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Holbrook, P. J. (affirming in part, reversing in part). This Court finds that MCLA 257.625a(l); MSA 9.2325(1)(1), as amended, applies only to charges of driving while under the influence of intoxicating liquor or driving while impaired. The testing procedure and the delineation of the right of refusal or consent relates only to those crimes. As such, consent to testing for blood alcohol content is irrelevant under charges for other crimes. As to crimes other than DUIL or driving while impaired, there are reasons separate and distinct from the statute which allow the taking of intoxication tests and the admission of their results.* In Breithaupt v Abram, 352 US 432; 77 S Ct 408; 1 L Ed 2d 448 (1957), the Supreme Court determined that a blood test taken from an unconscious defendant (charged with involuntary manslaughter) was not a denial of due process of law and was not shocking to the conscience or brutal as was the stomach pumping procedure used in Rochin v California, 342 US 165; 72 S Ct 205; 96 L Ed 183; 25 ALR2d 1396 (1952). In Breithaupt, Mr. Justice Clark wrote: "To be sure, the driver here was unconscious when the blood was taken, but the absence of conscious consent, without more, does not necessarily render the taking a violation of a constitutional right; and certainly the test as administered here would not be considered offensive by even the most delicate.” 352 US 432, 435, 436; 77 S Ct 408, 410; 1 L Ed 2d 448, 451. In Schmerber v California, 384 US 757; 86 S Ct 1826; 16 L Ed 2d 908 (1966), a blood sample had been withdrawn from the defendant over his objection. Before the Supreme Court, he contended that the withdrawal of the blood and the admission of the analysis in evidence denied him due process of law, was against the privilege of self-incrimination, that he was denied his US Const, Am VI right to assistance of counsel, and that the evidence was the product of an unlawful search and seizure. All of these claims were dismissed in the opinion of Mr. Justice Brennan. We find that the result of the Breathalyzer test is admissible. "Whether any one of various constitutional guaranties is violated by the taking of bodily fluids or materials for analysis or comparison, has, for the most part, been dependent upon the degree of offense to conscience or sense of justice represented, in the circumstances, by the procedure followed. All of the cases expressly or impliedly assume that the kind of evidence obtained by such procedures cannot in its nature be self-incriminatory in the sense that a verbal declaration can be.” Anno: Physical Examination or Exhibition of, or Tests Upon, Suspect or Accused, as Violating Rights Guaranteed by Federal Constitution — Federal Cases, 16 L Ed 2d 1332, 1338. The procedure used in the present case is commonly recognized and cannot be said to be an offense against conscience or senses of justice. In State v Driver, 59 Wis 2d 35; 207 NW2d 850 (1973), the defendant conceded that he could have been compelled to take a blood test but argued that the use of a Breathalyzer was impermissible as that test required him to actively participate by blowing into the apparatus. The Supreme Court of Wisconsin wrote: "As in Schmerber, the results of the test are not based on any: " '[Testimonial capacities * * * ; indeed, his participation, except as a donor, was irrelevant to the results of the test, which depend on chemical analysis and on that alone.’ (384 US 765; 86 S Ct 1832; 16 L Ed 2d 916.) "While the breathalyzer test is expedited by the volitional expulsion of a large quantity of inhaled breath, the results of that test will not be colored, as might a testimonial utterance, by coercion or psychological pressures. As was well said by the lyricist of Lerner and Loewe’s, 'My Fair Lady,’ respiration is typified as, ' * * * second nature to me now. Like breathing out and breathing in.’ ” 59 Wis 2d 41; 207 NW2d 852. In People v Gebarowski, 47 Mich App 379, 383-384; 209 NW2d 543, 545 (1973), this Court stated: "Defendant has no right to refuse to take a breathalyzer test. That is, the state can compel the giving of a breathalyzer test without the benefit of any alternative procedure. "In Schmerber v California, 384 US 757, 761, 765; 86 S Ct 1826, 1831-1833; 16 L Ed 2d 908, 914, 916-917 (1966), the Supreme Court stated: " 'It could not be denied that in requiring petitioner to submit to the withdrawal and chemical analysis of his blood the state compelled him to submit to an attempt to discover evidence that might be used to prosecute him for a criminal offense. He submitted only after the police officer rejected his objection and directed the physician to proceed. The officer’s direction to the physician to administer the test over petitioner’s objection constituted compulsion for the purposes of the privilege. The critical question, then, is whether petitioner was thus compelled "to be a witness against himself.” " 'In the present case, however, no such problem of application is presented. Not even a shadow of testimonial compulsion upon or enforced communication by the accused was involved either in the extraction or in the chemical analysis. Petitioner’s testimonial capacities were in no way implicated; indeed, his participation, except as a donor, was irrelevant to the results of the test, which depend on chemical analysis and on that alone. Since the blood test evidence, although an incriminating product of compulsion, was neither petitioner’s testimony nor evidence relating to some communicative act or writing by the petitioner, it was not inadmissible on privilege grounds.’ "Clearly, a defendant can be compelled or coerced into submitting to a breathalyzer test without violating his Fifth Amendment right against self-incrimination.” Thus, notwithstanding an individual’s consent or lack thereof, it would appear that a Breathalyzer test, like a blood test, could be compelled without derogation of constitutional rights and should be admissible. The South Dakota case of State v Spry, — SD —; 207 NW2d 504 (1973), is informative. In that case the defendant was tried and found guilty by a jury of second-degree manslaughter. The defendant had been involved in a head-on collision which resulted in the death of two persons. The defendant was visited about an hour and a half after the accident by two police officers at the hospital. The defendant was placed under arrest for driving while, intoxicated, after an officer detected alcohol on his breath. A blood sample, to which defendant consented, was taken. On appeal, defendant contended, inter alia, that the trial court erred in denying his motion to suppress the results of the blood test. "It appears that after the defendant was placed under arrest for driving while intoxicated, the arresting officer asked permission of him to have the blood sample withdrawn. The defendant was advised that he had the right to refuse to submit to the test and that he could lose his driver’s license for a year if he so refused. The defendant was not advised that the driver of the other car had died as a result of the accident, although it is undisputed that the police officer was aware of that fact.” — SD —; 207 NW2d at 507. On this basis the defendant argued that the failure of the police officer to inform him of a person’s death invalidated any consent given to submit to a blood test and that without consent thereto, the test results were inadmissible. This contention the Court dismissed relying upon SDCL 32-23-10, which is comparable to MCLA 257.625a(4); MSA 9.2326(1X4) and MCLA 257.625d; MSA 9.2325(4). The Court said further: "We are not concerned with the question of 'implied consent’. Spry gave an actual consent. State v Werlinger, 84 SD 282; 170 NW2d 470 (1969). "Aside from all that, however, we hold that a defendant’s consent or refusal is irrelevant to the admission of the results of the blood test if the test is taken pursuant to a valid arrest. Cf. Schmerber v California, 384 US 757; 86 S Ct 1826; 16 L Ed 2d 908 (1966). Holland v Parker, 354 F Supp 196 (D DC, 1973).” — SD —; 207 NW2d at 508. We find that evidence of the analysis in the instant case is properly admissible as there was probable cause for arrest. "It is time to realize that mere drunkenness, however 'sinful,’ warrants no criminal punishment unless it manifests or results in dangerous threats to public safety. "With the acceptance of alcoholism as a disease which requires treatment rather than punishment, there is a growing tendency to consider drunkenness as a medical problem. However, since the emphasis of the law is on the dangerousness of the drunkenness offender as well as his condition under the influence of intoxicating liquors, the problem is essentially a social one which represents conflicts between society and the individual. Medical science, of course, has much to offer in the improvement of the law and its administration. However, the point is to establish a sound basis upon which medicine and the law can work harmoniously in the framework of the present legal system. Therefore, while endeavors are needed to explore the possibilities and methods of treating the recognized alcoholic, the court must continue to play the value weighing function of balancing the risks to individual liberty and public safety.” Tao, Drunkenness and Criminal Law, 13 Wayne L Rev 530, 548 (1967). In balancing risks to individual liberty and the needs of public safety, it is our opinion that the admission of the Breathalyzer test results on blood alcohol content into evidence is legally proper and societally necessary. Furthermore, the subject test results are the best evidence of intoxication, which evidence may benefit the defendant as well as the prosecution. We rule that the cases of People v Jackson, 391 Mich 323; 217 NW2d 22 (1974), and People v Renno, 392 Mich 45; 219 NW2d 422 (1974), are applicable to the present case. As this is an interlocutory appeal, we are not faced with the question of retroactivity of these two cases. The trial court will be governed by these two cases concerning the admissibility of defendant’s convictions on other charges solely for impeachment purposes. We affirm the trial court’s decision concerning the admissibility of the Breathalyzer test in accord. with this opinion; we reverse as to the ruling on admissibility of defendant’s convictions on other charges solely for impeachment purposes. R. L. Smith, J., concurred. T. M. Burns, J. (for reversal). This is an interlocutory appeal granted by this Court on October 22, 1973. Defendant has been charged with the crime of manslaughter* as the result of ah automobile accident that occurred on March 10, 1973. The crash occurred on M-51, one-tenth mile south of M-62 in Pokagon Township, Cass County, Michigan. It is alleged that the defendant was under the influence of intoxicating liquor and did unlawfully operate his motor vehicle in the wrong southbound lane of M-51, resulting in the death of one Harry Moore. Immediately after the accident, defendant, being injured, was taken to Lee Memorial Hospital. At the hospital, officers placed defendant under arrest for driving while under the influence and requested that he take a breath test to determine his blood-alcohol content. Before making a decision in this matter, defendant asked for the advice of his attorney. The attorney arrived and was informed that the defendant was arrested for driving while under the influence and that the sheriffs department had requested defendant to take a breath test. After consulting with counsel, defendant consented to take the breath test. At the preliminary examination held on May 17, 1973, the deputy who had administered the test testified that the result showed a .14 percent blood-alcohol content. The defendant, age 25, has had four lifetime driving offenses, three in 1966 and one in 1969; he was also involved in an accident in 1966 and two more accidents in 1969. In addition, he was convicted of drunk and disorderly twice in 1971. He has no other criminal record. On August 3, 1973, defendant moved to suppress the results of the breath test. On August 17, 1973, defendant also moved in limine to suppress evidence or cross-examination with respect to defendant’s driving record and cross-examine of defendant with respect to alcohol in past offenses, all of which were misdemeanors. On August 20, 1973, the trial court denied both motions. Defendant first argues that the results of a Breathalyzer test cannot be admitted into evidence against him in this criminal prosecution for manslaughter. Defendant contends that MCLA 257.625(a); MSA 9.2325(1) clearly restricts the results of a Breathalyzer test to use in prosecutions for driving while under the influence of intoxicating liquors, MCLA 257.625; MSA 9.2325, hereinafter referred to as DUIL, or driving while impaired, MCLA 257.625(b); MSA 9.2325(2), hereinafter referred to as DI. Prior to 1967, MCLA 257.625(a)(1); MSA 9.2325(1)(1) read in pertinent part as follows: "In any criminal prosecution relating to driving a vehicle while under the influence of intoxicating liquor, the amount of alcohol in such person’s blood at the time alleged as shown by chemical analysis of the person’s blood, urine, breath or other bodily substance, shall be admissible and shall give rise to the following presumptions * * * .” (Emphasis added.) 1967 PA 253, approved July 19, 1967, amended MCLA 257.625(a)(1); MSA 9.2325(1)(1) to read as follows: "In any criminal prosecution ifor driving a vehicle while under the influence of intoxicating liquor, the amount of alcohol in such person’s blood at the time alleged as shown by chemical analysis of the person’s blood, urine, breath or saliva shall be admissible into evidence and shall give rise to the following presumptions * * * .” (Emphasis added.) Plaintiff contends that the instant case is controlled by People v Holmes, 2 Mich App 283; 139 NW2d 771 (1966), where the results of a Breathalyzer test were admitted into evidence in a trial for manslaughter. However, I do not consider Holmes controlling for two reasons. First, the question of the admissibility of the Breathalyzer test was neither raised nor decided by the Court. Second, the decision in Holmes was handed down in 1966, prior to the time the statute in question was altered by amendment. In my independent research, I have been unable to discover any other Michigan authority besides Holmes which allowed Breathalyzer tests into evidence in other than DUIL or DI prosecutions. Indeed, on several occasions, this Court has expressly declined to consider the question of the Breathalyzer’s admissibility in other proceedings. In its opinion, the trial court took the position that the presumption set forth in the statute could not be charged to the jury in some crime other than DUIL, but that the results of the chemical tests were admissible in prosecutions for crimes other than DUIL. In support of its position, the trial court cited and relied on People v Manning, 7 AD2d 1008; 184 NYS2d 240 (1959). However, the Breathalyzer statute in that jurisdiction differs somewhat from our statute as amended, and I feel that under these circumstances, the decision of an intermediate court of another jurisdiction will be of little help in deciding the present case. Where a statute’s meaning is ambiguous, appellate courts must search for and give effect to the intent expressed by the Legislature in its enactment of the law. People v McFarlin, 389 Mich 557, 564; 208 NW2d 504 (1973). To this end, various principles of construction have been formulated by the courts: first, penal statutes are generally to be strictly construed in favor of the defendant; second, the Legislature is presumed to know the construction placed on statutes by courts; third, "[w]e feel that the better policy is that in construing an amendment to a statute a court should ascertain and give effect to the intention of the Legislature and in doing so a change in phraseology from that of the act as it stood before amendment raises a presumption that a change of meaning was also intended. Lawrence Baking Co v Unemployment Compensation Commission, 308 Mich 198; 13 NW2d 260 (1944); Bonifas-Gorman Lumber Co v Unemployment Compensation Commission, 313 Mich 363; 21 NW2d 163 (1946)”. Michigan Transportation Co v Secretary of State, 41 Mich App 654, 665; 201 NW2d 83 (1972). Applying the principles enunciated above to the statute in question, I am convinced that MCLA 257.625(a); MSA 9.2325(1) applies only to criminal prosecutions for DUIL or DI. In my opinion, it is quite clear that the Legislature intended, through the enactment of the 1967 amendment changing the wording of the statute from "relating to” DUIL to "for” DUIL, that the admissibility of Breathalyzer tests and the corresponding statutory presumptions be limited to drunk-driving cases. It is my opinion that the Legislature felt its intent violated by Holmes and, therefore, altered the statute in 1967 to remedy the situation. My opinion is further reinforced by another provision of the statute. Section 3 of MCLA 257.625(a); MSA 9.2325(1) provides that:_ "A person charged with driving a vehicle while under the influence of intoxicating liquor who takes a chemical test administered at the request of a police officer as provided in paragraph (1) and (2) hereof, shall be informed that he will be given a reasonable opportunity to have a person of his own choosing administer one of the chemical tests as provided in this section within a reasonable time after his detention, and the results of such test shall be admissible and shall be considered with other competent evidence in determining the innocence or guilt of the defendant. Any person charged with driving a vehicle while under the influence of intoxicating liquor shall be informed that he has the right to demand that one of the tests provided for in paragraph (1) shall be given him, and the results of such test shall be admissible and shall be considered with other competent evidence in determining the innocence or guilt of the defendant.” (Emphasis added.) Thus, it is clear that the entire statutory scheme is aimed solely at DUIL and DI prosecutions, and not prosecutions for manslaughter. It is my opinion, therefore, that neither Breathalyzer tests results nor the statutory presumptions arising from those results are admissible into evidence in a prosecution for manslaughter. Having resolved the issue in defendant’s favor, it is not necessary to consider the waiver question raised by the defendant. Defendant’s second and final contention is that the trial court abused its discretion in holding as admissible for impeachment purposes defendant’s past driving record and prior misdemeanor convictions. In People v Jackson, 391 Mich 323; 217 NW2d 22 (1974), our Supreme Court made it clear that a change in regard to our rule on impeachment by conviction was on the horizon. Several members of the Court expressed their opinions regarding the appropriateness of permitting the impeachment of a defendant by use of his prior convictions. While the method of preventing such use varied among the justices, the increasing judicial concern over the improper use of convictions as impeachment evidence was apparent. It did not take our Supreme Court very long to take the first step in eliminating the use of prior convictions to attack a defendant’s credibility. In People v Renno, 392 Mich 45, 55; 219 NW2d 422 (1974), a decision handed down only two months after Jackson was decided, the Supreme Court struck its first blow towards totally abolishing the use of prior convictions for impeachment purposes, when it stated: "We do not hesitate in this case to prohibit the further use of municipal ordinance or misdemeanor convictions used by the prosecution solely for impeachment purposes. This type of conviction was never intended by our Legislature to fall within the confines of MCLA 600.2158; MSA 27A.2158, or MCLA 600.2159; MSA 27A.2159. This is affirmatively shown by the legislative history of these statutes. It is time that this Court brings our current interpretation of these statutes back in line with their original purposes.” In accordance with Renno, I would now hold that defendant’s past driving record and prior misdemeanor convictions may not be used by the prosecution solely for impeachment purposes. I would do so without labelling the trial court’s action an abuse of discretion since the trial court passed its judgment without the benefit of the rule recently laid down in Renno. I would, therefore, vote to reverse and remand for further proceedings consistent with this opinion. See, generally, 7 Am Jur 2d, Automobiles and Highway Traffic, §338, p 884; McCormick, Evidence (2d ed), §209, pp 511-513; 8 Wigmore on Evidence, § 2265, pp 391-394 (McNaughton rev, 1961). As early as 1942 it was commonly accepted that the furnishing of samples of body fluids or substances for analysis did not derogate the privilege against self-incrimination. Model Code of Evidence rule 205 (1942). On the basis that there is no testimonial compulsion, inter alia, other types of evidence have been held to be admissible. See United States v Wade, 388 US 218; 87 S Ct 1926; 18 L Ed 2d 1149 (1967); Gilbert v California, 388 US 263; 87 S Ct 1951; 18 L Ed 2d 1178 (1967); United States v Dionisio, 410 US 1; 93 S Ct 764; 35 L Ed 2d 67 (1973); and Cupp v Murphy, 412 US 291; 93 S a 2000, 36 L Ed 2d 900 (1973). Supplemented by Anno, 22 L Ed 2d 909. Cf. McCormick, Evidence (2d ed), § 209, p 512, wherein it is stated that: "The breath test has the advantage of convenience. It does not require a physician or medical technician to extract a sample, as does the blood test. It may be administered by a trained policeman. Moreover, it is least Ukely to arouse objection, and thus to raise doubtful questions of privilege.” And 7 Am Jur 2d, ante, § 332, p 875. Prior to the enactment of 1964 PA 104 which extended the provi sion to the chemical analysis of urine, breath, or other bodily substances in addition to chemical analysis of an individual’s blood, People v Miller, 357 Mich 400; 98 NW2d 524 (1959), held that urinalysis as a test for evidence of intoxication was properly admissible. Cf. Selzer, Psychiatry for Lawyers Handbook, ch 2, pp 42-85 (4th ed, 1967). MCLA 750.321; MSA 28.553. See Dennis v Jakeway, 53 Mich App 68, 75; 218 NW2d 389 (1974); Rose v Paper Mills Trucking Co, 47 Mich App 1, 6; 209 NW2d 305 (1973); O’Loughlin v Detroit & Mackinac Railway Co, 22 Mich App 146, 150; 177 NW2d 430 (1970); Gard v Michigan Produce Haulers, 20 Mich App 402; 174 NW2d 73 (1969). Jads, Inc v Detroit, 41 Mich App 693, 696; 200 NW2d 715 (1972); People v Kirstein, 6 Mich App 107; 148 NW2d 539 (1967); People v Brown Brothers Equipment Co, Inc, 3 Mich App 618; 143 NW2d 155 (1966) aff'd 379 Mich 363; 151 NW2d 824 (1967). Ray v Transamerica Insurance Co, 46 Mich App 647, 652; 208 NW2d 610 (1973), and cases cited therein. Justice Swainson and Chief Justice T. M. Kavanagh were of the opinion that the Court should decisionally adopt a rule barring the impeachment of the credibility of a criminal defendant through the use of his prior convictions in all cases where the defendant does not introduce evidence to affirmatively support his credibility. Justices T. G. Kavanagh and Levin agreed that a witness’s past conviction record should not be held admissible for the purpose of impeaching his credibility but felt that such change should be effected by promulgating a court rule which would give the bench and bar a chance to accommodate to this prospective change in procedure. Justice Williams said that with the exception of conviction for perjury or some like crime, there is no reason to introduce a defendant’s past conviction record for the purpose of impeaching his credibility.
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O’Hara, J. This is Piercefield v Remington Arms Co, Inc, 375 Mich 85; 133 NW2d 129 (1965); and Bronson v J.L. Hudson Co, 376 Mich 98; 135 NW2d 388 (1965), revisited.* Plaintiff is an airplane owner and a licensed pilot. He bought a new motor for his aircraft from defendant. It malfunctioned in flight, crashed and was a total loss. The owner-pilot survived. The plane was insured for $13,000 by plaintiff-insurer with a $300 deductible clause. The insurer sued for the loss it paid. The owner originally only sued for his deductible amount and unspecified consequential damages. After the crash one Maurice McCubbin, a licensed aircraft engineer and an agent for the insurer, examined the wreckage. In a deposition, read to the jury without objection to so doing, he concluded that the crash was caused in his opinion by "a faulty piston which disintegrated and oil starved the whole motor”. He further concluded in his deposition — and thus for our decisional purposes testified — that the failure could have been due to the failure of the piston skirt, the piston pin, or that the exhaust valve could have caused or contributed to the failure. It is undisputed that the engine had been operated for 179.8 flying hours since installation and 21.6 flying hours since its last inspection. The record neither contains evidence of nor suggests abuse of the plane, stunting nor any weather conditions which were causally connected with the crash. It is further of record that the piston which failed was not the one designed for that particular block. Defendant moved for a directed verdict. The trial court granted it. In granting the motion the trial court held in part: "There is no testimony that a piston had not been changed someplace subsequent to the time the new engine was put in the hull of this plane. Now, it is apparent there were certain other persons who had inspected and had control of this particular aircraft— the last inspection having been made with an oil change some 21 hours, 21.6 hours before the problem arose. The aircraft had flown 179.8 tachometer hours before the so-called difficulty, or this engine stopped turning.” These may very well have been legitimate defenses of fact. They are not controlling defenses of law, mandating or supporting a directed verdict for defendant. Where competent, admissible evidence not inherently incredible nor completely discredited on cross-examination creates a reasonable inference of negligence or breach of implied warranty, it is for the trier of the facts to accept or reject it. Jordan v Whiting Corp (On rehearing), 49 Mich App 481; 212 NW2d 324 (1973), lv granted 391 Mich 771 (1974). The motion was improperly granted. The order granting it is vacated and the cause remanded for a new trial. Other questions are raised on appeal. They are likely to arise again if the case is retried. Upon the truncated record and for lack of specificity we cannot decide them. We mention them so that the parties may well be aware that we considered them. They are inter alia the amendments to the complaint asserting damages other than the $300 deductible figure; the viability of a claim for loss of profits under an alleged contract involving the use of the plane; possible mitigation of damages; the possible involvement of the statute of frauds, the statute of limitations and procedural rulings on claimed violation of court rules relating to amendments and failure to comply with the rules relating to interrogatories. These we leave to reconsideration of the learned trial judge in the event of a new trial. For the reasons herein specified we reverse and remand with the grant of a new trial. Costs to the plaintiffs. All concurred. The authoring judge on this panel lias good reason to realize that the majority holding in those cases is the settled law of this State.
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McGregor, P. J. On July 17, 1973, the trial court rendered a judgment in this case invalidating a resolution of the Pontiac City Commission which ordered the vacation of an alley running behind plaintiffs’ business premises. The trial court’s judgment was based on a finding that the resolution was constitutionally infirm because it deprived plaintiffs of a substantial property right without due process of law or just compensation. Defendant city appeals as of right. Plaintiffs are the owners of two adjoining lots in a subdivision fronting on Woodward Avenue in the City of Pontiac. Each of the lots is 20 feet wide and 90 feet deep, and a single building, approximately 40 feet by 40 feet, occupies the front portion of both lots and houses plaintiffs’ tool supply business. At the rear of the property an alley 20 feet wide and 1 block long runs parallel to Woodward Avenue and connects Nebraska Avenue on the south with Earlmoor Boulevard on the north. On May 14, 1971, the City of Pontiac received a petition seeking the vacation of the alley in question. The petition was signed by the Superintendent of Operations and Equipment in the City’s Department of Public Works. In the petition it was alleged that the closing of the alley would free the DPW of the need to clean and maintain the alley and would deprive the criminal element of a convenient and frequently used refuge from the minions of the law. Public hearings on the petition were held by both the City Commission and the City Planning Commission. During the course of those hearings, plaintiffs appeared and objected to the proposed closing of the alley. Thereafter, on August 31, 1971, the City Commission adopted a resolution vacating the alley. On December 4, 1971, plaintiffs instituted this action in Oakland County Circuit Court, seeking a judgment setting aside the resolution. On June 20, 1973, a motion by plaintiffs for summary judgment was denied by the trial court because there existed one question of fact, specifically, whether plaintiffs’ property was damaged by the vacation of the alley. All parties agreed that the outcome of the case depended upon the answer to this question and that expert appraisal testimony would be adduced at trial on this point. Although plaintiffs were prepared to produce such testimony at that time, the defendant city sought and obtained further time to procure expert testimony on the issue. Trial was set for July 17,1973. At trial, plaintiffs introduced expert testimony in support of their assertion that the closing of the alley adversely affected the value of their land. Defendant city, however, failed to produce an expert witness to rebut plaintiffs’ proofs and, in fact, offered no evidence at all on the point. At the conclusion of trial, the court ruled in plaintiffs’ favor and set aside the vacation of the alley. At the same time, the court ordered defendant city to pay plaintiffs’ appraiser’s fee in the amount of $1,000. Thereafter, plaintiffs moved for allowance of attorney’s fees and costs; the city filed a response and the motion was argued before the trial court on August 1, 1973. After hearing opposing arguments, the court entered an order awarding plaintiffs attorney fees of $4,100 and costs in the amount of $256.52. From the foregoing judgment and award of costs and attorney’s fees, defendant city appeals as of right. The first issue before us is whether the trial court erred in setting aside the resolution vacating the alley on the ground that it deprived plaintiffs of a substantial property right without due process of law or just compensation. Although a number of Michigan cases have asserted that municipal action vacating an alley or highway is legislative in nature and judicially reviewable only for fraud, collusion or abuse of discretion, Phelps v Stott Realty Co, 233 Mich 486; 207 NW 2 (1926); Kader v City of Clawson, 7 Mich App 380; 151 NW2d 844 (1967), it has long been recognized that such action may also be constitutionally objectionable as a taking of private property without due process or just compensation. Tomazewski v Palmer Bee Co, 223 Mich 565; 194 NW 571 (1923); Roberts v Detroit, 241 Mich 71; 216 NW 410 (1927). The law to be applied in determining the merits of such a constitutional challenge was succinctly stated in Roberts v Detroit, supra, pp 77-78: "From a review of the above and other authorities the controlling element seems to be this: If the vacating or changing is of such a character that it deprives any abutting owner of a substantial right appurtenant to his property, resort must be had to due process of law incident to the exercise of eminent domain; but if it clearly appears that the proposed change in vacating a portion of an alley is to be brought about in such a manner that it does not deprive an owner of any substantial right appurtenant to his property, such change can be made as a matter of right by the municipality, because the control of the streets and alleys is vested in the municipality by the Constitution, and, in this instance, also by the city charter.” (Emphasis supplied.) This statement of the law is supported by, and echoed in 16A CJS, Constitutional Law, § 646(6), p 939, where it is noted: "[I]f the vacating or changing of a street, highway, or alley is of such a character that it deprives any abutting owner of a substantial right appurtenant to his property, resort must be had to due process of law incident to the exercise of eminent domain, and he must be given notice and an opportunity to be heard. If, however, it clearly appears that the proposed change in vacating a portion of an alley or street is to be brought about in such a manner that it does not deprive an owner of any substantial right appurtenant to his property, such change can be made as a matter of right by the municipality because of its control of streets and alleys.” (Emphasis supplied.) The question of when municipal action vacating an alley deprives an objecting property owner of a "substantial right” so as to require resort to eminent domain proceedings is necessarily sui generis and can only be properly answered on a case-by-case basis. However, prior decisions of our Supreme Court indicate that where such action deprives an abutting property owner of ingress to and egress from a portion of his land, the municipality must act with "a proper regard for the constitutional provision respecting the taking of private property”. Horton v Williams, 99 Mich 423, 429; 58 NW 369 (1894); Burton v Freund, 243 Mich 679; 220 NW 672 (1928); Cf. Schmolt v Nagel, 151 Mich 502; 115 NW 411 (1908). In the present case, the trial court found "that there was evidence of uses of said alley by plaintiffsf;] that the vacation of said alley prevents plaintiffs from ingress or egress to the rear portion of their said property” and "that the vacation of said alley by defendant City of Pontiac caused a material diminution in the value of plaintiffs’ property”. These findings of fact are based upon competent, though at times vigorously disputed, testimony. We cannot say with any assurance that we would have reached a different result had we been in the trial court’s position. Accordingly, his findings in this respect, which support the conclusion that plaintiffs were deprived of a substantial property right, will not be disturbed. Kirby Terminal Co v Detroit, 339 Mich 155; 63 NW2d 601 (1954). The trial court’s judgment, that the resolution vacating the alley denied plaintiffs due process of law, is therefore affirmed. The remaining issue is whether the trial court erred in assessing costs and attorney fees against the city. It will be recalled that during the hearing on plaintiffs’ motion for summary judgment, the court and parties agreed that the only issue to be tried was whether the value of plaintiffs’ land was adversely affected by the closing of the alley and that each party would present expert testimony to assist the court in resolving this question. Although plaintiffs secured the testimony of two such expert witnesses, defendant city produced none. Because of defendant city’s failure to produce expert testimony, as agreed, it was the position of the trial court that the plaintiffs were unnecessarily put to the task of preparing a proof which defendant city effectively admitted at trial by failing to go forward with any opposing proofs. This, thought the trial court, could lead to the conclusion that the city’s denials were made without any factual basis, were unreasonable, and therefore, should not have been made. Accordingly, the trial court awarded plaintiffs costs and attorney’s fees, pursuant to GCR 1963, 111.6, which provides: "If it appears at the trial that any fact alleged or denied by a pleading ought not to have been so alleged or denied and such fact if alleged is not proved or if denied is proved or admitted, the court may, if the allegation or denial is unreasonable, require the party making such allegation or denial to pay to the adverse party the reasonable expenses incurred in proving or preparing to prove or disprove such fact as the case may be, including reasonable attorney fees.” As the rule itself indicates, its application is discretionary with the trial court. We cannot say that such discretion was abused in this case. In so holding we have not overlooked Judge (now Justice) Levin’s scholarly discussion of this question in State Farm v Allen, 50 Mich App 71; 212 NW2d 821 (1973). Judge Levin discusses at length the "costs of litigation” concept as it exists in the English system. However, because of the explicit agreement in this case, on the record, that the city would "procure and produce” an expert witness to testify as to the diminution of the value, thus forcing the “plaintiffs to do-so, "the action of the city bordered on bad faith. We feel that our holding here is totally within the thrust of the Allen case, supra. Affirmed. Costs to plaintiffs. All concurred.
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Allen, J. Defendant-appellant, Barry County Road Commission, has filed this interlocutory appeal, by leave granted, from the October 5, 1973 order of the trial court denying its motion for change of venue. GCR 1963, 401. Plaintiffs filed suit against all defendants on October 16, 1972, in Kent County Circuit Court, for injuries allegedly sustained by Pearl S. Hoffman in a motorcycle accident on October 17, 1971. She was a passenger on a Honda motorcycle owned and operated by Jack R. Bos, and was allegedly injured when the motorcycle left the road upon which it was traveling, county road 601 (also known as Gilkey Lake Road), at a point about l/10th of a mile southwest of Cobb Road in Barry Township, Barry County. Plaintiffs claim that Bos was grossly negligent in the operation of the motorcycle. They also claimed that Honda, the manufacturer and seller of the motorcycle, had improperly designed the rear axle. Finally, they claim that the road commission had negligently failed to maintain the county road, apparently in violation of a duty to do so. MCLA 691.1402; MSA 3.996(102) and MCLA 224.21; MSA 9.121. Barry County filed its answer to the above complaint on December 11, 1972, at which time it also filed a timely motion for change of venue. GCR 1963, 401. Defendant alleged that Barry County, where it exercised its governmental functions, was the proper place for trial pursuant to MCLA 600.1615; MSA 27A.1615, rather than Kent County Circuit Court. This motion was heard January 19, 1973, and an order denying the motion for change of venue was entered October 5, 1973. The general rule on venue is set forth in MCLA 600.1621; MSA 27A.1621 stating that "except for the actions listed in sections * * * and 1615,” any county where any defendant is established is proper venue for an action. Section 1615 is MCLA 600.1615; MSA 27A.1615, and provides as follows: "Any eounty in which any governmental unit * * * exercises or may exercise its governmental authority is the proper county in which to commence and try actions against such governmental units * * * .” As we have seen, the claim against Barry County is joined with claims against two other defendants, one of whom was a resident of Kent County. Relying upon GCR 1963, 406(2) and MCLA 600.1641; MSA 27A.1641, the trial court exercised its discretion to deny defendant’s motion for change of venue. The above statute provides: "Where causes of action are joined, whether properly or not, the venue may be laid in any county in which either cause of action, if sued upon separately, could have been commenced and tried, subject to separation and change pursuant to and subject to the conditions imposed by court rules.” The related court rule, GCR 1963, 406(2) provides: "When causes of action are joined and when 1 or more of the causes of action, had separate actions been filed, would not have been proper in the county where venue for the joined action is laid, a defendant may move the court to separate the causes of action so joined and to transfer the cause or causes of action for which venue would not have been proper to a proper county. (2) Proper Joinder. If such causes of action were properly joined, the court in its discretion may order, upon timely motion, the transfer of all causes, the separation and transfer moved for, or it may retain the whole case for trial.” The issue presented is one of original impression— which should prevail, § 1615 which mandates venue in Barry County, or § 1641 and GCR 1963, 406 which permit the circuit court to allow venue in Kent County when several causes of action are properly joined? All three statutory provisions are part of the Revised Judicature Act, 1961 PA 236, effective January 1, 1963. All three sections are new although both §§ 1615 and 1621 reflect the then well-established case law in Michigan. Section 1641 appears to be totally new and a response to solving a recognized difficulty in theretofore provisions on venue. Committee comments accompanying the Revised Judicature Act and explanatory of each section thereof are not helpful in determining whether the Legislature intended § 1641 to be a qualification of § 1615, or whether the Legislature intended to keep § 1615 totally without exception. Standard rules of statutory construction are not persuasive in resolving the conflict. With equal persuasion such rules of construction lead to opposite results. The frequently implied rule that the specific provision of § 1615 prevails over the same general provision of § 1641 is logos favorable to defendant. Port Huron Mayor v Port Huron Treasurer, 328 Mich 99; 43 NW2d 77 (1950). Lending to the opposite conclusion is the rule that by specifically excepting § 1615 in enacting § 1621 but not mentioning § 1615 in enacting § 1641, the Legislature intended § 1641 to be a modification of § 1615. Neither do we find helpful the rule of construction that statutes should be read in harmony. Van Antwerp v State, 334 Mich 593; 55 NW2d 108 (1952). To us it is equally disharmonious to impute to § 1641 the prefatory words "except for section 1615”. Arguments of public policy — sometimes relied upon as aids to statutory construction — are equally offsetting. Admittedly, strong reasons of policy, namely, the added cost and inconvenience of requiring governmental units to defend themselves in distant counties, support the wisdom of § 1615. Pack, Woods & Co v Greenhush Township, 62 Mich 122; 28 NW 746 (1886). However, there are strong policy reasons justifying trying all grievances in a single suit. This is especially true today when dockets are crowded. This policy reason was noted in the Committee comment following MSA 27A.1641: "The joinder of causes of action between the same parties ought to be encouraged in order to facilitate the meritorious resolution in one trial of the various grievances existing between the parties. Obviously, cases will arise where a single trial at one place will not be feasible or desirable. Thus provision is made in the court rules for separation of joined causes of action in proper cases. (See Rule 406.) The broad rule establishing a proper place of venue subject to the separation of joined claims is wise to prevent disputes over proper venue and to direct attention to the real problem of where is the best place to try all or parts of the action.” Indeed, the development of modern communication and ease of transportation renders the policy reasons relied upon in Pack, Woods & Co, supra, less persuasive while, at the same time, the recent development of multiple suits and crowded dockets strengthens the policy supporting the provisions of § 1641 and its accompanying court rule. We, therefore, turn to other reasons for determination of the illusory legislative intent. The Revised Judicature Act was the first full revision of procedural laws since adoption of the Judicature Act of 1915. It is primarily the product of the Joint Committee on Michigan Procedural Revision consisting of some 30 lawyers, judges and legislators who spent four years developing the new code. Summarizing its contents and its underlying philosophy, Jason L. Honigman wrote as follows: "From the welter of applicable rules, statutes and common law decisions, the courts and lawyers often found great difficulty in apprehending the true state of the law. Thus, the integration of the statutes and rules and the concomitant codification of many specified procedures is perhaps the greatest single boon of the revision. "Towards this end, a basic concept was acceptance of the principle that the primary responsibility for the enactment of procedural laws rests with the Supreme Court, rather than with the Legislature.” Procedure— 1963, 41 Mich SBJ 12,13 (Oct 1962). The importance of the rule-making rule in the new code is most fully reflected in the following recommendations covering venue: "Conclusion. Under the new provisions change of venue is primarily treated by court rule rather than by statute. The rules are grouped together and permit greater flexibility than these statutory counterparts.” "The new provisions represent a completely integrated treatment of venue which treatment has been intelligently divided between the statutes and rules. The short, concise and clear provisions are a refreshing breather in the altogether too common one-sentence paragraph statutes prevailing today. This revision shows clearly the positive improvements that can be accomplished by an intelligent discarding of detail and technicalities in favor of provisions which are broad enough to be all encompassing but narrow enough so as not to be ambiguous.” Comment, Venue and Jurisdiction Under the Revised Judicature Act and General Court Rules of1963, 8 Wayne L Rev 527, 542. Supporting the conclusion that change of venue is primarily treated by court rule and not by statute is the fact that § 1641 is made "subject to the conditions imposed by court rules”. The above background of the code and analysis thereof suggests that the issue posed in the instant case is not a conflict between two statutory provisions but rather is a conflict between the court rule, GCR 1963, 406(2), and the statute, § 1615. This being so, the court rule should prevail. It is well established that Const 1963, art 6, §5 vests exclusive jurisdiction in the Supreme Court over matters of practice and procedure. Where a rule conflicts with a statute on such matters the rule prevails. Perin v Peuler 373 Mich 531, 541; 130 NW2d 4, 10 (1964); Buscaino v Rhodes, 385 Mich 474, 483; 189 NW2d 202 (1971); People v Mordell, 55 Mich App 462; 223 NW2d 10 (1974). "The function of enacting and amending judicial rules of practice and procedure has been committed exclusively to this Court (Const 1908, art 7, §5; Const 1963, art 6, § 5); a function with which the legislature may not meddle or interfere save as the Court may acquiesce and adopt for retention at judicial will. Perin v Peuler, 373 Mich 531, 541; 130 NW2d 4, 10 (1964). We are cognizant of a related principle of law that a court rule may not alter a court’s jurisdiction, Ray Jewelry Co v Darling, 251 Mich 157; 231 NW 101 (1930), but observe that venue relates to practice and procedure rather than jurisdiction. Quoting from Paige v Sinclair, 237 Mass 482, 483-484; 130 NE 177, 178-179 (1921), Stevens, Venue Statutes: Diagnosis and Proposed Cure, 49 Mich L Rev 307, 317 (1951), said: " 'The distinction between jurisdiction and venue is plainly established. Jurisdiction is a term of comprehensive import. It concerns and defines the power of judicatories and courts. It embraces every kind of judicial action touching the subject of the action, suit, petition, complaint, indictment or other proceeding. It includes power to inquire into facts, to apply the law, to make decision and to declare judgment. * * * Venue in its modern and municipal sense relates to and defines the particular county or territorial area within the State or district in which the cause or prosecution must be brought or tried. It commonly has to do with geographical subdivisions, relates to practice or procedure, may be waived, and does not refer to jurisdiction at all. ’ ” (Emphasis supplied.) Where, as in the case now before us, specific legislative intent is unascertainable, we may turn for guidance to the underlying philosophy of the legislation in question. We find this to be a desire to introduce flexibility through the use of court rules. GCR 1963, 406(2). provides the flexibility and does so without excepting therefrom § 1615. For us to impute by judicial construction such an exception would be an act contrary to the intent of the legislation. The Revised Judicature Act is basically a procedural act. As stated earlier, court rules dominate over statutes on matters of practice and procedure. This Court’s construction of the code on this narrow issue preserves most of the policy dictating that venue in suits brought against governmental units is to remain in the county where the governmental unit functions. In most instances only one cause of action will lie and GCR 1963, 406 will be inapplicable. At the same time, our decision in this case allows the flexibility necessary to prevent a multiplicity of suits and in this respect is compatible with the purpose behind the new provision. To rule otherwise would be contrary to the basic intent of the legislation. Lastly, we note that as a practical matter the county seats of Kent and Barry counties lie only some 31 miles apart. Affirmed, costs to plaintiffs. All concurred. "RJA section 600.1641 is completely new; there is no present Michigan counterpart requiring a separation and change of venue of the causes improperly joined, or even a discretionary change in the case of causes properly joined.” Comment, Venue and Jurisdiction Under the Revised Judicature Act and General Court Rules of1963, 8 Wayne L Rev 527, 534 (1962). See Honigman, Procedure — 1963, 41 Mich SBJ 12 (Oct 1962).
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Bashara, J. Plaintiff appeals from a jury verdict of no cause of action in an automobile negligence matter. Facts relevant to the disposition of this case are as follows: At 5:30 a.m. on July 2, 1970, defendant was proceeding north on 26 Mile Road in Calhoun County. After passing the intersection of Anderson Road, defendant stopped his auto intending to back up to observe the street sign so that he could get his bearings. Plaintiff, also traveling north on the same road, had just come over a knoll some 500 feet behind defendant’s vehicle. Upon viewing the back-up lights of defendant’s auto, plaintiff slammed on his brakes but was unable to avoid the ensuing collision. Evidence was adduced from both plaintiff and defendant that fog shrouded the roadway at the time of the accident. After the proofs had been placed in evidence, a conference was held between the attorneys and the trial judge for the purpose of reviewing the instructions to be given to the jury. At that time, no instruction was presented or requested regarding the statutory presumption of negligence in rear-end collisions, nor did the court indicate that such an instruction would be given. While the instructions were being given defense counsel excused himself from the courtroom and returned handing the court an instruction regarding the presumption of negligence in rear-end collisions. It is undisputed that plaintiff’s counsel had no opportunity to view the instruction, nor to make any objection thereto prior to its being delivered to the jury. Plaintiff’s attorney took exception to the instruction at a conference held out of the presence of the jury and just prior to their being released for deliberation. It should be noted that plaintiff’s attorney did not ask for nor did he offer any curative or additional instructions. We are thus confronted with the issue of whether the trial judge erred in giving the statutory presumption instruction regarding rear-end collisions. GCR 1963, 516.1 provides that requested instructions are to be served on adverse parties and that the court should inform counsel of its proposed action on the requests prior to their arguments to the jury. GCR 1963, 516.3 also provides that: "At any time during the trial the court may, with or without request therefor, instruct the jury on any point of law whenever such instruction will materially aid the jury to understand the proceedings and to arrive at a just verdict.” The purpose of the above court rule is to provide that the parties will be protected and that an equitable result will be obtained. Hunt v Deming, 375 Mich 581; 134 NW2d 662 (1965). The court rules allow trial judges broad latitude to give an instruction at any time. However, where an instruction is given to the judge during the course of his instructions to the jury by one of the parties, extreme care should be taken to see that it completely comports with the applicable law, that there is competent evidence to support it, and that it will not be prejudicial to the party who did not have an opportunity to examine it. Let us then examine the instruction as applied to the facts of this case. The statute given indicates that there is prima facie evidence of negligence if "a vehicle traveling in a certain direction overtakes and strikes the rear end of another vehicle proceeding in the same direction, or lawfully standing upon any highway”. (Emphasis added.) Was defendant’s vehicle proceeding on the highway? The unrebutted testimony is that it was not. Was the defendant’s vehicle lawfully standing on the highway? MCLA 257.672; MSA 9.2372 states in part as follows: "Outside of the limits of any city or village, it shall be unlawful to stop, park or leave standing any vehicle, attended or unattended, upon the paved or main traveled part of the highway, when it is possible to stop, park or to leave the vehicle off such part of the highway.” Defendant by his own admission testified his auto was stopped on the highway in reverse gear. This being the case, it was questionable in light of the above statute, whether or not defendant was lawfully stopped on the highway. The propriety of giving the presumption of negligence instruction was not so clear as to say that it completely comported with applicable law. The instruction was of significant importance in that it alone was sufficient to allow the jury to find plaintiff contributorily negligent. The giving of the instruction under the facts of the instant case was prejudicial since it was proffered by an adverse party without opportunity for review and objection by opposing counsel prior to its delivery. We therefore, reverse and remand for a new trial. Costs to abide the outcome of trial upon remand. All concurred. MCLA 257.402(a); MSA 9.2102(a) provides in part: "In any action, in any court in this state when it is shown by competent evidence, that a vehicle traveling in a certain direction, overtook and struck the rear end of another vehicle proceeding in the same direction, or lawfully standing upon any highway within this state, the driver or operator of such ñrst mentioned vehicle shall be deemed prima facie guilty of negligence. "(Emphasis added.)
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Shepherd, P.J. Defendant Oscar Moore III was convicted by a jury of one count of armed robbery, MCL 750.529; MSA 28.797, two counts of first-degree criminal sexual conduct, MCL 750.520b(l) and (2); MSA 28.788(2X1) and (2), one count of assault with intent to do great bodily harm less than murder, MCL 750.84; MSA 28.279, and four counts of possession of a firearm in the commission of a felony, MCL 750.227b; MSA 28.424(2). He appeals from his convictions, asserting that he was improperly deprived of his right to testify, was prejudiced when the jury saw him in handcuffs, and was improperly convicted of multiple counts of felony firearm. He also appeals his sentence of one hundred to three hundred years on the armed robbery conviction, claiming that the sentence is cruel and unusual, contrary to the indeterminate sentence act, and is so excessive as to shock the judicial conscience. We affirm defendant’s convictions, but vacate defendant’s armed robbery sentence and remand for resentencing. Defendant’s convictions arose out of his assault and robbery of the victim. At gunpoint, defendant stole the victim’s money and necklace and forced her to submit to intercourse and fellatio. After defendant left the victim’s home, she immediately contacted the police and gave a description of her assailant. A short time later, defendant, who resembled the victim’s description, was observed and followed by an officer. When the officer approached defendant, defendant shot at the officer and fled. Defendant was subsequently apprehended by other officers. Prior to trial, by motion in limine, the defense succeeded in suppressing evidence of defendant’s prior convictions for impeachment purposes under MRE 609. However, the trial court’s ruling did not preclude the use of evidence of the prior convic tions to show perjured testimony. At the close of the prosecutor’s case, defense counsel informed the court that he had recommended to defendant that he not testify. This was based on counsel’s understanding that if the defense offered testimony that defendant was "a good law-abiding citizen,” the prosecutor would be at liberty to rebut the claim by reference to evidence of the prior convictions. The trial court informed defendant that, if he testified, the prosecution might be permitted to make such use of the evidence of the prior convictions. The court also advised defendant of his right to remain silent and his right to testify. Defendant then chose not to testify. Defendant first contends that the trial court’s refusal to definitively rule on the admissibility of evidence of his prior convictions denied him his right to testify. Our Supreme Court has ruled that a defendant is entitled to know before he takes the stand whether, if he does so, evidence of his prior criminal convictions can be used for impeachment. People v Lytal, 415 Mich 603, 609; 329 NW2d 738 (1982), reh den 417 Mich 1105 (1983). However, the Lytal rule only applies to evidence of prior convictions offered to impeach a defendant’s general credibility. It remains within the trial court’s discretion to admit evidence of prior convictions at any time to show perjured testimony by the defendant. People v Douglas Taylor, 422 Mich 407, 414; 373 NW2d 579 (1985). In the instant case, the trial court was unable to rule in an anticipatory manner because defendant made no specific offer of proof as to what his testimony would be. The trial court, however, did explain the possible consequences of defendant’s testimony. Those consequences were dependent upon the precise nature of defendant’s testimony on the stand. The court declined to speculate on the nature and the scope of defendant’s testimony and its consequent impact upon the admissibility of impeachment evidence. This was a proper exercise of judicial discretion in the absence of a specific offer of proof and is no basis for reversal. Moreover, admission of the prior conviction evidence would have been wholly proper. A defendant cannot claim under oath to be a "law-abiding citizen” and ask the court to shield his blatant perjury from the jury’s view under the guise of MRE 609. MRE 609 does not govern the use of evidence of prior criminal conduct to refute affirmative evidence of a criminal defendant’s good character. Nor is MRE 609 "intended to apply where evidence of prior convictions is offered to rebut specific statements of the defendant who testifies at trial.” People v Douglas Taylor, supra at 414. After the proofs were closed and closing arguments completed, the defendant sought to reopen the proofs so that he could testify. The trial court refused to reopen the proofs. The defendant now contends that this decision denied him his right to testify. Reopening the case after the defense has rested is a decision committed to the trial court’s sound discretion. People v Van Camp, 356 Mich 593, 602; 97 NW2d 726 (1959); People v Somma, 123 Mich App 658, 664; 333 NW2d 117 (1983). In reviewing the trial court’s exercise of discretion, several factors are pertinent. These include whether conditions have changed or undue advantage would result, whether newly discovered and material evidence is sought to be admitted, whether surprise would result, and the timing of the motion during the trial. Van Camp, supra; Bonner v Ames, 356 Mich 537, 541; 97 NW2d 87 (1959); Kornicks v Lindy’s Supermarket, 24 Mich App 668, 672; 180 NW2d 847 (1970), lv den 384 Mich 771 (1970). In the case at bar, a significant additional factor is defendant’s constitutional right to testify. See People v Simmons, 140 Mich App 681, 683-684; 364 NW2d 783 (1985), lv den 422 Mich 963 (1985). The right to testify is not an absolute. It will be deemed waived if the defendant decides not to testify or acquiesces in his attorney’s decision that he will not testify. The test is whether the defendant’s waiver was made knowingly and voluntarily. Simmons, supra. The record discloses that defendant’s waiver of his right to testify was made knowingly and voluntarily. There were no changes in circumstances following that decision. There was no newly discovered evidence, nor does defendant suggest that the prosecution gained undue advantage by the court’s decision not to reopen the proofs. Further, the request to reopen proofs was very tardy, as closing arguments had already been concluded. Since defendant had already waived his right to testify, it was within the trial court’s sound discretion to permit or disallow his testimony at that stage of the trial. We find no abuse of discretion. Defendant also argues that the trial court should have declared a mistrial following the jury’s brief, inadvertent view of defendant in handcuffs. The incident occurred when the deputies having custody of defendant were returning him to court following a recess. In general, freedom from shackling of a defendant during trial has long been recognized as an important component of a fair and impartial trial. People v Duplissey, 380 Mich 100, 103; 155 NW2d 850 (1968); People v Baskin, 145 Mich App 526, 545; 378 NW2d 535 (1985). However, this rule does not extend to circumstances in which a defendant may be shackled outside a courtroom to prevent escape. People v Cleveland Wells, 103 Mich App 455, 459; 303 NW2d 226 (1981); People v Panko, 34 Mich App 297, 300; 191 NW2d 75 (1971), lv den 385 Mich 783 (1971). In addition, where a jury inadvertently sees a shackled defendant, there must be some showing that prejudice resulted. People v Herndon, 98 Mich App 668, 672; 296 NW2d 333 (1980). It was incumbent upon defendant here to establish prejudice. Wells, supra. He failed to do so, and there is no error requiring reversal. Defendant next contends that he was improperly convicted of multiple counts of felony firearm. Neither his statutory argument nor his constitutional double jeopardy claim have merit. In People v Morton, 423 Mich 650, 655-656; 377 NW2d 798 (1985), our Supreme Court construed the legislative intent of the felony-firearm statute and concluded that, but for a few exceptions not applicable here, every felony committed by a person possessing a firearm may result in a felony-firearm conviction. Significantly, the multiple underlying offenses in Morton occurred within the continuum of a single criminal transaction. A defendant’s right to be free of double jeopardy is not impinged upon by this result. 423 Mich 655. There is no basis here to reverse defendant’s convictions. Defendant also challenges his sentence for armed robbery on several grounds. In addition to the one hundred to three hundred years imprisonment imposed for armed robbery, defendant was sentenced to life on the two criminal sexual conduct counts, six to ten years in prison on the assault conviction, and consecutive terms of two years each on the four counts of felony firearm. Defendant does not challenge his sentences on these other charges. We do not believe the Legislature has authorized a sentence of one hundred to three hundred years in prison for the offense of armed robbery. This case thus presents a question involving the interpretation of the numerous statutes relating to sentencing and parole. As the sentence given was not a valid one, we do not reach the issue of whether such a sentence is shocking to the appellate conscience. We remand for resentencing on the armed robbery charge, at which the trial court shall impose a valid sentence. MCL 750.529; MSA 28.797 provides that a person convicted of armed robbery may be sentenced to prison "for life or for any term of years.” Armed robbery is a Proposal b offense. Persons serving sentences for armed robbery are not eligible for parole until they have served the minimum sentence imposed, less an allowance for disciplinary credits. MCL 791.233b(x); MSA 28.2303(3)(x). In sentencing defendant to one hundred to three hundred years, the trial court used language which appears to describe an indeterminate sentence. MCL 769.9(2); MSA 28.1081(2). It is clear, however, that the trial court intended by its sentence to prevent defendant’s release from prison under the "lifer law,” MCL 791.234(4); MSA 28.2304(4). See People v Johnson, 421 Mich 494; 364 NW2d 654 (1984). Because of the restrictions of Proposal b, what defendant in fact received is, and was intended to be, a life sentence without parole. The Legislature has mandated life sentences for first-degree murder, MCL 750.316; MSA 28.548, and certain major controlled substance offenses, MCL 333.7401(2)(a)(i) and 333.7403(2)(a)(i); MSA 14.15(7401)(2)(a)(i) and 14.15(7403)(2) (a)(i). The so- called "lifer law” excludes persons serving the mandatory life sentences for these crimes from the jurisdiction of the parole board. MCL 791.234(4); MSA 28.2304(4). See also MCL 333.7401(3); MSA 14.15(7401X3). We are unable to locate any similar statutory authorization for a sentence of life without parole for an armed robbery conviction, however. While such may be a desirable public policy, it is up to the Legislature to authorize such a sentence. The Legislature is the source of a court’s sentencing power. People v Moore, 51 Mich App 48, 54; 214 NW2d 548 (1974). As we are unable to discern any legislative authorization for the result of defendant’s sentence, we must conclude that the sentence given was not valid. In so holding, we disagree with People v Martinez, 147 Mich App 94; 382 NW2d 741 (1985), in which another panel of this Court concluded in part that a sentence of 100 to 150 years on an habitual offender charge given with the hope that defendant would never be released from prison was expressly authorized by statute and thus did not infringe upon the Legislature’s powers, even though it effectively precluded parole. We also disagree with the similar holding in People v Rodgers, 30 Mich App 582, 584-585; 186 NW2d 840 (1971), which held that the effect on parole expectation of a sentence of ninety-nine to one hundred years was irrelevant. Having concluded that the Legislature has not authorized sentences for armed robbery convictions that are, in effect, life sentences without parole, we must then decide what sentences the Legislature has authorized. The armed robbery statute clearly allows a life sentence. In such a case, defendant would be eligible for parole in ten years. Johnson, supra; MCL 791.234(4); MSA 28.2304(4). The fact that defendant is eligible for parole does not mean that he has a right to parole. Cf. Hurst v Dep’t of Corrections, Parole Board, 119 Mich App 25, 29; 325 NW2d 615 (1982) (early parole case). While the parole board is solely responsible for granting parole, MCL 791.235; MSA 28.2305, the parole board shall not grant parole until it has reasonable assurance that the prisoner will not become a menace to society or to public safety and has satisfactory evidence regarding arrangements for the prisoner’s employment, education or care, if ill or incompetent, MCL 791.233(l)(a) and (d); MSA 28.2303(1) (a) and (d). In the case of prisoners serving nonmandatory life terms who are eligible for parole after ten years, parole shall not be granted if the sentencing judge or the judge’s successor files written objections. MCL 791.234(4)(b); MSA 28.2304(4)(b). If trial judges could impose sentences of one hundred to three hundred years, they would take away from the parole board and from themselves or their successors the legislatively mandated duty to evaluate a prisoner periodically to see if the passage of time has made release a reasonable option. As we have indicated, the Legislature has removed this option for certain offenses. It has not yet done so in the case of armed robbery, however desirable such a course of action may or may not be. The remaining possibility is a sentence "for any term of years.” The meaning of "any term of years” has not been extensively analyzed in this precise context. Panels of this Court, however, have upheld many lengthy sentences. In Martinez, supra, the defendant was convicted of voluntary manslaughter and sentenced as an habitual offender under MCL 769.12; MSA 28.1084, which authorizes a sentence for "life or for a lesser term” but also describes the latter sentence as one "for any term of years.” Martinez approved the "long term of years” of 100 to 150 years, even though this sentence was obviously intended to exceed the defendant’s life expectancy. First-degree criminal sexual conduct is also punishable by a sentence "for life or for any term of years.” MCL 750.520b(2); MSA 28.788(2)(2). Another panel of this Court in People v Crawford, 144 Mich App 86, 89; 372 NW2d 688 (1985), upheld concurrent sentences of 80 to 120 years for first-degree criminal sexual conduct, noting that [f]rom a defendant’s standpoint in viewing length of time to be served, there is no sentence more severe than a life sentence. A sentence of 80 to 120 years is almost certain to be longer than a defendant’s life. The Court in Crawford concluded that the purpose of the lengthy sentence was to recognize the heinous nature of the crime and tell the public that such conduct will not be tolerated. The Court was not prepared "to say that these equivalents of life sentences were an abuse of discretion” such as to shock the judicial conscience. 144 Mich App at 89-90. In Rodgers, supra at 584-585, a panel of this Court affirmed a sentence of ninety-nine to one hundred years, holding that "any term of years” means exactly that. The trial judge may sentence a defendant to any term of years and the fact that the term of years may result in a sentence which, in terms of parole, is greater than life is irrelevant. We believe that these cases misconstrue the phrase "any term of years.” In People v Blythe, 417 Mich 430; 339 NW2d 399 (1983), the Supreme Court considered whether the phrase "for any term of years” in the armed robbery statute required imposition of a mandatory minimum sentence. In determining that it did not, the Supreme Court concluded that the phrase referred to the maximum sentence to be imposed. 417 Mich at 434. In Johnson, supra at 497-498, the Supreme Court wrote: The difference between a life sentence and an indeterminate sentence having a minimum and maximum term has been recognized by this Court since our decision in People v Vitali, 156 Mich 370; 120 NW 1003 (1909). We observed in Vitali that if a' life sentence is imposed there can be no minimum term. Accordingly, when a statute authorizes the imposition of a sentence of "life or any term of years” it allows the imposition of a fixed sentence —life—or an indeterminate sentence — any number of years. We observed in People v Blythe, 417 Mich 430, 434-435; 339 NW2d 399 (1983), that the Legislature viewed the phrase "life or any term of years” as descriptive of the maximum sentence only. The sentence concepts "life” and "any term of years” are mutually exclusive and a sentencing judge may (in the appropriate case) opt for either but not both. If "life” and "any term of years” are mutually exclusive concepts, the Court’s statement that the latter allows imposition of "any number of years” must mean "any number of years less than life.” By definition, a person cannot serve a prison sentence lasting longer than that person’s life. A life term is, as a matter of law, a greater penalty than a term of years. People v McNeal, 156 Mich App 379, 381; 401 NW2d 650 (1986); People v Lindsey, 139 Mich App 412, 415; 362 NW2d 304 (1984). Therefore, it is meaningless for a person to receive a sentence longer than life. The phrase "any term of years” also cannot mean a time equal to life, as it would then be surplusage for the Legislature to have also provided for life sentences in the same statute. All that remains, then, is a term of years less than life. In a very early case, People v Murray, 72 Mich 10, 16-17; 40 NW 29 (1888), the Supreme Court wrote: There is another feature of this case to which we wish to call special attention, and that relates to the sentence imposed. It is for 50 years, and will very likely reach beyond the natural life of the respondent, unrestrained of his liberty, and overreach by 10 or 15 years his natural life if so restrained. We see nothing in this record warranting any such sentence, and it must be regarded as excessive. It will not do to say the executive may apply the remedy in such a case. We do not know what the executive may do, and it is but a poor commentary upon the judiciary when it becomes necessary for the executive to regulate the humanity of the bench. But the Constitution has not left the liberty of the citizen of any state entirely to the indiscretion or caprice of its judiciary, but enjoins upon all that unusual punishments shall not be inflicted. Where the punishment for an offense is for a term of years, to be fixed by the judge, it should never be made to extend beyond the average period of persons in prison life, which seldom exceeds 25 years. Several subsequent cases have distinguished Murray as involving a fixed sentence at a time when the defendant was required to serve the sentence imposed unless pardoned, rather than the modern practice of indeterminate sentences. See, e.g., People v Burton, 396 Mich 238, 243 n 9; 240 NW2d 239 (1976); Rodgers, supra at 585; People v Girard, 18 Mich App 593, 595; 171 NW2d 567 (1969). We see little difference, however, between a sentence "for a term of years, to be fixed by the judge” which must be served fully and a lengthy indeterminate sentence "for any term of years” of which a defendant must serve the minimum less disciplinary credits. Through the workings of proposal b, defendant’s sentence effectively precludes any possibility of parole during his lifetime. Defendant’s situation is thus much like that of the defendant in Murray. Murray’s value lies not in the absolute numbers it offers. Its recommendation of a twenty-five year cap on the prison sentence of a twenty-three-year-old defendant reflects the harshness of life when the opinion was written. More important is Murray’s recognition that a sentence for a term of years should consider a defendant’s life expectancy. An indeterminate sentence "for any term of years” must be one for less than life and must accordingly be fashioned with consideration of a defendant’s life expectancy at the time of sentencing as determined by the trial judge. _ We note that even such a sentence must also consider the sentencing guidelines and the criteria required by People v Coles, 417 Mich 523, 550; 339 NW2d 440 (1983). While a sentence approaching a defendant’s life expectancy might be appropriate and justified in many cases, such a sentence must be supported by adequate reasons on the record. Defendant’s convictions are affirmed, but we vacate defendant’s sentence for armed robbery and remand for resentencing in accordance with this opinion. M. J. Kelly, J., concurred. Such a sentence, of course, violates the two-thirds rule of People v Tanner, 387 Mich 683, 690; 199 NW2d 202 (1972). In People v Fleming, 428 Mich 408, 427; 410 NW2d 266 (1987), the Supreme Court’s majority opinion said in its footnote 24: The use of "good time credits” was considered in the Task Force Report on Prison Overcrowding, n 9 supra [pp 419-420], as part of the solution to overcrowding: "The overcrowded conditions of our state prisons affirm the necessity for sentencing reform. During the past ten years, the average length of prison terms in this state has risen from 22 months to in excess of 32 months. This dramatic increase in sentence length, when coupled with the general increase in the absolute number of commitments to the state system, is directly responsible for the majority of the overcrowding we are now experiencing. "Thus the recommendations within this section address the issue of sentencing. The first two recommendations directly address sentencing reform, while the last addresses good-time credits that are applied to the minimum and maximum sentences of convicted offenders.” We note the similarity in factoring the opea and "good time” into a defendant’s sentence to circumventing the parole provisions of the "lifer law,” MCL 791.234(4); MSA 28.2304(4) by sentencing defendants to a term of years that exceeds life and precludes parole. A sentence of one or more centuries in prison violates the spirit and intent of the indeterminate sentencing statutes. The Legislature has recognized that a defendant may be rehabilitated in prison and has vested in the parole board the power to release a rehabilitated prisoner once the minimum sentence has been served. MCL 791.231 et seq; MSA 28.2301 et seq. Any changes in the parole provisions of the "lifer law” should be made by the Legislature, not the judiciary. This was dicta but we find it persuasive.
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Per Curiam. On June 9, 1983, plaintiff, Steven Russell Hayes, filed a medical malpractice lawsuit against defendant, Myron R. Emerick, D.O. On January 8, 1986, defendant’s motion for summary disposition based upon governmental immunity was granted by the trial court. Plaintiff appeals as of right. Plaintiff claims two errors on appeal, alleging that (1) the trial court erred when it granted summary disposition in favor of defendant on the ground that defendant was an agent of Macomb County, and (2) either the trial court erred in granting summary disposition since discovery was incomplete or plaintiff should be allowed an opportunity on remand to conduct further discovery on the issue of defendant’s status as an independent contractor. Macomb County Jail employed defendant to provide medical care to the inmates. While plaintiff was an inmate of the jail, he was examined by defendant. Plaintiff’s complaint set forth in a med ical malpractice action in which he asserted a claim of negligence against the defendant. In discussing individual immunity in Ross v Consumers Power Co (On Rehearing), 420 Mich 567, 592; 363 NW2d 641 (1984), the Supreme Court stated: Lower level officers, employees, and agents are immune from tort liability only when they are (a) acting during the course of their employment and are acting, or reasonably believe they are acting, within the scope of their authority; (b) acting in good faith; and (c) performing discretionary-decisional, as opposed to ministerial-operational, acts. Plaintiff argues that defendant was not a "lower level officer, employee or agent,” but rather was an independent contractor. The trial court found that the defendant was an agent entitled to governmental immunity. The defendant argues on appeal that he was either an agent or an employee. In Ross, supra, 420 Mich 624, n 38, the Supreme Court noted that "the individual tortfeasor’s status as an employee, agent, independent contractor, etc., . . . will generally be determined with reference to common-law tort and agency principles.” Therefore, general principles of agency law must be examined. In Goldman v Cohen, 123 Mich App 224, 228-230; 333 NW2d 228 (1983), lv den 422 Mich 865 (1985), this Court reiterated the definition of the term "agent” found in Stephenson v Golden, 279 Mich 710, 734-735; 276 NW 849 (1937): " 'An agent is a person having express or implied authority to represent or act on behalf of another person, who is called his principal.’ Bow-stead on Agency (4th ed), 1. " 'An agent is one who acts for or in the place of another by authority from him; one who undertakes to transact some business or manage some affairs for another by authority and on account of the latter, and to render an account of it. He is a substitute, a deputy, appointed by the principal, with power to do the things which the principal may or can do.’ 2 CJS 1025. "The term 'agent’ includes factors, brokers, etc. 2 CJS 1025. "As said in Saums v Parfet, 270 Mich 165; 258 NW 235 (1935): " ' "Agency” in its broadest sense includes every relation in which one person acts for or represents another by his authority.’ 2 CJ 419. "' "Whether an agency has been created is to be determined by the relations of the parties as they in fact exist under their agreements or acts.” 21 RCL 819.’ ” This Court is satisfied that defendant was an agent of Macomb County. The county was obligated by law to provide medical services to the inmates of its jail pursuant to MCL 791.262(f)(3); MSA 28.2322(f)(3). In order to fulfill this obligation, Macomb County contracted with defendant to provide medical care to the jail residents on the county’s behalf. If defendant did not provide such services, Macomb County would be forced to retain another physician in order to meet its legal obligations. Although the defendant provided the services on an "individual fee-for-service basis,” he was employed on an ongoing basis. Defendant did not maintain a personal patient clientele at the county jail; rather, his work with the inmates was due solely to his contract with Macomb County to render such services. As in Goldman, defendant was acting on behalf of his principal, in this case, Macomb County, and therefore was its agent. This Court is satisfied that summary disposition was not granted prematurely and that a remand for further discovery is not necessary. Discovery was closed in this case in early November, 1984. The motion for summary disposition was not granted until January, 1986. Plaintiff did not argue at that time that further discovery was necessary. Plaintiff has failed to persuade this Court that discovery was incomplete. Affirmed.
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Per Curiam. Cornbelt Beef Corporation appeals as of right from the judgment entered in circuit court finding it guilty of contempt for failure to comply with the terms of a receivership order. We affirm. On March 27, 1976, Anita Patterson gave birth to a child and, thereafter, a paternity action was instituted against Archie L. Brewer. Brewer acknowledged paternity and an order of filiation was entered on January 18, 1977. Brewer was required to pay support in the amount of $7 per week until April 1, 1977, and $10 per week thereafter during the child’s minority. He was also ordered to pay confinement expenses for the birth of the child in the amount of $2,900.56 at the rate of $7 per week until April 1, 1977, and $10 per week thereafter. Sometime after the order of filiation was entered, Brewer became an employee of Cornbelt. On January 16, 1981, Brewer was injured in the scope of his employment and, thereafter, filed a worker’s compensation claim. The claim was handled for Cornbelt by its insurance carrier, Ohio Casualty Group. On April 13, 1981, Brewer was laid off from work and did not return. Meanwhile, Brewer had failed to make child support payments as required and a bench warrant was issued for his arrest. Following hearings regarding arrearages held on April 27, 1983, and on July 15, 1983, the circuit court entered an order appointing Gerhard F. Ritsema, Wayne County Friend of the Court, receiver for any funds that might be paid as the result of defendant’s workers’ disability compensation claim. The order was mailed to Cornbelt on July 20, 1983, by certified mail, return receipt requested. An employee of Cornbelt received and signed for the order on July 21, 1983. On March 8, 1984, Ohio Casualty sent a letter to Cornbelt proposing that Brewer’s workers’ compensation claim be redeemed for $5,000 and requesting authorization to settle for that amount. Cornbelt consented to the proposed settlement and on April 5, 1984, Brewer’s workers’ compensation claim was redeemed and he received $3,980. On March 29, 1985, as part of the receiver’s annual review of his files, an inquiry letter was mailed to Cornbelt. Cornbelt responded that Brewer’s workers’ compensation claim had been redeemed for $5,000 in March, 1984. An order to show cause for Cornbelt’s failure to comply with the receivership order was issued on April 19, 1985. Subsequently, a show cause hearing was held before a friend of the court referee. Thereafter, the referee granted judgment against Cornbelt in the amount of $5,000 plus costs in the amount of $375. Cornbelt requested review of the decision and, on the same day, the matter was brought before the circuit court. However, because of a misunderstanding, Cornbelt’s attorney failed to appear and a default judgment was entered. On April 30, 1985, through consent of counsel, a hearing was conducted before Wayne Circuit Judge Richard D. Dunn. At the conclusion of this hearing, Judge Dunn reaffirmed the referee’s recommendation. On May 16, 1985, the judgment was amended to reflect the $3,980 actually received by Brewer. On appeal, Cornbelt first claims that the order finding it in contempt was erroneous. We disagree. MCL 600.1701; MSA 27A.1701 provides: Supreme court, circuit courts, and all other courts of record, have power to punish by fine or imprisonment, or both, persons guilty of any neglect or violation of duty or misconduct in the following cases: (5) Parties to actions, attorneys, counselors, and all other persons for the nonpayment of any sum of money which the court has ordered to be paid, in cases where by law execution cannot be awarded for the collection of the sum, or the disobedience of or refusal to comply with any order of the court for the payment of temporary or permanent alimony or support money or costs made in any action for divorce or separate maintenance, or any other disobedience to any lawful order, decree, or process of the court. In the instant case, the receivership order required Cornbelt to deliver the workers’ disability compensation funds to the receiver appointed for that purpose. Because execution could not be awarded for the collection of this sum, see In re Ridgley, 261 Mich 42; 245 NW 803 (1932), the circuit court had the power to punish Cornbelt for contempt if Cornbelt was guilty of any neglect, violation of duty or misconduct with respect to nonpayment of the workers’ disability compensation funds to the receiver. Additionally, under MCL 600.1721; MSA 27A.1721, the circuit court had the power to order Cornbelt to pay the receiver the amount it should have paid him. Cornbelt argues that it cannot be held in contempt of court because it did not violate the receivership order, since it was Ohio Casualty Group that actually paid Brewer and Cornbelt only approved the amount of the workers’ disability compensation settlement. This argument is without merit. Ohio Casualty paid the claim with Corn-belt’s consent. The fact that Cornbelt did not actually present the check to the defendant is insignificant. Cf. Ptak v Pennwalt Corp, 112 Mich App 490, 494-495; 316 NW2d 251 (1982). Cornbelt also raises various arguments relating to the validity of the receivership order, which Cornbelt erroneously characterizes as an injunction. We find that the receivership order was valid in each respect challenged. The power to appoint receivers is inherent in courts of equity. Michigan Minerals, Inc v Williams, 306 Mich 515; 11 NW2d 224 (1943). See also MCL 600.2926; MSA 27A.2926. Further, MCL 722.719(5); MSA 25.499(5) provides that receivers may be appointed to ensure that fathers of illegitimate children meet their support obligations. The friend of the court may properly be appointed receiver to receive and disburse workers’ compensation funds due a father. Cf. Petrie v Petrie, 41 Mich App 80, 84; 199 NW2d 673 (1972), lv den 388 Mich 771 (1972). Further, we do not find that the receivership order was invalid because it was not served upon Cornbelt’s insurance carrier. The intent of the receivership order was to ensure that the receiver was paid all funds that were due Brewer "on any and all worker’s disability compensation claims from: (1) Cornbelt Beef Corp.” Further, the order was to be served upon the "aforesaid employer and carrier heretofore set out in paragraphs [sic] (1) of [the] order.” Paragraph (1) listed only Cornbelt; no insurance carrier was listed. Since no insurance carrier was listed, the receiver was not required to serve the order upon Cornbelt’s carrier. We reject the contentions that the receivership order was not binding upon Cornbelt because it was neither a party to the action nor in active concert with a party to the action or because it did not receive actual notice of the action. See Davis v Davis, 137 Mich App 291, 293; 358 NW2d 6 (1984); Tuller v Wayne Circuit Judge, 243 Mich 239, 243-245; 219 NW 939 (1928). Cornbelt’s argument that notice of the order of receivership should have been served upon its resident agent or officer of the corporation as required by GCR 1963, 105.4, now MCR 2.105(D), is also without merit. Service of process under such rule was not necessary. In any event, Cornbelt received actual notice of the order. Therefore the order is enforceable against it. See Davis, supra. Moreover, we do not find that the equities favor Cornbelt. Rather, we find that Cornbelt had notice of the receivership order prior to the date that Brewer’s workers’ compensation claim was redeemed. Cornbelt could easily have insured that the funds were paid to the receiver and not to Brewer. Nor do we find that the "punishment” was excessive. Such an argument is without merit under MCL 600.1721; MSA 27A.1721. See also Ptak, supra; Davis, supra. Cornbelt’s argument that the judgment against it had the effect of depriving it of its property without due process of law is likewise without merit. MCL 600.1711(2); MSA 27A.1711(2) provides that a court may punish any contempt that is not committed in its presence by a fine or imprisonment after (1) proof of the facts charged has been made by affidavit, and (2) an opportunity has been given to defend. As the receiver notes, Cornbelt was afforded all the protections of this statute. Specifically, Cornbelt had notice of the order appointing the receiver and the order to show cause. Further, it appeared and defended the order at both the referee and circuit court levels. Finally, we do not find that Cornbelt was deprived of due process of law on the alleged grounds that Judge Dunn was biased in favor of the receiver. A review of the lower court record establishes no actual prejudice on the part of Judge Dunn to the extent that the probability of actual bias was too great to be constitutionally tolerable. See Crampton v Dep’t of State, 395 Mich 347, 351-355; 235 NW2d 352 (1975), reh den 396 Mich 956 (1976). Affirmed. Defendant’s contention that it was held to have been in criminal contempt is erroneous. The instant case involved proceedings for civil contempt. See Harvey v Lewis, 10 Mich App 709; 160 NW2d 391 (1968); In re Contempt of Rapanos, 143 Mich App 483, 496-497; 372 NW2d 598 (1985), lv den 424 Mich 903 (1986).
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M. J. Kelly, P.J. Defendant was arrested on October 6, 1982, and subsequently charged with operating a motor vehicle while under the influence of intoxicating liquor, MCL 257.625; MSA 9.2325. After several delays prompted by defendant, the case was scheduled for a bench trial on March 17, 1983. On that date the prosecutor informed the court that two police witnesses had been detained in another court. The prosecutor asked for an adjournment, or in the alternative a short continuance to give the officers an opportunity to appear. The court denied the request. The prosecutor then asked the court to dismiss the charge. Defense counsel objected unless the dismissal was with prejudice. The trial court then denied the prosecutor’s request and ordered defense counsel to call his first witness, presumably to attach jeopardy. Defendant was called to the stand and, upon being asked his name, refused to testify, asserting the Fifth Amendment. After the district court judge "dismissed the case without deciding whether, in its opinion, jeopardy had attached,” the prosecutor refiled the charge against defendant. Defendant filed a motion to dismiss on the basis of double jeopardy, which the court denied. Defendant was then convicted and appealed his conviction to circuit court, which reversed on double jeopardy grounds. The prosecutor now appeals by leave granted. We affirm. The Fifth Amendment of the United States Constitution provides that no person shall "be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb . . . .” The federal Double Jeopardy Clause protects the finality of judgments, Crist v Bretz, 437 US 28, 33; 98 S Ct 2156; 57 L Ed 2d 24 (1978), and the individual’s interest in not being repeatedly subjected to prosecution for the same offense. Green v United States, 355 US 184, 187-188; 78 S Ct 221; 2 L Ed 2d 199 (1957); Arizona v Washington, 434 US 497, 503-504; 98 S Ct 824; 54 L Ed 2d 717 (1978). Once jeopardy has attached, the protections of the Double Jeopardy Clause are triggered. Jeopardy attaches in a criminal jury trial once the jury is empaneled and sworn. Crist, supra. The federal standard of when jeopardy attaches is applicable to the states. Crist, supra. [People v Thompson, 424 Mich 118, 122; 379 NW2d 49 (1985), reh den 424 Mich 1206 (1986).] The question here is, at what point does jeopardy attach in a bench trial? Appellant relies on Serfass v United States, 420 US 377, 388; 95 S Ct 1055; 43 L Ed 2d 265 (1975), where the Supreme Court stated: "In a nonjury trial, jeopardy attaches when the court begins to hear evidence.” This language has been cited with approval with slight variation in footnotes to two Michigan Supreme Court cases: People v Alvin Johnson, 396 Mich 424, 431 n 3; 240 NW2d 729 (1976), and People v Cooke, 419 Mich 420, 434 n 3; 355 NW2d 88 (1984). However, neither Serfass, Johnson, or Cooke are factually on point with this case. Serfass involved a pretrial order of dismissal, Johnson involved a guilty plea, and Cooke was a consolidated case in which the referred-to footnote was part of the opinion that dealt with a prosecutor’s appeal from an order acquitting the defendant on the basis of insufficiency of the evidence entered after the jury returned a verdict of guilty. Cooke was affirmed on statutory grounds and the double jeopardy question was not reached. The final statement made by the Court in Serfass, supra at 394, was: We hold only that the Double Jeopardy Clause does not bar an appeal by the United States under 18 USC § 3731 with respect to a criminal defendant who has not been "put to trial before the trier of the facts, whether the trier be a jury or a judge.” United States v Jorn, 400 US [470, 479; 91 S Ct 547; 27 L Ed 2d 543 (1971)]. In the subsequent United States Supreme Court case of Crist v Bretz, supra, double jeopardy was again the issue. Montana law provided that in a jury trial jeopardy did not attach until the first witness was sworn. The Supreme Court disagreed and held that once the jury was sworn jeopardy attached. In its discussion, the Court cited Serfass and stated in a footnote: In nonjury trials jeopardy does not attach until the first witness is sworn. Serfass v United States, 420 US 377, 388. [Crist, supra at 37 n 15.] Subsequently, this footnote was adopted by the Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals as the point at which jeopardy attaches in a bench trial. In Goolsby v Hutto, 691 F2d 199 (CA 4, 1982), two different district court judges denied the prose cutor’s motion for nolo prosequi and the prosecutor refused to go forward with evidence. The trial judge called and swore in a detective who had been subpoenaed as a defense witness. The prosecutor refused to ask any questions of the witness, who was then dismissed. The trial judge concluded that jeopardy had attached and dismissed the charges for lack of evidence. The Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals concluded that jeopardy had attached when the witness was sworn and that further prosecution on a felony charge involving the same circumstances was barred. The rationale in Goolsby was that defendant was put to trial before the trier of fact and when the witness was called and sworn the defendant became subjected to either conviction or acquittal. "The fact that the witness gave no evidence required the acquittal of Goolsby by the general district court, just as his conviction would have been required had the witness given evidence sufficient to sustain his guilt.” Goolsby, supra at 202. Goolsby held that when the witness was sworn the court began to hear evidence, and it was immaterial whether or not the witness testified. The facts in Goolsby are on point with the facts presented in this case. Defendant here was put in jeopardy once the first witness was sworn, regardless of the fact that the witness subsequently did not answer questions but asserted his Fifth Amendment privilege against self-incrimination. We hold that the circuit court did not err and that jeopardy attaches in a bench trial once the first witness is sworn. Affirmed. While People v Johnson directly quotes Serfass, the footnote in People v Cooke states: In a bench trial, jeopardy attaches at the time the prosecu tion calls its first witness. Serfass v United States, 420 US 377; 95 S Ct 1055; 43 L Ed 2d 265 (1975).
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Sharpe, J. Petitioner, United States Cold Storage Corporation, seeks a writ of mandamus or prohibition to compel the board of assessors of the city of Detroit to comply with the provisions of subdivision 14 of section 9 of PA 1956, No 206. Petitioner shows that it owns and operates a warehouse in the city of Detroit; that in December, 1956, it had stored in its warehouse certain farm products; that respondent, in disregard of the exemptions noted in the above act, has included said farm products in its assessment roll; that on February 7, Í957, t^e board of assessors of the city of Detroit wrote a letter addressed to the Michigan Warehouse-men’s Association, a copy of which reads as follows: “My dear Mr. Rosie: “We are informed that your president, Mr. William J. Lamping, is in Florida, therefore, this letter is addressed to your attention. Inasmuch as the subject of this letter will affect the clients of your warehouses, we are informing you that the board of assessors will disregard section 14 of PA 1956, No 206, which has primarily to do with the exemption of farm products regularly placed in the public dock, warehouse or port facility and that such farm products will be placed on the 1957 assessment rolls. “Will you kindly notify your members should you regard it advisable. “Very truly yours, “Board of Assessors “/s/ Homer R. Marson, “Assessor” and that irreparable damage will be done to petitioner’s business and profits unless the board of assessors is prevented from placing such stored farm products upon its assessment roll. Upon the filing of the above petition with the clerk of the Supreme Court, an order to show cause and temporary restraining order was entered. The order recited the following: “Now, therefore, it is ordered that respondent be, and it hereby is, directed to show cause before this Court at the State Capitol building, Lansing, Michigan, on February 28, 1957, at 10 o’clock in the forenoon of said day, why the prayers of said petition as hereinabove recited should not be granted. “It is further ordered that the validity of any assessments or attempted assessments of farm products now declared exempt bjr subdivision fourteenth of section 9 of PA 1956, No 206 and any subsequent proceedings predicated upon any such assessments or attempted assessments, including, but not by way of limitation, the filing of any tax roll incorporating any such assessments or attempted assessments with the common council of the city of Detroit, are subject to the further order of this Court.” The board of assessors filed an answer to the petition for a writ of mandamus or prohibition, a part of which reads as follows: “Further answering however it is denied that any personal property tax is levied in Detroit upon stored farm products as a class either by respondent or anyone authorized to levy taxes therein; that under the general property tax act above mentioned an annual ad valorem nondiscriminatory property tax is levied by the city, the county and the board of education against all real and personal property, therein based upon assessments made as of January 1 of each year in the city of Detroit by its board of assessors. * * * “Further answering respondent avers, on the advice of the corporation counsel of Detroit, that it has placed on the respective personal property rolls, together with other properties subject to assessment for 1957 in said city, such farm products processed or otherwise, the ultimate use of which is for human or animal consumption as food regularly placed in storage — except where application for exemption has been claimed on the ground that same are intended for shipment out of Michigan subject to and in accordance with the conditions of subdivision 12 of said amendment to section 9. “Such action is based on respondent’s determination pursuant to advice of counsel and its belief that: “(1) ‘judicial construction of Act 206 is deemed necessary to provide constitutional and uniform application of the tax laws of this State.’ “(2) and that subdivision 14 of section 9 of PA 1956, No 206 is repugnant to and in violation of the Constitution of the State of Michigan (1908), article 10, § 3. “(3) and that subdivision 14 duplicates and must be read in conjunction with subdivision 12. “Further answering respondent avers that such assessments have not been made against petitioner herein and the latter is not affected by nor required to pay the tax based upon such assessments referred to in its petition. “8. While admitting the allegation in paragraph 8 as to the sole remedy existing and the several requirements for review and suit for recovery of tax paid under protest by affected taxpayers, respondent nevertheless denies that same is lengthy, costly and vexatious; further it neither admits nor denies that the cost of pursuing such remedy is prohibitive, for lack of sufficient information as to the identity or financial position of petitioner’s several customers, and for the further reason that no complaint has been filed to date hereof by any of the latter concerning such assessments or their right of exemption as owners of farm products as defined in subdivision 14 and petitioner is accordingly left to its proofs. “Further answering, respondent avers that lawful procedures and opportunity for complaint, review and appeal together with a specific remedy at law are available to such taxpayers. That the charter (eh 2, title 6) of the city of Detroit, its ordinances 375-E and 935-E and section 53 of the general property tax act (CL 1948, § 211.53 [Stat Ann 1950 Rev § 7.97]) afford an exclusive and sufficient remedy to those aggrieved by assessments of property in this city including owners of farm products as defined in subdivision 14 and which may have been assessed by respondent. * * * “Further respondent says no clear right to any relief is set forth by the petition; neither do the alleged actions of respondent constitute a clear violation of any duty to petitioner. “Finally answering, respondent says that the relief prayed herein is repugnant to and in violation of section 114 of the general property tax act (CL 1948, § 211.114 [Stat Ann 1950 Rev § 7.168]) which reads: “ ‘No injunction shall issue to stay proceedings for the assessment or collection of taxes under this act.’ ” Following the filing of the above answer, the board of assessors filed a motion to dismiss petitioner’s petition as follows: “Now comes the board of assessors of the city of Detroit, respondent in the above entitled cause, by its attorneys Paul T. Dwyer, corporation counsel, and Bert R. Sogge and Julius C. Pliskow, assistants corporation counsel, and moves this Court to dismiss the petition for writ of mandamus or prohibition, for the following reasons: “1. The petition does not state grounds for jurisdiction to be taken by the Court of the parties or the subject matter. “2. The petition does not allege clear, ascertainable and uncontradicted facts upon which a clear determination of undoubted right to relief can be made. “3. Petitioner is not a proper or interested party, not being affected by the provisions of section 9, subd 14 of PA 1956, No 206. “4. The petition asks the Court to enjoin an assessment or tax collection under the general property tax act contrary to section 114 thereof (CL 1948, § 211.-114 [Stat Ann 1950 Rev-§ 7.168]). “5. The petition asks this Court to take summary jurisdiction in a matter where an adequate and exclusive remedy at law has been provided by statute.” On March 6, 1957, petitioner filed a petition to add the common council of the city of Detroit as an •additional party respondent for the following reasons : “1. Both respondent and the common council, sitting as a hoard of review, are administrative boards of the city of Detroit. “2. Under the provisions of Ordinance 375-E of the city of Detroit, the common council is authorized to hear and determine appeals of persons aggrieved by any assessment made by the board of assessors 'and to correct any errors which it may discover in the assessment rolls during the period not less than 5 days or exceeding 16 days subsequent to the first Monday in March of each year. “3. The common council is now a proper party to these proceedings. “4. This motion is made, not only because the common council is now a proper party to these proceedings, but primarily to eliminate any possible claim by the city of Detroit that the common council is a necessary party in order to afford the relief prayed for in the petition now on file with this Court. “This motion is further based on the files and records in this cause.” The common council of the city of Detroit did not contest the adding of it as a party respondent and adopted all of the grounds presented in the motion to dismiss filed by the board of assessors of the city of Detroit. An order was entered in the Supreme Court adding the common council as a party respondent. In its motion to dismiss, the board of assessors urges that the petition does not state grounds which warrant jurisdiction being taken by the Court of the parties or the subject matter, in that no actual controversy is alleged between petitioner and respondents, only disagreement as to the board of assessors’ determination and acts as same affect customers placing farm products in petitioner’s storage fácil- ities. We note tliat petitioner alleges that the actions of the hoard of assessors in seeking to tax the farm products will cause it irreparable damage in that parties will store their farm products elsewhere. Wé are of the opinion that petitioner has made a prima facie showing of damage by reason of the fact that the board of assessors seeks to tax such stored farm products. It is also urged that petitioner is, not a proper or interested party as it is not affected by the provisions of PA 1956, No 206, §.9, snbd 14. We note that petitioner asserts that the board of assessors unlawul assessment of farm products stored in its warehouse places it under an economic burden even though the tax is placed upon its customers. We are not in accord with the board of assessors’ claim. This issue was decided in National Bank of Detroit v. Department of Revenue, 334 Mich 132. The board of assessors also urges that the Court should not take jurisdiction of the cause as petitioner has an adequate remedy at law. It is conceded that the provisions of the general property tax act (CL 1948, §.211.114 [Stat Ann 1950 Rev §7.168]), has no application where the aggrieved party is faced with irreparable injury, see Haggerty v. City of Dearborn, 332 Mich 304. It must also be conceded that petitioner has no adequate remedy at law as it cannot protest the tax as its customers can. It has no remedy by way of appeal. The motion to dismiss is denied for the reasons above stated. In its answer to the petition for writ of mandamus or prohibition the board of assessors urges that subdivision 14 of section 9 of PA 1956, No 206, is repugnant to article 10, § 3 of the Michigan Constitution of 1908. The basis for the general property tax in Michigan is found in article 10, § 3 of the Constitution of 1908 which reads as follows: “The legislature shall provide by law a uniform rule of taxation, except on property paying specific taxes, and taxes shall be levied on such property as shall be prescribed by law: Provided, That the legislature shall provide by law a uniform rule of taxation for such property as shall be assessed by the State board of assessors, and the rate of taxation on such property shall be the rate which the State board of assessors shall ascertain and determine is the average rate levied upon other property upon which ad valorem taxes are assessed for State, county, township, school and municipal purposes.” Implementing the constitutional mandate, the legislature enacted PA 1893, No 206, known as the general property tax act (CL 1948, § 211.1 [Stat Ann 1950 Rev § 7.1]) states: “Sec. 1. That all property, real and personal, within the jurisdiction of this State not expressly exempted, shall be subject to taxation.” The charter of the city of Detroit of 1918 revised to January 1,1956, title 6, ch 2, § 1, provides: “All real and personal property within the city subject to taxation by the laws of this State shall be assessed at its true cash value by the board of assessors herein provided. Assessments shall be made according to assessment districts, the boundary lines of which shall conform to ward boundaries as established from time to time by the common council. ■There shall be an assessment roll in book form for each such district. All taxes upon personal property may be assessed in any district, whether the person assessed is a resident of such district or not.” ■ The basis of the board of assessors’ challenge is that.the quoted act does not operate uniformly. In Board of Supervisors of Chippewa County v. Auditor General, 65 Mich 408, we held that whether a tax exemption would be a profitable measure for the future financial interest of the State and county was a question for the legislature and not for the court. In Citizens’ Telephone Company of Grand Rapids v. Fuller, 229 US 322 (33 Sup Ct 833, 57 L ed 1206), the court had under discussion PA 1909, No 49, which exempted telegraph and telephone companies whose gross receipts within Michigan did not exceed $500 during the period of a year. It was there said (pp 328, 329, 331, 332): “In Michigan the legislature has the power of prescribing the subjects of taxation and exemption, notwithstanding the Constitution of the State requires the legislature to provide a uniform rule of taxation, except on property paying specific taxes. People, ex rel. St. Mary’s Falls Ship Canal Co., v. Auditor General, 7 Mich 84; Chippewa County Supervisors v. Auditor General, 65 Mich 408; National Loan & Investment Co. v. Detroit, 136 Mich 451. The power of exemption would seem to imply the power of discrimination, and in taxation, as in other matters of legislation, classification is within the competency of the legislature. We said in American Sugar Refining Co. v. Louisiana, 179 US 89, 92 ( 21 S Ct 43, 45 L ed 102, 103), that from time out of mind it has been the policy of this government to classify for the purpose of taxation, and a discrimination was supported between taxation of producers and manufacturers of products; and yet in Billings v. Illinois, 188 US 97, 102 (23 S Ct 272, 47 L ed 400, 403), we compared the rule with that in Connolly v. Union Sewer Pipe C.o., 184 US 540 (22 S Ct 431, 46 L ed 679) where a distinction between buyers of products and the producers of them was held an illegal discrimination. “It may therefore be said that in taxation there is a broader power of classification than in some other exercises of legislation. There is certainly as great a power, and the rule appellant urges cannot be adopted. It is inconsistent with the principle of clas sification and the cases which have explained the principle and the range of its legal exercise. * * * “They illustrate the power of the legislature of the State over the subjects of taxation and the range of discrimination which may be exercised in classifying those subjects when not obviously exercised in a spirit of prejudice and favoritism. Cook v. Marshall County, Iowa, 196 US 261, 274 (25 S Ct 233, 49 L ed 471, 474); Missouri v. Dockery, 191 US 165 (24 S Ct 53, 48 L ed 133, 63 LRA 571). The cases decided subsequent to the decision in Bell’s Gap R. Co. v. Pennsylvania (134 US 232, 237 [10 S Ct 533, 33 L ed 892, 895]) have applied its principle to many varying instances. Granting the power of classification, we must grant government the right to select the differences upon which the classification shall be based, and they need not be great or conspicuous. Keeney v. Comptroller of the State of New York, 222 US 525, 536 (32 S Ct 105, 56 L ed 299, 305, 38 LRA NS 1139). The State is not bound by any rigid equality. This is the rule; — its limitation is that it must not be exercised in ‘clear and hostile discrimina-tions between particular persons and classes.’ See Quong Wing v. Kirkendall, 223 US 59, 62, 63 (32 S Ct 192, 56 L ed 350). Thus defined and thus limited, it is a vital principle, giving to government freedom to meet its exigencies, not binding its action by rigid formulas, but apportioning its burdens, and permitting it to make those ‘discriminations which the best interests of society require.’ “We think the statute under review is within the rule. It is not arbitrary. It has a reasonable basis, resting on a real distinction.” We do-not find that the enacted legislation came into existence in a “spirit of prejudice and favoritism.” The question of the economic advantages to be obtained by exemptions is a matter pertaining to the legislature. In C. F. Smith Co. v. Fitzgerald, 270 Mich 659, 681, it was stated: “We may not inquire into the motives which actuated the legislature in the exercise of its taxing' power. Tax legislation enacted within the limits of the Constitution may not be invalidated because of the supposed motives which induced it. United States v. Doremus, 249 US 86 (39 S Ct 214, 63 L ed 493). We may not inquire into the knowledge, negligence, motives or methods of the legislature if the statute was regularly enacted in pursuance of power conferred upon the legislature by the Constitution. Calder v. State of Michigan, ex rel. Attorney, General, 218 US 591 (31 S Ct 122, 54 L ed 1163).” In People v. Gibbs, 186 Mich 127, 134, 135 (Ann Cas 1917B, 830), this Court stated: “Courts are not concerned with the motives which actuate members of a legislative body in enacting a law, but in the results of their action. Bad motives might inspire a law which appeared on its face and proved valid and beneficial, while a bad and invalid law might be, and sometimes is, passed with good intent and the best of motives.” We conclude that the act in question was passed by the legislature to encourage the flow of commerce into Michigan and that the act is constitutional. We also hold that petitioner, not having an adequate remedy at law, may resort to mandamus or prohibition to stay irreparable damage. The writ of mandamus will issue, but without costs as a constitutional question is involved. Dethmers, C. J., and Smith, Kelly, and Carr, JJ., concurred with Sharpe, J. This act amended CL 1948, § 211.9 (Stat Ann 1950 Rev § 7.9).— Reporter. i. e., subdivision 14 of the amended section 9. — Reporter.
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Black, J. (after stating the facts). This record portrays an instance of unfortunate grant of leave to review a circuit court order, the iatter being interlocutory in nature. The result, apparent now on belated submission of the appeal so granted, becomes a regrettable compound of unnecessary delay in probating an estate long overdue for settlement. We hasten toward corrective action. The probate court order of October 4th — whether it be termed interlocutory or final — was appealable by the heir of right. So far as present inquiry is concerned Court Rule No 75 (revised in 1949) fits its provisions to the general statute governing appeals from probate to circuit (see Section 6 of the rule as revised). The statute grants right of appeal —unconditionally and without requirement of leave —, to “any person aggrieved,” from “any order, sentence, decree or denial of the judge of probate” (CL 1948, §701.36 [Stat Ann 1943 Rev §27.3178(36)]). The' statutory exceptions to such unconditional right of appeal appear in the next ensuing section (CL 1948, §701.37 [Stat Ann 1943 Rev §27.3178(37)]). Since the probate court order of October 4th does not come within the specific exceptions noted in the last-mentioned section, the motion to dismiss appeal was properly denied by the circuit judge. Affirmed, with costs to appellee. Dethmers, 0. J., and Sharpe, Smith, Edwards,. Voelker, Kelly and Carr, JJ., concurred.
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Dethmers, C. J. Defendant was convicted of selL ing securities which had not been accepted for filing for sale by the Michigan corporation and securities commission, in violation of section 7 of the blue-sky law (CL 1948, § 451.101 et seq. [Stat Ann § 19.741 et seq.}). Proofs established that he had made a large number of such sales in the course of repeated and successive transactions of a like character to several persons. It is defendant’s contention that the identity of some of the persons to whom he made such sales and who appeared as witnesses for the people became known to the officers only through their examination of records unlawfully seized by them in his home and that, therefore, the court erred in not granting his motion to strike “all of the testimony of all of the persons who bought” such securities from defendant. The record does not disclose, and apparently defendant did not attempt to show, which of the witnesses were so discovered by the officers to be such purchasers, but only that some, unnamed, were; and it was affirmatively shown that at least some of •them were previously known to be such by the officers. If any of the evidence which defendant moved to have stricken were to be considered incompetent for the reasons advanced, the motion was yet properly denied because it covered some testimony which manifestly did not suffer from the claimed infirmity. People v. Dowd, 44 Mich 488; People v. Stanley, 101 Mich 93. Furthermore, defendant cites and we find no authority for his proposition that the otherwise competent testimony of witnesses is rendered incompetent by the fact that the knowledge that they were possessed of information qualifying them to testify in the case came to the officers through their perusal of records unlawfully seized by them. No unlawfully-seized evidence was introduced. The facts as to how the authorities learned whom to subpoena as witnesses aré immaterial to the question of the competence of the testimony they gave. Learning of their identity through unlawfully-seized documents could not serve to seal their lips forever. Defendant contends that his motion for directed verdict of not guilty should have been granted on the ground that the securities he sold were his own property and that such sales were not violative of section 7 of the blue-sky law as charged, even though the securities had not been accepted for filing for sale by the commission. Defendant’s ingenious argument in this connection runs about as follows:— that the people claimed and showed continued and successive transactions by defendant in selling the securities in question; that section 21 of the act provides that nothing in subdivision 2 of the act shall be construed as prohibiting an owner of- secu rities from selling them, excepting that when he sells them in continued and successive transactions he shall be deemed a “dealer” therein; that, therefore, under the people’s proofs he was, at most, a dealer; that under the definitions of section 2 of the act the terms “salesman” and “dealer” are mutually exclusive ; that, hence, because defendant was a dealer he could not have been a salesman or seller; and that section 7, under which defendant was convicted, treats only with selling or a seller and not with a dealer and, therefore, defendant being a dealer' and not a seller, he could not have been guilty of violating section 7. The reasoning is spurious. The provision in section 21 that one engaged in continued and successive transactions shall be deemed a “dealer” must be read in the light of the words immediately following, namely, that he shall be “subject to the provisions hereof,” that is to say, subject to the provisions of section 21 requiring the procuring of a dealer’s license. The purpose of the mentioned designation as a dealer is solely to impose the requirement of a dealer’s license and not to exempt from the requirement of section 7 that securities sold must first be accepted by the commission. It will be noted that the exemption in section 21, with respect to an owner’s sale of his own securities, extends by express terms only to the prohibitions contained in subdivision 2 of the act and not to the requirements of section 7 which is contained in subdivision 1. There is no language in either sections 21 or 7, or elsewhere in the act, exempting a dealer from the prohibition of section 7 that no security shall be sold by any person until it has been accepted for filing for sale by the commission. That prohibition of section 7 extends to “any person,” whether dealer, seller, salesman or whatever. The only exceptions are provided in section 7 itself and relate not to kinds of persons making the sales, but, rather, to the kinds of securities enumerated in section 4 and to the kinds of sales enumerated in section 5 of tlie act, of which the exception most nearly pertinent here is that contained in section 5(c), namely, “an isolated transaction * * * by the owner * * * not being made in the course of repeated and successive transactions of a like character by such owner.” Inasmuch as defendant’s sales were repeated and successive, they did not come within that exception. Affirmed. Sharpe, Smith, Edwards, Voelker, Kelly, Carr, and Black, JJ., concurred. CL 1948, § 451.107 (Stat Ann 1955 Cum Supp § 19.747). — Be-PORTER. CL 1948, §451.121 (Stat Ann 1955 Cum Supp § 19.761). — Ee-PORTER. See CLS 1956, § 451.104 (Stat Ann 1955 Cum Supp § 19.744).— Reporter. See CL 1948, § 451.105 (Stat Ann 1955 Cum Supp § 19.745).— Reporter.
