renamed New York in November 1674. New York City was the U.S. capital from 1785 until 1790. [25] The modern city was formed by the 1898 consolidation of its five boroughs: Manhattan, Brooklyn, Queens, the Bronx, and Staten Island. Anchored by Wall Street in the Financial District, Manhattan, New York City has been called both the world's premier financial and fintech center [26][27] and the most economically powerful city in the world. [28] As of 2022, the New York metropolitan area is the largest metropolitan economy in the world, with a gross metropolitan product of over US$2.16 trillion. [9] If the New York metropolitan area were its own country, it would have the tenth-largest economy in the world. Despite having a 24/7 rapid transit system, New York also leads the world in urban automobile traffic congestion. [29] The city is home to the world's two largest stock exchanges by market capitalization of their listed companies: the New York Stock Exchange and Nasdaq. New York City is an established safe haven for global investors. [30] As of 2023, New York City is the most expensive city in the world for expatriates [31] and has by a wide margin the highest U.S. city residential rents; [32] and Fifth Avenue is the most expensive shopping street in the world. [33] New York City is home by a significant margin to the highest number of billionaires, [34] individuals of ultra-high net worth (greater than US$30 million), [35] and millionaires of any city in the world. [36]

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Early life and education, Donald Trump

Trump was born on June 14, 1946, at Jamaica Hospital in Queens, New York City, the fourth child of Fred Trump and Mary Anne MacLeod Trump.[1] He is of German and Scottish descent.[2] He grew up with his older siblings, Maryanne, Fred Jr., and Elizabeth, and his younger brother, Robert, in a mansion in the Jamaica Estates neighborhood of Queens.[3] Trump attended the private college-preparatory Kew-Forest School through seventh grade.[4] He was a difficult child and showed an early interest in his father's business.[5] His father enrolled him in New York Military Academy, a private boarding school, to complete secondary school;[6] he learned to excel in a strict regimen.[7] In 1964, Trump enrolled at Fordham University. Two years later, he transferred to the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania,[8] graduating in May 1968 with a Bachelor of Science in economics.[9] He was exempted from the draft during the Vietnam War due to bone spurs in his heels.[10] In 2015, he threatened his high school, colleges, and the College Board with legal action if they released his academic records.

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Etymology, Tokyo

Tokyo was originally known as Edo (江戸), a kanji compound of 江 (e, "cove, inlet") and 戸 (to, "entrance, gate, door").[25] The name, which can be translated as "estuary", is a reference to the original settlement's location at the meeting of the Sumida River and Tokyo Bay. During the Meiji Restoration in 1868, the name of the city was changed to Tokyo (東京, from 東 tō "east", and 京 kyō "capital"), when it became the new imperial capital,[26] in line with the East Asian tradition of including the word capital (京) in the name of the capital city (for example, Kyoto (京都), Keijō (京城), Beijing (北京), Nanjing (南京), and Xijing (西京)).[25] During the early Meiji period, the city was sometimes called "Tōkei", an alternative pronunciation for the same characters representing "Tokyo", making it a kanji homograph. Some surviving official English documents use the spelling "Tokei";[27] however, this pronunciation is now obsolete.

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Early history (1147–1284), History, Moscow

Further information: Kievan Rus' and Vladimir-Suzdal The first known reference to Moscow was in 1147, as a meeting place of Yuri Dolgorukiy and Sviatoslav Olgovich. At the time it was a minor town on the western border of Vladimir-Suzdal Principality.[38] In 1156, Dolgorukiy fortified the town by creating a wooden wall; this structure became the Kremlin.[39] In the course of the Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus', the Mongols under Batu Khan burned the city to the ground and killed its inhabitants. The timber fort na Moskvě "on the Moscow River" was inherited by Daniel, the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky, in the 1260s. Daniel was still a child at the time, and the large fort was governed by tiuns (deputies), appointed by Daniel's paternal uncle, Yaroslav of Tver.[citation needed] Daniel came of age in the 1270s and became involved in the power struggles of the principality with lasting success, siding with his brother Dmitry in his bid for the rule of Novgorod. From 1283 he acted as the ruler of an independent principality alongside Dmitry, who became Grand Duke of Vladimir. Daniel has been credited with founding the first Moscow monasteries, dedicated to the Lord's Epiphany and to Saint Daniel.

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Climate, Geography and climate, Hastings

As with the rest of the British Isles and Southern England, Hastings experiences a maritime climate with mild summers and mild winters. In terms of the local climate, Hastings is on the eastern edge of what is, on average, the sunniest part of the UK, the stretch of coast from the Isle of Wight southeastern coast Sandown Bay to the Hastings area. Hastings, tied with Eastbourne, recorded the highest duration of sunshine of any month anywhere in the United Kingdom – 384 hours – in July 1911.[26] Temperature extremes since 1960 at Hastings have ranged from 34.7 °C (94.5 °F) in July 2022,[27] down to −9.8 °C (14.4 °F) in January 1987.[28] The Köppen climate classification subtype for this climate is "Cfb" (Marine West Coast Climate/Oceanic climate).

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Art and architecture, Culture, Japan

The history of Japanese painting exhibits synthesis and competition between native Japanese esthetics and imported ideas.[300] The interaction between Japanese and European art has been significant: for example ukiyo-e prints, which began to be exported in the 19th century in the movement known as Japonism, had a significant influence on the development of modern art in the West, most notably on post-Impressionism. Japanese architecture is a combination of local and other influences. It has traditionally been typified by wooden or mud plaster structures, elevated slightly off the ground, with tiled or thatched roofs.[301] Traditional housing and many temple buildings see the use of tatami mats and sliding doors that break down the distinction between rooms and indoor and outdoor space.[302] Since the 19th century, Japan has incorporated much of Western modern architecture into construction and design.[303] It was not until after World War II that Japanese architects made an impression on the international scene, firstly with the work of architects like Kenzō Tange and then with movements like Metabolism.

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Introduction, Equestria

Equestria, officially The Kingdom of Equestria, is a Country located in the Island of Equus in the Equator It is Bordered by the Crystal Empire in the north, Zhasfoqnof in the northwest and Severnaia on the Northeast, it also borders Imperium to the east due to Asfaleia. Equestria has a total land of 220,777 km² (85,242 sq mi) and an estimated population of 59.4 million. Its capital is Canterlot and its largest city is Manehattan and is known for its diverse population of three intelligent equine creatures: Earth ponies, Unicorns, and Pegasi, giving it the soubriquet "land of talking horses". The current government Equestria runs on is an Alicornic Parliamentary Monarchy. The first princess, A. Caelestiae, held the throne for 164, originally made Equestria an absolute monarchy. but in 1869 a few years after the co-princess at the time, Augusta Minor Lunae, attempted to rebel against her sister Augusta Maior Celestiae, who ruled Equestria for 225 years. The rebellion's failure led to significant political reforms designed to prevent unchecked royal authority. Following the failed rebelion, Equestria entered a period of political instability. Discontent over the monarchy's authority sparked a series of regional uprisings aimed at dismantling the royal structure altogether. These movements were normally supressed, but A. Caelestiae introduced a parliamentary assembly, tasked with balancing the influence of the alicorn rulers. The Head of Parliament serves as the head of government, responsible for overseeing legislative affairs and executive decisions, while the reigning alicorn princess acts as the nation's figurehead. However, unlike a traditional constitutional monarchy, the princess retains limited autonomous authority, enabling her to enact laws or policies directly in circumstances deemed critical to the nation's stability.