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Edwards, J. These appeals concern the question of whether the Michigan public service commission has the power to order the railroads doing business in this State to install gates at dangerous railroad grade crossings and, if so, upon whom the costs must fall. In 1873 the legislature passed the railroad incorporation act. Three sections of this act authorized the railroad commissioner of the State to order railroads to construct and operate railroad crossing-gates at highway grade crossings where necessity therefor was found. The cost of installation and operation was by implication placed exclusively on the railroads to whom the orders were directed. Three facts are undisputed. The railroad incorporation act has never been repealed. The 3 sections cited have never been removed from the act by specific repeal. The Michigan public service commission (defendant herein) has succeeded to the powers previously held by the railroad commissioner. In this case the Michigan public service commission seeks to require the New York Central Eailroad Company to erect modern automatic short-arm gates at a certain grade crossing in Washtenaw county, and to divide the cost of the installation and operation equally between the plaintiffs New York Central Eailroad Company and the board ox county road' commissioners of the county of Washtenaw. The Michigan public service commission bases its claim for authority in relation to this order largely upon the terms of the 1873 act. Plaintiffs herein, the railroad and the road commission, contended before the Ingham circuit court that the disputed sections have long since been repealed by implication. In addition, they asserted that, in relation to the particular grade crossing involved, the record disclosed no support for the Michigan public service commission’s ■finding of necessity for the gates. Each plaintiff likewise denied that the commission, as to it, had any statutory authority to order payment of costs. The Ingham circuit court found for the defendant Michigan public service commission on all points and entered decrees dismissing both bills of complaint, whereupon plaintiffs appealed to this Court. While we find many acts and amendments subsequent to 1873 which deal with grade-crossing protection, we do not find either the claimed inconsistency or such occupancy of the field as to warrant a finding of repeal by implication. A power as important as this in terms of public safety should not be held to be removed without legislation which, either in specific terms or by plain implication, clearly reveals the legislative intent to repeal. Further, we hold that the record shows ample justification for the public service commission’s finding of necessity for gates at this particular crossing. However, since the statute construed makes no grant of power to the commission to divide the costs of the installation and the disputed sections of the act have never been amended in this regard, the costs must fall upon the railroad. The Michigan public service commission’s order was issued December 6, 1955, after a hearing at the Ypsilanti city hall on November 14, 1955. Its terms, .in more detail, directed the New York Central Rail road Company to install, maintain and operate automatic flasher signals as well as half-roadway gates at the Superior road crossing over the New York Central double-track main lines in Washtenaw county. The order further provided for the expense of both safety devices to be borne 50% by the Wash-tenaw county road commission and 50% by the New York Central Railroad. Neither appellant complained about the portion of the order requiring installation of flasher signals at this crossing and equal allocation of the cost therefor. Both appellants filed petitions for rehearing, which were denied by the commission on January 19, 1956. Both appellants then filed bills of complaint in the Ingham county circuit court to vacate and set aside that portion of the order referring to installation of half-roadway gates and allocation of cost therefor. On consolidated hearing of these matters before Judge Coash, decrees dismissing the hills of complaint were entered, from which these appeals are taken. We -deal first with the question of whether or not the commission had before it sufficient evidence for a finding of public necessity in relation to the ordering of half-roadway gates. In spite of contrary appearances, we doubt that this ground for appeal is seriously urged. Neither appellant presented any evidence before the public service commission or the circuit court. Further, the testimony before the public service commission on the part of the sheriff of Washtenaw county is totally unrefuted: “I would favor half-roadway gates because this is .one of the most dangerous crossings in the county due to the visibility and the curve in the railroad, but I think gates would be very beneficial, especially if any trains meet at this crossing.” So, likewise, is his testimony as to a grade-crossing accident at this crossing in October, 1955, resulting in 2 fatalities, and a grade-crossing accident in December, 1954, involving 2 serious injuries. The case for the installation was contained principally in the expert testimony of Mr. Donald W. Hughes, railroad safety inspector for the public service commission. His testimony bore particularly upon the problems of visibility at this particular crossing and the problem posed by the double-track operation over Superior road, which, in his opinion, could not be met by flasher signal installation alone. Pertinent portions of Mr. Hughes’ testimony follow: “I have made 2 inspections at the Superior road crossing over the 2 main tracks of The New York Central Railroad Company in Washtenaw county; 1 of these inspections was made on February 3, 1954, and the second on July 11, 1955. Present at these inspections were representatives of the Michigan State' police, 'Superior township, the Washtenaw county road commission and the New York Central. The 2 main tracks of the New York Central and the Superior road cross at about a 70-degree angle. The road runs north and south and the tracks run northwesterly-southwesterly. The tracks are on a level grade. The road is on an ascending grade from south to north. There is about a 1.13-degree curve in the railroad tracks west of the crossing and there is a short curvature in the road about 300 feet south of the crossing. The topography of the land in the area is rolling. There are several obstructions to view at this crossing. In the northwest quadrant, there is an embankment along the north line of the railroad which continues west’ for about 1,500 feet. This embankment is lined with trees and underbrush from 6 to 16 feet in height. There is a field in the northeast quadrant which contains some trees and underbrush, and humps of earth 4 to 7 or 8 feet in height, and their height would'be extended to the extent of snow or weeds gathered on top of them. There is little or no sight distance for the driver of a vehicle driving south on Superior road in attempting to determine whether there is a train approaching from the west. There also is no minimum adequate view of an approaching train for a driver proceeding-south on Superior road in attempting to determine whether there is a train approaching from the east. “The southwest quadrant at the crossing contains a stand of trees and a dwelling house with a garage, and underbrush and trees line the south line of the railroad for a considerable distance west of the crossing. There is no adequate sight distance for a driver proceeding north on Superior road in attempting to determine whether there is an approaching eastbound New York Central train. The southeast quadrant provides about 50% clear vision. There is a stand of brush and small trees sprinkled throughout the field in that quadrant and the view of the railroad is intermittent. The view is further reduced during the summertime when the trees and underbrush are leafed out. “I submitted to the Michigan public service commission a written report of my first inspection, which was dated March 1, 1954. In my report I recommended that if the view of the approaching trains could not be improved to the satisfaction of the roadway, township and railroad authorities and the State police, then an installation of automatic flashing-light signals and half-roadway gates should be made at the crossing to provide for the future safety of the traveling public. * * * “The matter of half-road gates was brought into the picture automatically. These gates extend from the signal mast to the center of the roadway leaving the opposing lane open. They work in conjunction with the flashing-light signals and are controlled by the same control devices. Where there is a second or third or more multiple track, trains can and will pass each other going either in the same or opposite directions. Every railroad signal engineer in the United States and most of the roadway authorities have known for at least 18 years that the only way to prevent that second track accident is to add a gate to the signals.” Mr. Hughes’ testimony was confirmed, not only hy Sheriff Klager, but also by 2 Michigan State police officers who had inspected the crossing. No contrary testimony of any kind was offered. The commission’s finding, as contained in the conclusion of its order, is as follows: “The commission, after due consideration of the testimony presented, and being advised of its authority in the matter, finds and holds: “(1) That the crossing is dangerous; “(2) That public interest and safety require automatically operated flashing-light signals; “(3) That the public safety requires additional protection; “(4) That the public interest requires that half-roadway gates supplement the automatic flashing-light signals.” We agree with the court below that the record does contain substantial evidence supporting the finding of the commission as to the need for half-roadway gates. We have previously held that the courts have no power to substitute their judgment on matters of fact for the judgment of the public service commission, where it is supported by substantial evidence. Lafayette Transfer & Storage Co. v. Michigan Public Utilities Commission, 287 Mich 488 (28 PUR NS 455); City of Detroit v. Michigan Railroad Commission, 209 Mich 395 (PUR1920D, 867). A considerably more serious legal problem is posed by appellants’ contention that the public service commission was without statutory authority as to its half-roadway gate order. The commission’s answer relies upon 3 statutes and an opinion of this Court wherein by dictum we seem to have supported such authority. The 3 statutes relied upon by the commission are: 1. PA 1909, No 300, § 44 (CL 1948, § 462.44 [Stat Ann § 22.62]); 2. PA 1921, No 270, § 8, as amended by PA 1931, No 336 (CL 1948, § 469.8 [Stat Ann § 22.768]); 3. PA 1873, No 198, art 4, §§ 2, 3 and-4, as amended (CL 1948 §§ 466.2, 466.3, 466.4 [Stat Ann §§ 22.261, 22.262, 22.263]). As to tbe first 2 of these statutes, we have reviewed with care the claim of the commission that authority may be found in it for the order currently complained of and we find little merit therein. PA 1909, No 300, § 44, purports to vest the police powers of the State over railroads in the railroad commission, “to exercise the same in accordance with the requirements of the law.” If, as the commission’s brief claims, this language may be read standing alone as enabling the Michigan public service commission (successor to the railroad commission) to order railroads to make installations such as contemplated here at their own expense, it would represent a delegation of legislative authority beyond the constitutional power of the legislature. Police power over railroads is indeed placed by this act in the hands of the Michigan public service commission, but broad policies upon which the commission acts must be the subject of specific legislative declaration. G. F. Redmond & Co. v. Michigan Securities Commission, 222 Mich 1; Mutual Film Corporation v. Industrial Commission of Ohio, 236 US 230 (35 S Ct 387, 59 L ed 552, Ann Cas 1916C, 296); People v. Babcock, 343 Mich 671; Wyandotte Savings Bank v. State Banking Commissioner, 347 Mich 33. The second of the statutes relied upon by the commission, PA 1921, No 270, § 8, as amended by PA 1931, No 336, is a specific legislative grant of authority to order the installation of flasher-light signals at railroad grade crossings, and to order the allocation of costs between the railroad and the highway authorities concerned, in this instance the county road commission. No express power to order installation of gates is contained therein. It is plaintiff road commission’s contention here that the grant of authority to order the installation of flasher lights carries with it the authority to order automatic half-roadway gates as an adjunct of the flasher light signals. In view of the fact that this record discloses that the addition of automatic half-roadway gates to the installation of flasher lights adds approximately 100% to the total cost, it seems hardly logical to assume that the gates can be regarded as a mere adjunct. We turn then to the third of these statutes, PA 1873, No 198, art 4, §§ 2, 3 and 4, as amended (CL 1948, §§ 466.2, 466.3,466.4 [Stat Ann §§ 22.261, 22.262, 22.263]), consideration of which we regard as decisive of the present litigation. Sections 2 and 3 provided : “Sec. 2. On and after July 31,1873, every company, person or corporation owning or operating a railroad within this State, shall construct and maintain a gate or gates, or bridge, or maintain a flagman to signal trains at every highway or street crossing on the line of such road, where the same shall be required by the commissioner of railroads, as hereinafter provided. Any company, person, or corporation neglecting or refusing to construct or maintain such gate or gates or bridge, or to maintain such flagman where so required as aforesaid, shall forfeit for every such neglect or refusal the sum of $100, and the further sum of $10 for every day while such neglect or refusal shall continue. “Sec. 3. Whenever, in the opinion of the commissioner of railroads, the public interests require that a gate be constructed and maintained at any railroad crossing, or a bridge be built over such railway at such crossing, or that a flagman be stationed and maintained at such crossing, he shall give to the superintendent of such railroads a written notice that the same is required; and such company, person or corporation shall construct or maintain the same within such time thereafter as said commissioner shall prescribe.” As previously noted, it is undisputed that the Michigan public service commission has succeeded to the functions and authority previously held by the railroad commissioner. CL 1948, § 462.44 (Stat Ann § 22.62); CLS 1956, § 460.53 (Stat Ann 1955 Cum Supp § 22.3). We find little difficulty in reading the sections above in holding that they establish both the duty upon the railroad under certain circumstances to install gates at grade crossings, and the power in the Michigan public service commission to order same. We further believe that the title of the railroad incorporation act is broad enough to encompass both purposes. We reject as specious the argument of appellant railroad that section 3 as quoted above does not convey power to the commissioner of railroads, and his successor Michigan public service commission, to require installation of gates at highway grade crossings of railroad lines. The term “railroad crossing” is normal language for the crossing at grade of a highway and a railroad. Murphy v. Palmer, 73 RI 182, 189 (54 A2d 427, 431). Under statutory requirement the term is posted at every highway crossing of a railroad in this State. CLS 1956, § 469.5 (Stat Ann 1955 Cum Supp § 22.765). In the contest of section 3, particularly in its relationship to sections 2 and 4, it can be reád logically in no other fashion. In the ingenious argument advanced by appellant railroad company that the term “railroad crossing” in section 3 may be interpreted only as-referring to the crossing of 2 railroads, no suggestion is made to us as to how these 3 sections may be construed together. It is interesting to note that section 4 in discussing “all gates constructed under this act,” contains the language “at every gate heretofore or hereafter constructed at any crossing of a street or highway and a railroad,” et cetera. Further, the power to require the installation by the railroad manifestly meant at the cost of the railroad, since any other interpretation would have meant that the authority given ivas meaningless. Detroit, Ft. Wayne & Belle Isle Railway v. Commissioner of Railroads, 127 Mich 219 (62 LRA 149). Nor do we agree with the plaintiff railroad company’s argument that section 4 of the above-cited statute pertaining to .the construction and operation of gates, which plainly in that year contemplated manual operation of roadway gates by a watchman, represents such a different grant of power as to invalidate the present order for the installation of automatic track-circuit-operated half-roadway gates. It is plain from this record that in 1873 no such automatic device was known. Yet the language employed calls for wide discretion in the State agency empowered to order the gates in relation to approving manner and material of construction and location of the gates. Similarly, the presence or absence of a watchman is placed at the discretion of the State agency, and the information contained in this record pertaining to the operation of automatic track-circuit-operated short-arm gates plainly warrants the commission in waiving any watchman requirement. The last of the legal problems with which we have to deal pertains to plaintiffs-appellants’ argument that the statute which we have just quoted and construed has been repealed by implication. In this regard appellants contend: “Sections 35, 37 and 38 of PA 1907, No 312 and sections 35, 37 and 38 of PA 1909, No 300, covered the whole field of the subject matters dealt with in section 17 of PA 1873, No 79 and sections 2, 3 and 4 of article 4 of PA 1873, No 198. PA 1909, No 300, also specifically repealed the 1873 railroad commissioner act (Act No 79) and all other acts and parts of acts contravening the 1909 act’s provisions. * * * “In PA 1925, No 178, PA 1927, No 117, sweeping amendments were made to section 35 of PA 1909, No 300, as noted earlier. There can be no question but that the legislature, in adopting these amendments, intended to cover the whole field of crossing protection. * * * “In 1931, by PA 1931, No 336, the legislature repealed section 35 of PA 1909, No 300, and adopted an exclusive standard of crossing protection: side-of-street flashing light signals.” We have reviewed with care each of the acts and amendments relied upon'by appellants. It should be noted that no claim is advanced that any one of these specifically repealed the 3 sections of PA 1873, No 198, art 4, §§ 2, 3 and 4, which we have- been discussing. Nor is there any inconsistency or repugnance between the terms of PA 1873, No 198, art 4, §§ 2, 3 and 4 and any of the other acts or amendments relied upon, pointed out to us, or found by us in our review. What does appear to be the situation is that in the railroad commissioner act (PA 1873, No 79 [How Stat 1882, § 3285 et seq.]), adopted in the same session of the legislature in 1873 which adopted the railroad incorporation act and its crossing gate provisions, there was included a parallel section (section 17, as amended by PA 1875, No 91 [How Stat 1882, § 3301]), which in general language empowered the commissioner of railroads to direct railroads to station a flagman, or erect a bridge, or erect and maintain a gate at any highway or street crossing of its tracks. With some amendments, the general structure of this parallel section, and the power as to gates contained therein, was carried forward by repeal and re-enactment into PA 1907, No 312, § 35 * and thence into PA 1909, No 300, § 35 (CL 1915,. § 8143) ; and thence into PA 1925, No 178, amending section 35 of PA 1909, No 300; and thence into PA 1927, No 117, amending section 35 of PA 1909, No-300 (CL 1929, § 11051). At this point, section 35 of PA 1909, No 300, as amended in 1925 and 1927, was repealed by PA 1931,. No 336 (CL 1948, § 469.8 [Stat Ann § 22.768]), which was itself an amendment to section 8, PA 1921, No 270, entitled: “An act to promote the public safety and make more safe crossings of streets and highways with railroads and railways.” The pertinent language in this last enactment is-as follows: “When in the discretion of the Michigan public-utilities commission the safety of the public shall hereafter require that some protection device or improvement in existing devices be provided at a railway crossing to warn of the approach of trains about to cross the highway, it shall be the duty of the-Michigan public utilities commission and it is hereby empowered to order the railway authorities owning the tracks of such crossings to provide protection of a flashing light type equipped with a gong of approved type at each signal.” In this re-enactment of a substitute for the repealed parallel section, the legislature for the first-time omitted reference to power on the part of the-Michigan public service commission to order installation of crossing gates. It seems obvious to us that through all the sequence-of events referred to above up to PA 1931, No 336, a general power to order the installation of crossing-gates had been carried forward, paralleling the more detailed powers spelled out in the railroad incorpora tion act which is our current subject of concern. Essentially, the same relationship between the railroad gate provisions contained in the railroad incorporation act and the parallel provisions in the railroad commissioner act of 1873 was maintained down to the 1931 amendment. Since the first 2 in this series were passed within 21 days of each other, by the same legislature and may be read with complete harmony, we find no reason to read them as inconsistent, nor do we find any inconsistency or repugnance which would suggest repeal by implication in any of the other acts or amendments down to PA 1931, No 336. Our sole remaining question then pertains to the effect of PA 1931, No 336. Again, it is conceded that it contains no specific repealing provision as to PA 1873, No 198, art 4, §§ 2, 3 and 4. Again, no inconsistency between its provisions for automatic flasher signals and the description thereof and the allocation of cost therefor and the terms of PA 1873, No 198, art 4, §§ 2, 3 and 4, is pointed out to us. It is suggested that since this last enactment and the chapter which it amended (PA 1921, No 270) occupy the entire field of grade-crossing protection, this would accomplish repeal by implication. A quick comparison of the railroad incorporation act and the railroad maintenance of way act indicates conclusively that the latter does not encompass the whole field of railroad grade-crossing protection. PA 1873, No 198, is very much a part of the law of this State. It specifies the organization of railroad companies, their corporate powers and duties, and in article 4 contains many police regulations relating thereto. The use of bells and whistles on engines at highway crossings, the provision of signal boards at highway crossings, is covered by article 4, §13 of this act (CLS 1956, § 466.13 [Stat Ann 1955 Cum Supp § 22.272]). This section might be subject to much the same argu ment of repeal by implication by PA 1931, No 336, as. are the currently-considered sections 2, 3 and 4 of the same act. It is interesting to note, however, that it was last amended by the legislature in 1949 bv PA 1949, No 89. Other provisions pertaining to grade crossings contained in the railroad incorporation act may be-found in section 15 (CL 1948, § 466.15 [Stat Ann § 22.274]) and in section 22 (CL 1948, § 466.22 [Stat Ann § 22.281]). We recognize as good law the principles argued to us by appellants herein pertaining to repeal by implication. When the intention of the legislature is clear, repeal by implication may be accomplished by the enactment of a subsequent act inconsistent with a former act. People v. Bussell, 59 Mich 104; Jackson v. Michigan Corrections Commission, 313 Mich 352; Southward v. Wabash R. Co., 331 Mich 138. Where the legislative intent is clear, repeal by implication may be likewise achieved by the occupancy of the entire field by a subsequent enactment. Attorney General, ex rel. Fuller, v. Parsell, 100 Mich 170; People v. Marxhausen, 204 Mich 559 (3 ALR 1505). Our difficulty with the cases urged upon us as to these principles by appellants is that, as noted, we find neither clear intention on the part of the legislature, nor inconsistency and repugnance between the former statute and the latter, nor occupation of the complete field by the latter. Repeals by implication are not favored. “The interpretation of statutes which may achieve-a repeal by implication of an existing law is premised upon the policy that the customary existent law is not presumed to be altered or repealed by subsequent legislation which does not expressly revoke the older and traditional law. The bent of the rules of interpretation and construction is to give harmonious operation and effect to all of the acts upon a subject,. where such a construction is reasonably possible, even to the extent of superimposing a construction of consistency upon the apparent legislative intent to repeal, where 2 acts can, in fact, stand together and be given a coterminous operation. Where the repealing effect of a statute is doubtful, the statute is to he strictly construed to effectuate its consistent operation with previous legislation.” 1 Sutherland, Statutory Construction (3d ed), § 2014. See, also, People v. Buckley, 302 Mich 12; People v. Stanley, 344 Mich 530; Attorney General, ex rel. Owen, v. Joyce, 233 Mich 619. Closest in point to the statutory problem currently under consideration is a Michigan case which construed the relationship between a pre-existing act and the prison reorganization act attacked and upheld in Attorney General, ex rel. Fuller, v. Parsell, supra. In People v. Huntley, 112 Mich 569, 578, 579, a unanimous Court said as follows: “But it is contended by counsel for respondents that this section of the act of 1887 was repealed by PA 1893, No 118. The act of 1893 was a revision and consolidation of the foimer acts, and to repeal all acts inconsistent therewith. While the general rule is that statutes and parts of statutes omitted from a revision are to be considered annulled, and not to be revived by construction, yet there are many exceptions to this rule. A revisal repealing all acts repugnant to the provisions thereof cannot affect statutes which are omitted, and which are not repugnant to its provisions. State v. Pollard, 6 RI 290. The rule of implied repeal is clearly inapplicable also where the revising statute declares what effect it is intended to have upon the former law, as where it declares that it shall operate as a repeal of such provisions of earlier acts as are inconsistent with it, which is regarded as a declaration that it shall repeal only such provisions, and leave unaffected such as are not inconsistent. Endlich, Interpretation of Statutes, § 203; Patterson v. Tatum (USDC Cal), 3 Sawy 164; Lewis v. Stout, 22 Wis 234; Gaston v. Merriam, 33 Minn 271 (22 NW 614). Applying these rules to the present case, it must be' held that section 3 of the act of 1887 was not repealed. The court therefore had power to impose the sentence, commencing after the former sentence shall have expired.” See, also, Edwards v. Auditor General, 161 Mich 639; In re Bushey, 105 Mich 64; People v. Hanrahan, 75 Mich 611 (4 LRA 751). Finally, appellants contend to us that in the interval between 1931 and the present date there is evidence that the Michigan public service commission has considered itself to be without power to order the installation of railroad gates at grade crossings. The immediate answer to this is, of course, that statutes do not wither by disuse. 1 Sutherland, Statutory Construction (3d ed), §2034. We may, how-eve]', likewise point to clear-cut language in the case decided by this Court in 1940 which specifically said the contrary although we recognize that the paragraph in question was dicta: “The State has acted for the protection of passengers at railroad crossings and has prescribed the erection of crossing gates for the care and protection of those passengers who might be injured by the want of some protection. The kind and character of the protection that is to be erected at railroad crossings is left to the sound judgment and discretion of the Michigan public service commission and it is based upon the reasonableness of the protection to be afforded and may be in the form of warning signals, bells, or by the erection of crossing gates.” Perch v. New York Central R. Co., 294 Mich 227, 235. In still other negligence cases arising after 1931 this Court has recognized the continued existence of a State power to order railroad crossing gates. Momany v. Pere Marquette R. Co., 282 Mich 168; Bishop v. New York Central R. Co., 348 Mich 345. In the prevailing opinion in the latter case (signed by 3 present Justices of this Court and concurred in by 3 others) we find the following (p 355): “This was a protected crossing where by statute and order of the Michigan public service commission defendant was required to maintain and operate safety gates for the specific protection of the public. CL 1948, § 466.2 et seq. (Stat Ann § 22.261 et seq.).” The statute cited above is the very one which we here construe. No case is cited to us by appellants, nor do we find any, wherein this Court has specifically or by implication held a contrary view. Thus we agree with the circuit judge that the defendant Michigan public service commission had both statutory authority and adequate evidence of public necessity for the order for automatic gates at the Superior road-New York Central crossing in Wash-tenaw county. We cannot agree, however, with his approval of that portion of the commission order which divided the costs for this installation equally between the plaintiffs, railroad and road commission. We do not believe that the language of PA. 1931, No 336, allocating costs of flasher-signal installation between railroads and road commissions can be read as authorizing this formula for the installation of gates which is not a topic covered by this act. We have previously noted that PA 1873, No 198, called for the railroads to install crossing gates at the expense of the railroad. Further, we do not find a consistent pattern of allocation of grade-crossing costs adopted by the legislature since then. Different formulae for the payment of costs involved in grade-crossing protection may be found in different instances. Thus the railroads must pay the full cost of maintaining the grade crossing up to 1 foot beyond the ties as well as bearing the full costs of sign boards (in certain instances) and train bell or whistle warnings. PA 1921, No 270, § 1, as amended (CL 1948, § 469.1 [Stat Ann § 22.761]); PA 1873, No 198, art 4, § 13, as amended by PA 1949, No 89 (CLS 1956, § 466.13 [Stat Ann 1955 Cum Supp § 22.272]); PA 1923, No 158, §1 (CL 1948, § 469.111 [Stat Ann § 22.851]). The highway authorities must, on the other hand, bear the full cost of maintaining dear-vision areas at crossings, of installing barriers and (in certain instances) of installing warning signs. PA 1921, No 270, § 7, as amended (CL 1948, § 469.7 [Stat Ann § 22.767]); PA 1937, No 295, §4 (CL 1948, § 247.314 [Stat Ann 1955 Cum Supp § 9.1423 (4)]); PA 1921, No 270, § 3, as amended (CL 1948, §469.3 [Stat Ann § 22.763]). In addition, the legislature has provided for dividing costs equally as to warning signs (in certain instances) and as to flasher signals. PA 1921, No 270, § 5, as amended (CLS 1956, § 469.5 [Stat Ann 1955 Cum Supp § 22.765]); PA 1921, No 270, §8 (CL 1948, § 469. 8 [Stat Ann § 22.768]). In spite of the above, it may well be, as argued to us by the railroad and the Michigan public service commission, that the present intention of the legislature in relation to allocation of costs is shown in the provisions of PA 1931, No 336, allocating the cost of flasher signals equally between the railroad and the road commission. If, indeed, this is the intention of the legislature, it may be, and doubtless will be, given prompt effect by proper amendment. The 2 equity matters which we have dealt with in these consolidated appeals will be remanded to the circuit court for modification of the orders previously entered, in accordance with this opinion. No costs will be awarded, a public question being involved. Dethmers, C. J.,. and Sharpe, Voelker, Kelly, Carr, and Black, JJ., concurred. Smith, J., did not sit. See CL 1948, § 469.8 (Stat Aim § 22.768).
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Carr, J. The record in the instant case discloses that Raymond J. Francis was, at the time of his death on August 19, 1955, a resident of Macomb county. He left as his heirs the widow, Rhoda M. Francis, a son, George A. Francis, and a daughter, Marie Brohl. On August 27, 1954, he had executed a will, in accordance with which all of his estate not required for certain specific legacies was directed to be given in equal shares to the widow, his son, and the daughter. It is not disputed that this will was properly executed. Under date of August 22, 1955, a petition was filed in the probate court of the county, asking for the probate of the will executed as above stated. On the filing of said petition George A. Francis was appointed special administrator and, on the filing of a bond, letters of administration were issued to him. On August 31st following, the widow, Rhoda M. Francis, filed in said court a petition for general administration, averring that Raymond J. Francis died intestate leaving an estate in Macomb county to be administered therein. Said petition was brought on for hearing and Mrs. Francis, in support of her claim that her husband had not left any valid will, testified that under date of April 14, 1955, he, while in the State of Florida, had executed another will which he subsequently destroyed. She further stated that a third proposed will was then drafted, but not executed. Counsel for proponents of the will executed August 27,1954, participated in the hearing on the petition for the appointment of a general administrator, and stipulated that the Florida will was destroyed. The record clearly indicates that it was recognized by the judge of probate and by counsel representing the respective parties that the widow’s petition for general administration, and the proceeding for the probating of the will submitted by the son and daughter of decedent, involved the determination of the question whether the instrument executed in Florida operated to revoke, at the time of such execution, the prior will. As a practical proposition, the hearing in the prohate court, which apparently was continued from time to time, was on both petitions then before the court. The depositions of 2 persons who claimed to have witnessed the Florida will were offered as proof of the proper execution of said instrument. Counsel for Mrs. Francis also offered in evidence the deposition of a Florida attorney, who testified that he had prepared the will for Mr. Francis, that it was duly and properly executed, and that it contained a clause revoking all prior wills. This witness produced a paper designated in the record as a “conformed copy” of the Florida will, and claimed that it was a true and correct copy of the instrument executed in April, 1955. Mrs. Francis also testified as to the accuracy of such copy, asserting that she had compared it with the original will, and that she had personal knowledge, based on her examination of said will, as to the contents thereof. The purported copy introduced in evidence contained a clause revoking all prior wills. At the conclusion of the hearing the judge of probate filed a brief written opinion, stating his conclusion that the will executed by Raymond J. Francis on August 27, 1954, had not been revoked. Said opinion was filed January 20, 1956, and on the same date separate orders were filed, the first admitting said wiil to probate and the second denying the petition filed by the widow for the appointment of a general administrator. Thereupon Rhoda M. Francis filed a claim of appeal to the circuit court from both orders. The probate judge found that the appeal bond complied with the law and approved the appeal as taken, directing the service of copy of the claim on the proponents of the will admitted to probate. In the circuit court counsel for the parties stipulated- in writing that the cause be submitted .on the record that had been made in probate court and briefs supporting the positions of the respective parties. The circuit judge to whom the controversy was thus submitted disagreed with the conclusion reached by the judge of probate, holding that the will admitted to probate had been revoked by the later Florida will, and that the question whether Raymond J. Francis had died intestate was properly before him for determination. Accordingly an order was entered disallowing the will of August 27, 1954, and appointing an administrator of the estate in accordance with the petition filed by Rhoda M. Francis. From such order George A. Francis and Marie Brohl, referred to as proponents of the will, have appealed. On behalf of appellants it is contended that, as a matter of law, there was no proper contest with reference to the right to have the will of August 27, 1954, admitted to probate. Reliance is placed on CL 1948, §702.24 (Stat Ann § 27.3178[94]), which section, insofar as material here, reads as follows: “Objections to the admission of the will may be offered by any interested party and shall be filed in writing and served on the proponent, or his attorney, at or prior to the hearing for the admission thereof.” Admittedly, Mrs. Francis, designated in this proceeding as contestant and appellee, did not file in probate court any written instrument expressly designated as objections to the probating of the offered will. However, her petition averring that her husband had died intestate indicated the position she Vas taking in the proceeding, namely, that the will executed in August, 1954, by Mr. Francis was not in force and effect at the time of his death. The testimony that was offered and received on her petition clearly indicated her position in the matter. The probate judge was thereby faced with the question whether the will offered for probate had been revoked by the subsequent Florida will. Obviously, each of the proceedings instituted in probate court by the parties presented this issue, which undoubtedly explains why they were tried as one cause. The ‘opinion rendered by the judge of probate undertook to dispose of the sole issue before him in each proceeding. The appeal to the circuit court taken by Mrs. Francis, approved by the probate court, obviously rested on the theory that the issue determined adversely to her applied equally to her petition for the appointment of a general administrator and to the previously filed petition for the probating of the will of August, 1954. The probate hearing was conducted and determined on the theory that the controlling question involved was presented by the petitions that had been filed. In determining the question whether the probating of the will was properly contested the circuit judge referred to the proceeding in probate court, saying in part: “In effect such contest on the part of the contestant gave notice to the proponents that she was contesting the validity of the original will and the entire proceedings in probate court held on many different trial days all point to the fact that all parties concerned including the court were of the opinion that the real issue was the validity of the will offered. The entire proceedings having been devoted to contesting such validity, it will be considered by this court that ample notice was had and to all intent and purposes the proceedings in probate court constituted a contest brought within the provisions of the statutes with reference to contesting the admission of a will.” ' Under the somewhat unusual situation presented, we are impressed that the circuit judge came to the correct conclusion, and was fully justified in disposing of the issue before him on the merits. The decision in In re Estate of Meredith, 275 Mich 278 (104 ALE 348), to which counsel for appellants have referred, is not at variance with the conclusion that the circuit judge had jurisdiction to determine whether the will offered for probate had been revoked. Special attention is directed to the statement in the opinion in said case (p 292) that: “The right to contest a will is, in this State, purely statutory and can be exercised only in accordance with and within the limitations prescribed by statute.” The question before the Court, in the case cited, involved the right of the parties concerned in the will contest to stipulate to submit to an arbitrator the determination of the issue raised as to the mental competency of the testator. It was held that jurisdiction in the premises was conferred by statute on the judge of probate, that it was the duty of the court to make such determination, and authority to do so could not be delegated. The controversy did not in volve a situation of the character presented in the instant case. Concededly probate proceedings are subject to the provisions of the statute, and consideration thereof indicates that the general purpose sought to be served is the proper and orderly determination of matters submitted in such proceedings. We have here before us a situation in which the real question to be determined was raised, in writing, by the petitions-that the respective parties filed. Under the facts disclosed by the record, we are in accord with the holding of the circuit judge that he had jurisdiction to determine the controversy before him on its merits. This brings us to the question whether the proofs offered by appellee in the probate court hearing were sufficient to establish that the Florida will contained a revocatory clause. CL 1948, § 702.26 (Stat Ann § 27.3178[96]), provides that: “No revoking clause in any alleged, lost, destroyed or suppressed will, and no alleged disposition of property, terms or conditions contained therein, claimed to be inconsistent with a former will which has been produced for probate, shall be sufficient to defeat or destroy the effect of such former will, unless the legal execution of said alleged, lost, destroyed or suppressed will, together with the fact that it contained such revoking clause or such inconsistent disposition of property, terms or conditions, shall be established by at least 2 reputable witnesses, having knowledge thereof.” As before noted, the testimony of the scrivener who prepared the Florida will was taken by deposition and introduced at the probate court hearing. He stated positively that the will executed by Raymond J. Francis on April 14,1955, contained a clause revoking all former wills, further testifying that such clause was inserted at the request of the testa tor. This witness, who was a practicing attorney in, St. Petersburg, Florida, further identified petitioner’s exhibit 1 as a “conformed carbon copy” of the Florida will, stating that it was prepared as a carbon copy and conformed with the original after the latter instrument had been executed. Mrs. Francis, testifying in support of the petition filed by her and in opposition to the petition for the probating of the will of August 27, 1954, also identified the exhibit. After stating that she was not a witness to the Florida will, she testified as follows: “Q. Did you see and read that document after its execution? “A. Yes, I did. * * _ * _ “Q. Now, Mrs. Francis, do you know of your own knowledge, from examination of both, that this is a carbon copy of the original will? “A. Yes, I do. The witness further testified that the original will was in the house occupied by herself and her husband, and was destroyed by him some 3 or 4 weeks after its execution. It does not appear that any question is raised as to the testimony given by the scrivener to the effect that the Florida will contained a revocatory clause. It likewise appears that the carbon copy identified by him and introduced in evidence contained such clause. As indicated, it was the claim of Mrs. Francis that she had examined the original will as well as the carbon copy, and she testified unequivocally that exhibit 1 was a true copy. The circuit judge held that the fact that the Florida will contained a revocatory clause was established by the testimony of 2 reputable witnesses, the scrivener and Mrs. Francis. On the record before us it may not be said that the testimony in the ease preponderated against the finding of the circuit judge. It does not appear that there is any reason to question the claim that both witnesses were “reputable” within the meaning of the term as used in the section of the statute above quoted. It appears from the testimony, further, that each had personal knowledge with reference to the fact in issue. Counsel for appellants refers in his brief to the case of Dingman v. Dingman, 199 Mich 384. In that case, however, the only witness who could testify to the existence of a revoking clause in a will claimed to have been executed after the execution of the will offered for probate was the attorney who prepared it. The other subscribing witness, who had typed the instrument, testified that she had no recollection concerning the matter. Likewise, in In re Leech’s Estate, 277 Mich 299, neither the legal execution of the destroyed will nor the fact that it contained a revocatory clause was shown by the testimony of 2 reputable witnesses. It was claimed that testatrix had executed such a will, subsequent to the date of the instrument offered for probate, later destroying it. The requisite proof to defeat the probating of the will submitted to the court was lacking. A similar situation existed in In re Hillaert’s Estate, 313 Mich 344. In none of these decisions on which counsel for appellants relies were the facts analogous to those in the case at bar. Here we have a situation with reference to which it may fairly be said that the execution of the Florida will, and likewise the fact that it contained a revocatory clause, was established in the manner required by the Michigan statute. The judgment of the circuit court is affirmed. Appellee may have costs. Dethmers, C. J., and Sharpe, Edwards, and Kelly, JJ., concurred with Carr, J.
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Voelker, J. This case could well he called “The Troubles of Micajah Stone.” Once again we are confronted by the case of an aggrieved divorced husband who complains to this Court that the trial court did him wrong on his petition to modify a decree of divorce as to alimony. The facts are these: In 1941 when his wife divorced him Micajah Stone was regularly employed as a salesman by the Peabody Coal Company at a salary of $275 per month. In addition he was provided with an automobile and reimbursed for all travel costs and expenses. He did not contest the divorce and prior to the hearing entered into a property settlement with the plaintiff whereby he agreed to pay her $125 per month for the support and maintenance of the plaintiff and the minor daughter of the parties, continuing during plaintiff’s lifetime. The settlement further provided that if the wife should remarry he should thenceforth be relieved of all obligation for her support, and that in such event he would pay the plaintiff $65 monthly until the child had finished high school or reached 18. The settlement further provided that in the absence of any such remarriage by the plaintiff he should continue to pay the $125 monthly during her lifetime. ' This settlement was approved in the subsequent divorce decree and its terms incorporated in the provisions for alimony. The defendant was not represented by counsel in reaching the settlement. The plaintiff did not remarry. In 1953, twelve years after the divorce, the defendant fell on evil days. The Peabody Coal Company cut its working forces and, along with a number of other old employees, he lost his job. He found a new job with the Pillsbury Chemical Company as a salesman on commission. He had a drawing account of $400 monthly but had to provide his own car and pay his own traveling and other expenses. It was not enough and he fell behind in his alimony. In October, 1953, he filed a petition to modify the original decree of divorce as to alimony. In his petition he alleged the foregoing facts, adding that his former wife was healthy and able-bodied and well able to work and support herself. He prayed that his alimony payments be discontinued. This petition was heard by the same judge who granted the original divorce. An unnamed amount of arrearage in alimony was cancelled and he was ordered to pay $65 per month for 6 months to enable him to get established in his new job with the chemical company. He was also ordered to pay her $85 per month for life after the 6 months was up. The order was filed January 11, 1954. Micajah’s troubles were not over. Things did not go well at his new job at the chemical company and he' was running behind both in his alimony and living expenses. On January 1,1955, he found still another new job as an insurance salesman. During the first month he earned $55 in commissions. He also received $87 from his last employer for part-time work he had done. In March, 1955, he filed another petition to modify, alleging the foregoing facts, and further alleging that since the last amendment to the decree (January 11, 1954) the daughter had reached 23 and graduated from college and was working. He also alleged upon information and belief that the plaintiff had since gone to work and was earning $240 per month. He again prayed that all alimony payments be discontinued. The same judge heard this second petition and on April 20,1955, the decree was again amended to cancel an unnamed arrearage in alimony, and, with the consent of the plaintiff, all alimony payments for 1 year were suspended. Thereafter it was provided that he should resume the monthly alimony payments of $85. Shortly after the foregoing year of grace was up, on April 30,1956, Mica]ah Stone filed his third petition to modify, the one that concerns us here. In this last petition he recited the 2 previous amendments to the original decree. He alleged that the daughter was now 25 and working and again alleged his belief that the plaintiff was working and earning $240 per month. He also alleged the following gross income for 1955: from his new job as an insurance salesman, $848.64; from work on the side for his old employer, Pillsbury Chemical, $911.25; from commissions on insurance he had sold for Prudential Insurance Company, $144.39; from interest or rebate on an income tax deposit, $3.26; total gross income for 1955 from all sources, $1,907.54. He further alleged that he needed a car in his insurance business; that he had bought a used Oldsmobile in 1953 upon which the 1955 running expenses were $1,191.31; that additional business expenses were $122.20; that his net earnings in 1955 were $593.97; that his personal expenses were $1,778.85, accordingly leaving him in the red for the year. He alleged that he was unable to resume the $85 monthly payments and was in fact unable to pay any alimony. He prayed that all alimony be discontinued. In her answer filed May 14, 1956, the former wife admitted that the daughter was working and self-supporting and further admitted that she herself was employed and earning $240 per month. She neither admitted nor denied the defendant’s allegations concerning his 1955 income and expenses. She also alleged that since the last amendment to the decree he had married his boss in the insurance agency and that therefore the new wife’s insurance agency records and income should be made a part of the hearing. She denied that the defendant was unable to continue to pay her alimony and, in her answer,, requested that the trial court “obtain information from him as to the investments that he may have.” Finally she prayed that the petition to modify be dismissed. The matter was heard during May, 1956, by the-same judge who granted the original divorce and who had heard the 2 previous petitions to modify. The petitioner, Micajah Stone, testified to the income- and expenses as alleged in his petition. He also testified that he had taken 2 insurance courses at Michigan StateUniversity. He testified in detail concerning his personal and business expenses. He stated, that he had paid his former wife some $295 during 1955, consisting of 2 alimony payments of $85 and the rest for her attorney and traveling expenses. He testified that as of May 1,1956, his 1956 income' was showing some “modest gains” over 1955, but that he still could not afford to pay any alimony. He-testified that he married for the second time on May 27,1955, but had not as yet contributed anything substantial to the expenses of the household, which was. being kept up and paid for by the new wife, who was. the largest stockholder in the insurance agency for which he worked. On cross-examination he testified that he had once owned some stocks which he had been obliged to sell after he lost his first job at a net gain of $25. He testified that he had not bought any new clothing for 3 years and needed some. The former wife testified briefly that for “12 or 14”' years she had lived in Lexington, Kentucky; that she was now 51; that neither the daughter nor anyone was dependent on her; that her net income from her work for an insurance agency or company— “group,” she called it — would shortly be decreased by an unnamed amount by the advent of the new Kentucky income tax. On cross-examination by defendant’s attorney it was brought out that for 2 years she had been paid a salary of $270 (not the $240 she had in her answer admitted receiving, which answer was filed 4 days before the hearing at which she testified). She stated that her net after taxes was $217 per month. She did not explain why in her answer to this petition or the last she had not divulged that her monthly salary was $270 instead of $240. She did not claim to be in ill health or in debt, but did state that she was unable to accumulate any savings. Further facts should be brought out. There is affirmative evidence in the record before us that at the hearing the trial court may not have had all the facts correctly in mind when he made his decision. We draw the following examples from the record: “The Court: Well of course the testimony we took the other day over in Battle Creek is to the effect his gross earnings for 1955 were $1,907.55. Then in addition to that there was a dividend for $911.25 from Pillsbury Chemical. He earned $2,818.79 apparently and that was his income, for that year.” Comment: The testimony over at Battle Creek was to the effect that the $911.25 represented commissions as a salesman for Pillsbury Chemical and was not a dividend. Moreover, it was included in the gross earnings of $1,907.54 for 1955. Counsel then explained the court’s error and was rewarded for his pains as follows: “The Court: I don’t get it that way — $1,907.54. Then the dividend from Pillsbury Chemical.” The court also apparently confused the defendant’s 1955 earnings from the insurance company with his withholding tax of $16.97, although this was the first exhibit in the ease. “The Court: I put it down, exhibit 1, over in Battle Creek, unless you gentlemen still have them, with holding tax statement, Stratton Insurance Agencyr $848.64. For withholding tax, what’s the amount,, do you know how many dependents he claimed? “Mr. Planch: That’s the amount Stratton paid him. “The Court: You claim that’s the amount he was paid by the Stratton Company? “Mr. Planch: That wasn’t the amount withheld from his earnings. The amount withheld was $16.97.” The court also nourished and clung to the erroneous idea that the defendant owned the Pillsbury Chemical Company, at which he could not make a go of it as a salesman after he lost his coal company job in 1953. There is nothing whatever in the record to give this impression. “The Court: This one business he runs, Mr. Planck, the Pillsbury Chemicals, that is his own business, isn’t it? “Mr. Planch: No it is not. He is a salesman. He was a salesman for them before he went into the insurance business.” Again, addressing the defendant: “The Court: Then the company that you have— that is yours— is the Industrial Chemical Sales ? Is that right? “A. It is not my company, I have no interest in it. I work for them and I get a commission on the sales I make. “Mr. Planch: Q. What do you sell for Pillsbury Chemicals ? “A. Industrial chemicals — in the Lansing area. I work as a salesman for Pillsbury Chemicals and for the insurance company, the same as that of an automobile salesman who sells an automobile. He gets a commission.” Despite repeated explanation there was persistent confusion in the court’s mind as to the earnings of the defendant and his relationship to the companies he worked for. The court was addressing the defendant : “The Court: Then you entered your wages $1,904.-28 and then you show here $591.71. “A. That’s the net. “The Court: Isn’t net at all. That’s what you got out of your chemical company. “A. Out of the chemical company I got $911. “The Court: Out of the chemical company your net was $590.71.” Comment: The defendant alleged and the testimony showed that during 1955 he earned $911.25 in commission as a salesman for the Pillsbury Chemical Company, which he did not own or possess any interest in. The alternate figures of $591.71 and $590.71 referred to by the court above was evidently the $593.97 net earnings of the defendant from all sources in 1955 before personal expenses. Then shortly before making his final order the court showed a fleeting disposition to bestow additional largesse, seeking to endow the defendant with ownership of the coal company from which he had got fired in 1953. The court was again addressing the defendant: “The Court: Apparently they did not have any property at the time of the settlement. Did you have any property at all, Mr. Stone? “A. No, the only thing I had was personal property. “The Court: Did you own the coal yard? “A. I was representative of a producing company.” And yet again: “The Court: It seems to me, with what he is earning, if he is required to pay instead of $85, $65 a month, he could easily pay that and still get along. That would be $720 a year, more, if he paid $60 a month. And it seems to me he is earning sufficient income so he could pay that. That is cutting the amount $25 a month, mister, I think, under the evidence here, unless you have something more to say. “Mr. Planch: Yes, your Honor, I think the record shows from these 3 sources, his income from Pillsbury Chemical, the Stratton Insurance Agency, his earnings were $1,904.28. “The Court: I don’t get it that way — $1,907.54. Then the dividend from Pillsbury Chemical. “Mr. Planch: Then there is his expenses of $1,313.-57 — business expenses. Leaving him about $590 to live on.” The court persisted to the very end: “The Court: Well on the basis that he is making $1,907.54 a year and it now shows his car expenses are being paid outside, apparently his income is increasing instead of decreasing, because he has the same commissions on those policies he has written, and will throughout the years, it seems to be at the present time, that the amount should be reduced to $50 a month, that is $600 a year. That leaves him $1,354 a year to live on. We will reduce it to $50 a month.” The trial court accordingly amended the decree ordering the defendant to pay the plaintiff $50 per month in alimony during her lifetime or until she remarried. The amended decree also ordered the defendant to make 2 monthly payments of back alimony at $85 per month. This appeal has resulted. Some cynic is reputed to have said that the only right a man can be sure of these days in a divorce court is his right to pay alimony. We are afraid that it is decisions like the one in this case that lend weight to that sour view and which encourage cartoonists and comedians and male marital casualties to refer to alimony as a racket. At the outset we wish to make clear our firm belief that when marriages are blasted and homes are sundered alimony is at best a rickety and makeshift arrangement. Especially is this so where there are children. We also hazard the guess that there are probably far more instances of too little alimony and support being paid than too much. We do not seek to minimize the grave and sometimes tragic sociological and personal problems inherent in divorce. But unless our courts are going to punish the innocent for the sins of the guilty we must judge each case on its merits. It strikes us that, unless this Court is resolved never to disturb the findings of a trial court in these alimony matters, Micajah Stone deserves relief. After may years of service without his fault he suddenly lost his job with the coal company. He got a new job in a new field but couldn’t make a go of it. Since his former wife is 51 we assume that normally he must be all of that or more. To our mind he is an obscure and almost classic example of the plight of the aging white-collar worker, the displaced salesman nearing the end of the line, who at last in desperation turns to selling insurance — the groping man in the soiled 3-year-old gray flannel suit. In our view Micajah Stone scarcely needs, in addition, the stone of alimony tied around his neck. Unless this Court is prepared to embrace theology and ordain that alimony is henceforth to be regarded as a kind of permanent reward for feminine virtue or perpetual punishment for masculine sin, regardless of the circumstances, we think this is a case plainly calling for relief. We had always understood that the allowance of alimony is not so much an act of piety or judicial gallantry or the benign exercise of a sort of ponderous romanticism and archaic chivalry as one of cold economics based upon 2 main factors: need and ability to pay. And we have a statute ex pressly permitting the periodic modification of decrees for alimony, up or down, upon a showing of new conditions or changed circumstances since the original decree (CL 1948, § 552.28 [Stat Ann 1957 Rev § 25.106]). At no time has this defendant displayed a contemptuous attitude either towards the court or his obligations. It appears that he continued faithfully to pay the full $125 monthly long after the child graduated from high school and reached 18 and as long as he was able. The child became 21 in 1952 and yet he did not petition to modify until after he lost his old job with the coal company in 1953, when he was forced to. At that time his monthly alimony payments were reduced to $85, although in the original settlement itself, when the wife was not yet working and was represented by counsel, she apparently herself set an implied value of $60 monthly as her share of the agreed payments of $125. (We refer to the provision in the original settlement and decree providing for $65 monthly for the child in the event of plaintiff’s remarriage.) During the hearing below plaintiff’s counsel wanted the books of the insurance company produced and the hearing was adjourned for that purpose. While the books tended to confirm most of the defendant’s allegations and prior testimony as to his commissions and income from that source, the plaintiff both there and here would make much of the fact that the books also disclosed that the insurance company had paid some $138 of the defendant’s gasoline bill during the period in which he spent the amounts he alleged for business and personal expenses. The implication is that he had padded his expenses in order to get relief from alimony. We see no evidence of deliberate padding in this record and we would observe that any man in these days of inflation who makes a net annual income of less than $600 before payment of personal living expenses is scarcely in a position to be-paying’ alimony even if his personal expenses were nil. We are utterly without frivolity when we suggest that under this record it strikes us that the former wife is in a far better position to be paying alimony than her former husband. Divorce is no longer a luxury or an exclusive franchise of the rich and, all moral and theological questions aside, it appears more than likely that it is here to stay. It is firmly entrenched in our folkways, and even the poor appear to have discovered its presumed delights and taken it over. We therefore believe that it is meet and just that the actions of our courts on matters of alimony should bear some moderate relation to the station of the litigants and the facts of life. We are aware that this Court rarely disturbs the findings and rulings of the trial court in cases arising on petitions to modify. The judicial formula runs something like this: The trial judge has had an opportunity to hear and judge the witnesses; he is in a much better position to appraise the situation; the awarding of alimony and modification of divorce decrees -rests largely in his discretion; and, finally, only in cases where there is a clear and manifest abuse of that discretion will his award be interfered with on appeal. It is true that with the timorous aid of defendant and his counsel the trial court seemed occasionally to obtain a faint grasp of the salient facts. But the grasp was both weak and fleeting and, as the record shows, the court was soon back again seeking to make the impoverished defendant an entrepreneur of coal and chemicals. After an appraisal of the entire record we cannot fairly say that we possess any feeling of confidence that the court was in firm possession of the real facts when it made its decision. But we refuse to base our decision on wbat the trial court may or may not have believed. Even if the trial court were not confused on the facts upon which he based his last-amended decree, we think he was wrong. "We believe this is a case calling for relief for the simple reason that there was a positive showing buttressed by plaintiff’s own testimony that the former wife did not at the time of the hearing-need any alimony, plus an equally positive and undisputed showing by the defendant that he was unable to pay. Any confusion of the trial court is irrelevant and forms no basis for our decision, then, except as it may show not so much an abuse of judicial discretion as an incomprehension of the basic operative facts upon which any such discretion might validly have been exercised. The order amending the decree below is reversed and an amended decree is entered here cancelling, discontinuing and terminating all alimony, without prejudice, however, to the right of the plaintiff to file a future petition to modify based upon an adequate showing of changed conditions and circumstances. Costs to the prevailing party. Smith, Edwards, and Black, JJ., concurred with Voelker, J. Dethmers, C. J., and Sharpe, Kelly, and Carr, JJ., concurred in the result.
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Edwards, J. There may he more to this litigation than meets the eye. For here we have a suit in equity which on its face recites little if any damage to -the 2 individuals concerned. And it comes to us on appeal from a circuit judge’s decree in favor of those individuals but without any indication as to the basis for his holding. It appears that plaintiffs and appellees, Mr. and Mrs. Benjamin, earnestly desire to maintain taxpayer status in both Huntington Woods and Royal Oak. Just why does not appear. Under these circumstances we must deal with the rather technical questions which are presented. The first attacks an error in 2 resolutions one of the city council of Huntington Woods and the other of the city council of Royal Oak. The second requires a construction of the statute provision pertaining to annexation of fractional lots formed by the boundary line of 2 adjacent cities. Mr. and Mrs. Benjamin own a lot which was crossed by the Huntington Woods-Royal Oak boundary line. What the resolutions' soug’ht to accomplish may be quickly portrayed to the eye by the before .and after sketches below: The Benjamin’s lot is No. 150 of the Huntington Woods subdivision and their address is given as 26020 York Road, Huntington Woods. In view of the portrayal of the original boundary line crossing the rearmost portion of the lot in question and in view of the Huntington Woods address, we assume that the Benjamin home was and is located in Huntington Woods. It would seem, therefore, that what the Benjamins had lost was the privilege (if such it be) of-having the fractional rearmost portion of their lot taxed by the city of Royal Oak. The stipulation of facts does recite that by the change the Benjamins lost certain tax-supported services of the city of Royal Oak:. “The plaintiffs, since the adoption of the resolutions set forth in exhibits ‘A’ and ‘B’ and the carrying out of such resolutions, are no longer entitled to police and fire protection, library facilities, recreation facilities, garbage and rubbish collection, and other services afforded to taxpayers within the city of Royal Oak, which services the plaintiffs were entitled to, and had, as taxpayers in the city of Royal Oak, prior to the adoption and carrying out of the resolutions.” There is however, no allegation, testimony or stipulation that indicates that the same or similar services are not available to the Benjamins from the city of Huntington Woods or that such services are in anywise inferior. We turn now to the legal issues. The first pertains to plaintiffs’ complaint that exhibits.“A” and “B” (the resolutions of the 2 cities purporting to effect the above-described boundary change) are ineffective and void because they recite reliance upon PA 1947, No 36. Defendant and appellant concedes that this citation was in error bnt contends that since no recital of the statute was essential that the error was in the area of surplusage and, hence, not fatal to the effectiveness of the resolution. We agree. An official resolution, otherwise effective to accomplish a lawful purpose, is not rendered void by the erroneous citation of the wrong statute when no statute is required to be cited. North Main Land Co. v. Willson, 245 Mich 537; Thomson v. City of Dearborn, 348 Mich 23. The second issue requires consideration of a recent amendment to the statute, pertaining to incorporation of cities and more particularly to sections 6 and 9 thereof which are quoted in full below: “Sec. 6. Citiés may be incorporated or territory detached therefrom or added thereto, or consolidation made of 2 or more cities or villages into 1 city, or of á city and 1 or more villages into 1 city, or of 1 or more cities or'villages together with additional territory not included within any incorporated city or village into 1 city, by proceedings originating by petition therefor signed by qualified electors-, who are freeholders residing within the cities, villages or townships to be affected thereby, to a -number not less than 1 per centum of the population of the territory affected thereby according to the last preceding United States census, or according to a. census to be taken as hereinafter provided, which, number shall be in no case less than 100, and not less than 10 of the signatures to such petition shall be obtained from each city, village or township to be affected by the proposed' change: Provided, That in the incorporation of a city from an existing village without change of boundaries the requisite number of signatures may be obtained from throughout the village without regard to the townships in which the signers are residents: Provided further, That as an alternate method in the case of an annexation proceeding in which there are less than 10 persons qual ified to sign' the petition living in that unincorporated territory of any township or townships proposed to be annexed to a city, that the signatures on the petition of persons, firms, corporations, the United States government, or the State or any of its subdivisions who collectively hold record legal title to more than 1/2 of the area of the land exclusive of streets in the territory to be annexed at the time of filing the petition, will suffice in lieu of obtaining 10 signatures from the township in which such area to be annexed lies: And provided further, That' on such petition each signature shall be followed by a description of the land and the area represented thereby and a sworn statement shall also accompany such petition giving the total area of the land, exclusive of streets, lying within the area proposed to be annexed: Provided further, That before any signatures are obtained on a petition as hereinbefore provided, such petition shall have attached to it a map or drawing showing clearly the territory proposed to be incorporated, detached, or added, and each prospective signer shall be shown such map or drawing before signing the petition. Such petition shall be verified by the oath of 1 or more petitioners : Provided, That in proceedings for the incorporation of a new city or the consolidation of 2 or more cities or villages into 1 city, or of a city and 1 or more villages into 1 city or of 1 or more cities or villages together with additional territory not included within any incorporated city or village into 1 city, a petition signed by not less than 100 qualified electors who are freeholders residing within the territory so proposed to be incorporated or consolidated, praying for the taking of a census of the inhabitants of the territory affected thereby, may be filed with the county clerk of the county within which said territory is located. The county clerk shall, within 5 days after the filing of such petition, certify to the mayor of each city, president of each village and supervisor of each township affected thereby, .and to the secretary of State that such petition has so been filed. Within 5 days after the service of such certificate, the secretary of State shall appoint an enumerator or enumerators to enumerate the inhabitants of each such city, village, and the portions of each township proposed to be so incorporated, or a consolidation made thereof. Before entering upon the duties of his said office, each such enumerator shall take and subscribe to the constitutional oath-of office before some officer authorized to administer oaths and file the same with the secretary of State and with the county clerk of the county in which such territory is located. It shall be the duty of each enumerator so appointed to enumerate all of the. bona fide inhabitants of such city, village or township, territory or portion thereof to him assigned by the secretary of State and to visit each house or dwelling and to obtain the names of each known resident thereof. Each enumerator so appointed shall receive for his services not to exceed $5.00 per day, together with his actual and necessary expenses: therefor, which sum shall be paid by the city, village or township within which the services of such enumerator were rendered. Upon completing such enumeration it shall be the duty of the persons so appointed to make a return in duplicate of such enumeration showing the names of the inhabitants of each such city, village or township, territory or district to the county clerk and to the secretary of State. No such enumeration or census shall be conducted in any city, village or township, or portion thereof, within 2 years of the date of the last enumeration in such territory. Every such enumeration shall be' conducted under the general supervision and control of the secretary of State who is hereby empowered to make rules and regulations for the purpose of carrying out the provisions of this act.” “Sec. 9. The district to be affected by every such proposed incorporation, consolidation or change of boundaries shall be deemed to include the whole of each city, village or township from which territory is to be taken or to which territory is to be an nexed: Provided, however, That when a territory is proposed to be incorporated as a city only the residents of the territory to be incorporated shall vote on the question of incorporation. Any proposed consolidations or changes of boundaries shall be submitted to the qualified electors of the city, and to the qualified electors of the city, village or township from which the territory to be taken is located, and at the election when said question is voted upon, the city, village or township shall conduct the election in such manner as to keep the votes of the qualified electors in the territory proposed to be annexed or detached in a separate box from the one containing the votes from the remaining portions of such city, village or township: Provided, however, That territory may be attached or detached to or from cities having- a population of 15,000 or less if a majority of the electors voting on the question in the city to or from which territory is to be attached or detached, and a majority of the electors from that portion of the territory to be attached or detached, as the case may be, both vote in favor of such proposition. If the returns of said election' shall show a majority of the votes cast in the district to be annexed, voting separately, to be in favor of the proposed change of boundary, and if a majority of'the electors voting in the remainder of' the district to be affected as herein defined, voting collectively, are in favor of the proposed change of boundary, then such territory shall become a part of the corporate territory of the city or shall be detached therefrom, as the case may be. If no qualified electors reside in the territory proposed to be annexed or detached at the time of filing said petition -with the clerk of the board of supervisors, as provided in section 8 of this act, and if a majority of the electors voting in the district to be affected as herein defined, voting collectively, are in favor of the proposed change of boundaries, then such territory shall become a part of the corporate territory of the city or shall be detached therefrom, as the case may be. Where the territory proposed to be annexed to any city is adjacent to said city and consists of a parle or vacant property located in a township and owned by the city annexing the same, and there is no one residing thereon, such territory may be annexed to said city solely by resolution of the city council of said city or in any case where the territory proposed to be annexed is adjacent to said city and consists of fractional parts of platted subdivision lots, located in an adjoining city, village, or township, such annexation may also be accomplished by the affirmative majority vote of the legislative body of such city and the approval of the legislative body of such adjoining city, village or township: Provided further, That as an alternate method, where there are no qualified electors residing in the territory proposed to be annexed to said city, a petition signed by a person or persons, firms, corporations, the United States government, or the State or any of its subdivisions who collectively hold the record legal title to more than 1/2 of the area of the land in the territory to be annexed is filed with the city council of said city and with the township board of the township in which such territory is situated, such annexation, may be accomplished by the affirmative majority vote of the city council of such city and the approval of the township board of such township: Provided further, That at least 10 days prior to the approval by the township board, the township treasurer shall notify personally or by registered mail with return receipt demanded, the owners of all real property in the territory to be annexed as shown on the assessment rolls of the township at the last known address on file with the township treasurer. This section shall not be construed so as to give any city the authority to proceed hereunder to ■ attach territory from any other city unless the question relative thereto has been voted upon by the voters of the entire cities affected, except as hereinbefore specifically provided, where the territory proposed to be annexed is adjacent to a city and consists of fractional parts of platted .subdivision lots, located in an adjoining city.” CL 1948, §§ 117.6, 117.9 (Stat Ann §§ 5.2085, 5.2088). Plaintiff, appellee and apparently the chancellor below read these 2 sections together and believe that the petition requirement of section 6 is applicable to the italicized portion of section 9 applicable to annexation of vacant park property and fractional lots. The question is one of first impresssion and we find little help in the authorities cited to us. A reading of the entire statute however, makes it appear that the petition requirement is obviously primarily applicable to those incorporation, annexation or boundary change matters which must by statute be submitted to the voters. We believe that the italicized portion of section 9 gives 2 entirely alternative methods of boundary change in 2 narrowly limited instances: One where the land to be annexed is park property owned by the city and lying adjacent to its boundary and the other where the boundary line between 2 cities sought to be altered divides subdivision lots into fractional parts. In both instances the objective is obviously convenience of administration of municipal government and there would seem to be little logic in requiring 1% of the entire populations of the city or cities to be affected to sign petitions as a condition precedent to a change of such a limited nature. The language of the statute does not compel such an answer and on the contrary suggests an opposite conclusion. We seek a reasonable construction of statutes in the light of the purpose sought to be accomplished. Geraldine v. Miller, 322 Mich 85; Lakehead Pipe Line Company, Inc., v. Dehn, 340 Mich 25. We do not deal in this ease with any claim of lack of notice, lack of. hearing or failure of due process, no such issues having been raised below or here. Nor do appellees dispute the power of the legislature to delegate authority to the legislative bodies of the cities concerned to effect this boundary change without either petition or vote. See Village of Kingsford v. Cudlip, 258 Mich 144; 2 McQuillin, Municipal Corporations (3d ed), §§ 7.03, 7.10. For the reasons outlined above, the decree will be reversed, the cause remanded to the circuit court for the entry of a decree dismissing the bill of complaint. No costs, a public question being involved. Dethmers, C. J„ and Sharpe, Smith, Voelker, Kelly, Carr, and Black, JJ., concurred. Section 9 was amended by PA 1947, No 36, approved April 11, 3947, and by PA 3947, No 334, approved July 3, 1947, the latter being in force when the resolutions were adopted. — Reporter. These sections have been last amended subsequent to the actions complained of in this case by PA .1956, No 77 and No 68.
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Per Curiam. The issue is whether the Washte-naw Circuit Court reversibly erred in ordering the City of Saline to permit hookups of structures located outside the city’s corporate limits to an available Saline sewer system when the structures’ defective septic tanks were causing raw sewage to flow into a Washtenaw County drain resulting in a public health hazard. The Court of Appeals determined that the circuit court erred. Since we believe that the circuit court reached the correct result for the wrong reason, pursuant to GCR 1963, 853.2(4), in lieu of granting leave to appeal, we reverse the judgment of the Court of Appeals and reinstate the judgment of the circuit court. I T & M Chevrolet, Inc., and Gerald and Debra Feeman, doing business as Lyle Wheel & Axle Service ("Lyle” below), owned property abutting Michigan Avenue in Pittsfield Township, Washte-naw County. The septic tanks located on T & M and Lyle’s property were malfunctioning and resulted in raw sewage being discharged into a county drain. Saline owns and operates a public sewer system. A portion of one of the city sewer lines is located under Michigan Avenue in front of the defendants’ properties. In February, 1976, plaintiff Washtenaw County Health Department filed suit in circuit court to obtain an order requiring T & M and Lyle to abate the health hazard by connecting to Saline’s sewer system. On March 3, 1976, the circuit court permitted T & M and Lyle to bring in Pittsfield and Saline as third parties defendant. At a show cause hearing held on March 25, 1976, Saline took the position that it would not approve the connections to its sewer system unless the properties involved were annexed to the city. The circuit court ruled that statutory law required Saline to approve the connection if Pittsfield demanded it. Pittsfield stated a willingness to require T & M and Lyle to hook up to the system, and in fact in June, 1976, the township board resolved that the defendants should connect to the available system. The circuit court entered an order directing Saline to permit the hookups subject to certain conditions, including a proviso that Saline may charge up to three times the rate it charges to property owners within its borders for sewage service. The Court of Appeals reversed after deciding that the circuit court had improperly construed § 3 of 1972 PA 288 which reads in pertinent part: “(1) Structures in which sanitary sewage originates lying within the limits of a city, village or township shall be connected to any available public sanitary sewer in the city, village or township if required by the city, village or township. *'(2) Structures in which sanitary sewage originates lying outside the limits of the city, village or township in which the available public sanitary sewer lies shall be connected to the available public sanitary sewer after the approval of both the city, village or township in which the structure and the public sanitary sewer system lies and if required by the city, village or township in which the sewage originates.” MCL 123.283; MSA 5.2769(153). II We concur with the Court of Appeals decision that a fair reading of 1972 PA 288 in its entirety clearly indicates that the Legislature never intended subdivision 1 of § 3 to be used by a citizen from one municipality, or the municipality itself, to compel another municipality to provide extraterritorial sewer service. Section 3(1) authorizes a municipal corporation owning and operating a public sanitary sewage system to require property owners with structures that generate "water-carried sanitary sewage” within the boundaries of the municipal corporation to connect to its sewer system provided the structures are 200 feet or less from the sewer line. In the case at bar, because T & M’s and Lyle’s structures are outside the limits of Saline, Saline could not require them to connect to its sewer system. Further, because the sewer system was owned and operated by Saline, Pitts-field could not require the hookup under subdivision 1. In short, we believe that subdivision 1 is a legislative authorization to a municipal corporation to require that its citizens cease operation of the potentially hazardous septic tank method of disposing of sewage and connect to its public sewer system. Subdivision 2 of § 3 provides a method of connecting the structures belonging to T & M and Lyle to the Saline sewer system. Pittsfield must require the connections, and both Saline and Pitts-field Township must approve them. Thus, the Court of Appeals correctly concluded that § 3(2) of PA 288 controlled the case, and that the connections may not be made without approval by Saline. In our opinion, the error by the Court of Appeals was its decision that Saline could properly condition its approval of the sewer connections on annexation to the city of the structures involved. The grant of permission to connect with a sewer is within the municipal authority’s discretion and will not be controlled by mandamus unless the discretion is arbitrarily and unreasonably exercised. In determining whether or not Saline acted reasonably in refusing to approve the connections, it is necessary to balance the competing interests. The part of the sewer line belonging to Saline which runs in front of T & M’s and Lyle’s properties lies in Pittsfield. Further, the Washtenaw County Health Department had declared that the malfunctioning septic tanks constituted a public health hazard. The sole reason Saline gives for its refusal to allow the sewer connections is that T & M’s and Lyle’s properties are not within the city limits. Saline is willing to permit the connections on annexation to Saline of the structures. Conservation of this state’s water resources as well as the promotion of public health in general are matters of paramount public concern. Sewage disposal is entwined with public health and water conservation matters and is in itself a matter of prime public concern. In construing the applicable law we will look to the spirit as well as the letter of the law. Section 1 of 1972 PA 288 makes it quite evident that the Legislature was concerned with the health hazards posed by septic tank systems: "Public sanitary sewer systems are essential to the health, safety and welfare of the people of the state. Septic tank disposal systems are subject to failure due to soil conditions or other reasons. Failure or potential failure of septic tank disposal systems poses a threat to the public health, safety and welfare; presents a potential for ill health, transmission of disease, mortality and potential economic blight and constitutes a threat to the quality of surface and subsurface waters of the state. The connection to available public sanitary sewer systems at the earliest, reasonable date is a matter for the protection of the public health, safety and welfare and necessary in the public interest which is declared as a matter of legislative determination.” MCL 123.281; MSA 5.2769(151). To correct situations such as the case at bar requires intergovernmental cooperation. The use of the existing pipeline to correct a public health measure when the pipeline abuts the properties is both necessary and appropriate under the facts of this case. Saline is not required to add sewer pipeline. The use of the existing sewer line will avoid duplication. What is most important is that the use of the Saline sewer system will abate a public health hazard. Since it is evident that Pittsfield could not have arbitrarily and unreasonably refused approval to the city to run its line through Pittsfield, Saline may not arbitrarily and unreasonably refuse the connections under the facts of this case. Further, we are confident that Pittsfield could not condition approval of the connections on Saline’s annexing the properties. When as here an available sewer line crosses municipal boundaries, the municipal ity operating the sewer system may not condition connection on annexation of the properties involved when connection means abatement of a public health hazard. The judgment of the circuit court is reinstated. Coleman, C.J., and Kavanagh, Williams, Levin, Fitzgerald, Ryan, and Blair Moody, Jr., JJ., concurred. We will uphold an order of a lower court found to be correct although for the wrong reason. Fout v Dietz, 401 Mich 403; 258 NW2d 53 (1977). See MCL 123.282(3); MSA 5.2769(152X3) which reads: " 'Structure in which sanitary sewage originates’ or 'structure’ means a building in which toilet, kitchen, laundry, bathing or other facilities which generate water-carried sanitary sewage, are used or available for use for household, commercial, industrial or other purposes.” Dahlstrom v City of Whitehall, 14 Mich App 349; 165 NW2d 443 (1968), Flint Twp v Flint, 403 Mich 830 (1978); Ericksen v Sioux Falls, 70 SD 40, 52-53; 14 NW2d 89, 95 (1944). See generally 55 CJS, Mandamus, § 180, p 349. Affidavits of county health department employees attached to the county’s complaints read in part: "[IJnspections of said county drain system disclosed that sewage was being discharged into said open county drain from said premises at 7895 East Michigan Avenue [T & M Chevrolet, Inc.] and that the sewerage system at said premises was being maintained in violation of the Washtenaw County Regulation for the Disposal of Sewage and Human Excreta, and thereby constitutes a substantial hazard to public health by creation of nuisances, sources of filth, and conditions menacing the public health in that: "1. Black, odorous, and foul smelling sewage effluent was being directly discharged into the open county drain from the sewerage system located on the premises at 7895 East Michigan Avenue, Pittsfield Township, Washtenaw County, Michigan. "2. The sewage effluent was accessible to flies, rodents, and other vectors of disease as well as to persons and domestic pets, and was polluting the stream. "3. Samples taken on July 22, 1974 showed a coliform count of 24,000,000 per 100 milliliters and a fecal coliform count of 4,600,000 per 100 milliliters. "4. The sewage system at said premises was test dyed on July 24, 1974 and the dye flowed into the open county drain located to the south of said premises.” "[I]nspection of said drain disclosed that the same was then, operated in violation of the laws of the State of Michigan, being Act No. 127 of the Public Acts of 1970, and in violation of the Washtenaw County Regulation for the Disposal of Sewage and Human Excreta, and thereby constitutes a source of pollution and a substantial hazard to the public health by creation of nuisances, sources of filth, and conditions menacing the public health in that: "1. Black, odorous, foul smelling, septic tank effluent was flowing into the drain from a pipe coming from the direction of 7911 Michigan Avenue [Lyle Wheel & Axle Service]. "2. This septic tank effluent was accessible to flies, rodents, and other vectors of disease and by persons. "3. Septic tank effluent was being discharged onto the ground surface within 200 yards of a public road.” Ripperger v Grand Rapids, 338 Mich 682, 687; 62 NW2d 585 (1954). Cf. People v Spicer, 402 Mich 406, 409; 263 NW2d 256 (1978). Flint Twp v Flint, supra.
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Fitzgerald, J. This appeal arises from a wrongful death action brought by decedent’s widow. Plaintiff contended at trial that her husband’s death resulted from the negligence of defendant. Defendant, an excavation contractor, was hired to excavate a trench on the premises of the Sunset Trailer Park in Sandusky, Michigan. The excavation was part of a planned expansion of the trailer park which required that a trench be dug from the existing septic system to the expansion sewer line. • The owner of the trailer park, Thomas Boyle, hired the prior owner, O. J. Campbell, to supervise the work involved in the expansion of the trailer park. Plaintiff’s decedent, Milo Nichol, a retiree who resided in the trailer park, was also hired by Boyle to help with the expansion project. On August 9, 1971, the excavation of the trench took place with defendant Billot, and Campbell and Nichol present. The trench was over 9 feet deep, 10 to 12 feet long, and 30 inches wide, and the walls were not sloped, braced or shored in any fashion. After the excavation was completed, Nichol climbed into the trench for the purpose of making a hole in the septic tank. Shortly after he entered the trench the west wall collapsed and Nichol, who could not escape, was killed almost instantly. Subsequently, plaintiff received workmen’s com pensation benefits from Boyle. Plaintiff then proceeded to bring suit against defendant as a third-party tortfeasor as allowed by MCL 418.827(1); MSA 17.237(827X1). At trial, plaintiff contended that defendant was an independent contractor and that he had negligently failed to slope the walls of the trench or to use bracing devices as required by accepted safety standards. Defendant relied upon two affirmative defenses. First, defendant claimed that he was not an independent contractor, but that he was a co-employee of decedent. Therefore he claimed that plaintiffs cause of action v^as barred by that provision of the Worker’s Disability Compensation Act which bars all suits against co-employees for injuries sustained in circumstances otherwise compensable under the act. MCL 418.827(1); MSA 17.237(827X1). Second, defendant claimed that plaintiffs decedent was contributorily negligent. After a three-day trial in March 1976, the jufy returned a verdict of no cause of action. The Court of Appeals affirmed the jury’s verdict, with Judge Brennan dissenting. 80 Mich App 263; 263 NW2d 345 (1977). We granted leave to consider the following two issues: (1) In a tort action where the defendant relies on the affirmative defense that the plaintiffs exclusive remedy is under the Worker’s Disability Compensation Act and the basis of such affirmative defense is the co-employee status of the plaintiff and defendant, what is the proper test by which to determine whether the plaintiff and the defendant are co-employees; and (2) Whether the question of defendant’s status is an issue of law for the court or an issue of fact for the jury. 402 Mich 922 (1978). I At trial, plaintiff contended that because defendant asserted an affirmative defense based on a provision of the workmen’s compensation statute, the proper test to determine the employment status of defendant was the economic reality test. However, the trial court agreed with defendant that the economic reality test was limited to workmen’s compensation cases and instructed the jury to apply the control test. The Court of Appeals majority agreed with the trial court, stating that the mere fact that a defendant asserts the co-employee immunity from suit provision of the workmen’s compensation statute does not mean that the economic reality test must be applied in a tort action. Judge Brennan favored the economic reality test as the logical test to use in deciding whether a defendant can use the Worker’s Disability Compensation Act as a shield against a plaintiff. Prior to Tata v Muskovitz, 354 Mich 695; 94 NW2d 71 (1959), the only test for determining whether a person was an employee or an independent contractor centered on the question of control. The control theory is the traditional common-law test used to delineate the master-servant relationship. The theory, in its delineation of the servant concept, has for its purpose the definition and delimitation of the scope of the master’s liabil ity under the doctrine of respondeat superior. * Because most compensation acts contain no specific definition of the term "employee”, it was generally taken for granted that the common-law definition of employee, or servant, used for purposes of vicarious tort liability was to be used for purposes of workmen’s compensation laws. In Tata v Muskovitz, supra, this Court adopted the dissenting opinion of Mr. Justice Talbot Smith in Powell v Employment Security Comm, 345 Mich 455; 75 NW2d 874 (1956), in which he set forth the economic reality test as the proper guide to relevant interpretation of the workmen’s compensation statute. See, also, Schulte v American Box Board Co, 358 Mich 21; 99 NW2d 367 (1959); Goudchild v Erickson, 375 Mich 289; 134 NW2d 191 (1965); Solakis v Roberts, 395 Mich 13; 233 NW2d 1 (1975); Askew v Macomber, 398 Mich 212; 247 NW2d 288 (1976). Justice Smith expanded on the relevant factors to be considered under the economic reality test in Schulte v American Box Board Co, supra, p 33: "This is not a matter of terminology, oral or written, but of the realities of the work performed. Control is a factor, as is payment of wages, hiring and firing, and the responsibility for the maintenance of discipline, but the test of economic reality views these elements as a whole, assigning primacy to no single one.” Also, in determining the economic realities a court is to determine whether the work being performed is an integral part of the regular business of the employer, "a contribution to the accomplishment of a common objective”. Powell v Employment Security Comm, supra, 478. See, also, McKissic v Bodine, 42 Mich App 203; 201 NW2d 333 (1972). The ultimate purpose of the economic reality test is to effectuate the goals of the social legislation by determining whether or not the relationship is of the type intended to be protected by the act. National Labor Relations Board v Hearst Publications, Inc, 322 US 111; 64 S Ct 851; 88 L Ed 1170 (1944); United States v Silk, 331 US 704; 67 S Ct 1463; 91 L Ed 1757 (1947); Powell v Employment Security Comm, supra, 478. The circumstances presented in the instant case do not fit neatly into the purposes sought to be effectuated in either the control test or the economic reality test. In the present case, there is no respondeat superior liability involved, nor is there any application for workmen’s compensation benefits involved. Thus, we must determine which test, if either, should be applied in this particular situation. We will consider the application of each test seriatim. Defendant argues that because this is a tort suit the control test is applicable and that the economic reality test is inapplicable because that principle has been confined to workmen’s compensation cases. We think that it is necessary to distinguish the present case from those tort actions which involve the vicarious liability of a master for the acts of his servant vis-á-vis a third party. The instant case is atypical of those cases to which the control test has been traditionally applied in that there is no vicarious liability involved here. Rather, the liability of defendant for his own acts is the only liability at issue. As stated above, the purpose of the control test is to define and delimit the circumstances under which a master should be held liable for the acts committed by a servant which injure a third party. As described by Larson in his treatise on Workmen’s Compensation Law: "The 'servant’ concept at common law performed one main function: to delimit the scope of a master’s vicarious tort liability. This tort liability arose out of detailed activities carried on by the servant, resulting in some kind of harm to a third person. The extent to which the employer had a right to control these detailed activities was thus highly relevant to the question whether the employer ought to be legally liable for them.” The control test is also used to determine when an independent contractor has become an employee for purposes of respondeat superior liability on . the part of his employer who has exercised a degree of control inconsistent with independent contractor status. Powell v Employment Security Comm, supra, 471. In his closing argument, defense counsel admitted that his client was for general purposes an independent contractor, but contended that in this instance, because Campbell exercised control over him, defendant became an employee. In Powell, supra, 471, Justice Smith stated the following: "It is a complete perversion of this principle [i.e., that an independent contractor is liable for his own torts unless his employer assumes control] to employ the control exception (an independent contractor does not remain such if made subject to control) as a test for his status as an independent contractor in the first place. It is much as though we employed the well-known excep tions to the corporate entity doctrine as tests for the existence of the corporation itself. Confusion is inevitable.” As indicated by Justice Smith, the control test is not intended to be a definition of independent contractor status in the first place. It is also a misuse of the control test to use it as a definition of employee status for purposes other than for which it was originally intended. The adoption of the control test at common law in order to determine the applicability of the servant concept was limited to those situations where the question was whether it was appropriate to apply the theory of respondeat superior. Therefore, because there is no question of the vicarious liability of a master involved here, we find the control test to be inappropriate. Turning to the economic reality test, we find that although actual payment of workmen’s compensation benefits is not at issue here, significant objectives of the workmen’s compensation statute are involved. A recipient of workmen’s compensation benefits is limited in his right to sue those persons responsible for his injuries. A recipient of benefits may not sue his employer or a fellow employee. MCL 418.131; MSA 17.237(131); MCL 418.827(1); MSA 17.237(827)(1). With permission of § 827(1), a recipient may bring an action for wrongful death against third parties other than employers or fellow employees. Hix v Besser Co, 386 Mich 499; 194 NW2d 333 (1972). Thus, while one of the purposes of § 827(1) is to prohibit suits by compensation recipients against co-employees, another purpose of that same section is to permit the recipient recovery for his injuries beyond the statutory benefits through the provision allowing suit against certain negligent third parties. An independent contractor is a third party subject to suit under § 827(1). This is appropriate because an independent contractor is often in as good a position as, if not better than, his employer to know the hazards of his trade and the concomitant safety precautions. To allow the independent contractor to abandon accepted safety measures and then disclaim responsibility for his omission because his employer exercised some degree of control would not only deprive a compensation recipient of his opportunity to sue under § 827(1), it would also seriously endanger the safety of workers such as the deceased. Thus, we conclude that other factors beyond the control element should be considered before we extend the bar to plaintiffs common-law right to sue in this situation. We find that the economic reality test provides those other factors. In emphasizing a "freer and more realistic balancing of all the relevant factors in each case” to determine which persons are properly denominated employees, the test also necessarily achieves a freer and more realistic determination of which persons should be properly denominated independent contractors. Although workmen’s compensation benefits are not at issue here, the policies behind the act are involved through the invocation of § 827(1). We think that as the economic reality test is the appropriate test to determine which persons are intended to be included within the act, it is alsó the appropriate test to determine which persons should not be subject to the act’s bar against common-law remedies. Because the act is concerned with the correction of economic evils through remedies unknown to the common law, the control test, a creature of common law, is not responsive to the provisions of the statute. We deem it appropriate to apply the principle which accomplishes the purpose of the social legislation involved here, which is to afford maximum benefit to injured parties. As it is defendant who relies on the worker’s compensation act to support his defense, he should not be heard to complain that a rule utilized to construe the act’s provisions is tti be employed. In conclusion, we find that the application of thb control test in a tort action where respondent superior liability is not involved is inappropriate. We hold that the economic reality test, in itd consideration of factors beyond the control ele; ment, achieves a more realistic determination of the independent contractor/employee question in cases where the affirmative defense of co-employéé immunity under § 827(1) is utilized. II We must next determine whether the question of defendant’s status is an issue of law for thé court or an issue of fact for the jury. Both parties take positions on this issue which are inconsistent with the ones they asserted prior to trial. Shortly after suit was commenced, defendant moved for summary judgment claiming thdt he was a co-employee of plaintiff’s decedent añd that plaintiffs suit was barred by the operation of § 827(1). At that juncture, plaintiff opposed the motion, arguing that there were disputed facts concerning the issue of defendant’s status and that the issue should be submitted to the jury. The trial judge denied defendant’s motion, holding that the issue presented was a question of fact. Subsequently, at the close of the proofs, plaintiffs attorney moved to strike defendant’s affirmative defense based on § 827(1). He Contended that there were no disputed questions of fact regarding the relationship and thus it was a question of law for the judge to decide. Defense counsel opposed the motion, arguing that it was a question of fact for the jury to resolve. The trial court denied plaintiffs motion, ruling that there were facts upon which reasonable minds could differ. On appeal, the parties retain their latter positions, with plaintiff contending there existed no factual dispute regarding defendant’s status, and with defendant contending there existed questions of fact on this issue. The Court of Appeals majority held that there were issues of fact to be determined preliminary to the disposition of the independent contractor/employee question. As one example of such factual issues* the court stated that plaintiff claimed de-fendánt was an independent contractor while defendant claimed that Campbell exercised complete control over him. The Court of Appeals majority obviously was influenced in their decision on this issue by their previous determination that the control test was the proper theory to be applied. The dissent concluded that the question of defendant’s employment status was one of law, citing this Court’s decision in Askew v Macomber, supra. Askew involved an appeal from a Workmen’s Compensation Appeal Board decision. We noted there that the appellate courts of this state are bound by the appeal board’s findings of fact. In Askew, we said that the question of whether the defendant therein was the plaintiffs employer for purposes of workmen’s compensation was an issue of law properly left to our determination. In Askew, we cited Renfroe v Higgins Rack Coating & Manufacturing Co, Inc, 17 Mich App 259, 262; 169 NW2d 326 (1969). The Renfroe Court’s analysis of the issue presented herein is instructive: "In the case at bar, the record contains numerous interrogatories, depositions, and affidavits, which set out the underlying events and circumstances in great detail. These, as well as the agreed statement of facts submitted for purposes of this appeal, reveal that there is no dispute as to any of the underlying facts. Plaintiff’s only contention is that on the basis of the agreed facts, defendant should not be labeled an 'employer’ within the meaning of the workmen’s compensation law. This is not a question of fact for a jury to decide; it is a question of law which must ultimately be decided by the courts.” However, in both Askew and Renfroe the reviewing Court was bound by the facts below, the former case involving findings of fact by the WCAB and the latter involving facts stipulated by the parties. Thus, all issues of fact as well as the usual process of drawing permissible inferences from testified facts were thereby eliminated, and all that was necessary was that the court apply the relevant legal principles. It is a basic proposition of law that determination of disputed issues of fact is peculiarly the jury’s province. Wight v HG Christman Co, 244 Mich 208, 211; 221 NW 314 (1928). Even where the evidentiary facts are undisputed, it is improper to decide the matter as one of law if a jury could draw conflicting inferences from the evidentiary facts and thereby reach differing conclusions as to ultimate facts. See Simerka v Pridemore, 380 Mich 250; 156 NW2d 509 (1968) (Souris, J.). In Flick v Crouch, 434 P2d 256 (Okla, 1967), the Oklahoma Supreme Court expressed a rule which incorporates the principles we have expressed above and applied it to a case which contains a question similar to that which confronts us herein. Flick involved a wrongful death action brought by a widow of a deceased workman against a third party. Oklahoma also has a provision in its workmen’s compensation statute which accords immunity to the employer and his employees from common-law liability for negligence. Okla Stat 1961, tit 85, § 44(b). The question involved in Flick was whether the defendants were independent contractors or employees as determined by the various factors applied by Oklahoma courts which are virtually identical to the factors considered in this state under the economic reality test. The Flick Court set forth the following rule: "When a defendant’s status forms a material issue in an evidentiary proceeding, * * * which has for its object to determine whether the action sought to be prosecuted is one abrogated or taken away by the Workmen’s Compensation Law, * * * or 'reserved’ to the workman (or his widow) * * * the rule to be applied by the trial court should be the same as that which governs at the trial: if the evidence concerning the status of a party defendant is reasonably susceptible of but a single inference, the question is one purely of law to be decided by the court * * * but where the facts bearing on such issue are either disputed, or conflicting inferences may be reasonably drawn from the known facts, it is error to withhold the issue from the determination of the jury.” In applying the Flick rule to the instant case, we find that the evidentiary facts were undisputed and that they were susceptible of only one inference, that is that defendant was an independent contractor. After reviewing the trial transcript and the briefs we find that the only element of the economic reality test in question was whether the interpretation of evidence bearing on the issue of control was such as to establish an employee relationship. In addition, in his brief defendant accepts plaintiffs statement of facts with the exception of any conflict with three paragraphs which defendant sets forth in his own statement of facts. In those three paragraphs defendant presents his theory of the case and additional evidence to support his theory of control. However, assuming arguendo that the control element has been established, it would not be sufficient to satisfy defendant’s burden of proof on the affirmative defense. Under the economic reality test control is only one of several factors to be considered. Powell v Employment Security Comm, supra, 479 (Smith, J., dissenting). The economic reality test "views these elements as a whole, assigning primacy to no single one”. Schulte v American Box Board, supra, 33 (Smith, J., concurring). (Emphasis added.) Although we realize that defendant was laboring under the impression at trial, as affirmed by the trial court, that the control test applied and therefore may have felt that it was unnecessary to introduce evidence pertinent to the other factors of the economic reality test, we do not believe that it is necessary to remand for a new trial on. this basis for several reasons. First, the trial court did not rule until the close of the proofs that the control test, and not the economic reality test, was the applicable rule. Second, plaintiff elicited abundant evidence from the witnesses regarding the other elements of the economic reality test and defendant did not rebut this evidence. Third, defendant accepts (with the exception noted above) plaintiff’s statement of facts. Those facts include the following: "Mr. Billot testified that, in 1971, he and his father owned a small business known as Billot Excavating Company. They owned a backhoe, a bulldozer, a front-end loader and three trucks. This company did excavating, roadbuilding, leveling, grading and hauled sand and gravel. "In 1971 Mr. Billot considered himself as being self-employed. He handled his own social security and income tax deductions. When hired to do excavating work he was not carried on the employment rolls of the person who hired him. He was paid $12 per hour for the use of the backhoe. He supplied all of his own equipment and materials and did all of his own maintenance to such equipment. "When Mr. Billot did work for Mr. Boyle on the trailer park he received a flat rate for the time that he spent. Mr. Boyle did not deduct social security or in come taxes from Mr. Billot’s bills. Mr. Boyle never sent Mr. Billot a W-2 statement, or even took his social security number. "During the summer of 1971, Mr. Billot worked for a number of different people or companies, sometimes working for as many as three people in a single day. Mr. Billot arranged his own schedule. "Mr. Billot testified that if Mr. Boyle had told him not to work or fired him, he would have no right to draw unemployment compensation and would have no seniority or other employment rights. He further testified that he was not hired to do anything having to do with the operation of the trailer park, but only to perform the special project of digging the trench. "Mr. Billot testified further that he did not depend on his income from Mr. Boyle to support himself, but that he had many customers. He held himself out to the public, through the Yellow Pages of the phone book, as a contractor skilled in the doing of excavating work. Furthermore, it was the custom of the community that such work was ordinarily done by independent contractors. In fact, when Mr. Billot was hired by Mr. Boyle, he did not think of himself as an employee of Mr. Boyle. He felt that he had the right to hire a helper or substitute.” The above excerpt, as verified by the trial transcript, leads üs to one conclusion. Applying the economic reality test to the instant case, we find that all of the elements, with the possible exception of control, clearly point to defendant’s independent contractor status. Thus, we conclude as a matter of law that defendant was an independent contractor. Conclusion The economic reality test is the proper test to determine co-employee status in a tort suit where respondeat superior liability is not at issue and where the affirmative defense of co-employee immunity under the workmen’s compensation statute is asserted. In order to determine whether the question of defendant’s status is an issue of law for the court or an issue of fact for the jury the following rule is applicable: "[I]f the evidence concerning the status of a party defendant is reasonably susceptible of but a single inference, the question is one purely of law to be decided by the court * * * but where the facts bearing on such issue are either disputed, or conflicting inferences may be reasonably drawn from the known facts, it is error to withhold the issue from the determination of the jury.” Flick v Crouch, supra. In the instant case, we conclude, as a matter of law, that defendant was an independent contractor. Because it is unclear whether the jury’s verdict was based on § 827(1) or contributory negligence, we remand to the trial court for a new trial on the issue of negligence. Reversed, with costs to plaintiff. Coleman, C.J., and Kavanagh, Williams, Levin, Ryan, and Blair Moody, Jr., JJ., concurred with Fitzgerald, J. Sergeant v Kennedy, 352 Mich 494; 90 NW2d 447 (1958). For a history of the control test, see Stevens, The Test of the Employment Relation, 38 Mich L Rev 188 (1939). Once it has been determined that the man at work is a servant, the master becomes subject to respondeat superior liability. It must then be determined whether the tortious conduct of the servant arose Within the scope of the employment. See Prosser, Torts (4th ed), § 70, p 460. IB Larson's Workmen’s Compensation Law, § 43.10, pp 8-1, 8-2. /c?., §43.42, pp 8-10, 8-11. For this reason, we find Sliter v Cobb, 388 Mich 202; 200 NW2d 67 (1972), which defendant relies on, to be inapplicable to the case at bar. See fn 1. We note that the right of the employer or insurance carrier to be reimbursed is also affected by this decision. Renfroe v Higgins Rack Coating & Manufacturing Co, Inc, 17 Mich App 259, 264-265; 169 NW2d 326 (1969). Normally, this point alone would foreclose any further discussion as defendant would proceed at his own peril if he chose to ignore a theory which he knew plaintiff was relying on. However, it is not clear at what point plaintiff asserted the economic reality test as the proper rule. As plaintiffs counsel admits in his brief, plaintiff responded to the summary judgment motion in terms of the control test, not realizing at that time that it did not apply. Plaintiff did not assert the economic reality test in his opening statement to the jury. The first discussion. on the record regarding which test was proper occurred at the close of the proofs. However, as discussed, infra, plaintiffs counsel elicited testimony at trial relevant to the factors of the economic reality test.
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Levin, J. James H. Lockaby’s personal injury action was dismissed by the trial court on the ground that the defendant governmental agencies and officers are immune from liability. The Court of Appeals affirmed. Our reversal and remand for trial is based on our recent decisions. I Lockaby commenced this action against Wayne County, its sheriff, its jail administrator, the City of Detroit, and Detroit General Hospital. He alleged that he was an inmate in the jail and was transferred to the hospital and that at one location or the other, while under the care and custody of the defendants, and due to their negligence and other wrongful conduct, he suffered injuries which caused a lesion to his spinal cord, resulting in total paralysis of his body. The trial judge dismissed the action, except as to the liability of the sheriff and his deputies for their personal acts. The city and hospital were held to be immune under the governmental tort liability act. The county was relieved of liability on the ground that the Constitution provides that a "county shall never be responsible for [the sheriffs] acts”. The sheriff was relieved of responsibil ity for acts of his subordinates on the basis of a statute providing that "[n]o sheriff shall be responsible for the acts, defaults and misconduct in office of any deputy sheriff”.** Lockaby then filed a five-count amended complaint. Count I, captioned "intentional infliction of injury”, alleges that while in the custody of the county and sheriff Lockaby was "assaulted, intentionally mishandled, mistreated and physically abused by unknown and unidentified officers, guards and agents” of the defendants. Count II, captioned "negligence”, charges lack of due care in the supervision of Lockaby and in the selection of personnel entrusted with the care and custody of persons imprisoned in the Wayne County Jail. Count III, captioned "maintenance of a dangerous and/or defective condition in a public building”, charges that such conditions existed because of defendants’ failure to pad cells in the "mental” section or provide adequate supervision and care. Count IV alleges failure to use due care in transporting Lockaby to the hospital and the use of excessive force in placing him in the motor vehicle in violation of the motor vehicle exception to the governmental tort liability act. Count V charges the city and hospital with negligence and failure to provide safe and adequate facilities. The trial judge dismissed the amended complaint. Counts I, II and V were dismissed on the grounds stated in dismissing the original complaint. Count III was dismissed on the ground that no structural defect in a public building was pleaded. Count IV was dismissed because the trial judge concluded the alleged negligence did not occur in the course of the operation of a motor vehicle. The Court of Appeals affirmed; one judge dissented on the ground that Count III should not have been dismissed. II The disposition of this case is controlled by our recent decisions. Lockaby’s complaint states a claim upon which relief can be granted against the City of Detroit and Detroit General Hospital. In Parker v Highland Park, 404 Mich 183; 273 NW2d 413 (1978), this Court held that the operation of a general hospital is not a governmental function and that a city which owns and operates a general hospital may not claim governmental immunity. Lockaby’s complaint states a claim against Wayne County under the public buildings exception to the governmental tort liability act. In providing this exception to governmental immunity "the Legislature intended to protect the general public from injury by imposing upon governmental agencies the duty to maintain safe public places. Pichette v Manistique Public Schools, 403 Mich 268, 285; 269 NW2d 143 (1978). "[T]he question whether a part of a building, in this case a [jail cell], is dangerous or defective is to be determined in light of the 'uses or activities’ for which it is 'specifically assigned,’ in this case a” cell for mental cases. Bush v Oscoda Area Schools, 405 Mich 716, 731; 275 NW2d 268 (1979). Lockaby’s claim that the county failed to "use due care and caution when transporting plaintiff from the Wayne County Jail in a motor vehicle to Detroit General Hospital” states a claim for negligent operation of a motor vehicle within that exception to the governmental tort liability act. Lockaby also claims that he was intentionally injured by agents of the county. While the county is constitutionally immune from "responsibility]” for the sheriffs "acts” that immunity does not extend to the acts of others in its employ. In McCann v Michigan, 398 Mich 65; 247 NW2d 521 (1976), in separate opinions, a majority of the Court agreed that an intentional tort was not in the exercise or discharge of a governmental function; the cause was remanded, as it is here, for further proceedings. Although the sheriff may not be held "responsible for the acts, defaults and misconduct in office of any deputy sheriff’, he is responsible for his own personal acts of negligence and may be responsible under the doctrine of respondeat superior for the tortious acts of employees who are not deputies. The jail administrator has no statutory immunity, and is responsible for his own personal acts of negligence. While the governmental tort liability act does not provide any immunity to governmental officials, the common law has recognized that governmental officials have a limited immunity. The cause has not been tried; decision on whether there is immunity should be deferred. We reverse and remand for trial. Kavanagh and Fitzgerald, JJ., concurred with Levin, J. It appears from the depositions that Lockaby was found walking on an inter-state highway, was arrested by the State Police, and taken to the Wayne County Jail. He was evaluated as "mental” and placed in Ward 612, an area designated for such individuals. In the cell, Lockaby "knocked himself unconscious” by striking his head against the cell wall. He was then transported to Detroit General Hospital. When released from the hospital he was a quadriplegic. MCL 691.1401 et seq.; MSA 3.996(101) et seq. “The sheriff may be required by law to renew his security periodically and in default of giving such security, his office shall be vacant. The county shall never be responsible for his acts, except that the board of supervisors may protect him against claims by prisoners for unintentional injuries received while in his custody. He shall not hold any other office except in civil defense.” Const 1963, art 7, § 6. MCL 51.70; MSA 5.863. MCL 691.1405; MSA 3.996(105). "Governmental agencies have the obligation to repair and maintain public buildings under their control when open for use by members of the public. Governmental agencies are liable for bodily injury and property damage resulting from a dangerous or defective condition of a public building if the governmental agency had actual or constructive knowledge of the defect and, for a reasonable time after acquiring knowledge, failed to remedy the condition or to take action reasonably necessary to protect the public against the condition.” MCL 691.1406; MSA 3.996(106). Const 1963, art 7, § 6. MCL 51.70; MSA 5.863.
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Fitzgerald, J. Defendant was convicted by a jury of three. counts of kidnapping contrary to MCL 750.349; MSA 28.581, and One count of taking indecent liberties with a child under 16 contrary to MCL 750.336; MSA 28.568 on November 12, 1974. The Court of Appeals affirmed defendant’s convictions on September 9, 1976 in an unpublished memorandum opinion. On December 15, 1977, we granted defendant’s application for leave to appeal to address the question of whether Michigan’s kidnapping statute, MCL 750.349; MSA 28.581, authorizes multiple convictions where a defendant abducts only one person. 402 Mich 827 (1977). We answer this question in the negative. The trial testimony indicates that on May 19, 1974, the complainant, an 11-year-old girl, was riding her bicycle on a gravel road near her home when the defendant, who was driving a pick-up truck, stopped her to ask for directions. The complainant testified that defendant drove away after she had been unable to answer his questions, but after she had ridden a little further down the road, defendant returned and pulled his truck in front of her. Defendant grabbed the girl, threw her bike in the ditch, and put her on the floor of the passenger side of the truck. Defendant made the girl stay on her hands and knees on the floor of the truck with her head down as she was driven to a site described by her as a hilly and muddy area with some water and a little shuck nearby. Complainant stated that defendant forced her to walk up the hill, removed her pants and undergarments, made her lie down on the ground, and then molested her. Complainant testified that as defendant drove her back to the spot where he had abducted her, she was warned that if she told anyone about the incident, he had a gun and friends to take care of her. Defendant was charged with the following counts: 1) Did "wilfully, maliciously and without lawful authority * * * forcibly * * * confine” complainant "within this state against his [her] will” contrary to MCL 750.349; MSA 28.581. 2) Did "wilfully, maliciously and without lawful authority * * * secretly confine” complainant "within this state against his [her] will” contrary to MCL 750.349; MSA 28.581. 3) Did "forcibly seize” complainant "with intent * * * to cause such person to be secretly confined * * * in this state' against his [her] will” contrary to MCL 750.349; MSA 28.581. 4) Did "assault a child under the age of 16 years” and "take or attempt to take indecent and improper liberties with the person of such child, without committing or intending to commit the crime of rape or the crime of sodomy or gross indecency upon such child” contrary to MCL 750.336; MSA 28.568. At trial defendant raised the defense of alibi. Against an array of incriminating evidence, the jury was unimpressed and returned a verdict of guilty on all four counts. Defendant then pled guilty to a supplemental information charging him with being an habitual offender. On November 22, 1974, defendant was sentenced to life imprisonment on the three convictions of kidnapping and 20 to 40 years on the indecent liberties conviction. We granted leave to appeal in the instant case to determine the scope of criminal liability under Michigan’s kidnapping statute, MCL 750.349; MSA 28.581. We are presented with a question of statu tory construction: When the Legislature enacted MCL 750.349; MSA 28.581, did it intend that multiple convictions result where a defendant abducts only one person under circumstances which fulfill two or more of the alternative definitions of the crime contained in the statute? The statute in question provides in pertinent part: "Any person who wilfully, maliciously and without lawful authority shall forcibly or secretly confine or imprison any other person within this state against his will, or shall forcibly carry or send such person out of this state, or shall forcibly seize or confine, or shall inveigle or kidnap any other person with intent to extort money or other valuable thing thereby or with intent either to cause such person to be secretly confined or imprisoned in this state against his will, or in any way held to service against his will, shall be guilty of a felony, punishable by imprisonment in the state prison for life or for any term of years.” (Emphasis added.) We do not believe that in enacting MCL 750.349; MSA 28.581 the Legislature intended that each of the alternative definitions contained in the statute constitute a separate and distinct crime for purposes of trial, conviction, and sentencing. Rather, we perceive that it was the intent of the Legislature to delineate within the statute the possible alternative ways in which the crime of kidnapping could be committed. We find the statute facially unambiguous. However, were we presented with an ambiguous statute, the rule of lenity would dictate the same conclusion in the absence of legislative history clearly indicating the contrary. See Bell v United States, 349 US 81, 83; 75 S Ct 620; 99 L Ed 905 (1955), wherein it was stated: "When Congress leaves to the Judiciary the task of imputing to Congress an undeclared will, the ambiguity should be resolved in favor of lenity. And this not out of any sentimental consideration, or for want of sympathy with the purpose of Congress in proscribing evil or antisocial conduct. It may fairly be said to be a presupposition of our law to resolve doubts in the enforcement of a penal code against the imposition of a harsher punishment.” Accordingly, we find that the trial court erred in instructing the jury that it could find defendant guilty or hot guilty on any or all of the three counts of kidnapping with which he was charged. The fact that a defendant abducts a victim under circumstances which satisfy more than one of the alternative definitions of MCL 750.349; MSA 28.581 does not preclude a prosecutor from listing in an information the alternative circumstantial bases in a kidnapping charge or from arguing all of the alternative circumstantial bases upon which a jury can return a verdict of guilty or not guilty, but it may give rise to only one criminal charge for purposes of trial, conviction, and sentencing. Since we find that MCL 750.349; MSA 28.581 does not authorize multiple convictions where a defendant abducts only one person, we find it unnecessary to address the issue of whether such multiple convictions are violative of constitutional prohibitions against double jeopardy. We vacate defendant’s convictions on count 1 and count 2 and affirm the remaining kidnapping conviction contained in count 3. Coleman, C.J., and Kavanagh, Williams, Levin, Ryan, and Blair Moody, Jr., JJ., concurred with Fitzgerald, J. MCL 750.336; MSA 28.568 was repealed by the criminal sexual conduct statute, Í974 PA 266; MCL 750.520b et seq.; MSA 28.788(2) et seq.
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Blair, J. The bill of complaint in this cause was filed to restrain the collection of a special paving assessment, and to remove the cloud upon complainant’s title caused by levying said special assessment upon his land. Several petitions of owners of property fronting upon the proposed improvement were presented to the common council, and the common council, having determined that a majority in interest of such owners had petitioned therefor, ordered the improvement. The proposition to pave and bond the city to defray the expense was submitted to the electors and carried. Complainant appeared before the council, by his attorney, and protested against the proposed improvement and filed written objections thereto. The contract for the paving was entered into be fore funds were provided to defray the expense thereof as required by the city charter. Subsequent to the levying of the special assessment a special act (Act No. 466, Local Acts 1905) was passed by the legislature and approved by the governor on April 12, 1905, to legalize “all the proceedings had in the laying out, establishing, constructing and completion ” of said pavement. The assessment was divided into five installments, two of which had become due and payable and paid by all others assessed, and the improvement had been completed, before this bill of complaint was filed. Under such circumstances, this court has uniformly refused to grant relief in equity, and the bill of complaint was properly dismissed. W. F. Stewart Co. v. City of Flint, 147 Mich. 697. The decree is affirmed, with costs of this court to defendant. Grant, Montgomery, Hooker, and Moore, JJ., concurred.
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Ostrander, J. (after stating the facts). The most favorable construction which can be placed upon the testimony for plaintiff is that the key, which was a proper part of the press, had worked out of position so that it projected some, but very little, beyond the end of the shaft. ■ It is not a common thing, but these keys do sometimes work loose. In other respects the press was in perfect order. It was the one upon which, under instruction, plaintiff had three months before learned to work. His duty was to start, feed, and stop it. In starting and stopping it he used a lever. All of its parts were visible, and its speed was not such as to put the key out of vision. He was standing at his work, and when the sheets fell to the floor, at the side of, not under, the machine, he walked to the side of the machine, stooped to pick them up, and brought his sleeve in contact with the gearing. He admits his knowledge of the danger of approaching too closely to the machinery, and that in picking up the papers he took no account of how close he approached his arm to the gearing. How long the pin had been out of position does not appear, and it is doubtful if the testimony reasonably supports an inference that the projecting pin increased the danger. Indeed, plaintiff’s testimony leaves it in doubt whether his sleeve was not caught in the gear, instead of on the pin. The most ordinary care would have avoided danger. . We are asked to give some effect to the statute (Act No. 113, Pub. Acts 1901), which forbids the employment of children under the age of 16 years in a manufacturing establishment at employment where life or limb is endangered. Section 2 of this act was amended in 1905 (Act No. 1?1), and it appeared that the mother of plaintiff, before defendant hired the boy, made the sworn statement required by said section. It is not averred that it was negligence to employ plaintiff in this establishment, at this work. Borck v. Nut Works, 111 Mich. 129. It is contended that, so long as the facts show an employment prohibited by the statute, it is immaterial, so far as the question of defendant’s negligence is concerned, whether the statute is declared upon or not. If by this is meant that it is unnecessary to aver an employment such as the statute prohibits, the contention is not sound, and the point is ruled by the case above cited. Whether a defendant is conducting a manufacturing establishment within the meaning of the statute, and whether the particular employment endangers life or limb, are questions of fact, and if it is claimed that the facts exist the rules of pleading demand a tender of the issues so that defendant may be informed of the case he is required to meet. The case of Ferguson v. Gies, 82 Mich. 358 (9 L. R. A. 589), relied upon by counsel, is not in point. In that case plaintiff’s right of action existed at common law, of the rule of which the statute was held to be declaratory. The judgment is affirmed. . , McAlvay, C. J., and Carpenter, Grant, and Blair, JJ., concurred.
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Ostrander, J. Plaintiff recovered a verdict and judg ment for |200 against defendant upon a declaration charging an assault and battery, with the averment that it was committed in the presence of divers persons, “to the great mortification, shame and disgrace of the said plaintiff.” Plaintiff was a clerk in defendant’s store. Defendant, appealing, contends: 1. There was no assault or battery shown by the'evidence. 2. There was no actual damage, and could be no exemplary damage, for want of malice. 3. The court did not instruct the jury, as requested, that the $4.20 could not be considered in this case. 4. The court did not instruct the jury they could not consider defamatory words spoken in this action. 5. The court erred in not permitting defendant to show what information he had of plaintiff’s pilfering at the time of the alleged assault. The evidence for plaintiff was sufficient, if believed, to support a finding that deféndant rudely and insolently laid his hands upon the per.son of plaintiff, in the presence of others, and that there was implied, in his action, an accusation of dishonesty. She was led by the hand through the store, in business hours, to the basement of the store, and money to the amount of $4.20, found in her purse, was taken from her and never returned. There was no personal injury, and after the affair was ended plaintiff worked the remainder of the day. The court did not permit the jury to give exemplary damages, but did instruct them that the damages assessed must be compensatory, and, if the assault was committed under circumstances of peculiar indignity and humiliation, they might consider the wounded feelings of plaintiff, the humiliation, and disgrace. This was proper. Detroit Daily Post Co. v. McArthur, 16 Mich. 447; Scripps v. Reilly, 38 Mich. 10; Lucas v. Railroad Co., 98 Mich. 1; Haviland v. Chase, 116 Mich. 214. Counsel for defendant requested the court to charge the jury in the following language: “If you should find for the plaintiff, in arriving at the amount of damages, you will not take into consideration any disgrace of humiliation or injury to her name or reputation by reason of the utterance of any words charging her with taking money.” This was refused, and the refusal assigned as error. So far as any accusation, implied or other, was made by defendant in the store, it was not overheard. In the basement other employés were working, and in their presence, according to the testimony of plaintiff, defendant demanded to see the money she had on her person, that she give an account of it, and ended by taking the money, with the remark: “Here is $4.20 belonging to her. I will put this in my pocket, and I will keep it until she proves that it is hers.” She testified, further, that in the basement defendant was fumbling about her waist where her purse was. Plaintiff was entitled to lay the whole matter before the jury, and the jury were properly permitted to consider the actions and the words of defendant to determine the character of the assault and battery claimed to have been committed by him. The court confined the jury to an estimation of damages flowing from the assault which they found, from all the evidence, was committed. The court could not properly have instructed the jury as matter of law that the loss of the money was not damage flowing from the assault. It is complained that certain testimony of defendant was improperly excluded. While the refusal to admit the testimony is assigned as error, no exception was taken, nor are we informed, by an offer to prove or otherwise, what the testimony would have been, although it is asserted in the brief that the record makes’ the purpose of the evidence clear. We find no error. Judgment is affirmed. McAlvat, C. J., and Carpenter, Hooker, and Moore, JJ., concurred. ,
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Carpenter, J. This suit is brought by the attorney general of the State to prevent the city of Detroit from constructing street-railway tracks in its streets. The sole question involved is this: Has the city authority to construct said tracks ? In the court below a hearing was had before all the judges. They were divided in opinion; but a decree was entered granting complainant relief upon the ground that section 9 of article 14 of the Constitution prevented the building of said track. That section reads: “The State shall not be a party to, nor interested in, any work of internal improvement; nor engaged in carrying on any such work, except (in the improvement of or aiding in the improvement of wagon roads, and) in the expenditure of grants to the State of land or other property.” The above parenthesis is inserted by me for the purpose of this opinion. The clause inclosed therein is an amendment placed in the section in 1905. Prior to that time it read as it would read if the parenthetic clause were omitted. Is this decision correct ? The question involved is one of great importance. If the constitutional provision applies, the plans of that large class of people who desire our municipalities to own or operate street railways cannot be carried out under our present Constitution. If, on the other hand, the constitutional provision does not apply, there is no constitutional objection to any municipality constructing or operating street railways, and there is nothing but a possible lack of legislative authority to empower any of them to engage in that undertaking. The question of whether municipalities should own or operate street railways is a question upon which wise men differ. It is a question, too, upon which nearly every person has an opinion. That, however, is not a question submitted to us for decision. It is a question for the legislative department of government, unless the people have already determined it. The question for us is: Have the people determined it ? Complainant’s counsel insist that the authority of the city to construct the track in question may be denied upon two grounds: First. Because the legislature has never granted that authority to the city. Second. Because the constitutional provisiqn before mentioned prevents the legislature granting that authority and the city from éxercising it. The same counsel maintain that it is our duty to deny the authority upon the first ground without considering the second. It would be our duty to do this if the two propositions presented different questions, but they do not. In determining the second (the constitutional) proposition, we decide just one question which has not already been decided by the harmonious adjudications of this court. That question is this: Has the city of Detroit authority to construct street railways under the provision of the Constitution which, by necessary implication, au thorizes municipalities to construct and maintain highways for public travel ? In determining the first (the construction of the legislative grant to the municipality) proposition, we decide that the city of Detroit has not authority to construct a street railway under its grant of power to ‘£ establish, open, widen, extend, straighten, alter * * * and to grade, pave, repair and otherwise improve its highways, streets and avenues” (section 169 of Detroit charter), and to keep those highways, streets and avenues “ reasonably safe and convenient for public travel.” Section 3443, 1 Comp. Laws. Whether we are construing the legislative grant to the city or the constitutional provision above referred to, we are construing language which has the same meaning, and we reach the same question, viz.: Does the grant of authority to the municipality to construct a highway for public travel authorize it to construct thereon a street railway ? I conclude, therefore, that, if we decide that the legislature has not granted authority to defendant to construct said street railway (and the' hypothesis underlying our present argument assumes that we will so decide), it logically follows that said grant was not warranted by the Constitution. In other words, it follows as a necessary consequence of an affirmance by this court of a decree of the lower court that the project of defendant to build a street railway is forbidden by our Constitution. This being so, I can see no impropriety in our so declaring in our opinion; for one of the purposes — -indeed the main purpose — in writing that opinion is to enable the profession and the( public to apply our decision to future controversies. If, on the other hand, we decide that authority to build a street railway cannot constitutionally be granted, no argument is necessary to prove that the city of Detroit does not possess it. It is true that in deciding the constitutional question above referred to we consider other constitutional questions, but I think it is not improper for us to do that, because those questions have, as already stated, been heretofore determined by harmonious adjudications of this court. Therefore, without undertaking to determine the construction of the legislative grant, I proceed to consider the constitutional question, viz.,: Does section 9 of article 14 of our Constitution prevent our municipalities from constructing street-railway tracks in their streets ? I maintain that it does. Respecting this I state three propositions: First. A street railway is a work of internal improvement within the meaning of said section. Second. The prohibition of said section, unless otherwise provided in the Constitution, applies to municipalities which are subdivisions of the State as well as to the State at large. ' Third. No other provision of the Constitution authorizes a municipality to construct or to operate a street railway. If I am right in each of these propositions, it is clear that the city of Detroit has no authority to do the proposed work. If I am wrong in any one of them it has that authority. I proceed to consider those propositions. First. A street railway is an internal improvement within the meaning of section 9 of article 14 of the State Constitution. This proposition is conceded by each of the counsel in this case and by each of the learned circuit judges who participated in the decision in the lower court, and by each of the justices of this court. But the decision of an important constitutional question should not rest upon concession alone; and therefore I support the proposition under consideration by other reasoning and authority. While it is not easy to frame a precise definition of the expression, “works of internal improvement” (this question will again be referred to), it is easy to show that a street railway is such a work. The occasion for inserting this language and accompanying prohibition in the Constitution is stated by the opinion of this court written by Justice Moore in Attorney General v. Pingree, 120 Mich. 550 (46 L. R. A. 407), and it is there made clear that it was designed to cover, among other undertakings, railroads, canals, and similar works. That a street railway is a similar work, and therefore prohibited by the provision, is clear, and is shown in said opinion. It is true that in that case the scheme in question was one of operation; but that the language of the Constitution, “the State shall not be a party to, nor interested in, any woi’k of internal improvement, nor engaged in carrying on any such work,” prohibits construction as well as operation, needs no argument or authority; and, if authority be needed, it is found in Ryerson v. Utley, 16 Mich. 269, where the prohibited work was one of construction, and not of operation. I think this is all that is needed to be said — and perhaps more than is needed in view of the contentions of defendant — in support of the proposition that the scheme under consideration is a work of internal improvement prohibited by the Constitution. Second. The constitutional provision in question, except as otherwise provided in the Constitution, prohibits municipalities, as well as the State at large, from engaging in works of internal improvement. In People, ex rel. Bay City, v. State Treasurer, 23 Mich. 499, this court decided, as stated by Justice Moore in Attorney General v. Pingree, supra, “that the construction of a railroad was an internal improvement within the meaning of the Constitution, and that what the State could not do it could not authorize the townships and cities to do.” The same proposition was decided in Thomas v. City of Port Huron, 27 Mich. 320, and Attorney General v. Pingree, supra. See, also, Anderson v. Hill, 54 Mich. 477. It is true that this proposition was denied by the Supreme Court of the United States in Township of Pine Grove v. Talcott, 19 Wall. (U. S.) 666, and Taylor v. Ypsilanti, 105 U. S. 60, but notwithstanding that denial this court deliberately chose, in Dodge v. Van Buren Circuit Judge, 118 Mich. 189, to stand by its position. We cannot at this day deny that proposition without overruling those decisions. Of course, we have the power to overrule them; but this power should not be exercised unless we are clearly convinced that those decisions are wrong. I, for one, am not so convinced. Study and reflection have strengthened my conviction, that they were properly decided. In determining the meaning of the provision in question, we should remember that we are construing a Constitution. It should be given the meaning that the people intended it should have. It should be construed, if its language is appropriate, so that it will accomplish the purpose the people-intended it to accomplish. What was that purpose ? This cannot better be stated than by quoting the languge of Justice Cooley in People, ex rel. Bay City, v. State Treasurer, supra: “ Our State once before had a bitter experience of the evils of the government connecting itself with works of internal improvement. In time of inflation and imagined prosperity, the State had contracted a large debt for the construction of a system of railroads, and the people were oppressed with heavy taxation in consequence. Moreover, for a portion of this debt, they had not received what they bargained for, and they did not recognize their legal or moral obligation to pay it. The good name and ■fame of the State suffered in consequence. The result of it all was that a settled conviction fastened itself upon the minds of our people, that works of internal improvement should be private enterprises; that it was not within the proper province of government to connect itself with their construction or management, and that an imperative State policy demanded that no more burden should be imposed upon the people by State authority for any such purpose.” It follows that the purpose of the constitutional prohibition was to protect the people — not merely one of their governmental agencies — from the consequences (supposed evil consequences) resulting from governmental connection with the construction or management of works of internal improvement. This purpose is completely frustrated if cities, villages, and townships by authority of the central government engage in such work. In that case subdivisions of the State by authority of the State are engaged in works of internal improvement, and the evils of that engagement, if evils they are, aré quite as burdensome on the people as if the central government itself had engaged in such work. To be effectual, the constitutional prohibition — and it was intended to be effectual and must be so construed — applies to every part of the State, and to me it seems absurd to suppose that the people intended to permit a part of the State to do what the whole State could not do. It is not to be supposed that the people in adopting this provision intended to prohibit the whole State from engaging in works of internal improvement and at the same time to permit any part of the State to engage in them; for, if each community can through its local government engage in such work, the consequences to the people are precisely the same' as though the State engaged in it. The burden upon the people is quite as onerous and the extent of the possible undertakings is almost as great. This is shown by an illustration suggested by the present case. A similar illustration was used by Justice Moore in his opinion in Attorney General v. Pingree, supra. If cities, villages, and townships may construct street railways, certainly they may construct those street railways which have proved to be best and most efficient, and those in rural localities at least extend through many municipalities and transport passengers and freight between distant communities. Though in such a case each municipality may for constitutional reasons other than that under consideration be prohibited from constructing or operating a road outside of its own geographical limits, the road within those limits may nevertheless be only a part of some system greater and more extensive than any dreamed of at the time our Constitution was adopted. This illustration is used, not because its magnitude determines whether á given undertaking is or is not a work of internal improvement (for the contrary is clear and is well settled; see People, ex rel. Hubbard, v. Township Board of Springwells, 25 Mich. 153), but to show more clearly that the constitutional prohibition would become a dead letter if it has no application to municipalities. It follows from these decisions and this reasoning that the constitutional provision under consideration prohibits the State from granting to municipalities authority to engage in works of internal improvement. It is argued, however, that, though the State cannot authorize municipalities to engage in all works of internal improvement, it can authorize them to engage in certain of said works, viz., those which are local in character. If there is any ground for this distinction, it must be found in the Constitution. If a prohibitory constitutional provision, general in its character, is subject to exceptions, those exceptions must be found in the Constitution. The courts cannot create them. They can only declare the exceptions which the Constitution itself creates. Every work of internal improvement described in the provision under consideration is prohibited, unless it is excepted by the Constitution. A municipality cannot therefore engage in any such work unless it is authorized to do so by some other provision of the Constitution. In other words, the constitutional prohibition under consideration, except as otherwise provided in the Constitution, applies to municipalities as well as to the State. In the addition to his opinion, Justice Blair contends that the constitutional provision applies to municipalities only when they are “acting as agents of and for the State.” While I think this contention is answered by the foregoing reasoning, I deem it proper to add that, in my judgment, it is opposed to the decisions of Attorney General v. Pingree, 120 Mich. 550 (48 L. R. A. 407), and People, ex rel. Bay City, v. State Treasurer, 23 Mich. 499, and to the reasoning upon which those decisions are based. It is suggested that our decisions, made before the recent amendment of 1905 permitting the State to improve or aid in the improvement of public wagon roads, holding a road for the purpose of public travel to be a work which municipalities can construct or maintain, though it is, as to the State (see People, ex rel. Hubbard, v. Township Board of Springwells, 25 Mich. 153), a prohibited work of internal improvement, proceed upon a principle opposed to the foregoing reasoning. This I deny. On the contrary, I assert that those decisions afford an instance of the application of that reasoning. Municipalities could construct and maintain roads for public travel, though such roads were, prior to the recent amendment of 1905 above referred to, works of internal improvement prohibited by the Constitution, not because of any exception found outside the Constitution, but because other provisions of the Constitution (article 11, § 1. See, also, article 4, § 49; article 10, § 11) by necessary implication granted municipalities authority to construct and maintain such roads. Though cities and villages are not expressly named in the foregoing sections, I think it settled by our decisions (Moreland v. Millen, 126 Mich. 381, and authorities there cited) that they have the same constitutional right of control over highways as are given by the above sections to the townships therein named. In the addition to his opinion, Justice Blair denies the foregoing proposition, and says: “ Nowhere has the Constitution granted to cities, either expressly or by necessary implication, authority to construct or maintain highways. * * * They possess that power, if they possess it at all, because the Constitution nowhere prohibits its exercise, and the legislature has granted it.” I deem it a sufficient rejoinder to say that the right of a city to construct and maintain its highways is one of its rights of local self-government which this court has held is a constitutional right. I think this is the holding of the entire court in Moreland v. Millen, supra. It is entirely consistent to say that, though municipalities were prohibited by the Constitution from engaging in works of internal improvement, they might nevertheless construct and maintain roads — which are works of internal improvement —because the Constitution empowered them to do so. The constitutional prohibition was to be read as if the construction and maintenance of roads for public travel by municipalities were excepted from its operation. We may then conclude this part of the opinion by saying that, as a street railway is* a work of internal improvement within the meaning of the constitutional prohibition under consideration, a municipality cannot construct it or operate it, unless authorized to do so by some other provision of the Constitution. Third. This brings us to the third proposition in this opinion, viz., no other provision of the Constitution authorizes municipalities to construct or to operate street railways. It is contended that the constitutional grant of authority to construct and maintain roads for public travel carries as an incident thereto authority to construct street railways upon said roads. Is this contention sound ? This raises the most important question in this case; and it is, as heretofore stated, the only constitutional question not heretofore determined by this court. We are not materially assisted to a correct answer of this question by determining whether or not the tracks of a street railway, after their construction, are a part of the road adapted to ordinary public travel. The question in this case is not whether municipalities can construct street railways for the purpose of being used for ordinary public travel. The bill of complaint shows that the street railways under consideration are not to be constructed for that purpose. They are, when constructed, to be used like all street railways, viz., for transporting thereon passengers for hire. While the city of Detroit does not itself propose to directly engage in such transportation business, it does propose to obtain the profits of that business. Indeed, the securing of those profits is not only an essential, but it is the essential, part of defendant’s project. To sustain defendant’s right to construct a street railway and to deny defendant’s right to the profits of the use of that railway is to give it a stone when it asks for bread. Unless a municipality can secure such profit, municipal construction of street railways would be an utter waste of public funds, and for that reason will never be undertaken and should never be permitted. If, then, there is an objection to municipalities securing the profit of transporting passengers for hire upon street railways constructed by them, that objection is fatal to the project of the city of Detroit under consideration, as well as to all similar projects of construction. Can a municipality secure the profit of transporting passengers for hire upon street railways constructed by them ? If we concede its right to secure those profits, we must also concede to it the right to choose the. method by which it will secure them. If it can best secure those profits by leasing said street railways, it may lease them. If it can best secure those profits by operating said railways, it may operate them. There is undoubtedly a great difference between municipal ownership and municipal operation of street railways; but there is no constitutional objection to municipal operation which does not apply to municipal ownership. If the prohibition, “The State shall not be a party to, nor interested in, any work of in-. ternal improvement, nor engaged in carrying on any such work,” does not prevent a municipality constructing and leasing a street railway, it does not prevent a municipality operating said railway. Does the constitutional grant of authority to construct and maintain roads authorize a municipality to secure to itself the profits of transporting passengers for hire upon a street railway constructed on said roads ? The grant of. authority to construct and maintain a road is unquestionably an extensive one. It confers authority to do whatever is necessary to make and adapt that road to public travel. It cannot be claimed, however, that there passes as an incident to such grant authority to transport passengers for hire upon said road or upon any part of said road; otherwise municipalities could engage in running stage lines, omnibus lines, or hack lines upon their highways. Authority to construct and maintain highways and authority to transport passengers for hire upon said highways are in their nature and have been in practice radically distinct. The latter authority does not pass as an incident to the grant of the former. This disposes of the contention that defendant acquired power to execute its project as an incident to the grant of authority to construct and maintain roads; for defendant cannot execute that project — e. g., secure the profits of transporting passengers for hire upon the street railways constructed by it — -without engaging directly or indirectly in the business of transporting passengers for hire. The proposition that the grant of authority to municipalities to construct and maintain highways carries the incidental authority of constructing and operating directly or indirectly street railways for the transportation of passengers for hire on said highways would defeat the purpose for which the constitutional provision prohibiting works of internal improvement was adopted. It has already been shown in this opinion that the paramount purpose of the people in adopting this provision was to prevent the government (either state or municipal) engaging itself, directly or indirectly, with schemes for transporting passengers for hire. The distinction between such undertakings and that of building roads upon which such passengers were transported was presumably as obvious then as It is now; and, when the framers of the Constitution gave to municipalities authority to construct and maintain roads, it cannot be presumed that they intended them (said municipalities) to engage in undertakings which experience had shown to be disastrous and which they intended to prohibit. I think it may help to a clearer understanding if I state what I concede to be the essential difference between Justice Blair and myself respecting the foregoing vital question. It is this, viz.: He denies our right to consider the purpose and design of a street railway in determining whether or not its construction is a legitimate highway improvement; while, on the contrary, I affirm that we should consider its purpose and design, and that they prove that from its very inception it is not a legitimate highway improvement. It is suggested that section 38 of article 4 of the State Constitution, authorizing the legislature to confer upon townships and incorporated cities and villages “such powers of a local, legislative and administrative character as they may deem proper ” has some bearing upon the proposition under discussion. I answer this by saying: The constitutional provision that the State — and this provision, as we have seen, extends to municipalities created by the State — shall not engage in works of internal improvement is a limitation upon the authority of the legislature when acting under this section. The legislature, when so acting, has no more right to disregard the prohibition against internal improvements than it has to disregard the provisions securing the right of trial by jury, or any other fundamental constitutional limitation upon its authority; and this principle was recognized and applied in People, ex rel. Bolt, v. Riordan, 73 Mich. 508. I am referred to, and can find, no other provision of the Constitution which authorizes municipalities to construct or to operate street railways. I therefore conclude there is none. It is said that in City of Detroit v. Railway, 133 Mich. 608, and later in 134 Mich. 11, we passed upon this question and determined that the city of Detroit has authority to construct a street railway. In the first case it appears that the city had entered into an agreement which obligated it to maintain the pavement of a street and the foundation upon which it rested, which foundation was also the foundation upon which the track of a street railway rested. “ Some spots adjacent to its [the street-railway track] tracks became in bad condition, the pavement disintegrated and destroyed, and the foundation under the rails in places settled, allowing the rails to settle, due to the use of the track. The railway company having refused td repair the foundation and pavement, this [mandamus] proceeding was instituted.” It was insisted that the city could not be compelled to do this Work, because it was a prohibited work of internal improvement under the constitutional provision in question. We decided otherwise, saying: “The street-railway law does not in anyway relieve the municipalities from the responsibility of maintaining the highways in a reasonably safe condition for public travel, and, as it cannot shift its liability to a railway company by contracting with it for the maintenance of the way, it would seem that it should be authorized, if it is not under legal obligation, to repair the way when out of repair, whatever the cause. * * * Street railways are adapted to aid travel in public highways, and, while the laws providing for their use impose upon private corporations the burden of constructing and operating them, all such laws contemplate that they will be constructed upon the highway. They presuppose a highway maintained by the public; and we are of the opinion that it is not beyond the authority of the public officers to build a highway that will support such traffic, even though it need a heavier pavement than ordinary traffic requires. We are also of the opinion that it cannot be said that the city engages in a work of internal improvement by making a contract whereby it shall construct and repair its highways and pavements instead of állowing the railway company to interfere with them.” By this same reasoning we enforced in the second of those cases (City of Detroit v. Railway, 134 Mich. 11) the agreement of the city to pay for constructing the concrete foundations of a street-railway track on unpaved streets. It is said that we háve held in these cases that a city may construct the foundations for a street-car track, and that it is absurd to deny that it may construct on said foundations the tracks for which they are intended. This is plausible reasoning; but plausible reasoning is not always sound reasoning. It conveys an erroneous impression to say that we have decided that a city may construct the foundations for street-railway tracks. The statement implies that we have held that it may construct those foundations under all circumstances. The utmost that can be said is that we have held that it may construct them under certain particular circumstances. To be exact it should be stated that we have decided that a city may construct the foundations of street-railway tracks when those foundations are also the foundations upon which rests the surface of a street which it (the city) is bound to maintain in a condition reasonably safe for public travel; and we have never held that it may construct foundations whose sole function was to furnish a roadbed for the rails. In other words, we have decided that the existence of a street railway upon a street in no way impairs the right or duty of a city to keep and maintain that street in a condition reasonably safe and fit for public travel, and that it may do or contract to do whatever is necessary to be done to perform this obligation. We upheld the city’s agreement in those cases to construct the foundation of a street railway, not because it was the foundation of a street railway, but because there rested upon it a surface which it (the city) was bound to maintain in proper condition for travel. We had no occasion in those cases to determine, and did not determine, the right of a municipality to construct any other part of a street railway than that which had relation to the municipal obligation to maintain a street for ordinary traffic. In those cases the question was not the one involved here, viz., can a municipality construct a street railway to be used as a street railway for the purpose of transporting passengers for hire ? but it was this, viz., is the obligation of a municipality to maintain its streets in proper condition for ordinary traffic lessened by the circumstance that it rests upon a foundation which is also the foundation of a street railway ? In this latter case it can very truly be said that without maintaining the foundation the city could not maintain the surface which rested upon it; that without maintaining the foundation the city could not provide a reasonably’safe street for public travel; and we held, and in my judgment properly held, that this reasoning was just as applicable to an unpaved as to a paved street. Would any one venture to say that a city cannot discharge its duty of providing a safe street for ordinary public travel without putting upon that foundation a street-railway track and leasing the same for the transportation of passengers for hire ? That is a very different proposition. It is the proposition involved in this case; and its determination, as we have shown in this opinion, depends on very different reasoning, reasoning which results in a very different conclusion. It is also contended that, if we deny the right of a municipality to construct a street-railway system because it is a work of internal improvement, we must by the same reasoning deny its right to construct and .maintain parks, waterworks, sewers, and a public lighting system. We answer this contention by saying that the right exercised in these latter instances is not prohibited by the constitutional provision under consideration. Those undertakings are not works of internal improvement within the meaning of the constitutional provision. One of the grounds upon which the right of a city to construct and maintain parks, waterworks, and sewers is that those undertakings contribute to the public. health. 2 Dillon on Municipal Corporations (4th Ed.), § 598. A municipality may maintain a public lighting system because it tends to the suppression of crime and the safety of travelers upon municipal highways. That there is a constitutional distinction between such undertakings and the construction of a street railway is shown by our own decisions. We have held that straightening or deepening the channel of a stream for the purpose of reclaiming submerged lands (Anderson v. Hill, 54 Mich. 477; Wilcox v. Paddock, 65 Mich. 23), or for the purpose of improving the navigability of the stream (Ryerson v. Utley, 16 Mich. 269), isa work of internal improvement within the meaning of the Constitution; but, if it is straightened or deepened for the purpose of promoting public health, it is not a work of internal improvement within the meaning of the Constitution (Brady v. Hayward, 114 Mich. 326). Undertakings in the performance of what has always been regarded as a duty owed by a government to its citizens, like’ that of protecting their health or suppressing crime,, have never been considered and are not properly denominated works of internal improvement. In this connection it is proper to observe that the furnishing of transportation facilities has not always been regarded the duty of a government. The question naturally arises: Why is a street railway a work of internal improvement and a sewer not a work of internal improvement ? While it is. sufficient to show that the authorities recognize the distinction between them, it would be more satisfactory if a reason for that distinction could be pointed out. This I shall attempt to do. All will agree that at the time our Constitution was adopted, undertakings by the government to construct artificial highways of commerce or to improve natural highways of commerce were called works of internal improvement. Indeed, the expression, “works of internal improvement,” was applied to undertakings of this nature carried on by the national government very early in its history. . It is therefore clear that our Constitution was intended to and does prohibit all such undertakings (though the recent amendment excepts improvement of public wagon roads from the prohibition ), and this obviously, as before stated, prohibits the construction of a street railway. If we can determine just why governmental undertakings to construct artificial highways of commerce or to improve natural highways of commerce were called works of internal improvement, we will, I think, understand why a sewer and other similar works are not works of internal improvement.. I suggest that the service they render and the resulting consequences indicate why they were called works of internal improvement. Highways of commerce, whether natural or artificial, by facilitating and cheapen ing transportation, gave the localities through which they run .material advantages which they did not theretofore have; (and this was especially true in the early days of our country). They increased the value of the land whose products they carried to market, and, as they were located within the limits of the country, they did in the broadest, though in a material, sense improve its interior. They were works of internal improvement because they improved the interior of the country. While those who advocated great national expenditures in these undertakings found legal justification therefor in the constitutional grant of authority to Congress [Art. 1, § 8] uto lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States” (2 Story on the Constitution [5th Ed.], § 1273), the moral justification was that they enhanced our material prosperity. Had they not in a material sense improved the country’s interior, their undertaking lacked justification. They were therefore works of internal improvement. They are easily distinguished from such undertakings as the construction of parks, sewers, waterworks, and a system of public lighting. If these latter undertakings add or tend to add to the material prosperity of the community in which they are located, and doubtless they sometimes do so add, that is obviously neither the legal nor the moral purpose for which they were undertaken. Indeed, it may be said of them that if they did not in the least contribute to the improvement of the interior, and many times they do not so contribute, they would none the less be undertaken. The function of each of these latter undertakings is governmental in its character. In short, the difference between these two classes of undertakings is this, viz.: The function of one is to improve the interior, and the function of the other is not to improve the interior, but it is to perform what has always been regarded as a duty owed by the government to its citizens. Hence the one are works of internal improvement and the other are not works of internal improvement. The eminent counsel for defendants has eloquently pictured to us the advantages which will accrue to the people of the city of Detroit if their local government is permitted to engage in this work of internal improvement —this proposed construction of a street railway. He may be right. It may be that engaging in that undertaking will be attended by no evil consequences and by great advantages to the people. That question is not for our determination. We can only say that those who adopted the Constitution, being of the opinion that the best interests of the people would thereby be promoted, prohibited such undertakings; and, so long as the Constitution contains that prohibition, we must enforce it. I am therefore of the opinion that the city of Detroit has no authority to carry out its project of constructing a street railway. The decree should be affirmed. McAlvay, C. J., and Hooker, J., concurred with Carpenter, J. Grant, J. The allegations in the bill of complaint and the ordinance of the city, which is the subject of this litigation, are fully stated in the opinion of my Brothers Blair and Ostrander, and a further statement is unnecessary. I agree with them that by no stretch of construction can the laying of steel rails in the streets of a municipality for leasing to private parties be considered a part of the pavement of the street. No stretch of imagination, in my opinion, would permit any other conclusion. Street-car tracks injure rather than aid the pavement of streets, and obstruct rather than aid the passage of vehicles entitled to the free use of the streets from curb to curb. The learned counsel for the respondent state their claim as follows: “ What we seek to do is to construct streets; that is all. And in paving those streets we propose to use just such material as, in the judgment of the common council, is adequate and proper and necessary to meet the growing demands of that great city. And we propose to make, as a part of that pavement, two streaks of steel, or four streaks of steel, as the case may be, so that when it is constructed we will have a pavement with a solid foundation of adamant in the form of concrete. It may be paved from the curb line to near the center with brick or asphalt, and then in the center of that street and as a part of that pavement we propose to lay steel rails, level with the balance of the pavement, and, when it is done, it is a street, constructed under the powers conferred by the Constitution of the State and of the charter of the city of Detroit.” In Reg. v. Train, 9 Cox. Crim. Cas. 180, the local authorities permitted a private party to construct a tramway for the convenience of the carriage of passengers in the streets of the city. It was attempted there to maintain the tramway as a part of the pavement. Of this claim the court say: “It seems almost ludicrous to say that making a tramway of this kind was a mode of paving.” Inasmuch as we all agree that the proposed tracks cannot be laid as a pavement, the only other theory under which the ordinance could be maintained is that it is an improvement authorized by that provision of the charter conferring upon the common council ‘ ‘ the power to grade, pave, repair or otherwise improve the streets.” It-is the universal rule that municipalities derive their powers from the legislature; that they possess no inherent powers in and of themselves; that those powers must be either express or necessarily implied; and that in order to imply them they must be essential to the exercise of the function under which the municipality is acting. These powers cannot be extended by construction, but must be strictly construed. Taylor v. Railway Co., 80 Mich. 77; Farr v. City of Grand Rapids, 119 Mich. 99; Detroit Citizens’ St. R. Co. v. City of Detroit, 110 Mich. 384; 1 Dillon on Municipal Corporations (4th Ed.), § 89. See, also, the authorities cited in those cases. It is unnecessary to multiply authorities, which might be done to an almost unlimited extent. It must be conceded that no express power to lay railroad tracks in the streets of the city of Detroit is conferred by the charter. It must also be conceded that there is no language in the charter to justify a conclusion that the city was authorized to construct, own, and maintain a system of street railways, or to construct any part thereof. It is sought to imply this power to construct "street railway tracks, loops and connections ” from those innocent words " otherwise improve.” Is it reasonable to suppose that the legislature intended to confer this power to impose taxes upon the people of that city, not for the general use of the public, but for leasing to a private corporation for the purposes of revenue, should the common council be able to effect a contract with some private corporation ? Eight years ago there were in the city of Detroit 141 miles of street railway in active use, and 179 miles, including abandoned tracks and car barn tracks. Attorney General v. Pingree, 120 Mich. 568 (46 L. R. A. 407). Undoubtedly many more miles have been added since. If the city possesses the power to lay these tracks as a part of the street structure, for the same reason it has a right to purchase those already laid from the company or companies owning them. The right to construct necessarily implies the right to purchase. What the expense to the city would be we cannot ascertain from the pleadings in the case. Certainly it would be enormous. I find from the present market quotations that the steel rails alone would cost per mile between $4,500 and $5,000. At these figures the cost of the rails alone for 200 miles of track would be nearly or quite $1,000,000. This is by no means all th.e cost., This does not include ties, switches, frogs, and other things, or the cost of laying the tracks. Such power of taxation can only rest upon express authority or absolute necessity. Neither, in my opinion, exists in this case. Probably similar language to that in the Detroit charter is found in nearly all the municipal charters of the State. The legislature, probably in all the cities, as it does in the general law, authorizes and empowers the common councils of these municipal corporations to permit railroad corporations to lay tracks and operate their roads in the public highway upon such terms and conditions as the council may prescribe. 1 Comp. Laws, § 3111. What the city of Detroit may do under its charter any other municipal corporation can do under similar language. It would follow, therefore, that the legislature has impliedly authorized the expenditure of millions of dollars in buying steel rails and building superstructures, not as a pavement, but as an improvement to the streets and highways, not for the general use of the public, but for the exclusive use of private parties and their patrons. I cannot yield my assent to that doctrine. It would follow that adjoining municipalities may, without the vote óf the people, tax the citizens for the construction of such superstructures, and lease them, if they can make a satisfactory arrangement, to private corporations. It is easy to see how promoters of these railways, by the usual specious arguments of benefits, may induce common councils to lay tracks and lease them for perhaps a mere nominal sum. The history of the granting of street-railway franchises in this State, often without compensation, shows how ready people often are to vote away franchises without any adequate compensation. In this way one company might lease the tracks in Detroit, and in every municipality adjoining Detroit and beyond. I can find, nothing in the charter of the city from which so important and dangerous a power can be implied. For these reasons, I concur in the opinion of my Brother Ostrander. Having determined that the ordinance can only be sustained upon the basis of a public improvement, we come to the question: Is it a part of an internal improvement prohibited by the constitutional provision ? Article 14, § 9. It is not proposed to construct these tracks for the general use of the public. Counsel for the city disclaim any intention on the part of the city to construct, own, and operate a street railway. They are to be con struoted for no other purpose than to lease to some private corporation. They are to be a part of the street railway owned by the city, while the other, parts are owned by some private party. The ordinance so expressly states. It cannot, therefore, be devoted to public use in any sense, unless the common council can make a contract to lease it to some person or corporation; and there is no claim that they now have a contract for such lease. ¿¡The track is not laid for the use of the general public, but only for those who choose to ride on the cars of a private corporation. It cannot be used in any other way. One individual or corporation must have the sole right to use these tracks for the transportation of passengers and as well of freight, for it is a matter of common knowledge that frieght is now being carried over them into the heart of the city. The ordinance itself does not pretend to say that it is an improvement to the street as a part of the structure of the street. It purports on its face, and was evidently so intended, to present the question whether the city had the right to construct a part of the equipment of a street railway. If it may buy the rails and ties and lay the tracks, it may as well erect the steel trolley poles, which are also in the street, and are as permanently attached to it as are the rails. The improvements to streets and highways contemplated by the Constitution and the statute are ejusdem generis, and intended for the use of the general public. They do not include those things not owned by the public, but by private corporations, which municipalities under their charters may authorize private corporations to place in the streets for the purpose of carrying passengers and freight for profit. They aré not improvements intended for the common use of all travelers having occasion to use the streets. They are improvements for revenue to be derived from leasing to private parties. The fact that street cars are held not to be an additional servitude to the street is of no significance, in my opinion, in considering this question. The State through its municipality may permit the use of carriages to run upon rails or upon the pavement, without creating any additional servitude. Grant that street railways have become essential in the business of our large cities; yet that fact does not make any part of the equipment of such railway a public improvement to the street like a macadamized roadbed, or a brick, stone, or asphalt pavement. The rails and ties are not a part of the roadbed. They are the superstructure upon the roadbed. “Rails in place constitute the superstructure resting upon the roadbed.” San Francisco, etc., R. Co. v. State Board of Equalization, 60 Cal. 34. Trucks as heavy as a street car, and engines of immense weight, now pass over our streets and highways. The municipality may construct pavements deep enough and strong enough to support these heavily loaded trucks. So far as the duty and power to construct pavements of sufficient strength to sustain them are concerned, it cannot make any difference whether such carriages run upon rails or without. Constructing a pavement or roadbed of sufficient strength to sustain the weight of street cars and rails upon which they are run is no different in principle from constructing a portion of a street of sufficient strength to bear heavy loads drawn over them without rails,- while another part of the street may contain a lighter pavement, designed for lighter loads and vehicles. It would, I assume, be entirely proper for a municipality to construct one side of the street for heavy vehicles, and the other for light vehicles, and compel vehicles of a certain size, weight, and character to be hauled over certain parts of the street. But an entirely different question would arise when one corporation or individual desired to use a portion of that street upon which to lay tracks to carry his heavy loads, instead of hauling them upon the pavement. The difference between laying a pavement or roadbed of sufficient strength to bear any and all vehicles which may pass over it, and the construction, upon the surface of the street, of a part of the equipment for the operation of a street railway, is so great that I am unable to see any resemblance between the two. The case of City of Detroit v. Railway, supra, only holds that the common council may construct a pavement of sufficient strength to sustain the superstructures of a street railway and the vehicles running over it. That was the sole question in the case. We said: ‘ ‘ Street railways are adapted to aid travel in the public highways, and, while the laws providing for their use impose upon private corporations the burden of constructing and operating them, all such laws contemplate that they will be constructed upon the highway. They presuppose' a highway maintained by the public, and we are of the opinion that it is not beyond the authority of the public officers to build a highway that will support such traffic, even though it need a heavier pavement than ordinary traffic requires. We are also of the opinion that jt cannot be said that the city engages in a work of internal-improvement by making a, contract whereby it shall construct and repair its highways and pavements, instead of allowing the railway company to interfere with them.” I participated in that decision, and never for a moment supposed that I was sustaining a proposition which would authorize the city to construct the superstructure or any part of the equipment of the street railway. If any such conclusion can legitimately be drawn from that decision, it should be promptly overruled. The power of the legislature to authorize the construction of railroads in its streets and highways by private corporations or individuals has never been questioned. We are confronted now for the first time with the proposition that the State through its municipalities may assist the construction of railways by building the superstructure, a large part of the cost, at the expense of the public, upon the idea that they can be leased to a street-railway corporation for profit. In Kirkland v. Board of Public Works of Indianapolis, 142 Ind. 123, the charter provided that street improvements should be assessed against abutting lands per running foot front, without regard to benefits; that sewers should be assessed, in certain cases, according to bene-fits, etc. The board of public works adopted a resolution for improving a certain street “by grading, curbing and paving the roadway with brick on concrete foundation, and constructing drains or sewers and appurtenances thereto, according to drawings,” etc. The question arose whether the drain was a part of the public improvement of the street. It was not intended as a sewer for the use of abutting owners, but as a drain for the street. It was held to come within the meaning of the term “improvement.” If the drain was essential to the proper construction of the street, it was a part of ■ the pavement. If the case held, which I think it does not, that a sewer could be constructed under provisions similar to those in this case, it would be in conflict with Peck v. City of Grand Rapids, 125 Mich. 416. In Thompson v. City of Highland Park, 187 Ill. 265, the sole question was whether in grading and paving a wide street the city was authorized to grade the street on two sides and leave a space in the center to be covered with loam and seeded with grass seed, and planted with trees, 50 feet apart. The improvement contemplated was a benefit to the entire public. It was not for a lease to private individuals or private corporations. It was such an improvement as cities from time immemorial under general language have been in the habit of making. It does not apply to a railroad track laid in a public highway for the benefit of private parties, although its use is quasi public and involves relief upon the highway in transportation of passengers. I find nothing in those and similar cases to sustain the proposition now contended for. We are cited to no authority holding that the superstructure of a railway is an essential part of the structure of a street, and may be therefore constructed at public expense. Our conclusion is that it is a necessary part of the equipment of a street railway. The conclusion that this superstructure is a part of a street railway brings us necessarily to the question: Is a street railway, wholly within the corporate limits of a city, an internal improvement prohibited by the Constitution ? We might avoid this question by the concession of counsel that the respondents do not contemplate the ownership and operation of a street-railway system. We avoided the question in Attorney General v. Pingree, 120 Mich. 550 (46 L. R. A. 407), for the reason that it was not absolutely necessary to the decision of that case. The question is now properly before us; and it is justice to the parties interested and to the public that it be determined. We are also constrained to dispose of it because, should it be held that this superstructure can be laid as a part of the structure of a street, it might be regarded as another step towards holding that a municipality may both construct, own, and operate a street railway, just as it is now argued that we took a similar step in City of Detroit v. Railway, supra. We think the language in Attorney General v. Pingree decides the question. We there said: “To say the system of railroads as it existed in 1850 constituted internal improvements, within the meaning of the Constitution, and that the system of roads existing in Detroit, which are to be taken over by this commission, and the lines leading thereto, with which said commission are allowed to make agreements for deeds, leases, and in relation to the exchange of tickets and transfers, is not a system of internal improvements within the meaning of the Constitution, is to deny to words in common use their ordinary and accepted meaning. If the legislature may authorize the city of Detroit to enter into the proposed arrangement, it may authorize any other municipality to do so, and, by concert of action between the various municipalities, they may cover the State with means of rapid transit, owned and operated by the municipalities. This would enable the State to do, by means of agencies called into being by itself, what it cannot itself do, and what the Constitution forbids it doing.” The experience of the people of Michigan, prior to the adoption of the present Constitution, in making, owning, and operating internal improvements (railroads and canals), has been a subject of historical and judicial investigation. The question has been fully covered both historically and judicially, and I deem it unimportant to again review the subject. People, ex rel. Bay City, v. State Treasurer, 23 Mich. 499; People v. Township Board of Salem, 20 Mich. 478; Thomas v. City of Port Huron, 27 Mich. 320; Dodge v. Van Buren Circuit Judge, 118 Mich. 189; Anderson v. Hill, 54 Mich. 477; Ryerson v. Utley, 16 Mich. 269; Sparrow v. Commissioner of State Land Office, 56 Mich. 574. In other cases than those above cited the people of various localities in this State, impressed with the idea that the construction of railroads or the existence of manufacturing establishments in the locality justified the expenditure of public funds as a bonus, have freely voted them, and the courts have universally set them aside. Often failure has resulted and the debts have been repudiated. See Common Council of Cedar Springs v. Schlich, 81 Mich. 405 (8 L. R. A. 851); Board of Sup'rs of Cheboygan Co. v. Township of Mentor, 94 Mich. 386; Schmid v. Village of Frankfort, 131 Mich. 197. What is the distinction between a steam railway and a street railway ? Both are organized for and engaged in the same kind of business, to wit, the carriage of passengers, and now both are engaged in carrying freight. One obtains its right of way by purchase or condemnation, the other obtains its right of way from the State through the municipality, usually upon such terms and conditions as the municipality may direct. Both are quasi public corporations. Both are equally doing a private business for gain. Both are equally internal, improvements within the language above quoted in Attorney General v. Pingree. The question of what is an internal improvement does not depend upon its extent or size. A canal or a railway a mile long is just as certainly an internal improvement prohibited by the Constitution as one 50 or 100 miles in length. The character of the work determines the question. This clause of the Constitution was adopted for the purpose of absolutely preventing the State as a unit, or any of its agencies, the municipal corporations, or the people thereof, from in any way engaging in these internal improvements. If within five years after the adoption of that Constitution the common council of the city of Detroit had concluded to construct the superstructure of a street railway consisting of its ties, rails, etc., for the purpose either of owning or operating a street railway itself, or for leasing it to some private party, is it possible the courts would then have held that such street railway was not an internal improvement prohibited by the Constitution ? But the learned counsel for the city say: “It is the exigencies of the times that demand these new methods of conveyance.” Conditions, the ideas, and wishes of the people may change, but Constitutions do. not. "What they mean when adopted they mean forever, unless changed by amendment. No exigency changes rules of construction. Should the people subsequently desire a different Constitution, the Constitution itself provides a speedy way in which its provisions can be amended or abrogated. Until that is done, the Constitution is the pole star for legislative enactment and judicial construction. The power to construct railways cannot be justified un'der the police power inherent in the people for the protection of their lives, health, persons, and property. The distinction is apparent, and I will not enter upon a discussion of it. Neither will I attempt a definition of the term “internal improvement,” or discuss what improvements may be excepted from the Constitution. That ground is covered by the opinion of my Brother Carpenter. I think there is no doubt, whatever that a railway, whether located upon the surface of highways and streets, or underneath them, or over them, is an internal improvement within the meaning of the Constitution. The case of Sun Printing, etc., Ass’n v. Mayor, etc., of New York, 152 N. Y. 257 (37 L. R. A. 788), is again cited in support of the respondents’ contention. We expressly declined in Attorney General v. Pingree, supra, to follow the majority opinion in that case, and expressly approved the reasoning of the minority opinion.- We are also cited to Prince v. Crocker, 166 Mass. 347 (33 L. R. A. 610), which involves the construction of the Boston subway. Whether the constitution of Massachusetts is similar to ours I have not examined to see, nor is it material. . If it is based upon the reasoning of Sun Printing, etc., Ass’n v. Mayor, etc., of New York, for the same reason announced in Attorney General v. Pingree we should decline to follow it. I find it there stated: “But railroads are always held to be built for public use, whether the right to take land, or the right to grant pecuniary aid to them is considered. The legislature of this commonwealth has granted aid to the railroad corporations from its own treasury. See instances cited in Re Kingman, 153 Mass. 570 (13 L. R. A. 417). It has also in a number of instances authorized cities and towns to furnish such aid by subscribing to stock or otherwise,”— citing many statutes. This holding, if based upon a constitutional provision like ours, is in direct conflict with the case of People v. Township Board of Salem, supra, and other decisions by this court. The cases of St. Louis v. Telegraph Co., 148 U. S. 92, 149 U. S. 465, and Postal Telegraph Cable Co. v. Baltimore, 156 U. S. 210, go no further than to hold that municipalities, when authorized by the State to permit the. construction of telegraph lines, may charge a rental as a condition to the occupancy of the streets. They do not sanction the erection of the poles at the city’s expense. The judgment should be affirmed. Ostrander, J. Section 169 of the charter of the city of Detroit reads as follows: “ The common council shall have power to make, grade, improve and adorn the public squares, spaces, grounds and parks belonging to or under the control of the corporation, and to control and regulate the same consistently with the purposes and objects .thereof. It shall have power to establish, open, widen, extend, straighten, alter, vacate and abolish highways, streets, avenues, lanes, alleys and public grounds or spaces within said city; and to grade, pave, repair and otherwise improve the highways, streets, avenues, lanes, alleys or interior public spaces created by the intersection of streets, cross-walks and sidewalks in said city with stones, wood, brick or other material; and the common council shall have full power and authority to provide for the paying the costs and expenses thereof, by assessment in such manner as shall be prescribed by law, which assessment shall be a lien, until paid, on the lot, lots or premises, on which the same are bounded, and shall be collected in such manner as shall be authorized by law: Provided, That the costs and expenses of all repaving and repairing of streets, avenues and highways within the city shall be paid by the city out of the repairing fund created and raised for such purpose. The said common council may also provide for working and improving all highways, streets, avenues, lanes, alleys and public spaces within said city, and may assess and levy upon the taxable property within said city, and expend such highway taxes therefor as may be necessary, and may elect whether the same shall be collected in money or labor in such amount as the common council shall prescribe for each ward respectively: Provided, Such highway taxes shall not in amount exceed the rates now fixed by law, and the same shall be assessed, levied and collected as other taxes.” It is contended for the city that in this language, or in some of it, there may be and should. be found an express grant of power to the council to build and maintain in the streets of the city street-railway tracks. I assume, and believe I am warranted in so doing, that the propriety and expediency of granting such power and the constitutional right of the legislature to grant such power are questions which have never been, in fact, presented for, and have never, in fact, had, legislative answer. If the legislature had in plain terms conferred such power, the law would have been considered as marking a pronounced change of legislative policy, and could have been enacted only after extended debate and after exciting wide public interest. It is unreasonable to suppose that the legislature intended in the words employed to give to the common councils of cities having charters containing like provisions the power which the council of the city of Detroit now proposes to exercise. No form of argument can be advanced which will carry with it belief that the legislature, in fact, proposed to grant the power. This fact is not of itself conclusive. It is persuasive. It is persuasive where, as here, the exercise of power assumed marks a departure from long-continued and well-understood legislative and municipal policy, and is not clearly a mere extension or enlargement or the application and adaptation to new conditions of a power uniformly granted to cities and necessary to proper municipal administration. It is sufficient, in my opinion, to warrant and to constrain the court not to find, by a process of interpretation, that the fact is otherwise; not to find in the words ‘ ‘ and otherwise improve” a power conferred which, in importance, equals any of those plainly expressed in the statute. The legislature is easily reached. If it were less doubtful that a particular grant had been attempted, the judicial power should, in prudence, hesitate in determining that the assumed power was conferred. ' Let it be assumed that the question is one of construction, of interpretation, merely, and is whether the language used should be interpreted as expressly granting the disputed power. No one contends that it is an implied power. Discussion of the question can properly proceed only by keeping in mind certain propositions which, though elementary, will bear repeating. There is involved, for example, no question of expediency. All municipal powers rest in legislative grant. However desirable and proper it may be that certain powers should be possessed by the city of Detroit, if they have not been granted, they cannot be exercised. It is said in 1 Dillon on Municipal Corporations (4th Ed.), § 91, note, that— “ If upon the whole there be a fair, reasonable, substantial doubt whether the legislature intended to confer the authority in question, particularly if it refers to a matter extramunicipal or unusual in its nature, and the exercise of which will be attended with taxes, tolls, assessments, or burdens upon the inhabitants, or oppress them, or abridge natural or common rights, or divest them of their property, the doubt should be resolved in favor of the citizen and against the municipality.” Will any one say that the application of familiar rules of construction does not leave us doubtful of the legislative intention ? Counsel for the city, after reciting the history of the evolution of modern city ways, says: “What we seek to do is to pave streets; that is all. And in paving those streets we propose to use just such material as in the judgment of the common council is adequate and proper and necessary to meet the growing demands of that great city. And we propose to make, as a part of that pavement, two streaks of steel, or four streaks of steel, as the case may be, so that when it is constructed we will have a pavement with a solid foundation of adamant in the form of concrete. It may be paved from the curb line to near the center with brick or asphalt, and then in the center of that street and as a part of that pavement we propose to lay steel rails, level with the balance of the pavement; and, when it is done, it is a street, constructed under the powers conferred by the Constitution of the State and the charter of the city of Detroit.” Mr. Justice Blair does not agree, in this respect, with counsel. In his opinion the tracks should not be classed as pavement, but are to be considered as street improvements having for their object the preparation of the street for travel. He finds the disputed grant of power in the words “otherwise improve,” “with * * * other material,” and determines that, so long as the proposed improvement is one which relates to preparation of the street for a recognized means of travel over and upon the street, it is, within the rule of ejusdem generis, one of the species of improvements indicated by the words and purpose of tho charter provision. It seems to me that both arguments fail to value a factor which is larger than any of those put in use in the statements and in the arguments. The street-railway tracks are not and are not intended as mere improvements of the ways. Taking into account all known conditions, it is idle to suppose that as mere improvements they would ever be laid. The power to lay railway tracks in streets would, if exercised, involve a relation of the city to the street which has never been considered as existing with respect to pavements or any other improvements — a relation which is, in this State, historically and legally considered, extramunicipal, certainly unusual in character. That relation and interest is in its nature proprietary and private. Either municipal operation of the vehicles which exclusively use the tracks or the leasing or renting of the tracks to private interests to be used in such operation is inevitable. The city proposes in the present instance to lease the tracks to a corporation. The relation of owner and of lessee is to be created. The contemplated improvement is not of the species described in the statute. It is not grading, paving, repairing, or otherwise improving, nor of the species indicated by those words, because involving, of necessity, consequences which could not follow upon the making of the specified improvements, nor any of like nature. The rule ejusdem generis is used as an aid in discovering legislative intention. Simply stated, the rule is that, when there are general words following particular and specific words, the former must be confined to things of the same kind. Lewis’ Sutherland on Statutory Construction (2d Ed.), § 422. It yields to the rule that an act should be so construed as to carry out the object sought to be accomplished by it, so far as that object can be collected from the language employed. Hawke v. Dunn, L. R. 38 Q. B. Div. 579. It cannot be said that the particular words used in the charter exhaust the genus. It can be and should be held that the general words employed should not be given a meaning which involves necessarily consequences not embraced in the meaning of the specific words employed, and not following the exercise of the powers which the specific words of the statute confer. This is only another way of saying that, if the construction sought to be placed upon the general words employed involves of necessity consequences not following the exercise of the powers granted in specific terms, proper ground may be found for the ruling that the construction attempted is not supported by the rule of ejusdem generis. " The building of tracks in a street is a method of preparation of a portion of the way for traveling by the use, of street cars. But, in considering whether the legislature, after using the specific terms “grade, pave, repair,” intended in the use of the words “ and otherwise improve ” to confer upon the city the power to build such tracks, the consequences of the exercise' of the power to build tracks should be considered in determining whether such a power belongs to the genus or species indicated by the specific words used. There are other considerations. The power to lay rails in streets may be exercised without reference to grading, paving or repairing. It is an expensive preparation of a way for one means of travel, and does not involve, of necessity, its special preparation for any other means of travel. We should expect, if such was the intention of the legislature, that the power to so improve, or so adapt the street to use, would be specific, and not concealed in the words “ and otherwise improve.” Again, in arriving at the meaning of particular words used in a statute, it is frequently useful and is often conclusive of the question to survey the entire statute. If an asserted power is granted in a municipal charter, it is usual to find provision made for the ex'ercise of such a power. If it is doubtful whether such power is granted, and more doubtful whether means for its exercise have been provided, the judicial mind will be thereby affected. An examination of the bill of complaint in this cause and of the charter of the city of Detroit strongly inclines the mind to resolve the manifest doubt against the existence of the asserted power. The charter (§ 233) provides that “the revenues and moneys of the corporation shall be divided into the following funds,” naming, and specifying the purposes of, 15 separate and distinct funds, out of none of which, it is evident, money can be properly taken to build street-car tracks. It is further provided: “ Sixteenth. Such other funds as the common council may constitute for special' purposes, not inconsistent with nor to be taken from any of the foregoing mentioned funds.” It is averred in the bill that the common council has caused to" be levied and collected by a general tax on real and personal property the sum of $10,000 for a ‘ ‘ streetcar track construction fund,” and has appropriated this sum, or so much thereof as may be necessary, to pay for building railway tracks. It may be said that by providing for the creation of other than the specified funds the legislature has in a legally sufficient way provided for means for exercising the asserted power. The point is, however, that it is not reasonably likely that either the grant of so important a power or the provisions for its exercise would have rested in such terms. Other consequences follow logically from the arguments advanced in support of the construction claimed. Street-railway tracks will not alone aid travel. The theory that they are a method of street improvements for purposes of travel may be logically extended to embrace the proposition that under known conditions desirable and effective methods of using the rails requires an overhead or an underground equipment to supply necessary energy to propel vehicles upon the rails. In laying rails, the city will have proceeded a single step only in the method of improving the street for travel. If we may find in the charter the express power to lay the rails, why may and should we not find, as well, the express or implied power to construct the other equipment of a modern street railway ? It is said that this court has, in effect, determined the question which is presented in the case of City of Detroit v. Railway, 133 Mich. 608. But that case deals entirely with the question of the power to prepare a paved way in such manner that it will support an existing and proper means of travel. It is said in the opinion in that case that— “The street-railway law does not in any way relieve the municipalities from the responsibility of maintaining the highways in a reasonably safe condition for public travel, and, as it cannot shift its liability to a railway company'by contracting with it for the maintenance of the way, it would seem that it should be authorized, if it is not under a legal obligation, to repair the way when out of repair, whatever the cause.” The power, the exercise of which was in that case questioned, was the power to lay a pavement and to assess and collect the cost thereof, which should be adapted to a use to which the way had been properly put, to construct a proper pavement. The case is not authority for the conclusion that the city has been, in the words employed, granted the power to build street-railway tracks in its streets. Nor have the cases, Prince v. Crocker, 166 Mass. 347 (32 L. R. A. 610); Sun Printing, etc., Ass’n v. Mayor, etc., of New York, 152 N. Y. 257 (37 L. R. A. 788), any application here. In both of those cases the court considers legislation which in express terms empowers the municipal action which is questioned. On the other hand, there is to be found in the opinions of this court in Schneider v. City of Detroit, 72 Mich. 240 (2 L. R. A. 54), and in Phelps v. City of Detroit, 120 Mich. 447, 449, reasoning supporting the conclusion that the grant of the power in question here cannot be found in the charter. I agree with Mr. Justice Blair that the laying of rails in the street is not paving, and that the rails are not pavement. I do not find the power to build street-railway tracks contained in the power to otherwise improve the streets. Having reached this conclusion, I find it unnecessary, and think it inappropriate, to discuss or to express any opinion concerning the constitutional questions which háve been raised. Upton v. Kennedy, 36 Mich. 215; Powell v. Eldred, 39 Mich. 552; Cooley on Constitutional Limitations (7th Ed.), p. 231. I concede that, having found the power to build street-railway tracks conferred in the charter, it is proper and necessary to proceed to ascertain whether the legislature had constitutional authority to confer the power. But there can be properly no discussion of the constitutional authority to give the power without assuming that it is given. The contentions made by counsel for the city are, first, that in the language of the charter which has been quoted is found a grant of the power to do what the city has undertaken to do because what it has undertaken to do is road making; second, local municipal road making, highway improving, is not a work of internal improvement prohibited to the municipalities of the State by any provision of the Constitution. So long as it is not contended that the power is conferred unless it is in terms of “road making” if it is not found in those terms, it is not conferred.' The proposition that the legislature is prohibited by the Constitution from conferring upon cities the power to construct street railways is one which we are called upon neither to affirm nor to deny. To affirm it upon the ground that all works of local' internal improvement forbidden to the State are likewise forbidden to cities, is, in my opinion, to find in the Constitution a new and heretofore unsuspected limitation upon the power of the legislature. The decree of the court below should be affirmed. Blair, J. The bill of complaint in this case is filed by the attorney general to restrain the defendants from ex pending moneys raised by taxation for the purpose of laying street-car tracks in certain streets of the city of Detroit. The bill of complaint alleges: “5. That the said common council has heretofore by resolution appropriated the sum of $10,000, known as the ‘street-railway track construction fund,’to be expended under the direction of the said Jacob J. Haarer, commissioner of public works, in constructing a street-railway track, in certain streets in the said city of Detroit, for .the purpose of leasing the same to the Detroit United Railway, a corporation now operating a street railway in said city or to some other corporation, copartnership, or individual, upon such terms as may be satisfactory to said common council, as will appear from the records of the. proceedings of the said common council to which record reference is hereby made for greater accuracy. “ 5a. That the board of estimates of the city of Detroit has heretofore authorized the levy of the said sum of $10,000, known as the ‘street-car track construction fund,’ upon the real and personal property of the taxpayers of Detroit, taxable under the laws of this State. That the said tax levy has been duly laid by the proper authorities upon said property. That the sum has been raised 'by the collection of. said tax levy and has been placed in said street-car track construction fund to be paid upon the warrant of the said city controller upon the said city treasurer, all of which will appear from the records of the proceedings of the said board of estimates and of the board of assessors of the city of Detroit, and from the books of the said city controller, to all of which reference is hereby made for greater accuracy. “6. That on the 31st day of October, 1905, the common council of the city of Detroit adopted the following resolution, viz.: “ ‘Resolved, That the commissioner of public works be and is hereby instructed to advertise for the period of five days in one or more of the newspapers published in the city of Detroit for sealed proposals to prepare the necessary plans and specifications for the Congress street car tracks upon and through Larned street east from the intersection of double section of Bates street, easterly to Elm-wood avenue, thence along Elmwood avenue southerly to Jefferson avenue, thence a single track along Jefferson avenue on the south side of the double track already on said avenue easterly to Van Dyke, thence a single track along Van Dyke avenue to the city limits, with, all necessary switches for the same, and report the same to the common council at his earliest convenience, the said line to be constructed or as much thereof as the appropriation for the purposes will permit under the $10,000 appropriated and raised by taxation for the building of street-car tracks in conjunction with a franchise to be tendered to the Detroit Railway Company or its successors or assigns for the operation of street cars upon said line and upon its refusal of the same to be tendered to such other companies now organized or to be organized having power to operate street-railway cars, as may accept the same’— “ which resolution was duly approved by the mayor of said city of Detroit on November 7, 1905. “ 7. That on the 31st day of October, .1905, the said common council of the city of Detroit unanimously adopted the following resolution, viz.: “ ‘ Whereas, The grades of the intersection of the railroad and Greenwood avenue are being separated, making a roadway of a width of sixty feet, contemplating the building of a double track, street-railway track along said avenue, which this council hereby deems and declares under proper conditions to be hereinafter determined, to be advisable; and “ ‘ Whereas, It would be better for many reasons, that the said track should be laid during the work connected with the separation of said grades now in progress; and “ ‘ Whereas, Said tracks in the event of the construction of a double track along Greenwood avenue and out Hamilton Boulevard could be leased to any company that obtained said privilege; therefore, be it “ ‘ Resolved, That the commissioner of public works be and is hereby instructed to cause to be laid a double track, girder grooved rails, of the most approved pattern in the center of the roadway at the said grade separation, the expense thereof to be taken from the $10,000 hereto appropriated for the construction of necessary street-railway tracks, loops and connections.’ “8. That the said common council does not have the power under the said Constitution and the laws of the State to authorize the expenditure of the funds of the city of Detroit in constructing a railway track upon any street in said city for the purpose of operating street cars thereon, either by leasing the same to others or by operating the same under the direction and control of the said city of Detroit, and that the expenditure of any money or funds of the said city of Detroit, from whatsoever funds the same may be taken for the said purpose or purposes by the said common council, is illegal and void.” The defendants demurred to the bill of complaint, and the case was heard by all of the circuit judges sitting en banc. The judges dividing evenly as to the order which should be made, an order was entered overruling the demurrer; and, defendants declining to further plead or answer, it was decreed that an injunction issue in accordance with the prayer of the bill of complaint. From this decree, defendants have appealed to this court. It is contended by complainant (1) that defendants have no power, express or implied, under the city charter, to make the proposed improvement; (2) that, if the charter attempts to grant such power, it is in violation of article 14, § 9, of the State Constitution. It is said by one of the learned counsel for complainant that the question involved in this case is, in essence, “whether under the Constitution and the laws of the State, general and local, there may be municipal ownership of street railways.” If by this is meant the ownership and operation of a complete street-railway system, we do not so understand the issue in this case and such construction was expressly disavowed by counsel for defendants. Neither do we understand defendants to claim any other or different ownership of the proposed railway track than that which it claims in the pavement of the street. The question which we understand to be presented to us for our determination is, in essence: Can the city of Detroit lawfully improve its streets by constructing tracks therein so that such streets can be used by street cars ? A section of the city charter (§ 169) confers upon the common council power to “establish, open, widen, extend, straighten, alter, vacate and abolish highways, streets, avenues, lanes, alleys, and public grounds or spaces within said city and to grade, pave, repair and otherwise improve the highways, streets, avenues, lanes, alleys * * * with stones, wood, brick or other material In construing statutes, it is undoubtedly the general rule that, where general terms follow specific words of a like nature, they take their meaning from the latter; and complainant’s counsel invoke this rule in support of the proposition that— “ From the words ‘otherwise improve’ no different intent can be discovered than from the words ‘ grade, pave and repair.’ When these words were used, the legislature had in mind improvements of the same general nature as paving or repairing. * * * The rule ejusdem generis applies.” Conceding the application of this rule, it still must be determined whether the constructing of the track is within or without the genus. The rule itself implies that the other highway improvements may be different from the highway improvements specified so long as they fall fairly within the species of highway improvements of which specific instances are given. The improvements specified in the section under consideration relate to the preparation of the street for public travel and use, and, if the construction of the track is such an improvement, it falls within the species. Is the construction of a street-railway track in the public streets a street improvement of the general character of which grading and paving are particular instances? In determining whether the construction of such tracks constitutes an improvement of the street for purposes of public travel, reference must be had to the legal nature of the use of the streets by street-railway companies. Chief Justice Cooley, in rendering the opinion of the court in Macomber v. Nichols, 34 Mich. 212, said: “When the highway is not restricted in its dedication to some particular mode of use, it is open to all suitable methods; and it cannot be assumed that these will be the same from age to age, or that new means of making the way useful must be excluded merely because their intro duction may tend to the inconvenience or even to the injury of those who continue to use the road after the same manner as formerly. A highway established for the general' benefit of passage and traffic must admit of new methods of use whenever it is found that the general benefit requires them, and, if the law should preclude the adaptation of the use to the new methods, it would defeat, in greater or less degree, the purpose for which highways are established. * * * “It has justly been remarked by the supreme court of Illinois in a case involving the right to make use of steam as a means of locomotion in the public streets that— “ ‘A street is made for the passage of persons and property, and the law cannot define what exclusive means of transportation and passage shall be used. * * * To say that a new mode of passage shall be banished from the streets, no matter how much the general good may require it, simply because the streets were not so used in the days of Blackstone, would hardly comport with the advancement and enlightenment of the present age.’ Moses v. Railroad Co., 21 Ill. 516, 523.” In People v. Eaton, 100 Mich. 208 (24 L. R. A. 721), the court said: “Public highways are under legislative control. Cooley on Constitutional Limitations (6th Ed.), p. 725. They are for the use of the public in general, for passage and traffic, without distinction. The restrictions upon their use are only such ás are calculated to secure to the general public the largest practicable benefit from the enjoyment of the easement. When the highway is not restricted in its dedication to some particular mode of use, it is open to all suitable methods. Macomber v. Nichols, 34 Mich. 212, 216. It has been settled in this State that lands taken or granted for public highways are so taken or granted for all the purposes for which they may be used for the benefit of the public, for the passing and repassing of travelers thereon, and for the transportation of passengers by stagecoach, omnibus, or street cars propelled by horses, steam, or electricity, and that the laying of tracks for such street cars is not an additional servitude upon the lands of adjacent proprietors. *• * * “When these lands were taken or granted for public highways, they were not taken or granted for auch uses only as might then be expected to be made of them, by the common methods of travel then known, or for the transmission of intelligence by the only methods then in use, but for such methods as the improvement of the country, or the discoveries of future times, might demand.” It necessarily follows from our decisions that the use of the highways by traction engines is a legitimate use, and that the duty is devolved upon the municipalities charged with their care to keep them in a reasonably safe condition for such use. Aben v. Township of Ecorse, 113 Mich. 9; Randall v. Township of Southfield, 116 Mich. 501. In Detroit City Ry. v. Mills, 85 Mich. 634, Mr. Justice Grant says in the course of his opinion • “If some new motor (such as a storage battery, which counsel for the defendants in their brief say will no doubt be discovered in the immediate future ) should be found to take the place of steam, and thereby dispense with the noise incident thereto, and the discomforts of dirt and smoke, would it be contended that railroad companies could not use it under the provisions of this law, because it was not known at the time the law was passed ? These laws were enacted in times of rapid advancement in the mechanical arts. This advancement is nowhere more forcibly shown than in the discovery and use of devices and motors to facilitate travel and transportation. It cannot, in my judgment, be held that the legislature intended to limit these corporations to the use of things that were then known. This rule would be too rigid and technical to merit approval. The common law is more elastic and progressive. It adapts itself to meet the needs of the people, and the advance of science and civilization. “As well might it be contended that, when land is dedicated to or condemned for the public use for highways, its use must be limited to the then known methods of travel and transportation. Engines now travel over nearly every public highway in the agricultural portion of the country, propelled by steam, drawing large machines, and stopping at nearly every farm to facilitate the work of the farmers, yet’upon this innovation of the use of the highway this same principle was invoked as is now invoked to prevent it. Macomber v. Nichols, 34 Mich. 212. * * * “ It is evident that street railways, when constructed so as not to interfere with the rights of others upon the street, form no obstruction to such use and enjoyment. They make no more noise than the omnibus or other heavy vehicles, are not more dangerous, and no more interfere with access to the abutting lots. They constitute a modern and improved use only of the street as a public way. These improved methods become necessary in populous cities. The use is the same. The methods only different. Without them, clerks and working men and women could not be provided with cheap and rapid transit from their working places to the suburbs of the city, where they may have cheap and comfortable homes. These views are in accord with the clear weight of authority. People v. Kerr, 27 N. Y. 188; Kellinger v. Railroad Co., 50 N. Y. 206; Mahady v. Railroad Co., 91 N. Y. 148; Pierce on American Railroad Law, p. 180; Elliott v. Railroad Co., 32 Conn. 579; Hinchman v. Railroad Co., 17 N. J. Eq. 75; Attorney General v. Railroad Co., 125 Mass. 515; Eichels v. Railway Co., 78 Ind. 261; Hobart v. Railroad Co., 27 Wis. 194; Brown v. Duplessis, 14 La. Ann. 843; Atchison St. R. Co. v. Missouri Pacific R. Co., 31 Kan. 660; Smith v. Railroad, 87 Tenn. 626; Citizens’ Coach Co. v. Railroad Co., 33 N. J. Eq. 267; Briggs v. Railroad Co., 79 Me. 363; Taggart v. Railway Co., 16 R. I. 668 (7 L. R. A. 205); Clement v. City of Cincinnati, 16 Wkly. Law Bul. 355; Cooley on Constitutional Limitations (6th Ed.), p. 683; 2 Dillon on Municipal Corporations (4th Ed.), § 722; Mills on Eminent Domain, § 205. They are also in accord with reason and common sense. It is the view unanimously adopted by this court in Grand Rapids, etc., R. Co. v. Heisel, 38 Mich. 62 (decided in 1878). It is true that this question was not directly involved in that suit, but the extent of the use of streets was involved. The question appears to have been carefully examined by the court, and the authorities are cited. While it may be termed £ dictum,’ still it comes to us as the deliberate opinion of the learned justices who then constituted the court, and, as such, is entitled to great weight. That decision clearly voiced the practical construction which had theretofore been placed upon these laws by the people, and upon the faith of which many such roads had been built in many cities of the State, and vast sums of money invested.” In Grand Rapids, etc., R. Co. v. Heisel, 38 Mich. 62, the court said: “ If the railroad were only a city railway constituting a mere local convenience, and calculated to relieve the pressure of traffic and travel upon the street, the question, of course, would be different. There are cases which hold it to be competent under proper legislative authority to permit a street railway track to be laid, regardless of the consent or of the wishes of abutting proprietors who may own the soil of the street. A street railway for local purposes, so far from constituting a new burden, is supposed to be permitted because it constitutes a relief to the street. It is in furtherance of the purpose for which the street is established, and relieves the pressure of local business and local travel, instead of constituting an embarrassment. It is for this reason that the owners of lands over which a city street is laid are denied compensation if a street railway is subsequently authorized within it. If they W8re compensated for the taking of their land originally, they are supposed to be compensated for all possible losses they may suffer from its being put to proper uses as an avenue of local trade and passage, and, if without compensation they dedicated it to the public, they are supposed to have contemplated and assented to all such uses. They have, therefore, no ground for complaint when the new convenience is brought into use, and I apprehend one would not be permitted to show that in his particular case the street rail way was an in jury rather than a benefit. It is enough that the use of the street for a city railway is a proper use, and therefore a lawful use. Being such, it can give rights of action to no one. Such appear to be the conclusions of the courts. * * * “ But we cannot say the same in the case of the ordinary railroad. It is not usual for such a road to be laid in one of the public highways, and the cases in which it is permitted are exceptional. For that reason, therefore, if for no other, the owner whose land is taken for a highway, whether in town or country, cannot be understood to have assented to its being appropriated, either wholly, or in part, to railway purposes at the discretion of the public authorities, and to have been compensated for such appropriation. Neither can the use of the highway for the ordinary railway be in furtherance of the purpose for which the highway is established, and a relief to the local business and travel upon it. The two uses, on the other hand, come seriously in conflict. The railroad constitutes a perpetual embarrassment to the ordinary use, which is greater or less in proportion to the business that is done upon it and the frequency of trains.” In McKee v. Railway Co., 41 Mich. 274, Chief Justice Campbell, speaking for the court, said: “ The law has in this State always provided some means of fixing rates of ferriage, and passage over turnpikes and bridges. It has also done the same on street and other tramroads. 1 Comp. Laws 1871, chap. 76. They cannot be distinguished in principle from turnpikes on which travelers use their own carriages, and ferries where means of carriage are furnished by the person or company owning them.” And again in City of Detroit v. Railway Co., 76 Mich. 421, the same distinguished judge said: “ But these tracks are only special adaptations, for a particular use, of the surface of public highways.” In Austin v. Railway, 134 Mich. 149, it is said: “We have held that a street railway is not an additional servitude, and the reason is that it is a provision made by public authority to facilitate public travel. It is the use of the' highway, for the original purpose, by modified and changed vehicles and methods. If the public weal requires it, it is as much within the power of the public to lessen the grades for street cars as for wagons or automobiles.” See, also, Smith v. Traction Co., 137 Mich. 20. In Ablard v. Railway, 139 Mich. 248, it was said: “ It has been repeatedly held by this court that street-railway companies do not possess an exclusive right to that portion of the highway covered by their tracks, but that the ordinary traveler upon the highway has a right to use every portion of the highway, including the space betwéen the rails, until it becomes necessary for him to yield the track to the cars of the company.” In City of Detroit v. Railway, 133 Mich. 608, the court said: “It is claimed, however, that the city had not the authority to bind itself by such a contract, for the reason that the construction and use of a street railway requires a heavier and stronger foundation than is required in the other portions of the highway used by lighter vehicles. A street railway is a public utility. It is an appropriate and necessary method of using the highway, and the municipalities may permit them to occupy and use portions of the streets. Such occupancy is in common with that of the general public; all persons being at liberty to drive upon and over them where they are laid in the traveled portion of the street. The street-railway law does not in any way relieve the municipalities from the responsibility of maintaining the highways in a reasonably safe condition for public travel; and, as it cannot shift its liability to a railway company by contracting with it for the maintenance of the way, it would seem that it should be authorized, if it is not under a legal obligation, to repair the way when out of repair, whatever the cause. The right to assess the cost of pavement upon adjacent landowners is settled, and a wide discretion as to kind, solidity, and cost is left to the authorities. There can be no doubt that they may specify such a pavement as the present or prospective traffic of the street may require, and provide varying foundations according to circumstances. In all ordinary cases, the same are made adequate to sustain the vehicles that will traverse the streets. If street cars could be run without a fixed way of special construction, so that they could run upon any portion of the highway, the foundation of the entire roadway would need to be heavier and stronger, and in such case there would be no impediment to the construction of the same in the ordinary routine of building and repairing highways, unless it be the fact that the running of such cars might be a monopqly. Street railways are adapted to aid travel in the public highways, and, while the laws providing for their use impose upon private corporations the burden of constructing and operating them, all such laws contemplate that they will be constructed upon the highway. They presuppose a highway maintained by the public, and we are of the opinion that it is not beyond the authority of the public officers to build a highway that will support such traffic, even though it need a heavier pavement than ordinary traffic requires.” It.follows from these decisions that a street railway (1) is a proper, and, in a city of the size of Detroit, a necessary use of a public highway or street; (2) that such use is permissible “ because it constitutes a relief of the street. It'is in furtherance of the purpose for which the street is established, and relieves the pressure of local business and local travel instead of constituting an embarrassment;” (3) the tracks “are only special adaptations for a particular use of the surface of public highways;” (4) the city of Detroit has power to specially adapt a portion of a street for such special use by constructing a foundation for the track of special depth and strength; (5) the general powers granted by the legislature to the city of Detroit over its streets are not to be so construed as to limit their operation to street uses known or anticipated at the time of the grant, but rather so as to adapt them to the needs of the people and the advance of science and civilization. These principles require, in my judgment, the conclusion that the construction of the street-railway track in question would be a street improvement of the general character of which grading and paving are specific instances. The pavement of a street in the usual way provides a floor over which vehicles generally may be drawn or propelled, but over which street cars cannot be propelled. The construction of a street-car track in a part of thé street provides another form of floor over which street cars, and, subject to the right of way of such cars, vehicles generally may travel; such occupancy of the street being, as said in City of Detroit v. Railway, supra, “in common with that of the general public.” While it may not be technically accurate to designate the track as a pavement, it does come within the species of street improvements having for their object the preparation of the street for travel and traffic, and therefore may' lawfully be provided for under the charter. Kirkland v. Board of Public Works of Indianapolis, 142 Ind. 123; Thompson v. City of Highland Park, 187 Ill. 265. This conclusion appears to me to be strongly supported, if not required, by City of Detroit v. Railway, 133 Mich. 608. It was held in that case and City of Detroit v. Railway, 134 Mich. 11, that the city might bind itself by contract to construct a concrete foundation or substructure upon which the railway ties should rest, differing from any other portion of the highway. “ The track of a railroad is not merely the rails and ties upon which cars are run, but it is the ‘road, course, way’ (Webster), and includes all that enters into'and composes the road, the course and way. The embankment upon which the rails and ties are laid is a part of the whole that makes the railroad track.” Gates v. Railway Co., 82 Iowa, 518. According to Webster, the roadbed of a railroad is “the bed or foundation on which the superstructure of a railroad restsand the superstructure is defined as “the sleepers, rails, and fastenings in distinction from tñe roadbed” — called also “permanent way.” See, also, City of Shreveport v. Railway Co., 107 La. 785. The time when street-railway tracks could be constructed in the streets of a city like Detroit without a different roadbed from that adequate to other modes of transportation and traffic has long passed. A special foundation is required which shall meet the demands of enlarged and constantly expanding business and travel and withstand the enormously increased strains to which the substructure is subjected. The use of streets by street railways is a public street use, and if, for the purpose of furthering such use, the city may construct a substructure radically different from any other portion of the street and wholly unnecessary for any but the special use to which it is to be put, I do not perceive any valid reason why it may not also construct the superstructure resting upon such substructure. The power, which we have held that the city possesses, to construct part of the track, in my judgment, carries with it the power to construct the whole track. But it is contended that, even if the charter confers power upon the city to construct the track for general public use, it confers no power to lease the track when constructed to a private corporation or individual as contemplated by the ordinance. The term “lease” is not, perhaps, the best that could have been used, but I do not think it should be construed as meaning that any proprietary interest in the public streets was to be conferred upon the lessee, nor that the occupancy should not be subject to proper legislative control. Leaving out of consideration the constitutional question raised by complainants, I think this contention is unsound. In Prince v. Crocker, 166 Mass. 347 (32 L. R. A. 610), the statute authorizing the construction of the Boston subway was attacked as unconstitutional, amongst other grounds, for the reason that the taxation to provide for it was not for a public use. The statute provided that, when finished, the transit commission might grant a lease of it to any street-railway company for 50 years. It was held: ‘ ‘ The building of the subway for the carriage of such passengers as pay the regular fare is therefore for a public use, and it is within the constitutional power of the legislature to order or sanction taxation for it.” In Sun Printing, etc., Ass’n v. Mayor, etc., of New York, 152 N. Y. 257 (37 L. R. A. 788), the New York rapid transit acts were under consideration. Those acts created a rapid transit commission and provided for the location by the commission of a route and the plans and specifications for a railway through the city. After locating the route and providing the plans, they were authorized to sell at public auction the right, privilege, and franchise to construct, maintain, and operate such railway; or, if the people so voted, to contract for the construction of the proposed railway at the expense of the city. In case the road was constructed at the expense of the city, the commissioners were authorized to lease the same for a period of not less than 35 nor more than 50 years. It was held that railroads, being necessary for the common welfare of the people, required for their usé, and public in character, are for “a city purpose” within the meaning of the constitutional provision which prohibits cities from incurring any indebtedness except for a city purpose, when authorized by the legislature and constructed and owned by the city in whose territory they are located. See, also, St. Louis v. Telegraph Co., 149 U. S. 465; Postal Telegraph Cable Co. v. Baltimore, 156 U. S. 210. I do not think the applicability of these cases is affected by the fact that in each of them there was an enabling act conferring in express terms authority to do the precise things attempted. If, as must be taken' for granted in considering this question, the charter confers the power to construct the track, such grant of power must, by necessary implication, carry with it authority to make the track available when constructed. If, as contended by complainant’s counsel and substantially admitted by defendant’s counsel, the city could not operate the line itself, we should have the anomalous situation of a city authorized to construct tracks for public travel, but vjithout authority to provide for such travel. It is not a sufficient answer, in my opinion, to say that any persons possessing the appropriate vehicles could use the track, since the indiscriminate use of the track would bring about such confusion as to defeat the very purpose of its construction. It may also be urged that the laying of the rails is not for a street purpose because they are not susceptible of common use as a pavement and the usual improvements are. I think this argument is fallacious. Not only is the argument against the spirit, if not the letter, of our own decisions, but it has no foundation in fact. While vehicles with ordinary wheels are not adapted to traveling on the rails, the street, by virtue of these rails, is relieved of many vehicles which otherwise would be obstructing the use of the street and congesting traffic. Instead of embarrassing the common use of the street, they facilitate such common use. It remains to consider the constitutional objection that the contemplated improvement would violate section 9 of article 14 of the Constitution, which provides: “ The State shall not be a party to, nor interested in, any work of internal improvement, nor engaged in carrying on any such work, except in the improvement or aiding in the improvement of the public wagon roads and in the expenditure of grants to the State of land or other property.” This question was presented to the court by counsel in the case of Attorney General v. Pingree, 120 Mich. 550 (46 L. R. A. 407), but the court declined to pass upon it, saying: “It is not necessary to pass upon the question just stated in order to dispose of this case. The law under consideration involves much more than the simple question of municipal ownership of the tracks within the corporate limits, and, in the decision of the case before us, we do not deem it wise to express any opinion upon any question other than the one before us.” The question must therefore be regarded as open for consideration. That the improvement contemplated constitutes an internal improvement is conceded by counsel for the city, but he contends that it is a local internal im-. provement such as is not prohibited by the section above quoted, but, on the contrary, is authorized by other sections of the Constitution — citing section 38, art. 4; section 11, art. 10; section 1, art. 11. I think it clear that the proposed improvement is an “internal improvement.” People, ex rel. Hubbard, v. Township Board of Springwells, 25 Mich. 153. But the determination that the work is an internal improvement does not determine that it falls within the ban of the constitutional prohibition against such improvements. It was held in the case last cited: “ That a macadamized road is a ‘work of internal improvement’is manifest. The shortness of the road does not change its character. The restriction is not against great works, but against all works of that kind, and the case comes within the language and intent of the prohibition*.” The case came “ within the language and intent of the prohibition,” because a purely local work was committed to State agents and taken out of the hands of the local officers, to whom alone the custody of the highway belonged. No one, I think, would argue that a township or city could not lawfully be authorized to construct a macadamized road. Such a conclusion would prevent the improvement of highways .and streets entirely. It is a necessary implication of the opinion of the court in the Springwells Case that the township authorities had the power to construct a macadamized road, and were the only persons who did have that power, for the reason that such work was “a purely local work.” The court say on this subject: “The overseer of this highway district is excluded from all his functions, and so are all others who should have any voice in the matter. The result is that a purely local work, public in its character, is taken charge of and conducted at local expense, and paid for by local bonds and taxes, without giving any of the local authorities any function to perform, except that of yielding implicit obedience to the orders and requisitions of a commission, in whose appointment and government the town and its people have had no part whatever. “This is a very clear usurpation, and, so far as it goes, an absolute destruction of the local privileges. There is no principle which can justify such an interference, which would not equally justify the assumption by the State, of immediate control by its agencies of every highway in the Commonwealth, and the imposition of local taxes for local purposes, to be levied and.expended by persons neither residing in, nor in any way connected with, or responsible to, the towns on which they levy their charges.” The improvement of a street for authorized street purposes within the local jurisdiction, like the construction of sewers, lighting, and water plants, is a local internal improvement committed by the Constitution and statutes to the local government. It is only when in a proposed internal improvement the local government is really acting as the agent of the State government, or engaged in an enterprise which extends beyond the limits of the municipality, in evasion of the constitutional prohibition, and not in the discharge of its local functions, that such improvement is prohibited. It is no answer, in my judgment, to say that certain of the improvements above mentioned are justified as an exercise of the police power. The police power cannot be exercised in contravention of an express prohibition of the Constitution. It, like all .other governmental powers, is subject to the Constitution. If I am correct in my conclusion as to the power of the' city under its charter to construct the track, because such construction is of the same character of improvements as grading and paving, it seems to me to necessarily follow that it is of the same character, as an internal improvement, as grading and paving, and therefore not affected by the constitutional prohibition. I think, also, that, conceding the first point to be correctly determined, the second point, now under consideration, is ruled against complainant’s contention by City of Detroit v. Railway, 133 Mich. 608. The constitutional prohibition was invoked in that- case. In disposing of the question, the court say: “We are also of the opinion that it cannot be said that the city engages in a work of internal improvement by making a contract whereby it shall construct and repair its highways and pavements, instead of allowing the railway company to interfere with them.” This case was followed in City of Detroit v. Railway, 134 Mich. 11, where was involved the right of the defendant company to demand compensation for concrete placed under the ties, under the following ordinance: “In all unpaved streets wherein the grantees are duly authorized by the common council to construct street-railway tracks under the provisions of this ordinance, the preparation of the roadbed shall be made by the grantees, their successors or assigns, the excavation to extend seven inches below the under side of the cross-ties upon which-the tracks are laid; but the six inches of concrete required by the ordinance as foundation for the ties to rest upon shall be laid by and at the expense of the city at the time of the construction of the tracks; the city not being required, however, to do the paving between the tracks until the street is paved. The common council may, however, in its discretion, order the paving of the tracks on unpaved streets to be done at city expense contemporaneously with the first construction of said tracks.” In determining the question, this court said: “The important .question in the case is as to the right of the defendant to demand compensation for concrete placed under the ties in laying the tracks of the road in unpaved streets. That it was the duty of the city, under the ordinance, to put down this concrete, is clear; but it is contended that this provision of the ordinance was ultra vires. This contention is answered by the mandamus case between these same parties, decided at the present term. 133 Mich. 608.” In my opinion, these cases, and not the case of Attorney General v. Pingree, rule the case now before us. As well said by Judge Murphy in his opinion in the circuit court: “ In the last-mentioned case (134 Mich. 11), the city was required, because of its contract with the railway company, to build the concrete substructure for steel rails and ties in streets which were not only unpaved, but which may forever remain unpaved. The sole function of that foundation was to furnish a roadbed for the rails. In other words, the city, not under any claim of paving the street, was permitted to construct a portion of the equipment of a railway and assess the cost thereof upon the taxpayers. If there is constitutional warrant for this— and it is expressly decided that there is — why may-not the city construct the roadbed in its entirety, as well as in part ? There is no distinction in the principle involved.” The foregoing is an elaboration, after rehearing, of my original opinion written and served in September, 1906. The recent opinions of Justices Carpenter and Grant seem to warrant some further discussion of the questions involved. It is said: “Second. The constitutional provision in question, except as otherwise provided in the’ Constitution, prohibits municipalities as well as the State at large from engaging in works of internal improvement citing People, ex rel. Bay City, v. State Treasurer, 23 Mich. 499; Thomas v. City of Port Huron, 27 Mich. 320; Anderson v. Hill, 54 Mich. 477; Attorney General v. Pingree, 120 Mich. 550 (46 L. R. A. 407). And again: “To be effectual the constitutional prohibition — and it was intended to be effectual and must be so construed— applies to every part of the' State, and to me it seems absurd to suppose that the people intended to permit a part of the State to do what the whole State could not do.” This absurdity has met with the approval of the Supreme Court of the United States. In Township of Pine Grove v. Talcott, 19 Wall. (U. S.) 666, the Federal Supreme Court said, relative to this constitutional provision: ‘1 The case as to the Constitution is a proper one for the application of the maxim, ‘ Expressio unius est exclusio alterius. ’ The instrument is drawn with ability, care, and fullness of detail. If those who framed it had intended to forbid the granting of such aid by the municipal corporations of the State, as well as by the State . itself, it cannot be that they would not have explicitly said so. It is not to be supposed that such a gap was left in their work from oversight or inadvertence. * * * “ It is insisted that the invalidity of the statute has been determined by two judgments of the Supreme Court of Michigan, and that we are bound to follow those adjudications. People v. Township Board of Salem, 20 Mich. 452; People, ex rel. Bay City, v. State Treasurer, 23 Mich. 499. We have examined those cases with care. With all respect for the eminent tribunal by which the judgments were pronounced, we must be permitted to say that they are not satisfactory to our minds.” See, also, Taylor v. Ypsilanti, 105 U. S. 60. I refer to these cases, and numerous others might be cited, not for the purpose of arguing that the Michigan cases should be overruled, but for the purpose of supporting my contention that the application of those cases should not be extended to purely local improvements, which, in my judgment, are not necessarily embraced within their scope. In the case of People, ex rel. Bay City, v. State Treasurer, the bonds were issued in aid of the Jackson, Lansing & Saginaw Railroad Company, extending through many counties. The court said: “ Decisions in other States were found which were supposed to sanction the doctrine that, under such circumstances, the State might do indirectly through its subdivisions what directly.it was forbidden to do. Thus a way was opened by which the whole purpose of the constitutional provisions quoted might be defeated. The State could not aid a private corporation with its credit, but it might require each of its townships, cities, and villages to do so. The State could not load down its people with taxes for the construction of a public improvement, but it might compel the municipal authorities, which were its mere creatures, and which.held their whole authority and their whole life at its will, to enforce such taxes, one by one, until the whole people were bent to the burden. “ Now, whatever might be the just and proper construction of similar provisions in the Constitutions of States whose history has not been the same with our own, the majority of this court thought when the previous case was before us, and they still think, that these provisions in our Constitution do preclude the State from loaning the public credit to private corporations, and from imposing taxation upon its citizens or any portion thereof in aid of the construction of railroads.” In People, ex rel. Hubbard, v. Township Board of Springwells, 25 Mich. 153, the work was held to be State work because carried on by State agents. In Thomas v. City of Port Huron the bond was given to aid in the construction of a railroad from Port Huron to a point in Shiawassee county. In Anderson v. Hill the court say: “ In this case the improvement of the Dowagiac river was undertaken by the State, under the law of 1859 and its amendments, and the contract, therefore, so far as appears upon its face, was legitimate and valid. But suppose the contract with West had contained a stipulation that $2,500, in addition to the compensation he was to re ceive from the appropriation of swamp lands, should be paid to him by a tax levied upon the taxable property of the township of Decatur, under the provisions of Act No. 323 [Local Acts 1881], the illegality of the contract would have been apparent. The contract would have shown, upon its face, that the State had engaged in a work of public improvement, to be paid for in part in some other mode than the expenditure of grants of land to the State. The Constitution cannot be evaded by making a contract apparently valid, and by special enactment providing for a portion of the expenditure to be raised by taxation and expended in the work under the supervision of State agencies.” In Sparrow v. Commissioner of State Land Office, 56 Mich. 567, the majority of the court held the act for straightening, etc., Cedar river to be valid, in so far as it provided for an appropriation of swamp lands. Justice Campbell held the act to be invalid because of the provisions for taxation of the localities benefited. He says, in the course of his opinion: “ There is no duty laid on any one except as ancillary to the action of the State agent. The case is in this respect stronger than that of People, ex rel. Hubbard, v. Township Board of Springwells, where there were some subordinate functions performed by town officers, and that of Anderson v. Hill, where the tax was left optional with the voters of the townships concerned. Here neither township nor county authorities, nor people, in any known, direct, or representative way, have any control in the matter.” Not one of these cases is inconsistent with the grant by the legislature of authority to a local municipality to execute and pay for works of local internal improvement, and such grant is authorized by other sections of the Constitution. It is said in Attorney General v. Pingree: “ That, by sections 23 and 38 of article 4, and section 1 of article 11, the Constitution has given to townships the control of highways, and to the cities and villages the control of the streets for all purposes germane to their use.” I have endeavored to show that the proposed improvement in this case is germane to the use of the highway. The Pingree Case involved the power to acquire and operate railways outside the city limits in territory over which the city had no jurisdiction. The statute, therefore, had a State aspect as well as a local aspect, and might well be held to fall within the ban of the constitutional provision. But the court solemnly disavowed passing upon the question now before us. That question was left open, as it has been by every prior decision. The Constitution clearly prohibits the State being a party to or interested or engaged in any internal improvement, and it is not illogical to hold that what is prohibited to the State directly it cannot do indirectly through any of its governmental agencies. There is, however, no constitutional prohibition of a municipality engaging in local internal improvements which the State is neither a party to nor interested in, nor engaged in carrying on. Conceding the correctness of our previous decisions and that the courts who have refused to follow those decisions have gone astray, a decision that this case is ruled by them goes a long step beyond them, and, in my judgment, practically reads into the State Constitution a prohibition of local improvements which its framers never put there, and, in my opinion, never intended to put there. It is said, however, that if there is any ground for this distinction, ‘ ‘ it must be found in the Constitution. If a prohibitory constitutional provision, general in its character, is subject to exceptions, those exceptions must be found in the Constitution.” And: “ Municipalities could construct and maintain roads for public travel * * * because other provisions of the Constitution (article 11, § 1. See, also, article 4, § 49; article 10, § 11) by necessary implication granted municipalities authority to construct and maintain such roads. * * It is entirely consistent to say that though municipalities were prohibited by the Constitution from engaging in works of internal improvement, they might nevertheless construct and maintain roads, which are works of internal improvement, because the Constitution empowered them to do so.” There is no constitutional provision against municipalities engaging in internal improvements when not acting as agents of' and for the State, and this court has never, in nay opinion,.held that there is. The city of Detroit is not authorized to construct streets because of a grant of power contained in the Constitution, but because there is no limitation of that power contained in the Constitution, and, if I am correct in my interpretation of the charter, the legislature has granted the power in accordance with article 4, § 38, of the Constitution. “ The Constitution is not a grant of power, but a limita-, tion upon its exercise by the agents of the people who compose the legislative branch of the government.” Attorney General v. Preston, 56 Mich. 177. And the— ‘ ‘ Legislature of Michigan possesses all legislative power to the full extent that like power is possessed by the Parliament except as State and Federal Constitutions have limited it.” Opinion of Chief Justice Cooley, State Tax Law Cases, 54 Mich. 389. Our inquiry, therefore, should be whether the otherwise plenary power of the legislature to grant to the municipalities authority to make local internal improvements is limited by some constitutional provision, mindful of the repeated declarations of this court that a statute is not unconstitutional unless in plain violation of such provision, and its constitutionality will be supported by all possible presumptions not clearly inconsistent with the language and subject-matter. I find no warrant in the Constitution for the contention that power has been granted thereby to municipalities to construct roads, and that, therefore, they are excepted by implication from the internal improvement provision. No such constitutional provision was necessary, since without it, in the absence of some restraining provision, the legislature would have that power. Article 11, § 1, provides: “ There shall be elected annually * * * in each organized township * * * one commissioner of highways * * * and one overseer of highways for each highway district, whose powers and duties shall be prescribed by law.” Article 4, § 49, provides: “The legislature may provide for the laying out, construction and maintenance of county and township roads,” etc. , Article 10, § 11, provides: ‘ ‘ The board of supervisors of each organized county may provide for laying out highways, constructing bridges and organizing townships, under such restrictions and limitations as shall be prescribed by law.” Article 11, § 1, does not pretend to confer upon cities the power to construct or control highways. It does limit the power of the. legislature to do away with highway commissioners and overseers of highways in townships or to entirely abolish their functions. And by the constitutional amendment of 1899 (section 49, aft. 4) this restriction was removed. Campau v. Highway Com'r of Grosse Pointe, 132 Mich. 366. The other two sections are expressly limited to township and county roads and by their terms are not applicable to city streets. The only inference, in my judgment, which can properly be drawn from these provisions, so far as cities are concerned, is that the construction and control of highways were regarded as matters of local, and not of State, concern. The dissenting opinion of Justice Moore in Moreland v. Millen, 126 Mich. 399 (which I suppose to be referred to), appears to me to support my conclusion. It is there said: c ‘ It has been held that, because the care of the highways is a local matter, their custody in the townships cannot be taken from the local officers. People, ex rel. Hubbard, v. Township Board of Springwells, 25 Mich. 153; Davies v. Board of Sup’rs of Saginaw Co., 89 Mich. 295. The same rule is applicable to cities.” In Township of Grosse Pointe v. Finn, 134 Mich. 529, the same judge, delivering the opinion of the court and citing several cases, among them Moreland v. Millen, said: “ These cases undoubtedly hold that in relation to local affairs the legislature may not withhold authority from the local authorities and confer it upon an outside agency.” Nowhere has the Constitution granted to cities, either expressly or by necessary implication, authority to construct or maintain highways. It was unnecessary to make such grant. They possess the power, if they possess it at all, because the Constitution nowhere prohibits its exercise and the legislature has granted it. The right is not an exception to the provision against internal improvements, but is not embraced therein because its exercise is limited to the territory of the city, and is of local concern. The only clause of the Constitution from which a grant of power can be inferred is section 38 of article 4, and this, I think, must have been Mr. Justice Moore’s opinion, as shown by the language quoted in the Pingree Case, and was the reason why he held that the question now before the court was not involved in that case. The construction of a macadamized road by a city must stand or fall upon the same grounds as every other city' internal improvement. The legislature might not grant to a city authority to construct a macadamized road lying partly within and partly without its territory, because in such case the State is attempting to do indirectly, through its governmental agent, what it could not do directly itself. Attorney General v. Pingree, supra. The State could not direct the construction of such road entirely within the city limits by State officers because the State was prohibited from engaging in such works anywhere. People, ex rel. Hubbard, v. Township Board of Springwells, supra. The legislature could authorize the construction of a macadam road by the city, for the city, and entirely within its territory, just as it could construct any other city internal improvement, because, as said by this court, it “is a local matter.” I must confess that I am unable to discover the legal basis for the doctrine, which seems to be asserted, that municipalities can construct such a local internal improvement as a water plant as an exercise of the police power, in the teeth of a constitutional provision prohibiting municipalities from constructing any internal improvement. Can it be seriously contended that, if the constitutional provision in terms provided that no municipality should construct a water plant, the city would be authorized to construct such plant under its police power, or that the legislature could grant such power? It appears to me that they all stand upon the same ground. If the city can be empowered to construct one, it can construct all. If it cannot be empowered to construct one, it can be empowered to construct none. The proposed improvement is not prohibited by the constitutional prohibition in question because it is a local improvement, which section 38 of article 4 authorized the legislature to permit. To hold otherwise is, to my mind, to amend the Constitution by strained judicial interpretation. In conclusion, I quote the language of Chief Justice Cooley in State Tax Law Cases, 54 Mich. 350: “ In cases heretofore presented for our examination we have indicated certain rules of propriety and caution which should be observed by us when thus invited to declare void the action of a co-ordinate department of the government, and to those rules we should be inexcusable if we did not strictly adhere. One of these is that we must enter upon an examination of a constitutional question like this assuming that the legislature has been guilty of no usurpation. We are to remember, also, that we have no supervisory power in respect to legislation; that the lawmaking power is not responsible to the judiciary for the wisdom of its acts; and that, however unwise or impolitic their acts may appear, they must stand as law unless the legislature has plainly overstepped its constitutional authority, or lost jurisdiction in the attempt to exercise it, by failing to observe some express constitutional direction. And the case must be clear. A mere doubt on our part of the validity of what the lawmaking department of the government has undertaken to enact is no ground for annulling it. These are commonplaces in constitutional law. They have often been declared by us, and still more often by other courts. There is reason to believe, however, that the rules are more often laid down than observed. When a court declares an enactment invalid, its judgment is in general conclusive. The legislature cannot appeal against it, and the public is likely to accept what is adjudged as probably correct, and to acquiesce without questioning it. Under such circumstances, it is to be feared that courts sometimes, without perhaps being conscious of the fact, proceed in the examination of questions concerning the constitutionality of legislation as if they were at liberty to consider the questions as questions of policy merely, and to dispose of them according to the view they should take of the wisdom of the legislation. There is ground for the belief that sometimes statutes have been annulled by courts on objections that purported to be grounded in the Constitution, but which, if plainly stated, would resolve themselves into this: That the judges did not like the legislation. But every such case is mischievous in its tendency, for it shows that courts lay down proper rules for the government of their own conduct and then ■ fail to observe them. It is not less important that a court should keep carefully within its proper jurisdiction than that the legislature should observe the limits set by the Constitution to its powers; for the spectacle of a court imputing usurpation to the legislature when in the very actthe court itself is chargeable with a like disregard of duty is neither edifying nor wholesome.” In my opinion, the decree should be reversed, and the bill of complaint dismissed, with costs of both courts to defendant. ' , Montgomery and Moore, JJ., concurred with Blair, J.
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McAlvay, C. J. Plaintiff, a vessel master, recovered a judgment of $2,000 against defendant for libel. The libelous article was a letter written by defendant to Charles Chamberlain, a vessel owner and broker of Detroit. The defense was that the letter was privileged and its statements were true. It is not necessary to give the contents of this letter. If it was not a privileged communication, its statements were libelous, A motion for a new trial was made upon the ground that the verdict was excessive and not warranted by the evidence; that $1,500 of said verdict allowed as injury to feelings was excessive, and not supported by the evidence; that there was no evidence of any damages to plaintiff’s business or profession to submit to the jury; also on account of improper argument by plaintiff’s counsel. This motion was denied, and reasons for such denial in writing were filed by the court. The several errors assigned on account of the denial of this motion cannot be considered, for the reason that no exceptions were taken by defendant to any of the reasons contained in the decision of the court denying said motion. During the trial of the case the court under the declaration limited plaintiff’s recovery for general damages to loss of employment. At the close of plaintiff’s case, counsel for defendant asked the court: “That all the testimony relating to any letter received from McMorran and Boland as testified to by plaintiff and Gilchrist, also all testimony relating to this plaintiff not receiving the mastership of the boat Rounds, be stricken from the case, for the reason that they have not connected —they have not shown by any evidence in the case that his not securing the mastership of the Rounds was by reason of the writing of the letter complained of. And, also, the same reason for the others applies right through that they have not connected that testimony with this case. “ The Court: That is that they have not connected those results with the publication of this libel ?” To which counsel replied “ Yes,” and the court stated that he would consider the motion, denying it for the present and allowing an exception until it was finally decided. Defendant excepted. At the close of the testimony thiá motion was renewed,' and the following occurred between court and counsel for defendant: “ The Court: The McMorran letters? ‘ ‘ Mr. D'Aigle: The McMorran letter. “ The Court: The Boland letter ? “ Mr. D’Aigle: The Boland letter. “ The Court: And the Gilchrist Company letter? “ Mr. D’Aigle: Yes; and also all that part of his testimony relating to his not receiving the mastership of the Rounds. “ The Court: That goes and rests solely upon the letter. Have you any objection to that, Mr. Dafoe ? “ Mr. Dafoe (Plaintiff’s Attorney): No, your honor; I haven’t the slightest. “ The Court: Well, it may be done.” The original bill of exceptions does not contain this last line, although the record shows that counsel for plaintiff in his brief and the court in his reasons for denying a new trial both quote it as párt of what occurred. The court, however, says: “ I never intended to strike out this evidence so far as it might have'a bearing upon his loss of a position upon the schooner Rounds. The stenographer’s notes are, however, open to that construction.” We must accept this statement of the court, which leaves the defendant the benefit of his exception taken, which specifically included plaintiff’s testimony relative to the vessel Rounds. The letters referred to were replies from vessel owners to letters written by plaintiff asking for employment, and were offered as tending to show damages to him on account of the letter complained of. It is admitted that they were properly stricken out. Mr. Chamberlain was the owner of the Rounds. He was the person who received this letter which is the foundation of this suit. Plaintiff testified that he applied to Chamberlain for employment and received a favorable reply, giving him to understand that he would place him in the schooner Rounds at $90 per month. Capt. Kunna corroborates this, saying plaintiff showed him the letter containing such statement. The letter was not produced. Plaintiff said he was not able to find it, although he had made diligent search. He did not get the position as master of the Rounds. On the part of plaintiff the deposition of Mr. Chamberlain was taken. It was not offered or used by plaintiff upon the trial, but was read in evidence by defendant. On direct examination by plaintiff’s attorney he testified that he did not recall that plaintiff made application to be placed as captain (master) of one of his vessels; that about June 1, 1903, after the receipt of this letter, he employed plaintiff to sail the schooner Belle Hanscomb for him. Cross-examined, he said his opinion of plaintiff was not changed a particle after the receipt of the letter, and plaintiff’s reputation was not injured with him; that plaintiff sailed the Hanscomb the entire season. From this testimony it appears affirmatively that plaintiff lost no employment on the Rounds because of the letter written by defendant; that the letter as far as Chamberlain was concerned did not injure the plaintiff. There was no evidence in the case to connect the fact that plaintiff was not employed in the Rounds with this letter written by defendant. The motion to strike out all of plaintiff’s testimony upon that question should have been granted. We have examined the other errors relied upon, and find most of them without merit and none of them prejudicial. For the error pointed out, the judgment of the circuit court is reversed, and a new trial ordered. Carpenter, Grant, Blair, and Moore, JJ., concurred.
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Montgomery, J. The respondent was convicted of the crime of rape, and brings the case here for review on error. It was conceded at the argument that no exception was taken to the rulings of the trial judge now complained of, and no requests to charge upon the questions which it is now claimed should have been covered. The general rule in criminal as well as civil cases is that this court will, on review, consider only such questions as were presented for the consideration of the trial court. People v. Wade, 101 Mich. 89; People v. Warner, 104 Mich. 337; People v. Smith, 106 Mich. 431; People v. Carter, 117 Mich. 576. It is doubtless true that the trial judge should, even though no requests be preferred, cover the' general features of the case, define the offense, and indicate what it is essential to prove to establish the offense. This duty was fully performed in this case. We do not intimate that, if the questions discussed were all open to review, there was any prejudicial error. The testimony was ample to warrant the conviction, which is affirmed. McAlvay, C. J., and Ostrander, Hooker, and Moore, JJ., concurred.
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Blair, J. Plaintiff prosecutes a writ of error to review an order denying him leave to file an amended declaration. The nature of the case will be disclosed by a reference to Jones v. Pendleton, 134 Mich. 460, and Jones v. Wayne Circuit Judge, 141 Mich. 408. We are of the opinion that the mandamus proceedings may properly be treated as an exception to the ruling of Judge Mandell, but the motion for leave to amend and the order and opinion of Judge Mandell are not part of the record before us. It appearing to the court, however, that justice requires a review of the order made by Judge Mandell, denying plaintiff leave to file an amended declaration, the record is remanded to make said order and the proceedings whereon it is founded a part of the bill of exceptions in this case. McAlvay, C. J., and Carpenter, Ostrander, and Hooker, JJ., concurred.
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Blair, J. Plaintiffs are copartners, doing business under the firm name of John F. Butcher & Co., at Moorestown, Missaukee county. Defendant is a corporation with its office and principal place of business at Holland, in Ottawa county. On January 17, 1906, plaintiffs caused a writ of attachment to be issued out of the circuit court of Missaukee county and to be levied upon a quantity of tan bark in said county belonging to defendant. The affidavit for the writ was made by Elisha H. Hunter, • one of the plaintiffs, and alleged, among other things, that “ the. defendant named in said writ, Cappon &■ Bertsch Leather Company, a corporation, of Holland, Mich., is indebted to deponent in the sum of seven hundred (700) dollars,” etc. On January 30th defendant filed a petition for dissolution of the attachment and restoration of the attached property. February 10th the court denied the prayer of the petition, finding that plaintiffs had a legal claim and good cause for attachment, and, plaintiffs consenting, in view of the tendency of the property to depreciate, that the attachment be dissolved on defendant entering its general appearance and giving a bond to pay any judgment rendered, the court so ordered. On February 20th defendant delivered to the sheriff the bond provided for in section 10567, 3 Comp. Laws, and obtained the property. On February 21st the sheriff made his return, showing inability to make personal service and filing the bond. April 6th plaintiffs filed affidavit of publication of notice of suit. April 7th declaration was filed. April 28th defendant’s default was entered. July 30th notice of trial for the August term of court and proof of service on “ Co veil & Cross, attorneys for the within named defendant,” was filed. August 8th the defendant moved to quash the proceedings for the reason, among others, that the affidavit was void. September 7th plaintiffs moved for an order “permitting said plaintiffs to file the affidavit for attachment hereto annexed for the purpose of curing any defect that exists or is claimed to exist in the original affidavit,” etc.- September 12th the court denied defendant’s motion, and on the next day granted plaintiffs’ motion. It is conceded that no general appearance was entered for the defendant. The record is before us for review upon writ of certiorari. Three questions are presented for our determination, as follows: (1) Was the affidavit so defective as not to confer jurisdiction upon the court ? (2) Was the affidavit amendable ? (3) Did defendant, by giving, the statutory bond, waive any defects in the affidavit ? The statute (3 Comp. Laws, § 10556) requires that the affidavit shall contain a statement “that the defendant therein is indebted to the plaintiff,” etc. The affidavit in question does not contain such an allegation, but contains an allegation that defendant “is indebted to.de-, ponent,” one of the plaintiffs. The affidavit was therefore jurisdictionally defective, and was not subject to amendment. Freer v. White, 91 Mich. 74; Heller v. Savings Bank, 138 Mich. 192; Duryea v. Raymond, 146 Mich. 488. A circuit court writ of attachment “is a summons with a clause authorizing a seizure of property.” Thompson v. Thomas, 11 Mich. 274. The dissolution of the attachment by giving the statutory bond, to pay any judgment which maybe recovered in the suit commenced by said writ of attachment, operated as an appearance and converted the suit from an action in rem into an action in personam. Paddock v. Matthews, 3 Mich. 18; Goebel v. Stevenson, 35 Mich. 172; Hill v. Harding, 93 Ill. 77; Bunneman v. Wagner, 16 Ore. 433; 3 Enc. Pl. & Pr. p. 84; 4 Cyc. p. 686; Moore v. Hamilton, 2 Gil. (Ill.) 429. The case of Reynolds v. Marquette Circuit Judge, 125 Mich. 445, is not opposed to this conclusion. The bond in that-case was given under the provisions of section 10761, 3 Comp. Laws. As said by the court at page 448 of 125 Mich.: “ The condition of the bond is not that the owner of the logs will pay any judgment which may be obtained against the principal, but merely that he will pay such sums as may be found to be a lien upon the logs. The bond stands in the place of the property.” In Streeter v. McMillan, 74 Mich. 123, cited in Reynolds v. Marquette Circuit Judge, supra, the court say: “In the case of an ordinary attachment the suit is brought to recover a personal obligation, and nothing more, and the property is seized as defendant’s own property to satisfy his debt and not because of any claim against the property itself. * * * The property seized is not seized because it is in any way related to the debt, but because it is defendant’s property, and the judgment, if he does not appear, is paid out of it because it has been seized in pledge for such payment as his own. ” But in the case then under consideration, for the enforcement of a lien upon logs, it was said: “As a proceeding in rem as well as in personam, the property seized was an essential element in the controversy and the only ultimate basis of relief in the absence of a personal liability. ” The- order overruling the motion to quash is affirmed, with costs to appellee. McAlvay, C. J., and Carpenter, Grant, and Ostrander, JJ., concurred.
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Blair Moody, Jr., J. The issue before the Court is whether the Natural Resources Commission (NRC) properly denied Michigan Oil’s permit application for oil and gas drilling on a 40-acre site of state-owned land known as Corwith 1-22 in July of 1972. Beyond this apparently simple question are broad policy considerations; therefore, it is necessary to fully understand the factual setting of the instant case before addressing the legal issues set forth. Background Corwith 1-22, the 40-acre site involved in the instant controversy, is located in the Pigeon River Country State Forest (hereinafter the Pigeon River Forest or Forest) which consists of 92,872 acres of rolling hills, deep swamps, high forests, lakes and streams. Located in Otsego and Cheboygan Counties, the Pigeon River Forest is one of the largest remaining tracts of publicly owned, wild, undeveloped land in the lower peninsula. Two of the state’s highest quality trout streams, the Pigeon and Black Rivers, flow through the Forest. The Pigeon River Forest provides one of the few remaining favorable habitats in the lower peninsula for wildlife, including bear, bobcat, beaver, woodcock, osprey, eagle, and many other birds and animals. The Forest is also the home of the largest remaining elk herd east of the Mississippi River. In fact, Section 22, containing Corwith 1-22, is in the heart of a 25-square-mile area of semi-wilderness which is the favored habitat of the elk harem. Another natural resource, oil, one which provides great opportunity for profit, has also been found in the Forest. Thus, in 1968, when the Department of Natural Resources (DNR) sold oil and gas leases covering more than one-half million acres of state-owned land in the northern lower peninsula, it is not surprising that more than 10% or 57,669 of those acres were located in the Pigeon River Forest. As a consequence, more than one-half of this special Forest was leased for gas and oil development. Prior to the sale of the leases, no environmental assessment was made of the property to be leased. In fact, the regional office of the DNR was given only nine days to review the almost 600,000 acres prior to the proposed sale. The DNR received $1,122,788 from the 1968 auction of oil and gas leases, or an average of $2.06 an acre. The first permit to drill on state-owned land in the Pigeon River Forest, pursuant to a 1968 lease, was issued in May of 1970. On September 16, 1970, after only two drilling permits had been issued, Governor William G. Milliken urged the NRC to establish a moratorium on the issuance of drilling permits for state land because of his "great concern about potential environmental intrusion and encroachment from oil and gas drilling in this important scenic forest area”. During this moratorium the NRC instructed the DNR to launch field studies to pinpoint areas of special wildlife significance and unusual natural value, in an effort to develop a comprehensive management plan for the Pigeon River Forest. Until a comprehensive plan could be developed, permit applications were reviewed on an individual basis to determine whether drilling would destroy natural resources. Subsequent to the moratorium, drilling permits were granted for state-owned land only in areas already damaged by oil development. During and subsequent to the moratorium, permits were issued for drilling on private land. Nevertheless, no drilling permit was issued within the 25-square-mile area surrounding Corwith 1-22, the proposed drilling site involved in the present controversy. Corwith 1-22 State of Michigan Oil and Gas Leasé No. 9656, covering 1,760 acres of Corwith Township including the 160 acres comprising the southeast 1/4 of Section 22 was purchased by Pan American Petroleum Corporation. In December of 1968, Pan American assigned an undivided 50% interest in this lease to Northern Michigan Exploration Company and Amoco Production Company. In April of 1971, Northern Michigan Exploration and Amoco applied for a permit to drill a well on the southwest 1/4 of the southeast 1/4 of Section 22 of Corwith Township, a 40-acre site. On October 11, 1971, the Supervisor of Wells denied the application on the grounds that oil and gas drilling on the site would cause "serious and unnecessary damage” to various wildlife in the area, the swamp in the area would be affected, and the drilling would cause a "serious intrusion into a nearly solid block of semi-wilderness area of state lands”. The denial specifically stated that no site in the 40 acres was acceptable. No appeal was made from this permit denial. With full knowledge of this denial, because of his membership on the Oil and Gas Advisory Board of the Supervisor of Wells, Vance W. Orr, Vice President of McClure Oil Company and President of Michigan Oil Company, accepted on behalf of McClure Oil an assignment of the lease rights to this 40-acre site in Section 22 of Corwith Township. "[F]or and in consideration of the sum of One Dollar ($1.00) * * * and other valuable considerations”, Northern Michigan Exploration and Amoco assigned to McClure Oil Company their interest in Lease No. 9656 covering the 40-acre site in Section 22. Four months later, in May of 1972, McClure Oil entered into a contract with its wholly-owned subsidiary, Michigan Oil Company. Under the terms of the contract, Michigan Oil would receive assignment of the leasehold interest, if Michigan Oil could obtain a drilling permit and then drill a commercial producing well on the 40-acre site referred to as Corwith 1-22. The Drilling Permit Within two weeks of the contract agreement, Michigan Oil filed the second application for a permit to drill a well on Corwith 1-22. This second application was also denied by the Supervisor of Wells, in a letter dated July 21, 1972. In addition to noting the earlier denial of Northern Michigan Exploration and Amoco’s application to drill on the same 40-acre site, the letter to Michigan Oil stated: ’’Oil and gas operations at the above site cannot be conducted without causing or threatening to cause serious damage to animal life and molesting or spoiling state-owned lands. * * * "This area was originally leased on October 1, 1968. Due to our increased awareness of quality environment, and increased success in oil and gas exploration, I firmly believe this area would not have been offered for lease today. "[T]he Natural Resources Commission has asked that we set up a forest management plan to preserve the special quality environment now present. "Such a plan would establish a broad management policy for the area, identifying kinds of management programs and uses to be permitted. It would involve zoning of areas, each differing in intensity or type of use to be permitted. Preparation of this plan is under way at the present time and should be completed within six months, including time for public hearings. For this reason it is appropriate that the present application be denied. You may also expect me to direct denial of all other applications for drilling permits in the area under study, pending drafting of and action on the management plan. "With reference to the present application I make the following specific points. "The proposed drilling site is located in a 40-acre tract within a township about 93 percent state owned and hence almost entirely in a wild state. Similar conditions prevail in the townships to the north and south. This surrounding area is primitive in nature, largely wooded, with minimal development. The roads are narrow, winding, and highly scenic. The proposed site is near the center of the Michigan elk range. The area has substantial populations of game — white-tailed deer, ruffed grouse, and woodcock, and relict populations of wildlife requiring extensive little-disturbed, wild areas such as black bears, bobcats, bald eagles, pileated woodpeckers, and ravens. All of the latter are scarce or very local in occurrence in the Lower Peninsula. "Development for oil or gas has not yet reached this secluded area. ” (Emphasis added.) With nothing to lose and everything to gain, Michigan Oil, the potential assignee of McClure Oil’s leasehold interest, appealed the denial of its permit application to the NRC. The NRC appointed a hearing examiner to conduct the administrative hearing. The Pigeon River Country Association intervened under the Michigan Environmental Protection Act (MEPA), MCL 691.1205(1); MSA 14.528(205X1). The hearing examiner ruled, however, that the intervention was untimely and that the environmental protection act could not be raised. The examiner further ruled that the parties were limited to issues raised by the initial parties in their pretrial statements. The hearing examiner filed a written report, adopting almost verbatim Michigan Oil’s proposed findings of fact and conclusions of law, recommending that the drilling permit be issued. The NRC, after reviewing the record, the briefs and the proposed findings of fact, rejected the recommendations of the hearing examiner and upheld the denial of Michigan Oil’s application for a drilling permit. On May 9, 1974, the NRC issued its decision specifically finding the following: "Damage to the ecosystem and serious or unnecessary damage to animals would be caused by opening entrance roads, truck traffic, succession of wells and general activities encountered in all oil-gas production. Particularly, serious effects would be caused to elk, bear and bobcat and could cause their virtual removal from a portion of the Pigeon River area. The tendency of the animals would be to avoid the area. Such effect would be particularly noticeable in the case of elk who are a wide ranging animal (Moran, T-2142; Harger, T-2243; Black, T-1331, 1332, 1333, 1352; Moore, T-1710; John son, T-1782, 1784-1786, 1819, 1924; Strong, T-1823, 1824). "The Pigeon River area is the last stronghold of the bear and bobcat. Places where bear and bobcat can live are limited. Section 22 is good bear habitat (Johnson, T-1786, 1823; Harger, T-2246). ’Elk would be particularly affected by an oil operation because of their fragile nervous system and even clearing one acre will affect them. In turn, many small animals would be affected (Johnson, T-1823; Strong, T-1888, 1889; Moran, T-2152). "The above testimony from game biologists as to the effect of the drilling of a well in this area comes from the DNR presentation and the opinions of their experts are unrebutted on the record. On considering the foregoing testimony the Commission must And that damage to or destruction of the surface, soils, animals, fish or aquatic life will occur. ” (Emphasis added.) On appeal, the denial of the drilling permit for Corwith 1-22 was affirmed by the Ingham Circuit Court and by the Court of Appeals. Michigan Oil Co v Natural Resources Comm, 71 Mich App 667; 249 NW2d 135 (1976). On April 20, 1977, this Court issued an order denying Michigan Oil leave to appeal. 399 Mich 892 (1977). Subsequently, on July 14, 1977, Michigan Oil received a third appeal of the drilling permit denial when this Court, on reconsideration, granted leave to appeal. 400 Mich 843 (1977). Discussion Thus, within this factual setting, the Court must determine whether the Natural Resources Commission had the statutory authority to deny Michigan Oil’s application for a drilling permit on the 40-acre site known as Corwith 1-22 in the Pigeon River Forest. Specifically, we must decide whether the oil conservation act, 1939 PA 61, as amended, MCL 319.1 et seq.; MSA 13.139(1) et seq., or the legislation which created the Department of Conservation, the DNR’s predecessor, 1921 PA 17, as amended, MCL 299.1 et seq.; MSA 13.1 et seq., provides sufficient statutory authority to justify the denial of a drilling permit in the instant case. Additionally, we are asked to determine whether the Michigan environmental protection act should be read in pari materia with the oil conservation act. 1939 PA 61 At the crux of this litigation is the question of the proper interpretation of the oil conservation act, 1939 PA 61, and the question of the nature of the authority granted to the Supervisor of Wells and the NRC to deny the issuance of a permit to drill on state-owned lands pursuant to oil and gas leases. Appellant, Michigan Oil, claims that 1939 PA 61 only empowers the Supervisor of Wells to withhold issuance of a drilling permit to prohibit waste which is unnecessary to the production of oil and gas. The statute, therefore, would impliedly protect any and all other waste, no matter how serious, if necessarily incidental to the production of oil and gas. According to the appellant, the clear import of 1939 PA 61 was not to conserve the environment in general but to conserve only oil and gas so that they are efficiently extracted. Neither the circuit court nor the Court of Appeals would accept this exceedingly narrow construction of the statute. We also reject a construction of the oil conservation act which would permit oil and gas drilling unnecessarily detrimental to the other natural resources of this state. Under the statute before amendment in 1973, waste is defined "in addition to its ordinary mean ing” to include "the unnecessary damage to or destruction of the surface, soils, animal, fish or aquatic life or property from or by oil and gas operations”. MCL 319.2(1)(2)(2); MSA 13.139(2)(1)(2)(2). We are urged to find that the NRC exceeded its statutory authority because the letter denying Michigan Oil’s application for a drilling permit referred to oil and gas operations at Corwith 1-22 causing "serious damage to animal life” rather than the statutory language of "unnecessary damage to or destruction of animal life”. We refuse to adopt this narrow, semantic analysis. Surely, if the Director of Natural Resources and the Supervisor of Wells in the denial letter dated July 21, 1972 had a crystal ball they would have used the statutory word "unnecessary” instead of "serious” to modify damage. The statutory words, "unnecessary damage” or "destruction”, clearly apply to the correct findings of the Court of Appeals: "The uncontradicted evidence below established that the proposed drill site is located in the midst of Michigan’s elk range, that the elk herd which inhabits this area is the last sizeable wild elk herd east of the Mississippi River, and that oil and gas operations would cause the elk to avoid the area surrounding such operations, resulting in the reduction in the range and habitat of the elk and the decline in the population of the herd. Uncontradicted evidence established that oil and gas production activities would have the same effect on bear and bobcat, and that the area presently provides one of the few remaining favorable locations for bear and bobcat in lower Michigan. These factual findings are amply supported by the record and indicate that the proposed drilling poses a serious threat to the survival of wildlife already found only in limited numbers in a limited area of the state.” Michigan Oil, supra, 686-687. Furthermore, we agree with the Court of Appeals interpretation concerning the ordinary meaning of waste: "We are not prepared to hold that the 'ordinary meaning’ of the term waste cannot include even the most serious permanent damage to or destruction of any and all natural resources of the state incidental to the production of oil.” Michigan Oil, supra, 685-686. The definitional section of the act relative to waste provided in part: "(1) As used in this act, the term 'waste’ in addition to its ordinary meaning shall include: "(1) 'Underground waste’ as those words are generally understood in the oil business, and in any event to embrace (1) the inefficient, excessive, or improper use or dissipation of the reservoir energy, including gas energy and water drive, of any pool, and the locating, spacing, drilling, equipping, operating, or producing of any well or wells in a manner to reduce or tend to reduce the total quantity of oil or casing-head gas ultimately recoverable from any pool, and (2) unreasonable damage to underground fresh or mineral waters, natural brines, or other mineral deposits from operations for the discovery, development, and production and handling of oil or casing-head gas. "(2) 'Surface waste,’ as those words are generally understood in the oil business, and in any event to embrace (1) the unnecessary or excessive surface loss or destruction without beneficial use, however caused, of casing-head gas, oil, or other product thereof, but including the loss or destruction, without beneficial use, resulting from evaporation, seepage, leakage or fire, especially such loss or destruction incident to or resulting from the manner of spacing, equipping, operating, or producing well or wells, or incident to or resulting from inefficient storage or handling of oil, (2) the unnecessary damage to or destruction of the surface, soils, animal, fish or aquatic life or property from or by oil and gas operations; and (3) the drilling of unnecessary wells.” MCL 319.2; MSA 13.139(2). (Emphasis added.) Appellant would have us read into the phrase "waste in * * * its ordinary meaning” the modifying language "as those words are generally understood in the oil business”. Such interpretation clearly ignores the legislation’s specific wording. When the Legislature defined "underground waste” and "surface waste” it specifically referred to the oil business. On the other hand, the Legislature omitted any reference to the oil business when including ordinary waste in the definitional section. Therefore, the ordinary use of the term "waste” does not refer only to waste of oil and gas, but includes any spoilation or destruction of the land, including flora and fauna, by one lawfully in possession, to the prejudice of the estate or interest of another. Serious damage to the wildlife of Corwith 1-22 resulting from oil drilling is spoilation or destruction that impairs state-owned lands and the people of Michigan’s estate therein. We would construe the oil conservation act liberally, to allow the NRC to prevent serious environmental damage, on the basis of additional statutory provisions. For example, although § 1, declaring the policy of the oil conservation act, addresses itself primarily to conservation of oil deposits, it clearly declares: "Failure to adopt such a policy in the pioneer days of the state permitted the unwarranted slaughter and removal of magnificent timber abounding in the state, which resulted in an immeasurable loss and waste. * * * To that end this act is to be construed liberally in order that effect may be given to sound policies of conservation and the prevention of waste and exploitation.” MCL 319.1; MSA 13.139(1). It appears reasonable that a broad meaning can be ascribed to a definition of conservation as used in the declaration of policy section. Conservation should not be read to apply only to the efficient extraction of oil, but should include the efficient extraction of oil which simultaneously conserves the other natural resources (flora and fauna) of the state. Support for this interpretation can be found in § 23 of the act which provided until its amendment by 1973 PA 61: "[N]o permit shall be issued to any owner or his authorized representative who has not complied with or is in violation of this act, or any of the rules, regulations, requirements or orders issued by the supervisor, or the department of conservation.” MCL 319.23; MSA 13.139(23). (Emphasis added.) This specific reference to the DNR’s predecessor in the oil conservation act demonstrates that the Legislature did not draft this act in a vacuum, intending to sacrifice all other natural resources in an effort to discover and produce oil and gas. To the contrary, this reference to the Department of Conservation implicitly mandates a statutory construction of the oil conservation act which allows the NRC to prevent serious environmental damage when reviewing drilling permit applications for state-owned land. Despite this cross-referencing, appellant, Michigan Oil, contends that no rules and regulations existed in 1972 related to prevention of "unnecessary damage to or destruction of * * * wildlife”. However, § 6 of the oil conservation act indicates that the Supervisor of Wells has the authority to deny a drilling permit to prevent waste without the aid of specific rules and regulations: "The supervisor shall prevent the waste prohibited by this act. To that end, acting directly or through his authorized representatives, the supervisor * * * is spe-ciñcally empowered * * * to do whatever may be necessary with respect to the subject matter stated herein to carry out the purposes of this act, whether or not indicated, specifíed, or enumerated in this or any other section hereof.” MCL 319.6; MSA 13.139(6). (Emphasis added.) Accordingly, we find, as did the NRC, the circuit court and the Court of Appeals, that: (1) the oil conservation act placed an aifirmative duty on the Supervisor of Wells to prevent waste, including serious or unnecessary damage to or destruction of wildlife, even in the absence of specifically promulgated rules and regulations; and (2) the proposed drilling at Corwith 1-22 poses a serious threat to the survival of wildlife already found only in limited numbers in a limited area of the state, and this serious threat falls within the statutory definitions of ordinary waste and surface waste which includes the unnecessary damage to or destruction of animal life. As indicated infra, any other finding would seriously undermine the affirmative statutory duty of the DNR and its predecessor the Conservation Department to "protect and conserve the natural resources of the State of Michigan”. MCL 299.3; MSA 13,3. 1921 PA 17 In denying Michigan Oil’s application for a drilling permit, the Natural Resources Commission did not rely solely on the authority of the oil conservation act of 1939. The order of the NRC also refers to the conservation act of 1921, 1921 PA 17 as amended, MCL 299.1 et seq.; MSA 13.1 et seq. Through this act, the Legislature established the predecessors of the NRC and the DNR to "provide for the protection and conservation of the natural resources of the state”. Preamble, 1921 PA 17, as amended by 1927 PA 337. The commission (NRC) was specifically authorized to purchase land "on behalf of the people of the state” and the department (DNR) was given the affirmative duty to "protect and conserve the natural resources of the state of Michigan”. MCL 299.3; MSA 13.3. Pursuant to this authority, the commission purchased approximately 65% of the now publicly-owned land in the Pigeon River Forest. The purchase and management of the Pigeon River Forest was funded by the fish and game protection fund pursuant to MCL 314.12; MSA 13.1361. This background is necessary to understand why the NRC, in upholding the Supervisor of Wells denial of the permit, found that if the department had not opposed the application for permit it would have failed in the performance of its duty to protect and conserve natural resources and game pursuant to 1921 PA 17. This conservation act empowers the commission to enter into contracts for the taking of oil and gas and to make and enforce reasonable rules and regulations concerning the use and occupancy of lands and properties under its control. MCL 299.2; MSA 13.2. In this connection, § 23 of the oil conservation act, supra, becomes significant, by requiring that no permit be issued to any driller who has not complied with or is in violation of any "rules, regulations, requirements or orders” of the Supervisor or the Department of Conservation, the DNR. The denial of a drilling permit by the NRC in the instant case was not based upon promulgated rules and regulations. The denial was based, however, upon specific guidelines formulated by the DNR and adopted by the Natural Resources Commission on June 11, 1971. These guidelines, entitled "Policy Governing the Review of Applications for Permits to Drill for Oil and Gas in State of Michigan”, were issued in an intra-agency directive from the Director of Natural Resources to all supervisory personnel and specifically provided that: ”A drilling permit will be denied when the Supervisor of Wells fínds that oil and gas operations cannot be conducted without causing or threatening to cause serious or unnecessary damage to or destruction of the surface, soils, animal, fish or aquatic life or property.” (Emphasis added.) Therefore, pursuant to its power under MCL 299.2; MSA 13.2, and based upon § 23 of the oil conservation act, which mandated that no permit be issued in violation of "requirements”, i.e., guidelines, of the DNR, the NRC refused to issue a drilling permit for Corwith 1-22 since such drilling would cause serious or unnecessary damage to or destruction of the elk, bear and bobcat populations. Appellant Michigan Oil contends since MCL 299.3a; MSA 13.4, which grants to the NRC the power to promulgate appropriate rules and regulations, explicitly requires that such rules be promulgated in accordance with the Administrative Procedures Act, 1943 PA 88, as amended, the same requirement is applicable to § 2, MCL 299.2; MSA 13.2. This contention overlooks the basic differences between §§ 2 and 3a. Section 3a provides a criminal sanction in that: "The commission of conservation shall make such rules for protection of the lands and property under its control against wrongful use or occupancy as will insure the carrying out of the intent of this act to protect the same from depredations and to preserve such lands and property from molestation, spoilation, destruction or any other improper use or occupancy. Nothing herein contained shall be deemed as allowing the commission of conservation to make any rule which applies to commercial fishing except as provided by law. Rules affecting the use and occupancy of such lands and property shall be promulgated in accordance with Act No. 88 of the Public Acts of 1943, as amended, being sections 24.71 to 24.80 of the Compiled Laws of 1948, and subject to Act No. 197 of the Public Acts of 1952, as amended, being sections 24.101 to 24.110 of the Compiled Laws of 1948. A violation of any such rule is a misdemeanor.” 1968 PA 199, MCL 299.3a; MSA 13.4. (Emphasis added.) The criminal sanction of § 3a mandates promulgated rules and regulations. Furthermore, the first sentence of § 3a uses the word "shall”, thereby requiring the NRC to promulgate rules and regulations. Section 2, on the other hand, neither provided a criminal sanction nor ordered the NRC to act: "The commission hereby created may adopt such rules and regulations, not inconsistent with law, governing its organization and procedure, and the administration of the provisions of this act, as may be deemed expedient. Said commission may also make and enforce reasonable rules and regulations concerning the use and occupancy of lands and property under its control.” 1963 PA 204, §1, MCL 299.2; MSA 13.2. (Emphasis added.) Furthermore, the 1975 and 1976 amendments to § 2, inapplicable in the instant case, did not alter the previously mentioned differentiations. Finally, a distinction as to scope should be noted. Section 2 creates licensing and leasing powers in the NRC and authorizes rulemaking within a policy-making format. Section 3a is concerned with wrongful use and occupancy of state-owned land and is designed to provide sanctions against poachers and trespassers. Based upon this analysis, we can only conclude that the NRC acted within its authority under § 2, MCL 299.2; MSA 13.2, in denying the drilling permit based upon the specific guidelines formulated by the DNR and adopted by the NRC in 1971. Notwithstanding the foregoing reasoning, a 1970-71 promulgated rule did provide the Supervisor of Wells with authority to deny the drilling permit in the instant case. MEPA Having concluded that 1939 PA 61 and 1921 PA 17 provide statutory authority for denial of the drilling permit in the instant case, it is unnecessary to decide whether the Michigan environmen tal protection act, MCL 691.1201 et seq.; MSA 14.528(201) et seq., must be read in pari materia with the oil conservation act. Nevertheless, if an answer to this question were required, we would hold that the Michigan environmental protection act should be read in pari materia with all legislation relating to natural resources. The rationale for such a holding can be found in Detroit v Michigan Bell Telephone Co, 374 Mich 543, 558; 132 NW2d 660 (1965); app dis and cert den 382 US 107; 86 S Ct 256; 15 L Ed 2d 191 (1965): "Statutes in pari materia are those which relate to the same person or thing, or the same class of persons or things, or which have a common purpose. It is the rule that in construction of a particular statute, or in the interpretation of its provisions, all statutes relating to the same subject, or having the same general purpose, should be read in connection with it, as together constituting one law, although enacted at different times, and containing no reference one to the other.” See also State Highway Comm v Vanderkloot, 392 Mich 159, 182; 220 NW2d 416 (1974) (opinion by Williams, J.). Since the MEPA specifically speaks to "any alleged pollution, impairment or destruction of the air, water or other natural resources”, it is logical that the MEPA should be read in pari materia with other statutes relating to natural resources. Conclusion Having determined that in 1972 the Natural Resources Commission had statutory authority to properly deny Michigan Oil’s request for a drilling permit in the Pigeon River Forest, we affirm the decisions of the circuit court and the Court of Appeals. Williams and Fitzgerald, JJ., concurred with Blair Moody, Jr., J. Kavanagh, J. (to affirm). I would affirm the Court of Appeals. I cannot subscribe to a construction of the oil conservation act which would limit the DNR’s duty to protect the whole environment as it is affected by the drilling of oil wells. There is adequate evidentiary support for the commission’s determination that drilling the proposed well would result in damage to animal life. Its conclusion that this amounts to the waste included in the proscription of the statute comports with my understanding of the legislative intent in writing this law. While it is true the express, primary concern of the oil conservation act is with the prevention of waste of oil itself, I cannot read the act as ignoring, let alone approving, all incidental damage to other natural resources. Support for this position can be found in a 1970-71 rule promulgated under § 6 of the oil conservation act granting to the Supervisor of Wells authority to do whatever may be necessary, even when not specified in the act or specific rules and regulations. 1970-71 AACS R 299.2101 provides in relevant part: "The supervisor, by virtue of section 6 of Act No. 61 of the Public Acts of 1939, as amended; "(a) May enforce all rules and regulations, issue orders and instructions necessary to enforce such rules and regulations, and do whatever may be necessary with respect to the subject matter stated in the rules and regulations to carry out the purposes of the rules and regulations and of the act itself, whether or not such orders or instructions are indicated, specified or enumerated in the act or the rules and regulations.” Thus, this rule gave the Supervisor of Wells the power to deny the drilling permit based upon rationale appropriate under the act, without regard to. enumerated rules and regulations. See also 1963 AACS R 299.2101. See footnote 1, supra.
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Blair Moody, Jr., J. Plaintiff Kalamazoo City Education Association (hereafter KCEA) appeals from an order of the Court of Appeals summarily affirming the Michigan Employment Relations Commission (hereafter MERC). The MERC had dismissed its petition challenging Administrative Law Judge James Kurtz’s determination that defendant Kalamazoo Public Schools had committed no unfair labor practices under the public employment relations act (hereafter PERA). 1965 PA 379, as amended, MCL 423.210; MSA 17.455(10). Plaintiff Detroit Federation of Teachers (hereafter DFT) appeals from the order of the Court of Appeals summarily denying enforcement of a MERC order affirming Administrative Law Judge Shlomo Sperka’s finding of unfair labor practices by defendant Detroit Board of Education. The questions presented by these cases involve the interpretation of the enforcement and review provisions of PERA, MCL 423.216(d), 423.216(e); MSA 17.455(16)(d), 17.455(16)(e). We must decide in each instance whether the Court of Appeals erred, in light of recent amendments to these provisions, 1976 PA 99 and 1977 PA 266, when they gave only summary treatment to plaintiffs’ petitions from their respective MERC orders. In the course of this determination, we must establish whether one of the amendments, 1977 PA 266, retroactively affects cases originally filed in the Court of Appeals prior to the amendment’s effective date. We must also decide in the case of the DFT whether enforcement of an order of the MERC may be denied by the Court of Appeals on the basis of a purported change in circumstances. We hold that the Court of Appeals did err by summarily denying the petition for review brought by KCEA. On the other hand, we do not find that the Court erred by extending only summary treatment to the petition for enforcement brought by the DFT. See MCL 423.216(d), 423.216(e); MSA 17.455(16)(d), 17.455(16)(e). Further, we hold 1977 PA 266 applicable to these parties, even though their petitions were first filed in the Court of Appeals before the effective date of the amendment. Finally, though we recognize that a change in circumstances may in some cases affect the continuing viability of a MERC order, we find the Court of Appeals erred here by denying the DFT enforcement on the basis of two judicial decisions issued subsequent to the MERC order, i.e., Bradley v Milliken, 540 F2d 229 (CA 6, 1976); Detroit Federation of Teachers v Detroit Board of Education, 396 Mich 220; 240 NW2d 225 (1976). I. Facts Kalamazoo Due to a dispute involving the faculty and administration of Hillside Junior High School in Kalamazoo, the KCEA brought various charges of unfair labor practices against defendant. These charges were originally filed on July 25, 1975 and later amended. Three of the charges were ultimately addressed in an administrative hearing. The first alleged that defendant refused to properly comply with an arbitration award involving the involuntary transfer of a physical education instructor from one school within the system to another. A second charged defendant with a refusal to correctly process the grievance attendant upon the termination of two faculty employees. A third related to defendant’s refusal to bargain in good faith regarding certain economic appendices open to contract negotiation during the school year 1975-76. Remaining charges were deferred to arbitration during the administrative hearing. The matter was brought to hearing on January 27, 1976. During the course of the hearing, plaintiff claimed the administrative law judge wrongly precluded from the record evidence of defendant’s bad faith in regard to some aspects of the case deferred to arbitration. Plaintiff also excepted to the judge’s interlocutory order of November 10, 1975, quashing the use of a subpoena to obtain evidence concerning a speech by defendant’s superintendent. A decision rejecting the KCEA claims and an order of dismissal were issued on November 12, 1976. A majority of the MERC upheld the ruling of the administrative law judge, though they differed with him on plaintiff’s claim of improperly excluded evidence. KCEA filed both a claim of appeal as of right and an application for leave to appeal with the Court of Appeals. GCR 1963, 803.1, 806.6. The Court of Appeals issued an order summarily enforcing the MERC decision and denying the appeal as of right on December 21, 1977. Another order granting defendant’s motion to dismiss the claim of appeal as of right was issued on December 27, 1977. The effect of these orders was to affirm the MERC decision and order by summary treatment. The Court specifically found that a petition to review under MCL 423.216(e); MSA 17.455(16)(e), as amended by 1976 PA 99, does not invoke the Court’s jurisdiction as of right and only requires a summary disposition. KCEA appealed to us and we granted leave. 402 Mich 918 (1978). Detroit Federation of Teachers The DFT filed 11 specific charges of unfair labor practices against defendant board of education on January 16, 1974. The allegations entailed interference with employee rights and refusal to bargain in good faith. All except six charges were withdrawn or dismissed prior to the administrative hearing. Of the six remaining claims of unfair labor practices, the administrative law judge found that four of them did violate the bargaining provision of the PERA. MCL 423.210; MSA 17.455(10). The first finding concerned defendant’s unilateral modification in the existing balance-of-staff formula governing racial balance in faculty assignments. Prior to the fall of 1973, undisputed evidence indicated that the ratio was 75-25%. The defendant then unilaterally altered the minimum critical ratio to 70-30%. The second finding entailed defendant’s failure to observe the automatic salary progression schedule traditionally incorporated into each collective bargaining agreement between the parties. The third finding centered about changes in rates of pay for certain teaching seminars without benefit of any collective bargaining. The judge’s final ruling involved defendant’s failure to furnish specific information in the form of data concerning agency shop compliance, lists of substitute teachers entitled to receive individual contracts, and names and addresses of "emergency substitutes in regular positions” (ESRPs). With the exception of the second finding, which was dismissed, the MERC affirmed the administrative law judge by a unanimous decision. On January 31, 1977, the DFT petitioned the Court of Appeals for a summary order of enforcement, citing MCL 423.216(e); MSA 17.455(16)(e), as amended by 1976 PA 99. The Court of Appeals denied plaintiffs petition with an order dated June 7, 1977. Enforcement was denied "because changes in circumstances since the order was entered make present enforcement inappropriate. See Bradley v Milliken, 540 F2d 229 (CA 6, 1976), cert gtd, [429 US 958]; 97 S Ct 380; 50 L Ed 2d 325 [1976]; Detroit Federation of Teachers v Detroit Board of Education, 396 Mich 220; 240 NW2d 225 (1976).” Judge Michael Cavanagh would have granted the petition for enforcement. Plaintiff appealed to this Court and we granted leave. 402 Mich 856 (1978). II. Discussion A. Background Prior to amendment by 1976 PA 99 and 1977 PA 266, the enforcement and review provisions of the PERA read as follows: "(d) The board may petition the court of appeals for the enforcement of the order and for appropriate temporary relief or restraining order, and shall file in the court the record in the proceedings. Upon the filing of the petition, the court shall cause notice thereof to be served upon the person, and thereupon shall have jurisdiction of the proceeding and shall grant such temporary or permanent relief or restraining order as it deems just and proper, enforcing, modifying, enforcing as so modified, or setting aside in whole or in part the order of the board. No objection that has not been urged before the board, its member or agent, shall be considered by the court, unless the failure or neglect to urge the objection is excused because of extraordinary circumstances. The findings of the board with respect to questions of fact if supported by competent, material and substantial evidence on the record considered as a whole shall be conclusive. If either party applies to the court for leave to present additional evidence and shows to the satisfaction of the court that the additional evidence is material and that there were reasonable grounds for the failure to present it in the hearing before the board, its member or agent, the court may order the additional evidence to be taken before the board, its member or agent, and to be made a part of the record. The board may modify its findings as to the facts, or make new findings, by reason of additional evidence so taken and filed, and it shall file the modifying or new findings, which findings with respect to questions of fact if supported by competent, material and substantial evidence on the record considered as a whole shall be conclusive, and shall file its recommendations, if any, for the modification or setting aside of its original order. Upon the filing of the record with it the jurisdiction of the court shall be exclusive and its judgment and decree shall be final, except that the same shall be subject to review by the supreme court in accordance with the general court rules. "(e) Any person aggrieved by a final order of the board granting or denying in whole or in part the relief sought may obtain a review of such order in the court of appeals by filing in the court a complaint praying that the order of the board be modified or set aside, with copy of the complaint filed on the board, and thereupon the aggrieved party shall file in the court the record in the proceeding, certified by the board. Upon the filing of the complaint, the court shall proceed in the same manner as in the case of an application by the board under subsection (d), and shall grant to the board such temporary relief or restraining order as it deems just and proper, enforcing, modifying, enforcing as so modified, or setting aside in whole or in part the order of the board. The findings of the board with respect to questions of fact if supported by competent, material and substantial evidence on the record considered as a whole shall be conclusive.” MCL 423.216(d), 423.216(e); MSA 17.455(16)(d), 17.455(16)(e). These provisions were closely modeled upon corresponding enforcement and review provisions contained in the National Labor Relations Act. 29 USC 151, 29 USC 160(e) and 29 USC 160(f). Further, they were preceded by and closely parallel provisions to govern enforcement and review of disputes arising in the private sector. See the labor mediation act (hereafter LMA), 1939 PA 176, as amended, MCL 423.23(d), 423.23(e); MSA 17.454(25)(d), 17.454(25)(e). This Court has in the past had occasion to construe the interdependent enforcement and review sections of the LMA. Labor Mediation Board v National Music Camp, 383 Mich 518; 176 NW2d 588 (1970). In that case, the Michigan Labor Mediation Board (predecessor to MERC) ordered defendant National Music Camp (Interlochen) to cease and desist from certain unfair labor practices occurring incident to a unionization election of employees. The board further ordered that a new election be held. Upon receiving indication that defendant refused to comply with its order, the board petitioned for enforcement as an original proceeding in the Court of Appeals, pursuant to GCR 1963, 816.2. The Court of Appeals responded with an order summarily enforcing the board’s order in substantial part. Defendant appealed to this Court, claiming that the Court of Appeals erred by disposing of its appeal in a summary order of enforcement. We agreed: "We find: (1) Plaintiff is not entitled to summary enforcement. The Court of Appeals is required by statute to enforce, upon a petition for enforcement, only those orders in which it finds that the board has (a) acted within its statutory powers; (b) held a hearing comporting with procedural due process; (c) made findings based upon substantial evidence; and (d) ordered an appropriate remedy. 48 Am Jur 2d, Labor and Labor Relations, § 1078, pp 663, 664. (2) Interlochen filed a sufficient answer to bring before the Court of Appeals an issue that should have been decided on the merits.” 383 Mich 528. The Court also recognized that defendant could have processed its appeal pursuant to a review of administrative actions. GCR 1963, 806.6. Our Court concluded that defendant had the right to obtain review of the board’s order without initiating a separate proceeding and that such review would entertain all pertinent questions raised. See also Ford Motor Co v NLRB, 305 US 364, 369-370; 59 S Ct 301; 83 L Ed 221 (1939). The case was remanded to the Court of Appeals for a proper hearing on the record to determine whether the board’s findings were based on substantial evidence. The import of the decision was to allow aggrieved parties an original right of review whenever the prevailing party petitioned for enforcement. This position was emphasized in two succeeding decisions. MERC v Detroit Symphony Orchestra, Inc, 387 Mich 424; 196 NW2d 763 (1972); MERC v Reeths-Puffer School Dist, 391 Mich 253; 215 NW2d 672 (1974). In Detroit Symphony, this Court dealt with a petition to enforce a MERC order under the LMA. MCL 423.23(e); MSA 17.454(25)(e). The Court of Appeals ruled summarily against the petition. A dissent was entered by Judge, now Justice, Levin in which he found the summary disposition employed by the majority unsound. This Court agreed with then Judge Levin’s conclusion. Consistent with National Music Camp, this Court again rejected summary treatment of enforcement petitions. Such proceedings were held to be original in nature, authorized under a jurisdiction conferred by law. See Const 1963, art 6, § 10. This Court’s view of the proceeding was clearly expressed: "When such a proceeding has been decided by the Court of Appeals, and is made subject to review by this Supreme Court as in section 423.23(e) provided, the decision of the Court of Appeals — either to enforce, modify, or refuse enforcement — has not been made on appeal to that Court. Nor is it treatable as an appeal. It starts in the Court having jurisdiction to entertain it in the first instance, which is the Court of Appeals. By virtue of its original importance, it deserves as suggested in the cases cited below a compendious if not formal opinion of the legislatively appointed court of original jurisdiction. The need for such an opinion is apparent, for as said in one of the earlier Supreme Court cases (Virginian R Co v United States, 272 US 658, 675; 47 S Ct 222; 71 L Ed 463, 472 [1926]): " 'The failure to accompany the decree by an opinion may thus deprive litigants of the means of exercising a sound judgment on the propriety of an appeal. And the appellate court, being without knowledge of the grounds of the decision below, is denied an important aid in the consideration of the case, and will ordinarily be subjected to much unnecessary labor.’ ” 387 Mich 428-429. Thus the case was remanded to the Court of Appeals for proper consideration. Two years later, in Reeths-Puffer, this Court again affirmed its prior decisions, finding that the original proceeding invoked the jurisdiction of the Court of Appeals as of right. Under both the PERA and the LMA, enforcement and review provisions were held to confer mandatory jurisdiction on the Court: "The act provides that, upon the filing of such petition, the Court of Appeals 'shall’ have jurisdiction of the proceeding and 'shall’ grant such relief as 'it deems just and proper, enforcing, modifying, enforcing as so modified, or setting aside’ the MERC order. It was not intended that this reviewing power would be exercised summarily without formal submission, oral argument and opinion.” 391 Mich 270. Most recently, under the review provision of the PERA, we affirmed the principle of appeal as of right from MERC orders. See Crestwood Teachers Organization v Crestwood Board of Education, 401 Mich 803 (1977). In 1976, the Michigan Legislature amended the enforcement and review provisions of both the LMA and the PERA. The changes accomplished the same purpose for both acts. Regarding the LMA, see 1976 PA 98. As amended, the PERA enforcement provision read in relevant part: "(d) The commission or any prevailing party may petition the court of appeals for the enforcement of the order and for appropriate temporary relief or restraining order, and shall file in the court the record in the proceedings. Upon the filing of the petition, the court shall cause notice thereof to be served upon the person, and thereupon shall have jurisdiction of the proceeding and shall summarily grant such temporary or permanent relief or restraining order as it deems just and proper, enforcing, modifying, enforcing as so modified, or setting aside in whole or in part the order of the commission.” (Emphasis added.) 1976 PA 99. Similarly, there were significant changes incorporated into the review provisions of both acts. The amended provision of the PERA read in relevant part: "(e) Any party aggrieved by a final order of the commission granting or denying in whole or in part the relief sought may obtain a review of such order in the court of appeals by filing in the court within 20 days of such order a petition praying that the order of the commission be modified or set aside, with copy of the petition filed on the commission, and thereupon the aggrieved party shall file in the court the record in the proceeding, certified by the commission. Upon the timely filing of the petition, the court shall proceed in the same manner as in the case of an application by the commission under subsection (d), and shall summarily grant to the commission or to any prevailing party such temporary relief or restraining order as it deems just and proper, enforcing, modifying, enforcing as so modified, or setting aside in whole or in part the order of the commission. The findings of the commission with respect to questions of fact if supported by competent, material, and substantial evidence on the record considered as a whole shall be conclusive. If a timely petition for review is not died under this subdivision by an aggrieved party, the commission or any prevailing party shall be entitled, upon application therefor, to a summary order enforcing the commission’s order.” (Emphasis added.) 1976 PA 99. In 1977, the Legislature further amended the review provisions of both acts. Regarding the LMA, see 1977 PA 265. The added language of the PERA read in relevant part: "(e) Any party aggrieved by a final order of the commission granting or denying in whole or in part the relief sought may within 20 days of such order as a matter of right obtain a review of the order in the court of appeals by filing in the court a petition praying that the order of the commission be modified or set aside, with copy of the petition filed on the commission, and thereupon the aggrieved party shall file in the court the record in the proceeding, certified by the commission. Upon the timely filing of the petition, the court shall proceed in the same manner as in the case of an application by the commission under subsection (d), and shall summarily grant to the commission or to any prevailing party such temporary relief or restraining order as it deems just and proper, enforcing, modifying, enforcing as so modified, or setting aside in whole or in part the order of the commission. The findings of the commission with respect to questions of fact if supported by competent, material, and substantial evidence on the record considered as a whole shall be conclusive. If a timely petition for review is not filed under this subdivision by an aggrieved party, it shall be conclusively presumed that the commission’s order is supported by competent, material and substantial evidence on the record considered as a whole, and the commission or any prevailing party shall be entitled, upon application therefor, to a summary order enforcing the commission’s order.” (Emphasis added.) 1977 PA 266. In large part, what we must decide in the present cases involves the meaning and significance of these legislative amendments to the PERA. B. Retroactivity Before discussing the impact of the recent amendments to the act, we must determine whether they are applicable to the parties in these cases. Plaintiff KCEA timely filed its petition for review with the Court of Appeals within 20 days of the October 18, 1977 order of the commission denying rehearing of its petition. The Court of Appeals order denying the appeal as of right issued on December 21, 1977. The order granting defendant’s motion to dismiss issued on December 27, 1977. Plaintiff DFT filed its petition with the Court of Appeals for a summary order of enforcement on January 31, 1977. The MERC order affirming the administrative law judge had issued on July 30, 1975. The Court of Appeals order denying enforcement issued on June 7, 1977. The amending language of 1976 PA 99 became effective immediately on April 27, 1976. The amending terms of 1977 PA 266 became effective immediately on December 8, 1977. The 1976 amendment was clearly applicable to the plaintiff KCEA, as it preceded the MERC order in that case. Furthermore, both plaintiffs filed their respective petitions as original proceedings in the Court of Appeals after the effective date of 1976 PA 99. The amended language of that act would thus affect both of the instant cases. It is noted in the DFT case that the board subsequently had the full opportunity under the new statutory 20-day period to take an appeal but at no time chose to do so. Moreover, upon evaluating the language of the 1976 and 1977 amendments, we find it deals with matters of procedure, not substance. Allowing the prevailing party to appeal for enforcement of a MERC order is procedural in nature. As a rule, when amendments relate only to remedy or procedure they may be given a retrospective construction. 21 Michigan Law & Practice, Statutes, § 105, pp 133-134. We have often expressed this principle: "Statutes related to remedies or modes of procedure which do not create new or take away vested rights, but only operate in furtherance of a remedy or confirmation of rights already existing will, in the absence of language clearly showing a contrary intention, be held to operate retrospectively and apply to all actions accrued, pending or future, there being no vested right to keep a statutory procedural law unchanged and free from amendment.” Hansen-Snyder Co v General Motors Corporation, 371 Mich 480; 124 NW2d 286 (1963) (syllabus 1), quoted in Ballog v Knight Newspapers, Inc, 381 Mich 527, 533-534; 164 NW2d 19 (1969). In essence, the amending language repeals the former provision, serving in its place as if passed in the original legislative enactment: "An amendatory act has a repealing force, by the mechanics of legislation, different from that of an independent statute. Repugnancy is not the essential element of implied repeal of specifically amended sections. The rule is: " 'Where a section of a statute is amended, the original ceases to exist, and the section as amended supersedes it and becomes a part of the statute for all intents and purposes as if the amendments had always been there.’ 25 RCL, Statutes, § 159, p 907. * * * "Nevertheless, the old section is deemed stricken from the law, and the provisions carried over have their force from the new act, not from the former. 1 Lewis’ Sutherland Statutory Construction (2d ed), § 237. "It is plain from the authorities in this State and elsewhere that the effect of an act amending a specific section of a former act, in the absence of a saving clause, is to strike the former section from the law, obliterate it entirely and substitute the new section in its place. This effect is not an arbitrary rule adopted by the courts. It is the natural and logical effect of an amendment 'to read as follows.’ It accomplishes precisely what the words import. Any other construction would do violence to the plain language of the legislature.” Lahti v Fosterling, 357 Mich 578, 587-588; 99 NW2d 490 (1959), quoting People v Lowell, 250 Mich 349, 354-356; 230 NW 202 (1930). Further, we note in regard to language specifying an appeal as of right that this Court had previously adopted the principle by judicial interpretation in Reeths-Puffer, well before the petition for review was filed by plaintiff KCEA or the petition for enforcement by the DFT. MERC v Reeths-Puffer School Dist, supra, 270. No vested rights were altered or new obligations imposed. As to the conclusive presumption raised on the evidentiary record where the aggrieved party fails to timely appeal, we note that the Court of Appeals did not question the evidentiary record with regard to the MERC order in favor of the DFT. The Court merely found a change in legal circumstances requiring denial. The substantive rights of the board were not affected by the amending language. In any case, under the amended language of 1976, the Court already possessed the authority to issue a summary order of enforcement upon untimely application by an aggrieved party. Consequently, we find the language of 1977 PA 266 retroactively applicable to the parties in the instant cases. No question of retroactivity as to 1976 PA 99 arises. We find no merit in the board’s assertions to the contrary. C. Statutory Interpretation In the cases of National Music Camp, Detroit Symphony and Reeths-Puffer, this Court established a judicial interpretation and policy statement in regard to the enforcement and review provisions of PERA. We construed the statute to require plenary consideration of both enforcement and review petitions, including oral argument and the issuance of "a compendious if not formal opinion”. In 1976 and again in 1977, the Legislature amended these provisions. We must now review our prior pronouncements in light of these changes. In reviewing questions which involve a statutory scheme, this Court first considers the specific language of the statute itself. The Lamphere Schools v Lamphere Federation of Teachers, 400 Mich 104, 110; 252 NW2d 818 (1977). See also Dussia v Monroe County Employees Retirement System, 386 Mich 244; 191 NW2d 307 (1971). We review the language in order to ascertain and declare the intention of the Legislature. Aikens v Department of Conservation, 387 Mich 495; 198 NW2d 304 (1972). It is apparent from a reading of the statute that the enforcement and review provisions are closely interrelated. In tandem, they form a cohesive procedure for seeking enforcement or review of MERC orders. As in Federal practice, where the parties’ claims are timely raised for enforcement or review, they should be processed together in a single proceeding. See Ford Motor Co v NLRB, supra, 305 US 369-370. Since the passage of 1976 PA 99, either the commission or the prevailing party may bring a petition for enforcement. The discretionary nature of the language — use of the word "may” rather than "must” — supports our view of this enforcement process as an original proceeding in the Court of Appeals. See MERC v Detroit Symphony Orchestra, Inc, supra, 387 Mich 428-429. Further, this enforcement provision imposes no time limit within which the petition must be brought. The 18 months which elapsed between the date the DFT obtained its order from the MERC and the date it filed its petition for enforcement with the Court of Appeals was not improper under the statute. Once initiated, the Court of Appeals "shall have jurisdiction of the proceeding and shall summarily grant such temporary or permanent relief or restraining order as it deems just and proper, enforcing, modifying, enforcing as so modified, or setting aside in whole or in part the order of the commission”. MCL 423.216(d); MSA 17.455(16)(d). The addition in 1976 PA 99 of the word "summarily” leads us to the present conclusion that the Legislature did not intend enforcement proceedings to be plenary proceedings in the Court of Appeals. Rather, they intended the enforcement process to be expedited where no petition for review was brought pursuant to MCL 423.216(e); MSA 17.455(16)(e). To this degree, our holding in prior cases must be limited. The Legislature has made it clear that where enforcement is sought the Court of Appeals may summarily grant temporary or permanent relief. In terms of this summary relief, however, the Court of Appeals must remain cognizant of the fact that the proceeding is of an original nature and that any order they issue must contain enough information to guide us in evaluating a subsequent appeal. Consequently, even though the Court of Appeals may treat an enforcement petition summarily — that is, without benefit of oral argument or formal opinion — we will still require a compendious statement of their findings and reasons for decision, accompanied by relevant authority. This minimal requirement is not inconsistent with the legislative desire to expedite enforcement of MERC orders, and yet assures due process for the parties involved. What we stated in Detroit Symphony still holds true: "The failure to accompany the decree by an opinion may thus deprive litigants of the means of exercising a sound judgment on the propriety of an appeal. And the appellate court, being without knowledge of the grounds of the decision below, is denied an important aid in the consideration of the case, and will ordinarily be subjected to much unnecessary labor.” MERC v Detroit Symphony Orchestra, Inc, supra, 387 Mich 429, quoting Virginian R Co v United States, 272 US 658, 675; 47 S Ct 222; 71 L Ed 463 (1926). Further, because the petition invokes the original jurisdiction of the Court, we find no discretion in the Court’s responsibility to entertain the petition. The Court may not dismiss the petition without at least a summary consideration of the matter. See Labor Mediation Board v National Music Camp, supra, 528; MERC v Detroit Symphony Orchestra, Inc, supra, 387 Mich 428-429; MERC v Reeths-Puffer School Dist, supra, 270. The review provision presents a different picture. This Court’s prior interpretations of the stat ute have not been significantly altered by 1976 PA 99 and 1977 PA 266. In National Music Camp and Reeths-Puffer, the review by the Court of Appeals was characterized as an original proceeding accorded any aggrieved party as of right. The review required was a plenary review, including oral argument and opinion. See MERC v Reeths-Puffer School Dist, supra, 270, and accompanying fn 23. In response to potential delays occasioned by an apparently indefinite period within which an aggrieved party might seek review, the Legislature enacted that portion of 1976 PA 99 which limited the time to seek review to 20 days. By enacting 1977 PA 266 a year later, the Legislature further specified that the review accorded would be as of right. We had so construed the statute previously in Reeths-Puffer. 391 Mich 270. However, the amending language of these acts did not create the basis for summary review as was the case in enforcement proceedings. The language of the two provisions clearly eliminates this interpretation. Under the enforcement provision, the Court of Appeals is given authority to "summarily grant such temporary or permanent relief * * * as it deems just and proper”. (Emphasis added.) The words "or permanent”, appearing in the enforcement paragraph, were excluded from the review provision. Under the review provision, the Court is not authorized to grant summary permanent relief, only summary temporary relief while the plenary review as of right is being processed. In other words, the commission or prevailing party may seek enforcement of a MERC order immediately or at any time thereafter. On the other hand, an aggrieved party may seek a review as of right within 20 days of the order date. However, this right of review exists co-ordinately with that of the commission or prevailing party to obtain temporary relief, "enforcing, modifying, enforcing as so modified, or setting aside in whole or in part the order of the commission”. MCL 423.216(e); MSA 17.455(16)(e). The proceeding then follows as a review under original statutory jurisdiction, affording the aggrieved party plenary consideration. We note that the proper standard by which the Court of Appeals shall consider review petitions includes at a minimum whether the record considered as a whole contains competent, material and substantial evidence to support the MERC decision and order. MERC v Detroit Smyphony Orchestra, Inc, 393 Mich 116, 121-124; 223 NW2d 283 (1974). On the other hand, if a petition for review is not filed timely, then the nature of any review under these provisions changes drastically. First, 1976 PA 99 requires that the status of the proceeding would be returned to that of an enforcement procedure. The MERC or prevailing party would then be in a position to obtain a summary order of enforcement. Also, 1977 PA 266 limits the issues that may be presented in such a case, as it is to be conclusively presumed that the MERC order is supported by competent, material and substantial evidence of record. In essence, an aggrieved party who fails to timely apply for review as a matter of right is thereafter limited to presenting non-evi-dentiary errors of law in its answer to the petition for summary enforcement. D. Application Kalamazoo The Court of Appeals erred by denying the timely petition for review brought by KCEA. Under the statute, plaintiff was entitled to plenary consideration as of right. The case should have been properly docketed and brought on for oral argument. The statutory proceeding is of a status equal to any review as of right from a MERC administrative decision. See MERC v Detroit Symphony Orchestra, Inc, supra, 393 Mich 120-124. A resolution will require an appropriate opinion addressing the issues raised. We thus reverse the Court of Appeals disposition and remand the case to them for full consideration. Detroit Federation of Teachers This case presents more difficult problems. First, as to the delay between the issuance of the MERC order on July 30, 1975 and the date the DFT filed its petition for enforcement on January 31, 1977, we have already determined that the statute places no limit upon the time in which the petition may be brought. The reason for this fact relates to the continuing obligation imposed by a cease-and-desist order such as the one involved here. See, e.g., NLRB v Mexia Textile Mills, Inc, 339 US 563, 567; 70 S Ct 826; 94 L Ed 1067 (1950). Generally, then, a period of delay through its length alone will not represent ground to deny enforcement. See, e.g, NLRB v Pool Manufacturing Co, 339 US 577, 579-581; 70 S Ct 830; 94 L Ed 1077 (1950). We would also note that defendant board possessed the opportunity to seek review and did not. It is not now in a position to object. NLRB v Andrew Jergens Co, 175 F2d 130, 134 (CA 9, 1949); NLRB v Todd Co, Inc, 173 F2d 705, 708 (CA 2, 1949). Second, while delay will not normally affect enforcement, defendant’s claim of change in circumstances may well do so. It is noted that under federal law an order of the NLRB, lawful when made, does not become unenforceable simply because changed circumstances indicate that the need for the order may be less than when made. NLRB v Pennsylvania Greyhound Lines, Inc, 303 US 261, 271; 58 S Ct 571; 82 L Ed 831 (1938). See also C-B Buick, Inc v NLRB, 506 F2d 1086, 1093 (CA 3, 1974); NLRB v Raytheon Co, 398 US 25; 90 S Ct 1547; 26 L Ed 2d 21 (1970). On the other hand, when circumstances clearly changed after an order of the NLRB had issued, a reviewing court was given discretion to decide the matter itself or to remand the question to the board for further consideration. NLRB v Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp, 331 US 416, 428; 67 S Ct 1274; 91 L Ed 1575 (1947). Further, where an order has become obviously inappropriate or moot because of a change in circumstances, the reviewing court may deny enforcement. Id. See also NLRB v Raytheon Co, supra at 27; United States v W T Grant Co, 345 US 629, 633; 73 S Ct 894; 97 L Ed 1303 (1953). Though we recognize that this Federal principle may apply in cases like the present, still we find the MERC order in this dispute of definite continuing validity. In relation to the balance of teaching staff, the MERC order read as follows: "Rescind change in the balance of staff formula and apply formula as of January, 1974; rescind any personnel changes resulting from the implementation of its illegally adopted new formula; make whole any employees for loss of pay resulting from the implementation of the changed formula; restore any employee affected by the new formula to his previous position of employment without any loss in seniority, benefits or other privileges.” Defendant contends that this order is no longer enforceable because supervening federal authority conflicts irreconcilably with its directive. Bradley v Milliken, 540 F2d 229 (CA 6, 1976). The apparent conflict arose when Federal District Judge De Mascio, during the formulation of a new federal desegregation plan for the City of Detroit, included in its provisions a formula for reassignment of teachers involving not more than 70 percent of teachers of one race in each school "subject to collective bargaining agreement provisions”. On appeal, the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals remanded "this aspect of the case to the District Court for the hearing of the evidence on the issue of faculty assignment”. Bradley v Milliken, supra, 247. Nonetheless, the Court did recognize the authority to order the reassignment of faculty as an equitable remedy in achieving racial balance. Id. The Court of Appeals was affirmed by the Supreme Court in Milliken v Bradley, 433 US 267; 97 S Ct 2749; 53 L Ed 2d 745 (1977). Realizing that the future progress of federal desegregation in the area of teacher reassignment may affect the original MERC directive, plaintiff DFT suggested in its petition to the Court of Appeals that enforcement be ordered, but subject to the dictates of Bradley v Milliken: "We concede that the decision in Bradley v Milliken * * * may affect references in the MERC order, in paragraphs la and 2a, to 'balance of staff issues, only. We accordingly respectfully suggest that the enforcement order of this Court be qualified, 'subject, with respect to "balance of staff’ issues, to the decision in Bradley v Milliken * * (Citations omitted.) We find this suggestion appropriate. As the DFT points out, the cease-and-desist order requires defendant to avoid unilateral changes on subjects deemed bargainable; yet any such bargaining would depend upon "specific directives of a federal or other court”. We thus find no legal reason why enforcement would not be proper, subject to Bradley v Milliken. The essence of the MERC order is that defendant bargain on mandatory matters of negotiation and refrain from unilateral changes. Within this context, no fixed balance of staff ratio need be established which would contravene federal directives. In short, we find no basis in law to deny enforcement because of conflict with Bradley v Milliken. The other change in circumstances purportedly affecting enforcement relates to plaintiffs access to certain information regarding emergency substi tutes in regular positions (ESRPs). In its map-date, MERC ordered the following: "Supply to the bargaining representative, within a reasonable time after being so requested, information relevant to the conduct and administration of collective bargaining including, if not already furnished at the time of this order, data relating to the implementation of the agency shop provisions of the collective bargaining agreement, including communications with employees not in compliance with that provision, names and addresses or school location addresses, of teachers entitled to individual contracts after completing substitute status requirements.” In a different proceeding, the DFT complained of the board’s practice of classifying certified teachers as ESRPs rather than probationary contract teachers. Judge Horace Gilmore ordered the board to provide probationary contracts to ESRPs. The Court of Appeals affirmed; and we reversed, directing the following: "The case is remanded to the circuit court for entry of a declaration of rights that each 'duly qualified’ teacher in the board’s employ is entitled to a written, individual contract evidencing the employment relationship. The circuit court may hold this case in abeyance pending determination, either by agreement of the parties or through the grievance procedure, of the kind of contract to which each teacher is entitled. If any teacher is aggrieved by the job classification and contract offered by the board, he may file a grievance. After resolution of any dispute regarding the kind of contract to which a teacher is entitled, the circuit court may, if necessary, order the board to provide a written, individual contract of the kind awarded in arbitration.” (Footnote omitted.) Detroit Federation of Teachers v Detroit Board of Education, 396 Mich 220, 228; 240 NW2d 225 (1976). In the present case, plaintiff took issue with defendant’s failure to promptly furnish information requested by the union in order to determine which of its teachers was entitled to a probationary contract under Judge Gilmore’s ruling. Defendant contends that our decision in that case reversing Judge Gilmore moots the present MERC order. We disagree. As plaintiff observed in its reply brief before the Court of Appeals, the information may be very necessary to its grievance at present and in the future: "Rather, the obligation found by the commission arose out of the collective bargaining relationship and the relevancy of the data as it related to the collective bargaining relationship between the parties, all under PERA. Indeed, the action of the Michigan Supreme Court of April 1, 1976 in Detroit Federation of Teachers v Detroit Board of Education * * * emphasizing the grievance process, reinforces the validity of the Michigan Employment Relations Commission order and the necessity for its enforcement.” (Citation omitted.) Certainly, in ongoing negotiations, plaintiff will still have to determine the names and other pertinent data regarding contracts for teachers who had been classified as ESRPs. We find that the affirmative order requiring this data is not mooted by our decision in Detroit Federation of Teachers v Detroit Board of Education. We thus find that the Court of Appeals erred by denying the petition for enforcement on the basis of changed circumstances. Therefore, we reverse and remand for reconsideration of plaintiffs petition to enforce the MERC order. On remand, the Court of Appeals should enter an order of enforcement pursuant to and as modified by this opinion. III. Conclusion Having found the Court of Appeals in error by denying the parties in Kalamazoo City Education Ass’n v Kalamazoo Public Schools a proper plenary proceeding under MCL 423.216(e); MSA 17.455(16)(e), we reverse and remand that case for full consideration. We also find that the Court of Appeals erred in Detroit Federation of Teachers v Detroit Board of Education by denying enforcement of the MERC order under MCL 423.216(d); MSA 17.455(16)(d) on the basis of changed circumstances. We reverse and remand to the Court of Appeals for further consideration and for entry of an order of enforcement pursuant to and as modified by this opinion. Coleman, C.J., and Kavanagh, Williams, Levin, Fitzgerald, and Ryan, JJ., concurred with Blair Moody, Jr., J. This Court has often recognized that because the PERA was originally derived from the NLRA, federal precedent is persuasive in construing similar provisions of the PERA. See, e.g., Abood v Detroit Board of Education, 431 US 209, 223; 97 S Ct 1782; 52 L Ed 2d 261 (1977); The Lamphere Schools v Lamphere Federation of Teachers, 400 Mich 104, 120; 252 NW2d 818 (1977); Pontiac Police Officers Ass’n v Pontiac, 397 Mich 674, 680 and fn 14; 246 NW2d 831 (1976); Rockwell v Crestwood School Dist Board of Education, 393 Mich 616, 635-636; 227 NW2d 736 (1975); MERC v Reeths-Puffer School Dist, 391 Mich 253, 260; 215 NW2d 672 (1974); Detroit Police Officers Ass’n v Detroit, 391 Mich 44, 53; 214 NW2d 803 (1974). The enforcement and review subdivisions (d) and (e) of the present act were lettered (e) and (f) under the act as constituted when National Music Camp was decided. The original order of the Court of Appeals omitted any provision to enforce the board’s order directing a new election. Subsequently, the Court amended the previous order on its own motion, including the direction of a new representation election. See, e.g., Evans v United States Rubber Co, 379 Mich 457, 460-461; 152 NW2d 641 (1967). Subsequent decisions recognized this right of review. See Judges of the 74th Judicial Dist v Bay County, 385 Mich 710, 729; 190 NW2d 219 (1971); Dearborn Fire Fighters Ass’n, Local 412, IAFF, AFL-CIO v Dearborn, 78 Mich App 59, 64-65; 259 NW2d 240 (1977); People v Martin, 59 Mich App 471, 478-479; 229 NW2d 809 (1975). See also MERC v Detroit Symphony Orchestra, Inc, 393 Mich 116, 120, and accompanying fn 2; 223 NW2d 283 (1974). The procedure is characterized as a hybrid in federal law. NLRB v Wagner Iron Works, 220 F2d 126, 132 (CA 7, 1955); NLRB v Kellburn Mfg Co, Inc, 149 F2d 686, 687 (CA 2, 1945). It is both an appeal from the order and an original proceeding for enforcement. See also 48A Am Jur 2d, Labor and Labor Relations, § 1625, pp 129-130. These original proceedings were distinguished from other proceedings designated "original” in the Court of Appeals: "In contrast with a complaint for mandamus or superintending control, which original proceedings are considered by the Court of Appeals at least initially as motions, a petition for enforcement is not addressed to the discretion of the Court of Appeals.” MERC v Reeths-Puffer School Dist, supra, 270. This holding has been recognized subsequently by numerous decisions. See, e.g., Van Buren Public School Dist v Wayne Circuit Judge, 61 Mich App 6, 13, fn 3; 232 NW2d 278 (1975); Prisoners’ Labor Union at Marquette v Dep’t of Corrections, 61 Mich App 328, 329, fn 2; 232 NW2d 699 (1975); Detroit Police Officers Ass’n v Detroit, 61 Mich App 487, 489, fn 1; 233 NW2d 49 (1975). The finding of the Court as to review is arguably dictum in Reeths-Puffer because the original petition in the Court of Appeals had apparently sought enforcement of the MERC order. 391 Mich 258. Language relative to the Court of Appeals jurisdiction over review petitions is found in a footnote. 391 Mich 270, fn 23. The character of the original jurisdiction has been described as follows: "Original jurisdiction is the jurisdiction conferred on or inherent in a court in the first instance. It is to be distinguished from appellate jurisdiction, which is the jurisdiction of a superior court to review the final judgment, order, or decree of an inferior court on the record made in the inferior tribunal, and to affirm, reverse, or modify such decision, judgment or decree. A particular court may, of course, have both original and appellate jurisdiction.” 20 Am Jur 2d, Courts, § 98, p 459. The nature of these original enforcement and review proceedings is specified in the language of the statute itself. See MCL 423.216(d), 423.216(e); MSA 17.455(16)(d), 17.455(16)(e). A legislative analysis conducted by the Michigan Department of Labor, which issued contemporaneously with the passage of the 1977 amendments to the PERA and LMA, supports this conclusion: "The purpose of the bill[s] is * * * to insure the finality of decisions made by the Michigan Employment Relations Commission, which are not appealed, and to remove the ability of losing parties to avoid and delay the enforcement óf MERC decisions.” See fn 10, supra. To this degree, we specifically disapprove the holding in MERC v Cafana Cleaners, Inc, 73 Mich App 752, 756-757; 252 NW2d 536 (1977). The Department of Labor analysis of the 1977 amendments previously cited gives the following account of the legislative basis for inserting the present evidentiary presumption: "Under the present statute, parties have ignored orders by the Michigan Employment Relations Commission, forcing it to seek court enforcement of decisions and orders. This bill will reverse the Court decision in MERC v Cafana Cleaners, * * * where the Court of Appeals held that, in cases where respondents do not take any action, the Attorney General, on behalf of MERC, must prove every aspect of the case, even though all aspects are not covered in the MERC case. This ruling places an unfair burden on those who comply with MERC decisions by giving benefits to those who refuse to comply. While the right to appeal will not be diminished in any way, the premium on procrastination and avoidance of MERC orders will be removed. Enforcement of decisions is the key in carrying out the mandate of the Act, and these amendments are designed to speed up the process.” (Citation omitted.) According to the record, plaintiffs petition was brought pursuant to the review provision. MCL 423.216(e); MSA 17.455(16)(e). The petition should have been brought under the enforcement provision. MCL 423.216(d); MSA 17.455(16)(d). The review provision simply authorizes a summary order of enforcement under the enforcement section where the aggrieved party fails to file a timely petition. Defendant notes that the latest contract between the parties contains a provision assuring “that information necessary and relevant to administration of the collective bargaining process would be available to it”. Because we consider the MERC order of continuing relevance to the resolution of this dispute, we do not view the question as moot. See, e.g., C-B Buick, Inc v NLRB, supra, 1095, fn 18; 1096, fn 21.
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Ryan, J., dissents as follows: I dissent from the Court’s order because it violates Board of Law Examiners Rule 2(B) which provides: "Before taking the examination an applicant must graduate from a reputable and qualified law school that "(1) is incorporated in the United States, its territories, or the District of Columbia; and "(2) requires for graduation 3 school years of study for full-time students, and 4 school years of study for part-time or night students. A school year must be at least 30 weeks. "A law school approved by the American Bar Association is reputable and qualified. Other schools may ask the Board to approve the school as reputable and qualified.” The plain requirement of the rule is that an applicant be graduated from a law school incorporated in the United States, its territories or the District of Columbia, with the traditional JD or LLB law school degree following either three years of full-time or four years of part-time study. Mr. Bindra was not graduated from such a school, although he has earned an LLM degree from the University of Virginia Law School. Apparently the Court does not regard that accomplishment as compliance with Rule 2(B), since its order is "[b]ased on all of the facts presented, including the facts that the petitioner graduated first in his class from Delhi University (India) in 1966 and second in his class from Delhi Law School in 1969” as well as his receipt of the Masters Degree from the University of Virginia Law School. Mr. Bindra’s excellent academic record in India, and his Masters Degree from the University of Virginia Law School, do not separately or together constitute compliance with Rule 2(B). If justice requires Mr. Bindra be permitted to sit for the Michigan bar examination, as indeed it may, we should rewrite our rule or enact a new one which will embrace his circumstances. We do ourselves no credit, however, by ignoring the one we have. Reconsideration denied post, p 1127.
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Per Curiam. The issue to be resolved in this case is whether a tenured teacher, discharged following a hearing before a school board, is entitled to automatic reinstatement when the board has failed to furnish the teacher with a copy of the hearing transcript within ten days of the hearing, as required by MCL 38.104(e); MSA 15.2004(e). We hold that the proper remedy is not reinstatement, but rather a tolling of the period for an appeal. Plaintiff Davis, a tenured teacher, was suspended from his duties on October 15, 1973, pending the outcome of a hearing on charges of unprofessional conduct. On November 27, 1973, a hearing was held before the school board. On December 7, 1973, ten days after testimony was taken, the stenographer delivered a copy of the hearing transcript to the school board. The stenographer did not furnish plaintiff Davis with a copy. On December 12, 1973, the school board rendered its decision finding the plaintiff guilty of unprofessional conduct. Seventeen days after the hearing, on December 14, 1973, the board delivered a copy of the hearing transcript to the plaintiff’s attorney. The plaintiff appealed to the State Tenure Commission on January 11, 1974. The commission ruled that the plaintiff should be reinstated to his former position with back pay, because of the board,’s failure to timely furnish the transcript. The commission did not consider the merits of the plaintiffs appeal. The circuit court and Court of Appeals affirmed. 73 Mich App 358; 251 NW2d 585 (1977). The Court of Appeals found that the school board had violated MCL 38.104(e); MSA 15.2004(e), which states: "The hearing shall be conducted in accordance with the following provisions: "e. The controlling board shall employ a stenographer who shall make a full record of the proceedings of such hearing and who shall, within 10 days after the conclusion thereof, furnish the controlling board and the teacher affected thereby with a copy of the transcript of Such record, which shall be certified to be complete and correct.” We agree with the Court of Appeals that the above statute requires the school board to furnish the teacher with a copy of the transcript within ten days after the conclusion of the taking of testimony, i.e., the "hearing”. See Rehberg v Board of Education of Melvindale, Ecorse Twp School District No 11, Wayne County, 330 Mich 541, 547; 48 NW2d 142 (1951). However, the statute does not say what happens when the board fails to comply. As the Court of Appeals noted, MCL 38.121; MSA 15.2021 gives the teacher 30 days from the date of the school board’s decision in Which to appeal to the tenure commission. Failure to timely provide a teacher with a copy of the transcript may effectively shorten this statutory period for an appeal. In the case at bar, for example, the plain tiff received his copy of the transcript two days after the board’s decision, leaving him with only 28 days to prepare his appeal. In this situation the State Tenure Commission has consistently ordered reinstatement of the teacher, without regard to the merits of the appeal. We acknowledge that the construction placed upon a statute by the agency legislatively chosen to administer it is entitled to great weight. Magreta v Ambassador Steel Co (On Rehearing), 380 Mich 513, 519; 158 NW2d 473 (1968). However, we disagree with the commission’s construction in this instance. We do not believe the Legislature intended to provide for automatic reinstatement of a teacher who may be unfit and who has not been prejudiced by the delay in furnishing a transcript. The more reasonable remedy is to toll the period for appeal so that the teacher has the same amount of time for taking an appeal that he would have had if the transcript had been furnished on time. The Court of Appeals has utilized such a remedy in the cases of failure to notify a teacher of his right to appeal, Goodwin v Board of Education of the School District of Kalamazoo, 82 Mich App 559, 573; 267 NW2d 142 (1978), and failure to give a teacher written notice of the charges and a statement of rights under the teacher tenure act, Biberstine v Port Austin Public School District No 9, 51 Mich App 274, 278; 214 NW2d 729 (1974), lv den 392 Mich 766 (1974). See also Montiy v Civil Service Board of East Detroit, 54 Mich App 510, 514-515; 221 NW2d 248 (1974). In lieu of granting leave to appeal, pursuant to GCR 1963, 853.2(4), we reverse the judgment of the Court of Appeals. Since plaintiff does not claim prejudice from the seven-day delay in furnishing the transcript, we remand the case to the State Tenure Commission for consideration of the merits of the plaintiffs appeal. We do not retain jurisdiction. Coleman, C.J., and Kavanagh, Fitzgerald, and Ryan, JJ., concurred. Williams, J. (for reversal and payment of salary for unreasonably lost time). The issue in this case is the appropriate way to enforce the requirement that a school board supply a disciplined teacher with a transcript of the record of the discipline hearing within ten days after the conclusion thereof. The tenure commission and the courts below ordered the discharged teacher reinstated because the school board delivered the transcripts seven days late. We reverse and remand to the tenure commission for a hearing on the merits, tolling the time for the teacher’s response by the time of delayed delivery, and ordering the board to pay the teacher’s salary for a period equivalent to the delay in transcript delivery. The plaintiff, Daniel Davis, was suspended from his teaching position on October 15, 1973, for alleged unprofessional conduct. On November 27, 1973 a hearing was held before the school board on the charges. All testimony taken was received on this date. MCL 38.104(e); MSA 15.2004(e) provides: "The hearing shall be conducted in accordance with the following provisions: "e. The controlling board shall employ a stenographer who shall make a full record of the proceedings of such hearing and who shall, within 10 days after the conclusion thereof, furnish the controlling board and the teacher affected thereby with a copy of the transcript of such record, which shall be certified to be complete and correct.” On December 7, 1973, ten days after the héaring, the stenographer delivered a copy of the transcript to the school board. The plaintiff was not furnished a copy at that time. On December 12, 1973 the school board rendered its decision finding plaintiff guilty of unprofessional conduct and suspending him for the balance of the 1973-1974 school year. On December 14, 1973, 17 days hftfer the hearing, the school board delivered á copy of the hearing transcript to the plaintiff teacher’s attorney. On January 11, 1974, the plaintiff appealed to the State Tenure Commission. On July 31, 1974, the tenure commission decided that the School board hád failed to provide the plaintiff with a copy of the transcript within ten days of the conclusion of the hearing as required by MCL 38.104(e); MSA 15.2004(e) and that such delay was inherently prejudicial to plaintiff. Therefore; the tenure commission ordered that plaintiff be reinstated and paid for all wages lost during the disciplinary suspension. On November 16, 1974, the defendant filed a petition for review with the circuit court. The circuit court affirmed the tenure commission by order enteréd August 25, 1975. On December 15, 1976, thé defendant appealed to the Court of Appeals. The Court of Appeals affirmed January 17, 1977, 73 Mich App 358; 251 NW2d 585 (1977). The defendant filed a delayed application for leáve to appeal with this Court. By order; November 30, 1977, we "remanded to the State Teacher Tenure Commission for an evidentiary hearing to determine and report to this Court the reason for the delay in transcribing and filing the record.” 402 Mich 819. We retained jurisdiction. On remand, November 1, 1978, the tenure commission concluded that "the delay in delivery of the transcript [was] due solely to the inaction of the board. The reporter was instructed to prepare and did prepare and deliver the transcript within the ten-day period. Thereafter, no action was taken to provide Mr. Davis with a copy of the transcript until December 13, 1973, sixteen (16) days after the close of the evidentiary hearing.” The commission further noted that: "Appellee [school board] offers no reason for the delay in delivery. Nor does the record disclose any justification for the delay in delivery.” The traditional response to this situation has been to reinstate the teacher. That is what the State Tenure Commission did and that is what the circuit court and the Court of Appeals did. There is sound justification for this, because the teacher tenure law was enacted as a necessary protection in matters central to the livelihood of teachers. In this instance, we are dealing with the failure of the school board to deliver a transcript to a discharged teacher within the statutorily prescribed ten days. This rule obviously was enacted as a procedural protection in furtherance of the general aims of the act and in particular as a safeguard to the teacher’s right to prompt appeal. Without the transcript, a teacher obviously cannot properly prepare an appeal from an adverse decision. In this case the teacher had been discharged and was deprived of a continuing means of livelihood during the unreasonable delay in delivery of the transcript. The longer a teacher has to await a final decision, the greater the hardship. Even subsequent reinstatement with back pay does not solve the serious dilemma of meeting the day-to-day costs of living during the period of discharge. So if the malfeasance or non-feasance of the board delays that final decision as through failure to deliver the transcript, the teacher is per se prejudiced and unfairly penalized. The traditional response of reinstatement is certainly a definite way to rectify the situation for the teacher and encourage the board to act promptly and fairly. However, such action may also saddle school children with an unsatisfactory schoolteacher. The problem then is one of resolving the failure to comply with the act in a manner which does not disregard the rights of any of the parties intimately involved, i.e., to do justice to the teacher and to encourage the board to act without jeopardizing the education of school children. It is suggested that tolling the teacher’s filing time by the time delivery of the transcript is overdue would be a more appropriate action than reinstating the teacher. That does permit the teacher to have court review of the correctness of the discharge determination and it does avoid the possibility of school children being saddled with an unsatisfactory teacher. However, it does nothing at all to resolve the serious immediate problems of the teacher who is without a means of earning a livelihood and may remain so until the board is disposed to act. Further, this solution also offers no inducement whatsoever to the board to comply with the ten-day rule, or, in fact, to ever provide the teacher with a transcript so his or her appeal can be prosecuted. In sum, this suggestion is all right as far as it goes, but it does not go far enough to be just and viable. A more desirable alternative, and one we adopt, is to require, in addition to the tolling of the teacher’s response time by the overdue delivery time, that the board commence paying the teacher’s salary forthwith for each day beyond the ten-day period required by statute, and continue so paying until the transcript has been delivered and received. This solution is just and equitable to all concerned. For the teacher, it provides something to live on during the unreasonable delay caused by the board. As we have already noted, a determinátion favorable to the teacher includes back pay but does nothing to keep the teacher from starving while awaiting the decision. For the board, it is a material reminder and inducement to obey the law and timely deliver the transcript. For the school children, it obviates the possibility of being saddled with an unsatisfactory teacher. As noted above, the tenure commission found absolutely no excuse for the delay in delivering the transcript. Therefore, the delay can only be described as unreasonable and unjustifiable. In any case, any delay beyond the statutory period is so inherently prejudicial that the teacher is entitled to lost salary for the period of delay in delivery of the transcript. We remand to the tenure commission for consid eration of the merits of plaintiff’s appeal. We hold that the statutory time provided to appeal a decision of a school board shall be tolled during any delay beyond the time period set forth in MCL 38.104(e); MSA 15.2004(e). We further hold that plaintiff teacher is entitled to salary commencing the first day beyond expiration of the ten-day statutory period for delivery of the transcript and until the transcript has been delivered and received. Reversed and remanded to the State Tenure Commission for further action not inconsistent with this opinion. No costs, a public question. Levin and Bláir Moody, Jr., JJ., concurred with Williams, J. On December 13, 1973, an unsuccessful attempt was made to deliver a copy of the transcript to Mr. Davis. On December 14, 1973, 17 days after the close of the evidentiary hearing, a copy of the transcript was delivered to Mr. Davis’ counsel. Shiffer v Gibraltar Board of Education, 393 Mich 190, 212; 224 NW2d 255 (1974) (opinion by Williams, J.).
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Per Curiam. This worker’s disability case involves issues concerning notice, the taking of additional testimony, and the causal relationship between the plaintiff’s disability and his employment. The Workmen’s Compensation Appeal Board said the plaintiff’s claim was barred because of its resolution of the issue of notice. We disagree with that conclusion, as did the Court of Appeals, and so remand the case to the appeal board. The record shows that, in early April of 1975, the plaintiff told Jerry King, one of defendant’s managers, he was having chest pains at work. King gave the plaintiff permission to leave work. The record also shows that the plaintiffs wife, also in early April, notified the defendant’s office that the plaintiff was in the hospital. The record further shows that the president of Michigan Mobile Homes, just before the plaintiff’s open-heart surgery in May, 1975, talked twice to the plaintiff about the plaintiffs medical condition and salary and health insurance matters. This is abundant evidence that Michigan Mobile Homes had notice of the plaintiffs heart problems. The appeal board, however, has concluded that there was insufficient notice of a specific injury under MCL 418.381; MSA 17.237(381) and that there was insufficient notice of an occupational disease under MCL 418.441; MSA 17.237(441). In so concluding, the appeal board implied that the plaintiff had to make the company aware of the connection between the plaintiffs work and the plaintiffs occupational disease; at least, aware enough to put the defendant "upon inquiry and require the filing of a report”. The appeal board also said the plaintiff knew or reasonably should have known of the connection (between work and disease) at least by the date of surgery, May 20, 1975. Since the plaintiff’s petition for benefits was not filed until October 6, 1975, it was too late to afford notice within the statutory period, according to the appeal board. Because of Krol v Hamtramck, 398 Mich 341; 248 NW2d 195 (1976), and Norris v Chrysler Corp, 391 Mich 469; 216 NW2d 783 (1974), we reach a different conclusion. As in Krol and Norris, the employer in this case knew of the employee’s health problem and of absence from work. Both the employer and employee may have been unaware of a causal connection between the work and the disability, but this does not mean there has not been notice. See West v Northern Tree Co, 365 Mich 402; 112 NW2d 423 (1961); the notice, in this case, given by the plaintiff to Jerry King, a manager, is the same kind of notice given by plaintiff West to his foreman. See 365 Mich 404. Accordingly, plaintiff Combs’s case is not to be rejected for want of notice. The case is to be remanded to the appeal board. Since that board’s and the Court of Appeals original decisions in this case, we have resolved five cases involving heart and circulatory problems in deciding Kostamo v Marquette Iron Mining Co, 405 Mich 105; 274 NW2d 411 (1979). On remand, the appeal board should take Kostamo into account on the issue of causation. On remand, in accord with the reasoning set forth in the administrative law judge’s decision, the appeal board shall allow for the taking of additional medical proofs. Accordingly, the application by plaintiff-appellant for leave to appeal is considered, and, in lieu of granting leave to appeal, pursuant to GCR 1963, 853.2(4), we modify the Court of Appeals order and remand the case to the Workmen’s Compensation Appeal Board for further proceedings consistent with this opinion. Costs to appellant. Coleman, C.J., and Kavanagh, Williams, Levin, Fitzgerald, Ryan, and Blair Moody, Jr., JJ., concurred. The second, dispositive, paragraph of the Court of Appeals order in this case was: "It is ordered that the application be, and the same is hereby denied for lack of merit in the grounds presented. Although plaintiff may well have provided adequate notice to defendants as required by § 381 of the act, the appeal board’s finding that plaintiffs disability did not arise out of and in the course of his employment is within the scope of the proofs, and constitutes an adequate ground for refusing an award.”
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Moore, J. The bill of complaint filed in this cause alleges that A. Backus, Jr., & Sons, a Michigan corporation, one of the defendants, is one of its competitors in business; that Edgar S. Wheeler and B. F. Wheeler, doing business as E. S. Wheeler & Co., are the patent attorneys of A. Backus, Jr., & Sons, and also Sarah E. Backus, doing business as S. E. Backus, and Henry M. Backus, Newton Backus, Edwin F. Hulbert, and Joe Henze, the other defendants, are individuals; and that all of the defendants are confederating and co-operating together to injure the business of the complainant. The bill of complaint states in detail the methods used to obtain information as to the business done by the complainants, and who their customers are, and then avers: “ That after acquiring information so obtained, S. E. Backus, one of the defendants, confederating with A. Backus, Jr., & Sons, another defendant, had annoyed and harassed the customers of this complainant by mailing to them certain circulars containing a cut of a box purporting to be the box manufactured by the defendant A. Backus, Jr., & Sons, and claiming that certain manufacturers had placed upon the market boxes and packages in imitation of goods manufactured under patents held by her. That the said circulars did not represent the style of the box manufactured by A. Backus, Jr., & Sons under her patent, but was a good sketch of the box manufactured by the complainant. That it was intentionally made so for the purpose of deceiving the public, and more particularly the customers of complainant, and intimidating them to prevent them from purchasing the box manufactured by the complainant. The said circulars were sent by registered letter to the customers of complainant who had ordered from it, sometimes within a day or two after shipments were made, and sometimes before the orders had been filled in the factory of complainant. That'the defendant E. S. Wheeler had sent threatening letters to the customers of complainant threatening them with suit for' infringement of patent. That the said letters were purposely worded to deceive the persons receiving same by stating that the packages complained against ‘had metal strands crossing outer face of the packages.’ That the boxes manufactured by the complainant are woven with flat strands of metal one-half inch wide. That the box manufactured by the defendant A. Backus, Jr., & Sons is woven with wii’e one-eighth of an inch in diameter. That S. E. Backus had no patent on any package calling for ‘metal strands crossing the outer face of the package.’ That the patent under which it (A. Backus, Jr., & Sons) was operating was a patent owned by S; E. Backus and called for the use of ‘ stay wires extending from the outer sl’ats across the outer face only of one fabric and binding wires uniting the slats to the stay wires. ’ That upon information so perniciously acquired, the said A. Backus, Jr., & Sons came into unfair and immoral competition with complainant and caused it great annoyance and pecuniary loss. That also upon the information so acquired, Henry Backus, Newton Backus, and Edwin F. Hulbert, being agents and officers of A. Backus, Jr., & Sons, had personally called upon customers of complainant and verbally threatened them with prosecution and litigation if they should handle or sell any of the goods manufactured by the complainant.” The bill of complaint also avers complainant is not now infringing, nor ever has infringed, upon any patent owned by S. E. Backus or any other person, that it has invited her to start suit in the proper tribunal where such questions are litigated, and that the said Sarah E. Backus willfully refrains from doing so. The bill prays for an injunction. The defendants answered, denying many of the averments of the bill, and allege the other acts done by defendants were proper acts for them to do. The case was heard before a circuit judge. He, filed a written opinion, reading, in part, as follows: “ It is not disputed that some of the defendants sent to various persons throughout the United States, customers of complainants, circulars and letters informing them that certain boxes put upon the market were infringements of patents owned by the defendant’s company. The fact that such a large number of these circulars and letters were sent so soon after shipments of complainants, and the fact that defendants were keeping track of complainant’s customers, convinces me that the officers of defendant corporation, in sending the circulars and securing the sending of the letters referred to in the bill of complaint, referred in them particularly to the goods of the complainants. As the probable effect of injury to complainant’s business followed, it is but fair to presume this effect was intended. These acts or conduct is, in my opinion, unlawful. It is defended on the ground that complainants are not entitled to relief, as they do not come into court with clean hands, as it is claimed they imitated, in many ways, the goods sold by the defendant corporation, and a large number of cases are cited by the defendant to sustain the claim that this is unlawful; but these cases refer only to cases where there was fraud in the attempt to palm off one’s goods as the goods manufactured by another, or in deceiving the public as to the goods offered for sale, by imitation, in cases where from the long use of a trade-mark or some special device one has obtained a property right in such trade-mark or special device. But such is not the case here. Having no jurisdiction to do so, I do not pass upon the question as to whether complainant’s package is infringing upon the defendant’s patent, any more than to find it is not obviously so. It follows, therefore, complainants are entitled to the relief sought in the bill of complaint. An injunction will issue accordingly.” He also made a decree reading, in part, as follows: “We do therefore, in execution of the said decree, hereby firmly enjoin and command you, the defendants, A. Backus, Jr., & Sons, a Michigan corporation, Edgar S. Wheeler and Benjamin F. Wheeler, doing business as E. S. Wheeler & Co., Sarah E. Backus, doing business as S. E. Backus, Henry H. Backus, Newton Backus, Edwin F. Hulbert, and Joe Henze, to refrain and desist from employing or hiring any of your agents, officers, or servants from entering the factory of complainant or from coming near the factory of complainant, and following the complainant’s wagons; or from going to the freight depots in the city of Detroit, or elsewhere, for the purpose of ascertaining to whom this complainant is shipping its goods; and after having ascertained who are the customers of complainant, from, either yourself, or confederating with any of the other defendants herein, or any other person, for the purpose of intimidating the customers of complainant, either verbally or by sending out circulars or letters threatening them with litigation if they purchase or use the goods manufactured by complainant, in the manner shown in the circular contained in the bill of complaint, or in any other manner injurious to complainants.” The case is brought here by appeal. The important question is one of fact. The printed record is a long one. We have examined the record with care. It would profit no one to give a detailed account of the testimony. We think it justifies the decree made. See O. & W. Thum Co. v. Tloczynski, 114 Mich. 149 (38 L. R. A. 200), and especially Emack v. Kane, 34 Fed. 46. We have examined the cases cited on the part of defendants in support of the proposition that a court of equity will not take cognizance of such a case. Ysle do not draw the same conclusion from them as does the solicitor. The decree is affirmed, with costs. McAlvay, C. J., and Montgomery, Ostrander, and Hooker, JJ., concurred.
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Blair Moody, Jr., J. (for affirmance). We granted leave to appeal to consider whether certain United States Treasury bonds, which were redeemed at par value by an executor in payment of Federal estate taxes, should be valued for Michigan inheritance tax purposes at par value or at the price quoted in the over-the-counter bond market on the date of decedent’s death. We determine that for purposes of the Michigan inheritance tax, the bonds should be appraised at par value to the extent they are used to pay Federal estate taxes. We, therefore, would affirm the Court of Appeals. Facts On Saturday, May 20, 1970, Daisy Gertrude McCornack died, leaving an estate inventoried at $1,334,194.15. Among the assets of the estate were certain issues of United States Treasury bonds with a par or face value of $298,000. The bonds, commonly referred to as "deep discount” or "flower” bonds, are redeemable at par value by estate executors provided (1) the holder owns the bonds on the date of death; (2) the bonds are properly includable as an asset of the estate; and (3) the executor redeems the bonds with the United States Treasury Department and uses the proceeds to pay the Federal estate tax owed by the estate. The executors of the McCornack estate elected to redeem the bonds at par value in partial payment of the Federal estate taxes owed. On December 13, 1974, the Wayne Probate Court issued an order determining the Michigan inheritance tax for the estate. For Michigan tax purposes the value of the flower bonds was appraised at par value or $298,000. In a petition for rehearing, decedent’s executors claimed that the probate order had been entered erroneously. The executors argued that the value of the flower bonds should be determined by the price of the bonds on the over-the-counter market. Thus, the value of the bonds for Michigan estate tax purposes would be the price as quoted in the Wall Street Journal on the Friday before and the Monday after decedent’s death or $234,065.93. Subsequently, the probate court revised its order and appraised the bonds at their over-the-counter market value. This order was appealed by the Michigan Department of Treasury to the Wayne Circuit Court, which affirmed. On appeal, the Court of Appeals reversed. 78 Mich App 135; 259 NW2d 396 (1977). Discussion The issue in the instant case is clearly and narrowly drawn: whether United States Treasury bonds, which can be redeemed at par value for Federal estate tax purposes, should be valued for Michigan inheritance tax purposes at par value or at the price quoted on the over-the-counter market. What is unclear, however, is the legal standard to be applied in determining whether par value or the over-the-counter market value controls. The Michigan Legislature has enacted the following formula for the determination of the value of an estate: "(1) The report of the appraiser shall be filed in the office of the judge of probate, and from such report and other proof relating to any estate before the judge of probate, the judge of probate shall forthwith, as of course, determine the clear market value of all estates as of the date of transfer.” (Emphasis added.) MCL 205.213; MSA 7.574. Although the appropriate standard the probate judge must apply is "clear market value”, the Legislature has not seen fit to define this rather elusive term of art. While the term "clear market value” is often used synonymously with the terms "fair market value”, "market value” and "actual value”, the most generally accepted definition of the term is as follows: "With regard to inheritance tax, highest price obtainable. [S]um which property would bring on a fair sale by a willing seller not obliged to sell to a willing buyer not obliged to buy, or fair market value, or cash value.” (Citations omitted.) Black’s Law Dictionary (4th ed), p 318. Thus, the concept of clear market value is composed of three separate but integrated elements: (1) the highest price obtainable; (2) a willing seller not obliged to sell; (3) a willing buyer not obliged to buy. An analysis of the three elements of the definition of clear market value compels us to conclude that for Michigan inheritance tax purposes the clear market value of these flower bonds is their par value. I As par value of $298,000 exceeds the over-the-counter value of $234,065.93 by $63,934.07, there can be no doubt that par value in the instant case constitutes the highest price obtainable. II It is also evident that the executors of the McCornack estate, in redeeming the flower bonds in partial payment of Federal estate taxes, constitute a willing seller not obliged to sell. Appellants argue that the estate executors cannot be willing sellers because as executors they owe a fiduciary duty to the estate to sell at the highest price obtainable. Accordingly, because par value constitutes the highest price obtainable, the estate executors are compelled to sell at par value. We think this argument misses the point. First, appellant’s argument ignores the fact that highest price obtainable constitutes an essential element of the definition of clear market value. Second, we are aware that there are in essence two markets for the redemption of flower bonds: The United States government and the over-the-counter bond market. The California Supreme Court has pointedly noted: "It is common knowledge that one of the chief reasons for the purchase of the type of bond here involved is the advantageous marketability at the death of the holder, the United States Government having created an additional market for the bonds in which the estate of the holder is assured of an opportunity to obtain par value to the extent there is federal estate tax liability that may be extinguished by their surrender.” In re Estate of Rosenfeld, 62 Cal 2d 432, 434; 42 Cal Rptr 449; 398 P2d 783 (1965). Accord, In the Matter of the Estate of Eggert, 82 Wash 2d 332, 335; 510 P2d 645 (1973). The effect, then, of the establishment by the United States government of an additional market for the flower bonds is to offer the holder of the bonds a choice of markets in which to redeem the bonds. Insofar as there is Federal estate tax liability and insofar as par value exceeds the over-the-counter market value on the date of decedent’s death, the holder may redeem the bonds in the government market. If on the date of death, however, the value of the bonds on the over-the-counter market exceeds par value as it often does, it would be folly and, perhaps, violation of the fiduciary duty if the holder, acting as a prudent, willing seller, would not redeem the bonds on the over-the-counter market. Therefore, the establishment of the additional bond market offers the bond holder a true choice of redemption markets. The redemption is based upon a prudent election made by the holder. In determining what is clear market value, it is without logic to simply ignore the very market arrangement selected by the holder to sell or redeem the bonds. Ill The converse is equally true, i.e., the United States government, in agreeing to purchase the bonds at par value from the holder, constitutes a willing buyer not obliged to buy. Appellants contend that the United States gov ernment by contractually agreeing to redeem the flower bonds in payment of Federal estate taxes is not a willing buyer but is compelled to redeem the bonds. We disagree. Congress in enacting § 6312 of the Internal Revenue Code of 1954 has given the United States Treasury general permissive authority to redeem United States bonds in payment of taxes: "It shall be lawful for the Secretary or his delegate to receive, at par with an adjustment for accrued interest, Treasury bills, notes and certificates of indebtedness issued by the United States in payment of any internal revenue taxes, or in payment for internal revenue stamps, to the extent and under the conditions provided in regulations prescribed by the Secretary or his delegate.” 26 USC 6312. Thus, the authority of the United States Treasury to agree to and to redeem bonds in payment of taxes is entirely permissive and hinges upon the authorization of Congress for such agreement and purchase. The permissive quality of the United States government’s agreement to redeem Treasury bonds is dramatically emphasized in the Treasury Department circulars issued for the flower bonds at issue in the instant case: "Any bonds issued hereunder which upon the death of the owner constitute part of his estate, will be redeemed at the option of the duly constituted representatives of the deceased owner’s estate, at par and accrued interest to date of payment, provided: "(a) That the bonds were actually owned by the decedent at the time of his death; and "(b) That the Secretary of the Treasury be authorized to apply the entire proceeds of redemption to the payment of Federal estate taxes.” (Emphasis added.) 1955 Treasury Dep’t Circular No. 956, 20 Federal Register 774 (1955), and 1960 Treasury Dep’t Circular No. 1052, 25 Federal Register 8966 (1960). It is obvious from the very language of the circular and from the statutory language that the United States Treasury is under no compulsion to receive Treasury bonds in satisfaction of tax obligations. It voluntarily receives the bonds in payment of Federal estate taxes. If Congress should revoke the authority of the Secretary of the Treasury to accept such bonds in payment of Federal estate taxes or if the Secretary of the Treasury amends the redemption provisions, there is no offer to redeem which can be accepted. From all the above, we hold that for purposes of the Michigan inheritance tax, the United States Treasury bonds at issue should be appraised at par value to the extent they are used to pay Federal estate taxes. We think that our decision today clearly comports with the intent of the Legislature in adopting "clear market value” as the standard to be applied in the appraisal of estates for Michigan tax purposes. We are cognizant of the fact that other jurisdictions have split over the issue before us; but we think that our holding reflects important policy considerations that were similarly addressed by a Justice of the Idaho Supreme Court: "While the Congress of the United States may have intended to create a federal estate tax loophole by providing that certain bonds be redeemed at par value in satisfaction of those taxes — presumably in order to increase the attractiveness to investors of the low interest federal bonds — there is no indication that Idaho’s legislature intended a similar loophole in this state’s inheritance tax laws, particularly since Idaho has no interest in facilitating the marketability of federal bonds.” (Emphasis added.) Stein v State Tax Comm, 99 Idaho 70, 74; 577 P2d 798, 802 (1978). (Bakes, J., dissenting.) Conclusion We conclude that United States Treasury bonds which are redeemed at par value for Federal estate tax purposes should be valued at par value for Michigan inheritance tax purposes. We would affirm the Court of Appeals. No costs, a public question. Kavanagh, Levin, and Fitzgerald, JJ., concurred with Blair Moody, Jr., J. The date of transfer is the date of death. It is referred to as the date of transfer because it is on that date that any interest in the estate passes from the decedent to the beneficiaries. MCL 205.203; MSA 7.564; MCL 205.204; MSA 7.565. Cf. Anderson v Frischkorn Real Estate Co, 253 Mich 668, 670; 235 NW 894 (1931). We note that 26 USC 6312 was repealed by PL 92-5, § 4(a) (March 17, 1971), with respect to United States obligations issued after March • 3, 1971. Thus, United States Treasury bonds issued after March 3, 1971, cannot be used to pay Federal estate taxes. While this statutory change does not directly affect the specific flower bonds at issue in the instant case, we note further that as of January 31, 1975, in excess of $3.5 billion of the flower bonds were outstanding. The total amount of redeemable bonds outstanding was more than $20.5 billion. Form PD 800-B (Rev Feb, 1975), Dep’t of the Treasury, Bureau of the Public Debt.
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Montgomery, J. This action was brought in the lifetime of the intestate, Alanson Beckwith. On the first trial defendant had judgment on a verdict directed by the trial judge. On review by this court this judgment was reversed and a new trial directed. Beckwith v. Mace, 140 Mich. 157. The report of our decision on the former hearing sufficiently states the issue and the facts of the case. We there held that there was sufficient testimony to carry the case to the jury upon the question whether Mace, who contracted with the plaintiff (Beckwith), had authority to bind the three defendants as copartners, as well as upon the question whether the contract was, in fact, made on behalf of the firm. The testimony on the second trial did not vary materially from that given on the first. On the second trial the plaintiff — who had on the death of the plaintiff Beckwith been substituted — recovered a verdict for the full value of the property sold. The defendants moved for a new trial on the ground that the verdict and judgment were against the weight of the evidence. This motion was overruled by the circuit judge, who gave as a reason that there was ample evidence upon which to base the verdict of the jury, and that the verdict was not against the weight of the evidence. Defendants duly excepted to this ruling, and have assigned error upon it. The defendants have also assigned error upon rulings admitting certain testimony over defendants’ objection, and in refusing to strike out the answer to a question propounded to decedent in his deposition taken shortly before his death and since the former trial. We will consider these questions in the order in which they are discussed in the brief of counsel. The first assignment of error relates to a ruling admitting a portion of the transcript of the evidence taken on the former trial, which consisted of a statement or admission of counsel made on the trial. An objection was made, but no ground of objection whatever appears to have been stated. In this court it is contended that the evidence was incompetent and improper. We have frequently held that an objection made at the trial should point out to the trial judge the ground óf objection, and that, where this is not done, the ruling will not be reviewed. Jourdan v. Patterson, 102 Mich. 602; Mahiat v. Codde, 106 Mich. 387; Benedict v. Provision Co., 115 Mich. 527. Objection was made to an answer of the witness appearing in his deposition in which he stated that he sold to the copartnership the property, describing it. The objection urged was that this answer was a conclusion of the witness, and not a statement of fact. If this testimony had stood by itself, there might have been force in the objection, but it is followed by the statement of the witness that he dealt with Mace and by a detailed statement of the terms of the negotiation. The jury must have considered this answer as preliminary to the detailed statement, and could not have been prejudiced by the answer. If it be assumed that the answer was technically objectionable, the court should not reverse the judgment when it appears that the subject was fully covered by the testimony of the same witness showing in detail the circumstances which he thus summarized. Grattan v. Village of Williamston, 116 Mich. 462; McKinnon v. Gates, 102 Mich. 618; Rossman v. Bock, 97 Mich. 430. The defendants’ third assignment of error relates to a ruling clearly within the discretion of the trial judge. The fourth assignment of error is to the admission of a contract admittedly relating to the copartnership business signed L. S. Mace, as was the note in question in this suit. It is contended that this contract was wholly irrelevant and immaterial. It is true the contract itself had no bearing except as it in connection with the testimony of the witness Barnes tended to show that Mace on occasion signed his own name to firm contracts. This had some tendency to rebut the presumption that the contract in question was an individual contract because it was signed in the same manner. The only remaining question is: Was the verdict so clearly opposed to the decided weight of the evidence as to require us to overrule the circuit judge’s decision refusing a new trial ? It is strenuously insisted that a grave injustice has been done the defendants; that the evidence is so overwhelmingly in favor of defendants that the conclusion cannot be escaped that the jury were influenced by something other than the testimony. If satisfied that the record presents such a case, our duty to set aside the verdict is clear. Hintz v. Railroad Co., 132 Mich. 305, and cases cited. We are not, however, convinced that the verdict is so clearly against the weight of evidence that the trial court was bound to set it aside. The judgment is affirmed. McAlvay, C. J., and Ostrander, Hooker, and Moore, JJ., concurred.
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Campbell, J. Both of these applications are for the purpose of obtaining writs of mandamus to compel the respondent to vacate an order made by him to strike from the files a waiver of errors signed by Harriet P. Hackley, in a proceeding begun by her in the probate court of Muskegon county, asking a temporary allowance during probate proceedings, and appealed to the Muskegon circuit. So far as necessary for the present hearing, the case is as follows: Porter Hackley died in June, 1884, leaving a will. Proceedings were begun to procure its probate soon after. The relator Harriet P. Hackley claims to be -his widow. This was and is denied by the other relator, who is executor. The will was probated in November, 1884, and the probate was affirmed in July, 1885. After the probate of the will, and in the latter part of November, 1884, Harriet P. Hackley filed a petition in the Muskegon probate court claiming to be widow and asking an allowance from the estate. The probate court granted her $1131 for the past, and $29 a week for the future, pending the settlement of the estate. On appeal to the circuit court, the jury found she was not the widow, and the application was dismissed with costs on June 20, 1885. At the same time an order was made that she have sixty days to settle exceptions, or move for a new trial. This time would expire August 20, 1885, and was extended by two extensions to October 6, 1885, and since to November 15. On the first day'of October, 1885,-Harriet P. Hackley executed and acknowledged and filed a written instrument waiving all errors and exceptions, and the right to move for a new trial, and consenting that the verdict and judgment stand as final and conclusive. On the 7th day of October, Charles C. Chamberlain in the name of Chamberlain & Traphagen, purporting to act in her name, but without her authority to do so, mov.ed to strike this paper from the files, on the ground that it was a fraud on Chamberlain, who claimed to hold an assignment of Mrs. Hackley’s rights in the estate of Porter Hackley of all beyond $25,000. This assignment is alleged in substance as made September 2, 1884. Although the affidavit of Mr. ■Chamberlain contains a great many charges and accusations, this is the only fact based on knowledge which in any way ■concerned relators, or which now concerns them. Counter-affidavits were filed, denying all the merits. The circuit court ■ordered the paper to be stricken from the files, giving until November 1st to all parties in interest “ to take such steps in regard to the granting of such motion as they may be advised.” Charles II. Hackley moved on October 15, to vacate this order, which was refused. Harriet P. Hackley made a similar motion, setting up a good many very strong facts in regard to the course taken on the trial of the controversy and concerning the acts of Chamberlain. Her application was signed and sworn to personally by her, and the application was made in her behalf by William P. Traphagen appearing specially. The court declined to hear this application. It appears by the judge’s return that he did so because on the 13th of October, an order wras entered by Chamberlain in the name of Chamberlain & Traphagen, substituting himself as Mrs. Hackley’s attorney in place of the firm. Mr. Chamberlain’s action in that regard, without the concurrence or consent of Mrs. Hackley, was a nullity, and the court had no right to refuse her a hearing on her own petition, under any circumstances. It is the duty of every court to hear parties in regard to their representation, and a change made ex parte by one or both attorneys could not preclude the client from a right to be heard on the matter. But in the view we take of the case, inasmuch as both relators ask ■the same relief, we can dispose of the controversy as it stands. The application for an allowance during the pendency of the controversy is made and granted for the sole benefit of the widow — if she be a widow — and is not payable to any one else. It is not intended to be assigned. In the present case it was not attempted to be assigned. The assignment set up ■by Chamberlain was made a considerable time before this Application was presented, and covers her interest in the estate as alleged widow. It could not cover the future contingent .grant — not then even asked for — of an allowance during the controversy. She had a right to waive it at any time, and the waiver would bind her unless invalidated by some reason peculiar to herself. It could not be avoided by any one else. The only possible way in which Chamberlain can be prejudiced is by the finding of the jury that Mrs. Ilackley was not the widow of Porter Ilackley. We are not disposed to consider at this hearing what would be the effect of that finding if set up in any other controversy. We are now only concerned with the right of Mrs. Ilackley to waive her own rights- to this allowance. That she could do so we have no doubt, and the waiver was lawfully filed, and must have such effect as in law it may properly have. What that effect may ■be must be determined in some other way than by striking it from the files, and we shall not anticipate what course Mr. Chamberlain may have a right to take. The mandamus must be granted, with costs for each relator Against Chamberlain. The other Justices concurred.
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Morse, C. J. The complainant filed his bill of complaint in the circuit court for the county of Montcalm, in chancery, alleging adultery on the part of defendant with one Waldron ; and also setting forth, further, that while complainant and defendant were living and cohabiting together as husband and wife, said Waldron, who had been treating the defendant professionally as a physician, on the 15th day of December, A. D. 1879, without the knowledge or consen t of complainant, and while he was away, procured teams and moved all the household furniture, clothing, and personal effects of the defendant seven miles away from Murray township, where complainant lived, to Brighton, Ontario, a distance of seven miles; and that soon thereafter the said Dr. Waldron and the defendant resided in Brighton as husband and wife in open and lascivious cohabitation, and continued to so reside together until the spring of 1881, when Dr. 'Waldron died at the house where he and defendant were so living; “ and that the said Laura Powell, without any cause or provocation, deserted your orator as aforesaid, and continued from the date aforesaid to reside separate and apart from your orator and with the said Dr. Waldron until his death, aforesaid.” This allegation is relied upon as a proper averment of desertion under the statute, and is the only reference in the bill from which desertion can be claimed. There was no personal service upon defendant, but upon proof of publication the bill was properly taken as confessed against her, and referred to a commissioner to take proofs and make report. Testimony was obtained by commission on interrogatories, and two witnesses also sworn and examined by the circuit court commissioner. Upon his report to the circuit court in chancery a decree was entered therein dismissing complainant’s bill, and he appeals to this Court. It will readily be seen that the allegation of desertion in the bill is not sufficient. The charge therein covers only a period from December, 1879, until the spring of 1881, less than two years, and is entirely silent as to what took place afterwards, save that complainant has not voluntarily cohabited with defendant “ since the discovery of such adultery on the 15th day of December, 1879.” It is evident that the bill was filed upon the theory of adultery only, and that the claim of desertion is an after-thought. There is no proof whatever 'of adultery. The brief filed in this Court by the solicitor of complainant does not ask a decree on that ground, but the argument is made that, he is entitled to a decree on account of desertion. But if the allegations in the bill of complaint were sufficient to admit of evidence to support the charge of desertion, the testimony shows that the parties had separated before defendant moved to Brighton, and there is nothing to -show but that such separation and her removal to Brighton was not with the full and free consent of complainant. In fact, the inference is, from the whole proofs, that complainant deserted defendant because he suspected her of adultery, which he has failed to establish in this cause. The decree- of the court below is affirmed. The other Justices concurred.
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Per Curiam. On December 7, 1977, defendant pled guilty to robbery armed, contrary to MCL 750.529; MSA 28.797, and possession of a firearm in the commission thereof, contrary to MCL 750.227b; MSA 28.424(2). On January 23, 1978, he was sentenced to prison for 7-1/2 to 20 years for the robbery charge and to a mandatory two years consecutive imprisonment on the felony-firearm charge. Two issues are raised on appeal. First, defendant claims that the felony-firearm statute is unconstitutional on grounds of double jeopardy. This claim was rejected by the Michigan Supreme Court in Wayne County Prosecutor v Recorder’s Court Judge, 406 Mich 374; 280 NW2d 793 (1979). We likewise reject the contention here. The second issue raised by defendant-appellant questions whether he, as an aider and abettor, can be convicted under the felony-firearm statute where there is no indication that defendant personally carried, or had in his possession, a firearm at the time of the robbery. There is a difference of opinion in this Court on this issue. Compare People v Walter Johnson, 85 Mich App 654, 658; 272 NW2d 605 (1978), and People v Powell, 90 Mich App 273, 274-5; 282 NW2d 803 (1979), with People v Walter Johnson, supra at 672-673 (Kaufman, J., dissenting), People v Tavolacci, 88 Mich App 470; 276 NW2d 919 (1979), People v Powell, supra at 275-276 (Cynar, J., dissenting). Careful reading of People v Tavolacci, supra, and the relevant portions of Judge Kaufman’s dissenting opinion in People v Walter Johnson, supra, persuades us that MCL 750.227b; MSA 28.424(2) does not require proof of personal possession of the firearm when used in the commission of a felony. See United States v James, 528 F2d 999, 1015 (CA 5, 1976), reh den 532 F2d 1054 (1976), cf., United States v Brant, 448 F Supp 781 (WD Pa, 1978), United States v Giannoni, 472 F2d 136 (CA 9, 1973), cert den, 411 US 935; 93 S Ct 1911; 36 L Ed 2d 396 (1973). However, in order that an accused may be con victed as an aider and abettor of a possessory crime such as felony-firearm, it must be shown that he knowingly acted or encouraged, with the intent to aid, the possessor to obtain or retain possession of or to use the firearm during the course of a felony. People v Doemer, 35 Mich App 149; 192 NW2d 330; 47 ALR3d 1236 (1971), and see, People v Pearce, 20 Mich App 289; 174 NW2d 19 (1969), People v Little, 58 Mich App 12; 226 NW2d 735 (1975). Therefore, the question still remains whether defendant supplied a sufficient factual basis for the felony-firearm plea. GCR 1963, 785.7(3)(a). Although it is clear that the accused, as an aider and abettor, need not be present at the scene of the crime, it is necessary that a sufficient factual basis be provided to show that he procured, counseled, aided or abetted in the commission of the possessory offense. People v Tavolacci, supra, at 475. Thus, while we affirm defendant’s conviction on the armed robbery charge, People v Sharp, 57 Mich App 624; 226 NW2d 590 (1975), People v Spry, 74 Mich App 584, 595; 254 NW2d 782 (1977), it is necessary to examine the record of defendant’s guilty plea in order to determine if there was a sufficient factual basis provided for defendant’s conviction as an aider and abettor to "felony-firearm”. We find that there is. Defendant admitted driving the stolen automobile used to transport him and his cohorts to a house where they all broke and entered, taking four guns, including a shotgun. Defendant and his companions subsequently used these guns to rob three business establishments. However, during the particular robbery for which defendant pled guilty, he did not enter the food store, but instead waited outside in the car. Despite his lack of personal, physical possession of the shotgun used to rob this establishment, defendant admits that he knew that his companions went into the store with a shotgun in order to rob someone. Moreover, the proceeds of the robbery were equally divided among defendant and his companions. This evidence is sufficient to establish that defendant knowingly acted and encouraged his companions to obtain possession of a firearm and that he assisted and encouraged them to use the firearm during the commission of a felony. Affirmed.
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McAlvay, J. Plaintiff brought suit for personal in juries received while employed in and about defendant’s cement plant, claimed to have been caused by the negligence of defendant. Defendant was engaged in the manufacture of Portland cement in Branch county. That department of the plant in which plaintiff was employed was known as the “wet end.” It is upon the ground floor, and is a space about 75 feet long by 75 feet wide. Over the east end of this space is what is called the “ clay floor,” under which plaintiff and the other workmen changed their clothing before going to work. Next to this, going west from the east end, is a “slurry vat,” made of concrete. It is about ten feet wide east and west, 48 feet long, and 8 feet deep. The walls of the vat rise about 2 feet above the level of the ground floor. “ Slurry ” is a mixture of clay and marl, of a grayish color, and is like thin mud-. This vat was usually full, or nearly full, of this mixture. Directly west of this vat is another vat, 12 feet in width and of like length and depth as the first one. These vats are separated by a heavy concrete wall 6 feet 8 inches thick on its upper surface. About 25 feet from this second vat, and where plaintiff usually worked, were several “slurry” tanks and pumps for pumping the slurry into them, and farther away in the west end of the factory was another row of tanks. ■ The tube mills, upon one of which plaintiff was injured, are located over the vat first described. There is a battery of five of them placed side by side in a row; their ends supported on wheels, called “trunnions,” fixed on bases on top of the east and west walls of the vat. These mills are hollow iron cylinders 16 feet long and 5 feet in diameter, weighing several tons each. They are partially filled with stones, and are used to grind and mix the slurry as they revolve. The west end or head of each of these mills is a heavy iron plate, and is removable. It is fastened to the cylinder by means of bolts through the plate and through a flange on the end of the cylinder. These are |-inch bolts, 5 inches long, with right-handed thread, and hexagonal heads and nuts. There are 12 bolts in each head. The holes in the flange and head which receive the bolts being round, it is necessary to use two wrenches to tighten the nuts. Eight inches from the west end of each cylinder or mill is a heavy iron tire or band 8 inches wide, which runs on the trunnions or wheels which support it. The trunnions are 2 feet in diameter with 8-inch faces. The constant wear of the tires of the mills upon the faces of the trunnions has caused the surface of both to become highly polished. The trunnions are supported by bases 2 feet 6 inches long, upon which are boxes for the bearings of the trunnions. About one-half of the trunnion is concealed by the bases and boxes. The cylinders run at the rate of 24 revolutions, and the trunnions at the rate of 70 revolutions, per minute. The height of the tube mills from the cement foundation on which they rest is 6 feet 9 inches. The distance between the nearest points on the separate mills is 3 feet 9 inches. The distance between the nearest points of the trunnions of the separate mills is 28 inches, and between the nearest points of the bases 21 inches. The accompanying cut drawn to scale shows two of the mills. These vats are usually filled or partly filled with “slurry,” and there was always more or less mud upon the floor and walls of the vats. As we understand it, the mud was taken from the first vat, passed through the tube mills, and discharged into the second vat. Plaintiff at the time of his injury was 41 years of age. He had worked on a farm until he was nearly 30 years old, and then for six years worked as a section hand on a railroad. Later he worked in and about a flouring mill for six years at packing flour and feed and nailing barrels. On March 18, 1902, he was employed by defendant. He went to work in the west end of the factory as a common laborer, wheeling mud, watching the tanks to keep them from running over, oiling the pumps, and running errands, as directed by Mr. Burkholder, who had charge of that department of the work. On June 4, 1902, at about 8 o’clock in the forenoon, plaintiff was in that part of the factory under the clay floor. Burkholder handed him two wrenches and told him to “go and tighten the bolts on the head of that mill standing still, and do it quick, because we are in a hurry. We are getting behind on the mud.” He took the wrenches, and went from the east, between the dead mill and the one north of it, which was running, walking on a plank about a foot wide, towards the west, until he came to the west end, turned south, and passed in front of the west end of the dead mill, and turned in between that mill and the one nest south of it, facing to the side of the head of the dead mill upon which the bolts were to be tightened. This mill was standing still, or “dead,” as it is called. It was the third mill counting from the south. All the other mills were running. He saw that the fourth mill was running when he went between it and the dead mill. He was told to tighten the bolts on the mill that was standing still. He says he did not notice that No. 2 was running. Plaintiff started to tighten the bolts, and had worked about five minutes. He used the two wrenches, pulling up on one and pushing down on the other, while doing this. To use his words: “The bolt slipped in the wrench, and jerked — gave me a sudden jerk, and my feet slipped, and I went on my back.” His arm was caught between the trunnion and tire on the tube mill behind him and was cut off. He was otherwise seriously injured. At the close of plaintiff’s case defendant moved that the court direct a verdict in its favor, on the ground that the evidence was not sufficient in law to warrant a recovery. The court, in granting such motion, gave his reasons as follows: “ In an action of this kind the employé’s knowledge or ignorance of a risk may be a factor which of itself, and, without any reference to the quality of the employer’s conduct, furnishes or supplies the test for the determination of the employe’s right of action. “ If the employé knows of the dangers of the premises or place of work, or with the exercise of ordinary care— that is, such care as an ordinarily prudent man would exercise over his own affairs under like circumstances— could see and understand them he assumes the risks which arise therefrom. If the plaintiff knew of the dangers of his place of work or by the exercise of reasonable care and caution in the discharge of his duties would or could have known of it then there could be no recovery in this case. He could not go blindly about his work. He was required to use his senses. It is a man’s duty to exercise his common sense in his employment. “ The plaintiff was at the time of his employment and at the time of the accident a man of mature age experienced in life and in the full possession of his faculties having capacity to understand and appreciate the dangers which were patent and obvious to a person of ordinary intelligence; and in so far as he knew or ought in the exercise of reasonable care to have known the risks and dangers of the work he is deemed to have accepted and assumed those risks and dangers and this whether the work was outside of the scope of his regular employment or not. ‘ ‘ The plaintiff had been in the employ of the defendant in and about the factory for some time before the accident. He had prior experience in the particular work of tightening bolts I think while he was in the employ of the railroad company. The place in- the factory where he had worked, and the kind of work which he had performed, while in the employ of the defendant, was such. as to challenge his attention to the situation of the premises. The location and character of the machinery, the existence and operation of the tube mills, their proximity to each other, their liability to be in operation at any time, and the fact that he understood that some of them were in operation at the time he went to do the work he was engaged in when the accident occurred — generally, the dangers to be expected — all these things were and had been right in front of him in his line of vision, and he must be held to have known what his eyes would have told him if he had used them. There is nothing in the evidence to show that the exigencies of the work he was doing were such as to excuse him, or relieve him from the duties imposed upon him by the law. Although the defendant company may have been negligent in leaving the machinery of the mills uncovered and unguarded, negligent in the respects charged and relied upon in the declaration filed in the case, still the danger arising from the tube mills adjoining the one where he was working was one which, under his own testimony, he knew, or ought to have known in the exercise of ordinary care. The fact that plaintiff sustained serious and permanent injuries, injuries of a character which enlist the sympathies of all, does not alone furnish sufficient ground for his recovery in this action. As I view it, the evidence is insufficient under the law to entitle the plaintiff to recover, and the jury are directed to return a verdict for the defendant.” The plaintiff assigns error upon this action of the court and specifically alleges that the court erred in its findings and instructions to the jury as follows: “1. That the plaintiff, from the length of his employment with the defendant, the place in the factory where he had worked, and the kind of work which he had performed, must be presumed to have known and appreciated the dangers to be expected in the work he was en gaged in at the time of his injury and assumed the risk. ‘ ‘ 2. In holding that there was nothing in the evidence to show that the exigencies of the work he was doing were such as to excuse him,' or relieve him from the duties imposed upon him by law. “3. In holding that, although defendant might have been negligent in leaving the machinery of the mills uncovered and unguarded in the respects charged and relied upon in plaintiff’s declaration, still the danger arising from the tube mills adjoining the one where he was working was one which under his own testimony he knew, or ought in the exercise of ordinary care to have known. “á. That the court erred in not submitting to the jury the question of defendant’s negligence in permitting mud and slurry to remain upon the surface of the abutment where the plaintiff was sent to work, thus rendering it slippery and unsafe, as charged in the declaration, and in failing to caution and warn him of the dangers of the place where the work was to be done. “5. That the court erred in not submitting the question of defendant’s negligence in giving the order which was given to plaintiff, when it had knowledge that the adjoining mills were in operation and the abutment was slippery, and that the work he was ordered to do was outside of the usual scope of his employment. “6. That the court erred in not submitting to the jury the question whether plaintiff knew and appreciated, or ought to have known and appreciated, the danger to be encountered by him in the performance of the work he was directed to do, and whether such danger was so apparent and imminent that a person of average prudence and intelligence would have declined under the circumstances to comply with the order.” Plaintiff had worked in this department 2£ months, passing near the tube mills every day. These mills were running most of the time, and were not complicated machinery. Plaintiff had on two occasions, when, the mills were not running, assisted in removing the stones from the third mill and in replacing them. A man of ordinary intelligence could not approach these mills and look at them from either end, whether they were still or running, without observing the trunnions upon which they turned. One-half of the trunnions was always visible above the bases, except when one of the mills was being cleaned out. Then plank was put in front of it, up to the lower rim of the mill, to prevent stones from falling back into the vat. The extreme ends of the bases under the individual mills were 21 inches apart, the rims of the trunnions 28 inches, and the least distance between any part of the cylinders was 3 feet 9 inches. There was ample space to pass between .and around the mills by a person using ordinary care. This was, from the necessities of the business, the wet end of the factory. Nothing was handled but mud, and, of necessity, there was more or less mud everywhere. Plaintiff’s employment was mostly with tanks filled with mud by pumps, and his business was to see that they did not overflow. Plaintiff says he was directed to go to the mill which was standing still and tighten the bolts in the head. This challenged his attention to the fact that the others were running, a fact which was apparent to him, because he selected without further direction and went to work at the dead mill. He says he knew No. 4 was running when he went between 3 and 4; but paid no attention to No. 2; that he walked in there without seeing that mill at all; that he looked only at the bolts he was to go to work on. Plaintiff was a man of mature years, in the possession of all his faculties. It is not claimed that he was not acquainted with the use of wrenches, or that the ones given him were defective. He had worked six years in a flour and feed mill, and so informed defendant’s superintendent when he was hired. The accident occurred in the middle of the forenoon of June 4th. The light, although not very good, was sufficient on an ordinary summer day to see the trunnions, according to plaintiff’s testimony, at least 6 feet, and' the tube mills 25 feet, away. This machinery was not complicated. It was, in fact, of the simplest construction. It was in all respects open, apparent, and visible to any person of ordinary intelligence. The rule of law is that an employe assumes all risk of accident from defects or dangers which are open, visible, and apparent. Bailey on Master’s Liability for Injuries to Servant, p. 220, and cases cited; Gavigan v. Railway Co., 110 Mich. 73; Hathaway v. Milling Co., 139 Mich. 708. And this is true, whether within or without the regular scope of his employment. Both cases last cited were where the employé was directed to work outside of the scope of his employment. In the Hathaway Case Justice Ostrander, speaking for the court, said: ‘ ‘ Plaintiff was 28 years old, sound, and in possession of all his faculties. The room in which he was injured was properly lighted. There was no defect, hidden or other, in the machinery. The work he was doing was in itself neither difficult nor dangerous, and to perform it properly and safely required only ordinary care. Whatever danger there was, was visible. The result likely to follow contact of clothing or person with the cogwheels was evident. We do not discover any testimony in the record warranting an inference that any instruction or cautionary suggestion from the superintendent would have afforded plaintiff any better knowledge of the danger to be apprehended from the cogwheels than was afforded by merely looking at them.” No words could more appropriately fit the case under consideration. Whatever danger there was of injury from this machinery was perfectly apparent to any one using ordinary care, and he must be held to have assumed the risk. His injury was the result of an accident caused by the slipping of the wrench he was using. It is urged that, on account of the brightness of the surface of the trunnion and the tire on the mill, the fact that a mill was running could not be told when looking at this surface, for the reason that they appeared to be the surface of one large wheel. This appears from the record to be true, if looking directly at them from a point having their surfaces in perfect alignment; but the testimony of plaintiff is that he did not look at all at the mill on which he was hurt. He gave no attention whatever to the place where he was working, although his attention had been directed to the fact that all the mills but one were running, and he selected that one without difficulty. Negligence is alleged because these trunnions were not protected by guards. There is no proof in the case that it was customary to put guards upon machinery of this character. The court was not in error in directing a verdict for defendant. The judgment of the circuit court is affirmed. Carpenter, Grant, Blair, and Moore, JJ., concurred.
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Grant, J. (after stating the facts). The first point made in counsel’s brief is: “The remarks of the court were entirely uncalled for arid almost before any evidence was offered, and only served to indicate to the jury that defendant had no valid defense.” The point is not further argued. These remarks were very properly made, and related to the record title, about which there was no dispute. There is nothing in them of which any just complaint can be made. Testimony of conversations between Mrs. Cole, who was dead, and a witness, of statements made by Mrs. Cole as to her claim, and not in the presence of Mr. Campau, were properly excluded. Campau and Mrs. Cole were tenants in common, and she could not make assertions of title to a stranger which were not communicated to or known by Mr. Campau. Such assertions would not constitute an open act of hostility to Campau’s title. Counsel for defendant asked a witness on cross-examination whether she had not presented a note against the estate of her mother which she claimed was signed by her mother. This was properly excluded. It was immaterial to the issue in the case, and could not be used for the purpose of testing the witness’ credibility. Statements made by Mrs. Cole recognizing the title of defendant Campau were properly admitted. They constituted admissions against her interests. Defendant sought to show that Campau obtained the deed of her one-fourth interest from defendant by fraud. The evidence was properly excluded. Plaintiff had the legal title, and a court of equity would be the only forum in which to test the validity of a deed from defendant to Campau and the other deeds by which plaintiff obtained her title. Several other objections are raised to the testimony, but the defendant’s counsel neither in his assignments of error nor in his brief refers to the record where the testimony is to be found. We have examined the record and find nothing prejudicial to the defendant’s case. They are not of sufficient importance to discuss. The court correctly instructed the jury as to the acts of hostility required by one tenant in common to constitute adverse possession against his co-tenant. These principles are well understood, and a statement of them is unnecessary. The defendant’s requests so far as they were proper were in substance contained in the oral charge. The plaintiff was the owner of the record title. It is doubtful if the facts made by the defendant’s proof were sufficient to justify a verdict of title by adverse possession. It was, however, left to the jury, and we think they reached the proper conclusion. The judgment is affirmed. McAlvay, C. J., and Carpenter, Blair, and Ostrander, JJ., concurred.
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Plaintiff-appellant’s motion for costs is considered and the Clerk is directed to tax costs in plaintiffs favor in the amount of $2,735.27.
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Rehearing denied.
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The motion for miscellaneous relief filed by plaintiffs-appellees is denied because the Court is not persuaded that an order such as prayed for in conjunction with the motion would be appropriate. The applications for leave to appeal which are presently pending in this Court, are limited to the question of whether the Court of Appeals correctly determined that plaintiff-appellee Yellow Freight’s certificate of operation was not revoked as a matter of law. This denial is without prejudice to the right of plaintiffs-appellees to seek in any appropriate administrative or judicial forum a determination of the request for temporary operating authority.
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Rehearing denied. Kavanagh and Levin, JJ., would grant rehearing to address the unanswered question of whether failure to comply with notice requirements requires dismissal of a claim absent a showing of prejudice to the employer, which question was one of the issues on which leave to appeal was granted.
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Rehearing denied.
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Per Curiam. We granted leave to appeal to consider whether the defendant Linzie Gardner was denied his right to effective assistance of counsel because of the joint representation in this case. We conclude that he was. I Linzie Gardner and Michael Kidder were charged with assault with intent to commit mur-. der in an attack made by them on a prison guard while they were incarcerated in State Prison of Southern Michigan. At trial, both were repre sented by the same attorney. Gardner was convicted of assault with intent to commit murder and was sentenced to a term of 50 to 75 years, to .be served consecutively to the sentence he was serving at the time of the commission of the offense. Kidder was convicted of assault with intent to do great bodily harm less than murder and was sentenced to a term of 5 to 10 years in prison, to run concurrently with the term he was serving at the time of the commission of the offense. Gardner appealed to the Court of Appeals. The prosecutor filed a motion to affirm. By order dated June 7, 1976, the Court of Appeals granted the prosecution’s motion. II At trial, both Gardner and Kidder admitted that each committed an assault on the prison guard. The prison guard who was assaulted testified that the first blow which was struck was an "awful hard blow, terrible blow”. Kidder admitted striking the first blow. Kidder’s testimony, however, was that the blow which he struck was not very hard. Gardner corroborated Kidder’s version; he likened the blow which Kidder struck to a "baby tap”. Gardner admitted hitting the prison guard over the head with a board about four times and subsequently striking the prison guard with a crowbar. Both Gardner and Kidder, while admitting their participation in the assault, contended that neither intended to murder the guard who had discovered them in an area of the prison where they were not supposed to be. While the defenses of Gardner and Kidder were not necessarily inconsistent, it should have been apparent to defense counsel at the very outset of this case that the testimony would portray differ ing degrees of culpability, most notably less culpability on the part of Kidder and greater culpability on the part of Gardner. Furthermore, the record reveals that at some time after the commission of the offense, Gardner made a statement to the police in which he, inter alia, at least implied that he was willing to take the blame for the crime in an effort to aid Kidder. When the prosecutor attempted to impeach Gardner at trial by virtue of this statement, defense counsel objected on the basis that the statement would prove harmful to Kidder. Thus we have a situation in which the attorney objected to the admission of a statement which, at least inferentially, would cast Gardner in a more favorable light on the basis that to admit the statement would harm counsel’s other client, Kidder. The trial judge recognized the potential for conflict, but the matter ended when the prosecutor said that he would not Use the statement. In addition, the closing argument of defense counsel indicates that he emphasized the limited role of Kidder in the assault and indeed urged the jury to find Kidder guilty of nothing greater than felonious assault. On the other hand; in closing argument, defense counsel felt compelled to indicate to the jury: "* * * and that is my duty again as counsel to point out to you that if either one of these men, and we are talking primarily about Linzié Gardner, if Linzie Gardner had wanted to kill Officer Schultz — number 1, he would have gone back to see whether he was living, and number 2 — if he had gone back and wanted to kill him and found that he was breathing, he woiild have 'finished him off in the word of Mr. Grant.” Thus, a single defense attorney, representing both the defendant and his codefendant, felt it necessary to draw a line of demarcation as to the relative culpability of his two clients. We conclude that Under the circumstances of this case, joint representation deprived Gardner of the effective assistance of counsel. People v Bentley, 402 Mich 121; 261 NW2d 716 (1978). Accordingly, we reverse the defendant’s conviction and remand for á hew trial. In addition, we have concluded that the time has come for the promulgation by this Court of a procedure whereby the rights of defendants to the effective assistance of counsel iri a joint representation situation are protected. Accordingly, a proposed amendment to GCR 1963, 785 will be published for comment under GCR 1963, 933. Revfersed and remanded for new trial. Coleman, C.J., and Kavanagh, Williams, Levin, Fitzgerald, Ryan, and Blair Moody, Jr., JJ., concurred.
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Carpenter, J. Complainant, by a deed absolute in form, conveyed to the first-named defendant certain real estate situated in the city of Detroit. The purpose of this conveyance was to secure the repayment of certain moneys theretofore and to be thereafter advanced by said defendant bank to complainant’s husband, Anthony Seiffert. This suit was commenced, after said advances had been made, for the purpose of securing a reconveyance of said land, on the ground that complainant had been induced to transfer the same by fraud and duress. The trial judge, before whom the case was heard on testimony taken in open court, decided that no fraud or duress had been perpetrated, and made a decree dismissing complainant’s bill. We dispose of all the contentions of complainant, who appeals from said decree, when we say that the trial judge correctly decided the issue of fact. The decree is affirmed. McAlvay, C. J., and Ostrander, Hooker, and Moore, JJ., concurred.
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McAlvay, C. J. This is an action for slander. Defendant asks this court to reverse a judgment for $1,000 obtained against him in the circuit court for Berrien county. Plaintiff had worked for defendant at Niles as a dining-room girl in his hotel, and had sued him in justice’s court for wages claimed to be due her. After the trial, while awaiting the verdict of the jury in that case in the court-room, in presence of the justice and others, the alleged slander was uttered by defendant. Plaintiff was not present at the time. The declaration in this case charges that defendant falsely published, and declared of and concerning her, the following slanderous words: “ 1. She is a damned bitch. “ 2. You can’t imagine how low this woman is. “ 3. She had the teeth marks on her cheek where she let the nigger cook bite her. “ 4. She had her trunk in the cook’s room. “ 5. She slept in bed with the nigger cook.” With his plea of the general issue defendant gave notice of the truth of the second, third, and fourth charges, and specifically denied that he used the language charged in the first and fifth. The errors relied upon by defendant are: First. The ruling of the court in striking out the following question and answer during the examination of one of defendant’s witnesses: “ Q. State whether or not you have seen any familiarities between her and the chef, Curtis. “A. Yes, sir.” The purpose of this question was in support of the plea of the truth in justification of the words charged, “You can’t imagine how low she isand was to show specific acts of lewd conduct on the part of plaintiff. The brief of defendant indicates that this charge, which is justified as true by the plea, referred to the character of plaintiff for lewdness. He says: “What the plaintiff did, how she lived, and whether she was a woman given to lewd conduct was squarely in issue by the pleadings. Defendant had a right to show specific acts of lewdness.” The weight of authority does not support the contention of defendant. He was seeking to prove plaintiff’s character as a low woman. “It is settled by the great weight of authority that character cannot be proved by evidence of its operation in specific instances, even where the - conduct has become habitual.” 16 Cyc. p. 1278, and cases cited. This rule was adopted in this State in Proctor v. Houghtaling, 37 Mich. 41, and has been approved and followed. Bourreseau v. Evening Journal, 63 Mich. 425; Thibault v. Sessions, 101 Mich. 279; McGee v. Baumgartner, 121 Mich. 287. Second. Defendant had submitted testimony tending to show plaintiff’s general reputation for chastity to ■ be bad. In rebuttal, plaintiff recalled a witness who had lived in Niles all his life, and been a newspaper reporter three years, who was asked: “ Q. Up to the time that you heard those remarks by Mr. Pinch in Mr. Beaver’s court-room, had you ever heard a word or a suspicion against the chastity of Nora Smitley, the plaintiff ? ” Defendant objected, for the reason that no proper foundation had been laid, and there was no evidence that witness knew plaintiff. The court overruled the objection, and witness answered: “No; I hadn’t.” This is assigned as error. This court has pointed out the distinction between the competency of a witness called upon to impeach and one to support reputation, affirming a ruling where a witness was allowed to testify that he had never heard the defendant’s reputation for truth and veracity questioned, in a case where evidence had been introduced to show such reputation to be bad. Mr. Justice Graves, speaking for the court, said: “Where, however, the witness is not called to impair, but to support, credit, the ground is different. Not to have been talked about at all in regard to integrity is not to have been talked against. * * * The fact that a person’s truthfulness has never been the subject of controversy is, according to general observation and experience, very cogent evidence to prove him worthy of credit, and, where those who would be likely to know if it had been the subject of criticism, testify they have no knowledge that it has been, the evidence is proper as conducive to the effect that such person could not have borne the bad reputation imputed. ” Lenox v. Fuller, 39 Mich. 268, 272, and cases cited. See, also, 5 Am. & Eng. Enc. Law (2d Ed.), p. 882, and cases cited under note 3; State v. Nelson, 58 Iowa, 208. Personal acquaintance is not a necessary prerequisite to qualify the witness to testify as to the reputation in question, if it appears the witness was in a position to know and had never heard the reputation questioned. 5 Am. & Eng. Enc. Law (2d Ed.), p. 882. The testimony was properly admitted. Third. Error is assigned upon the refusal to grant the following request to charge: “If you find from the evidence that the defendant did say of the plaintiff, ‘ She is a damned bitch, ’ and if you find upon the evidence that such statement is true, then I charge you the plaintiff could only recover nominal damages; that is, six cents. So, if you find defendant did say that she slept with the nigger cook, as charged, and you also find the truth of this statement, in that event your verdict should be for nominal damages; that is, six cents. But, if you find that the defendant did not make either of these statements as charged, then if you find the truth of the other charges, your verdict must be for the defendant.” This request was properly refused. It does not state the law of the case. No justification of the truth of either of these charges was pleaded. The sole question for the jury to determine as to them was whether or not the words had been uttered by defendant. This was properly given by the court in his main charge, and he also gave defendant’s request as follows: “If you find from the evidence that the defendant has established the statement that ‘the plaintiff is a low woman,’ that *‘ she did keep her trunk in the chef’s room,’ and that she did have the marks on her face where the colored cook bit her, then I charge you the defendant is entitled to your verdict as far as those statements are concerned. And, if you find that the defendant so far as his clairns are concerned as to all five of these charges, viz., that one of them he did not make at all, that the substance of the other was as claimed by defendant, and that the defendant has proven the truth of these charges substantially as made, then I charge you the plaintiff cannot recover and your verdict must be for the defendant.” Fourth. The remaining question is as to the verdict. It is claimed to be excessive, and that the court erred in not setting it aside and granting a new trial for that reason. No exceptions were taken by defendant to the charge of the court as to the question of damages in this case. An examination of the charge in that regard satisfies us that the court correctly charged the jury. The court in denying the motion for a new trial said, relative to the question of excessive damages: “The slander alleged consisted practically in a charge of criminal intercourse with a negro; the plaintiff being a white woman. The jury evidently found that no such charge was proved. Under the circumstances a verdict of $1,000, although larger than the court might have given, if tried without a jury, does not appear to be so excessive as to warrant the court to set aside the verdict upon that sole ground.” We agree with the trial court upon this proposition. No error appearing from the record presented, the judgment of the circuit court is affirmed. Carpenter, Ostrander, Hooker, and Moore, JJ., concurred.
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Blaie, J. This is a common-law action for fraud and deceit against the defendants as directors of the Old Second National Bank of Bay City, based upon representations of the financial condition of the bank, contained in certain reports to the comptroller of the currency, in reliance upon which plaintiff alleges she purchased certain stock of the bank. The declaration contained four counts. The first count charged that, at the time of the fraudulent representations relied upon, the capital of the bank had become impaired and its value destroyed by reason of losses suffered by the bank through the discounting of paper for Alzina Maltby (doing business as the Maltby Lumber Company) and W. I. Brotherton & Co.; that defendants, as directors of the bank, fraudulently and knowingly caused and permitted Maltby and Brotherton paper of the face value of $375,000, which defendants knew to be worthless, to remain as an asset at its face value on the boobs of the bank, and to be listed as such in five reports to the comptroller of the currency, published during the year 1903; that this was done for the purpose of giving the stock a fictitious value in the eyes of the public; and that, for the same purpose, the defendants, as directors, declared and paid 5 per cent, semi-annual dividends during the years 1902 and 1903, thereby holding out and representing to the public that these dividends had been earned, and that the capital stock of the bank was unimpaired. This count treats the keeping of false books, the publishing of false reports, and the declaration of unearned dividends as acts “performed by the said defendants acting jointly and in concert and in pursuance of one common purpose and design ” to induce plaintiff and the public to deal with the bank, to buy its capital stock, and to give its stock a fictitious value in the market. The other counts of the declaration merely separate the elements which in the first count are joined together. The first count treats the keeping of false books, the publishing of false statements, and the fraudulent declaration of dividends as all part of one single scheme of fraud. The second count is based only upon the keeping of false books — failing to deduct from the apparent resources of the bank, as shown by its books, so much of the Maltby and Brotherton paper as was known by the defendants to be worthless. The third count bases the action on the publication of a single false report, that of November 17, 1903, which was the last report published before plaintiff bought her stock. The fourth count bases the action upon the fraudulent declaration of dividends at a time when defendants knew the capital stock to be impaired, and with the knowledge and intent on their part that the declaration of these dividends would be accepted by the public as a representation that the capital stock was unimpaired. The stock was not bought from either of the defendants, and the action is not based upon any privity between the parties either as vendor and purchaser, or as director and stockholder, but upon the duty owing to plaintiff as one of the public. The only fraudulent representations sought to be proved concerned certain paper known as the “Maltby and Brotherton Paper,” which was included at its face value in the statement of “ Loans and Discounts” in the reports. Plaintiff’s counsel, at the outset, made a statement of what they expected to prove, and, among other things, that on the 30th day of June, 1902, the bank held $430,000 of drafts made by the Maltby Lumber Company upon its customers and discounted at the bank; that at the same time the bank held drafts discounted for W. I. Brother-ton & Co., amounting to $85,000 to $100,000; that investigations were ordered in October, 1902, which showed that: “ In this amount of drafts I have mentioned $430,000, which was reduced to about $320,000 by the following January; $135,000 worth were actually proved worthless, of no value,' and charged off to profit and loss on the books of the bank. We also expect to show you of tbis "W. I. Brotherton & Co. paper (and I mean by that commercial paper — this bank now have drafts and notes and other paper discounted) the sum of $53,000 was prior to 1906 actually charged off the books of the bank to profit and loss, and as a result of this loss the capital stock of the bank has been cut in half, reduced from $200,000 to $100,000. We shall also show you that the bank is no doubt now carrying paper and notes yet representing this old Maltby account of $120,000, or thereabouts, which is still unpaid, and that all the bank has to show for that paper are assets in round numbers $25,000 to $20,000, so there is another loss of from $90,000 to $100,000 still to be charged off the books of the bank which has not been charged off. We expect to show you, gentlemen of the jury, that all of this enormous loss was' actually suffered by the bank back in the years 1902 and 1903 before Mr. Woodworth bought his stock or Miss Smalley bought her stock. We expect to show you that the loss was suffered back then, and that these defendants, instead of charging it off at that time, carried along on the books of the bank a tremendous lot of worthless paper purporting and appearing to be assets of the bank, which were not assets, which were worth nothing, and which they knew to be worth nothing. And on the question of their knowledge we expect to show you that the facts at the hands of these men — facts which they had within their reach such that by the use of reasonable care they would have advised them — were sufficient to advise them, in the year 1902 and early in 1903, that these assets were worthless. * * * We expect to show you that the facts within the reach of these men were sufficient to give them a knowledge about these accounts and about the value of these assets, and give them a clear idea of what they were worth. And we expect to show you that the circumstances were such that with reasonable care they should have known the true condition of affairs, whether they knew it or not actually. We expect to show that, and prove that by the contents of the books of the bank, by the contents of the books of the Maltby Lumber Company, and by the contents of the books of the Maltby Cedar Company, which we shall show you was a corporation formed for the benefit of the Old Second National Bank in the year 1904, to take over and realize upon the assets of Alzina Maltby. We also expect to show you these men had actual knowledge.” After making his opening statement, plaintiff’s counsel called the cashier of the bank, and sought to examine him as to. the books of the bank. Upon objection being made, the court ruled that the cashier could not be inquired of as to the books until some proof of misrepresentations on the part of defendants had been put. in.Thereupon, counsel for plaintiff gave evidence tending'to show the publication of several reports; the last of them being a report of November 17, 1903, which contained, under the head of “Resources,” the item, “Loans and Discounts, $1,081,446.05,” and that on December 16,1903, plaintiff’s agent, relying upon the published statements, puchased for plaintiff 10 shares of the stock of the bank from a broker. It was agreed by counsel that the published statement agreed with the books of the bank. In the course of the examination of plaintiff’s agent, the following occurred: “ Q. In buying this Smalley, stock, to what extent did you rely upon the published statement under date of November 17, 1903 ? “Mr. T. A. E. Weadock: I object to that as incompetent, for he has already answered the question. “ The Court: Sustain the objection. * * * “ Q. State whether you would have bought the plaintiff’s stock on December 16, 1903, if you hadn’t seen the published statement of November 17, 1903. “ Mr. T. A. E. Weadock: I object to that as leading. “ The Court: Sustain the objection. “Mr. J. C. Weadock: Exception. “ The Court: As I understand, this man has been all over that. He has made the statement once, and he has come in here apparently to make it over again. “Mr. Clark: Exception to that remark. “Mr. J. C. Weadock: His statement was he relied upon this statement. Our purpose is to show it was an exclusive reliance. “Mr. Clark: Not only that, but a reliance to the extent that he wouldn’t have bought this stock without this statement. “ The Court: That’s the way I understand it. I sustain the objection. * * * “ Q. When you bought the plaintiff’s stock, state what, if any, knowledge you had of the facts in regard to the Maltby and Brotherton paper held by the Old Second National Bank, its amount, or its value. “A. -I had no knowledge whatever of how much Maltby or Brotherton paper they had. “ Q. What knowledge did you have in any way in re•gard to the value of such of the Maltby and Brotherton paper as they had ? “ A. I had no knowledge of the value of the paper. “ Q. What knowledge did you have as to what other paper was included in that statement of loans and discounts made by the bank ? “A. I had no knowledge of any of the paper. “ Q. Or what it was worth ? “A. None whatever. The plaintiff herself had nothing to do with the purchase of this stock outside of the signing of this check and giving it to me. * * * “,Q. You say in buying this stock you relied entirely upon the statements ? “A. Yes; I did. * * * “ Q. What do you mean by the statement you made on cross-examination that you knew that all these bank statements in showing loans ánd discounts would show them regardless of their values ? “Mr. T. A. E. Weadock: I object to that as incompetent cross-examination of his own witness. “ The Court: It’s a question for the jury. “Mr. Clark: Exception. “ Q. Did you understand the question asked by Mr. Weadock as I asked it to you in this question ? “Mr. T. A. E. Weadock: Objected to as incompetent. “ The Court: Call the attention of the witness to the testimony, and then I will rule upon it. (Recess. Copy of question and answer furnished by stenographer.) “ Q. I call your attention to the question and answer. (Reading.) ‘You knew that the statement in their reports meant the amount of loans and discounts held at the bank on that day regardless of their value ? “ ‘ A. Yes.’ I ask you if you understood that question and intended to answer it that way ? “Mr. T. A. E. Weadock: I object to that as incompetent, as utterly unwarranted. • “ The Court: I sustain the objection. If you want to get at that matter, you will have to get at it in some different way. “Mr. Clark: Exception. * * * “Mr. J. G. Weadock: Mr. Woodworth has testified on the stand that he assumed and believed that statement contained a statement of the resources of the bank. If there is any misapprehension upon the subject, we desire to clear up the testimony, and put Mr. Woodworth back' on the stand. We don’t want this court to assume Mr. Woodworth has said he knew there was in that report any loans and discounts which were bad. “ The Court: He did say so as plainly as the English language or any other language can convey it. “Mr. Clark: Exception to that statement. * * * “Mr. Clark: Will the court rule upon our offer to place Mr. Woodworth again upon the stand ? “The Court: After this motion is made. I understand there is a motion to take this case from the jury. “ Mr. T. A. E. Weadock: Exactly. “Mr. Clark: We say our case isn’t completed, and Mr. Woodworth’s testimony is not completed. “The Court: You withdrew Mr. Woodworth, and said he was excused, and you certainly knew the court told you you must make your principal case by Mr. Wood-worth in the first place before you put any other testimony upon the stand, and then you called Mr. Andrews and other witnesses after excusing Mr. Woodworth. “Mr. Clark; After we had attempted to get from Mr. Woodworth an explanation, and your honor had prevented us from doing it. Now, we again ask the privilege of making that explanation. ‘ ‘ Mr. T. A. E. Weadock: When the plaintiff himself made the statement his case was gone, and you knew it. “ Mr. Clark: I believe it is for the jury to say whether— “ The Court: Gentlemen of the jury— “Mr. J. C. Weadock: We haven’t completed our testimony, and we desire to make our record complete— “Mr. T. A. E. Weadock: No. “Mr. J. C. Weadock: Then we want to have on the record what we propose to show or prove: “The Court: That is entirely proper.” Plaintiff’s counsel thereupon offered in evidence certain depositions, and made an offer to prove, extending over several pages of the record, covering the opening statement of her case in detail, and with some additional mat ter. In the course of the statement, the following occurred: “Plaintiff’s agent in buying plaintiff’s stock relied upon the published statement of November 17, 1903, and would not have purchased this stock if he had not seen this statement, and if it had not been shown that the stock had increased'in value since the previous statement. “ The Court: You cannot show anything further on that subject. You have already gone into that. “Mr. Clark: We didn’t show it. “ The Court: I said if you asked it in a proper way you could ask the direct question, or without questioning let him explain what he meant by his statement. “ Mr. Clark: I will repeat that this offer is made, as I said in the beginning, in addition to the proofs already made.” At the conclusion of the statement,.the following occurred : t “Mr. T. A. -JEJ. Weadock: We object to that as incompetent, irrelevant, and immaterial. And I desire to say that if these gentlemen have any proof that either óf these defendants at any time, or in any way, made any false representations, let them produce the proof of it. We say they are making a statement which consists of mere words which we know they cannot prove. They have no proof of that sort. If they have, we will listen to it. But so far as the whole case goes, the statement that is made here, I object to it as incompetent, irrelevant, and immaterial, except so far perhaps as it charges them with direct fraud of which they have no evidence and can produce none. There is testimony enough here which, as the proof stands in this, would preclude the plaintiff from recovering. I say, further, that the offer, in the shape it is made, is entirely incompetent. No court can be called to rule upon such a statement as that. “ The Court:' I sustain the objection to it. “Mr. Clark: Exception.” Thereupon the court directed a verdict for defendants, stating, among other things, the following: “Now, from the testimony already given in this case' by Mr. Woodworth, who here stands in the place and stead of the plaintiff, Miss Smalley, I am satisfied that the plaintiff cannot recover in this case in any event, for the reason that he was not deceived by this statement. His testimony in this case indicates that he knew these statements did not show the true condition of the affairs of the bank, that they might'include bad paper as well as good, that they might include suspended paper as well as good, and, in fact, that it might include a large amount of bad paper, and part of this testimony I will now quote. In regard to this he says in answer to a question, as follows ( quoting testimony): * * * Now, gentlemen, in my view of this case the evidence is so strong that it is impossible to meet it, that the plaintiff in this case through her agent, Mr. Woodworth, had full knowledge of the manner in which these bank statements were made out, and could not charge these people with fraud because of having been deceived by a statement of that kind, which he knew was utterly unreliable according to his own statement. He was put upon inquiry, and was bound to go further and ascertain more before he could rely upon that statement. He was not warranted in relying upon that statement, and then seek to hold these defendants for any loss which he might suffer or which might have been suffered thereby. I therefore instruct you, gentlemen of the jury, to render a verdict in this case of not guilty.” The judgment in this case cannot be sustained, unless the court was correct in his conclusion that the testimony of plaintiff’s agent conclusively negatived her cause of action. Field v. Clippert, 78 Mich. 26. We are of the opinion that the court .erred in excluding answers to the questions calling for explanations of the agent’s testimony and as to the extent of his reliance upon the reports. We are also of the opinion that it did not appear from the testimony of plaintiff’s agent, as a matter of law, that he had no right to rely, and did not rely, upon the reports to the comptroller. He testified that he did rely upon the reports, and, although the inference that he did not might be deduced therefrom, his testimony, considered as a whole, would have authorized a finding that he did rely upon the reports. The questions of his knowledge of the making up and contents of the reports, and of his reliance upon them, were, at the most, questions for the jury, and not for the court. He testified that he had no knowledge of any of the paper included in the item “Loans and Discounts,” or of its value. We do not think it conclusively appears, as stated by the court, that the agent had full knowledge of the way these reports were made out, and that they were so utterly unreliable that he was bound to go further and ascertain more before he could rely upon the reports. The diligence required of the plaintiff’s agent must be considered in connection with the character of the representations upon which he claimed to rely. The reports were published in accordance with the provisions of section .5211 of the Revised Statutes of the United States, containing a provision that “each such report shall exhibit, in detail and under appropriate heads, the resources and liabilities of the association at the close of business on any past day by him specified.” The object of this section, as said by the Supreme Court of the United States, “was to apprise the comptroller of the currency and the public of the condition of each national bank at stated periods.” Cochran v. U. S., 157 U. S. 286, 296. We think it necessarily follows that a person contemplating the purchase of stock of the bank has a legal right to rely upon the published report as a true statement of the financial condition» of the bank, without further inquiry, in the absence of’ knowledge tending to show the unreliability of the statement. 2 Cook on Corporations (5th Ed.), § 352. The prospective purchaser is not chargeable with knowledge of such circumstances as he might have discovered by the exercise of ordinary prudence and diligence, but only with the natural inferences deducible from the knowledge possessed by him. Smith v. McDonald, 139 Mich. 225; Sawyer v. Building Ass’n, 103 Mich. 228. There is some confusion in the testimony of the agent due to the fact he was cross-examined at length with reference to knowledge acquired and conduct on his part after the purchase of the stock, which could only be competent as bearing upon the credibility of his testimony, and would not be competent as admissions or proof of facts against the plaintiff. Hall v. Murdock, 119 Mich. 389. In view of another trial, we consider it proper to express our views as to certain of the questions argued in the briefs of counsel. ‘ ‘ It is the settled rule in this State, whatever the rule may be elsewhere, that one who purchases property in the belief of, and reliance upon, false statements regarding it, may sue for and recover the damages occasioned thereby, whether the representations are made in good or bad faith.” Krause v. Cook, 144 Mich. 365. Directors of a bank are bound to exercise that degree of care in the business affairs of the bank that ordinarily prudent and careful men would exercise in affairs of like importance. Briggs v. Spaulding, 141 U. S. 132; Commercial Bank of Bay City v. Chatfield, 121 Mich. 641; Gibbons v. Anderson, 80 Fed. 345. The liability of. the directors in a case like this is independent of the national banking act, and is derived from the principles of the common law. Prescott v. Haughey, 65 Fed. 653; Brinckerhoff v. Bostwick, 88 N. Y. 52; Yates v. Jones Nat. Bank (Neb.), 105 N. W. 287. If the directors signing the report knew, or by the exercise of ordinary diligence in the discharge of their duties would have known, prior to signing such report, that the item ‘ ‘ Loans and Discounts ” contained paper worth much less than its face value, which would materially affect the value of its stock, they would be individually liable to a purchaser of the stock who relied in good faith upon such report as stating the true financial condition of the bank. Prewitt v. Trimble, 92 Ky. 176; Heard v. Pictorial Press, 182 Mass. 530; Hubbard v. Weave, 79 Iowa, 678. The judgment is reversed, and a new trial granted. Grant, Montgomery, Hooker, and Moore, JJ., concurred.
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Moore, J. Application was made to the probate court for Lenawee county 'by Edmund H. Griffin to have a guardian appointed for the person and estate of Penninah Taylor, a nonresident of Michigan. The probate court decided that, as Penninah Taylor was a nonresident, he had no jurisdiction to make such appointment, and refused to hear or pass upon the merits of the case. Mr. Griffin then applied to the circuit court for a writ of mandamus to compel the probate judge to proceed to a hearing of the merits of the case. An answer was made by the probate judge, and after a hearing the circuit judge ordered a writ to issue, directed to the probate judge, ad vising him that he had jurisdiction in the premises, and directing him to proceed to a hearing upon the merits. The respondent, by writ of certiorari, brings the proceeding to this court and seeks to have the order of the circuit court vacated. The petition for the appointment of a guardian for Penninah Taylor shows, in substance, (a) that Edmund H. Griffin is the administrator de bonis non of the estate of Samuel Taylor, deceased, the deceased husband of said Penninah Taylor, that he has in his hands upwards of $1,800 ready for distribution, and that she is entitled to the whole of said estate; (6) that Samuel Taylor was a resident of the county of Lenawee at the time of his death, that Penni-nah Taylor, his widow, is the only person interested in said estate, and that, at the time that administration upon said estate was commenced, the said Penninah Taylor was a ‘resident of Lenawee county, but that subsequently she moved to Parkersburg, West Virginia, to reside with a daughter, and that afterwards her daughter died, and she is living among strangers in the city of Parkersburg; (c) that the said Penninah Taylor is a colored woman of the age of 75 years and upwards; that she is weak and feeble physically, and is unable to care for herself; that she is without education and is mentally weak and is mentally incom'petent to have the charge, custody, and management of said fund; that she has no relatives in the State of Michigan, and states, upon information and belief, that she has no relatives in the United Státes, save one granddaughter, whose name and residence are unknown to the petitioner; (d) that he is a friend of the said Penninah Taylor, and that on account of his friendship for her and desire to protect her and prevent her estate from being squandered he makes the application; (e) that he has already paid the said Penninah Taylor $750 out of the assets of said estate; that within a very few weeks thereafter she had none of it left, and that in the judgment ‘of petitioner, if the balance of the assets of the estate were turned over to her, it would go in a like way and she would soon be a charge upon the public. The prayer of the petition was for the appointment of a guardian for the person and estate, for the estate and for the person. The contention of the relator is that the probate court has jurisdiction to appoint a guardian for Penninah Taylor, for the reason that he has jurisdiction of the fund which belongs to her; and, even if that part of the law which provides for the appointment of a guardian for the person should be eliminated, the rest of it should be preserved so that the estate of nonresident minors and incompetents can be protected. The claim of the attorney for Mrs. Taylor is that his client is neither an inhabitant or resident of Michigan, and therefore the court has no jurisdiction to declare her incompetent and appoint a guardian for her or her property. He contends that, if the legislature intended to authorize the appointment of a guardian under the circumstances disclosed by this record, the statute would be unconstitutional, as it would deprive his client of liberty and property without due process of law. If the court has authority to make the appointment, it is by virtue of section 8729, 3 Comp. Laws, which reads: “When any minor or other person liable to be put under guardianship, according to the provisions of this chapter, shall reside without this State, and shall have any estate therein, any friend of such person, or any one interested in his estate, in expectancy or otherwise, may apply to the judge of probate of any county in which there may be any estate of such absent person; and after notice given to all persons interested, in such manner as the judge shall order, and after a full hearing and examination, if it shall appear to him proper, he may appoint a guardian for such absent person.” And see, also, sections 8730, 8731, 3 Comp. Laws. In Re Rice, 42 Mich. 528, Justice Campbell, speaking for the court, said: ■ . “Our laws usually contemplate the appointment of a guardian who has custody of the estate, whoever may have the custody of the person, and provide for no corporation guardianships. * * * “Our laws contemplate that guardians may be appointed for infants, whatever may be their residence, who have property in this State, and do not recognize any absolute right in foreign guardians to be recognized. Whatever respect is paid them springs from comity and not from law, and is therefore not a matter of right.” In construing a statute quite like ours, the court in Davis v. Hudson, 29 Minn. 27, used the following language: “Beyond question, these provisions of statute assume to authorize a probate court of this State to appoint a guardian 'for a nonresident minor, as respects any estate which the minor may have in the county where such probate court is established. With a valid authority to this extent our probate courts may properly be invested. Statutes conferring like authority have been in force here ever since the organization of the Territory of Minnesota, and similar laws are found in Massachusetts, Ohio, Vermont, Michigan, Wisconsin, and other States. Jurisdiction to appoint a guardian exists as well when the infant has property in the State where the jurisdiction is sought to be exercised, as when he is domiciled therein. It rests upon a like basis in both cases, viz., the right and duty of a government to take care of those who are unable to take care of themselves as respects either person or property. McLoskey v. Reid, 4 Bradf. (N. Y.) 334; 1 Wharton on Conflict of Laws, §§ 259, 261, 265, 266, 268. And see Clarke v. Cordis, 4 Allen (Mass.), 466. With respect to real estate, it is to be added that the control and disposition of it must necessarily be subject to the lex rei sitse. “If a general guardian be appointed for a nonresident minor, and il be admitted that the appointment is, on account of its generality, too broad, there is no reason why it should not be held good to the extent to which it would have been lawful and competent to make it, to wit, to the extent of the minor’s estate within the jurisdiction in which the appointment is made. In the case at bar the minor was a resident of the State of New York, and owner of land in our county of Goodhue. It was therefore competent for the probate court of Goodhue county, and within its general jurisdiction, to appoint a guardian for him as respected such land (being the same which is in controversy in this action), and the appointment of a general guardian would be good to that extent.” See, also, West Duluth Land Co. v. Kurtz, 45 Minn. 380; Neal v. Bartleson, 65 Tex. 478. We think it evident the legislature undertook to authorize the appointment of a guardian under the circumstances disclosed by this record. The judgment of the circuit court is affirmed. McAlvay, C. J., and Carpenter, Grant, and Blair, JJ., concurred.
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Ostrander, J. The county drain commissioner of Calhoun county attempted, in a single proceeding, to extend, deepen, widen, and straighten three existing» independent township drains, known, respectively, as the Ball & Patterson, the Hopkins & Chase, and the Wilder creek. Each of these drains had existed for a period of 15 years and more. They connect, one with the other, and the necessity for deepening, widening, straightening, and extending the drainage channel, or canal, made by the three, and the necessity for taking private property for that purpose, and the compensation to be made therefor,' have been determined by a jury, and the report of such jury made and confirmed. It appears, also, that the Wilder creek drain is wholly within the limits of one township, and that the other two drains extend, each of them, into two townships. Application in the present proceeding was made and filed in September, 1898, a remonstrance by all or some of the appellants was made and filed in February, 1899, the writ of certiorari was tested August 25, 1900, and the judgment of the circuit court dismissing the said writ was entered April .27, 1905. It appears, therefore, that for about seven years this attempted improvement in drainage has been suspended by this Suit. In this court, to which the cause was removed by writ of error, appellants rely upon the assignments of error set out in the affidavit for the writ of certiorari, 52 in number, extended by subdivision to 85. These errors are, however, grouped, and are stated in the brief for appellants, as propositions, as follows: “1. The county drain commissioner, under the statute, did not have jurisdiction over the subject-matter of deepening, widening, straightening, and extending the township drains in question. “2. These three separate township drains with their several assessment districts and their -independent entities, cannot be joined in a proceeding to deepen, widen, straighten, and extend said several drains in one proceeding. “8. The three township drain proceedings involved were without jurisdiction, and were absolute nullities, ab initio, and cannot constitute a legal basis for any drain proceedings. “4. The application for the proceedings in question, filed with the drain commissioner on the 8th day of October, 1898, was defective and insufficient, and did not give respondents jurisdiction over the subject-matter of the said drain, or over the owners of the lands traversed thereby. “5. No steps were taken, and no efforts were made to secure the right of way in question and releases of damages therefor by negotiation with the landowners, or by purchase, before the commencement of the condemnation proceedings in question, which was a condition precedent, required to give the courts jurisdiction to act under the right of eminent domain. ' “6. The first order of determination made by the drain commissioner April 10, 1899, was defective, insufficient, unauthorized, and void, and constituted no legal basis for the subsequent proceedings, and that the probate judge erred in overruling the motion to quash the said proceedings. 1 “ 7. The petition of the drain commissioner to the probate court for the appointment of special commissioners, filed August 5, 1899, and the facts established by the proofs upon the hearing thereof, were insufficient in law to confer jurisdiction upon the probate court in the premises, and that the probate judge erred in" overruling the motion to quash said proceedings. “ 8. The citations issued upon the said petition for special commissioners were not served, either personally or otherwise, upon several of the owners of land traversed by said drain, and such landowners have not had their day in court, and the probate court acquired no jurisdiction over their lands, or persons, and the probate judge erred in overruling the motion to dismiss the said petition and to quash the said proceedings. “9. No order or determination to appoint special commissioners was ever entered or made of record in the probate court, and the said court thereby lost jurisdiction (if it ever acquired any) in the premises. The oral decision of the judge of probate, announcing that the prayer of the petition would be granted, was not made of record, is no part of the record, and is insufficient. “ 10. The probate judge erred in overruling the several objections made to swearing an officer to select names for a jury, and in swearing such officer. “11. The oath administered to and taken by the officer appointed to select names for the jury was insufficient and void. “12. The probate judge erred in overruling the challenge made to the array of said jury. “13. The venire issued by the probate court was defective, insufficient, and void for uncertainty. “14. The oath administered to the jury was insufficient, and void upon its face for uncertainty. “ 15. The report and award of the jury was defective, uncertain, unauthorized, and void, and the probate judge erred in overruling the exceptions filed thereto, and in confirming the said report and award. “16. The probate judge erred in refusing to audit and allow the relators’ bill of costs filed in said probate court, as provided for by the general railroad law, made a part of the drain law by reference, in cases where juries are demanded and condemn right of way for drains. “ 17. The final order of determination made by the drain commissioner July 19,1900, and filed in the county clerk’s office July 21, 1900, was defective, insufficient, unauthorized, and null and void. “18. Several clauses and provisions of the drain law of 1897 pursued in the proceedings at bar, are in conflict, not only with the Constitution of the State of Michigan, but are also in conflict with section 10 of article 1, and with the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments to the Constitution of the United States, and are null and void.” A large number of objections may be disposed of without extended comment or discussion. The attacks made upon the proceedings which were taken in establishing the three township drains in question are none of them considered. 2 Comp. Laws, § 4381, provides that: “All drains regularly established, opened or constructed under any provisions of law heretofore existing, shall be deemed to be legal drains under this act. * * * And any drain that has been established for ten years shall be conclusively deemed to have been regularly established, and it shall be the duty of the county drain commissioner, where no records of such drains have been preserved, to see that the records of such drains are made in the most practicable manner in the drain records of their respective counties. ” This last provision is found in the statute of 1885, and has since been in force. 2 Comp. Laws, § 4382, provides that: “All the powers conferred by this act for establishing and constructing drains and for the enforcement of assessments thereof, shall also extend to and include the deepening, widening and extending of any drains which here-' tofore have been laid, or may hereafter be constructed.” Whatever questibns may have been open to the persons interested in, and who were taxed for, the construction of these three township drains, it remains that proceedings were taken to formally establish each of them. The landowners released the right of way. The public had been in possession of, and had exercised dominion over, the right of way so acquired and the drains so laid for upwards of 15 years. Zabel v. Harshman, 68 Mich. 273, 281. Giving the statute (section 4381) prospective operation only, its effect is to conclusively establish the regularity of the proceedings. We come, therefore, at once, to the particular proceeding. Here, also, we may dispose of many of the contentions made by saying that there is no objection to a single proceeding by the county drain commissioner to open, widen, straighten, deepen, and extend, three drains, established by township drain commissioners, where it appears, as it does here, that they, in fact, constitute one drainage canal, no portion of which can be much disturbed without affecting the entire drain. Each of these drains, and consequently all of them, are under the direct supervision and control of the county drain commissioner. The action contemplated by petitioners affects them all and relates to the result to be accomplished by each of the three drains as originally constructed and the improvements which ate now desired. These rulings are based upon thedanguage of the statute, and are approved in Tinsman v. Monroe Probate Judge, 82 Mich. 562. The language of the statute answers, also, many other objections, not here repeated, to the sufficiency of the application filed with the drain commissioner. Fifteen signatures appear upon that application. The statute qualification of 10 of those signing is denied. The provisions of 2 Comp. Laws, §§ 4379, 4382, 4384, read in connection with section 4319, are held to require, in this proceeding, an application signed by not less than 10 freeholders of the township or townships in which such drain or the lands to be drained thereby and to be assessed therefor may be situated; three or more of such signers to be owners of lands liable to an assessment for benefits. They need not be resident freeholders (Kinnie v. Bare, 68 Mich. 625); and there need not be 10 freeholders from each township (Brady v. Hayward, 114 Mich. 331). We need not answer the objections that certain of the signers were not freeholders because holding their lands as vendees in executory contracts or with their wives as owners of estates by entireties. Excluding all such signers, 10 remain if we consider H. M. Bryant to be a freeholder within the meaning of the law. The objection to doing this, which is urged, is that H. M. Bryant is a woman, and that she cannot be a statute freeholder without being also a qualified juror to condemn lands under section 2, art. 18, of the Constitution of this State. The fact that jurors must be males, as well as freeholders, does not necessarily or reasonably support the conclusion that a female freeholder may not exercise the rights of a property owner, and join with other property owners in moving for public improvements. Counsel cites no authority for his position. One other objection tó the application may be noticed. Two of the ten qualified signers joined in a remonstrance which was filed with the commissioner on February 4, 1899, before the commissioner had determined the necessity, etc., of deepening, widening, straightening, etc., the said drains, but after he had made a personal examination for the purposes of such a determination. It is said there was thereafter no proper application for the improvement. Here, again, no authority, statute or- other, is given in support of the position of counsel. It is not suggested, in argument, to what point such proceedings may go and be then interrupted by the withdrawal of one or more of the original applicants. It is to be presumed that the fact of withdrawal will, in proper cases, exert some influence with the commissioner and the jury; but we are not prepared to say that, having launched the proceeding, applicants may cause it to be discontinued by protesting against further steps being taken. In his application for the appointment of special commissioners, the drain commissioner averred that he had tried to obtain a release of right of way and damages from the several owners of land traversed by the drain, and had attempted,- but had failed, to agree with the landowners for such releases. Appellants answered this petition, denying these facts. Appellants also moved the probate court to quash the proceedings for various reasons, supporting the motion by the affidavit of John C. Patterson. This motion was overruled. Later, before special commissioners were appointed, a jury was demanded by six of the appellants, and one was ordered. The only evidence, aside from the statements in the petition for special commissioners, of efforts to procure releases, is found set out in the affidavit for the writ of certiorari and admitted in the return thereto, which evidence is, in substance, that appellant John O. Patterson was requested to give the right of way, refused, and informed the commissioner that he should contest the drain proceedings in court. Certainly, there was no occasion to go further with this landowner, and his action made the selection of special commissioners, or a jury, necessary, even if all other owners of land released both right of way and damages. 2 Comp. Laws, §§ 4322, 4325, 4326. The facts set out in the petition of the drain commissioner are in no other way contradicted. 2 Comp. Laws, § 4325. The petition was, in this respect, jurisdictionally sufficient. Grand Rapids, etc., R. Co. v. Weiden, 69 Mich. 572, 70 Mich. 390. It is said that the citation was not served personally upon William Martin, Electa J. Reynolds, and Darius Bickford. They were all of them nonresident owners. 2 Comp. Laws, § 4324. William Martin was not named in the citation. The statute has been amended since the decision in Campau v. Charbeneau, 105 Mich. 422, was made; the express provision now being that it shall not be necessary to name such owner or owners in the citation. That case, relied upon by counsel for appellants, is therefore not controlling. The citation was published in the manner pointed out by the statute. We think it unnecessary to set out and discuss the various assignments of error>which challenge the validity of the drain law of 1897. They have been examined, and the argument of counsel for appellants has been considered, with the result that they are overruled. So, also, of the errors assigned upon the action of the probate court, it is sufficient to say that objections were made to the form of oath administered to the officer appointed to select a jury, to the order overruling a challenge to the array, interposed when the jury had been summoned, to the venire, to the oath to the jury. We find nothing in the objections which requires discussion. The thirty-third assignment of error contains 10 subdivisions following the averment that “the probate court erred in overruling the following objections to the confirmation of said findings, report, and award of said jury.'” In the various subdivisions are set out the objections referred to, most of them allegations of facts. For example, subdivision c reads: “The said jury ignored and disregarded the evidence produced on the hearing upon the questions of the public necessity and the amount of damages,’’ etc. We cannot review the facts or the evidence in this proceeding. It appears that, in support of exceptions to the award of the jury, John C. Patterson filed his affidavit. In opposition thereto, the drain commissioner filed an affidavit. In so far as these affidavits relate to the presence of the drain commissioner in the jury room, they are, in substance, as follows: Mr. Patterson swears that the drain commissioner informed him that, after the jury had determined the question of necessity, he (the commissioner) went into the jury room and was present when they determined the amount of damages, and furnished the jury certain data they sent for, the tax rolls from the county treasurer’s office, and assisted the jury in making and formulating their findings, report, and award. The commissioner swears that his connection with making out the report of the jury was as an official to furnish blanks and measurements at the request of the chairman of the jury; that he had nothing to do with the fixing of damages or the amount paid for the lands which were condemned; that the only information asked of him was “the legal information which the jury wished to have in said case.” Counsel for appellants states in his brief that, after the hearing had been closed, “tax rolls from the county treasurer’s office and additional evidence were submitted to the jury and taken to the jury room without the knowledge and consent of the relators (appellants) and were considered and acted upon by the said jury!” If this appeared in the record to be an undisputed fact, we should be obliged to consider whether in this proceeding advantage could be taken of it. Manifestly, the fact, if it existed, would not appear, unless it was brought upon the record by motion and affidavit. The statute provides (3 Comp. Laws, § 4335), that the court shall, when a jury is demanded, proceed in the same manner as is provided by law in cases of taking private property for the use of railroad companies. In proceedings to condemn lands for the use of a railroad company, the probate court may set aside the report of commissioners, or of a jury, for good cause shown. Marquette, etc., R. Co. v. Houghton Probate Judge, 53 Mich. 217; Detroit, etc., R. Co. v. Campbell, 140 Mich. 384. The objection made was, practically, a motion for a new trial. The law respecting the conduct of jurors and of parties, including the drain commissioner, in such proceedings, is not in doubt. Detroit, etc., R. Co. v. Campbell, supra; Hudlemyer v. Dickinson, 143 Mich. 250. But, necessarily, the fact of improper conduct must be established. Here the probate court, presumably, was of opinion that the fact was not established. The jury was entitled to have furnished to it certain data (2 Comp. Laws, § 4327), and the affidavit of the drain commissioner, while somewhat uncertain in meaning, may be reasonably construed to mean that he furnished the jury with nothing except the data he was by law required to produce. We cannot set the affidavit of Mr. Patterson over against that of the commissioner, and determine the truth of disputed allegations. It is claimed, also, that upon the face of the award various irregularities are disclosed. The statute (2 Comp. Laws, § 4346) provides for a speedy review of proceedings in establishing a drain by certiorari, in which review, if any error be found in the proceedings, the court shall direct the county drain commissioner to correct such error or errors and then proceed the same as though no error had been made. We have examined the proceedings shown by the record with reference to the objections' made to them by counsel for appellants. In doing so, we have failed to find jurisdictional error, and, if there are irregularities which should be corrected, they are not made to appear. A bill of costs for attorney’s, stenographer’s, and witness’ fees was presented in the probate court by counsel for appellant, and disallowed. The contention is that, as the general railroad law governs the proceedings when a jury is demanded, that provision of that law (2 Comp. Laws, § 6240, as amended by Act No. 266, Pub. Acts 1899, § 15), must be given effect. This provision of the railroad law is distinct from those relating to procedure, is not adopted in the drain law, and we know of no authority for holding it applicable here. We find no reversible error, and the judgment of the circuit court is affirmed, with costs. McAlvay, C. J., and Grant, Hooker, and Moore, JJ., concurred.
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Fitzgerald, J. We must determine in this case whether there was competent, material and substantial evidence on the whole record to uphold a decision in which the State Tenure Commission found reasonable and just cause for the dismissal of plaintiff, a tenured kindergarten teacher employed by defendant. On August 12, 1968, after public hearings were held, plaintiff was discharged by the Haslett Board of Education. The board found that among the charges, the following had been proven and were controlling in its decision: "She has failed to maintain classroom discipline even after repeated warnings. "She has failed to keep the classroom in a safe condition, thereby endangering the physical well-being of the students in her charge. "Based upon recent evaluation^] she is not effective in her teaching procedure. "She fails to follow administrative directions after repeated warnings. "[She] fails to get along with her fellow teachers and in some instances impugns the integrity of her fellow teachers.” On appeal, the State Tenure Commission upheld the dismissal in an opinion dated May 1, 1970. The decision of the commission was appealed to the Ingham Circuit Court, which dismissed the appeal on procedural grounds. An appeal on the procedural issues to the Court of Appeals resulted in a remand on April 27, 1972, to the trial court for a decision on the merits. 40 Mich App 296; 198 NW2d 860 (1972). On June 18, 1974, the Ingham Circuit Court issued an amended opinion and order reversing the State Tenure Commission. The circuit court held that there was not competent, material and substantial evidence on the whole record to support the tenure commission’s decision. Defendant appealed to the Court of Appeals. Although the Court of Appeals found that the circuit court had improperly conducted a de novo review, it concluded that the trial court’s result was correct. While the Court of Appeals said that some of the evidence, if given credence and significant weight, might have been sufficient to uphold plaintiffs discharge, it held that the commission relied on a ground which was insufficient as a matter of law to support plaintiff’s discharge. The Court of Appeals said that the tenure commission majority held in effect that "where a school board disagrees with the teaching philosophy of a tenured teacher, it may dismiss that teacher even where his or her students’ achievement level is equal to that of their peers”. 66 Mich App 718, 723; 239 NW2d 724 (1976). We granted defendant’s application for leave to appeal. 399 Mich 828 (1977). After oral arguments, we remanded to the State Tenure Commission with directions that it make specific findings of fact and conclusions of law. This Court retained jurisdiction. 401 Mich 954 (1977). Pursuant to that order, the tenure commission majority filed its findings with this Court and this opinion results. The tenure commission found that the evidence established that there was a lack of control in plaintiffs classroom, and that the absence of control endangered the physical well-being of the students. The commission further found that numerous unsuccessful attempts were made by the school administration to work with plaintiff to bring supervision to her classroom 'and to strengthen her teaching program. This refusal to cooperate with the administration or to adjust her teaching procedures, in the commission’s opinion, was detrimental to the school system. The commission concluded that such actions constituted reasonable and just cause for plaintiffs discharge. We begin our discussion of this case by stating our disagreement with the reason set forth by the Court of Appeals for its reversal of the tenure commission. Specifically, we do not agree with its characterization of the basis for the tenure commission’s decision as resting on the school board’s disagreement with plaintiffs teaching philosophy. While the rationale supporting the tenure commission’s decision was less than clear in its original opinion, a review of the transcript of the hearings before the commission and the findings of the commission filed with this Court pursuant to our order makes it abundantly clear that the tenure commission recognized that the validity of plaintiffs teaching philosophy was not in dispute. Rather, at issue was plaintiffs failure to implement her philosophy in a safe and orderly fashion and her refusal to cooperate with administration efforts to achieve this goal. Thus, as we find no question of academic freedom involved here, our task is limited to a review of the record to determine whether there was competent, material and substantial evidence to support the tenure commission’s finding that there was reasonable and just cause to uphold plaintiffs dismissal. The scope of our review is that set forth in Michigan Employment Relations Commission v Detroit Symphony Orchestra, Inc, 393 Mich 116, 124; 223 NW2d 283 (1974): "The cross-fire of debate at the Constitutional Convention imports meaning to the 'substantial evidence’ standard in Michigan jurisprudence. What the drafters of the Constitution intended was a thorough judicial review of administrative decision, a review which considers the whole record — that is, both sides of the record — not just those portions of the record supporting the findings of the administrative agency. Although such a review does not attain the status of de novo review, it necessarily entails a degree of qualitative and quantitative evaluation of evidence considered by an agency. Such review must be undertaken with considerable sensitivity in order that the courts accord due deference to administrative expertise and not invade the province of exclusive administrative fact-finding by displacing an agency’s choice between two reasonably differing views. Cognizant of these concerns, the courts must walk the tightrope of duty which requires judges to provide the prescribed meaningful review.” On behalf of defendant, there was testimony by plaintiffs principal, other elementary school principals from the area, plaintiffs fellow teachers and parents of students in plaintiffs class, all of whom had occasion to observe plaintiffs classroom. They testified that one or more of the following conditions existed: Children were observed using knives without supervision, slamming tables together, fighting with water, throwing crayons, wooden blocks, pointed tiles and sawdust about the room, walking on tops of tables and window ledges, playing in the cloakroom, running around and shouting, and sliding on their backs on the floor. Plaintiffs classroom was described as disorderly, in that there were piles of material throughout the room, a tree stump with protruding nails, pieces of slivered lumber lying about the room, blocks and sawdust all over the floor, and paint spilled on the floor, cupboards and walls. Plaintiffs principal testified that he had meetings with plaintiff during which he informed her that classroom control had to be improved. He testified that her responses during these meetings were not germane to what they were discussing. Because he was unsuccessful in communicating with plaintiff, he asked others to meet with her. Shortly thereafter, the president of the Haslett Education Association and a fellow teacher at plaintiffs school met with plaintiff. The teacher testified that plaintiff would not listen to them. Another meeting was held at which plaintiff, the school superintendent, the administrative assistant, a representative from the Michigan Education Association, the president of the Haslett Education Association and plaintiff’s principal were present. At this meeting, parental complaints regarding classroom organization and control were discussed, as well as plaintiffs poor rapport with the school staff members. Plaintiff also received two written evaluations, both critical of her teaching, prepared by her principal and by another elementary school principal from the area. The latter testified that he attempted to discuss the evaluation with plaintiff, but that she was not responsive. Plaintiff presented the testimony of four parents who had visited her classroom and who had found no evidence of disciplinary or safety problems. In addition, Jesse Pinch, a nursery school teacher associated with Michigan State University who utilized the same teaching philosophy as plaintiff’s, testified that she accepted plaintiff’s invitation to spend a day in plaintiff’s classroom. Mrs. Pinch, who assisted with the class that day, testified that the children cooperated with her and that she was not distracted by anything else in the room. She did not observe any children running around the room or fighting. Apparently, the tenure commission assigned less weight to this witness’s testimony as it stated that plaintiff had prior notice of Pinch’s visit and that Pinch’s assistánce that day added to the control factor. Plaintiff contends that there is no competent, material and substantial evidence from which it can be held that her classroom was always, or even most of the time, unsafe or unruly. At most, plaintiff argues, the evidence tends to prove thai there were periods during which there was not complete control over all the students. While wé cannot realistically expect a kindergarten teacher to have complete control over all of his or her students at every moment, we also cannot accept plaintiff’s contention that administrative action is precluded unless the classroom is always or usually unruly or unsafe. There may be reasonable and just cause for dismissal if there is substantial evidence that the teacher’s classroom is significantly more disorderly or unsafe than would be reasonably expected. In the instant case, there was more than sufficient evidence that plaintiffs classroom was lacking in control and safety more often than would be reasonably expected in any kindergarten classroom, including one utilizing plaintiffs particular pedagogical method. Furthermore, the testimony supports the commission’s finding that plaintiff was made aware of the problem by the administration and that she refused to cooperate. Such refusal was detrimental to the proper functioning of the administration and the school system. Our analysis of the record leads us to conclude that there exists competent, material and substantial evidence to support the tenure commission’s finding that there was reasonable and just cause to uphold plaintiffs discharge by defendant. Accordingly, the decision of the Court of Appeals is reversed, and the decision of the State Tenure Commission is affirmed. Costs to defendant. Coleman, C.J., and Kavanagh, Williams, Levin, Ryan, and Blair Moody, Jr., JJ., concurred with Fitzgerald, J. Const 1963, art 6, § 28; MCL 24.306(l)(d); MSA 3.560(206)(l)(d). MCL 38.101; MSA 15.2001. Opinion of the Haslett Board of Education, August 15, 1968. Plaintiff used a learning center activity program in her class. This program is described by the tenure commission as follows: "This program calls for an unregimented classroom, with part of the instructional day centered around activities chosen by the child. It entails the use of seven learning centers established throughout the classroom. At these centers the child, individually or as part of a group, could engage in a number of activities. By way of example, some of the activity centers created by appellant included one for role playing, a listening center, and an expressive media center.” In its opinion filed after our remand order, the tenure commission stated: "The following facts were established: "A. Appellant’s teaching program was innovative. The administration allowed its use. During the school year, however, problems arose concerning classroom control and student safety in her application of the program. "Appellant’s claim that her discharge was based upon disagreement with her teaching philosophy, rather than her conduct or abilities, is not supported by the evidence. The evidence clearly does establish that the appellant’s implementation of this methodology resulted in a classroom environment dangerous to her students.” In its original opinion the tenure commission stated: "The philosophy of the learning center approach to teaching, the method used by Mrs. Beebee, was not in contention by the administration or board members, who were in agreement that such a method could be of benefit to youngsters.” Testimony at the hearings before the tenure commission also established that plaintiffs teaching philosophy was not on trial. Mr. Dulmage, plaintiffs principal, testified as follows: "To the best of my recollection we discussed her philosophy of education concerned with these various centers that she had in the room, and my reaction to them. I told Mrs. Beebee that I did not feel that these centers were bad. In other words, that her concept of organizing her room, I told her that I did not feel that this was bad. I did not feel that it was educationally unsound. "However, I did feel that her practical application of it, in other words, her ability to handle the situation was not what it should be. She should, in order to make this work, she would have to exercise more control over the students and over the situation.” Mr. Mullen, an elementary school principal who evaluated plaintiff also testified: "I didn’t feel I — I don’t feel I have to know her philosophy of education to go in and do an evaluation and see the things that I saw in that room. There is no philosophy of education that I know of that should provide for these kind of things that I saw in there. I wasn’t quarreling with her theory of separate study areas or working areas for the children.” The following conversation between the chairman of the tenure commission and defendant’s attorney is also instructive: "Chairman Farr: Well, let me ask this question: If you know, if we accept what Mrs. Pinch said as being true on the day in question, and that was occurring all during the year, and no running, no sliding, so on and so forth, probably we wouldn’t be here today. "Mr. Maatsch [Defendant’s Attorney]: I quite agree. ''Chairman Farr: So really, aren’t we faced here with a decision by this commission as to — I don’t know which of you gentlemen to address this question to — whether or not this theory was implemented properly by Mrs. Beebee? "Mr. Younger [Plaintiff’s Attorney]: Right.”
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Rehearing denied.
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Per Curiam. The plaintiff applies for leave to appeal from the Court of Appeals decision affirming the trial judge’s entry of summary judgment for the defendant. This case presents the question whether an allegation that the redemption of a workers’ cbmpenSation claim was based on mutual mistake of a fact states a ciaim for which relief may be granted. The courts below held that it did not. We disagree and reverse. I Josephine Solo was injured in a work-related accident on February 18, 1969. Chrysler Corporation voluntarily paid benefits until she returned to work on April 21, 1969. Mrs. Solo stopped working in September 1969 and filed a claim for workers’ compensation benefits. The parties reached an agreement to redeem the claim for $10,500, and the hearing referee approved the redemption following a hearing on June 15, 1970. On November 1, 1971, Mrs. Solo filed a new petition for benefits, claiming that the settlement was not for the complete injury. However, the hearing referee and the Workmen’s Compensation Appeal Board denied the petition on the ground that the agency was without authority to set asidé a redemption. Mrs. Solo then commenced this action in the Wayne Circuit Court, seeking to set aside the redemption. The trial judge granted Chrysler’s motion for summary judgment on the ground that there was no genuine issue as to the existence of fraud and that the allegations of mutual mistake failed to state a claim for which relief could be granted. The Court of Appeals initially reversed. Solo v Chrysler Corp, 76 Mich App 63; 255 NW2d 770 (1977). However, it granted rehearing and affirmed, with Presiding Judge T. M. Burns dissenting. 77 Mich App 354; 258 NW2d 224 (1977). II Both the trial judge and the Court of Appeals relied heavily on the following language from Johnston’s Administrator v United Airlines, 23 Mich App 279, 285; 178 NW2d 536 (1970): "A redemption order is a final determination and an award made and accepted cannot be disturbed except upon a showing that it was procured by fraud. Panozzo v Ford Motor Co, 255 Mich 149 [237 NW 369] (1931); Catina v Hudson Motor Car Co, 272 Mich 377 [262 NW 266] (1935).” Panozzo and Catina should not be read as limiting to fraud the grounds for setting aside a redemption. Those decisions said that fraud could be a basis for setting aside a redemption; they did not say that redemptions may be disturbed only on that basis. We have held in a series of more recent cases that a mutual mistake of fact may be the basis for setting aside a release of a tort claim. See Van Avery v Seiter, 383 Mich 486; 175 NW2d 744 (1970); Ryan v Alexy, 373 Mich 50; 127 NW2d 845 (1964); Hall v Strom Construction Co, 368 Mich 253; 118 NW2d 281 (1962). We hold that the same principle applies to workers’ compensation re-demptions. Thus, the plaintiffs allegation of a mutual mistake states a claim for which relief may be granted, and the summary judgment was improperly entered. Accordingly, pursuant to GCR 1963, 853.2(4), in lieu of granting leave to appeal, we reverse the judgments of the Court of Appeals and the circuit court and remand to the Wayne Circuit Court for further proceedings. Coleman, C.J., and Kavanagh, Levin, Fitzgerald, Ryan, and Blair Moody, Jr., JJ., concurred. Williams, J., concurred in the result. For example, in Panozzo v Ford Motor Co, 255 Mich 149, 150; 237 NW 369 (1931), we said: "A court of equity may relieve against a settlement, [a] petition to the board for its approval, [an] award based thereon, and a final settlement receipt procured by fraud.”
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Rehearing denied.
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Rehearing denied.
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The request by the Judicial Tenure Commission for the appointment of a Master is considered and the Honorable Jack Warren, Judge of the 30th Judicial Circuit, is designated as Master to consider Formal Complaint No. 23.
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Per Curiam. In this appeal, we do not address the merits of the underlying complaints leading to the Henry Ralph Lane’s two-year suspension from the practice of law or the adequacy of the grounds raised to support his delayed motion for review. We hold only that the Attorney Discipline Board is authorized to entertain a delayed motion. I Robert and Beverly Marklin and Pearl Arlene Outland filed requests for investigation of Mr. Lane. Each request was mailed to Mr. Lane for an answer. He did not answer. The Grievance Administrator mailed a "final notice before default” to Mr. Lane. Again there was no answer, and Mr. Lane’s defaults were filed. The Grievance Administrator filed a four-count complaint against Mr. Lane, Counts I and III charging substantive misconduct with regard to his representation of the Marklins and Mrs. Out-land, and Counts II and IV charging failure to answer the requests for investigation. Mr. Lane did not answer, and he did not appear at the hearing. The panel heard the testimony of the complainants and on March 14, 1978, entered an order suspending Mr. Lane from the practice of law for two years. The time for appeal to the then-named State Bar Grievance Board expired on April 3, 1978. On May 22, 1978, Mr. Lane filed a "delayed petition for rehearing”. He said that the disciplinary proceedings occurred during a period when he was ill. He recovered on May 15, 1978. The board denied the petition on June 28, 1978, without explanation. II The Grievance Administrator argues that the Attorney Discipline Board does not have the power to grant rehearings or set aside an order of the hearing panel after it becomes final. GCR 1963, 967.1 requires that a motion for review of an order of a hearing panel must be filed within 20 days after the order is served. It is silent as to the authority of the board to consider a motion for review filed on a delayed basis. For the same reason we have created the opportunity to file delayed appeals, we believe the board should have the authority to entertain a delayed motion. We remand the case to the Attorney Discipline Board to consider the merits of Mr. Lane’s delayed motion for review. The board may consider, as one of the conditions for granting delayed review, assessing the costs of the initial proceedings against Mr. Lane. We retain no further jurisdiction. Coleman, C.J., and Kavanagh, Williams, Levin, Fitzgerald, Ryan, and Blair Moody, Jr., JJ., concurred. GCR 1963, 701.2(c), 703.1(2), 806.4, 853.2(3).
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Fitzgerald, J. Defendant, a Detroit police officer, was charged with manslaughter under MCL 750.329; MSA 28.561 in connection with the shooting of a suspect at the scene of a breaking and entering. After preliminary examination, defendant was bound over for trial. Defendant moved to quash the information, but the motion was denied. The Court of Appeals, in a split decision, reversed the order denying defendant’s motion to quash. This Court granted the people’s application for leave to appeal, limited to the following two issues: 1) Whether absence of malice is an essential element of manslaughter as defined in MCL 750.329; MSA 28.561; and 2) Whether the evidence adduced at the preliminary examination is sufficient to support the magistrate’s decision to bind defendant over on the crime charged. We answer the first question in the negative and the second question in the affirmative. Therefore, the decision of the Court of Appeals is reversed. I. Facts The transcript of the preliminary examination indicates that at approximately 8:50 p.m. on March 4, 1976, defendant and two other plainclothes police officers responded to a reported burglary of a gasoline station on Clay Street in the City of Detroit. The record indicates that it was a very foggy night. Upon arriving at the location of the reported burglary in an unmarked car, the three officers witnessed a man making his exit through a broken window of the gasoline station. He was immediately placed under arrest. In response to questioning as to the whereabouts of his partner, he said that he did not know where his partner was, but that the partner lived around the corner. He was then placed in the squad car. At this point, three other plainclothes officers arrived at the scene, whereupon all of the officers, with the exception of the one watching over the arrested man, began to search the premises. The search revealed that the station had apparently been broken into with an ax and that some damage had been done to the interior of the station. After the officers had searched the premises for approximately 5 to 10 minutes, the suspect walked out from behind the station. The transcript indicates that the officers were startled by the discovery of the second man and suspected that he was probably the accomplice to the breaking and entering. One officer testified that he heard defendant call out "Detroit police officer”. Another officer testified that she heard defendant yell, "stop” or "hold it”. When the man failed to stop and continued to walk away, defendant pursued the presumed accomplice. The testimony reveals that when the man reached the street, he turned with a long object in his hands, which was later disclosed to be a chair leg or a spindle. Defendant then ducked and fired one fatal shot with his service revolver. The decedent was 21 years of age, 5 feet, 11 inches tall, and weighed 215 pounds. The medical examiner testified that the cause of the decedent’s death was a gunshot wound with the bullet entering the back of decedent’s head about 6-1/2 inches below the top of the head and about 3 inches right of the midline, traveling upwards to the left side of the front of the head. The doctor also testified that there were no powder burns or other evidence of close range firing. He also testified that the blood-alcohol content of the decedent was .22 percent which would indicate that the decedent was under the influence of alcohol. At the preliminary examination held on June 7 and 9, 1976, the magistrate ordered defendant bound over for trial based on the following findings of fact: "Gentlemen, based upon the record before me, the court is satisfied that the prosecution has made out the crime charged, that being manslaughter, and probable cause to believe that the offense was committed by Mr. Doss. Accordingly, I will bind him over for trial on the charges contained in the complaint and warrant. * * * I am prepared to say this: that there are numerous questions of fact the defense has raised at examination summations pertaining to self-defense. The court, based on all the evidence before it, does not find it to be a lawful killing. Once you keep in mind the elements of manslaughter do not include malice, expressed or implied, do not include premeditation, I am satisfied from all the evidence I have heard including the evidence with respect to the nature of the wound in the wound tract, including the evidence with respect to the lapse of time from the entry by the police into the premises of the gas station until the time when this gentleman was seen near the vicinity where he was shot, that the matters raised before me do make out the crime charged, understanding that there are a lot of questions of fact among them being self-defense. I could speak at greater length, but I decline to do so. Thank you. Bond will be continued and I will draw a judge for you.” On August 19, 1976, the recorder’s court denied defendant’s motion to quash the information on the basis of People v Martin, 59 Mich App 471; 229 NW2d 809 (1975). The Court of Appeals granted defendant’s application for leave to appeal to determine whether the trial court had erred in finding that the magistrate had not abused his discretion in binding defendant over for trial. On September 21, 1977, in reversing the order denying the motion to quash, the Court of Appeals held: "[T]hat such error was committed because the evidence presented at the preliminary examination both negatives application of the statute under which defendant is charged and does not show that defendant caused the death without lawful justification or excuse.” People v Doss, 78 Mich App 541, 549; 260 NW2d 880 (1977). This Court granted the people’s application for leave to appeal on February 23, 1978. 402 Mich 884 (1978). II. Issues A Defendant argues, and the Court of Appeals found, that the absence of malice is an essential element of manslaughter as defined in MCL 750.329; MSA 28.561. The statute in question provides as follows: "Any person who shall wound, maim or injure any other person by the discharge of any firearm, pointed or aimed, intentionally but without malice, at any such person, shall, if death ensue from such wounding, maiming or injury, be deemed guilty of the crime of manslaughter.” In finding that the absence of malice is an essential element of manslaughter, the Court of Appeals placed great reliance on People v Chap-pell, 27 Mich 486 (1873), wherein defendant was charged with maiming another by discharging a loaded pistol, pointed and aimed intentionally, but without malice, contrary to 1869 PA 68; 1871 CL 7550. The trial court was asked to instruct that if defendant shot with malice he could not be convicted under the statute he was charged with violating. The request was refused by the trial court, and the defendant was convicted. In reversing the conviction, this Court held: "The statute was designed to punish a class of acts done carelessly, but without any design of doing mischief, and the various sections must, under our constitution, be construed so as to conform to the title. The absence of malice is as necessary an ingredient in the statutory definition as the' use of fire-arms. And the offense is purely statutory. "[I]t is manifestly impossible for an act to be at the same time malicious and free from malice. The statute, as before stated, was aimed at acts where no harm was designed, and proof of malice is not merely proof of something beyond the statute. It is inconsistent with the statute in its chief design.” 27 Mich 486, 487-488. The construction placed on 1869 PA 68 by this Court in Chappell was followed in People v McCully, 107 Mich 343; 65 NW 234 (1895); People v Peterson, 166 Mich 10; 131 NW 153 (1911); and People v Heikkala, 226 Mich 332; 197 NW 366 (1924). We believe that the majority of the Court of Appeals erred in finding that the absence of malice is an essential element of manslaughter as defined by MCL 750.329; MSA 28.561. While we are mindful of the line of cases beginning with People v Chappell, supra, supporting such a position, we believe that the reasoning of those cases has been seriously undermined by this Court’s decision in People v Chamblis, 395 Mich 408, 424; 236 NW2d 473 (1975), where in the context of our discussion of lesser included offenses, we said: "Part of the confusion concerning lesser included offenses appears to result from analysis which treats as positive elements of a crime such negative concepts as 'unarmed’. Considered in the context of lesser included offenses, 'unarmed’ is the absence of the element of use of a weapon. It is not a distinct, separate element. Elements are, by deñnition, positive. A negative element of a crime is a contradiction in terms. Adding the description 'unarmed’ to robbery adds nothing. 'Robbery’ and 'unarmed robbery’ are the same offense.” (Emphasis changed.) In the instant case, "without malice” is the absence of an element, rather than an additional element which the people must prove beyond a reasonable doubt. Malice or "malice aforethought” is that quality which distinguishes murder from manslaughter and is defined in People v Morrin, 31 Mich App 301, 310-311; 187 NW2d 434 (1971), as "the intention to kill, actual or implied, under circumstances which do not constitute excuse or justification or mitigate the degree of the offense to manslaughter”. While the absence of malice is fundamental to manslaughter in a general definitional sense, it is not an actual element of the crime itself which the people must establish beyond a reasonable doubt. Similarly, in People v Van Wyck, 402 Mich 266, 269; 262 NW2d 638 (1978), this Court, in holding that voluntary manslaughter is not a necessarily included offense within the crime of murder, said that the "absence of mitigating circumstances need not be established in order to convict one of first- or second-degree murder”. B The second issue on appeal is whether the evidence adduced at the preliminary examination is sufficient to support the magistrate’s decision to bind defendant over for trial on the charge of manslaughter under MCL 750.329; MSA 28.561. Under MCL 766.13; MSA 28.931, it is the duty of the magistrate to bind the defendant over for trial if it appears at the conclusion of the preliminary examination that a felony has been committed and there is probable cause to believe that the defendant committed it. In People v Asta, 337 Mich 590, 609-610; 60 NW2d 472 (1953), this Court set forth the standard to be followed by the examining magistrate in making a determination whether to bind a defendant over for trial: "Under the statute relating to preliminary examinations [MCL 766.13; MSA 28.931] the magistrate may bind a defendant, or defendants, over to the circuit court for trial if it shall appear from the proofs that an offense not cognizable by a justice of the peace has been committed, and that there is probable cause for charging defendant, or defendants, therewith. In the instant case it was not required that the justice ñnd the guilt of the defendants established beyond a reasonable doubt. * * * It was essential, however, under the provisions of the statute, to determine that the offense charged had been committed, and that there was probable cause to believe that defendants were guilty. "The matter of 'probable cause’, as the expression is used in the statute, has reference to the connection of the defendants with the alleged offense rather than to the corpus delicti, that is, to the fact that the crime charged has been committed by some person or persons.” (Emphasis changed.) The sufficiency of evidence produced at a preliminary examination to bind a defendant over for trial was also discussed in People v Oster, 67 Mich App 490, 495; 241 NW2d 260 (1976), in which it was stated: "It is axiomatic that at the preliminary examination the prosecutor must show that the offense charged has been committed. While positive proof of guilt is not required, People v Martinovich, 18 Mich App 253, 257; 170 NW2d 899 (1969), there must be evidence on each element of the crime charged or evidence from which those elements may be inferred * * *. People v Juniel, 62 Mich App 529, 536; 233 NW2d 635 (1975).” (Emphasis added.) In the instant case the Court of Appeals found that the trial court erred in finding that the magistrate had not abused his discretion in binding defendant over for trial. We disagree. It is well-settled that the standard to be observed in reviewing a magistrate’s determination at preliminary examination is that the reviewing court should not disturb the determination of the magistrate unless a clear abuse of discretion is demonstrated. In People v Dellabonda, 265 Mich 486, 491; 251 NW 594 (1933), this Court said: "Primarily the question of probable cause is for the consideration of and determination by the examining magistrate. This Court may not agree with the findings of such magistrate but it has no right to substitute its judgment for his except in case of a clear abuse of discretion. ” (Emphasis added.) In the case at bar, the only controverted issue of fact is whether the homicide was justifiable. Defendant argues that he was justified in using deadly force with the decedent either in self-defense or on the basis that, as a police officer, he was authorized to use whatever force was reasonably necessary in arresting the decedent. In Delude v Raasakka, 391 Mich 296, 303; 215 NW2d 685 (1974), this Court said: "The police have the right to use that force reasona ble under the circumstances to effect * * * an arrest. The police may also take what action is reasonable to protect themselves in the course of an arrest or an attempted arrest.” As to what constitutes "reasonable force”, see 5 Am Jur 2d, Arrest, § 81, p 768, where it is stated: "What amounts to reasonable force on the part of an officer making an arrest usually depends on the facts in the particular ease, and hence the question is for the jury. The reasonableness of the force used must be judged in the light of the circumstances as they appeared to the officer at the time he acted, and the measure is generally considered to be that which an ordinarily prudent and intelligent person, with the knowledge and in the situation of the arresting officer, would have deemed necessary under the circumstances. The officer has discretion, within reasonable limits, to determine the amount of force which the circumstances require, and he is not guilty of wrong unless he arbitrarily abuses the power confided in him.” Likewise, police officers making a lawful arrest may use that force which is reasonable under the circumstances in self-defense, and unlike the private citizen a police officer, by the necessity of his duties, is not required to retreat before a display of force by his adversary. See 40 Am Jur 2d, Homicide, § 137, pp 427-428. However, like the private citizen, the police officer who claims self-defense must have reasonably believed himself to have been in great danger and that his response was necessary to save himself therefrom. See Pond v People, 8 Mich 150 (1860); People v Macard, 73 Mich 15; 40 NW 784 (1888); and People v Giacal-one, 242 Mich 16; 217 NW 758 (1928). In People v Osier, supra, this rule was reiterated as follows: "Not only must the defendant believe himself to be in great danger, but that belief must also be reasonable under the circumstances.” 67 Mich App 490, 501. Upon reviewing the record of the preliminary examination, we cannot say that the magistrate abused his discretion in finding that defendant was not justified as a matter of law in taking the life of the decedent. While defendant offers arguments which might support his defense of justification, other factors tend to cast doubt on defendant’s claim of justification. The object of a preliminary examination is not to prove guilt or innocence beyond a reasonable doubt, nor should a magistrate discharge a defendant when evidence conflicts or raises reasonable doubt of his guilt; such questions should be left for the jury upon the trial. People v Medley, 339 Mich 486; 64 NW2d 708 (1954). In the instant case, we believe that the magistrate did not abuse his discretion in binding defendant over for trial. The record indicates that the question of whether the force used by defendant was excessive under the circumstances was properly left for the jury. Accordingly, we find that the Court of Appeals erred in reversing the order of the trial court denying defendant’s motion to quash the information. We reverse the Court of Appeals and remand to the trial court for appropriate proceedings. Coleman, C.J., and Kavanagh, Williams, Levin, Ryan, and Blair Moody, Jr., JJ., concurred with Fitzgerald, J. In People v Martin, 59 Mich App 471; 229 NW2d 809 (1975), defendant, who had been bound over on the charge of manslaughter, moved to quash the information on the basis that the evidence at the preliminary examination indicated that the people had failed to show that defendant had not acted in self-defense. The trial court granted defendant’s motion, and the people appealed. In setting aside the order quashing the information, the Court of Appeals held: "It is not the law that the people must disprove self-defense where there are no facts which raise the issue. A preliminary examination is not a trial. As plaintiff points out, People v Weiden, 239 Mich 169, 172; 214 NW 120, 121 (1927), is very much on point. Defenses should be presented at trial.” 59 Mich app 471, 490. People v Martin was expressly overruled by this Court on other grounds in Jackson County Prosecutor v Court of Appeals, 394 Mich 527; 232 NW2d 172 (1975). MCL 750.329; MSA 28.561 was originally enacted as the third of four sections of Í869 PA 68, which was entitled "An Act to prevent the careless use of fire-arms”. With the enactment of the Michigan Penal Code in 1931, the section of the original act corresponding to the present MCL 750.329; MSA 28.561 was revised and placed in Chapter XLV, Homicide, whereas the sections of the original act relating to the reckless use of firearms not resulting in death were revised and placed in Chapter XXXVH, Firearms. In Michigan Standard Criminal Jury Instructions (CJI) 16:4:06 the elements of manslaughter under MCL 750.329; MSA 28.561 are enumerated as follows: (1) That the deceased died on or about a date; (2) That the death was caused by an act of the defendant; (3) That the defendant caused the death without lawful justification or excuse; (4) That the death resulted from the discharge of a firearm; (5) That at the time of such discharge, the defendant was pointing or aiming the firearm at the deceased; and (6) That at the time of such discharge, the defendant intended to point or aim the firearm at the deceased.
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Blair, J. December 26, 1905, the prosecuting attorney of Saginaw county filed a bill of complaint in the circuit court for the county of Saginaw, in chancery, in the nature of an information in quo warranto, against petitioners, to determine by what warrant the bridge company claimed to exercise the franchise and privilege of collecting tolls over its bridge across the Tittabawassee river. Application was also made for a temporary injunction. January 1, 1906, petitioners filed a demurrer to the information and a motion for a change of venue. The motion for a change of venue was denied by the circuit judge, and on March 13, 1906, his action was approved by this court, on the ground that the requisite four days’ notice of the motion had not been given. State Road Bridge Co. v. Saginaw Circuit Judge, 143 Mich. 337. April 13, 1906, claim of appeal from the order overruling the demurrer was filed, and on August 4,1906, the order was affirmed by this, court. Rockwith, ex rel. Kerns, v. Bridge Co., 145 Mich. 455. January 5, 1907, answer was filed by defendant, and on January 28, 1907, replication and notice to take proofs in open court were filed. On February 7th, the motion for change of venue, which is the basis of the present application for a writ of mandamus, was made, and on February 20th denied. The reasons of the circuit judge for denying the application for change of venue are concisely stated in the brief for respondent, as follows: “ 1. Defendant ( relators) failed to comply with the requirements of Circuit Court Rule 58. “2. The matter of this motion was, by the making of the former motion upon the same subject upon the same grounds and for the same reasons, and its disposition, rendered res adjudicata. “ 3. The statute (Act No. 309, Pub. Acts 1905) does not apply to chancery cases. “4. No grounds upon which the motion is founded are set out, as required by law. Circuit Court Rule 19.” It is contended on behalf of respondent that, by the provisions of Chancery Rule 13a, the cause was at issue upon the filing of the demurrer in January, 1906, and therefore the motion was not timely, under Circuit Court Rule 58. This contention must be sustained. As we said in Detroit Portland Cement Co. v. Genesee Circuit Judge, ante, 286: “ There could be little reason for an application for a change of venue before an issue of fact or law should be joined, for the case could then be heard only upon default. And we are of the opinion, therefore, that a court should not be asked to change the venue by a defendant who has not made an issue. And, as chancery causes are not in condition for hearing until all defendants over whom the court has obtained jurisdiction have either tendered an issue or been defaulted (see Chancery Rule 13), we think that an application made within 10 days after the filing of the last plea, answer, or demurrer, or expiration of the period for the entry of defaults, would be seasonable under the rule. ” The writ is denied. Montgomery, Ostrander, Hooker, and Moore, JJ., concurred.
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Montgomery, J. Claimant presented a claim against the estate of Mary McNamara, deceased, for services extending over the period intervening June, 1885, and February, 1904, under an alleged promise of compensation which the claim presented states in the following terms : “If claimant would remain and care for and look after her [deceased] and personally care for her, attend the household duties and the other business matters of deceased, she, the said deceased, would pay the claimant well and liberally for all her services out of her estate at the time of her death, and that such allowance payment would be sufficient to keep claimant well during the balance of her life.” The commissioners on claims allowed the claim at $13,500, with a proviso that all provisions made by deceased for claimant, either by will or conveyance or otherwise, be deducted. From this allowance claimant appealed to the circuit court. On a trial before the court with a jury the claimant recovered a verdict for $26,399.06. The contestant brings error. Claimant has interposed a motion to dismiss the writ of error on the ground that a special administrator has no authority to appeal from a judgment of this nature without special authority from the probate court. The motion cannot prevail. It is the duty of the special administrator under his general appointment to conserve the estate, and this he cannot do effectually unless he is authorized to defend against unconscionable claims. In Lothrop v. Conely, 39 Mich. 757, it was held that an appeal from the appointment of a general administrator' did not suspend the authority of commissioners on claims previously appointed. It was said: “If there were no one to represent the estate before them, there might be a temporary suspension of action by them in the actual hearing and disposal of claims, because the estate is interested in such disposal; but a special administrator has for that purpose the same duty as a general administrator, and is bound to attend to the interests of the estate.” If the special administrator has the duty to defend against the claim, he certainly has the right to follow the case to the circuit and obtain a review if desired. The other questions of practice so far as they have merit are met by an amended return of the circuit judge embodied in an amended record. The contestant has discussed in its brief the errors relied upon under 16 heads. It is possible to eliminate some of these questions by a reference to the claims of the respective parties and the action of the jury. The claimant demanded (and so far as the voice of the jury controls) recovered very large compensation in addition to her board and clothing during her 18 years with decedent, under a claim that she had rendered services to her during all these years under an agreement to be well and liberally paid out of her estate. The contestant claims, first, that under the claim as presented claimant was in any event limited to a recovery of such sum as “would be sufficient to keep her well during the balance of her life,” and that, as corollary to thiá, the claimant was not entitled to recover on the quantum meruit; second, that if entitled to recover under the quantum meruit claimant was limited to six years preceding the death of decedent; third, that, whatever the basis of compensation be, the claimant should be charged with the value of two houses and a lot deeded to her by decedent; fourth, that the verdict was grossly excessive; fifth, that the court erred in the instructions to the jury. A decision of the questions stated will sufficiently indicate the theory upon which a new trial may proceed if one is found necessary. The first contention of contestant rests upon the postulate that the words above quoted from the claim filed by claimant in the probate court are a limitation on what precedes these words in the statement, i. e., that the agreement to pay claimant “ well and liberally for all her services ” was qualified by the additional statement that such payment would be sufficient to keep her during the balance of her life. We think the circuit judge rightly interpreted this pleading; and, the evidence of the contract being wholly oral, it was properly left to the jury to determine whether such contract was for full compensation in any event, together with a further assurance that such compensation would be sufficient in amount for claimant’s future support or whether it was intended that claimant was to be limited to a sum adequate for such support, although her services may have been worth more. If the special contract was found by the jury to be a contract for full compensation out of decedent’s estate, it would follow that the actual value of such services was the measure, and that evidence of value was admissible. It also would follow from such finding by the jury that, as the demand was not due until the death of the employer, the statute of limitations would not commence to run until such decease. Rodgers v. Lamb’s Estate, 137 Mich. 244. The third and fifth of contestant’s contentions may be considered together. A few months prior to her death decedent made a deed of the Sheldon street property, so-called, to claimant; and deposited the same in escrow to be delivered after her death. The consideration named was $1 and other good and valuable considerations. The actual value of the property is shown by the testimony at from $4,700 to $7,000. The claimant accepted, and is in possession of the property, receiving rents. The contestant claimed on the trial, and insists here, that the value of this property should be charged against the claimant. The circuit judge charged the jury as follows: ‘£ Ordinarily, when a debtor conveys property to a creditor and there is nothing in the transaction to show the contrary, there is a presumption of law arising that the conveyance is intended as payment, and not as a gift. But this is not a conclusive presumption. It may be overcome by the facts and circumstances of the case. “The burden of proof as to the payment rested on the contestant here, the representative of the estate of Mary McNamara. The burden rests upon it to show by a fair preponderance of evidence that a payment was intended. “ If you are satisfied by a fair preponderance of the evidence that this conveyance was given with the understanding that it should be received as part payment for services rendered, you will deduct the value of the property at the time' that the claimant took possession of it from the amount you may ascertain the claimant’s services to have been worth should you find for the claimant, and the .balance will represent the amount of your verdict.” This instruction does not correctly state the law as applied to the facts of this case. The contract alleged and proved was a contract to compensate claimant for her services out of the estate of decedent. By the conveyance in question to become operative at the death of decedent a portion of her estate was set apart to claimant. It was a transfer in kind, and prima facie payment pro tanto. Breton v. Cope, 1 Peake N. P. 43; Stewart’s Estate, 15 Pa. Co. Ct. R. 380; Kelly v. Kelly’s Ex’rs, 6 Rand. (Va.) 176. The error in casting the burden upon the contestant was of vital importance, as there was but the barest scintilla of evidence to overcome this presumption, consisting of an alleged statement of decedent that she had made no payments, while the "presumption was supported by testimony of decedent’s declaration in claimant’s presence at the time the deed was executed. As the case must be reversed on this ground, it is not necessary to discuss at great length the contestant’s fourth proposition. We deem it proper to say, however, that the court should not hesitate to intervene when it is manifest that a jury under the guise of allowing a claim undertakes to distribute an estate in accordance with their ideas of justice. Here we have a claimant who gave up the profession of teaching to become a companion of her distant kinswoman. She lived with her some 18 years, having her support in the meantime. During the last five or six years she was nurse- as well as companion. No one will question that she should have been liberally compensated, but when it is attempted to give her $25 a week for this whole period, in addition to $5,000 in property already provided, it is quite obvious that the result has been reached by other considerations than that of awarding compensation. The judgment is reversed, and a new trial ordered. McAlvay, C. J., and Q-rant, Blair, and Ostrander, JJ., concurred.
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Grant, J. (after stating the facts). Four objections are assigned to the validity of the judgment: 1. That the court obtained no jurisdiction because the plaintiff and defendant were nonresidents of the township of Brady, and that that township did not adjoin the city of Kalamazoo. 2. That the adjournment was unauthorized. 3. That no security of costs was given. 4. That no notice was given of the issuance of the commission to take the deposition. The first objection is ruled against the defendant by the case of Weaver v. Rix, 109 Mich. 697, the facts of which are parallel to those in this case. The other objections raised are collateral attacks upon the judgment, and cannot be considered. These objections should have been made in the original suit. They relate to irregularities in the proceedings after the court had acquired jurisdiction of the parties and of the subject-matter of the suit. Reed v. Gage, 33 Mich. 179; Mayhew v. Snell, 33 Mich. 182; Harris v. Doyle, 130 Mich. 470; Miller v. Smith, 115 Mich. 427; Deitz v. Groesbeck, 32 Mich. 303. Judgment affirmed. McAlvay, C. J., and Carpenter, Blair, and Ostrander, JJ., concurred.
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Grant, J. (after stating the facts). In the construction of deeds, the intention of the parties must prevail, unless it is contrary to law. 2 Devlin on Deeds (2d Ed.), § 836; Erickson v. Iron Co., 50 Mich. 604. The land deeded by Thomas Sharp was conveyed for no other purpose or intention than to make a burial place for the dead. If, as contended by the complainant, Mr. Sharp excepted this lot, two rods square, from the grant for other purposes than for the burial of the dead, the exception would be repugnant to the grant, and void. The use of this lot as a potato or cabbage patch would be repugnant to the purpose for which the land was deeded, and as well that for which Mr. Sharp retained it. The very language of the deed shows that he retained it as a lot “ in said'burying ground that they have used.” The right, therefore, which the grantor obtained by this deed, was none other or greater than that which he would have obtained by the omission of this language from the deed and the purchase of the same lot for burial purposes. The only right retained was the right of burial in the lot-Neither Mr. Sharp in his lifetime could have conveyed this lot, nor can his heirs now convey it, for any other purpose. It was not a part of his estate, subject to partition. The graves of the dead cannot be partitioned among the heirs of one who owns a burial lot in a cemetery. The question of the right of burial by his heirs is not before us, and upon that we pass no opinion. It follows that the decree of the court is erroneous. It is therefore reversed, and the bill dismissed, with the costs of both courts. MoAlvay, C. J., and Carpenter, Blair, and Ostrander, JJ., concurred.
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Per Curiam. The question for decision is what the appropriate legal standard is for measuring whether a governmental agency kept a highway in a condition reasonably safe and fit for travel. I On September 11, 1974, the plaintiff was injured when the automobile in which he was a passenger was involved in a multi-car accident on the Edsel Ford Freeway in Detroit. The vehicle in which the plaintiff was riding was proceeding east in the left lane of the freeway when the flow of traffic was suddenly interrupted. The driver of the automobile swerved to the left to avoid hitting an automobile directly in front of him. In doing so he struck the 10-inch high median curb which effectively catapulted the vehicle over the 20-inch guardrail and into the path of westbound traffic. On February 18, 1975, the plaintiff filed suit against the Department of State Highways and Transportation; he claimed that the department had negligently designed, constructed and maintained the guardrail in question. At trial, the plaintiff produced an expert witness who testified that the guardrail should have been four inches higher than it actually was. The expert further opined that when the front end of a motor vehicle comes in contact with a curb such as was installed about four feet in front of the guardrail, the possibility of being catapulted over the guardrail would be greatly enhanced. The trial judge, as part of his analysis of whether the plaintiff should be entitled to recover, cited the following statement from Fraley v Flint, 54 Mich App 570, 574; 221 NW2d 394 (1974): "A municipality is liable for flagrant defects in the design of its highways.” (Emphasis by the trial judge.) The trial judge then concluded: "The 20-inch steel band here was firmly bolted to wooden posts. Certainly, even though four inches short, it would withstand any reasonable contact from a passing motor vehicle. In fact, evidence offered by the defendant indicated that during a period of six months that there had been 212 accidents involving guardrails. Therefore, in the case at bar, it could not be classified as 'palpably dangerous,’ or as a 'flagrant’ defect.” The trial judge denied the plaintiff any recovery. The Court of Appeals concluded that, in the case of allegedly negligent design, the defect in question must be shown to be "flagrant”, and it affirmed. 84 Mich App 380; 269 NW2d 495 (1978). II MCL 691.1402; MSA 3.996(102) provides in relevant part: "Each governmental agency having jurisdiction over ány highway shall maintain the highway in reasonable repair so that it is reasonably safe and convenient for public travel. Any person sustaining bodily injury or damage to his property by reason of failure of any governmental agency to keep any highway under its jurisdiction in reasonable repair, and in condition reasonably Safe and fit for travel, may recover the damages suffered by him from such governmental agency.” In Carver v Detroit & Saline Plank Road Co, 61 Mich 584; 28 NW 721 (1886), in interpreting a predecessor of the above-quoted statute, we indicated that defects in the construction of highways came within the bounds of the statute. The defen dant does not argue that it has no liability for defects in design or construction. Its position is simply that the trial judge and the Court of Appeals were correct in concluding that the defect, if any, proven by the plaintiff must be shown to have been "flagrant” or "palpably dangerous”. In Peters v Dep’t of State Highways, 400 Mich 50; 252 NW2d 799 (1977), we examined a case in which the claim, brought by the estate of a deceased driver and an injured person, was that the state had failed to design, construct or maintain a highway in a proper manner, thus creating a dangerous condition which was the proximate cause of the plaintiff’s injuries. In addressing the question of whether the trial court had erred in that case in concluding that there was no evidence from which it could properly find that the defendant knew of the condition or in the exercise of reasonable diligence should have known of it, we stated: "Initially it should be made clear that the duty of the defendant is to keep the highway in a condition reasonably safe and fit for travel.” 400 Mich 50, 58. (Emphasis added.) We did not then and will not now read into the statute a requirement that before there can be any recovery, the plaintiff must show that the defect in design or construction complained of was "flagrant” or "palpably dangerous”. It is enough if the plaintiff establishes, inter alia, that the defect rendered the highway not reasonably safe and fit for travel. Accordingly, we find that the trial judge and the Court of Appeals erred in requiring that the plaintiff establish that the defect was "flagrant” or "palpably dangerous”. Pursuant to GCR 1963, 853.2(4), in lieu of granting leave to appeal, we reverse the judgments of the Court of Appeals and of the Court of Claims and remand the case to the Court of Claims for reconsideration on the record in light of this opinion. Coleman, C.J., and Kavanagh, Williams, Levin, Fitzgerald, Ryan, and Blair Moody, Jr., JJ., concurred.
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Sherwood, J. This is an action for mesne profits. The judgment in ejectment was rendered January 31, 1884, in Kent circuit. On the 18th day of June following plaintiff filed in the cause, pursuant to How. Stat. § 7830, a suggestion of claim against defendant Charles B. Judd for the mesuo profits of the lot in question, enjoyed by him. The issue joined on this suggestion was tried before Hon. Eobert M. Montgomery, without a jury ; and on tbe 3d day of November, 1881, judgment was rendered in favor of plaintiff and against defendant Judd for $73.63, and costs of suit. It is this judgment that this Court is now asked to reverse. The facts in this case are so nearly the same as those m the case of Elizabeth Noble v. James Fairs et al., ante, p. 637, decided at the present term of this Court, as to raise no-questions of law not already considered and disposed of in-that case, which clearly rules this; and The judgment will therefore be affirmed with costs. Campbell, C. J. and Morse, J. concurred.
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McAlvay, C. J. Plaintiff, a boy five years old, by his next friend, sues defendant for injuries received upon defendant company’s tracks at Bay City Junction, in Detroit. He went upon defendant’s premises from the highway near the junction of E street and Hubbard avenue. These streets do not cross the railroad right of way, but their junction forms a right angle, the company’s right of way running along and being next adjacent to the west line of Hubbard avenue and the west end of E street, which abuts on said right of way. Formerly along this line of defendant’s right of way there was a post and wire fence. Some of the posts are still there, but the wires are all gone, except some pieces hanging to the posts. On the trial, at the conclusion of plaintiff’s case, a verdict was directed by the court for defendant, on the ground that the accident occurred within the yard limits of the com-pany. Plaintiff appeals from a judgment entered upon the directed verdict. The only negligence claimed is the failure of defendant to maintain the fence along its premises as provided by statute. From the undisputed facts, it appears that •this was within the yard limits of defendant, where, under our decisions, defendant was not required to maintain a fence. Bird v. Railroad Co., 145 Mich. 706. See, also, the following cases relative to fencing station grounds and railroad yards: Flint, etc., R. Co. v. Lull, 28 Mich. 510; Chicago, etc., R. Co. v. Campbell, 47 Mich. 265; McGrath v. Railroad Co., 57 Mich. 555; Rinear v. Railroad Co., 70 Mich. 620; Stern v. Railroad Co., 76 Mich. 591; Grondin v. Railway Co., 100 Mich. 598; McDonald v. Railway Co., 113 Mich. 484; Rabidon v. Railway Co., 115 Mich. 390 (39 L. R. A. 405); Cornell v. Railroad Co., 117 Mich. 238; Katzinski v. Railway Co., 141 Mich. 75; Hamilton v. Railway Co., 142 Mich. 56. The judgment of the circuit court is affirmed. Cabpenteb, Blaib, Hookeb, and Moobe, JJ., concurred.
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Carpenter, J. Plaintiff brings this suit in trover to recover the value of certain live stock and farming implements which defendant, the sheriff of Oakland county, seized, and, by order of court, sold, under a writ of attachment against George Major, the plaintiff’s father and the husband of plaintiff’s intestate. The undisputed testimony proves that some time before the attachment was levied said George Major transferred the property in question to his wife, Dorcas. Defendant contended that this transfer was fraudulent. This issue was submitted to the jury, who rendered a verdict in plaintiff’s favor. We are asked to reverse the judgment entered upon said verdict for several reasons. The court charged the jury that a small portion of the property in controversy was exempt property, and that, as to this, their verdict should be in plaintiff’s favor, even though the property was fraudulently transferred. Defendant contends that this portion of the charge was erroneous, and that plaintiff was not entitled to recover at all if the property was fraudulently transferred. In the view we take of the case, it is unnecessary to consider this contention. The verdict of the jury was for the full value of the property transferred, and not merely for the portion which was exempt. Such a verdict they could render only upon the ground that the property was not fraudulently transferred. We must assume that the verdict was rendered upon that ground, and therefore that the jury found that the property was not fraudulently transferred. N. & M. Friedman Co. v. Assurance Co., 133 Mich. 212. It therefore follows that the jury had no occasion to apply that portion of the charge under discussion, and whether it was correct or not need not be determined. It is contended that the trial court erred in refusing to permit the jury to find the plaintiff was estopped from maintaining this action. The facts upon which the claim of estoppel rests are these: The plaintiff, after his appointment as special administrator of his mother’s estate, though acting in his individual capacity, posted a notice of the sale of the property in question. He attended that sale, and bid upon and purchased some of the articles sold. Before this, however, he had formally notified defendant that the property in question belonged to his mother’s estate, and an affidavit to that effect, signed and sworn to by him, was presented at the hearing when the order for said sale was made. The principle of estoppel is inapplicable, unless it can be said that defendant would not have made the sale except for the deceptive conduct of plaintiff. The record proves the contrary. Defendant was fully indemnified by the plaintiff in the attachment, suit, and defendant’s deputy, who conducted the sale, and who had full charge of the attachment levy, testified: “I had my. conclusions all the time in talking with Densmore Major that the property attached belonged to his father. I talked that to him, and I thought so all the time.” Under these circumstances it is impossible to believe that the conduct of plaintiff misled defendant; and therefore the principle of estoppel is inapplicable. Defendant says in his brief: “If the bill of sale was without consideration, it was presumptively fraudulent, and the burden was on plaintiff to show that sufficient property was left, or other reasons why the bill should stand. The charge of the court leaves the burden of proof on defendant, even if the jury should find the bill of sale was without consideration.” I think this complaint is based upon an erroneous construction of the charge. In fairness it must be said that the charge does ■ not inform the jury upon whom the burden of proof rests under the circumstances above set forth. Nor did defendant prefer any request covering this subject; and it would require considerable credulity to believe that such a request would have been of service to the jury. In its absence, it was not error for the court to say nothing upon the subject. Anderson Carriage Co. v. Pungs, 134 Mich. 474. In his argument to the jury, plaintiff’s counsel stated that Mr. Flummerfelt (a witness for the defendant who testified that he was a creditor of George Major and investigated his financial condition) “did not proceed with any such proceedings as we find in this case.” It is urged that this statement was prejudicial and constitutes reversible error. We decide otherwise. Judgment affirmed. McAlvay, O. J., and Grant, Hooker, and Moore, JJ., concurred.
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Quinn, P. J. This declaratory judgment action was filed by plaintiffs to have 1972 PA 5; MCLA 431.43; MSA 18.966C13)* declared unconstitutional. Defendant Shirley moved for accelerated judgment on the basis that plaintiffs lacked legal capacity to sue, GCR 1963, 116.1(3) and that no plaintiff has demonstrated that he is or will be injured in his capacity as a taxpayer. After denial of this motion, there were extensive proceedings before the trial court culminating in a judgment declaring 1972 PA 5 unconstitutional. Of the two appeals by defendant and intervening defendants, we deal first with the appeal of defendant because we find it dispositive of the entire litigation. The first claim of error by defendant relates to the denial of his motion for accelerated judgment. GCR 1963, 201.2(3) provides: "[A]n action to prevent the illegal expenditure of state funds or to test the constitutionality of a statute relating thereto may be brought in the name of a domestic non-profit corporation organized for civic, protective, or improvement purposes, or in the names of at least 5 residents of this state who own property assessed for direct taxation by the county wherein they reside.” 1972 PA 5 involves the expenditure of state funds and this action was brought to test the constitutionality of that act, and the foregoing rule requires five plaintiffs, not three. In Menendez v Detroit, 337 Mich 476, 482; 60 NW2d 319, 323 (1953), a unanimous Supreme Court stated: " * * * prerequisite to a taxpayer’s right to maintain a suit of this character against a unit of government is the threat that he will sustain substantial injury or suffer loss or damage as a taxpayer, through increased taxation and the consequences thereof.” No plaintiff in this action demonstrates in the complaint that he will "sustain substantial injury or suffer loss or damage as a taxpayer”. For the foregoing reasons, defendant’s motion for accelerated judgment should have been granted. While we recognize that there is a serious question of the constitutionality of 1972 PA 329 under Const 1963, art 4, §24, we decline to pass upon it without the proper parties plaintiff. Reversed but without costs, a public question being involved. Carland, J., concurred. A practically identical act was passed by the same Legislature the same year, 1972 PA 329. Under Detroit United Railway v Barnes Paper Co, 172 Mich 586, 589; 138 NW 211, 212 (1912), PA 329 prevails.
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V. J. Brennan, P. J. Plaintiff, Earlene J. Ireland, and defendant, Harold Ireland, were granted a no-fault divorce pursuant to MCLA 552.6; MSA 25.86 by Judge Kirwan of the Wayne County Circuit Court. The judgment of divorce was entered March 19, 1973, and plaintiff now appeals presenting several issues for our consideration. Plaintiffs various assignments of error all relate to matters which are ordinarily left to the sound discretion of the trial judge. Plaintiff contends that the trial judge erred in not granting her any alimony, in not requiring defendant to maintain health insurance for her, and in requiring her to pay her outstanding medical bills. We have closely examined the record in the instant case and find no error in the trial judge’s decision with respect to plaintiffs outstanding medical bills. Although we review a divorce case de novo, we do not substitute our judgment for that of the trial court unless we are convinced that we would have reached a different conclusion had we occupied the position of the trial judge. Wilson v Wilson, 37 Mich App 255; 194 NW2d 430 (1971); Ross v Ross, 24 Mich App 19; 179 NW2d 703 (1970). We are not so convinced. The record more than adequately supports the trial judge’s decision in this regard. A different situation is presented with respect to plaintiffs other claims, however. The testimony adduced at trial shows that plaintiff, who is 60 years old, has suffered from various medical ailments over the past few years, that she has not been gainfully employed since 1968 and that she is presently receiving $163 a month from social security. Nothing on the record indicates that plaintiff has any special skills or training for any specific type of work. The defendant, on the other hand, is 50 years old and presently employed by the Ford Motor Company. He testified that his gross income is around $180 a week and that his take-home pay amounts to $135 a week. During their marriage, defendant provided plaintiff with medical insurance through the Blue Cross-Blue Shield plan at work. Plaintiff’s next assignment of error relates to her desire to continue to receive this medical and hospitalization insurance. Plaintiff argues that the trial judge originally ordered defendant to continue to pay Blue Cross-Blue Shield premiums for her and that the judgment of divorce, insofar as it differs from the trial judge’s statement on the record, was entered erroneously. We find it unnecessary to determine whether this part of the judgment of divorce was properly entered because it has since been determined that Ford Motor Company will not allow plaintiff to remain on defendant’s insurance policies since plaintiff and defendant are no longer married. One fact remains undisputed, however, and that is that the trial judge recognized plaintiff’s needs in this area and sought to make some provision for them. In light of this and in light of the fact that plaintiff cannot remain on defendant’s insurance policies, we believe that this case should be remanded to the trial court for further consideration on the issues of alimony and insurance. Plaintiff obviously needs hospitalization and medical insurance of some type. The question of who should be made to bear this cost is, under the factual circumstances here presented, a question that can best be answered by the trial judge. We therefore remand the case to the trial court for further consideration on this issue in light of the facts as they now appear. Similarly, the trial judge awarded no alimony to plaintiff obviously thinking that her medical needs would be provided for through defendant’s insurance policies. This has been shown not to be the case and we are unable to determine from the record whether the trial judge would have refused to award alimony to plaintiff had he known that her insurance needs could not be fulfilled in such a manner. Accordingly, we also remand this part of the case for further consideration in light of the facts as they now appear. Case remanded on the issues of alimony and insurance; affirmed in all other respects. This Court retains no further jurisdiction. All concurred.
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Long, J. This is an action of ejectment brought in the circuit court for the county of Wayne, where, upon a trial before a jury, the plaintiff had verdict and judgment. Defendant brings error. The declaration is in the usual form under the statute, claiming the fee of the land. The land is in the township of Ecorse, Wayne county, and is about 8 feet wide on the southerly end, and 14 feet on the northerly end, and 588 feet in length. The controversy grows out of the question as to the true location of the boundary line between the parties to this record. The declaration describes the land in controversy as situate in the township of Ecorse, county- of Wayne, State of Michigan, known and described as follows: “ A strip of land fronting on the ‘St. Cosme line road/ (so called), 8 feet in width on said road, and extending in a northerly direction from the north line of said road 588 feet, and being 14 feet in width on the north or rear end of said strip of land, off from the west side of a certain piece or parcel of land described as follows, to wit: Situate on the south end of private land claim No. 114, beginning at a post standing in the south line of said claim (called the ‘St. Cosme Line-’), the corner on said line 'of lands formerly owned by James Oicotte and Francis Oicotte; thence running- north, 70 degrees 30 minutes west, on said line, 8.64 chains, to a post, the corner of lands belonging to the estate of T J. Campau, deceased; thence north, 29 degrees east, along a fence, the present east boundary of said estate, 11 chains, to the center of the north branch of the Biver Ecorse; thence south, 52 degrees 25 minutes east, down the center of said river, 6.60 chains; thence north, 29 degrees east, 8.40 chains, to a post ,.in the north edge of the marsh bordering said river; thence south, 61 degrees east, 2.51 chains, to the west line of land formerly owned by Francis Cicotte; thence south, 29 degrees west, along said west line, 15 chains, to the place of beginning; containing 9.69 acres of land, — as per the report made by the commissioners on partition appointed by the judge of probate for the county-of Wayne in the matter of the estate of Simon B. Rousseau, deceased, filed with the said j.udge of probate on the 12th day of May, 1876, and by him approved and confirmed on the 13th day of May, 1876, recorded on page 97 of Liber 104; which said premises the said plaintiff claims in fee.” The declaration alleges that on or about the 16th day of August, 1888, the defendant entered upon said premises, and ejected the plaintiff therefrom, and unlawfully withholds from the plaintiff the possession thereof. The-plea was the general issue. The plaintiff, to maintain the issue on her part,, offered in evidence a deed from Charles Larabelle and wife to Simon B. Rousseau. This is a deed of warranty,, and bears date October 12, 1830, and describes the premises as -follows: “A certain tract or portion of land on the south-west, side of Mill creek, on the back part of his farm, and being part of the farm which the said Charles purchased: of James Cicotte, and comprehending the whole of the-land of said farm lying south-west of said Mill creek, and containing 8 or 10 acres, be the same more or less.” To the introduction of this deed in evidence- objection was made by defendant’s counsel, for the reason that it, did not 'describe the land in controversy in this suit;. It was admitted in evidence by the court upon the statement of counsel for plaintiff that it would be shown that it did cover the land in controversy. To this ruling defendant excepted. Plaintiff then offered in evidence a report of the commissioners on partition in the estate of Simon B. Rousseau. This report was also objected to by defendant’s counsel, upon the ground that it did not describe the lands in controversy. This report was received in evidence upon the statement of counsel that it covered the lands in controversy. It appeared from this report that the commissioners partitioned the land described in the proceeding among the children of Simon B. Rousseau, by which partition it is claimed the plaintiff, who is a daughter of Simon B. Rousseau, had partitioned to her the lands described in the declaration in this cause. The land described in this report is as follows: “All the certain parcel of land situate on the south end of private land claim No. 114, beginning at a post standing in the south line of said claim (called the ‘ St. 'Cosme Line’), the corner on said line of lands formerly ■owned by James Cicotte and Francis Cicotte; thence running north, 70 degrees 30 minutes west, on said line, 8.64 chains, to a post, the corner of lands belonging to the estate of T. J. Campau, deceased; thence north, 29 degrees east, along a fence, the present east boundary of said estate, 11 chains, to the center of the north branch of the River Ecorse; thence south, 52 degrees 25 minutes east, down the center of said river, 6.60 chains; thence north, 29 degrees east, 8.40 chains, to a post in the north edge of the marsh bordering said river; thence south, 61 degrees east, 2.51 chains, to the west line of lands formerly owned by Francis Cicotte; thence south, 29 degrees west, along said west line, 15 chains, to the place of beginning; containing 9.69 acres of land.” ■ The plaintiff claims that the property described in the declaration is a part of the property set off to her by the report of said commissioners. The estate of Simon B.Rousseau was administered and closed. The plaintiff’s testimony tended to show that her father, Simon B. Rousseau, took possession of the lands described in the Larabelle deed some time prior to the year 1849; that he worked the lands, and had sole and uninterrupted control and possession of them, from that time up to the year 1875, at the time of his death; that his possession was open and notorious during all those years; and that at his death, after the partition proceedings w§re had, the plaintiff went into immediate possession of her portion of the Rousseau lands, and that she has continued in possession thereof ever since. It appears, further, that in the year 1849 Joseph Campau was the owner of the lands adjoining the premises in controversy upon the west; that in the year 1849 one Hubert Champagne leased these lands from Joseph Campau; and that, before his going upon the Campau premises, a rail-fence had been erected on what was called the line between -the Rousseau lands and the lands of Joseph Campau. The claim of the plaintiff is that this rail-fence occupied the true boundary line between her father’s lands and the Campau lands, and that from that time forward the fence continued upon that line up to the year 1888, at which time the defendant in this suit and her husband removed it, and erected a board fence, starting at a point 8 feet east of the rail-fence at the south end, and at the St. Cosme line road, and running north to a point 14 feet east of the rail-fence at the north end, and inclosing with the defendant’s lands the lands in controversy in this suit; that this was done without plaintiff’s knowledge or permission. That a better view of the premises and their position may be had, the following map is inserted: The defendant's, claim upon the trial was that the plaintiff's proofs failed to show ownership in plaintiff's father to the lands in controversy, and that the only claim that plaintiff asserted was by occupancy; that the deed from Larabelle and the probate proceedings did not show title in the plaintiff; and that the court was in error in holding that 15 years' possession, without any title and claim of right, would make title in the plaintiff. The defendant also sought to show upon the trial that the board fence erected in 1888 was on the true line between the Eousseau and Campau lands. For that purpose she put in evidence a deed made by Augustus T. Ohapaton and wife to the defendant, dated August 29, 1885. This deed described lands as follows: “That portion of lot No. 11 of the subdivision of private claim No. lié described as follows, to wit: Beginning at a point in the westerly line of said lot where said westerly line intersects the center line of the 'St. Cosme Line Road’ (so called); thence easterly, along the center line of said St. Cosme line road, to the easterly line of said lot No. 11; thence northerly, along the easterly line of the said lot No¡ 11, to the center line of 'Pepper’s- Road’ (so called); thence westerly, along the center line of said Pepper’s road, to the westerly line of said lot and claim; thence southerly, along the said westerly line, to the place of beginning, — it being the intention to convey all that portion of said lot lying between said St. Cosme line road and the Pepper’s road, containing 5.53 acres, be the same more or less.” The defendant called as a witness Mr. E. J. G-oodell, a surveyor, who gave testimony tending to show that private claim No. 114 was divided into 11 lots several years ago; that he knew the land claimed by defendant in her deed, and, about a year before the trial of the cause, had surveyed it out; and that the board fence stood upon the easterly line of defendant’s land. This surveyor claims to have found the original stake at the south-west corner of private claim 114, and to have taken that as a' starting point in making his surveys; and that, starting at that point, the board fence was put upon the true boundary line between plaintiff’s and defendant’s lands. Defendant also introduced testimony tending to show that at the time Mr. Champagne occupied the Campau tract of land, in 1865, the rail-fence was moved from about where the board fence now stands, westward upon the Campau tract, from 6 to 12 feet, for the purpose of cleaning up the brush in the fence corners, and that Mr. Rousseau assisted in moving the fence over. Defendant also offered in evidence deeds tracing the title of the Campau lands 'from Joseph Campau, through A. T. Chapaton, to the defendant. Defendant also introduced testimony tending to show that after Hubert Champagne moved off the Campau lands, in 1865, Simon B. Rousseau rented the Campau lands, and became a tenant under Campau of those, lands for several years subsequent thereto; and that, while he was such tenant, he moved the rail-fence from its true line over upon the Campau lands, to the point where the witnesses for the plaintiff claimed the old rail-fence stood. Plaintiff introduced a great many witnesses upon the trial, who testified positively that they had known these premises from 25 to 35 and 40 years and upwards, and that during all that time the old-rail fence .had stood uninterruptedly, up to the year 1888, upon a line now claimed by the plaintiff to be the line between the lands of the parties to this cause, and that it was the same fence that was torn down and removed by defendant’s husband. The plaintiff was called as a witness in her own behalf, and testified that they put the board fence inside and upon her possessions, and that at that time the defendant cultivated the lands and claimed them, although no one was living upon the lands. She was then asked by her counsel: “What have you heard the defendant say with reference to the moving of that fence? “A. She didn’t say much, but her husband did, — her husband, in her presence.” Counsel for defendant objected to what defendant’s husband said, and the .witness was permitted to answer under his objection and exception, and answered as follows: “ He said that, if he had notified me to make my half of the fence, I would not have let him- move the fence from the old line; therefore he did not notify me, but put up the whole fence at his own expense and work; and, moreover, if he had minded what one of the neighbors said, he would have taken more yet.” Plaintiff also introduced testimony tending to show that the lands described in the Larabelle deed are the same lands described in the declaration, and that the Ecorse river was formerly known in the earlier days as “ Mill Creek,” and that the Mill creek described in the deed is the same stream of water now known as the “ Ecorse River; ” and the plaintiff testified, as a witness upon the stand, that the parcel of land described in the Larabelle deed is the same parcel as described in the partition proceedings in her father’s estate, and that it is the same land which she now occupies, .and is described in the declaration. At the close of the testimony, the defendant asked the court to instruct the jury as follows: “2. Possession for 15 years and upwards, unless it is by virtue of some title and claim of right, and the possession is open, notorious, and hostile to the opposite party or the party in possession, will not entitle a party to a verdict. “3. A line or boundary fence, standing in a certain place for 15 years and upwards, does not make a line, and does not bind the parties in interest, unless it is on the correct line, unless the parties assent to it as the correct line, or unless they occupy on the respective sides, claiming it to be correct. “4. If Simon B, Rousseau changed the fence, or caused the fence to be changed, while he was a tenant of Joseph Oampau, the plaintiff cannot recover. “ 5. Putting up a fence by a man who owns land on one side of a correct line, and who occupies the land on the other side as a tenant of the owner, will not establish a line, and will not enable the person who puts up the fence to hold the land by possession.” The court instructed the jury as follows; “If you find that the line fence has not been disturbed until the time which has been .testified to by the plaintiff and the plaintiff’s witness, then, gentlemen of the jury, .you might infer from the testimony which was given by the plaintiff or one of her witnesses that the husband of the defendant said in her presence that he had moved it, and yet, if he had followed his neighbor’s advice, would have taken something more, you may infer from that statement that it was moved at the instance of the defendant, and under those circumstances the plaintiff would be entitled to recover. ******* “ If you find that the fence has been removed since 186,4, then unless you find that it was held by the plaintiff and her father for more than 15 years in adverse possession, and that the possession of herself and father was open, notorious, and hostile, and under claim of right, why, then, gentlemen of the jury, she would not be entitled to recover, if you find the true line of lot 11 ran at any other point. In other words, I charge you, as requested by defendant in this case, that possession for 15 years and upwards, unless it be by virtue of some title or claim of right to the possession, open., notorious, and hostile to the opposite party or the party in possession, will not entitle the party to a verdict. I charge you, also, that a line or boundary fence, standing in a certain place for 15 years and upwards, does not necessarily make, a line, and does not bind the parties in interest, unless it is on the correct line, unless the parties either acquiesced in it or assented to it as the correct line, or occupied their respective sides, claiming it to be correct. I charge you, also, that if Simon B. Eoussean moved the fence, while he was a tenant of Mr. Oampau, over onto the property of Mr. Campau, the statute of limitation could not run so long as' that tenancy continued; and unless he claimed after the termination of that tenancy and held possession under claim .of title, and unless such possession was open, notorious, and hostile, the plaintiff could not claim any right under such possession. So that it comes down to this, gentlemen of the jury: If you find that the father of the plaintiff, and the plaintiff after the death of her father, occupied the piece of ground which was given to her by her father, and you find that the fence which divided the property from the property now owned by the defendant in this case stayed there for fully 15 years prior to the time it was removed by the defendant, if you find that it was removed by the defendant, and the plaintiff and her father occupied that property under claim of title, and that such occupation was open, was notorious, was hostile, and, when I say hostile, I mean adverse to all other persons, — why, then, gentlemen of the jury, under those circumstances, the moving of the fence would be a tort on the part of the defendant, if she did cause the fence to be moved, and, under such ■circumstances, the plaintiff would be entitled to recover; but, unless you find these facts, then,'under those circumstances, the verdict will be for-the defendant.” At this point in the charge counsel for defendant asked the court to charge that,— “Even if the fence stood there 15 years, and the adja' cent owner acted on the supposition that the fence was on the correct line, unless it appears that they occupied on the respective sides of it; claiming it to be accurate, the plaintiff cannot recover.” To that request the court responded: “That is true, gentlemen of the jury; but when I say, * claiming it to be correct/ does not necessarily mean that it is claiming it to be the true line, — that is, the true line of lot 11, — but claiming it to be the accurate division between the properties.” Defendant’s counsel thereupon requested the court further to charge the jury— “ That there is no evidence that there was any claim on the part of Mr. Rousseau at any time that this fence stood on the correct line; no claim on the part of Mr. Rousseau and the adjacent owner, or any of Mr Rousseau’s heirs or grantees, so far as the evidence shows. I simply say this: There is no evidence here tending in the slightest degree to show that Mr. Rousseau ever claimed that this fence was on the correct line.” To this the court responded that,— “The evidence of Mr. Champagne was that, in 1849, he went to work there and moved the old fence which was there over onto the correct line, as he said.” The counsel for defendant then remarked to the court: “If the fence was put there, it was put where the board fence now is, and it has been .moved since; but that does not make any difference, because the proposition is this: That Mr. Champagne had .no right to fix the line for Mr. Campau, and Mr. Champagne, a tenant, fixing the line, and Mr. Rousseau fixing the line, even if they agreed to it, — but there is no evidence that they agreed to it, — would not establish a line.” To which the court responded: “ There is no question that a tenant would have no implied authority to fix a line for the landlord, but at the same time where the line was fixed by the tenant, and where the line stayed there, fixed by acquiescence at least of the other party, between the tenant and the other party, and the line stayed there, if the other party acted upon it, and held open, notorious, and hostile possession of all that was beyond it, why unquestionably it would be fixed so far as the landlord is concerned. * ■ * * * In this case, if you believe the testimony of the plaintiffs witnesses in that regard that he held up to that fence, that it was established between himself and Mr. Champagne, why it would be fixed, whether it was fixed by adverse possession, or whether it was fixed by actual agreement, or by acquiescence.” Some 20 errors are assigned upon this record. But few of them, however, are discussed by defendant in his brief, and he says he does not care to trouble the Court with some of the errors assigned, as he does not deem them important, after a more careful examination. The 1st, 2d, 3d, and 5th assignments of error relate to the admission in evidence of the Larabelle deed and partition proceedings in the Wayne probate court, and the testimony of the plaintiff to identify the land described in the Larabelle deed as the land described in the partition proceedings and in the declaration. We think this evidence was competent. It is certainly competent to show that what is now called the “Ecorse Biver” was formerly known as “Mill Creek,” and the description in the Larabelle deed is of a tract of land on the southwest side of Mill creek, and is a part of the farm which Larabelle purchased of James Cicotte, and comprehending the whole of the James Cicotte farm lying south-west of Mill creek. If Ecorse river and Mill creek are identical, it will be observed, from the plat heretofore set out, that the lands claimed by plaintiff as lying south-west of Ecorse river, being the premises described in the declara tion, are identical with the lands described in the Lara-belle deed as lying south-west of Mill creek. Mr. Bartlett, a surveyor who made the partition in the Bousseau estate, as one of the commissioners, testified that he located this very parcel of land, which he calls “Netty's Point," from the Larabelle deed; that he took'the south part of the Larabelle farm, lying south and west of the creek, as inclosed, and" made the measurements according to the inclosnre, and himself made the description in the partition; that he had been on the premises again the same morning that he gave his testimony, and identified the premises by the-new fence and the track of the old fence. Other witnesses also testified to the location of these lands in reference to the Ecorse river, formerly known as “Mill Creek." There was no error in receiving this testimony for the purpose of this identification. The lands were not only known and described as lands lying southwest of Ecorse river, but as lying south-west of Mill creek, and Ecorse river and Mill creek are conclusively shown to be the same stream. The sixth and eighteenth assignments of error relate to the ruling of the court in permitting the plaintiff to testify to what the defendant's husband .said to her about moving the old line fence, and the instruction of the court to the jury that they might infer from such statement that the fence was moved at the instance of defendant. The evidence was admitted upon the claim that it was justified by the fact-that defendant was present when i-t was said. We think this evidence was competent, and the court was not in error in directing the jury that they might infer from this statement that the fence was moved at the instance of defendant. The defendant was present at the time of the statement, and, so far as shown, made no claim but that the fence was moved by her husband with her knowledge and with her assent; and she made no claim upon the trial but that it was moved there with her approbation by her husband, but, on the contrary, claimed the premises westward of the fence, and between that and where the old rail-fence stood. If she did not consent to her husband moving the fence over upon the plaintiff’s lands, it was her duty, when plaintiff made claim to the lands, to disclaim any interest in them. Instead of that, she is now claiming title and ownership of the very lands which her husband inclosed with her lands by the building of this new board fence. Defendants counsel further contends that the court was in error in modifying the second request to 'charge; that the request should have been given as presented; that possession for 15 years, and upwards, unless it is by virtue of some title and claim of right, and the possession is open, notorious, and hostile to the opposite party or the party in possession, will not • entitle the party to a verdict; and that the court was in error in modifying this request by adding, “ or claim of right to the possession.” Defendant’s counsel contends that the plaintiff could only recover -in this cause by reason of possession, coupled with some1 title and a claim of right. There was no error in this modification. The theory of the plaintiff was that her father went into possession under the Larabelle deed, claiming title to the lands now in controversy; that he used and cultivated them for more than 30 years, with a marked boundary between his lands and the Campau lands by this rail-fence, which stood there continuously and uninterruptedly from the year 1849 up to 1888; and that during all those years her father, and she after his death, used, cultivated, and occupied those very lands, claiming a right, not only under claim of title, but by open, notorious, and hostile possession as to all the world; and the court was not in error in modifying the defendant's request to charge, for, although the plaintiff's father may not have gone into possession under any title or claim of title, yet if he held the lands in controversy, and the whole of them, and used, occupied, and cultivated them, claiming a right thereto hostile and adverse to every other person, and he continued to occupy them for more than 30 years, up to the rail-fence, his rights in the premises became established by such adverse possession, although he may not have .gone into possession under any title or claim of title at the time of his entry; but, as we have said, we think the plaintiff's testimony shows that the Larabelle deed and the partition proceedings sufficiently describe the lands mentioned in the declaration, and therefore plaintiff's father and plaintiff were occupying, using, and claiming rights in the premises, not only by adverse possession, but under .a claim of title. ¥e think the court was not in error in modifying the defendant's fifth request, as he did in his general charge, which we have heretofore set out. If the fence was moved by plaintiff's father, in 1865, over upon the Campau lands as claimed, while he was a tenant of Mr. Cam-pan, the court directed the jury that the statute of limitations would not run so long as that tenancy continued; and unless he claimed after the termination of the tenancy to hold, the land by adverse possession under claim of title, and such possession and claim of title was open, notorious, hostile, and adversé, and had continued for more than 15 years after the termination of the tenancy, the plaintiff could not recover. There was no error in this instruction and modification of the request. The testimony abundantly shows that, after the tenancy had terminated, if one ever existed, a fence stood there for more than fifteen years prior to the time that the board fence was built, the plaintiff and her father occupying, claiming, and cultivating the lands during all that time. Some claim is also made that the court was in error in permitting the plaintiff to introduce testimony by general reputation showing that these lands, up to the old rail-fence, were claimed to be owned by plaintiff and her father up to the year 1888. There was no error in this. Sparrow v. Hovey, 44 Mich. 63. The seventeenth assignment” of error relates to that part of the general charge of the court in which the court read to the jury from the case of Stewart v. Carleton, 31 Mich. 270. The claim is that the reading of what was said by Mr. Justice Campbell in that case in reference to surveyors prejudiced the rights of the defendant, as it had reference to the survey made by the defendant’s surveyor, Goodell, in locating, as he claimed to have done, the true boundary line between the parties. The plaintiff’s case was not rested upon the question solely of the true boundary line, but was submitted to the jury principally upon the question of the established boundary in the year 1849, which had continued to be recognized and acquiesced in as the boundary between these lands from that time up to the year 1888, and we cannot see how the defendant’s case could be prejudiced by the court reading from that opinion. Taking the case as a whole, we are unable ' to discover any error.' It appears to us, from the whole record, that the case was fairly tried, and the rights of the defend-' ant fully protected under the charge of the court as given. The judgment must be affirmed, with costs. Morse, McGrath, and Grant, JJ., concurred with Long, J. Champlin, O. J. I concur in the result.
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Morse, J. This is an action of assumpsit upon the ■common counts commenced in justice’s court. On appeal to the circuit court for the county of Berrien, the circuit judge directed a verdict for the defendant. The case made by the plaintiff was substantially as follows: He is a farmer about 72 years of age, and has lived in Bainbridge, in Berrien county, upon his present farm, for nearly 40 years. There is an orchard on his premises, and he makes and sells cider. He had cider in his cellar in the spring of 1889. The defendant had a mill not far from plaintiff’s, and teamsters in his employ-drawing logs to the mill. Plaintiff had a sick horse in July, 1889, and called some of these teamsters in to help him about his horse, as they were passing by his place. After they had assisted him to “swing up” his horse, he drew some cider, which he claims had acid in it to keep it from fermenting, and treated them with it. Plaintiff was something of a horse-doctor, and a few days thereafter one Penrod, who was working for defendant with his own team, brought one of his horses to plaintiff to treat for sickness. The horse was brought to his place about 4 o’clock in the morning, and died in about seven hour's. On the second day thereafter the defendant came into plaintiff’s yard, and we give the conversation between them in the language of the plaintiff: “I was preparing to go to the hay-field. I had cut down quite a lot of clover. I was fixing my hay-rack. Says he, 'Is this Mr. Cribbs?’ I told him- that was my name. He says, ‘I understand you have been selling my men cider, and in consequence one of my men got drunk Saturday before.’ I cannot name the date of it, — it was-the Saturday before the horse died. ‘He run his horse, and caused his death, and I want pay for that horse. I want pay for the horse.’ I told him that was a mistake;. I never sold any of his men any cider in the world, — not a drop. Says he, ‘You have, and I can prove it by six different witnesses that work for me, — men that work for me.’ Says I, ‘Who are they?’ Says he, ‘I cannot name them all, I have so. many; a great many mills and so many men. I hire so many men I don’t know their names.’ He says, ‘ There are three at the mill, and there are three others that will swear they got cider.’ I says, ‘That is a mistake.’ He says: ‘Mistake or not, I want pay for that horse. My teams are lying idle. I have a contract, and that contract has about expired, and, unless I can keep my teams at work, I shall lose $1,000 on this-contract. I cannot give you any time on it. I want it immediately, — right off.’ I says: ‘I don’t see how you can make that claim. I have no knowledge of their getting any cider that would intoxicate any one, even to the most delicate child there was, or woman.’ Says he, ‘It has been done, and I have got hold of the man now that I have been looking for, and I want pay for it; my team has got to go to work tomorrow. I cannot run around any more. Unless you do, I shall send you up. I shall .fine you, or cause you to be fined, and send you to Grand Eapids.’ Says I, ‘I don’t understand’ the law/ He spoke in the first place, and says, ‘You know as much about law as I do.’ I says, ‘I never had a case in my life, never had a lawsuit; I don’t know anything about it.’ ‘Well,’ says he, ‘I have traveled over the State of Michigan about as much as any other man, and I know about as much law as most lawyers. I have had a great many lawsuits in my life-time.’ Says he, ‘That will be the least I can take, and the best I can do with you, and give you no time.’ I told him I had no money by me. _ _ “ Q. You " said something about his having you at Grand Eapids. What did he say about that? “A, He would have me arrested and take me to Grand Eapids, in the U. S. court, and it would imprison me so long a time, and $500 fine. “Q. Did he state how long a time? “A. Imprisonment? “Q. Yes. “A. I don't know as he came out on the time or years. I don't recollect that he did. He might have said a number of years. ‘ There will be no chance for you at all; it will, be a sure thing.' Said he could prove it by three men down there. Wanted I should go down with him. I says, ‘ I have no time; my hay is in such a state I want to put my hands to work.' Says I, ‘I cannot go.’* ‘Well,’ says he, ‘you better go.' ‘Better go down,' says he, ‘it will save a good deal of expense to you, probably.' So I went down.” Plaintiff admitted to Sowle that he gave the men some cider to drink, but protested that he did not sell it to them. Sowle told him that was enough to condemn him, as it was a sale. Plaintiff said he “ could not see it in that light.” Sowle replied, “I understand the law as well as most lawyers.” Plaintiff and Sowle went down to the mill, and Sowle called up some of his men, and asked them in rotation, “ Did you ever buy any cider of Mr. Cribbs?” and each one answered in the affirmative. Considerable more conversation between plaintiff and defendant took place between this time and the payment of the money; Cribbs trying to plead off or reduce the amount, and Sowle, insisting on the sum of $150 in money, or he would criminally prosecute the plaintiff for selling cider without a license. Finally Cribbs went down to Benton Harbor to get the money. . While there he called upon Mr. Wiemer, a druggist, and who had been' a sheriff or deputy-sheriff of the county, and asked his advice. Weimer said to him that he “guessed he had got in a boat.” Plaintiff then went and got the money, and paid, defendant $150. This is the money he is seeking to-recover in this suit. It was also shown by the testimony of Mr. Penrod, a witness for the plaintiff, that after his horse died the defendant came to Penrod, and asked him whát he was going to do. Penrod replied that he hardly knew what to do. Then Sowle said, “ There is just one way that you can get a horse.” On being asked, how that was, he said that, if Penrod would swear that he bought cider of Cribbs, he (Sowle) could go and scare $150 out of him. Penrod said that he could not do that, as he never bought any cider of plaintiff. Sowle said the other boys had, and they would swear to it. Penrod also testified that he was present when Sowle called the men up in the presence of the plaintiff, and asked them if they had purchased cider of Cribbs, and heard them answer, “Yes.” Plaintiff was also corroborated, as to his conversation in his own yard with'Sowle, by Mr. Parker, his hired man, who heard most, if not all, of the talk there. The defendant admitted getting $150 of Cribbs, and that he obtained it by reason of making the charge to him that he had been selling cider to his men, but denied that he had threatened any criminal prosecution. There was no proof in the case that plaintiff's letting the men have cider had anything to do whatever with the killing of the horse belonging to Penrod. The money, under all the testimony, was received by Sowle without any consideration for its payment, except the settlement of a threatened criminal prosecution. But the circuit judge was of the opinion that the plaintiff had “ failed to show anything like duress;” and said to the jury that,— “ Under' his own testimony, there is nothing that can be called such fear as the law will recognize; and, once a man sees fit to enter into an agreement of that kind, he cannot afterwards invoke the aid of the court to rid himself of a place which he has himself been the cause of falling into. Your verdict, without leaving your seats, will be that you find in favor of the defendant.” The judge in his remarks to the jury, a portion only of which has been given above, laid stress upon the fact that plaintiff was remarkably strong and robust for one of his years, and had transacted more business than the average man in his walk of life; and also upon the further fact that plaintiff deliberated before the payment of the money, and counseled with a friend, “'and paid the money with a full knowledge of all the facts.” The plain case is this: On Sowle’s own showing, he has $150 of plaintiff’s money without any consideration, and without the shadow of an excuse for a consideration. If the plaintiff’s testimony is true, the money was extorted from him under the threat of a criminal prosecution in the United States court. He testified that he had sold cider by the barrel, and also sweet cider by the pitcher full and half gallon; but not to any of Sowle’s men. He was ignorant of the law, and says that the reason he paid the money was that— “Sowle’s talk gave me a fright, scared me into it, not knowing anything about the law, never having any occasion to, and he claiming to be quite a lawyer himself, that he could make me. Thought I was compelled in my own mind to do it.” We do not think the plaintiff is debarred from recovering back this money so unjustly obtained from him'. He had reason to fear a criminal prosecution when he was threatened with it, and confronted by three or four men who said that they had bought cider of • him, and was informed by defendant that they would swear to it. Even if he had the average intelligence and business faculty of people in his walk in life, he can well be excused for thinking that he was in danger of being criminally prosecuted and perhaps jailed if he did not settle. He was ignorant of the law and had a horror of it; especially in the shape it was presented to him by the defendant. The fact that he consulted a friend, who told him he guessed he was in a boat, does not help the defend ant any. If it has any bearing, it is in favor of the plaintiff’s case. There is no doubt, from plaintiff’s showing, that he was threatened with unlawful arrest and imprisonment; that it excited a fear in him that the threat would be carried into execution if he did not pay the money; that this fear was grounded upon the rea. Bonable belief that the person ipaking the threat had the means of carrying his threat into immediate execution; and that the threat operated so as to overcome the will of the plaintiff; and we think, under such showing, he was entitled to recover. As was well said by Gordon, J., in Jordan v. Elliott, 15 Cent. Law J. 232: “We are aware that neither under the rule of the civil nor common law, as formerly expressed, would there be sufficient to release Mrs. Elliott [in that case] from her contract; for, according'to Blaekstone, the threats to produce such an effect must be of such a character as to induce a well-grounded fear in the mind of a firm and courageous man of the loss of life or limb. And the rule of the civil law was of like import; the fear must be of' that kind which would influence a man of the greatest constancy, — metus non vani hominis, sed qui in liomine constantissimo cadat. * * * But, fortunately for the weak and timid, courts are no longer governed by this harsh and inequitable doctrine, which seems to have considered only a very vigorous and athletic manhood, overlooking entirely women and men of weak nerves. Pothier regards this rule as too rigid, and approves the better doctrine, that regard must be had to the age, sex, and condition of the parties, since that fear which would be insufficient to influence a man in the prime of life and of military character might be deemed sufficient to avoid the contract of a woman, or a man in the decline of life. Evans’ Poth. Obi. 1, 18. And we think the opinion of Mr. Evans expresses the doctrine which is now approved by the judicial mind, both'of this country and of England; that is, that any contract produced by actual intimidation ought to be held void, whether as arising from the result of merely personal infirmity, or. from circumstances which might produce a like effect upon persons of ordinary firmness.” See, also, And; Law Diet., p. 388. It has been held by some of the courts that mere threats of criminal prosecution, when neither warrant has been issued or proceedings commenced, do not constitute duress (Buchanan v. Sahlein, 9 Mo. App. 552; Higgins v. Brown, 78 Me. 473; Town Council v. Burnett, 34 Ala. 400); and by others, that a threat of arrest for which there is no ground does not constitute duress, as the party could not be put in fear thereby (Knapp v. Hyde, 60 Barb. 80; Preston v. Boston, 12 Pick. 12). But these rules do not. seem to have any regard to the condition of the mind of the person acted upon by the threat, or to take into consideration the age, disposition, or intellect of the _person so threatened; and leaves the old, the ignorant, the weak, and the timid at the mercy of the bully or the scoundrel who operates upon their fears to extort money from them. Truly, to such an action as this the defendant, who, without semblance of any legal or moral right or claim, has scared money out of an old man, cannot well set up any defense of the policy of the law that it was the duty of the injured party to have resorted to the courts ip the first place, or withstood the threat of being taken there until proceedings were actually begun, to defend himself from the extortion. Nor, in my opinion, is it the true policy of the law to make an arbitrary and unyielding rule in such cases, to apply to all alike, without regard to age, sex, or condition of mind. Weak and cowardly people and old and ignorant persons are the ones that need the protection, of the courts, and they are the ones usually operated upon and influenced by threats and menaces. This case should have gone to the jury, and if they found that the threat of criminal prosecution was made as claimed by plaintiff, and that he, on account of his age and ignorance of the law, was so put in fear that his will was overcome, and he paid this money, not of his own free will, but because of the fear that he would be unjustly imprisoned on the complaint of Sowle, backed by the testimony of the witnesses he had been confronted with, then the verdict should have been in his favor for the money so paid, with interest. The modern doctrine of duress is established where actual or threatened violence or restraint contrary to law compels one to enter into or discharge a contract. Bouv. Law Diet.' It is duress when there is a fear of imprisonment excited by threats. Will, Eq. Jur. 209. A threat to procure the arrest and imprisonment of one's son under a false and criminal charge, and reasonable ground to believe that such threat will be executed, probably constitute duress. Schultz v. Culbertson, 46 Wis. 313; Meech v. Lee, 82 Mich. 274. See, also, Schultz v. Catlin (Wis.), 47 N. W. Rep. 946; Eadie v. Slimmon, 26 N. Y. 9; Adams v. Bank, 116 Id. 613 (23 N. E. Rep. 7); Green v. Scranage, 19 Iowa, 461; Taylor v. Jaques, 106 Mass. 291. The judgment is reversed, and a new trial granted, with costs of this Court to plaintiff. The other Justices concurred.
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Per Curiam. On appeal, the Supreme Court has reversed the decision of this Court and held that a mandatory life sentence is required on conviction of conspiracy to commit first-degree murder under MCL 750.157a; MSA 28.354(1). The Supreme Court further provided as follows: We remand the case to the Court of Appeals for briefing and decision on whether a person sentenced to life imprisonment for conspiracy to commit first-degree murder is eligible for parole consideration under MCL 791.234(4); MSA 28. 2304(4) and, if so, the proper retroactive effect of such a decision.[ ] The "lifer law” set forth in MCL 791.234(4); MSA 28.2304 (4) provides as follows: A prisoner under sentence for life or for a term of years, other than prisoners sentenced for life for murder in the first degree and prisoners sentenced for life or for a minimum term of imprisonment for a major controlled substance offense, who has served 10 calendar years of the sentence is subject to the jurisdiction of the parole board and may be released on parole by the parole board, subject to the following conditions .... Both defendant and the prosecutor agree that after serving ten years defendant is eligible for parole consideration under MCL 791.234(4); MSA 28.2304(4) where, as here, he was sentenced to life imprisonment for conspiracy to commit first-degree murder. The lifer law statute does not specifically exclude persons convicted of conspiracy to commit first-degree murder and sentenced to life imprisonment from the jurisdiction of the parole board after serving ten calendar years of the sentence. The conspiracy statute, MCL 750.157a; MSA 28.354(1), provides for punishment by penalty equal to that which could be imposed if defendant had been convicted of committing the crime he conspired to commit. The first-degree murder statute, MCL 750.316; MSA 28.548, provides that a person convicted of first-degree murder shall be punished by imprisonment for life. This statute does not, however, state that such a sentence of life imprisonment is nonparolable. What makes first-degree murder a nonparolable life offense is MCL 791.234(4); MSA 28.2304(4). In other words, first-degree murder is nonparolable because it is specifically excluded from the above statute, while conspiracy to commit first-degree murder is not. Furthermore, Proposal b does not preclude application of the lifer law to persons convicted of conspiracy to commit first-degree murder. In 1984, in People v Johnson, the Supreme Court held that Proposal b had no application to fixed or life sentences. Therefore, as the Supreme Court recognized in the within case: Thus, there is no apparent restriction arising from Proposal b on application of the "lifer law” to a life sentence imposed for conspiracy to commit first-degree murder.[ ] We agree with both defendant and the prosecutor and conclude that a person sentenced to life for conspiracy to commit first-degree murder is subject to the jurisdiction of the parole board after serving ten calendar years. We further believe that this decision, which is essentially a restatement and clarification of existing law, should receive full retroactive effect. People v Fernandez, 143 Mich App 388; 372 NW2d 567 (1985). People v Fernandez, 427 Mich 321, 343; 398 NW2d 311 (1986). 421 Mich 494, 498; 364 NW2d 654 (1984). Fernandez, supra, 427 Mich at 333. See People v Kamin, 405 Mich 482, 494; 275 NW2d 777 (1979); People v Szymanski, 102 Mich App 745; 302 NW2d 316 (1981).
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Per Curiam. Appellants in both of these appeals are teachers who were laid off from their teaching positions, ostensibly because of declining enrollments, and then offered half-pay positions pursuant to the provisions of an Early Retirement Incentive (eri) program negotiated between the Board of Education for the Garden City School District and appellants’ union. Appellants filed petitions before the State Tenure Commission, which eventually ruled both that the implementation of the eri constituted a subterfuge and that it violated the teacher tenure act. The board appealed to the Wayne Circuit Court, which reversed the tenure commission’s decisions and orders in both cases. Appellants appeal from the trial court’s decision as of right. The union originally proposed the eri during contract negotiations in November and December of 1981 because of its concerns regarding impending layoffs due to anticipated enrollment decline. The board was originally unwilling to add an additional expense to its budget, but agreed to implement the program under conditions which would not add any extra expense. The provision ultimately included in the collective bargaining agreement permitted a teacher who had at least ten years seniority and was not on layoff status to retire early and be entitled to one-half of his or her salary and benefits for the next two years. The remaining portion of the salary would be placed in a "pool” with that of other retirees. Then, the teachers who had been laid off would be given the opportunity to take "half-pay” positions, replacing the early retirees and receiving compensation based on the average monies available in the pool. This amounted to approximately one-half of their prelayoff salaries. A teacher who wished to retire and take advantage of the eri program for the 1982-83 school year was required to notify the board by May 28, 1982. A maximum of twenty-five teachers could elect to retire pursuant to the eri program. Deliberations over projected teacher layoffs for the 1982-83 school year began in December, 1981, and continued until March, 1982. The teachers who were to be laid off for 1982-83 were notified in early April of 1982, which was according to the routine followed since 1976. Layoffs were made primarily on the basis of seniority and certification, although the contract provided additional bases which were also used. Forty-three teachers were notified that they would be laid off. The staff for the school year was not finally identified until the first day of school for the fall. However, the collective bargaining agreement required that the board notify teachers of their tentative assignments by the Wednesday following the second board meeting in May. To accomplish this, a tentative assignment list was formulated through the efforts of representatives of the board and the union. As of May 26, 1982, there were twelve eri applicants. They were placed on the assignment list for the following year in order to "keep track” of everyone in the event that some of the applicants revoked their eri applications. The eri applicants were placed in the positions generally occupied by lower-seniority teachers where recalls to replacement positions were most likely to occur. Many of them were placed in positions that appellants were certified and qualified to teach. By the May 28 application deadline, there were twenty-three eri applications, none of which were ever revoked. Appellants filed their petitions in two separate actions. In No. 93153 (Brisbois), appellants argued, inter alia, that the placement of the eri applicants in positions which appellants were certified to teach was a subterfuge to enable the board to lay off appellants. In No. 93154 (Solomone), appellants argued that, by laying them off and then rehiring them at half pay when retiring teachers were placed in their positions, the board had demoted them without the procedural safeguards mandated in Article IV, § 1 of the teacher tenure act, thus violating the act. The tenure commission agreed with appellants in both cases. The circuit court, on the other hand, held that the commission’s determination that the board engaged in a subterfuge was not supported by competent, material and substantial evidence, so that its decision and order were to be reversed under the mandate of § 106(l)(d) of the Administrative Procedures Act. The court also ruled that the layoffs and half-pay hirings were not demotions under the tenure act and that, even if they had been, the collective bargaining agreement reached pursuant to the public employment relations act prevailed. Appellants argue that the commission’s finding that the hoard engaged in a subterfuge was supported by competent, material and substantial evidence, and for this reason the circuit court’s holding to the contrary was error. It is, of course, reasonably well established that a school board may not engage in a subterfuge or circuitous methods of removing a teacher from its school system in order to avoid the protections afforded by the tenure act. Under the commission’s earlier holding in Page v Harper Woods Public Schools, the board would have engaged in a subterfuge if it laid appellants off while knowing there were available positions for which appellants qualified, did not establish a proper reason for denying appellants those positions, and later replaced them in positions with significantly reduced pay. This, at any rate, was the belief of the commission. If it had indeed been established that the board knew that the positions were available at the time it laid appellants off, it would be necessary for us to consider whether we wished to adopt the holding in Page and whether Page, which concerned a termination rather than a demotion, controls. However, we agree with the circuit court that there was no evidence to support the finding that the board "knew” of available vacancies at the time it laid appellants off. The layoff notices went out in April, 1982. At that time, the board had no idea how many applications would be filed or in what departments applications would be filed. Even on the cutoff date of May 28, 1982, there remained the possibility that some applications might be revoked, in which case the positions thereby "opened” would not be available. Appellants’ argument on appeal is that, because the effective date of the layoffs was June 18, 1982, the board "knew” of vacancies when it laid them off. This is sophistry. The decision was made to lay appellants off long before the applications were filed. The entire eri program, according to uncontradicted testimony, was implemented for the purpose of benefiting those teachers who had been laid off. The board agreed to it only under conditions which would cost the board no extra money. Appellants apparently wish that the eri program had been used to prevent layoffs altogether, but this was not part of the collective bargaining agreement. Appellants next argue that the fact that they were receiving less compensation in 1982-83 than they received in 1981-82 means that they were "demoted” within the meaning of Article I, § 4 of the tenure act, which defines "demote” as "to reduce compensation or to transfer to a position carrying a lower salary.” If the board did demote appellants, the demotion would come under Article IV, § 1 of the act, which provides: Discharge or demotion of a teacher on continuing tenure may be made only for reasonable and just cause, and only after such charges, notice, hearing, and determination thereof, as are hereinafter provided.[ ] In Solomone, the commission premised its holding that appellants were demoted upon its earlier Brisbois holding that the board engaged in a subterfuge by laying appellants off. The commission’s own words were these: In the absence of this subterfuge, appellants would have been actively employed full time teachers. Thus, the net effect of appellee’s [the board’s] actions was to place appellants in positions carrying lower salaries. Further, this action cannot be justified on the grounds that [the board] was merely employing properly laid-off teachers as occasional substitutes. Appellants were permanently assigned and had full responsibility for their assignments. We hold that [the board’s] actions constituted a demotion within the meaning of the Act. Because the board did not engage in a subterfuge, we do not agree with the commission’s holding that the laying off and rehiring of appellants amounted to a demotion. Contrary to the commission’s statement, the board was "merely employing properly laid-off teachers” as half-pay replacements for those who retired early. The board laid off appellants in good faith at a time when all parties involved knew that certain layoffs were inevitable. The eri program helped to place some of these laid-off employees in half-pay jobs, instead of leaving them without employment. This was not a demotion and, therefore, did not come under Article IV, § 1 of the tenure act. The parties devote much space to the question of whether the terms of the collective bargaining agreement negotiated under pera and the implementation thereof supersede various sections of the tenure act. While this is an interesting question, its resolution is unnecessary because the agreement and its implementation violate no part of the tenure act. Similarly, we need not decide whether appellants’ acceptance of half-pay positions estopped them from complaining that offering those positions after layoff was a demotion, because the argument was useless in any case. Affirmed. MCL 38.71 et seq.; MSA 15. 1971 et seq. MCL 38.101; MSA 15.2001. MCL 24.306(l)(d); MSA 3.560(206)(l)(d). MCL 423.201 et seq.; MSA 17.455(1) et seq. See Chester v Harper Woods Sch Dist, 87 Mich App 235, 244; 273 NW2d 916 (1978); Goodwin v Kalamazoo Bd of Ed, 82 Mich App 559, 570; 267 NW2d 142 (1978); Freiberg v Big Bay De Noc Bd of Ed, 61 Mich App 404, 414-416; 232 NW2d 718 (1975). State Tenure Commission Case No. 73-60-R (1978). This Court affirmed Page in an unpublished opinion per curiam, released September 15, 1981 (Docket No. 50235); lv den 417 Mich 891 (1983). MCL 38.74; MSA 15.1974. MCL 38.101; MSA 15.2001.
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Per Curiam. Defendant pled guilty to assaulting a prison employee, MCL 750.197c; MSA 28.394(3), and to being a fourth-felony offender, MCL 769.12; MSA 28.1084. Defendant was sentenced to six to fifteen years imprisonment. Defendant’s motion to withdraw his guilty plea was denied, and he appeals as of right. We find it necessary to remand this case to the trial court on defendant’s second issue. In this issue, defendant claims that his conviction on the habitual-offender charge must be reversed because he did not receive actual notice of the filing of the information charging him with being a fourth-felony offender until the day he pled guilty. Defendant admits that the prosecutor filed the information within fourteen days of his arraignment on the underlying offense as required by People v Shelton, 412 Mich 565; 315 NW2d 537 (1982), reh den 413 Mich 1108 (1982), but claims that, because he did not receive actual notice of the filing, reversal is required. Analysis of this issue must begin with People v Fountain, 407 Mich 96; 282 NW2d 168 (1979), reh den 407 Mich 1152 (1979), and Shelton, supra. In Fountain, the Court held that a prosecutor who knows that a person has a prior felony record must promptly file a supplemental information charging the person as an habitual offender. The Court held that, since the prosecutor knew of the defendants’ prior felony records, the habitual-offender charges should have been filed with the information which charged each defendant with his last felony, in order to provide fair notice to the defendants and avoid an appearance of prosecutorial impropriety. Fountain, supra, pp 98-99. In Shelton, the Court defined "promptly” as being within fourteen days of the defendant’s arraignment on the underlying offense. The Court held that a supplemental information is filed promptly if filed within the fourteen-day period. Shelton, supra, p 569. In the instant case, defendant acknowledges that the prosecutor filed the supplemental information within fourteen days of his arraignment on the underlying felony but argues that placing the information in the court file was not enough and that his conviction must be reversed since he did not have actual notice until the day he pled guilty. Initially, we must determine whether defendant’s guilty plea waives this issue, as contended by the prosecutor. In People v Alvin Johnson, 396 Mich 424; 240 NW2d 729 (1976), reh den 396 Mich 992 (1976), cert den 429 US 951; 97 S Ct 370; 50 L Ed 2d 319 (1976), the Court stated that a guilty plea waives all nonjurisdictional defenses. After examining various United States Supreme Court decisions the Court expanded on the types of defenses which are and are not waived by a guilty plea: Thus, it is clear that the United States Supreme Court, while recognizing that certain rights of defendant may be waived by a subsequent plea of guilty, does not say that is true of all rights. Certainly it is true that those rights which might provide a complete defense to a criminal prosecution, those which undercut the state’s interest in punishing the defendant, or the state’s authority or ability to proceed with the trial may never be waived by guilty plea. These rights are similar to the jurisdictional defenses in that their effect is that there should have been no trial at all. The test, although grounded in the constitution, is therefore a practical one. Thus, the defense of double jeopardy, those grounded in the due process clause, those relating to insufficient evidence to bind over at preliminary examination and failure to suppress illegally-obtained evidence without which the people could not proceed are other examples. Wherever it is found that the result of the right asserted would be to prevent the trial from taking place, we follow the lead of the United States Supreme Court and hold a guilty plea does not waive that right. [Alvin Johnson, supra, pp 443-444.][ ] The Court went on to hold that a double jeopardy defense was not waived by a plea of guilty. Alvin Johnson, supra, pp 444-445. Thereafter, in People v Hall, 97 Mich App 143; 293 NW2d 742 (1980), aff'd 418 Mich 189 (1983), this Court further explained the distinction between jurisdictional and nonjurisdictional defenses: The rule [that a guilty plea waives all nonjurisdictional defects] has been limited somewhat in recent years, so that defects which are similar to jurisdictional defects in that they affect the ability of the state to bring the defendant to trial on the offense charged are also not waived by a guilty plea. People v Alvin Johnson, 396 Mich 424; 240 NW2d 729 (1976). Accordingly, a guilty plea does not constitute a waiver of a jurisdictional defect, or of a defect that amounts to a "complete defense” to the criminal charge. The "complete defense” rationale has in turn been limited to those "complete defenses” that reach beyond the factual determination of a defendant’s conduct. Under this refinement, an issue that involves only the state’s capacity to prove the defendant’s factual guilt is still waived by a guilty plea, even though if resolved in favor of defendant it would constitute a "complete defense” because the prosecution could probably not proceed. People v Riley, 88 Mich App 727; 279 NW2d 303 (1979), People v Hill, 86 Mich App 706; 273 NW2d 632 (1978). See Menna v New York, 423 US 61; 96 S Ct 241; 46 L Ed 2d 195 (1975). This sort of case often involves claims regarding illegally seized evidence. If suppressed, the prosecution may be unable to prove its case, but since defendant’s guilty plea is a reliable determination of factual guilt, the guilty plea waives any issue of the state’s capacity to prove that factual guilt. The "complete defense” rationale has been applied to preserve those issues that concern the state’s authority (as opposed to capacity) to bring a defendant to trial. People v Alvin Johnson, supra (plea of guilty in prosecution barred by double jeopardy), People v Beckner, 92 Mich App 166, 169; 285 NW2d 52 (1979) (plea of guilty to charge brought under inapplicable statute). [Hall, supra, pp 146-147. Emphasis supplied.] In People v John Wells, 103 Mich App 577; 303 NW2d 243 (1981), this Court held that the defendant’s guilty plea did not waive his right to claim on appeal that the information charging him with being an habitual offender was not filed promptly in accordance with Fountain. This Court stated that the defendant’s guilty plea did not waive the issue, as the issue amounted to a complete defense to the habitual offender proceeding, which affects the state’s authority, as opposed to its capacity, to bring the defendant to trial. John Wells, supra, p 586. However, in People v Rashid, 154 Mich App 762, 768-770; 398 NW2d 525 (1986), this Court stated that the Shelton fourteen-day rule is nonjurisdictional and is waived by a guilty plea. In the instant case, defendant does not allege that the Shelton fourteen-day rule was not complied with; therefore, Rashid is not dispositive. Rather, defendant asserts a due process type of argument, wherein he claims a complete lack of knowledge of the supplemental proceedings against him. We feel that this is a jurisdictional defense which affects the very authority of the state to proceed against defendant. It would clearly be a violation of the constitutional right to due process to convict a defendant without affording him sufficient notice of the charges against which he was to defend. As such, insufficient notice is a defense "grounded in the due process clause,” Alvin Johnson, supra, and concerns the state’s "authority, as opposed to its capacity” to bring a defendant to trial, Hall, supra. Thus, we feel that by pleading guilty defendant has not waived his right to assert a lack of knowledge of the supplemental information on appeal. We now turn to the merits. In People v Terry, 145 Mich App 234; 377 NW2d 834 (1985), this Court faced a similar situation. The defendant was arraigned on the underlying felony on October 6, 1983. On October 19, 1983, the prosecutor filed a supplemental information charging the defendant as a fourth-felony offender. Neither defense counsel nor defendant were served with notice of the supplemental information. Terry, supra, p 235. The trial court granted the defendant’s motion to dismiss the supplemental information on the ground that the prosecutor had failed to give notice of its filing the supplemental information within fourteen days. Id. This Court agreed, stating: Although the Supreme Court in Shelton stated that a supplemental information is promptly filed if it is filed within the 14-day period, it is apparent that the Court was concerned primarily with providing notice to the accused at an early state of the proceedings. That purpose is not accomplished if the prosecutor can comply by simply filing the supplemental information and delaying notice to the accused. In order to further the purpose of the rule established in Shelton, we hold that, at the least, the prosecutor must serve defense counsel with notice of the filing of the supplemental information within the 14-day period prescribed in Shelton. See also, GCR 1963, 107.1 [MCR 2.107(A)], In this case neither defense counsel nor defendant were provided with notice of the supplemental information until November 3, 1983, 28 days after defendant waived arraignment on the information charging the underlying felony. Accordingly, we conclude that the trial court properly dismissed the supplemental information. [Terry, supra, pp 236-237.] However, the Supreme Court reversed, holding that the defendant suffered no prejudice as a result of the slight delay in receiving actual personal notice, and noting that the defendant had actual personal notice well in advance of the date he pled guilty to the underlying offense. People v Terry, 424 Mich 866 (1985). The Court cited People v McClellan, 146 Mich App 128; 379 NW2d 393 (1985), and People v Norwood, 146 Mich App 259; 379 NW2d 446 (1985). In McClellan, while the prosecutor filed the supplemental information within fourteen days, the defendant claimed he was entitled to reversal because he did not receive actual notice within fourteen days. This Court disagreed, holding that, since the defendant did in fact receive notice at an early stage in the proceedings, reversal was not required. McClellan, supra, p 132. In Norwood, the defendant similarly argued that, although the supplemental information was filed within the fourteen-day time period, he was not personally apprised of the habitual-offender charge within the fourteen-day time period. This Court again disagreed, finding that since the defendant had actual notice two weeks before his guilty plea, the express purpose underlying the Shelton fourteen-day rule had been met. Norwood, supra, p 261. See also People v King, 156 Mich App 254, 257-259; 401 NW2d 627 (1986). Thus, it is clear that a defendant need not receive actual notice of the filing of the supplemental information within fourteen days of his arraignment on the underlying felony, but has to receive actual notice within a sufficient amount of time before he pleads guilty, so that the defendant can meaningfully and knowingly participate in the plea proceeding. In the instant case, the record does not clearly reveal when defendant received actual notice. In an affidavit, defendant stated that he did not know about the supplemental information until the day he pled guilty. At the guilty plea hearing, the prosecutor stated on the record that defense counsel received a copy of the habitual offender information "not long ago.” Since we can not determine from the record when defendant or his counsel received actual notice, we remand this case to the trial court for an evidentiary hearing, at which the court is to determine when defendant or his counsel received actual notice, and whether the notice was sufficiently timely to enable defendant to knowingly plead. If the notice is found timely, the habitual offender conviction is affirmed. If not, that conviction must be vacated, and defendant given an opportunity to proceed to trial. Since we remand on this issue, we need only briefly address the remainder of defendant’s issues. We reject defendant’s claim that reversal is required because the court did not inform defendant that the rights he had waived by pleading guilty applied equally to the habitual offender charge. This claim has already been rejected by this Court. People v Cuellar, 144 Mich App 187; 374 NW2d 925 (1985). We find that the trial court established a sufficient factual basis upon which to accept defendant’s plea, as required by MCR 6.101(F)(3)(a). A factual basis is sufficient if an inculpatory inference can be drawn from that which defendant has admitted, even if an exculpatory reference can also be drawn. Guilty Plea Cases, 395 Mich 96, 130; 235 NW2d 132 (1975), reh den 398 Mich 951 (1976), cert den sub nom Sanders v Michigan, 429 US 1108; 97 S Ct 1142; 51 L Ed 2d 561 (1977); Rashid, supra, pp 764-765. After a review of the colloquy between the court and defendant, we determine that a sufficient factual basis has been established. We also feel that the court’s statement, that at a trial defendant would be presumed innocent until proven guilty beyond a reasonable doubt, sufficiently complied with MCR 6.101(F)(l)(c)(iv). Finally, we reject defendant’s contention that his conviction must be reversed because the trial court did not advise him of his right to a speedy trial. The right to a speedy trial is not included in the list of rights of which the defendant must be informed. MCR 6.101(F)(1)(c). Defendant’s conviction on the underlying charge is affirmed. The matter is remanded as to the habitual offender conviction for proceedings consistent with this opinion. We do not retain jurisdiction. Defendant was arraigned on the general information on April 29, 1986. The habitual offender information was filed one day later on April 30, 1986. Defendant was never arraigned on that information, however, prior to his guilty plea on August 4, 1986. The Court has since held that the defenses of insufficient evidence to bind over at the preliminary examination and failure to suppresss illegally obtained evidence are waived by a guilty plea. People v New, 427 Mich 482; 398 NW2d 358 (1986).
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Per Curiam. Defendant, Chrysler Corporation, appeals by leave granted from a decision of the Workers’ Compensation Appeal Board. We remand this case for proper application of MCL 418.833(1); MSA 17.237(833)(1), the one-year-back rule. Plaintiff, Janette M. Crawford, was employed in sewing for defendant. While operating her machine at work one day, plaintiff injured her back and experienced abdominal bleeding. As a result of this injury, plaintiff was required to take a number of periods off work. Her history of sick leave is as follows: Injury: 5/29/74 Sick leave periods approximate weeks: 5/30/74 - 9/29/74 17 3/28/75 - 4/15/75 2 9/26/75 - 2/24/76 20 9/25/76 -10/14/76 2 2/16/77 - 3/16/77 4 Defendant is self-insured for workers’ compensation claims and voluntarily paid plaintiff compensation during the above sick periods. Due to a nonwork-related auto accident on May 7, 1977, plaintiff was unable to work for defendant from the accident date until June 29, 1978. On that date she discovered that defendant had terminated her job effective May 7, 1977. On November 13, 1978, plaintiff brought an action before the Bureau of Workers’ Disability Compensation for continued compensation. This petition was dismissed for lack of prosecution in an order entered February 5, 1980. Plaintiff filed a new petition, almost identical to the first, on March 6, 1980. Defendant filed an answer denying plaintiff’s claims and requesting that MCL 418.833(1); MSA 17.237(833X1), commonly known as the one-year-back rule, be applied if benefits were awarded. Following a hearing, plaintiff was awarded benefits beginning with the day after her last day of work and continuing until further order of the bureau. The wcab on appeal modified the award but refused to apply the one-year-back rule. We granted defendant’s request for leave to appeal to determine the applicability of the one-year-back rule set out at MCL 418.833(1); MSA 17.237 (833)(1). In an order dated June 19, 1985, we remanded this matter to the wcab for reconsideration. On remand, the wcab applied the one-year-back rule; however, it measured the one-year period from the date of plaintiff’s initial petition rather than the subsequent one. We again granted leave to defendant to determine which petition should be used in applying the one-year-back rule. On appeal, defendant raises one issue. It contends that the appropriate method of applying the one-year-back rule where a workers’ compensation claimant has refiled her petition for hearing after her initial petition was dismissed for lack of prosecution is the date of the latter application. We agree. MCL 418.833(1); MSA 17.237(833X1) provides: If payment of compensation is made, other than medical expenses, and an application for further compensation is later filed with the bureau, no compensation shall be ordered for any period which is more than 1 year prior to the date of filing such application. We hold that, where a workers’ compensation claimant refiles a petition for hearing after an initial petition has been dismissed for lack of prosecution, the proper date to be used for determining compensation is the date of the later petition. We are guided by the following rules of statutory construction: Words in a statute should be given their ordinary meanings, and if a statute is clear, it must be assumed that the Legislature intended the plainly expressed meaning. Bailey v DAIIE, 143 Mich App 223, 225; 371 NW2d 917 (1985), lv den 424 Mich 867 (1986), and cases cited therein. The purpose of the one-year-back rule is "to guarantee a defendant prompt notice of claim for subsequent compensation, and to prohibit imposing on a defendant the burden of defending a stale claim.” White v Michigan Consolidated Gas Co, 352 Mich 201, 212; 89 NW2d 439 (1958). The wcab ruled as follows: Bordas v Detroit General Hospital, 100 Mich App 31 [298 NW2d 655] (1980), at first blush, appears to support defendant’s current argument that we must measure imposition of the one-year-back rule from the date of the subsequent petition’s filing. Citing the dismissed claims in Lynch v Briggs Manufacturing Co, 329 Mich 168 [45 NW2d 20] (1950), the court in Bordas, supra, 33-34, distinguished that former application of the back rule [sic] only from the filing of the subsequent petition, reasoning that as the latter case’s initial petition was neither withdrawn or [sic] dismissed, it was thereby the source of measurement back from its filing date rather than the amended claim for total and permanent compensation. The court noted that such a continuing claim insured that "defendant’s rights were protected by prompt, ongoing and uninterrupted notice,” unlike a withdrawn or dismissed petition that could pose a "danger that the parties may not be aware of the proceedings against them for an indefinite period of time.” In Bordas, supra, the initial petition, filed June 29, 1972, was amended by the June 13, 1973 filing of the total and permanent petition adding the Second Injury Fund. The instant case presents a comparable argument for continuing, uninterrupted notice to defendant, as plaintiff’s essentially identical second petition was filed by her within one month of the administrative law judge’s dismissal of her original claim. We thus conclude that there was no danger herein that defendant could have been unaware of the proceedings against it for any indefinite period of time, the reason set forth for invoking the rule only from the filing of a second petition. We thus find a proper basis here for invoking the one-year-back rule from the filing of plaintiff’s petition on November 13, 1978, allowing commencement of benefits November 13, 1977, in accordance with MCL 418.833(1). Our order of February 22, 1985 is so modified, and is otherwise affirmed. [Emphasis added.] Bordas is not applicable here. It deals with a different provision and different language. The statute we are dealing with here is clear: compensation is limited to one year prior to the petition upon which such benefits are awarded. Here, the award was based on the second petition, not the dismissed first petition. Therefore, the proper date to use in determining the retroactivity of the benefits is the date of this second, successful petition. Any other outcome would be inconsistent with the provision. Remanded for application of the second petition date in determining benefits.
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Per Curiam. Plaintiffs, Thomas and Lora Bruner, appeal as of right from a July 16, 1986, order of the Oakland Circuit Court granting summary disposition in favor of defendant, League General Insurance Company. We affirm, concluding that the trial judge did not err in determining that there was no special relationship between the parties such that defendant had a duty to advise plaintiffs about the adequacy of their insurance coverage. The facts, although not fully developed, are not disputed. On April 21, 1984, plaintiff Lora Bruner was seriously injured when she w;as struck by a hit-and-run driver as she walked along Union Lake Road in Commerce Township, Oakland County. At the time of the accident, Lora Bruner was insured under a no-fault automobile policy issued by defendant to her husband, plaintiff Thomas Bruner. ,,The policy had been renewed in March of each year since 1975. Each year, plaintiffs received a declaration page from defendant specifying the coverage afforded under the policy. The 1980 declaration page deleted coverage for uninsured motorist protection and included the following notation in bold print at the bottom of the page: Uninsured motorists coverage has been removed from your policy. It is available on request. See enclosed letter for more information. The letter enclosed with the 1980 declaration page stated, in pertinent part: Because Uninsured Motorist Insurance is no longer required in Michigan, we have not included it in your renewal policy. Your premium has been reduced by the cost of the Uninsured Motorists coverage. This coverage is no longer required because of the extensive medical and rehabilitation benefits which your Personal Injury Protection coverage pays to you, a member of your family or a passenger in your car who is injured in an auto accident —regardless of who causes the accident. Although not automatically included^ Uninsured Motorists coverage is available. Please phone us, at the number on the enclosed card, for the price and other details. The policy in effect at the time Lora Bruner was injured in 1984 did not include uninsured motorist coverage, plaintiffs’ never having requested that protection. In her deposition, Lora Bruner acknowledged having received and retained the letter that was enclosed with her 1980 declaration page. She expressed her own astonishment at having retained the letter, the contents of which she did not understand, echoing Casca’s comment in Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar regarding Cicero’s speech that "it was all Greek to me.” Defendant filed its motion for summary disposition under MCR 2.116(C)(8), failure to state a claim on which relief can be granted, and MCR 2.116(C)(10), no genuine issue as to any material fact and the moving party is entitled to judgment or partial judgment as a matter of law. Neither in the hearing nor in the consequent written order was it specifically stated under which subrule summary disposition was granted — a practice we especially discourage. Our review of the hearing transcript suggests that MCR 2.116(0(10) was relied upon. In deciding a motion under that provision, the trial judge must consider the pleadings, affidavits, and other available evidence, and be satisfied that the claim or position asserted cannot be supported by evidence at trial due to some deficiency which cannot be overcome. Hagerl v Auto Club Group Ins Co, 157 Mich App 684; 403 NW2d 197 (1987). The test is whether the record which might be developed, giving the benefit of reasonable doubt to the opposing party, would leave open an issue upon which reasonable minds might differ. Rizzo v Kretschmer, 389 Mich 363, 371-373; 207 NW2d 316 (1973). The lower court will be affirmed where no factual development could justify recovery by the nonmoving party. League Life Ins Co v White, 136 Mich App 150, 152; 356 NW2d 12 (1984). Generally, an insurance agent does not have an affirmative duty to advise a client regarding the adequacy of a policy’s coverage. Instead, the insured is obligated to read the policy and raise questions concerning coverage within a reasonable time after issuance. Parmet Homes v Republic Ins Co, 111 Mich App 140, 144-145; 314 NW2d 453 (1981), lv den 415 Mich 851 (1982). However, a duty to advise may arise when a "special relationship” exists between the insurance company or its agent and the policyholder. Where such a duty has been breached, liability may be based thereon. Palmer v Pacific Indemnity Co, 74 Mich App 259; 254 NW2d 52 (1977), lv den 401 Mich 808 (1977); Stein v Continental Casualty Co, 110 Mich App 410; 313 NW2d 299 (1981), lv den 414 Mich 853 (1982). In Stein, plaintiffs began an architectural and engineering business and, between 1964 and 1969, contracted with the Mourer-Foster Insurance Agency for a "claims made” professional liability insurance policy with defendant Continental Casualty Company. Under a claims made policy, an insured party must maintain continuous coverage in order to have protection against liability for malpractice if the claim is not made in the same policy year in which the alleged negligence occurred. Plaintiffs allowed their policy to lapse between 1969 and 1971, but renewed their contract in 1971. However, upon renewing, they were not informed of the consequences of having can-celled their insurance in 1969 and were not informed that a "prior acts” endorsement was available when they renewed their insurance in 1971. This Court affirmed the trial court’s conclusion that a special relationship existed between the parties, emphasizing the following: In the instant case, the evidence established that the Mourer-Foster Insurance Agency had handled all of plaintiffs’ insurance needs, including their malpractice insurance, for 10 years. The evidence also established that Mourer-Foster was an agent of defendant, Continental. From 1962 until 1969, plaintiffs bought their malpractice insurance from Continental through Mourer-Foster. When plaintiffs elected not to renew their malpractice insur since, Mourer-Foster failed to inform them of the consequences of their failure to renew. In 1971, plaintiffs decided to renew their malpractice insurance asking Mourer-Foster to obtain a policy which would cover them against all liabilities. Mourer-Foster insured plaintiffs with Continental but failed to inform plaintiffs of Continental’s prior acts endorsement which would have protected them in the Bank of Lansing action. [Emphasis added. 110 Mich App 417-418.] In Palmer, the plaintiff had professional malpractice coverage of $10,000 with an insurer through defendant Nettleship Company — an insurance agency specializing in professional malpractice insurance. Plaintiff had been a client , of Nettleship Company for approximately thirty years. After being sued and sustaining liability for $82,000, plaintiff argued that the insurer and Nettleship were liable for the excess of the judgment over the insurance coverage of $10,000 because he never received any advice indicating that his coverage was inadequate or that he should have had more coverage. This Court found that, because there was evidence of a special relationship between Nettleship Company and the plaintiff, the trial court properly denied the former’s motion for a directed verdict. The Palmer Court stated: In this case, there was evidence of a special relationship between Nettleship and the plaintiff Palmer. The defendant was the sponsored insurance representative of the National Osteopathic Association and held itself out as an expert in the field of medical and professional malpractice insurance. Palmer had been a client for approximately 30 years. Given this, a fact situation was created regarding the question whether a special relationship existed and it would have been improper for the trial court to grant a directed verdict in favor of Nettleship. [74 Mich App 267.] While it is perhaps difficult to derive any absolute rule of law from these cases, it is apparent that something more than the standard policyholder-insurer relationship is required in order to create a question of fact as to the existence of a "special relationship” obligating the insurer to advise the policyholder about his or her insurance coverage. There must be, in a long-standing relationship, some type of interaction on a question of coverage, with the insured relying on the expertise of the insurance agent to the insured’s detriment. In the instant case, plaintiffs have not alleged any facts suggesting that their relationship with defendant was anything other than a standard one. In separate affidavits, plaintiffs allege only that they had placed their total trust in defendant to determine the appropriate coverages for their vehicles and that defendant never explained to them the nominal costs involved in maintaining uninsured motorist coverage. There was no allegation that plaintiffs requested, expected, or relied upon defendant to provide protection against uninsured motorists. Plaintiffs did not even go so far after receiving the 1980 letter as to contact defendant and request that their policy be enlarged to provide protection against all liabilities. A question of fact might have existed had plaintiffs contacted defendant following the 1980 letter and inquired about uninsured motorist coverage, but had not been advised about the nature and cost of such coverage, or had been advised against obtaining that coverage. In such a scenario, plaintiffs would have clearly relied upon the expertise of defendant in the area of automobile insurance, and defendant would have at least been alerted that plaintiffs harbored some concerns about the completeness and extent of the protection afforded them under their no-fault insurance policy. This, however, did not occur. Thus, since plaintiffs have failed to set forth in their pleadings, affidavits, or other documentary evidence any facts that could possibly establish a special relationship between plaintiffs and defendant, we conclude that the trial court did not err in granting summary disposition in favor of defendant under MCR 2.116(0(10). Accordingly, the trial court’s July 16, 1986, order for summary disposition is affirmed. Affirmed. Costs to neither party.
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R. A. Benson, J. These two cases have been consolidated for appeal. In Peck v General Motors Corp, the plaintiff was granted leave to appeal from a determination by the Workers’ Compensation Appeal Board that he did not meet the new burden in proving disability placed on him by MCL 418.373; MSA 17.237(373). In Pankow v General Motors Corp, the defendant, General Motors Corporation, was granted leave to appeal from a decision by the Workers’ Compensation Appeal Board that allowed plaintiff to recover by denying retroactive effect to MCL 418.373; MSA 17.237(373). STATEMENT OF FACTS: PECK v GENERAL MOTORS CORP On November 14, 1983, a hearing referee determined that plaintiff, Mr. Peck, did not sustain his burden of proving that he is unable to perform work suitable to his qualifications, including training and experience. This decision was affirmed by the wcab on April 26, 1985. Leave to appeal was granted by this Court. Before the hearing referee, plaintiff testified that he began to work for defendant on February 22, 1960, as a millwright, a skilled trade. On June 1, 1982, plaintiff retired and received a nondisability retirement from gmc. On September 7, 1982, the bureau received plaintiff’s petition for disability benefits. Plaintiff stated he retired because, due to previous injuries, he couldn’t handle the job anymore. At the administrative hearing, plaintiff testified that a millwright was required to be able to read schematic sketches; to be proficient in the use of all metalworking hand tools; to be able to operate heavy equipment including trucks, cranes and bulldozers; to be able to do some welding; and to be able to operate some machine tools including saws, drill presses and grinders. The job also required the ability to use and read a micrometer. Testimony showed that the job also required plaintiff to work with other trades, hang steel, help build items made from steel and repair equipment. The evidence showed that plaintiff typically had to crawl up on machines, lift and replace guards, and lift pieces of steel weighing from seventy to one hundred pounds. The medical testimony and examination of plaintiff by Edward S. Maxim, M.D., showed that in 1969 plaintiff fractured his right femur while on the job and has since had problems regaining movement in his right knee. In 1973, after suffering from back pains, a myelogram was done and subsequently plaintiff had a partial laminectomy and lost time at work. In 1982, plaintiff again lost time at work due to low-back pain and pain in his right leg. Plaintiff suffers from tenosynonitis of his left wrist as a consequence of a work-related injury which occurred while driving a lift truck. Dr. Maxim stated that the combination of problems presented would, for all practical purposes, make plaintiff incapable of working as a millwright and probably would preclude most types of factory work. Specifically, the doctor indicated that plaintiff had marked restriction in bending and twisting his back, in placing any pushing or pulling strain on his back, and that lifting in excess of fifteen pounds is probably not possible. Plaintiff is only capable of limited standing and walking on an alternative basis. Plaintiff should avoid squatting, kneeling and climbing, and is unable to use his left arm for any repetitive or forceful movements. The testimony of Dr. Bernard J. Harris, M.D., was received by the hearing referee. Dr. Harris’ testimony showed that plaintiff exhibited a slight limp due to discomfort in the right thigh, discomfort in the lower back in the midline with radiation into the right side and posterior aspect of the right knee and a thickness and an irregularity in the left wrist. Dr. Harris testified that Mr. Peck was partially disabled in the wrist and summarized that plaintiff has a moderate degree of disability, but further added, "If he had not retired, I feel his ability to continue at a millwright job was diminishing.” The doctor further testified that he felt that Mr. Peck could do any kind of administrative job, sitting at a desk or doing a job that could be part-time standing or sitting, or a job restricting weight of lifting to twenty pounds or any type of bench work. The hearing referee determined that plaintiff did not meet his burden and denied benefits. The wcab held that plaintiff had met the evidentiary standards for proving a work-related disability within his skill based on the standard of physical inability to perform all the jobs within his skilled trade; however, the wcab also held that plaintiff had failed to sustain the burden provided by MCL 418.373; MSA 17.237(373) which applies to retired employees collecting a nondisability pension. Accordingly, plaintiff was denied benefits. STATEMENT OF FACTS: PANKOW v GENERAL MOTORS CORP On February 27, 1981, a hearing referee found that plaintiff had established by a preponderance of the evidence that he was disabled as a result of injuries arising out of, and during the course of, his employment with defendant. Except for a modification not pertinent to this case, that decision was affirmed by the wcab. At the administrative hearing, the testimony showed that Mr. Pankow was hired by the defendant in 1954, that he retired on December 21, 1979, and that, at the time of the hearing in 1980, he was drawing a nondisability pension. The evidence further established that plaintiff was a skilled tradesman, i.e., a toolmaker. Mr. Pankow’s normal skilled trade required that he work with heavy weights, some weighing in the neighborhood of four hundred to five hundred pounds. Although the evidence showed that normally a chain fall was used to lift these weights, it was often the case that three or four men would use brute strength to work with such heavy weights. Plaintiff also testified that, at times, he was required to lift weights up to eighty pounds without any help. Plaintiff’s first back problems started in 1963 and as a result of that injury he was on sick leave for some four months. He returned to the same job and, within three days, reinjured his back. He was again placed on sick leave for an additional two months. When he returned to work, he was placed on the same job. He continued to have back problems and wore a back brace. In May of 1979, after lifting an eighty-pound tie bar fixture, plaintiff reinjured his back and was on sick leave for four months. He returned to work only when he was notified by defendant that his benefits would be discontinued. He returned to work, was put on the same job and, within three days, reinjured his back and was again on sick leave for an additional two months. When he returned, he was placed on the same job with no job restrictions. Plaintiff then told his supervisor that he was going to retire because his back was bad and he could not stay on the job any longer. Plaintiff testified that his original plan was to retire at age sixty-five with full pension, but that he felt, under the circumstances, that was not possible. An osteopathic doctor who testified for Mr. Pankow at the administrative hearing diagnosed Mr. Pankow as suffering from a chronic lumbar-sacral strain and S-l radiculopathy. This doctor concluded that Mr. Pankow was disabled and that any continuation of his regularly assigned work would further accelerate the pathological process. A medical doctor also testified and indicated that plaintiff was suffering from osteoarthritis of his third, fourth, and fifth lumbar vertebrae with some signs of nerve pressure on the fourth and fifth nerve roots. This doctor also testified that Mr. Pankow was disabled. However, this doctor opined that the osteoarthritis was not due to his employment but was due to a metabolic process of aging. This doctor stated that plaintiff’s problems were ones of aging and not of employment. Furthermore, this medical doctor concluded that plaintiff could return to his job since plaintiff had been working with this particular back condition for thirteen years. However, it would be advisable to restrict plaintiff to light bench work. As indicated earlier, the hearing referee found Mr. Pankow to be disabled and the wcab aifirmed this decision in part. DISCUSSION One of the first issues to be decided is whether the provisions of MCL 418.373; MSA 17.237(373) should be given retroactive effect and thus be applied to persons injured before January 1, 1982. We note that our Supreme Court has granted leave to appeal in White v General Motors Corp, 428 Mich 873; 402 NW2d 468 (1987), to consider this issue. The general rule is that the law in effect at the time of the injury controls. "It has long been the rule in Michigan that in workers’ compensation cases the law in effect at the time of the relevant injury must be applied unless the Legislature clearly indicates a contrary intention.” Nicholson v Lansing Bd of Ed, 423 Mich 89, 93; 377 NW2d 292 (1985). However, there are exceptions to the general rule of prospective application. One exception, obviously, is when the new legislation clearly indicates an intention to be given retroactive effect. That is not the case with § 373. Another exception to the general rule is where the change in the law is procedural. A remedial or procedural act which does not destroy a vested right will be given retroactive effect where the injury or claim is antecedent to the enactment of the statute. Karl v Bryant Air Conditioning Co, 416 Mich 558, 570; 331 NW2d 456 (1982). A presumption is procedural, not substantive, in nature. Cichecki v Hamtramck, 382 Mich 428; 170 NW2d 58 (1969). Section 373 merely changes the standard of disability and the presumption which must be overcome. "If the presumption itself is procedural then any change or amendment to this provision will be also procedural.” Cichecki, supra, p 436. Section 373 has previously been held to be procedural and has been given retroactive effect. Wojciechowski v General Motors Corp, 151 Mich App 399; 390 NW2d 727 (1986). Since § 373 changes the presumption as it is applied to claimants collecting a nondisability pension, this is a procedural change and, as such, it should be given retroactive effect. It was error for the wcab not to apply that section to Mr. Pankow’s case. This determination requires then that this matter in connection with Mr. Pankow be remanded to the wcab with instructions to that body to give retroactive effect to § 373 and to examine the record to see whether Mr. Pankow overcame the presumption placed on him by that section. This determination makes it unnecessary to discuss the other issues raised by the defendant-appellant in the Pankow case. The first issue raised by plaintiff-appellant Peck is that this Court should reverse the decision of the wcab since there is no basis in fact for the board’s findings that supervision, instruction, bench assembly or precision tool making are functions suitable to Mr. Peck’s qualifications including training or experience as required by § 373. It is well established in Michigan law that findings of fact in workers’ compensation proceedings are conclusive in the absence of fraud. The standard of review to be applied is that 'the findings are conclusive if there is any evidence to support them. Selk v Detroit Plastic Products, 120 Mich App 135, 153; 328 NW2d 15 (1982), aff'd 419 Mich 1; 345 NW2d 184 (1984). While fact-finding by the wcab cannot be reviewed by an appellate court, the compensation board’s application of legal standards is properly reviewable on appeal. Morris v Metals Engineering Mfg Co, 122 Mich App 404, 407; 332 NW2d 495 (1983). This Court will reverse where the wcab has operated within the wrong legal framework or has employed incorrect legal standards in reaching its decision. McClain v Chrysler Corp, 138 Mich App 723; 360 NW2d 284 (1984), lv den 422 Mich 914 (1985). The determination whether there is other work which the plaintiff in this case could perform is a finding of fact and will not be disturbed on appeal by this Court. However, the determination whether that work is suitable to plaintiffs qualifications, including training or experience, is a question of law which is reviewable. The statute concerned in this appeal, effective as of January 1, 1982, states: An employee who terminates active employment and is receiving nondisability pension or retirement benefits under either a private or governmental pension or retirement program, including old-age benefits under the social security act, 42 U.S.C. 301 to 1397f, that was paid by or on behalf of an employer from whom weekly benefits under this act are sought shall be presumed not to have a loss of earnings or earning capacity as the result of a compensable injury or disease under either this chapter or chapter 4. This presumption may be rebutted only by a preponderance of the evidence that the employee is unable, because of a work related disability, to perform work suitable to the employee’s qualifications, including training or experience. This standard of disability supersedes other applicable standards used to determine disability under either this chapter or chapter 4. [MCL 418.373; MSA 17.237(373).] The legislative intent behind § 373 was to reform the statute and limit the number of retired workers who were eligible to collect compensation along with a nondisability retirement. Franks v White Pine Copper Division, 422 Mich 636, 657; 375 NW2d 715 (1985). In order to ascertain the legislative intent, we must give to words which are not otherwise defined their ordinarily understood meaning. Therefore, in determining what the Legislature meant by work "suitable to the employee’s qualifications,” we must define the word "suitable” in its ordinary sense and meaning. Webster’s Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary defines "suitable” tb mean "adapted to a use or purpose.” The same dictionary defines "adapt” as: "to make fit (as for a specific or new use or situation often by modification).” As the majority of the wcab pointed out in its opinion: The rationale for the adoption of this amendment strongly infers the legislative intention of limiting benefits to retirees already receiving various forms of compensation and calls for a reasonable definition of "suitable work” as being any job, within or without his held of skill, for which plaintiff is qualified by virtue of his training or experience as a millwright, to which he can transfer, adapt, or utilize those skills and knowledge. This Court feels that this portion of the wcab’s decision correctly states the legislative intent. Plaintiff would have us hold that the rebuttal of the statutory presumption could be accomplished simply by showing that plaintiff had an inability to perform work within his skill and would ignore the worker’s ability to adapt his skill to other jobs outside of his chosen field. In determining when an employee has suffered the industrial loss of use of an extremity, the courts have ignored the historical distinction between fields of skilled and unskilled employment. In cases where the employee is claiming a loss of industrial use of an arm or leg, inquiry by the courts was not limited to whether, in the case of a skilled employee, there was a loss of use only in the skilled trade. Rather, the inquiry was directed to whether there was a loss of use in all reasonable employments within or without the field of skill. For example, in Hutsko v Chrysler Corp, 381 Mich 99; 158 NW2d 874 (1968), plaintiff argued that, since his injury to his hand had precluded him from continuing his skilled employment as a millwright, he had therefore lost the industrial use of his hand. The plaintiff in that case pointed to the historical recognition of a distinction between skilled and unskilled labor. While recognizing that the distinction existed, the Supreme Court refused to apply it where the loss of industrial use of an extremity was being claimed. Similarly, in DeGeer v DeGeer Farm Equipment Co, 391 Mich 96; 214 NW2d 794 (1974), the Court held that compensation on a claim of loss of industrial use of the legs could be awarded only upon a showing of inability to use the legs to perform any reasonable employment. Therefore, there is legal precedent for a legislative enactment which would require the factfinder to look not only to the employee’s field of particular skill, but to look at the employee’s ability to work at any job for which the employee’s skills could be adapted. The statute refers specifically to suitability in terms of the employee’s qualiñcations including training or experience. Obviously, used in that connection, the Legislature intended the word "suitable” to be interpreted in light of educational or job training, types of job performed in the past, work experience, skills and knowledge acquired by training or experience, and the transferability of such skills to other employment. When the word "suitable” is interpreted in this manner, the presumption against loss of earnings or earning capacity as the result of a work-related injury or disease is not rendered meaningless and plaintiff’s burden of rebutting such presumption is clearly spelled out. Relevant inquiries under § 373(1) are: What is the retired employee’s residual physical capacity after his work-related injury? What skills and knowledge has he acquired through training or experience? Are these skills transferable to other types of occupations? Are there other jobs to which his skills and knowledge can be transferred within his physical capacity to perform? Under this analytical framework, the retired claimant’s burden of rebutting the presumption is twofold: (1) he must establish that he has physical restrictions resulting from a work-related injury or disease, and (2) that these restrictions render him unable to perform work, within or without his field of skill, that is otherwise "suitable to his qualifications.” In other words, a retired worker must demonstrate by a preponderance of the evidence that the work-related impairment precludes him from performing any other work, either within or without his field of skill, for which he is qualified by virtue of his prior training or experience and to which he can transfer, adapt or utilize job skills and such knowledge previously acquired. Plaintiff argues that § 373(1) should be interpreted in such a manner that the existence of experience in another skill or trade and a continued ability to work would be the only evidence that would defeat an award of compensation. Plaintiff argues that this section should only be construed to bar compensation to an injured retiree when the retiree truly has an alternative skill or trade, not simply some of the skills necessary therefor, and has failed to prove additionally an inability to perform work in the alternative field. Such an interpretation of the clause would unduly restrict what appears to be the legislative intent to narrow disability benefits for persons who have received or are receiving nondisability retirement benefits. It appears under plaintiff’s proposal that there would be few retired skilled employees who would be barred from receipt of workers’ compensation benefits, and that no unskilled employees would be barred. By the very definition of an unskilled employee, such an employee would have no alternative skill or trade which he could perform and therefore would be entitled to benefits. Plaintiff, in arguing this interpretation, tends to set up two separate classifications (skilled and unskilled), but there is nothing in the statute which indicates that that was the legislative intention. We note that case law in other areas of the Workers’ Disability Compensation Act has recognized this dichotomy, but we find nothing within the legislative history of § 373(1) which would show that the Legislature intended to engraft such a distinction in this particular section. The standard adopted by the wcab majority judges all retired workers drawing nondisability benefits by the same standard regardless of their field of employment and regardless of their particular skill or lack of skill. And while there is no question that, under the test adopted here today, skilled workers will have a more difficult time convincing the trier of fact that there is no suitáble work for which they are qualified and that they can perform because of their disability, the retirees who are truly disabled within the purview of § 373(1) will receive workers’ compensation payments. It should be further pointed out that even those who cannot rebut the presumption contained in § 373(1) nevertheless will be eligible for medical care. MCL 418.373(2); MSA 17.237(373X2). Plaintiff also raises the issue whether this section is void as creating age discrimination in contravention of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. Because § 373 creates the presumption that a retired worker collecting a nondisability pension or nondisability social security benefits is not disabled, plaintiff Peck claims this classification is based on age and discriminates against the elderly since, regardless of whether the employee’s retirement is based on his age or his time of service with his employer, there is an unequal impact on elderly employees. Plaintiff admits that age itself is not a suspect class requiring strict scrutiny of the constitutionality of the classification created. However, plaintiff does argue that the same scrutiny applied in classifications based on gender should be applied where classifications are based upon age. The existing standard, when the basis of the classification is on age, is stated in Massachusetts Bd of Retirement v Murgia, 427 US 307; 96 S Ct 2562; 49 L Ed 2d 520 (1976). Murgia involved a state law which required mandatory retirement for uniformed members of the state police at age fifty. The United States Supreme Court held that the equal protection analysis required the strict scrutiny of a legislative classification only when the classification impermissibly interferes with the exercise of a fundamental right or operates to the peculiar disadvantage of a suspect class, Murgia, supra, p 312. In Murgia, the United States Supreme Court, while recognizing that the aged of this nation have not been wholly free from discrimination, concluded that they have not been discriminated against historically, or placed or relegated to such a position of political powerlessness, or saddled with such disabilities, or subjected to such a history of purposeful unequal treatment as persons who have been discriminated against on the basis of race or national origin. This Court sees no reason to expand upon the rationale of the Murgia case and, since strict scrutiny is inapplicable, the statute involved must only pass a rational basis test. Legislative action in creating necessary classi fications is presumed to be valid. Furthermore, the United States Supreme Court has said: This inquiry (rational basis) employs a relatively relaxed standard reflecting the Court’s awareness that the drawing of lines that create distinctions is peculiarly a legislative task and an unavoidable one. Perfection in making the necessary classifications is neither possible nor necessary. [Murgia, supra, p 314.] The challenged distinction which § 373 makes is between those employees who are collecting a nondisability pension and those who are not. The history behind enactment of § 373 relates that there was a concern that a disproportionate amount of the total workers’ disability compensation paid out by some of the major employers of this state went to employees collecting nondisability retirement benefits. The presumption found in § 373 reflects the legislative intent to limit the ability of retirees collecting nondisability pensions from also collecting workers’ compensation. This allows a greater amount of compensation to be paid to younger employees who are unable to collect company retirement benefits and to create a sound economic environment within the state since Michigan is in the unique position of allowing retired employees to collect compensation along with nondisability pensions. Such a statutory presumption may be an imperfect solution to the problems faced by Michigan employers and the disabled workers, but there is a rational basis for the classification created. Such a classification is exclusively within the legislative prerogative and does not deny equal protection of the law as guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. Is § 373 void as creating age discrimination in contravention of the Equal Protection Clause of Const 1963, art 1, § 2? The Michigan courts have held that the equal protection guarantee of the Michigan Constitution is applied under the same standards as the corresponding provision of the federal constitution and that age is not a suspect classification for equal protection purposes under the Michigan Constitution. Cruz v Chevrolet Grey Iron Division, 398 Mich 117; 247 NW2d 764 (1976); People v Jacqueline Walker, 135 Mich App 267, 276; 354 NW2d 312 (1984), lv den 421 Mich 860 (1985). Plaintiff Pankow analogizes the present situation to that faced by the Supreme Court in Fox v Employment Security Comm, 379 Mich 579; 153 NW2d 644 (1967). In the Fox case, the Michigan Supreme Court held that a classification that denied unemployment benefits to a worker collecting weekly workers’ disability compensation, but allowed unemployment benefits to a worker who had taken a lump-sum payment in lieu of weekly disability compensation, had no rational basis and was a denial of equal protection. Mr. Pankow claims that a nearly identical situation is presented here since § 373 would apply to a worker who is not in a position to collect a disability pension (e.g., his employer did not offer one or he was over sixty-five and Social Security, by law, could not give him one), whereas an identically disabled worker who was eligible for a disability pension would not have the presumption of § 373 applied to him or her. The Supreme Court stated in Fox, supra, p 588: In determining what is within legislative discretion and what is arbitrary, regard must be had for the particular subject of the State legislation. There must be a relation between the classification and the purposes of the act in which it is found. In this instance, there is a relationship between the purposes of § 373 and the classification it creates. Section 373 is a legislative attempt to make it more difficult for retirees collecting non-disability pensions from also collecting workers’ compensation. The classification creates a presumption which can be rebutted by a preponderance of the evidence that the employee is disabled from doing work suitable to his qualifications including training or experience. Appellate courts do not sit as super legislatures. If there is some rational basis for the legislation, it must be sustained. McDonald Pontiac-Cadillac-GMC, Inc v Prosecuting Attorney for the Co of Saginaw, 150 Mich App 52; 388 NW2d 301 (1986), lv den 426 Mich 867 (1986). Furthermore, perfection in making the necessary classifications is neither possible nor necessary. Murgia, supra, p 314. There is a rational basis for § 373 and the classification created by § 373 has a reasonable relationship to the legislative purpose. [I]n the face of a due process or equal protection challenge, "where the legislative judgment is drawn in question,” the court’s inquiry "must be restricted to the issue whether any state of facts either known or which could reasonably be assumed affords support for it.” United States v Carolene Products Co, 304 US 144, 154; 58 S Ct 778; 82 L Ed 1234 (1938). A corollary to this rule is that where the legislative judgment is supported by "any state of facts either known or which could reasonably be assumed,” although such facts may be "debatable,” the legislative judgment must be accepted. Carolene Products Co v Thomson, 276 Mich 172, 178; 267 NW 608 (1936). [Shavers v Attorney General, 402 Mich 554, 613-614; 267 NW2d 72 (1978), reh den 403 Mich 958 (1978), cert den 442 US 934 (1979).] Section 373 provides a rational basis for the legislators’ intent of making it more difficult for a retiree collecting a nondisability pension to also collect workers’ compensation and, as such, does not violate Michigan’s prohibition against unequal treatment. Plaintiff Peck also argues that § 373 discriminates on the basis of age with respect to compensation and, as such, violates the federal Age Discrimination in Employment Act (adea), 29 USC 621 et seq. If plaintiff Peck’s argument is correct, then the Supremacy Clause of the United States Constitution would dictate that adea should prevail over § 373, thereby making the latter section void and unenforceable. The adea addresses discrimination by employers against employees. The Workers’ Disability Compensation Act is a uniform system of compensation mandated by the state and not by the employer. Other jurisdictions which have considered the matter have held that state workers’ compensation law provisions do not constitute compensation, terms, conditions or privileges of employment within the meaning of 29 USC 623. For example, see O’Neal v Dep’t of Transportation, 442 So 2d 961 (Fla App, 1983). While employers may be subject to the provisions of the Workers’ Disability Compensation Act, other than legislative input that any citizen has, they have no control over its provisions and are bound by it just as the employee is. It is significant that the Department of Labor’s interpretation of this federal statute, contained in 29 CFR 860.1 et seq. (1983), implicitly supports the argument that the prohibitions of 29 USC 623(a) are limited to employment practices within the control of the employers and do not encompass governmental actions such as workers’ compensation laws. 29 CFR 860.120(e) (1983) addresses the relationship of employer-provided benefits and government-provided benefits. This subsection explicitly recognizes that the availability of government benefits, e.g., Medicare, may be based on age. This Court sees little distinction for purposes of the adea between governmental enactments which provide for benefits to be paid by the government and governmental enactments which provide for benefits to be paid by others. We therefore hold that the provision of the workers’ disability law does not constitute compensation, terms, conditions or privileges of employment within the. meaning of 29 USC 623 and that that federal act is not applicable to this situation. The decision of the wcab is affirmed in the Peck case. The decision of the wcab in the Pankow case is reversed and the case is remanded for further proceedings in conformity with this opinion. Bronson, J., did not participate.
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Danhof, C.J. Respondent, Rosebud Williams (Rose), appeals from a November 7, 1985, order of the Wayne County Probate Court, which removed her as personal representative of the estate of decedent Tommie Williams and determined that petitioner, Betty Williams, not Rose, was decedent’s lawful spouse. Decedent died intestate on July 15, 1984. Three days later, on July 18, 1984, Rose petitioned the court for commencement of probate proceedings, asserting that she was decedent’s wife. Pursuant to her petition, Rose was appointed personal representative. On July 20, 1984, Betty petitioned the court to remove Rose as personal representative. Betty asserted that she, not Rose, was decedent’s wife. It is undisputed that decedent married four times. The factual dispute of the instant case centers on whether the decedent was equally prolific in obtaining decrees of divorce. The probate court found that decedent was negligent in this area and had divorced no one. However, decedent’s third marriage (to Estelle) ended with the death of his third wife. Decedent and Betty, his fourth wife, entered into a ceremonial marriage on January 7, 1974, at which time a marriage certificate was duly executed. The two lived together as man and wife until decedent’s death in 1984. Betty testified when she married decedent it was her understanding that decedent had been married only once previously and that his former wife, Estelle, had died. Betty’s marriage certificate supported her claim. It indicated only one previous marriage for decedent. The probate court found that Betty entered into marriage in good faith without knowledge of decedent’s first and second marriages and without knowledge that decedent had not divorced his previous wives. Betty testified further that she later learned that decedent had been married two other times. Decedent told her that Rose had divorced him and married another man. Betty contends that she did not learn of Rose’s claim that decedent had not divorced her (Rose) until after decedent’s death, when it was too late to remedy the situation. In 1973, prior to their marriage, Betty and decedent purchased a rental home. However, the home was deeded in decedent’s name alone. The rental home is the predominant estate asset. Betty contended, and the probate court so found, that she contributed to the purchase price of the home from her personal funds, that both Betty and decedent were obligated on the mortgage, and that Betty contributed to the monthly mortgage payments. Betty asserts she would be unable to meet her obligations on the mortgage if the spousal intestacy share of the house and rents were awarded to Rose. Rose testified that she married decedent on July 21, 1951, and presented a copy of the marriage certificate. During their marriage, Rose gave birth to a daughter, Bertina. Bertina’s status as heir is not contested. In a document filed with the probate court on July 18, 1984, when Rose sought appointment as personal representative, Rose acknowledged that she deserted decedent in 1957. Sometime after this separation, Rose learned "through hearsay” that decedent had divorced her. Rose testified that after decedent married Estelle, the third wife, she married John Lewis on December 14, 1968. Lewis died on March 22, 1970. Estelle died on February 12, 1972. Rose testified that, when she was helping decedent with funeral arrangements for Estelle, she asked to see the divorce papers. Decedent responded that he had never divorced her. Rose testified that she had never divorced decedent. Thus, Rose argued that Betty could not be decedent’s lawful spouse. Rose also testified that after Estelle died she helped decedent care for three nephews and nieces of whom he was guardian. Rose suggested he hire a baby-sitter. Evidently, Betty was the baby-sitter decedent hired. Decedent’s first marriage was to Daisy Mae Jones, whom he married in Pickens County, Alabama, on December 1, 1945. In a brief filed with the probate court, Betty asserted that a diligent search had been made of the divorce records of two counties in Alabama where decedent and Daisy were known to reside and of the Wayne County divorce records and that no record of divorce had been found. Thus, Betty argued that decedent had not divorced Daisy and therefore Rose could not be decedent’s lawful spouse. The problem with this argument was that it also impaired Betty’s status as lawful spouse. The probate court attempted to notify decedent’s first wife of the probate proceedings. A letter, dated November 19, 1984, from a Detroit attorney appears in the file. It begins: "The 'real’ Mrs. Williams is alive and well in St. Louis, Missouri.” The attorney explained that an attorney from St. Louis had contacted him to investigate the situation and that he might be employed to assist in presenting Daisy’s claim. The letter asserted without explanation that decedent and Daisy never divorced. However, despite the fact she was notified and indicated some initial interest, Daisy never filed an appearance in the probate proceedings. On June 27, 1985, the probate court entered its opinion. The court held: This court finds that the decedent married both Petitioner [Betty] and Respondent [Rose] without first obtaining a divorce from his prior wives. This court further notes that Respondent and decedent had a child, Bertina, during their marriage. Also, this court notes that Respondent and decedent separated almost eleven (11) [sic; seventeen] years prior to decedent’s marriage to Petitioner and that Respondent remarried during the time of their separation. Further, this court notes that Petitioner and decedent entered into a ceremonial marriage without her knowledge of decedent’s prior wives. Additionally, this court notes that Petitioner contributed to the purchase of the rental property which is an asset of decedent’s estate and has been making the mortgage payments since decedent’s death. This court concludes that Petitioner is decedent’s lawful spouse inasmuch as this court finds that her marriage to decedent was solemnized in good faith, without her knowledge of decedent’s other marriages, they lived together as husband and wife since they entered their marriage in 1974, and they both contributed to the purchase of the rental property which is now an estate asset. Mogk v Stroecker, 243 Mich 668[;] 220 NW 730 (1928). This court recognizes the law favoring a subsequent marriage in the case at bar. To permit Respondent to come forward now and claim a spousal share would cause an injustice to Petitioner. In this case, Respondent herself remarried while decedent was still living. Secondly, Respondent waited over twenty (20) years until decedent’s death, to come forward and assert her argument. This court holds that Petitioner is the lawful spouse of decedent, is entitled to act as personal representative of decedent’s estate, and is entitled to her statutory share of decedent’s intestate estate to which decedent’s daughter, Bertina is also entitled. On appeal, Rose first attempts to avoid the probate court’s factual finding that decedent and Daisy never divorced. Rose asserts that Daisy failed to file an appearance or claim of the estate and introduced no evidence to rebut the claims of "any subsequent spouse.” However, Daisy is not the only one who was entitled to introduce evidence on the validity of Rose’s marriage. Betty, as a potential heir, could, and did introduce proof contesting Rose’s claim of heirship. However, we find that the proofs relative to Daisy were insufficient to support the probate court’s conclusion that decedent and Daisy never divorced. In Michigan, where the validity of a marriage is attacked on the ground that one of the parties was married to another, a very strong presumption exists in favor of the validity of the second marriage. Doertch v Folwell Engineering Co, 252 Mich 76; 233 NW 211 (1930); Quinn v Quinn, 4 Mich App 536; 145 NW2d 252 (1968). The presumption is not rebutted by testimony of the first spouse that, to the best of her knowledge, her husband never attempted to procure a divorce from her and that she had never received or been served with divorce papers, In re Adams Estate, 362 Mich 624, 626; 107 NW2d 764 (1961), or by testimony that a search was made in the county wherein decedent was known to have resided and no record of divorce was discovered, Doertch, supra, p 77. The possibility exists that an absent spouse could have obtained a divorce elsewhere. Mogk v Stroecker, 243 Mich 668; 220 NW 730 (1928). In the instant case, no evidence was introduced indicating where decedent resided after he left Alabama. It is possible that decedent divorced Daisy in a county where the records were not searched. The evidence was insufficient to rebut the presumption of the validity of a subsequent marriage. The probate court erred in finding that decedent and Daisy had never divorced. However, there was sufficient evidence to support the court’s finding that decedent had not divorced Rose. Betty testified that decedent told her Rose had divorced him. Rose testified she had never divorced decedent. It is an important distinction from prior precedents that the person who was to have obtained the divorce testified. Since the probate court gave credence to the testimony that no divorce was obtained, there was clear and convincing evidence to rebut the presumption of the validity of the marriage between decedent and Betty. The probate court erred in concluding, on equitable grounds, that Betty was entitled to the status of lawful spouse. Rose was decedent’s lawful spouse. While the equitable grounds relied upon by the probate court are not relevant to the question of legal status, we conclude that the equitable positions of the parties are important considerations with which the probate court was properly concerned. Over matters of which it has jurisdiction, the probate court has the same powers as the circuit court to make any proper order, including the power to provide equitable relief. MCL 600.847; MSA 27A.847. We conclude that Rose is estopped from asserting her legal status. We base our conclusion on several grounds. Rose deserted decedent in 1957. Rose herself remarried without obtaining a divorce and without making reasonable efforts to ascertain whether decedent had divorced her. Equally important is the fact that Rose learned that no divorce existed in 1972 yet remained silent when decedent married Betty in 1974. It also appears Rose had the opportunity to bring the defect to Betty’s attention so that the defect could be cured since Rose acknowledges in her appellate brief that she maintained "consistent social contact throughout the term of the deceased’s life.” After ten years of purported matrimony ended with decedent’s death only then did Rose step forward to announce that she was his lawful spouse. The apparent object of Rose’s claim is the bounty produced by decedent’s and Betty’s ten years of labor. While we have discovered no case law in which a Michigan appellate court has considered the question of estoppel in the context presented here, courts of other states have reached similar results. The equitable approach which many of our sister states have adopted is summarized in Anno: Estoppel or laches precluding lawful spouse from asserting rights in decedent’s estate as against putative spouse, 81 ALR3d 110, 116. It has long been the majority rule that desertion or abandonment is generally held to be a bar to any right to share in the estate of a deceased spouse. Walker v Matthews, 191 Miss 489, 511-512; 3 So 2d 820 (1941); Anno: Misconduct of surviving spouse as affecting marital rights in other’s estate, 71 ALR 277, 285. It has also been held that a surviving spouse is estopped from asserting rights under a marriage, even when her husband informed her he had obtained a divorce, when at the time she entered into her second marriage she knew her first husband was still alive and that she had not obtained a divorce from him and that she had not been served with any papers in any divorce proceeding that he may have instituted. In re Butler Estate, 444 So 2d 477 (Fla App, 1984). See also Gaston v Gaston, 358 So 2d 376, 379 (Miss, 1978). Finally, estoppel has been applied in situations where a wife slept on her rights "year in and year out and who, by her silence and acquiescence, allowed the rights of a third party to intervene.” Brown v Brown, 274 Cal App 2d 178, 190; 79 Cal Rptr 257; 82 Cal Rptr 238 (1969). However, compare In re Atherley Estate, 44 Cal App 3d 758; 119 Cal Rptr 41 (1975). The instant case presents a situation where all three of the above grounds are present. Since we conclude that Rose is estopped from asserting her legal status as decedent’s lawful spouse, she did not have standing to rebut the presumption of the validity of decedent’s subsequent marriage to Betty. Although upon a slightly different rationale, the decision of the probate court is affirmed. Affirmed. However, it appears that our resolution of the instant case may also influence whether Rose or Betty is entitled to receive as decedent’s survivor monthly benefits from decedent’s pension, life-time hospitalization benefits, the proceeds of life insurance policies, and Chrysler stock. The only proofs relative to Daisy were unsworn assertions in Betty’s brief and in a letter by an attorney not representing any party to the proceedings. Since the parties have not raised the issue, we do not decide whether the allegations were in a proper form. See MCR 5.708. Were this the only ground, our conclusion would be different. MCL 700.185; MSA 27.5185 provides that a person living in a bigamous relationship shall not inherit from the estate of his or her lawful spouse. However, unlike the present factual situation, the bigamist relationship must exist at the time of the death of the lawful spouse. In re Dettman’s Estate, 195 Mich 231; 161 NW 836 (1917) (construing analogous language under prior statute). The statutory implication is that a prior bigamist relationship is not by itself sufficient to bar a surviving spouse from receiving a share of her husband’s estate. However, in our opinion, MCL 700.185; MSA 27.5185 does not preclude consideration of a prior bigamist relationship in conjunction with other equitable bases for estoppel.
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Wilder, J. By order of our Supreme Court in Brooks v Mammo, 463 Mich 852 (2000), defendants appeal as on leave granted. After a jury returned a verdict for plaintiff in the amount of $50,000, the district court entered a judgment in the amount of $17,985, reflecting the $10,000 jurisdictional limit provided by MCL 600.8301, plus costs and interest. The district court denied plaintiffs motion for attorney fees as mediation sanctions. On appeal, the circuit court reversed the district court’s finding that the amount of the judgment was limited by MCL 600.8301 and that mediation sanctions were not recoverable in the district court, and ordered that a judgment should be entered in the full amount of the jury verdict, plus attorney fees, costs, and interest. We reverse and remand for entry of a judgment in the amount of $25,000, plus costs, attorney fees, and interest. I. FACTS AND PROCEDURAL HISTORY This case has a straightforward factual histoiy, but an unusual procedural history. Plaintiff was involved in a motor vehicle accident on March 28, 1995, and filed suit in the circuit court against defendants on January 26, 1996. Plaintiffs complaint sought damages in excess of $10,000. On July 17, 1996, 1996 PA 374 took immediate effect and, in part, repealed MCL 600.641 effective January 1, 1997. MCL 600.641 permitted the removal of causes of action filed in the circuit court to the district court, without the consent of the parties, if the district court would have had jurisdiction of the cause of action but for the amount of damages demanded in the complaint. MCL 600.641(1). MCL 600.641(5) further provided that a verdict or judgment in an action removed to the district court was lawful to the extent of the amount demanded, irrespective of the jurisdictional limit otherwise applicable to actions filed in the district court. At the time this legislation passed, MCL 600.8301 provided that the jurisdictional limit of the district court was $10,000. In January 1997, plaintiff’s case received a mediation evaluation of $3,500. Defendant timely rejected this evaluation. MCR 2.403(L). Shortly thereafter, the assigned circuit judge conducted a settlement conference with the parties in March 1997. The circuit court advised the parties that, in view of the mediation evaluation amount, it believed the circuit court lacked jurisdiction. After providing the parties notice and an opportunity to be heard, the circuit court found that the circuit court lacked jurisdiction of the subject matter and ordered the case transferred to the district court pursuant to MCR 2.227. Plaintiff did not appeal or otherwise challenge the transfer order, and paid a transfer fee of $125. However, plaintiff’s complaint was not amended when the action was transferred. In September 1997, the case proceeded to trial in the district court. Before trial, defendants filed a motion to limit the recovery of damages to the jurisdictional limit of $10,000. The district court took the motion under advisement. After deliberations, the jury returned a verdict in the amount of $50,000. Defendants renewed their motion to limit the recovery of damages, and the district court requested additional briefing on the question. Effective January 1, 1998, MCL 600.8301 was amended to increase the jurisdictional limit of the district court to $25,000. On January 27, 1998, the district court granted defendants’ motion to limit damages to $10,000, finding that the repeal of MCL 600.641 precluded entry of a judgment in the district court greater than the original jurisdictional limit provided in MCL 600.8301. Accordingly, on May 4, 1998, the district court entered a judgment reflecting a damage award of $10,000, plus attorney fees in the amount of $5,625, costs of $1,268, and interest in the amount of $1,092. After judgment was entered by. the district court, defendants moved to amend the judgment to delete the award of attorney fees. Defendants noted that the attorney fees were awarded as mediation sanctions and that no mediation had occurred after the case was transferred to the district court. Defendants further argued that the transfer of the case to the district court rendered the mediation in the circuit court null and void, and that therefore no mediation sanctions could be awarded properly. The district court agreed, and on June 12, 1998, the district court rescinded its award of attorney fees to plaintiff. On June 16, 1998, the Michigan Supreme Court issued Administrative Order No. 1998-1, governing reassignment of circuit court actions to district courts and applying immediately to all actions filed after January 1, 1997. The Supreme Court noted that in accordance with the repeal of MCL 600.641, it had repealed the court rule implementing the procedure established in the statute to remove matters originally filed in the circuit court to the district court, the former MCR 4.003, but that, nevertheless, some circuit courts were improperly using MCR 2.227 as a substitute for the former removal procedure. The Supreme Court therefore ordered that a circuit court was not permitted to transfer an action under MCR 2.227 unless either the parties stipulated the transfer and an amendment of the complaint to meet the jurisdictional requirements of the new venue, or the circuit court found “to a legal certainty” that the amount in controversy was not greater than the applicable jurisdictional limit of the district court. Plaintiff appealed the district court judgment to the circuit court, where the case was assigned to a judge different from the one who had removed the case to the district court. On May 28, 1999, the circuit court reversed the order of the district court, concluding that the repeal of MCL 600.641 did not apply retrospectively and that, therefore, in this action filed before MCL 600.641 was repealed, the jury verdict was not required to be limited to the $10,000 jurisdictional amount of the district court. The circuit court also held that because MCR 2.403 permits mediation in the district court, no case law or court rule precluded the award of mediation sanctions based on the mediation conducted in the circuit court before removal to the district court. Defendants appealed the ruling of the circuit court and this Court denied leave to appeal. However, the Michigan Supreme Court remanded this case for our consideration as on leave granted. We granted leave to the Michigan Trial Lawyers Association as an amicus curiae, to file, a brief on the questions presented. H. STANDARD OF REVIEW Whether a trial court has subject-matter jurisdiction is a question of law that this Court reviews de novo. Etefia v Credit Technologies, Inc, 245 Mich App 466, 472; 628 NW2d 577 (2001). We also review de novo a trial court’s decision to grant or deny a motion for mediation sanctions. Cheron, Inc v Don Jones, Inc, 244 Mich App 212, 218; 625 NW2d 93 (2000). III. ANALYSIS A. PLAINTIFF IS ENTITLED TO A JUDGMENT REFLECTING DAMAGES IN THE AMOUNT OF $25,000. The proper resolution of the first issue on appeal requires us to determine the combined effect that the repeal of MCL 600.641 and the subsequent amendment of MCL 600.8301 have on the verdict returned by the jury in this case. Plaintiff argues on appeal that because her cause of action was filed before MCL 600.641 was repealed, the district court could properly enter a judgment based on the jury verdict of $50,000 and was not required to limit its judgment to the jurisdictional limits of the district court. The amicus curiae also asserts that the repeal of MCL 600.641 does not apply to cases filed before January 1, 1997, and that its former provisions apply to permit entty of a judgment in the amount of the verdict returned by the jury in this case. Defendants contend that the repeal of MCL 600.641 prevented the district court from entering a judgment in this case in excess of $10,000. We disagree with the arguments presented by each of the parties and the amicus. As a general rule, a new or amended statute applies prospectively unless the Legislature has expressly or impliedly indicated its intention to give it retrospective effect. Etefia, supra at 474. However, a remedial or procedural statute may be excepted from the general rule if it does not deny vested rights. Id. Similarly, “[a]bsent a saving clause stating otherwise, [the repeal of a statute to change] a mode of procedure by altering or terminating a court’s jurisdiction applies to all accrued, pending, and future actions as long as it does not affect vested rights.” Hurt v Michael’s Food Ctr, 249 Mich App 687, 693-694; 644 NW2d 387 (2002), citing Baltimore & P R Co v Grant, 98 US 398, 401; 25 L Ed 231 (1878) (observing “that if a law conferring jurisdiction is repealed without any reservation as to pending cases, all such cases fall with the law”). In Hurt, we applied these principles to conclude that the repeal of § 641 applied retroactively to cases pending, but not finalized, at the time of the repeal. Hurt, supra at 693-694. Here, we must conclude similarly that the repeal of § 641 applies retroactively to this case and that the district court may not now enter a judgment in excess of its jurisdictional limit. Our inquiry cannot end here, however. As we noted above, this action was transferred to the district court on the finding of the circuit court that it lacked subject-matter jurisdiction. This finding was not challenged by plaintiff at the time the circuit court issued its order or in an appeal to this Court. Thus, we consider this issue to have been waived. MCR 7.203(A); MCR 7.204(A). While the transfer order itself does not specify the basis on which the circuit court deter mined it lacked subject-matter jurisdiction, the parties agree that the circuit court reached this determination sua sponte upon the rendering of a mediation evaluation of less than $10,000. Administrative Order No. 1998-1 was entered by the Supreme Court to expressly prohibit this practice, but it does not apply to this case because the order states plainly that it applies to actions filed after January 1, 1997. Thus, while in retrospect it may be clear that the transfer order entered by the circuit court was erroneous as a matter of law (the jury verdict of $50,000 is powerful evidence that the circuit court erred in finding that it lacked subject-matter jurisdiction), the suggestion by plaintiff and the amicus curiae that we treat this action as though § 641 had not been repealed, and permit the full amount of the jury award to stand, is precluded by our decision in Hurt. A further complicating feature in this case is the fact that after the case was transferred, the complaint was not amended with respect to the amount of damages sought by plaintiff in this action. As this Court concluded in Hurt, supra at 694, the repeal of MCL 600.641 means that the district court does not have jurisdiction beyond the statutory limitation provided in MCL 600.8301. Thus, after the transfer of the case to the district court was completed, the district court lacked subject-matter jurisdiction of the case because the prayer for relief in the complaint sought in excess of the then existing $10,000 jurisdictional limit of the district court. While ordinarily the actions of a court lacking subject-matter jurisdiction are of no force and validity, Trost v Buckstop Lure Co, Inc, 249 Mich App 580, 586; 644 NW2d 54 (2002), here no challenge was made to the jurisdiction of the district court and no judgment was entered by the district court until May 4, 1998. Thus, contrary to the argument presented by defendants, the alternative to limiting the damages award to $10,000 is not to find that the district court lacked subject-matter jurisdiction and remand for a new trial. Rather, the amendment of MCL 600.8301, increasing the subject-matter jurisdiction of the district court to $25,000 effective January 1, 1998, operated to retroactively grant subject-matter jurisdiction of the claims asserted in plaintiffs complaint. Etefia, supra at 474. Accordingly, because the district court jurisdictional limit was $25,000 when the judgment was actually entered, we conclude that the district court erred in limiting the judgment on damages to $10,000 and that the circuit court also erred in finding that a judgment could be entered for damages in the amount of $50,000. Instead, a judgment corresponding both to the jury verdict and the limit of jurisdiction was appropriate. We conclude, therefore, that the district court may properly enter a judgment in the amount of $25,000 in damages. Contrary to the position argued by plaintiff and the amicus curiae, this result does not deprive plaintiff of her constitutionally guaranteed right to trial by jury. Although plaintiff had a vested right to have her case heard, she did not have a vested right to the forum in which her case would be heard. Hurt, supra at 693. While plaintiff did not have a jury trial in the forum of her choosing, plaintiff did have a jury trial and the jury returned a verdict in plaintiff’s favor. The fact that plaintiff is unable to recover the full amount of the verdict because the verdict exceeded the jurisdiction of the district court was not a violation of plain tiff’s due process rights because she still had available to her a substantial and efficient remedy. Id. B. PLAINTIFF IS ENTITLED TO MEDIATION SANCTIONS. Because the judgment entered on the jury’s verdict in this case is not more favorable to defendants than the mediation evaluation in the circuit court, plaintiff asserts her entitlement to mediation sanctions. We agree. When a case is transferred under MCR 2.227, “the rulings of the original court become, in effect, the rulings of the new court.” Huber v Frankenmuth Mut Ins Co, 160 Mich App 568, 575; 408 NW2d 505 (1987); Little v Howard Johnson Co, 183 Mich App 675, 677; 455 NW2d 390 (1990). The new court is thus “empowered” to act upon those orders as if the orders were its own. Huber, supra. Here, the case was mediated in the circuit court pursuant to an order of the circuit court. Upon the transfer of the case to the district court, the district court was empowered to enforce the result of the mediation ordered by the circuit court by applying MCR 2.403(0) as required by the return of a verdict against defendants that was not more favorable to defendants than the mediation evaluation they rejected. IV. CONCLUSION For the reasons articulated above, we find that plaintiff is entitled to a damages judgment in the amount of $25,000. We further find that plaintiff may properly recover attorney fees as mediation sanctions against defendants. Accordingly, we reverse the order of the circuit court and remand to the district court for proceedings consistent with this opinion. We do not retain jurisdiction. In 2000, the name of the process described in MCR 2.403 was changed from “mediation” to “case evaluation.” Because the parties and the trial court refer to “mediation,” we will use that term for purposes of this opinion. MCR 2.227(A)(1) provides: When the court in which a civil action is pending determines that it lacks jurisdiction of the subject matter of the action, but that some other . . . court would have jurisdiction . . . , the court may order the action transferred to the other court in a place where venue would be proper. If the question of jurisdiction is raised by the court on its own initiative, the action may not be transferred until the parties are given notice and an opportunity to be heard on the jurisdictional issue. Plaintiff asserts on appeal that, before transferring the case, the circuit court did not conduct a hearing or make any determination regarding jurisdiction as required by MCR 2.227. However, the circuit court’s order, titled “Order of Transfer Pursuant to MCR 2.227,” was signed by counsel for both parties. Additionally, it is noteworthy that the order also states on its face that the parties had notice and an opportunity to be heard before entry of the order. Ordinarily, challenges to the subject-matter jurisdiction of a court may be raised at any time. MCR 2.116 (D)(3). A unique set of circumstances is presented, however, where, as here, a trial court erroneously declines to exercise subject-matter jurisdiction that it actually possesses rather than attempts to exercise subject-matter jurisdiction that it lacks, and the party adversely affected does not appeal that determination. We are unable to locate any reported decision in Michigan presenting this factual oddity. The amicus curiae correctly asserts in its brief that the circuit court erred in finding that it lacked jurisdiction. The remedy requested by amicus curiae, however, that we correct the circuit court error by affirming the circuit court order permitting entry of judgment in the district court in excess of its jurisdictional amount, is contrary to the holding in Hurt. Furthermore, the amicus curiae cites no case law to support this unusual proposition, and we will not search for any. See Mudge v Macomb Co, 458 Mich 87, 105; 580 NW2d 845 (1998), quoting Mitcham v Detroit, 355 Mich 182, 203; 94 NW2d 388 (1959) (“ ‘It is not enough for an appellant in his brief simply to announce a position or assert an error and then leave it up to this Court to discover and rationalize the basis for his claims . . . and then search for authority either to sustain or reject his position.’ ”).
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Meter, J. Plaintiff appeals as of right from an order of dismissal and a subsequent order denying his motion for relief from the order of dismissal. We dismiss plaintiffs appeal for lack of jurisdiction. After plaintiff refused to provide discovery and then disappeared, the court entered an order stating that the case would be dismissed unless plaintiff was produced for a deposition within thirty days. Plaintiff did not appear within this period, and the trial court entered an order dismissing the case with prejudice on December 21, 1999. The court later denied plaintiff’s motion for relief from that order. A party may take an appeal of right from a final order. MCR 7.203(A)(1). A final order in a civil action is the first order “that disposes of all the claims and adjudicates the rights and liabilities of all the parties, including such an order entered after reversal of an earlier final judgment or order.” MCR 7.202(7)(a)(i). Unless otherwise provided by law, an appeal of right must be taken within twenty-one days after entry of the judgment or order appealed from or within twenty-one days of an order denying a motion for posljudgment relief, if the motion was filed within the twenty-one day appeal period or “within further time the trial court may have allowed during that 21-day period.” MCR 7.204(A)(1). These time limits are jurisdictional. MCR 7.204(A). Plaintiff filed his claim of appeal on March 3, 2000, more than twenty-one days after the December 21, 1999, order of dismissal. Plaintiff also filed his motion for postjudgment relief more than twenty-one days after December 21, 1999, and he did not receive an extension of time from the court to file the motion. Accordingly, if the December 21, 1999, order constituted a final order, then plaintiff forfeited his appeal of right. Plaintiff contends that the December 21, 1999, order was not in fact a final order because it disposed only of the claims against Arbor Home, Inc. (ah), and not the claims against Michigan Elevator Company (mec). Defendants, on the other hand, argue that the December 21, 1999, order was a final order because (1) it dismissed the claims against AH and (2) ah was the only true defendant in the case. Defendants contend that mec was never validly added as a party because plaintiff did not seek leave of the court to file the amended complaint that purportedly added MEC as a party. Because plaintiff attempted to add mec as a party after ah filed a notice of nonparty fault under MCR 2.112(E)(3) and MCL 600.2957, our resolution of this case involves the application of MCR 2.112(E)(4) and MCL 600.2957(2), which govern the filing of an amended complaint against an identified nonparty. This Court reviews de novo issues of statutory and court rale construction. Staff v Johnson, 242 Mich App 521, 527; 619 NW2d 57 (2000). Moreover, “Jurisdiction is a question of law that this Court reviews de novo.” Bass v Combs, 238 Mich App 16, 23; 604 NW2d 727 (1999). MCR 2.112(E)(4) states: Amendment Adding Party. A party served with notice [of a nonparty’s fault] under this subrule may file an amended pleading stating a claim or claims against the nonparty within 91 days of service of the first notice identifying that nonparty. The court may permit later amendment as provided in MCR 2.118. MCL 600.2957(2) states, in relevant part, “Upon motion of a party within 91 days after identification of a nonparty, the court shall grant leave to the moving party to file and serve an amended pleading alleging 1 or more causes of action against that nonparty.” Plaintiff contends that the court rule and the statute are in conflict, with the court rule allowing an amended complaint to take effect without leave of the court and the statute allowing an amended complaint to take effect only with leave of the court. Plaintiff contends that because the conflict involves an issue of procedure, the court rule should prevail. See Staff, supra at 531. Defendants, on the other hand, contend that the court rule and the statute are not in conflict and that the statute merely includes more detail than the court rule. We agree with defendants. As noted in Staff supra at 530, “To determine whether there is a real conflict between a statute and a court rule, both are read according to their plain meaning.” The court rule plainly allows a plaintiff to file an amended complaint adding a nonparty but does not specifically mention whether leave of the court is also required. The statute, on the other hand, states that leave of the court is indeed required. As argued by defendants, the statute therefore merely includes more detail than the court rule. Moreover, the court rule specifically refers to MCL 600.2957, see MCR 2.112(K)(1), and the statute is again specifically mentioned in the staff comment to the 1997 amend- merit of MCR 2.112. The staff comment to the 1997 amendment indicates that the court rule was essentially meant to implement the statute. Reading the court rule and the statute in conjunction, we conclude that leave of the court is indeed required before an amended pleading adding a nonparty becomes effective. Because plaintiff did not seek leave of the court to add MEC as a party, MEC was never properly added to this lawsuit. Accordingly, we conclude upon our review de novo that the December 21, 1999, order was indeed the final order in this case. Therefore, plaintiff forewent his appeal by right. Plaintiffs appeal is dismissed. Whttbeck, C.J., concurred. There are exceptions to this definition for receivership and similar actions. See MCR 7.202(7)(a)(ii) and MCR 2.604(B). The 1997 amendment added MCR 2.112(K). We note that MEC made the argument below that it was never properly added as a party, but the trial court did not directly address the argument because it concluded that the dismissal of plaintiffs case for discovery violations applied to any and all parties to the lawsuit.
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Cooper, J. In this medical malpractice action, defendants appeal by leave granted the trial court’s order granting plaintiff’s motion for late filing of an affidavit of merit and denying defendants’ motion for summary disposition. On November 28, 2001, plaintiff filed a medical malpractice claim against John D. Sellers, D.O., and John Sellers, D.O., P.C. Plaintiff’s complaint stemmed from a hysterectomy that was performed by Dr. Sellers on June 10, 1999. Plaintiff claimed that as a result of Dr. Sellers’ negligence she suffered fistulous communication (fecal-vaginal fistula) and was forced to undergo further surgeries to correct this condition. Plaintiff obtained a signed and sworn affidavit of merit from Ronald Zack, M.D., who is board certified in obstetrics and gynecology, on November 23, 2001. However, plaintiff inadvertently failed to file the affidavit of merit with her complaint. Plaintiff subsequently mailed the complaint to defendant on December 6, 2001. Pursuant to defense counsel’s request, a secretary for plaintiff’s counsel faxed a copy of the affidavit of merit to her office on December 27, 2001. Plaintiff’s counsel alleged that he discovered that the original affidavit of merit was still in his case file on January 9, 2002, and that he immediately filed it with the trial court. Plaintiff filed a motion on January 14, 2002, requesting an order allowing the late filing of the affidavit of merit. In the motion, plaintiff explained that the affidavit of merit was obtained well before the period of limitation expired and that it was accidentally omitted when the complaint was filed by an employee. Plaintiff noted that the statute is silent with regard to the sanctions for failing to timely file an affidavit of merit. Further, plaintiff alleged that the late filing would not prejudice defendants. On January 17, 2002, defendants filed a motion for summary disposition on the ground that plaintiffs medical malpractice claim was time-barred and should be dismissed. MCR 2.116(C)(7). Specifically, defendants asserted that the affidavit of merit needed to be filed with the complaint to toll the period of limitation. According to defendants, the period of limitation for plaintiff’s claim expired on December 10, 2001. During the February 6, 2002, hearing on plaintiff’s motion, the trial court determined that the signed affidavit of merit was in existence before the filing of the complaint. As such, the trial court concluded that there was no period of limitation problem. The trial court noted that it was “not. as though an Affidavit of Merit was never executed [and] that [p]laintiff is going out after he filed his [c]omplaint to get an Affidavit of Merit so the factual sequence should indicate clearly that the Affidavit was already in existence at the time the [c]omplaint was filed.” Applying this rationale, the trial court ordered an order nunc pro tunc to correct the date of the filing of the affidavit of merit. Accordingly, the trial court denied defendants’ pending motion for summary disposition. On appeal, defendants claim that the trial court erred when it allowed plaintiff to file an affidavit of merit after the expiration of the period of limitation. A trial court’s decision to grant or deny a motion for summary disposition is reviewed de novo on appeal. Roberts v Mecosta Co Gen Hosp, 466 Mich 57, 62; 642 NW2d 663 (2002). Likewise, “[a]bsent disputed questions of fact, whether a cause of action is barred by a statute of limitations is a question of law that this Court also reviews de novo.” Hudick v Hastings Mut Ins Co, 247 Mich App 602, 605-606; 637 NW2d 521 (2001). With regard to a motion for summary disposition pursuant to MCR 2.116(C)(7), this Court reviews the affidavits, pleadings, and other documentary evidence presented by the parties and “accept[s] the plaintiff’s well-pleaded allegations, except those contradicted by documentary evidence, as true.” Novak v Nationwide Mut Ins, Co, 235 Mich App 675, 681; 599 NW2d 546 (1999). In MCL 600.2912d, the Legislature set forth the requirements for commencing a medical malpractice action. In pertinent part, the statute requires: (1) Subject to subsection (2), the plaintiff in an action alleging medical malpractice or . . . the plaintiff’s attorney shall file with the complaint an affidavit of merit signed by a health professional who the plaintiff’s attorney reasonably believes meets the requirements for an expert witness under section 2169. . . . (2) Upon motion of a party for good cause shown, the court in which the complaint is filed may grant the plaintiff or, if the plaintiff is represented by an attorney, the plaintiff’s attorney an additional 28 days in which to file the affidavit required under subsection (1). [MCL 600.2912d (emphasis added).] The existing case law construing the statutory authority governing medical malpractice actions states that the failure to timely file a complaint and an affidavit of merit will not toll the applicable limitation period. Scarsella v Pollak, 461 Mich 547, 550; 607 NW2d 711 (2000), adopting Scarsella v Pollak, 232 Mich App 61; 591 NW2d 257 (1998); Holmes v Michigan Capital Medical Ctr, 242 Mich App 703, 706-707; 620 NW2d 319 (2000). To commence a medical malpractice action, a plaintiff must file both a complaint and an affidavit of merit. Scarsella, supra at 549. According to Scarsella, supra at 550, allowing a party to amend a complaint by appending the untimely affidavit of merit would merely act to circumvent the requirement of MCL 600.2912d(1) that a party file the complaint and the affidavit to commence the action. In Holmes, supra at 708, this Court reversed a trial court’s decision permitting the late filing of an affidavit of merit for good cause. Thus, a plaintiff in a medical malpractice action who neglects to file both an affidavit of merit and a complaint within the period of limitation, regardless of the reason, is barred from proceeding with the claim. Scarsella, supra; Holmes, supra. Although the Legislature provides an additional twenty-eight days to file an affidavit of merit for good cause, MCL 600.2912d(2), the mere filing of such a motion does not act to toll the period of limitation. Barlett v North Ottawa Community Hosp, 244 Mich App 685, 693-694; 625 NW2d 470 (2001). Plaintiff claims that the dismissal of her claim would be inappropriate because she obtained an affidavit of merit before the limitation period expired. In support of this argument, plaintiff cites VandenBerg v VandenBerg, 231 Mich App 497; 586 NW2d 570 (1998), and Dorris v Detroit Osteopathic Hosp, 460 Mich 26; 594 NW2d 455 (1999). In both these cases, the Courts concluded that dismissal with prejudice was not mandated where the plaintiff failed to file the affidavit of merit with the complaint. Dorris, supra at 47-48; VandenBerg, supra at 502-503. Unfortunately, Scarsella, supra at 550 n 1, 551-552, distinguished both these cases on the ground that they did not involve a statute of limitations problem. In the instant case, it is undisputed that the affidavit of merit was signed before the period of limitation expired. The alleged medical malpractice occurred on June 10, 1999. Plaintiff filed a notice of intent on June 6, 2001, within the two-year limitation period, and was allowed an additional 182 days to file her complaint and affidavit of merit. MCL 600.2912b(1); MCL 600.5856(d). On November 28, 2001, plaintiff filed her complaint. However, plaintiff did not file the affidavit of merit, signed on November 23, 2001, until January 9, 2002. The purpose of MCL 600.2912d is to deter frivolous medical malpractice claims. VandenBerg, supra at 502-503. In the instant case, plaintiff filed a facially legitimate claim and procured an affidavit of merit before the expiration of the statutory period of limitation. Compare Scarsella, supra at 549 (where plaintiff did not file an affidavit of merit until two days before the hearing on defendant’s motion for summary disposition). Defendants in this case were not prejudiced and indeed never raised such an argument. We, however, are bound by the principles of stare decisis to issue a decision that is clearly form over substance. Under the case law, as interpreted by the Supreme Court, we are required to bar plaintiff’s claim as a result of this inadvertent clerical error. See Boyd v W G Wade Shows, 443 Mich 515, 523; 505 NW2d 544 (1993). The entire concept of the judicial system is one of justice and fundamental fairness. To deny plaintiffs access to the court system on the basis of inadvertent clerical error is patently unfair. Indeed, the trial court is in the best position to determine whether an error is egregious or clerical. When trial courts make such determinations, as in the instant case, it is incumbent upon the appellate courts, absent an abuse of discretion, to respect the trial court’s judgment. We have found that “dismissal of a claim is a drastic sanction that should be taken cautiously.” VandenBerg, supra at 502. Unfortunately, we are constrained to follow a hard line and uncompromising approach to medical malpractice claims. Regrettably, the trial court’s decision in this case must be reversed. It is our hope that the Supreme Court will revisit or distinguish Scarsella so that clearly inadvertent errors no longer have such a harsh result. An attorney’s inadvertent error should not result in harm to the legitimate claimants for whom the system of justice was developed to serve. Reversed. Fitzgerald, P.J., concurred. Wilder, J. I concur in result only.
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Per Curiam. Defendant appeals as of right from his conviction of receiving and concealing stolen property valued at more than $1,000, but less than $20,000, MCL 750.535(3)(a). Defendant was sentenced as a fourth-offense habitual offender, MCL 769.12, to three- to fifteen-years’ imprisonment. We affirm both defendant’s conviction and sentence. This case involved defendant’s taking of his former girlfriend’s 1990 Buick Regal. Defendant maintained that he borrowed the car from her, while his former girlfriend testified that defendant took her car without permission. On appeal, defendant challenges the sufficiency of the evidence used to support his conviction. Evidence is sufficient to convict a defendant when a rational fact-finder could determine that the prosecutor proved every element of the crime charged beyond a reasonable doubt. People v Cain, 238 Mich App 95, 116-117; 605 NW2d 28 (1999). To establish that defendant was guilty of the offense, the prosecution is required to prove: (1) the property was stolen; (2) the value of the property met the statutory requirement; (3) defendant received, possessed, or concealed the property with knowledge that the property was stolen; (4) the identity of the property as being that previously stolen; and (5) the guilty actual or constructive knowledge of the defendant that the property received or concealed was stolen. People v Quinn, 219 Mich App 571, 574; 557 NW2d 151 (1996). Defendant takes issue with only two of the elements: first, defendant contends that there was no evidence presented that the car was stolen; and second, that there was insufficient evidence presented with respect to the value of the Buick. With regard to whether the car was stolen, defendant asserts that there was no evidence presented that he intended to permanently deprive the owner of her car. Defendant’s argument hinges on his assertion that for the property to be “stolen,” it must have been taken by larceny and, thus, taken with the intent to permanently deprive the owner of possession. Defendant is correct that a larceny requires that the property must be taken with such an intent. See, e.g., Cain, supra at 119, citing People v Goodchild, 68 Mich App 226, 232; 242 NW2d 465 (1976) (“The feloni ous intent required for larceny, animus furandi, is an intent to permanently deprive the owner of his property.”). However, we find that the statute concerns any property taken without permission, not only property taken by larceny. MCL 750.535(3)(a) requires that a defendant must have possessed stolen goods. However, the statute does not define “stolen.” In the absence of statutory definition of a term, this Court may consult dictionary definitions to determine the common meaning of a term. People v Morey, 461 Mich 325, 330; 603 NW2d 250 (1999). Random House Webster’s College Dictionary (2000), defines “steal” as “to take (the property of another or others) without permission or right, esp. secretly or by force,” and “to appropriate . . . without right or acknowledgement.” For goods to be considered stolen under this definition, they need only be taken without permission or right; thus, “stolen” goods encompass a broader categoiy than just goods taken by larceny. Defendant conceded that sufficient evidence was offered to permit a reasonable jury to conclude that he took the car without permission. Accordingly, the jury could have concluded that the car was “stolen” as that term is used in the statute. Defendant also challenges whether sufficient evidence was admitted regarding the value of the Buick, contending that the prosecution should have been required to have the car appraised. Again, we disagree. With regard to a general valuation rule, at least in the context of the larceny statute, this Court, in People v Johnson, 133 Mich App 150, 153; 348 NW2d 716 (1984), stated: While the larceny statute itself does not provide a guide for determining the value of property which is the subject of a theft, case law supports the use of fair market value as the relevant standard when such a value exists. Generally, proof of value is determined by reference to the time and place of the offense. Value has been interpreted to mean the price that the item will bring on an open market between a willing buyer and seller. [Citations omitted.] An owner of a car is qualified to testify about the value of his property unless his valuation is based on personal or sentimental value. People v Watts, 133 Mich App 80, 84; 348 NW2d 39 1984). The phrase “personal value” means subjective value to the owner, or a value that cannot be objectively substantiated. People v Dyer, 157 Mich App 606, 611; 403 NW2d 84 (1986). Here, the former girlfriend’s father, who had purchased the car, testified about its value. There was no evidence admitted to suggest that his perception of the Buick’s value was based on his personal or sentimental value; therefore, a jury could conclude that the car was valued at more than $1,000. Defendant’s assertion that the prosecution should have provided an appraiser’s testimony is without merit. Case law is clear that a prosecutor has the discretion to prove his case by whatever admissible evidence he chooses. See, e.g., People v Fisher, 449 Mich 441, 452; 537 NW2d 577 (1995). Because the prosecutor is under no obligation to present the evidence defendant feels appropriate, defendant’s sufficiency of the evidence claim is without merit. Defendant also argues that his sentence is disproportionate because it fails to consider either the seriousness of the offense or his rehabilitation. However, nothing in the record indicates that his sentence is outside the statutory guidelines. Under MCL 769.34(10), this Court may not consider challenges to a sentence based exclusively on proportionality if the sentence falls within the guidelines. We therefore affirm defendant’s sentence. Defendant argues his trial counsel was ineffective for failing to fully investigate two incidents and to call two witnesses who, he maintains, would have corroborated his testimony. We disagree. Because defendant did not move for a hearing pursuant to People v Ginther, 390 Mich 436; 212 NW2d 922 (1973), this Court’s review is limited to errors apparent on the record. People v Knapp, 244 Mich App 361, 385; 624 NW2d 227 (2001). Here, defendant merely represents that these witnesses would have testified as he states. However, other than defendant’s statements, there is simply no showing that these witnesses exist or that their testimony would have benefited defendant had they been called. Thus, there are no errors apparent on the record. Therefore, defendant’s argument that he was denied the effective assistance of trial counsel is without merit. Defendant asserts that his appellate attorney was also ineffective for failing to raise an ineffective assistance of counsel claim against his trial attorney. The test for ineffective assistance of appellate counsel is the same as that for trial counsel. People v Reed, 198 Mich App 639, 646; 499 NW2d 441 (1993), aff’d 449 Mich 375; 535 NW2d 496 (1995). Our Supreme Court has stated that “appellate counsel’s decision to winnow out weaker arguments and focus on those more likely to prevail is not evidence of ineffective assistance.” 449 Mich 391. Furthermore, defendant’s argument fails because he is unable to show any possible prejudice. Defendant himself argues that his trial counsel was ineffective; therefore, the issue was presented to this Court, and appellate counsel’s failure to do so was insignificant. Id. Affirmed.
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Saad, J. Defendant appeals from a circuit court order denying his motion to allow notice of nonparty fault. We reverse and remand. Because the narrow legal issue of first impression is uncomplicated and capable of resolution by a plain reading of the statute, we decide this appeal without oral argument. I. FACTS AND PROCEDURAL HISTORY On June 12, 2000, plaintiff drove eastbound along Auburn Road and entered the left turn lane near the intersection of Auburn and Crooks Road in order to turn left onto Crooks. Simultaneously, defendant attempted to turn left onto Auburn Road from a gasoline station near the comer of Auburn and Crooks. Defendant says that, as he inched out into traffic, the driver of a large white van stopped in order to create a gap in traffic through which defendant could make his left turn. Defendant also says that the driver of the van waved him on, and that he understood this to mean that the way was clear to complete his left turn. However, as defendant moved across the eastbound lanes of Auburn and into the left turn lane, he hit the right side of plaintiffs vehicle. As a result, plaintiff says he sustained serious injuries and that his car, a 1988 vintage vehicle, was totaled. Plaintiff filed his complaint on July 26, 2000. Thereafter, defendant filed a notice of nonparty at fault under MCR 2.112(K), MCL 600.2957, and MCL 600.6304, and indicated his intent to argue to the jury that the unknown driver of the white van acted negligently by waving defendant through and thereby causing the accident. Much later, plaintiff served objections to the notice of nonparty at fault and defendant then filed a motion in limine to allow the issue to be presented at trial. The trial court denied defendant’s motion in an order entered on July 26, 2001. We granted leave to appeal to decide this issue of first impression. II. ANALYSIS The precise legal question presented by these facts is whether MCL 600.2957, MCL 600.6304, and MCR 2.112(E), which govern allocation of fault among parties and nonparties, permit a defendant to argue that a percentage of fault should be attributed to an unidentifiable nonparty. We conclude that the plain language of the statutes and the court rule permits a defendant to argue that a portion of fault should be attributed to an unidentifiable tortfeasor. Statutory interpretation is a question of law that we review de novo. Roberts v Mecosta Co Gen Hosp, 466 Mich 57, 62; 642 NW2d 663 (2002). The rules of statutory construction require the courts to give effect to the Legislature’s intent. This Court should first look to the specific statutory language to determine the intent of the Legislature. The Legislature, of course, is presumed to intend the meaning that the words of the statute plainly express. Institute in Basic Life Principles, Inc v Watersmeet Twp (After Remand), 217 Mich App 7, 12; 551 NW2d 199 (1996). If, as here, the language is clear and unambiguous, the plain and ordinary meaning of the statute reflects the legislative intent and judicial construction is neither necessary nor permitted. Tryc v Michigan Veterans' Facility, 451 Mich 129, 135-136; 545 NW2d 642 (1996). Except in certain limited circumstances, the Legislature abolished joint Lability in tort actions. Smiley v Corrigan, 248 Mich App 51, 55; 638 NW2d 151 (2001). Now the liability of each defendant is several only. MCL 600.2956. The trier of fact is to determine the liability of each person in proportion to the person’s percentage of fault, “regardless of whether the person is, or could have been, named as a party to the action.” MCL 600.2957(1); MCL 600.6304(1). Fault assessed against a nonparty does not determine the nonparty’s liability; rather, it is “used only to accurately determine the fault of named parties.” MCL 600.2957(3). Under the statutory scheme, as implemented by our court rules, the fault of a nonparty cannot be considered unless the defendant gives timely notice of such a claim. MCR 2.112(E)(2), and (3)(a) and (c). The notice must “designate the nonparty and set forth the nonparty’s name and last known address, or the best identification of the nonparty that is possible, together with a brief statement of the basis for believing the nonparty is at fault.” MCR 2.112(E)(3)(b) (emphasis added). Such information permits the plaintiff to amend his complaint to join the nonparty as a party defendant. MCL 600.2957(2); MCR 2.112(K)(4). Again, the language of the court rule is clear: The defendant is not required to specifically identify the nonparty, but only to identify the non-party as best he can. Pursuant to the statutes and the express language of the court rule, defendant gave timely notice but, as a result of his inability to identify with any specificity the nonparty, plaintiff cannot sue the “nonparty” directly. However, a plaintiff is not required to join a nonparty as a party defendant; the language of both the applicable court rule and statute is discretionary rather than compulsory. If a nonparty is not joined in an action for whatever reason, the trier of fact may nonetheless determine that person’s percentage of fault. Under the plain language of the statutes, the inability to identify the nonparty, as here, does not preclude a finding that the unidentified nonparty contributed to the damages. Neither MCR 2.112(E) nor the statutes contain an exception for nonparties who cannot be identified sufficiently to sue them. To the contrary, the plain language of the statutes allows the trier of fact to allocate fault to a nonparty “regardless of whether the person was or could have been named as a party to the action.” MCL 600.6304(1)(b); MCL 600.2957(1). Accordingly, we find that the plain and unambiguous language of the statutes and the court rule permits a defendant to argue that a nonparty is at fault though the nonparty cannot be identified. Reversed and remanded. We do not retain jurisdiction. Defendant appeals by leave granted. We decide this case pursuant to MCR 7.214(E), which provides in part: Cases may be assigned to panels of judges for appropriate review and disposition without oral argument as provided in this subrule. (1) If, as a result of review under this rule, the panel unanimously concludes that (a) the dispositive issue or issues have been recently authoritatively decided; (b) the briefs and record adequately present the facts and legal arguments, and the court’s deliberation would not be significantly aided by oral argument.... If reasonable minds could differ regarding the meaning of the words used in the statute, judicial donstruction becomes necessary. Yaldo v North Pointe Ins Co, 457 Mich 341, 346; 578 NW2d 274 (1998). If judicial interpretation is necessary, the Legislature’s intent must be gathered from the language used, and the language must be given its ordinary meaning. In determining legislative intent, statutory language is given the reasonable construction that best accomplishes the purpose of the statute. Frankemnuth Mut Ins Co v Marlette Homes, Inc, 456 Mich 511, 515; 573 NW2d 611 (1998). The court cannot read into a statute anything “that is not within the manifest intent of the Legislature as gathered from the act itself.” In re SR, 229 Mich App 310, 314; 581 NW2d 291 (1998). These same principles govern interpretation of court rules. CAM Constr v Lake Edgewood, Condo Ass’n, 465 Mich 549, 554; 640 NW2d 256 (2002). As this Court held in Smiley, supra at 53: As part of Michigan’s tort reform legislation of 1995, the Legislature replaced the common-law doctrine of joint and several liability among multiple tortfeasors with the doctrine of several liability. Under the former system, any one of multiple tortfeasors could be responsible for all damages awarded to the plaintiff, notwithstanding that the individual tortfeasor was only partially at fault for the injuries or damages sustained by the plaintiff. Under the statutory several liability system, defendants now are only accountable for damages in proportion to their percentage of fault. MCL 600.2957(2) provides that a plaintiff can move to amend his complaint and MCR 2.112(E)(4) provides that a plaintiff “may file” an amended complaint. Of course, plaintiff may question defendant’s version of this incident and the jury may choose to believe or disbelieve defendant.
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Per Curiam: Plaintiff, Allstate Insurance Company, appeals by leave granted an order denying its motion for summary disposition. We affirm in part, reverse in part, and remand. I. FACTS AND PROCEDURAL HISTORY In September 1998, Barbara Moore, on behalf of her daughter JJM, a minor, filed a complaint against Deborah Morton and Joseph Stringer after JJM was raped at Morton’s home by Stringer, a minor. Moore alleged that Morton opened her house to numerous minors for parties and supplied them with alcohol. JJM attended one of the parties and was raped when she passed out after consuming alcohol. In her com plaint, JJM alleged that Morton is vicariously liable for Stringer’s assault and battery. JJM also asserted claims against Morton for gross negligence, social host liability, nuisance, and premises liability. Morton did not initially notify her homeowner’s insurance carrier, Allstate, about the litigation. On December 7, 1999, Morton, in propria persona, signed a consent judgment in which she admitted liability and agreed to damages in the amount of $600,000, on the condition that JJM not attempt to recover the judgment against her personally. At the same time, the trial court entered a default judgment against Stringer in the amount of $10 million. After the consent judgment was placed on the record, but before judgment was entered, Morton’s attorney notified Allstate of the suit. The trial court entered the judgment on July 24, 2000. On January 10, 2000, Allstate filed a complaint against Morton and JJM for declaratory judgment. Allstate sought a declaration that Morton’s homeowner’s policy does not provide liability coverage for the loss alleged by JJM in the underlying case. Morton failed to respond to the complaint and the trial court ultimately entered a default and default judgment against her. JJM filed a motion to set aside the default and the trial court granted the motion in an order entered on May 31, 2000. On January 5, 2001, Allstate moved for summary disposition under MCR 2.116(C)(9) and (C)(10). Allstate argued that the exclusions and conditions of the policy preclude coverage and that JJM lacks standing to litigate Morton’s coverage. Morton did not respond to the motion, but JJM argued that the policy exclusions do not apply to Morton’s conduct and that All state provided counsel to Morton in the ancillary case. The trial court denied Allstate’s motion and further held that JJM has standing to assert coverage as a result of Morton’s assignment of her rights in the policy. H. ANALYSIS “This Court’s review of a trial court’s grant or denial of a summary disposition motion is de novo.” Derbabian v S & C Snowplowing, Inc, 249 Mich App 695, 701; 644 NW2d 779 (2002). Further, the interpretation of an insurance contract is a question of law that this Court similarly reviews de novo. Morley v Automobile Club of Michigan, 458 Mich 459; 581 NW2d 237 (1998). Here, Allstate argues that JJM’s injuries did not arise from an “occurrence” under the policy. The policy defines “occurrence” as “an accident.” No “accident” occurred in this case, either as a result of Morton’s conduct or Stringer’s. JJM’s injuries were the result of the intentional act of a third party, Stringer, not some “ ‘undesigned contingency, a casualty, a happening by chance, something out of the usual course of things, unusual, fortuitous, not anticipated, and not naturally to be expected.’ ” Frankenmuth Mut Ins Co v Masters, 460 Mich 105, 114; 595 NW2d 832 (1999), quoting Arco Industries v American Motorists Ins Co, 448 Mich 395, 404-405; 531 NW2d 168 (1995), overruled by Masters, supra at 116. In Nabozny v Burkhardt, 461 Mich 471; 606 NW2d 639 (2000), our Supreme Court addressed unintended or “accidental” injuries that occur as the result of intentional acts. The Court held that such acts are not “accidents” triggering coverage under an insurance policy. Specifically, the Court stated: “[W]here a direct risk of harm is intentionally created, and property damage or personal injury results, there is no liability coverage even if the specific result was unintended. It is irrelevant that the character of the harm that actually results is different from the character of the harm intended by the insured. [Id. at 481, quoting Frankenmuth Ins Co v Piccard, 440 Mich 539, 557; 489 NW2d 422 (1992) (Cavanagh, C.J., dissenting).] Under Nabozny, no accident giving rise to coverage occurred in this case because Morton reasonably should have expected that giving minors enough alcohol to allow them to pass out would result in harm. The fact that the specific harm that occurred was Stringer’s intentional act of rape rather than alcohol poisoning is irrelevant to the determination whether the occurrence was an accident. Furthermore, as Allstate observes, the policy contains the following exclusion: We do not cover any bodily ir\juiy or property damage intended by, or which may reasonably be expected to result from the intentional or criminal acts of, any insured person. This exclusion applies even if: a) such insured person lacks the mental capacity to govern his or her conduct; b) such bodily injury or property damage is of a different kind or degree than that intended or reasonably expected; c) such bodily injury or property damage is sustained by a different person than intended or reasonably expected. In support of its motion for summary disposition, Allstate filed a copy of the settlement hearing transcript from December 7, 1999. At the hearing, JJM’s attorney sought to admit a “certificate of conviction” for Morton “for selling and furnishing to a minor [JJM], and the contributing to the delinquency of a minor, [JJM]” Furthermore, in her complaint against Stringer and Morton, JJM repeatedly alleges that Morton’s conduct of furnishing alcohol to minors was both knowing and illegal. Clearly, by JJM’s own admission, the underlying conduct by Morton was intentional and criminal and, regardless whether the injury was different than expected, coverage is excluded by the provisions set forth above. Allstate also says that the trial court erred in ruling that JJM has standing to contest Morton’s insurance coverage. As JJM points out, our Supreme Court addressed a similar factual situation in Allstate Ins Co v Hayes, 442 Mich 56; 499 NW2d 743 (1993). In Hayes, as here, Allstate brought an action for declara tory judgment against the insured and the injured party. Id. at 58. After the insured defaulted, Allstate filed a motion for summary disposition and argued that the default deprived the injured party of standing. Id. at 59. The Supreme Court rejected that argument, and held: [Ojnce Allstate began its action for declaratory judgment and alleged that an actual controversy existed between itself and its insured and [the injured party], the trial court could declare the rights and responsibilities of all interested parties before it. This power was not destroyed by virtue of the default judgment entered against the insured. [Id. at 61.] Accordingly, because Allstate sued Morton and JJM, JJM has standing to contest coverage. However, as discussed above, under the conditions and exclusions of the policy, no coverage exists. Thus, while we affirm the trial court’s denial of summary disposition on the issue of standing, we reverse the trial court’s order regarding coverage and remand for entry of an order granting Allstate’s motion for summary disposition and dismissing the case. We do not retain jurisdiction. This appeal is being decided without oral argument pursuant to MCR 7.214(E). In Maiden v Rozwood, 461 Mich 109, 120; 597 NW2d 817 (1999), our Supreme Court explained: A motion under MCR 2.116(C)(10) tests the factual sufficiency of the complaint. In evaluating a motion for summary disposition brought under this subsection, a trial court considers affidavits, pleadings, depositions, admissions, and other evidence submitted by the parties, MCR 2.116(G)(5), in the light most favorable to the party opposing the motion. Where the proffered evidence fails to establish a genuine issue regarding any material fact, the moving party is entitled to judgment as a matter of law. MCR 2.116(C)(10), (G)(4). Quinto v Cross & Peters Co, 451 Mich 358; 547 NW2d 314 (1996). In Schulz v Northville Pub Schools, 247 Mich App 178, 182; 635 NW2d 508 (2001), this Court opined: A motion under MCR 2.116(C)(9) tests the sufficiency of a defendant’s pleadings. Village of Dimondale v Grable, 240 Mich App 553, 564; 618 NW2d 23 (2000). Summary disposition under MCR 2.116(C)(9) is proper if the defenses are so clearly untenable as a matter of law that no factual development could possibly deny a plaintiff’s right to recovery. Id. This Court reviews de novo a trial court’s decision with respect to a motion for summary disposition under MCR 2.116(C)(9). Village of Dimondale, supra at 563-564.
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ON remand Before: Hood, P.J., and Bandstra and O’Connell, JJ. Per Curiam. In a previous order, we denied plaintiff’s request for a writ of habeas corpus. Edmond v Dep’t of Corrections, unpublished order of the Court of Appeals, entered May 11, 2001 (Docket No. 232034). In lieu of granting leave to appeal that decision, the Supreme Court remanded this case to us for consideration of plaintiff’s claim that the deputy director of the Department of Corrections’ Bureau of Correctional Facilities no longer has the authority to overrule a warden’s award of special good time credit under MCL 800.33, as amended by 1986 PA 322. Edmond v Dep’t of Corrections, 465 Mich 944 (2002). We conclude that the deputy director does have this authority and confirm our previous decision denying a writ of habeas corpus. Plaintiff was convicted in 1980 and sentenced to a minimum of thirty years and a maximum of fifty years in prison. At issue here is an award of special good time credit against his sentences. A prison warden awarded plaintiff a number of days of special good time credit that were later rescinded by the deputy director of the Department of Corrections’ Bureau of Correctional Facilities. At issue here is the relative authority granted to wardens and the various deputy directors within the statutory scheme creating and regulating the Department of Corrections. See MCL 791.201 et seq. Our analysis begins with the statute that specifically relates to the award of special good time credit, MCL 800.33. Until the 1986 amendment, that statute authorized a warden to award special good time credit “with the consent and approval of the director of the department of corrections . . . .” 1982 PA 442. 1986 PA 322 removed the reference to the director, providing only that a warden may grant special good time allowances. MCL 800.33(12). In contrast, the prior written approval of a deputy director is explicitly required by the statute with respect to a warden’s decision to restore good time or disciplinary credits forfeited because of major misconduct. MCL 800.33(10). While MCL 800.33, considered alone, might thus support plaintiff’s argument, under the rule of in pari materia this statute must be read together with other statutes relating to the same subject or with the same purpose, i.e., those relating to the powers of the various deputy directors. People v Webb, 458 Mich 265, 274; 580 NW2d 884 (1998). MCL 16.379 names the director the “principal executive officer” of the Department of Corrections. MCL 791.203 gives the director “full power and authority to supervise and control the affairs of the department . . . .” MCL 791.205 authorizes the director to appoint assistant directors to “exercise and perform the respective powers and duties prescribed and conferred by this act. . . ,” The question before us is whether MCL 800.33(12) is an exception to the general grant of power and authority provided the director and assistant directors under MCL 791.203 and MCL 791.205. We do not find that to be the case. The statutory language granting power to the department director and assistant directors is broad — they “have full power and authority to supervise and control the affairs of the department . . . .” MCL 791.203. That “full power and authority” would naturally include decisions regarding what is arguably among the most important “affairs of the department,” discretionary decisions regarding the length of time that prisoners must serve. In the absence of statutory language that explicitly limits the full power and authority granted by MCL 791.203, we will not read a limitation into the statute. To state this another way, full power and authority having been granted by MCL 791.203 as a general matter, the failure of MCL 800.33(12) to grant that authority specifically with respect to good time credits is inconsequential. Thus, to the extent that MCL 800.33(10) is read as granting the deputy director authority with respect to decisions regarding the restoration of credits lost because of major misconduct, that section would unnecessarily reiterate a power and authority already granted the director and his immediate subordinates by MCL 791.203 and MCL 791.205. However, properly understood, MCL 800.33(10) does more than simply reiterate the power and authority these individuals already have to supervise and control the affairs of the department, including decisions regarding such restoration of credits. Instead, it provides the procedure by which that supervision and control is to be exercised in this context, specifically requiring that a warden must secure a deputy director’s written approval before forfeited good time credits can be restored. Accordingly, we confirm our previous order denying plaintiff’s request for a writ of habeas corpus. Because the Department of Corrections act, MCL 791.201 et seq., uses the terms “assistant director” and “deputy director” interchangeably, we do so here as well.
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ON REMAND Before: Wilder, P.J., and Hood and Sawyer, JJ. Wilder, P.J. This case is before this Court on remand from our Supreme Court, which vacated this Court’s judgment and directed reconsideration and clarification of a specific portion of our prior opinion in lieu of granting leave to appeal. 467 Mich 888 (2002). On reconsideration, we affirm. I. FACTS AND PROCEEDINGS A. THE ACCIDENT On March 25, 1991, plaintiff Emmett Chastain, an employee of Cashman Equipment Company (Cash-man), located in Elko, Nevada, was given two boxes of parts to deliver to another Cashman employee. That employee worked out of Cashman’s Round Mountain Gold Mine Office. As was standard with such deliveries, plaintiff was to meet the Round Mountain employee in Eureka, Nevada, at which time the boxes would be given to the Round Mountain employee. In order to reach Eureka, plaintiff was provided with a company-owned 1988 Chevrolet C/K pickup truck, one of several trucks used for deliveries. Plaintiff testified that, before beginning the trip, he gave the truck a cursory look to “make sure [the] tires were inflated,” that the gauges looked good, and that “everything” looked all right with the truck. Plaintiff also testified that he went to a gasoline station in order to “fill up” the truck, put his seat belt on, and began the trip. In order to reach Eureka, plaintiff began driving south on State Highway 278 at a speed of sixty miles an hour. At the time plaintiff began the trip, the weather was clear and dry. However, sometime during the trip it began to snow, causing plaintiff to slow to a speed of approximately fifty miles an hour. Shortly thereafter, plaintiff lost control of the truck. According to plaintiff, the truck began to slide toward the opposite lane of traffic, then began traveling backwards, eventually going off the road, where it hit a roadway marker and a shallow embankment, rolled over, and began hitting things in a “very violent” manner. The plaintiff also testified that he was ejected from the truck through the driver’s side window, landing on the ground on his back. Plaintiff found himself unable to move his legs and seek assistance. He remained on the side of the highway until he was discovered by Jerry Sestanovich, a local rancher. After being on the scene for about ten minutes, Sestanovich was able to stop a passing truck and ask the driver to call for help. Approximately ten minutes later, officers from the Lander County Sheriff’s Department and the Eureka County Sheriff’s Department, as well as emergency medical personnel, arrived at the scene. It is undisputed that upon their arrival, plaintiff, either voluntarily or in response to questions asked of him, informed them that he had been wearing his seat belt and therefore was con fused and concerned about how he ended up outside the truck. B. PLAINTIFF’S INJURIES Plaintiff was treated at the scene by, among others, Dr. Rod Phillips. Dr. Phillips noticed that while plaintiff appeared to be conscious and alert, he was complaining of pain in his neck and abdomen and that his legs were cold and numb. Dr. Phillips also noticed that plaintiff was ashen in color, had trouble breathing, spat blood, and had a large contusion on his back between his T-10 and T-12 vertebrae. On the basis of these symptoms and complaints, Dr. Phillips believed that plaintiff probably suffered a spinal cord injury. Accordingly, after plaintiff was stabilized, his neck and back were immobilized and he was transported by ambulance to the Eureka Airport, where he was then taken by plane to the Washoe Medical Center. At the Washoe Medical Center, Dr. Phillips’ initial assessment was proved to be correct — plaintiff had fractured his spine between the T-ll and T-12 vertebrae. Plaintiff then underwent a surgical procedure known as a bilateral fusion in which Harrington Rods were inserted in order to stabilize his spine. Despite these medical efforts, plaintiff was rendered a paraplegic, being unable to use his legs or feel any sensation below his waist. In addition to the loss of use of his legs, plaintiff, who was twenty-three years old at the time of the accident, was left sexually dysfunctional. He also has a neurogenic bladder, cardiovascular problems, and decubitus ulcers. As a result, plaintiff requires attendant care to assist him with his daily routine. C. ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION The official accident investigation was conducted by Officer John Schweble of the Nevada Highway Patrol, who arrived at the scene approximately 2k hours following the accident. At that point, plaintiff had been taken to the hospital and no one was present at the scene. Officer Schweble examined the accident scene and truck, took photographs and measurements, and drew a diagram. After returning to Eureka, he also conducted interviews with people who came to the aid of plaintiff immediately after the accident. In examining the truck, Officer Schweble determined that the lack of tread on the rear tires approached illegal levels. Officer Schweble also noted, on the basis of the witness statement of Sestanovich, that plaintiff was driving approximately fifty miles an hour and that the road conditions were snowy and icy at the time of the accident. Therefore, Officer Schweble concluded, on the basis of the coil ditions of both the weather and the tires, that plaintiff was driving at an unsafe speed, causing the truck to hydroplane and the plaintiff to lose control. He also concluded, and was permitted to testify at trial, that plaintiff was not wearing his seat belt at the time of the accident. Officer Schweble reached this conclusion even though he never interviewed plaintiff, never touched, examined, or tested the seat belt, and had been informed by Officer Mark Salopek, of the Eureka County Sheriffs Department, that plaintiff told him and others at the scene that he was wearing the seat belt at the time of the accident. D. THE COMPLAINT, DISCOVERY REQUESTS, AND TRIAL In September 1993, plaintiff filed the instant complaint against defendant and Allied-Signal, Inc. Specifically, plaintiffs complaint alleged that the seat belt, known as a Joint Development Company (jdc) buckle, was defective and that because of this defect, the buckle, instead of restraining him, released either before or after the accident, causing him to be ejected from the truck. Plaintiff contended that the buckle released either because it was “false latched” or because it was subject to inertial release. Before trial, on March 30, 1998, more than three years after the end of discovery, plaintiff filed a motion to compel discovery. That motion requested production of the following materials: (1) crash and sled tests conducted by General Motors in which the jdc buckle was found unlatched at the conclusion of the tests; (2) General Motors test incident reports (TIRS) that noted an unlatching problem with the JDC buckle, especially TIRS for post-1993 C/K vehicles; (3) over 150 consumer reports of problems related to the JDC buckle; (4) documents pertaining to preliminary evaluations, engineering analyses, and the recall of some C/K trucks, including documents relating to the discovery of the conditions leading to the recall; and (5) gm’s “lawsuit list.” Plaintiff’s motion was heard on April 13, 1998. However, in lieu of deciding the issue, the trial court assigned the case to another judge in the hopes that it could be settled. After settlement proved to be impossible, the motion was again heard by the trial court. Because the trial court believed that the requested information was irrelevant, the request was denied. Thus, the case was scheduled for trial. At trial, plaintiff called, among numerous witnesses, an engineering expert who testified that the seat belt was defectively manufactured and that, as a result of this defect, the seat belt was more likely to release because of either “false latch” or inertial release. Specifically, plaintiffs expert, Stephen R. Syson, testified that a particular part of the seat belt latch, known as the banana slot or “L” shaped space is to have a maximum radius of two-tenths of a millimeter and that the banana slot of the seat belt on the driver’s side of plaintiff’s track, however, had a radius of approximately one millimeter. Therefore, according to plaintiff’s expert, because the radius of the banana slot was about five times larger than it should have been, the seat belt had a higher probability of being false latched or coming unlatched because of inertial release. Syson also testified that he was able to false latch the seat belts in the track driven by plaintiff about one out of three times he attempted to do so. Syson went on to testify that according to Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 209, if a seat belt is false latched it is supposed to unlatch whenever the force upon it is five pounds or less; however, the seat belts in plaintiff’s track were, according to Syson’s tests and testimony, able to withstand anywhere from six to over fifty pounds of force before the tongue would separate from the buckle. Syson indicated during his testimony that this was unsafe because it meant that a falsely latched seat belt could remain buckled until the time someone is involved in an accident, only then to release during the accident, causing injury to the occupant. In contrast to plaintiff’s theory, defendant sought to rebut plaintiff’s contention that plaintiff’s seat belt was defective or that it could have come unlatched during an accident. Defendant called expert witnesses to testify that the seat belt was not defective and that, even if it was defective, plaintiff’s seat belt would not have come unlatched during this accident. Thus, defendant’s main defense was that plaintiff was not wearing his seat belt at the time of the accident. In an effort to prove this, defendant not only called Officer Schweble to testify that, in his opinion, plaintiff was not wearing his seat belt, but also called witnesses to testify that if plaintiff had been wearing his seat belt at the time of the accident, plaintiff would have suffered injuries to the left side of his arm, his left armpit, and the left side of his neck. In addition, defendant relied on the testimony of plaintiff’s own witnesses to prove the supposition that there would have been noticeable marks on plaintiff’s body if he had, in fact, been wearing the seat belt at the time of the accident. On March, 15, 1999, the jury returned a verdict, voting five to one in favor of defendant. Plaintiff now appeals. n. ANALYSIS A. OFFICER SCHWEBLE’S TESTIMONY In its order of remand, the Supreme Court instructed us to reconsider and clarify the portion of our prior opinion addressing the trial court’s decision to admit Officer John Schweble’s lay opinion testimony, in which he opined that plaintiff was not wearing his seat belt at the time of his injury. Specifically, the Supreme Court stated: The Court of Appeals is directed to clarify whether or not it found error in the trial court’s evidentiary ruling in question and, if so, to determine whether the error was harmless under the appropriate harmless-error test applicable to civil cases, i.e., whether declining to grant a new trial, set aside a verdict, or vacate, modify, or otherwise disturb a judgment or order “appears to the court inconsistent with substantial justice.” See MCR 2.613(A). Also see Cox v Flint Board of Hospital Managers, 467 Mich 1, 15 (2002). Before trial, plaintiff moved in limine to exclude Officer Schweble’s opinion testimony that plaintiff was not wearing his seat belt at the time of the accident on the basis that he was not qualified to render an expert opinion in this area. The trial court denied plaintiffs motion, ruling that the officer could offer his lay opinion on this subject under MRE 701. During trial, Officer Schweble testified that in his opinion, plaintiff was not wearing his seat belt, and plaintiff objected that there was insufficient foundation for the officer to provide his testimony in this regard. The trial court admitted Officer Schweble’s opinion testimony over plaintiff’s objection. On appeal, plaintiff argues that the trial court improperly admitted Officer Schweble’s testimony in violation of MRE 701. That rule provides: If the witness is not testifying as an expert, the witness’ testimony in the form of opinions or inferences is limited to those opinions or inferences which are (a) rationally based on the perception of the witness and (b) helpful to a clear understanding of the witness’ testimony or the determination of a fact in issue. Plaintiff argues that Officer Schweble’s testimony was not “rationally based on the perception of the witness.” On reconsideration, we conclude that the trial court did not err in admitting Officer Schweble’s opinion testimony, because his testimony was based on his perceptions at the scene of the accident. As this Court recently stated in Bachman v Swan Harbour Assoc, 252 Mich App 400, 438; 653 NW2d 415 (2002): The decision whether to admit evidence is within the discretion of the trial court and will not be disturbed on appeal absent a clear abuse of discretion. ... An abuse of discretion is found only if an unprejudiced person, considering the facts on which the trial court acted, would say that there was no justification or excuse for the ruling made, Ellsworth v Hotel Corp of America, 236 Mich App 185, 188; 600 NW2d 129 (1999), or the “result is so palpably and grossly violative of fact and logic that it evidences perversity of will, a defiance of judgment, or the exercise of passion or bias," Barrett v Kirtland Community College, 245 Mich App 306, 325; 628 NW2d 63 (2001). Applying this standard to the facts of this case, we cannot state that the trial court abused its discretion in admitting Officer Schweble’s opinion that plaintiff was not wearing his seat belt. Officer Schweble testified that he based his conclusion on the physical evidence on the scene, including his observations that plaintiff had been ejected from the vehicle and that the seat belt was in the retracted position and appeared to be in working order. Plaintiff asserts that this Court’s decision in Miller v Hensley, 244 Mich App 528; 624 NW2d 582 (2001), required exclusion of Officer Schweble’s testimony. We disagree, because Miller is distinguishable from the present case. In Miller, this Court found that the trial court had improperly admitted the opinion testimony of two police officers who stated that the plaintiff motorist was at fault for the accident at issue because she entered the intersection on a yellow light. Id. at 531. The officers in Miller did not observe the accident, however, and based their conclusion only on statements made to them by witnesses to the collision. Id. The Court concluded, “Because the officers’ testimony that plaintiff was at fault for the collision was not rationally based on their own perceptions, the testimony was not admissible under MRE 701.” Id. Rather than Miller, we find that the facts in the instant case are more analogous to the facts in Richardson v Ryder Truck Rental, Inc, 213 Mich App 447, 455-456; 540 NW2d 696 (1995), and Mitchell v Steward Olford & Sons, Inc, 163 Mich App 622, 629-630; 415 NW2d 224 (1987), where this Court held permissible the admission of police officers’ lay opinion testimony regarding fault in automobile accidents even though the officers did not observe the actual collisions. Richardson, supra at 455; Mitchell, supra at 629-630. In each of these cases, this Court held that police officers were permitted to testify about their conclusions regarding such factors as vehicle speed and position derived from the officers’ observations of skid marks created at accident scenes, because the officers’ conclusions were rationally based on the officers’ perceptions. Richardson, supra at 455; Mitchell, supra at 629-630. Similarly, Officer Schweble’s opinion was rationally based on his perception of the evidence that he found at the scene of the accident. We disagree with plain tiffs contention that Officer Schweble formed his opinion on the basis of his past experience in investigating automobile accidents and his awareness that on occasion, people who, in the course of accident investigations, initially said they were wearing seat belts later admitted that they had not been wearing them. A careful examination of Officer Schweble’s testimony establishes that although his opinion in this case was consistent with conclusions he had drawn in other cases he had investigated, his past experience did not form the basis of his opinion testimony. Plaintiff correctly argued that, because Officer Schweble was not offered as an expert witness, his testimony about his past investigative experiences and how they related to his investigation of this accident was inadmissible on the basis that such testimony was collateral to the officer’s lay opinion. However, the trial court’s error in admitting this portion of Officer Schweble’s testimony is not of a kind or sort that the failure to disturb the judgment in this case would be inconsistent with substantial justice. Therefore, the error in admitting this portion of the testimony was harmless. MCR 2.613(A); Cox v Flint Bd of Hosp Managers, 467 Mich 1, 15; 651 NW2d 356 (2002). B. SPECIAL JURY INSTRUCTION Plaintiff also contends that the trial court erred in refusing to give his requested special jury instruction. We disagree. We review a trial court’s decision regarding jury instructions for an abuse of discretion. Joerger v Gordon Food Service, Inc, 224 Mich App 167, 173; 568 NW2d 365 (1997). When a party so requests, a court must give a standard jury instruction if it is applicable and accurately states the law. MCR 2.516(D)(2). Nonetheless, we will not find error requiring reversal if, on balance, the trial court adequately and fairly conveyed the applicable law and theories of the parties to the jury. Stevens v Veenstra, 226 Mich App 441, 443; 573 NW2d 341 (1997). Plaintiff’s requested jury instruction stated: “I charge you under Michigan law that an automobile manufacturer like General Motors Corporation is liable for negligence in manufacture or inspection of parts of an automobile directly related to its safe operation even if the defective part was supplied by others.” In lieu of the special instruction, the trial court provided the jury with the following jury instruction, modeled after the first paragraph of SJI2d 15.05: “If you decide that defendant General Motors Corporation was negligent and that such negligence was a proximate cause of the occurrence, it is not a defense that the conduct of Allied[-]Signal, who is not a party to this suit also may have been a cause of this occurrence.” The court did not provide the jury with the second paragraph of SJI2d 15.05. After reviewing the record in the instant case, it is apparent that plaintiff requested the special jury instruction only in the event that the trial court decided to instruct the jury with the second paragraph of SJI2d 15.05. The record also reveals that plaintiff agreed with the trial court’s jury instructions as given. Thus, because plaintiff acquiesced in the trial court’s decision to provide only the first paragraph of SJI2d 15.05 in lieu of the special jury instruction, plaintiff is not entitled to any relief with regard to this issue. Hilgendorf v Saint John Hosp & Medical Ctr Corp, 245 Mich 670, 683, 696; 630 NW2d 356 (2001); Dresselhouse v Chrysler Corp, 177 Mich App 470, 477; 442 NW2d 705 (1989). Further, because the trial court also instructed the jury pursuant to SJI2d 25.31, and provided the jury with plaintiffs theory of the case, which pointed out that since defendant chose Allied-Signal to design and manufacture the seat belts in plaintiffs truck, defendant was responsible for any defect in those buckles, it is evident that the jury was not misled or confused by the failure to give plaintiffs requested jury instruction and that the instructions that were given adequately and fairly conveyed the applicable law and the theories of the parties. Hilgendorf, supra at 696, quoting Grzesick v Cepela, 237 Mich App 554, 559; 603 NW2d 809 (1999); Stevens, supra at 442. Accordingly, because we are unable to find error that is inconsistent with substantial justice, the jury verdict will not be reversed. Hilgendorf, supra at 696. C. DISCOVERY REQUESTS Plaintiff further contends that the trial court erred in denying his discovery request that defendant be compelled to produce all crash and sled tests documents where the JDC buckle released during the test and also erred in denying plaintiffs discovery request for all civil claims, consumer complaints, and incident reports filed against defendant alleging that a JDC buckle opened during an accident. Specifically, plaintiff argues that the information regarding these tests is relevant because the tests involved the exact type of seat belt plaintiffs truck was equipped with at the time of the accident and that, even if inadmissible as a subsequent remedial measure under MRE 407, the information should have been discoverable. Again, we disagree. This Court reviews a trial court’s decision to grant or deny a discovery request for an abuse of discretion. Harrison v Olde Financial Corp, 225 Mich App 601, 614; 572 NW2d 679 (1997); Mercy Mt Clemens Corp v Auto Club Ins Ass’n, 219 Mich App 46, 50; 555 NW2d 871 (1996). Here, plaintiff sought to discover tests and documents pertaining to vehicles manufactured several years after the truck plaintiff was driving on the day in question. In addition, the test results requested by plaintiff did not pertain to accidents similar to the one in which plaintiff was involved. Thus, it is impossible for us to conclude that had defendant provided plaintiff with the requested material, plaintiff would have been able to find evidence that made it more probable that plaintiff’s seat belt was negligently designed. See MRE 401. In addition, because plaintiff never indicated how the situations involved in the requested material were substantially similar to plaintiff’s accident, the court was within its discretion to deny the discovery request. See Haberkorn v Chrysler Corp, 210 Mich App 354, 368-369; 533 NW2d 373 (1995). We also note that a trial court is within its discretion to limit discovery when it becomes excessive or abusive. In re Hammond Estate, 215 Mich App 379, 387; 547 NW2d 36 (1996); Hartmann v Shearson Lehman Hutton, Inc, 194 Mich App 25, 29; 486 NW2d 53 (1992). Here, the additional discovery was requested eight years after the accident, almost five years after the complaint was filed, and more than three years after discovery was closed. In addition, the trial had been adjourned several times previously, plaintiff had indicated at the April 13, 1998, motion hearing that he was almost ready for trial, and it is apparent that plaintiff sought the extra discovery in an effort to open a new theory of the case. We are unable to find an abuse of discretion from these facts. Finally, the fact that the trial court ostensibly denied the discovery request on the basis of MRE 407 has no effect on our determination. Because the trial court reached the right result, this Court should not reverse the trial court’s decision regarding this discovery request. See Hilgendorf, supra at 685, n 8, citing Glazer v Lamkin, 201 Mich App 432, 437; 506 NW2d 570 (1993). m. CONCLUSION In sum, because the trial court did not abuse its discretion in denying plaintiff’s discovery requests, did not err in refusing to read plaintiff’s special jury instruction, did not err in admitting Officer Schweble’s opinion testimony based on his perceptions at the scene of the accident, and committed harmless error in permitting testimony on collateral matters, we are not persuaded that the jury verdict was in error. Affirmed. Chastain v Gen Motors Corp, unpublished opinion per curiam of the Court of Appeals, issued November 30, 2001 (Docket No. 222502). It appears that Eureka was the halfway point between Elko and Round Mountain. In any event, it is -undisputed that this was the city in which Elko and Round Mountain Cashman employees would meet to exchange parts being delivered to the other location. A “neurogenic bladder” is defined as: “A urinary bladder functioning improperly or with difficulty because of a lesion (injury or disorder) somewhere in the nervous system. Similarly, a “cord bladder” is defined as: “A urinaiy bladder functioning improperly because of a lesion (injury or disorder) in the spinal cord which affects the nerve mechanism controlling the bladder.” Attorneys’ Dictionary of Medicine & Word Finder (2000), p B-128. In addition to the cord or neurogenic bladder, plaintiff lost control of his bowel functions as well. As a result, in order to have a bowel movement, plaintiff must insert a suppository and then digitally stimulate his rectum. This is true even though officers from the Lander and Eureka County Sheriffs Departments were at the scene while plaintiff was still present. That the road was snowy and icy was also corroborated by the witness statement and testimony of William Hicks, who was the state high way employee responsible for plowing the road at the time of plaintiff’s accident. Plaintiff and Allied-Signal reached a settlement before trial; accordingly, Allied-Signal is not a party to this appeal. The claim was brought against both defendant and Allied-Signal because the seat belt in question had been designed, tested, and manufactured by Allied-Signal on behalf of defendant. “False latch” means that a seat belt buckle appears to be properly latched; however, for various reasons, the seat belt is not properly latched and therefore releases when force is applied. “Inertial release” means that because of the force and acceleration of a crash, parts within the seat belt are moved, causing it to release from the lock. Specifically, the court stated that it did not “think there was relevance because I don’t think it would come in under 407 [subsequent remedial measures], and I’m going to deny your request.” Syson testified that it is possible to attempt to achieve a false latch by holding down the seat belt release button while inserting the seat belt latch into the buckle. Officer Schweble testified at trial as follows: Q. Can you tell the jury what your opinion is about whether the plaintiff was wearing a seat belt? A. As I indicated on my report that I indicated that I felt that he — that they were not used that day. Q. Now, what was it that you based that opinion on? A. Because the defendant was ejected from the vehicle and the seat belts were there, you know, and the vehicle — I looked at them, I didn’t test them, but they looked like they were in workable order and that’s where I formulated my opinion because he was ejected. * ** * Q. Did you take that information [that plaintiff had stated to other individuals that he was wearing his seat belt] into account when you developed your opinion that you didn’t believe that he had a seat belt on? * * * A. I took it into account but I just went from the facts that I found at the scene, from the evidence at the scene and that’s what I formulated my opinion on that he wasn’t wearing it. * ‡ ** Q. Does your past experience serve as the basis for your opinion here? A. Yes, it does. Q. Can you tell us what it is about your past that had some affect [sic] on your opinion here? A. Because I have had other incidents where I have investigated accidents where people have said they have their seat belt on and after questioning them a little bit they have admitted that they didn’t. Q. Is that one of the reasons that you concluded, based on what you saw at the scene, that the plaintiff wasn’t wearing his seat belt? A. Yes, I did. * * :N Q. Trooper, can you tell us why it is that you did not just take the word of the plaintiff that was related to you from these other witnesses and rely on that and just say, okay, I’ll say he was belted? * * * A. Because I was just going by physical evidence at the scene. The recall involving 1994-1995 C/K pickups dealt with concerns involving seat belts releasing in frontal collisions, not rollover accidents. In addition, the seat belts involved in the recall involved energy management loops that were not present on plaintiff’s seat belt.
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Per Curiam. A jury convicted defendant of second-degree murder, MCL 750.317; operating a motor vehicle while under the influence of intoxicating liquor (OUIL) causing death, MCL 257.625(4); OUIL causing serious impairment of a bodily function, MCL 257.625(5); and driving with a suspended license, second offense, MCL 257.904(1). The trial court sentenced defendant to concurrent prison terms of twenty-five to forty years, one hundred months to fifteen years, thirty-eight months to five years, and one year for the respective convictions. He appeals as of right, and we affirm. On July 18, 1999, defendant became intoxicated and drove his pick-up truck in the wrong direction on a busy freeway. He collided head-on with a Jeep, killing the passenger and seriously injuring the driver. i Defendant says that the trial court should have granted his motion for a directed verdict because the evidence was insufficient to support a conviction of second-degree murder. We disagree. “When reviewing a trial court’s decision on a motion for a directed verdict, this Court reviews the record de novo to determine whether the evidence presented by the prosecutor, viewed in the light most favorable to the prosecutor, could persuade a rational trier of fact that the essential elements of the crime charged were proved beyond a reasonable doubt.” People v Aldrich, 246 Mich App 101, 122; 631 NW2d 67 (2001). When a defendant challenges the sufficiency of the evidence in a criminal case, this Court considers whether the evidence, viewed in a light most favorable to the prosecution, would warrant a reasonable juror to find guilt beyond a reasonable doubt. People v Nowack, 462 Mich 392, 399; 614 NW2d 78 (2000); People v Sexton, 250 Mich App 211, 222; 646 NW2d 875 (2002). The elements of second-degree murder are “ ‘(1) a death, (2) caused by an act of the defendant, (3) with malice, and (4) without justification or excuse.’ ” Aldrich, supra at 123, quoting People v Mayhew, 236 Mich App 112, 125; 600 NW2d 370 (1999), quoting People v Goecke, 457 Mich 442, 463-464; 579 NW2d 868 (1998). Malice is defined as “the intent to kill, the intent to cause great bodily harm, or the intent to do an act in wanton and wilful disregard of the likelihood that the natural tendency of such behavior is to cause death or great bodily harm.” Goecke, supra at 464. Malice may be inferred from evidence that the defendant “intentionally set in motion a force likely to cause death or great bodily harm.” People v Djordjevic, 230 Mich App 459, 462; 584 NW2d 610 (1998). The prosecution is not required to prove that the defendant actually intended to harm or kill. Instead, the prosecution must prove “ ‘the intent to do an act that is in obvious disregard of life-endangering consequences.’ ” Aldrich, supra at 123, quoting Mayhew, supra at 125. Here, the prosecution showed that defendant drove after becoming seriously intoxicated. Moreover, defendant knew from a recent prior incident that if he drank, he might experience a blackout and drive recklessly and irresponsibly. Defendant contends, however, that in Goecke, supra, our Supreme Court required a subjective showing of awareness of a risk of death or great bodily harm when a defendant is severely intoxicated. Defendant’s argument mischaracterizes the analysis in Goecke. In Goecke, the Supreme Court reviewed three cases where a defen dant was charged with second-degree murder for a fatality caused by the defendant’s drunken driving. The Supreme Court declined to choose between an objective and subjective standard for determining whether the defendant was aware that his conduct carried a high risk of death or great bodily harm. The choice was unnecessary because the facts of all three cases established the requisite malice for second-degree murder under either standard. Goecke, supra at 465. However, the Court noted in dicta that a “highly unusual case” might “require a determination of the issue whether the defendant was subjectively aware of the risk created by his conduct.” Id. at 464-465, citing 2 LaFave & Scott, Substantive Criminal Law, § 7.4(b), p 205. Defendant claims that this case is the type of unusual case requiring a determination that he was subjectively aware of the risk of his conduct. We disagree. Goecke did not expressly prescribe a subjective analysis for malice in cases of extreme intoxication. Quoting LaFave & Scott, supra, the Court recognized that, theoretically, a “highly unusual case” may require a determination whether the defendant was subjectively aware of the risk his conduct created, such as where the defendant was “ ‘more absentminded, stupid or intoxicated than the reasonable man.’ ” Goecke, supra at 464-465 & n 25. This is not the same as stating, as defendant suggests, that the prosecution should have been held to a higher standard of proof of intent because defendant was so severely intoxicated. If defendant’s argument is correct, it would mean that moderately intoxicated drivers could be tried for and convicted of second-degree murder while severely intoxicated drivers would be excused because they were too intoxicated to know what they were doing. This would be contrary to the Goecke Court’s statement that “malice requires egregious circumstances.” Id. at 467. It also would effectively create for some defendants an intoxication defense to second-degree murder, which would be plainly contrary to the Goecke Court’s holding that voluntary intoxication is not a defense to a second-degree murder charge. Id. at 464. Accordingly, an advanced state of voluntary intoxication is not sufficient to qualify as the sort of “unusual case” that requires a subjective determination of awareness under Goecke. We also recognize that Goecke held that not every intoxicated driving case resulting in a fatality constitutes second-degree murder. However, the evidence in this case disclosed “a level of misconduct that goes beyond that of drunk driving.” Id. at 469. This is not a case where a defendant merely undertook the risk of driving after drinking. Defendant knew, from a recent prior incident, that his drinking did more than simply impair his judgment and reflexes. He knew that he might actually become so overwhelmed by the effects of alcohol that he would completely lose track of what he was doing with his vehicle. If defendant knew that drinking before driving could cause him to crash on boulders in front of a house, without any knowledge of where he was or what he was doing, he knew that another drunken driving episode could cause him to make another major mistake, one that would have tragic consequences. Although there is no evidence regarding defendant’s behavior between his departure from Charlie Parrish’s house and the fatal collision, or regarding his state of mind just before the crash, we are satisfied that the prosecution met its burden by showing that defendant had a recent episode of an alcohol-induced blackout while driving, but that he nonetheless drank heavily while he was out with his vehicle. The trial court did not err in denying the motion for a directed verdict, and the evidence was sufficient to support defendant’s conviction. n Defendant claims that he was denied the effective assistance of counsel because his attorney failed to investigate and present a defense of involuntary intoxication. We disagree. To establish ineffective assistance of counsel, a defendant must show (1) that the attorney’s performance was objectively unreasonable in light of prevailing professional norms and (2) that, but for the attorney’s error or errors, a different outcome reasonably would have resulted. People v Carbin, 463 Mich 590, 599-600; 623 NW2d 884 (2001); People v Harmon, 248 Mich App 522, 531; 640 NW2d 314 (2001). A defendant must affirmatively demonstrate that counsel’s performance was objectively unreasonable and so prejudicial as to deprive him of a fair trial. People v Pickens, 446 Mich 298, 338; 521 NW2d 797 (1994); People v Ortiz, 249 Mich App 297, 311; 642 NW2d 417 (2002). Because defendant did not move for a new trial or an evidentiary hearing pursuant to People v Ginther, 390 Mich 436, 443; 212 NW2d 922 (1973), our review is limited to mistakes apparent on the record. People v Watkins, 247 Mich App 14, 30; 634 NW2d 370 (2001). There is no evidence on the record to support defendant’s claim that counsel’s failure to present an involuntary intoxication defense was objectively unreasonable, or that the presentation of the defense would have resulted in acquittal. Nothing in the record shows that an expert would have testified in support of an involuntary intoxication defense, or that scientific evidence was available to bolster this claim. Furthermore, the evidence showed that defendant’s beer consumption was sufficient, by itself, to intoxicate him without the Tylenol 3 that he also consumed. Moreover, defendant would not have been able to show that his intoxication was involuntary because he admitted that the Tylenol 3 bottle had a warning label, and that he wilfully drank alcohol after taking the medicine. Thus, this issue is without merit. m Defendant claims that his dual convictions of second-degree murder and OUIL causing death violate the Double Jeopardy Clauses of the federal and state constitutions, US Const, Am V; Const 1963, art 1, § 15. This claim is based on the erroneous assumption that the double jeopardy provisions necessarily preclude conviction of both an offense and a lesser cognate offense. A dual prosecution and conviction of a higher offense and a lesser cognate offense are permissible where the Legislature intended to impose cumulative punishment for similar crimes, even if both charges are based on the same conduct. People v Lugo, 214 Mich App 699, 705-706; 542 NW2d 921 (1996). In People v Kulpinski, 243 Mich App 8; 620 NW2d 537 (2000), this Court found no double jeopardy implications where a defendant was convicted of both ouil causing death and involuntary manslaughter, MCL 750.321. Because the Legislature intended for the two statutes to enforce distinct societal norms, and because each statute contained an element not found in the other, the Court concluded that multiple punishments were permissible. Id. at 18-24; see also People v Price, 214 Mich App 538; 543 NW2d 49 (1995). This reasoning applies with equal force to dual convictions of second-degree murder and ouil causing death. If the Legislature intended for the ouil causing death statute to enforce societal norms that are distinct from the societal norms enforced by the involuntary manslaughter statute (grossly negligent conduct), it clearly also intended the ouil statute to enforce societal norms other than those enforced by the second-degree murder statute (proscribing wanton conduct likely to cause death or great bodily harm). Id. at 543-544; Kulpinski, supra at 22-23. Moreover, the ouil causing death statute and the second-degree murder statute each contain an element not found in the other. The ouil causing death statute includes the element of operating a motor vehicle with a specified blood alcohol level, but not the element of malice; the converse is true of the second-degree murder statute. Price, supra at 545-546; Kulpinski, supra at 23-24. Accordingly, defendant’s convictions of both second-degree murder and OUIL causing death do not violate the Double Jeopardy Clauses. We also find no abuse of prosecutorial discretion in the prosecution’s decision to pursue charges under both the second-degree murder statute and the OUIL causing death statute. Defendant misstates the law when he claims that he should have been charged only under the ouil statute because it is the more specific and more recently enacted statute. The OUIL causing death statute does not merely carve out an exception to the second-degree murder statute; it enforces distinct societal norms and it includes an element not present in the second-degree murder statute. People v Peach, 174 Mich App 419; 437 NW2d 9 (1989). Defendant relies on People v Patterson, 212 Mich App 393; 538 NW2d 29 (1995), wherein this Court held that the prosecution abused its discretion when it charged the defendant with larceny over $100, MCL 750.356, instead of the more recent and specific offense of larceny of livestock, MCL 750.357a. The instant case, however, is not analogous to Patterson, because there the latter statute prohibits a class of offenses that almost always will be a subset of the class of offenses prohibited by the former statute. This is not true of the ouil causing death and second-degree murder statutes. rv Defendant claims that the trial court’s instruction on reasonable doubt was erroneous because it unconstitutionally weakened the standard for reasonable doubt by requiring the jurors to make certain their doubts are “fair.” Because this issue was not preserved with an appropriate objection at trial, we review it for plain error affecting defendant’s substantial rights. People v Carines, 460 Mich 750, 763; 597 NW2d 130 (1999); People v Knapp, 244 Mich App 361, 375; 624 NW2d 227 (2001). This Court has already considered and rejected the claim that the transition from CJI 3:1:04 to CJI2d 3.2 weakened the concept of reasonable doubt. People v Snider, 239 Mich App 393, 420-421; 608 NW2d 502 (2000); People v Cooper, 236 Mich App 643, 656; 601 NW2d 409 (1999). Moreover, both the current instruction and the former instruction state that the juror’s doubt must be “fair,” so this is not a new requirement as defendant suggests. Consequently, we find no plain error in the trial court’s instruction. v Defendant argues that the trial court erred in admitting evidence of his June 23, 1999, drunken driving incident. A trial court’s decision to admit or exclude evidence is reviewed for an abuse of discretion. People v Manser, 250 Mich App 21, 31; 645 NW2d 65 (2002). “An abuse of discretion exists when the court’s decision is so grossly violative of fact and logic that it evidences perversity of will, defiance of judgment, and the exercise of passion or bias.” People v Ullah, 216 Mich App 669, 673; 550 NW2d 568 (1996). MRE 404(b)(1) provides the following rules for admitting evidence that a defendant committed other crimes, wrongs, or acts: MRE 404(b) is intended to exclude character evidence, or evidence that would lead the jury to convict a defendant on the basis of his past conduct rather than on evidence of his conduct for the instant offense. People v Starr, 457 Mich 490; 577 NW2d 673 (1998); People v Golochowicz, 413 Mich 298, 308; 319 NW2d 518 (1982). The rule excludes evidence if it is not relevant to anything other than the defendant’s character or propensity to commit bad acts. People v VanderVliet, 444 Mich 52, 63-64; 508 NW2d 114 (1993), mod 445 Mich 1205 (1994). However, if the evidence is relevant to some other issue, it is admissible under MRE 404(b). VanderVliet, supra at 65; People v Sabin (After Remand), 463 Mich 43, 56-57; 614 NW2d 888 (2000); Starr, supra at 506. Evidence of other crimes, wrongs, or acts is not admissible to prove the character of a person in order to show action in conformity therewith. It may, however, be admissible for other purposes, such as proof of motive, opportunity, intent, preparation, scheme, plan, or system in doing an act, knowledge, identity, or absence of mistake or accident when the same is material, whether such other crimes, wrongs, or acts are contemporaneous with, or prior or subsequent to the conduct at issue in the case. The Court in VanderVliet, supra at 55, set forth a four-pronged test for determining whether prior acts evidence is admissible under MRE 404(b): First, that the evidence be offered for a proper purpose under Rule 404(b); second, that it be relevant under Rule 402 as enforced through Rule 104(b); third, that the probative value of the evidence is not substantially outweighed by unfair prejudice; fourth, that the trial court may, upon request, provide a limiting instruction to the jury. The trial court properly admitted the evidence of defendant’s prior drunken driving incident under this four-pronged test. First, the evidence was admitted for a proper purpose. MRE 404(b) specifically allows prior acts evidence to show knowledge and absence of mistake. Here, to show that defendant possessed the requisite degree of malice for second-degree murder, the prosecution showed that defendant knew that heavy drinking could lead to a blackout, and that a blackout could lead to defendant’s driving without any understanding of what he was doing. The fact that such an episode occurred only three weeks before the charged offense was highly material to the proper purpose of showing defendant’s knowledge of the dangers of driving while intoxicated. Regarding the second prong, the evidence was relevant. The fact that defendant had previously experienced an alcohol-induced blackout while driving made it more probable than not that he was aware this could happen to him. Regarding the third prong, the probative value outweighed the danger of unfair prejudice. The prosecution presented evidence that defendant drove the wrong way down a busy freeway at night and collided head-on with another vehicle, killing a twenty-two-year-old woman and seriously injuring a young man. Compared to this tragic incident, evidence that defendant was involved in a prior single-vehicle accident with no injury to anyone was not unduly prejudicial. Finally, regarding the fourth prong, the trial court gave an appropriate limiting instruction by stating to the jury that it “must not. . . decide that it shows that the Defendant is a bad person or that he is likely to commit crimes.” Accordingly, the trial court did not abuse its discretion in admitting evidence of the prior incident. VI Defendant argues that the trial court erred in excluding evidence that the decedent was not wearing a seat belt at the time of the collision. He concedes that contributory negligence is not a viable defense to a homicide charge, but maintains that the trial court should have allowed the evidence as proof that defendant’s conduct was not a substantial cause of her death. The trial court excluded the evidence because it was not relevant to any issue in the case. Relevant evidence is evidence “having any tendency to make the existence of any fact that is of consequence to the determination of the action more probable or less probable than it would be without the evidence.” MRE 401; Aldrich, supra at 114. Generally, all relevant evidence is admissible, unless otherwise provided by law, and evidence that is not relevant is not admissible. Aldrich, supra at 114; MRE 402. Relevant evidence “may be excluded if its probative value is substantially outweighed by the danger of unfair prejudice, confusion of the issues, or misleading the jury, or by considerations of undue delay, waste of time, or needless presentation of cumulative evidence.” MRE 403. In People v Moore, 246 Mich App 172; 631 NW2d 779 (2001), this Court held that a defendant in a negligent homicide case could introduce evidence that the decedent was not using a seat belt at the time of the accident, provided the evidence was used only for the issue of causation, and not as a defense to criminal conduct. We find that Moore is distinguishable from the present case. Moore involved a defendant charged under the negligent homicide statute, MCL 750.324. Proof of that offense requires that the defendant’s conduct be a “substantial factor” in the decedent’s death. People v Tims, 449 Mich 83, 95; 534 NW2d 675 (1995). The Supreme Court held in Tims that a cause-in-fact relationship would often be sufficient to prove the causation element, but also noted that “cases arise in which the death is so remote from the defendant’s conduct that it would be unjust to permit conviction. In such a case, the question for the jury is whether the defendant’s conduct was the proximate or legal cause of the decedent’s death.” Id. In Moore, the decedent’s death was remote from the defendant’s conduct. The decedent struck the defendant’s vehicle while it was stationary, hit his head against the window, and lost control of his car. His car then collided with a third vehicle. Moore, supra at 178-179. The defendant was prepared to offer expert testimony that if the decedent had been wearing his seat belt, he would not have lost control of his car and would not have died in the accident. Id. at 178. The Moore Court concluded that, under these circumstances, the decedent’s failure to use his seat belt was “clearly relevant” to the question whether the defendant’s negligence caused the decedent’s death. Id. at 178-179. In contrast, the decedent’s death in the instant case was not remote from the collision. Unlike in Moore, where the facts actually showed that wearing a seat belt might have changed the outcome of the accident, the facts here do not show that the decedent could have affected the course of events by wearing a seat belt. Defendant merely argues that the decedent might have survived the collision if she had been wearing a seat belt, but this argument is purely speculative and is without evidence to support it. Furthermore, we do not believe that the holding in Moore applies to second-degree murder cases. Negligent homicide requires proof that the defendant’s conduct was a “substantial” cause of the victim’s death. Tims, supra at 95. The issue of proximate cause is thus relevant to the defendant’s criminal liability. Id. However, in People v Bailey, 451 Mich 657; 549 NW2d 325 (1996), our Supreme Court applied a different proximate cause analysis in a voluntary manslaughter case: In assessing criminal liability for some harm, it is not necessary that the party convicted of a crime be the sole cause of that harm, only that he be a contributory cause that was a substantial factor in producing the harm. The criminal law does not require that there be but one proximate cause of harm found. Quite the contrary, all acts that proximately cause the harm are recognized by the law. [Id. at 676.] The Court explained that “[wjhere an independent act of a third party intervenes between the act of a criminal defendant and the harm to a victim, that act may only serve to cut off the defendant’s criminal liability where the intervening act is the sole cause of harm.” Id. at 677. Under Bailey, evidence of the decedent’s failure to use a seat belt would be relevant only where the defendant could show that the failure was the sole cause of harm to the decedent. Bailey involved voluntary manslaughter, which is more akin to second-degree murder than negligent homicide. Indeed, the statutory scheme provides a clear demarcation between second-degree murder and negligent homicide. The latter statute specifically excludes wilful and wanton conduct as a basis for a negligent homicide charge. Accordingly, we conclude that Bailey applies to the instant case, and the trial court properly excluded the evidence of the decedent’s failure to wear a seat belt. Defendant also argues that the trial court erred in excluding evidence that Michael Pagel’s Jeep was uninsured. However, this issue is not preserved because defendant did not raise it before the trial court. In any event, Pagel’s insurance status is simply irrelevant to any issue in this case. vn Defendant claims that the cumulative effect of several errors denied him a fair trial. The cumulative effect of several minor errors may warrant reversal even where individual errors in the case would not. Knapp, supra at 387-388. Reversal is warranted only if the effect of the errors was so seriously prejudicial that the defendant was denied a fair trial. Id. at 388. Here, because we have not found any errors, this issue is without merit. Affirmed.
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Bronson, J. Plaintiff-appellee’s decedent, Eugene Kujawski, was killed when the right front wheel of the truck he was driving flew off, causing the truck to tip over. A wheel bearing failure was responsible for the accident. Appellee brought suit for wrongful death against Erwin Cohen, doing business as J & I Service Station, for negligent installation of the wheel bearing and against appellant General Motors Corporation (GM) for negligence and breach of warranty as to the wheel bearing manufactured by a GM subsidiary. A jury returned a verdict against GM for $315,000 and found no cause of action against Cohen. GM has appealed. GM first complains that a directed verdict in its favor was erroneously denied. In considering this claim we are bound to view the evidence in the light most favorable to the non-movant. If, when so viewed, there is any evidence which was competent and sufficient to support the jury’s determination, that determination must not be disturbed. Wamser v NJ Westra & Sons, Inc, 9 Mich App 89; 155 NW2d 871 (1967); Taft v J L Hudson Co, 37 Mich App 692; 195 NW2d 296 (1972). See also, Kieft v Barr, 391 Mich 77; 214 NW2d 838 (1974). The right to have a jury pass on questions of fact must be protected even when only "scant” evidence is presented. McKinch v Dixon, 391 Mich 282; 215 NW2d 689 (1974). The proof offered by appellee satisfied this standard. One theory of recovery sounded in warranty. Appellee alleged that GM breached its warranty by manufacturing a defective bearing. Her expert witness, Dr. Charles Arthur Nagler, testified that the bearing failure was due to a structural defect in the bearing assembly. After careful study of the remains of the subject bearing and comparison with a replacement bearing, he concluded that cracking could have occurred, which in turn could have caused the bearing failure. GM’s experts disputed these findings and suggested other causes of bearing failure: improper installation, improper adjustment, improper lubrication, and defects in adjacent moving parts. Indeed, Dr. Nagler admitted that such explanations of the failure were plausible. GM insists that the defective bearing theory propounded by Dr. Nagler and relied upon by appellee is mere conjecture within the rule of Kaminski v Grand Trunk W R Co, 347 Mich 417; 79 NW2d 899 (1956). GM maintains that appellee’s theory is "simply an explanation consistent with known facts or conditions, but not deducible from them as a reasonable inference”, Kaminski, supra, at 422, and on that ground argues that it deserves a directed verdict. Dr. Nagler examined and tested both the remains of the damaged bearing and a replacement bearing. One portion of the bearing, called the "cage”, was said by him to contain folds and creases which, together with the hardness of the steel of which it was made and the heat treatment to which it was subjected, made it susceptible to cracking. This cracking, according to Dr. Nagler, could cause the kind of bearing failure responsible for the injury complained of. It is true that appellee never proved that the bearing installed on the truck was cracked. This is because the "cage” portion of the damaged bearing was never recovered. Appellee’s failure to produce the "cage” is not fatal, especially in light of the fact that it apparently disintegrated in the accident. Compare Schedlbauer v Chris-Craft Corp, 381 Mich 217; 160 NW2d 889 (1968). Moreover, Dr. Nagler’s investigations demonstrated that cracking was more than mere speculation; it was a distinct possibility. Appellee introduced evidence pointing to one theory of causation, "indicating a logical sequence of cause and effect”. Kaminski, supra at 422. Appellee’s proposed causal theory was not more probable than any of GM’s explanations, but that fact alone does not prevent appellee from having her case considered by a jury. As was said in Schoepper v Hancock Chemical Co, 113 Mich 582, 586, 589; 71 NW 1081, 1083-1084 (1897), quoted in Schedlbauer, supra, at 230-231: "It is true that where an injury occurs that cannot be accounted for, and where the occasion of it rests wholly in conjecture, the case may fail for want of proof. Robinson v Charles Wright & Co, 94 Mich 283 [53 NW 938 (1892)]; Redmond v Delta Lumber Co, 96 Mich 545 [55 NW 1004 (1893)]. But such cases are rare, and that rule should never be so extended as to result in a failure of justice, or in denying an injured person a right of action where there is room for balancing the probabilities, and for drawing reasonable inferences better supported upon one side than the other. * * * "Negligence, like any other fact, may be inferred from circumstances. Alpern v Churchill, 53 Mich 607, 613 [19 NW 549 (1884)]; Barnowsky v Helson, 89 Mich 523 [50 NW 989 (1891)]. And, though the proof of plaintiff depended upon inference to establish the main fact, the question of whether the inference suggested by the plaintiff’s theory is the correct one, or whether it was sufficiently rebutted, was for the jury. Crosby v Detroit, G H & M R Co, 58 Mich 458 [25 NW 463 (1885)]; Hagan v Chicago, D & C G T J R Co, 86 Mich 615 [49 NW 509 (1891)]; Woods v Chicago & G T R Co, 108 Mich 396 [66 NW 328 (1896)].” A jury question was squarely presented and the motion for directed verdict properly denied. General Motors’ next assignment of error concerns the trial judge’s exclusion of certain evidence. Counsel for GM attempted on several occasions, and in several different ways, to introduce evidence of the condition of the left side of the truck’s front end. An extensive separate record, developed throughout the trial and preserved on appeal, has been thoroughly reviewed. We are convince'd that the trial judge erred in refusing to allow the jury to consider evidence of the condition of the left side of the vehicle. Defendant Cohen’s employee, Wayman Marshall, testified that he disassembled the entire front end of the truck in order to repair it. After pulling the brake drums on both sides and exposing the spindles, spindle threads and bearings, he examined both sides, in an attempt to diagnose the problem. He found that the bearings on both sides had not been properly lubricated. He testified that he did not check the left spindle "very closely” but did not think it needed replacement. It was not replaced. Marshall concluded that the inner bearing on the left side did not need to be replaced. He repacked it instead. He then performed extensive repairs on the right side. Part of those repairs involved replacing the inner bearing which was in pieces and fell into his hands when he removed it. When finished, he reassembled both sides and was convinced that the truck was, as his boss Mr. Cohen later testified, in "safe running order”. GM sought to show, by introducing parts of the left side, the probable condition of the disintegrated right side. Counsel for GM argued that since both sides were serviced at the same time and in similar fashion, the condition of the left front would be helpful in determining the condition of the right front. More particularly, GM suggested that just as the left spindle had been damaged prior to Marshall’s working on it, the right spindle may similarly have been damaged. If so, such damage could have, GM alleged, been caused by the undisputed prior bearing failure and could have caused the replacement bearing to fail, resulting in Kujawski’s fatal injuries. GM also sought to use the evidence of the condition of the left side to buttress its claim that the right front had been improperly serviced. Cohen’s own witness, testifying on rebuttal, indicated that the left spindle was in such a poor condition that it could not properly be used. Yet it was admitted that this spindle had not been replaced by Marshall and it was alleged by GM that the condition of the left spindle had not changed appreciably between the time of repair and the time of trial. It had not been damaged in the accident, either. GM argued that such evidence, given that both sides were serviced at the same time and by the same mechanic, provides an indication of the care with which the right side may have been treated. The condition of the left side was also offered to rebut Cohen’s assertion that the truck was in "safe running order” and to rebut Marshall’s competence as a mechanic, in an effort to undermine the credibility of both witnesses. We need not pass on the merit of the first theory of admissibility — that of inferring condition in one place from evidence of condition in another place. We must conclude that the trial judge abused his discretion in refusing to allow introduction of evidence of the condition of the left front for the two other limited purposes noted above. The trial judge rejected the evidence for either purpose, stating that the condition of the left front was irrelevant to the case, because only the right front had failed. Citation of case law is not required to support the well-established proposition that the relevance of evidence is to be determined by the trial judge and that his discretion is to be affirmed unless an abuse of discretion is manifest. In the instant case we are constrained to hold that there was a clear abuse of discretion. The trial judge would have been right in excluding the evidence had it been offered to show the cause of the right front failure; since the left side did not fail, its condition would have little tendency to show the cause of failure of the right side. However, the evidence was not offered for that purpose. It was introduced to rebut Cohen’s claim that the truck was in good running order and Marshall’s assurance that he was a competent mechanic. In determining whether the truck was in good running order or whether Marshall was a competent mechanic, the condition of the left side —which had been serviced by Marshall at the same time as the right side — had to be considered. Unless the condition of the left side was disclosed, neither claim could be fairly weighed by the trier of fact, since the condition of both sides was relevant to a proper assessment of each claim. Moreover, the evidence was relevant to show the care exercised by Marshall in his effort to repair the truck. One of GM’s major defenses was that the damage was a result of improper repair and installation of parts. GM offered to show that Marshall had negligently repaired the left side of the truck’s front end. That evidence, if accepted by the jury, would have assisted them in determining whether Marshall exercised due care in repairing the right front. The evidence offered by GM at least suggests that the right side could have been treated in the same way as the left side. Because the evidence excluded was pivotal to one of GM’s defenses and would also have been important in assessing the credibility of adverse witnesses and the validity of their claims, GM is entitled to an opportunity to introduce such evidence at a new trial. We are confident that other errors alleged to have occurred will be avoided on retrial. However, three items deserve mention here. First, the parties vigorously disputed the qualifications of appellee’s expert, Dr. Nagler, and the scope of his expert testimony. We recognize that such questions are reserved for the discretion of the trial judge. We do not think that the trial judge abused his discretion in qualifying Dr. Nagler as an expert witness. The real dispute on that score was whether Dr. Nagler was more qualified than the experts testifying for GM. That, however, was a question for the jury. But we do suggest that the appellee take the time necessary to fully apprise the trial court of Dr. Nagler’s expertise in areas other than accident reconstruction. Once qualified, Dr. Nagler was allowed to testify on many subjects, some of which were arguably outside of the scope of the expertise established in the voir dire. Allowing such a broad sweep to Dr. Nagler’s testimony must be justified in the record on retrial. Second, GM challenged certain jury instructions, arguing that the defenses of contributory negligence and "misuse or abuse of product” should have been allowed. Contributory negligence, as it is characteristically understood in the common law of negligence, is not a defense to a breach of warranty action. Something more than mere negligence must be shown to bar recovery, something approaching "assumption of the risk” or disregard of known danger. Barefield v La Salle Coca-Cola Bottling Co, 370 Mich 1, 5; 120 NW2d 786, 789 (1963); Baker v Rosemurgy, 4 Mich App 195, 200; 144 NW2d 660, 663 (1966). There was insufficient evidence in the record to justify an instruction on that type of contributory negligence, GCR 1963, 516.7. The same can be said for the trial judge’s refusal to give the "misuse or abuse of product” instruction as requested by GM. Finally, the trial judge failed to charge the jury on present worth of damages as required by SJI 34.03. No instruction on interest was given, either. An instruction on present worth must be given on retrial, along with an instruction on interest (SJI 34.04), if properly requested. The parties may wish to adopt the suggestion in the note to SJI 34.03, waiving reciprocally these two instructions in order to avoid confusion. Reversed and remanded for new trial. Costs to appellant. All concurred. It was the "comparative improbability” of defendant’s explanation in Kaminski which led the Supreme Court to deny defendant’s motion for a directed verdict. See Kaminski, supra, at 427. See Snyder v City of Albion, 113 Mich 275; 71 NW 475 (1897); Savage v Peterson Distributing Co, 379 Mich 197; 150 NW2d 804 (1967); 2 Wigmore, Evidence (3d ed), § 438(2)(c), p 419. Currie v Fiting, 375 Mich 440, 453-454; 134 NW2d 611 (1965).
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McGregor, J. Plaintiff Susan Marie Baldwin, now Susan Marie Griffeth, appeals the trial court’s denial of her petition to amend the judgment of divorce to change the custody of her daughter, Jennifer Marie Baldwin, from Brenda Barry, defendant’s sister, to plaintiff. Plaintiff and defendant were married on February 20, 1971; their only child, Jennifer, was born October 16, 1971. In November, 1972, the parties separated; plaintiff instituted divorce proceedings in January, 1973, and was granted temporary custody of Jennifer. On February 27, 1973, defendant petitioned to modify the temporary order of custody. Despite the recommendation of the Friend of the Court that plaintiff maintain custody, the trial court modified its previous order and awarded defendant custody of the child, specifying that Jennifer be entrusted to Brenda Barry, defendant’s sister, while defendant was at work. Upon recommendation by the Friend of the Court, the court again modified the temporary custody order and awarded custody of the child to Mrs. Barry and gave each parent weekend visitation rights. When the divorce became final on August 21, 1973, custody of Jennifer was awarded to Brenda Barry. The parents were each given the right to take the child one weekend a month. Plaintiff filed a petition for change of custody on January 9, 1974, in which she alleged that she had remarried, had ample room in her new apartment to provide a home for the child, and that it would be in the best interests of Jennifer if custody were awarded to plaintiff, since she and her present husband could provide the child with a proper home, care and environment. A hearing was held on March 5, 1974, at which plaintiff testified that she and her husband managed a new apartment complex and that her husband was also employed in a welding shop. Plaintiff also called several witnesses who testified to her good relationship with Jennifer and the plaintiff’s ability to provide the child with a proper home. Defendant did not ask for custody, but simply requested that it not be changed, candidly admitting that he could not match the wholesome environment of the Barry home. At the hearing, Brenda Barry presented evidence which demonstrated that Jennifer had received the best of care, love, and attention in the Barry home. Plaintiff does not dispute this fact. However, no real evidence was presented to demonstrate any deficiency in plaintiff’s willingness or ability to provide those factors which are to be considered in evaluating and determining the best interests of the child. MCLA 722.23; MSA 25.312(3). At the conclusion of the hearing the trial judge declined to change the custody provision of the divorce judgment, stating that his decision was based on the fact that Jennifer was receiving outstanding care, love and affection from the Barrys and that plaintiff had not demonstrated that she could match this care. A key consideration in the court’s decision to deny plaintiff’s petition for custody was the fact that plaintiff had been remarried only 5-1/2 months and, therefore, the marriage required more time to develop the necessary stability essential to the proper environment for the child. The only statute considered by the court was MCLA 722.27(c); MSA 25.312(7)(c). The court stated that under this statute, it could not amend its previous custody order unless plaintiff presented "clear and convincing evidence that it is in the best interest of the child.” The court concluded that, while plaintiff was interested in having custody of her child, the court could not justify an order changing custody "based upon the statute or the facts presented in this case.” Plaintiff contends on appeal that the trial court erred in refusing to grant her petition for custody of her child. The guiding principle in deciding child custody matters is the best interest of the child. Kurtz v Kurtz, 32 Mich App 366; 188 NW2d 653 (1971). When a dispute is between a natural parent and third parties, a presumption arises to aid in determining where the best interests of the child lie. This presumption has been recognized in In re Ernst, 373 Mich 337; 129 NW2d 430 (1964), and in In re Mark T, 8 Mich App 122; 154 NW2d 27 (1967), which were cited in Rincon v Rincon, 29 Mich App 150, 152-153; 185 NW2d 195, 197 (1970): "For the applicable law which is that in deciding a dispute between a natural parent and a third party it is presumed that the child’s best interests lie with his natural parents’ exercise of custodial rights absent the showing of the natural parents’ unfitness or their neglect or abandonment of the child and the trial court may not indulge in a comparison of the parental home with the proposed alternative.” The Child Custody Act of 1970 has reaffirmed these principles. Section 5 of the act, MCLA 722.25; MSA 25.312(5) provides in part: "When the dispute is between the parent or parents and an agency or a third person, it is presumed that the best interests of the child are served by awarding custody to the parent or parents, unless the contrary is established by clear and convincing evidence.” The defendant father did not petition for custody of Jennifer. Therefore, MCLA 722.25; MSA 25.312(5) is applicable, since the dispute is between the plaintiff-mother and a third person, a paternal aunt. MCLA 722.22(c); MSA 25.312(2)(c). The trial court correctly cited §7 of the Child Custody Act, MCLA 722.27(c); MSA 25.312(7)(c), as providing that the established custodial environment of a child cannot be changed absent "clear and convincing evidence that it is in the best interest of the child” to do so. However, the court overlooked the presumption created by § 5, which arises in a dispute between a parent and a third person. This presumption is sufficient to satisfy the "best interests” requirement of §7, "unless the contrary is established by clear and convincing evidence”. The standard for appellate review of child custody cases is set forth in MCLA 722.28; MSA 25.312(8): "To expedite the resolution of a child custody dispute by prompt and final adjudication, all orders and judgments of the circuit court shall be affirmed on appeal unless the trial judge made findings of fact against the great weight of evidence or committed a palpable abuse of discretion or a clear legal error on a major issue.” The trial court’s failure to consider the presumption created by MCLA 722.25; MSA 25.312(5) in favor of plaintiff was "a clear legal error on a major issue”. In a child custody case, an appellate court reviews the matters de novo and exercises independent judgment in passing upon the evidence. Outcalt v Outcalt, 40 Mich App 392; 198 NW2d 779 (1972). Our review of the testimony leads us to the opposite conclusion from that reached by the trial court. There was no evidence presented that plaintiffs new marriage was unstable. Neither was there presented clear and convincing evidence to rebut the presumption created by MCLA 722.25; MSA 25.312(5). Therefore, the trial court’s order denying plaintiffs petition for change of custody is reversed and the case is remanded for further proceedings in accordance with this opinion. Reversed and remanded. All concurred.
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V. J. Brennan, J. Plaintiff, Gerald W. Reno, brought this action against defendants under the dramshop act (MCLA 436.22; MSA 18.993) to recover damages for injuries he suffered when the car in which he was riding was struck by an automobile driven by an allegedly intoxicated Gary Schumann. The jury, after listening to all the proofs in the case, rendered a verdict of no cause of action in favor of all the defendants. Judgment to this effect was entered by the trial judge on April 3, 1972, and plaintiff’s motion for a new trial was denied on June 5, 1972. Plaintiff now appeals raising five alleged errors for our consideration. Only three of these claims merit decisional discussion. The others have been considered and determined to be without merit. Plaintiff first contends that the trial court erred reversibly in permitting defense counsel to submit, over objection, testimonial and documentary evidence showing plaintiff to have received a certain sum of money from Schumann’s insurance carrier in return for releasing Schumann from any and all claims arising out of the accident. We disagree. It is clear that Schumann and the present defendants were not joint tortfeasors and that the defendants had no right to contribution from the intoxicated driver, Gary Schumann. Virgilio v Hartfield, 4 Mich App 582; 145 NW2d 367 (1966). The evidence of settlement was not, therefore, admissible to establish any right of the defendants to contribution. This does not mean, however, that in an action such as this evidence of plaintiff’s prior settlement with the intoxicated driver was totally inadmissible. For, although such evidence was not admissible in the instant case on the issue of contribution, it was admissible to establish the defendants’ right to have any amounts found to be due mitigated by the amount of the prior settlement. In Barton v Benedict, 39 Mich App 517; 197 NW2d 898 (1972), this Court, faced with an analogous situation, held that a dramshop defendant was entitled to have the damages found to be due mitigated by the amount the plaintiffs therein received through settlement of their wrongful death action against the intoxicated driver. Although Barton involved a dramshop action and a settlement in a wrongful death action rather than the settlement of a possible common-law negligence action, as is the case here, the reasoning of the majority therein is, nevertheless, applicable to the facts of the instant case. The primary reason this Court allowed mitigation in Barton was the fact that the measures of damages were identical for each of the actions the Court was there concerned with. Such is also the case here. Accordingly, we hold, on the basis of Barton v Benedict, supra, that the trial judge did not err in permitting the introduction of the evidence here complained of. Mason v Lovins, 24 Mich App 101; 180 NW2d 73 (1970), relied on by plaintiff, is distinguishable from the facts of the instant case since the measures of damages in the actions there involved were not identical. Plaintiffs second contention also relates to the admission of settlement agreements into evidence. This time, however, the settlement agreements were those entered into between Schumann’s insurance carrier and Mark Allen, father of Donald and Richard Allen who were passengers in the Schumann car at the time of the accident and who were also injured in the accident. Donald Allen testified at the trial on behalf of plaintiff and his testimony, if believed, was highly damaging to the defendants’ positions. During the cross-examination of Donald Allen, however, the credibility of his testimony was impeached by evidence of several prior inconsistent statements and also by eliciting testimony as to his bias or interest in this particular action. Donald testified that he was also suing each of the defendants herein under the dramshop act as a result of this accident. He stated that his attorney was the same attorney as the one representing plaintiff Reno and that his brother, Richard Allen, also had an action pending against these defendants. It was then brought out, over objection, that Donald and his brother had each made a claim against Schumann’s insurance carrier and that their claims had been settled with Schumann’s insurance carrier by their father, since they were minors at the time, in return for the payment of a certain sum of money. These settlement agreements were received into evidence by the trial judge and Jack Wyman, an employee of Schumann’s insurance carrier, was permitted, over objection, to testify as to the release agreements and the amounts of the settlements. Plaintiff claims, without citing any authority, that the admission of this testimony and evidence constituted reversible error because it was highly prejudicial and not relevant to any issue in the case or competent to establish Donald’s bias or interest in the outcome of the litigation. We disagree. It is our considered opinion that the evidence here complained of was properly admitted to impeach the credibility of Donald Allen by showing his bias or interest in the outcome of the litigation. MCLA 600.2158; MSA 27A.2158. The evidence here complained of established that the witness and his brother also had lawsuits pending against these same defendants and that the two brothers stood in exactly the same position as the plaintiff herein because they also, through their father, executed release and settlement agreements with Schumann’s insurance carrier thereby leaving only these defendants open to a suit for additional damages. The permissible scope of cross-examination on a collateral matter such as this is left to the sound discretion of the trial court and will not be disturbed by a reviewing court unless the trial court abused that discretion. Mowinski v Bishop, 13 Mich App 140; 163 NW2d 655 (1968); Schwartz v Triff, 2 Mich App 379; 139 NW2d 907 (1966), lv den, 378 Mich 720 (1966). In the case at bar there was no such abuse. Plaintiff lastly claims that the trial judge erred in granting each of the defendants three peremptory challenges during jury selection. GCR 1963, 511.5, as amended, provides, in relevant part: “Each party in a civil case may peremptorily challenge 3 jurors. In civil cases two or more parties on the same side are considered a single party for purposes of peremptory challenge, but where multiple parties having adverse interests are aligned on the same side, 3 peremptory challenges shall be allowed to each such party represented by a different attorney.” The defendants in the case at bar were all represented by a different attorney so the decisive question becomes whether the defendants herein had "adverse interests”. The term "adverse interests” is not defined by the court rule and we have been cited to no case which has heretofore defined this term for the purposes of GCR 1963, 511.5 nor has our search revealed any such case. Prior to the adoption of GCR 1963, 511.5 our Supreme Court employed a procedure similar to that announced in GCR 1963, 511.5 for determining whether multiple parties in a civil action are each entitled to their own peremptory challenges. See 2 Honigman & Hawkins, Michigan Court Rules Annotated (2d Ed), p 467. Despite language in Stroh v Hinchman, 37 Mich 490 (1877), to the effect that the right of separate challenge is to be accorded to "each defendant who pleads separately by different counsel”, the Court, subsequently, was not always content to rest its decision allowing separate challenge solely on this basis. In later cases, as further justification for its action, the Court considered such factors as whether the defendants were interposing different defenses; whether one of the defendants in an action could be found liable and another defendant in the same action found not liable; and, whether the defendants could be found liable to the same extent, for the same reason or in the same manner. See Yonkus v McKay, 186 Mich 203; 152 NW 1031 (1915); Levyn v Koppin, 183 Mich 232; 149 NW 993 (1914). These same considerations, we feel, should be examined in reaching any determination as to whether multiple parties on the same side in a civil action have "adverse interests” as that term is used in GCR 1963, 511.5. In the case at bar the three defendants were represented by different attorneys and filed separate answers to plaintiff’s complaint. In order for plaintiff to have prevailed against all three defendants he would have had to have shown that each defendant made an illegal sale to Schumann. Proof of such a sale with respect to one defendant would not be sufficient to hold all the defendants liable. The plaintiff was required to prove his case against each defendant individually relying on the particular factual circumstances of the sale or sales in question. Under these circumstances we hold that the interests of the defendants herein were sufficiently adverse to bring them within the meaning of GCR 1963, 511.5. Defendants were not presenting a unified defense but, rather, were attempting to show that no illegal sale was made at their particular places of business. We find no error. Affirmed. All concurred.
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R. B. Burns, J. Plaintiff instituted this action to quiet title against defendant, a California resident. Pursuant to GCR 1963, 106, plaintiff sought service of process by publication. An order to answer was sent to defendant by registered mail which she refused. Defendant was sent a notice of hearing on a motion for default judgment by certified mail which she also refused. A hearing was held on the motion, and a judgment quieting title was entered. Defendant twice filed motions requesting the trial court to vacate that judgment; she was denied relief both times. Now she appeals. Defendant claims that the registered mailing of the order to answer was not in compliance with GCR 1963, 106.5 which she contends requires the exclusive use of first class mail. That section only requires first class postage as the minimal standard a plaintiff must satisfy. As GCR 1963, 106.3 and GCR 1963, 105.16 (a rule in pari materia) imply, GCR 1963, 106.5 is not to be interpreted as forbidding a party to use more reliable and expensive postal services should he desire to do so. Defendant next contends that plaintiffs affidavit for order of publication is legally insufficient under GCR 1963, 106.1. Felice v Felice, 3 Mich App 421; 142 NW2d 883 (1966), is cited to support this contention. Plaintiffs affidavit is as follows: "STATE OF MICHIGAN "COUNTY OF WAYNE QQ bb "Nancy Jeanne Sproul, being first duly sworn, deposes and says: "1. That she is the plaintiff in the above entitled cause. "2. That plaintiff has made diligent search and inquiry and has been unable to ascertain in which city, state or country the said defendant is residing; plaintiff, however, believes that defendant resides at 1230-2nd St., Manhattan Beach, Calif., 90266. [Defendant’s correct address.] "3. That in order to prosecute this suit, an order of publication is necessary. "Further deponent sayeth not.” While it is true that plaintiffs affidavit falls short of the specificity recommended in GCR 1963, 106.8, this does not mean it is fatally defective as was the one challenged in Felice, supra. Unlike the Felice affidavit, plaintiffs affidavit not only states where defendant will likely be located (which in itself could justify an order of publication since it is an out-of-state address), but it also states that plaintiff has diligently sought defendant within the state and failed to locate her. The Felice affidavit did not contain any of this information. Furthermore, there is no evidence that the trial court’s order to answer was defective in any way. Though she refused it, defendant was provided adequate notice of the action against her. We find no error here. We have reviewed defendant’s claim of fraud and find no merit in it. Affirmed. Costs to plaintiff. All concurred.
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McGregor, J. This is an interlocutory appeal. Plaintiffs began legal proceedings against the defendant in the United States District Court for the Northern Division of Ohio, Western District, alleging that plaintiff Danny Cronin was injured as a result of the negligence of defendant. Plaintiff claims that he was injured on June 5, 1969, while operating a punch press in Michigan which had been manufactured by the defendant in Ohio. The cause of action in Ohio was instituted on May 31, 1972, in Federal court, slightly less than three years after the alleged incident. Defendant was served with process on June 26,1972. Although the record of the Federal court is not before this Court, it appears from the parties’ briefs that, after taking depositions, defendant answered the complaint and later moved to dismiss, alleging that the suit was barred by the Ohio two-year statute of limitations. After this motion was filed, plaintiffs initiated suit in Michigan; subsequently an order was entered in Ohio District Court, on June 18, 1973, dismissing the suit there because the suit was not commenced within two years, as required by the applicable Ohio statute of limitations. The Ohio court made no ruling on the merits of the action. On April 13, 1973, plaintiffs commenced suit in Berrien County circuit court, alleging negligence and strict liability. Defendant moved for accelerated judgment in lieu of an answer, claiming that plaintiffs’ action was barred by the Michigan statute of limitations, MCLA 600.5805; MSA 27A.5805. A hearing was held on July 16, 1973, at which time defendant’s motion was denied. The trial court agreed to certify the issue of law to this Court, which was stated substantially as follows: "Did the acquisition of jurisdiction over defendant in an identical lawsuit brought in Federal court in Ohio toll the Michigan statute of limitations as allowed by MCLA 600.5856(2); MSA 27A.5856(2) thus permitting plaintiffs to bring a cause of action over 3 years after an alleged accident was said to have occurred?” It should be noted that the litigation in the Ohio Federal court remained active for about one year, during which time depositions were taken. More unusual, plaintiff charges in his brief to this appellate court (and previously, before the Michigan circuit court, in the argument on defendant’s motion to dismiss) that these plaintiffs were represented by the same attorneys who are now representing the defendants until 90% of the statutory limitation 3-year period had run.* 2345The order of the trial court, certifying the issue of law to this Court, was granted on January 30, 1974, and the claim of appeal was filed on February 13, 1974. The question is now before this Court. Plaintiffs raised two procedural objections which are meritless and should be disposed of immediately. First, plaintiffs contend that defendant is not following proper Michigan procedure, since it argues different issues on appeal than were raised at the hearing and than were certified to this Court. This argument has no foundation. The issue raised below was whether MCLA 600.5856(2) ap plied to the instant case to toll the Michigan statute of limitations. That was the specific issue decided by the court and then certified to this Court. Both plaintiffs and defendant argued this issue in their memoranda submitted to the trial court before the hearing. Plaintiffs apparently regard arguments on "the equities” of the situation unrelated to statutory construction. It is clear that the trial court looked to the policies and purpose behind the statute of limitations and effected what it believed to be the purpose of this statute. This is clearly an integral part of statutory construction. The issue before us is one of statutory construction. MCLA 600.5805; MSA 27A.5805 states: "No person may bring or maintain any action to recover damages for injuries to persons or property unless, after the claim first accrued to himself or to someone through whom he claims, he commences the action within the periods of time prescribed by this section. * * * [(1M6) these sections are inappropriate.] "(7) The period of limitations is 3 years for all other actions to recover damages for injuries to persons and property.” To this general statute, there are exceptions which toll the operation of the statute during the pendency of specified events. The only provision said to apply in the instant case is MCLA 600.5856(2); MSA 27A.5856(2), which states: "The statutes of limitations are tolled when * * * "(2) jurisdiction over the defendant is otherwise acquired * * * .” The question, therefore, is whether "jurisdiction over the defendant” implies jurisdiction by a Mich igan court or jurisdiction by any court, including a foreign court. The primary rule of construction is to ascertain and give effect to the intention of the legislature. Psychas v Trans-Canada Highway Express Ltd, 146 F Supp 11 (ED Mich, 1956); Aikens v Department of Conservation, 387 Mich 495; 198 NW2d 304 (1972). When, as here, there is no legislative history and no prior judicial construction, the courts should make analytical interpretations. If the meaning of the language is plain and unambiguous, interpretation is not necessary, and the statute is simply applied as written. Dussia v Monroe County Employees Retirement System, 386 Mich 244; 191 NW2d 307 (1971); Gregory Boat Co v Detroit, 37 Mich App 673; 195 NW2d 290 (1972). But where the statute is unclear construction should be made by the court. Kizer v Livingston County Board of Commissioners, 38 Mich App 239; 195 NW2d 884 (1972). Statutes should be construed with an eye toward the result, Magnuson v Kent County Board of Canvassers, 370 Mich 649; 122 NW2d 808 (1963), and, therefore, a reasonable construction should be given which will avoid absurd results. Magreta v Ambassador Steel Co, 378 Mich 689; 148 NW2d 767 (1967), On Rehearing, 380 Mich 513; 158 NW2d 473 (1968). The court, in other words, is to use common sense in its construction. Kalamazoo Township v Kalamazoo County Clerk, 339 Mich 619; 64 NW2d 595 (1954). It has been said that it is the duty of the court to construe a statute without reference to equitable considerations. Mercy Hospital v Crippled Children Commission, 340 Mich 404; 65 NW2d 838 (1954); Shaw v Lakeway Chemicals, Inc, 3 Mich App 257; 142 NW2d 15 (1966); reversed, 379 Mich 601; 153 NW2d 653 (1967). However, it is also said that the court should effect the obvious purpose of a statute. Northville Coach Line, Inc v Detroit, 379 Mich 317; 150 NW2d 772 (1967); Ford Motor Co v Village of Wayne, 358 Mich 653; 101 NW2d 320 (1960). In the instant case, it is quite clear that the trial court was not weighing equities, but rather was looking to the purpose of the statute of limitations as well as to the exceptions to the statute of limitations, and was attempting to effectuate the purpose. We are faced here with no legislative history to guide the Court nor any dispositive precedent cases. The only analogous Michigan case is Ralph Shrader, Inc v Ecclestone Chemical Co, Inc, 22 Mich App 213; 177 NW2d 241 (1970). In that case, plaintiffs brought a claim in a Michigan Federal court in 1965, alleging an injury in 1963. The case was dismissed in Federal court in 1967 for lack of diversity jurisdiction, and plaintiff then filed in Michigan circuit court. Defendant moved for summary judgment and the trial court ruled the suit barred by the three-year statute of limitations. On appeal, this decision was reversed, the Court of Appeals ruling that the statute was tolled by MCLA 600.5856. The defendant correctly distinguishes this case. Shrader, supra, held that a Federal court, sitting in Michigan, is in effect a Michigan court, that the Legislature would have considered the possibility that such situations would arise, and that no provision being made to the contrary, the exception should apply. This distinction is also true of Gaines v City of New York, 215 NY 533; 109 NE 594 (1915), upon which Shrader relies, for in that case the court was dealing with two cases in two New York state courts, the first suit being dismissed for lack of jurisdiction. Plaintiffs contend that the language and rationale of both cases can be extended to the instant case. Justice Cardozo, in Gaines, supra, p 539, first showed a distinct preference for reading the statute of limitations as narrowly as possible to preserve the rights of plaintiffs to bring suit. As he stated: "The statute is designed to insure to the diligent suitor the right to a hearing in court till he reaches a judgment on the merits. Its broad and liberal purpose is not to be frittered away by any narrow construction. The important consideration is that by invoking judicial aid, a litigant gives timely notice to his adversary of a present purpose to maintain his rights before the courts. When that has been done, a mistaken belief that the court has jurisdiction, stands on the same plane as any other mistake of law.” The Shrader court noted at 217: "Defendant received timely notice that plaintiff intended to pursue its claim against it under the substantive law of Michigan.” The trial court found that the object of a statute of limitations is to prevent a plaintiff from holding a claim without taking action until it becomes so stale that witnesses forget the facts and the defendant finds the allegations impossible to investigate. Manifestly, this is true. In Order of Railroad Telegraphers v Railroad Express Agency, Inc, 321 US 342, 348-349; 64 S Ct 582, 586; 88 L Ed 788, 792 (1944), the Court stated: "Statutes of limitation, like the equitable doctrine of laches, in their conclusive effects are designed to promote justice by preventing surprises through the re vival of claims that have been allowed to slumber until evidence has been lost, memories have faded, and witnesses have disappeared. The theory is that even if one has a just claim it is unjust not to put the adversary on notice to defend within the period of limitation and that the fight to be free of stale claims in time comes to prevail over the right to prosecute them.” See also Atkins v Schmutz Manufacturing Co, 435 F2d 527, 530 (CA 4, 1970). The Michigan Legislature set a statutory maximum of three years on tort claims to prevent such hardship, but added the provision that once a court obtains jurisdiction over the action and the summons is placed either in the hands of a summons server or of the defendant, that that action will toll the statute. Thus, the crucial fact found by the trial court was that "the plaintiff gave notice within the [Michigan] statute of limitations and the defendant all that time was gathering their evidence and gathered it from the plaintiff and was not prejudiced in any way by [the] lawsuit”. Plaintiffs assert that they were not negligent and that the action of bringing suit in Ohio, where they thought they could litigate the issue on the merits, gave the defendant his essential notice within the time specified by the Michigan statute. It is impossible to determine plaintiffs’ state of mind on this record, but the contention that the Michigan statute should apply no matter where suit was brought has merit, since virtually all contacts (plaintiffs’ residence, locus delicti, etc.) were in Michigan. As a matter of conflict of laws, there is certainly a viable argument here that, under Ohio law, the Michigan statute of limitations might have applied. The defendant cites many cases which hold that a "saving statute” such as MCLA 600.5856(2) does not toll the statute of limitations unless the suit is instituted within the forum state. Andrew v Bendix Corp, 452 F2d 961 (CA 6, 1971), cert denied 406 US 920, cites many other cases coming to the same conclusion, but supplies no rationale for its decision. This case was recently followed in Howard v Allen, 30 Ohio 2d 130; 283 NE2d 167 (1972). Howard also cites no rationale, but cites many cases which come to the same conclusion. The same result and the same reasoning are used in High v Broadnax, 271 NC 313; 156 SE2d 282 (1967), and Scurlock Oil Co v Three States Contracting Co, 272 F2d 169 (CA 5, 1959). The earliest case appears to be Herron v Miller, 96 Okla 59; 220 P 36 (1923), which held that the saving statute of Oklahoma did not apply because statutes of limitations have no extraterritorial effect. Therefore, since the commencement of a suit in one state need not suspend the statute from running in another, the forum state saving clause will not apply to actions commenced in foreign jurisdictions. This was followed without comment in Estate of Tuckman v Estate of Cottle, 175 F2d 775 (CA 10, 1949). Riley v Union Paciñc R Co, 182 F2d 765 (CA 10, 1950), decided shortly thereafter, cited Herron as dispositive of the issue without citing rationale. In the instant case, the appellant has not cited any such clear holding, nor can this Court find such. We agree fully with the trial court and with the plaintiffs. If the reason for the statute of limitations is to protect defendants from the hardship of unearthing evidence long after a cause of action has accrued, if that effect is accomplished by setting an arbitrary deadline within which the plaintiffs must notify defendants of the forthcoming action, if notification is the ultimate goal, and if statutes of limitation are to be read restrictively, then there is no reason why initiation of any good-faith action on this cause of action should not toll the statute. Certainly, the language of the saving statute is broad enough to cover this interpretation, and the policy behind the statute would seem to encompass it. Defendant’s cases seem to be the majority rule, but they also seem to be analytically weak. The rationale of Herron that statutes of limitation have no extraterritorial effect is mechanical and nonsensical. The idea, apparently, is that a cause of action begins to run like a clock, until an event stops the clock. Herron says that the causes of action in other states cannot stop the clock because they have no extraterritorial effect. This rationale is misleading. The commencement of a suit in a foreign state has no extraterritorial effect which must be recognized in Michigan because of full faith and credit. But if Michigan public policy is served by noting the occurrence of an event in another state, the Legislature may certainly do so. The public policy behind statutes of limitation has been said to be effected by notification of defendants of an impending suit. Since the defendants will receive notification in either Michigan or foreign suits, the policy is served in either case. Therefore, the broad language of the statute, which is not limited to actions brought only in Michigan, should not be construed to set up illogical distinctions which were not clearly intended. The delay in instituting suit in this case was largely due to special circumstances unknown to the plaintiffs. Plaintiffs, proceeding in a legal manner to enforce their rights, first retained attorneys who, at that time, represented the defendant’s insurance carrier. During these months of "dual” representation, from the fall of 1969 until March 1, 1971, these attorneys failed to institute suit, and at that time, they selected another attorney for plaintiffs. We hold that the plaintiffs’ failure to act or their inability to act effectively is attributable to the conduct of defendant’s attorneys, who initially represented both interests and who now represent defendant on appeal. Therefore, the defendant should not be allowed to raise the bar of the statute of limitations. While, thankfully, the irregular practice of the defendant’s attorneys is unique, the practice of applying the doctrine of estoppel to prevent an inequitable resort to a plea of limitations is not. We hold that, since much of the delay in instituting suit was not the plaintiffs’ fault, but the fault of their attorneys who now represent the defendant, the defendant, under the circumstances, is estopped from pleading the statute of limitations. Affirmed. All concurred. Apparently, this claim is well founded, although the defendant’s attorneys have now denied this allegation. In response to questions from this Court at oral argument concerning the defense firm’s initial handling of plaintiffs’ case, the firm submitted affidavits which reveal the following: (1) On June 5, 1969, plaintiff claims he was injured while operating a punch press in Michigan which had been manufactured in Ohio. (2) Plaintiff contacted an attorney, who referred the case to the present defense firm in October, 1969. (3) From October, 1969, to at least March 1, 1971, this firm reviewed plaintiffs’ case and attempted to identify the potential defendant’s insurance carrier. Note that on March 1, 1971, only 3 months remained on the Ohio statute of limitations and 15 months remained on the Michigan statute of limitations. (4) On March 1, 1971, the present defense firm — after learning the identity of defendant’s insurance carrier and realizing that the firm represented that carrier — forwarded the file to plaintiffs’ present attorney. As stated in the defense firm’s supplementary letter, the case at this time was not actually referred to plaintiffs’ present attorney. Rather, plaintiffs’ present attorney retained the right to investigate the potential claim before reaching his decision whether to accept or reject the case. (5) At some time in February, 1972, plaintiffs’ present attorney interviewed and secured a contingent fee from plaintiffs. The exact date of this acceptance is unknown. Note: This final decision to accept the case from the present defense firm came over 8 months after the 2-year Ohio statute had run, and only 4 months before the running of the 3-year Michigan statute of limitations. Since, by their own affidavits, the defense firm has shown that they held the case until almost 90% of the 3-year Michigan statutory limitation had run, they are not in a good position to claim lack of notice or prejudice. 51 Am Jur 2d, Limitation of Actions, §§ 431-452, pp 900-914; 43 ALR 3d 429-495; 44 ALR3d 760-779; Albert v Patterson, 172 Mich 635; 138 NW 220 (1912); Cf. the dissenting opinion of Judge (now Justice) Levin in Conrad v Ward, 33 Mich App 687, 691-698; 190 NW2d 361 (1971).
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Van Valkenburg, J. On April 11, 1972, plaintiffs commenced a class action suit on behalf of themselves and other purchasers of mobile homes who financed the purchase of said mobile homes by means of a sales contract bearing interest provisions greater than 1% per annum simple interest, where said contract is presently being held by defendant financial institutions. Plaintiffs alleged that said mobile home sales contracts were subject to the 7% interest provisions of the general usury law, MCLA 438.31; MSA 19.15(1), and that defendant financial institutions were charging and collecting interest on these contracts in excess of the amount authorized by said statute. In their complaint plaintiffs prayed for the following relief: "A. That the defendants answer this Complaint and provide this Court with the names and addresses of all the mobile home purchasers who have had the purchases of their mobile homes financed through the defendants in order that notice of the pendency of this class action may be given to each of them under such terms and conditions as the court might direct. "B. That the defendants account to the plaintiffs, for all interest charges, finance charges and fees that have heretofore collected [sic] in violation of the usury laws of the State of Michigan, as alleged in this Complaint, and refund the same to said plaintiffs for themselves and on behalf of all other mobile home purchasers plus interest accrued on said illegal and usurious charges, to date of judgment. "C. That the court grant the plaintiffs an allowance for the expenses of this action, including reasonable attorney fees and court costs. "D. That an injunctive order issue out of this court permanently restraining and enjoining defendants, their agents, servants and employees from entering into any written agreement or receiving assignment of any written agreements proving [sic] for finance charges at an interest rate in excess of 7% on the purchase or financing of the purchase of a mobile home. "E. That the plaintiffs have such other and further relief in the premises as shall be agreeable to equity and good conscience.” On April 21, 1972, the Attorney General intervened as a plaintiff on behalf of the people of the State of Michigan. Defendant financing institutions answered and moved for summary judgment dismissing plaintiffs’ complaint, arguing that plaintiffs had failed to state a cause of action upon which relief could be granted in that plaintiffs had no right to recover interest already paid, that plaintiffs were not entitled to equitable relief in that they failed to do equity and that there was no authority for the injunctive relief requested. Defendant credit union also moved for summary judgment on the basis that MCLA 490.14; MSA 23.494 specifically authorized credit unions to charge up to 1% per month, that the loan in question was within that statutory limit, and, therefore, the interest limitation found in MCLA 438.31, supra, had no application. Plaintiffs consented to entry of summary judgment in favor of defendant credit union on that basis and judgment of dismissal as to that defendant was so entered. During the pendency of the action in the circuit court, and prior to that court’s decision on defendant banks’ motions for summary judgment, 1972 PA 191 was enacted into law and became effective June 21, 1972. 1972 PA 191 changed certain language in MCLA 445.852(c); MSA 19.416(102)(c) which clearly brought the retail sale of mobile homes within the provisions of the Retail Installment Sales Act, MCLA 445.851 et seq.; MSA 19.416(101) et seq. Since the finance charge provisions of the sales contracts at bar were within the statutory limits of the Retail Installment Sales Act, defendants argued that 1972 PA 191 was remedial in nature and therefore should be given retroactive effect. The trial court thereafter rendered an opinion in which he found that 1972 PA 191 should be given retroactive effect and therefore these sales contracts were controlled by the Retail Installment Sales Act and thus were not subject to the general usury statute, MCLA 438.31 supra. The court further held that usury can only be asserted as a defense and that the language of MCLA 438.31c(8); MSA 19.15(lc)(8) relating to injunctive relief applied only to transactions defined in MCLA 438.31c; MSA 19.15(lc). The circuit court thereafter entered summary judgment in favor of defendants. From that judgment of dismissal plaintiffs and intervening plaintiff appeal. I Assuming arguendo for the present that these sales are not governed by the provisions of the Retail Installment Sales Act and thus not thereby excluded from the general usury law,* nor otherwise excluded from the provisions of the general usury law, the question remains whether plaintiffs have stated any claim upon which relief can be granted. While MCLA 438.31, supra sets forth the lawful rate of interest and defines those areas to which the general usury statute applies, it is MCLA 438.32; MSA 19.15(2) that sets forth the penal provision incurred by a violation of the interest limit set forth in MCLA 438.31, supra. MCLA 438.32, supra, provides: "Any seller or lender or his assigns who enters into any contract or agreement which does not comply with the provisions of this act or charges interest in excess of that allowed by this act is barred from the recovery of any interest, any official fees, delinquency or collection charge, attorney fees or court costs and the borrower or buyer shall be entitled to recover his attorney fees and court costs from the seller, lender or assigns.” In order to understand the nature and effect of this section, it is necessary to look at it in its historical prospective. From 1891 until the present language viras adopted by 1966 PA 326, the enforcement provision of the general usury law was 1891 PA 156, § 2, which provided: "No bond, bill, note, contract or assurance, made or given for or upon a consideration or contract, whereby or whereon a greater rate of interest has been, directly or indirectly, reserved, taken or received, than is allowed by law, shall be thereby rendered void; but in any action brought by any person on such usurious contract or assurance, except as is provided in the following section, if it shall appear that a greater rate of interest has been, directly or indirectly, reserved,, taken or received, than is allowed by law, the defendant shall not be compelled to pay any interest thereon.” Under the 1891 statute it was held that one could not maintain an independent suit to recover interest paid on a usurious contract; however, once enforcement of the usurious contract was sought, the borrower could avail himself of the statute and seek to have all of the interest previously paid applied against any outstanding principal. It was also generally held that while there was no general equitable power to enjoin the lender’s attempt to enforce the note by foreclosure on a mortgage, equity would release the borrower from a usurious contract if the borrower did equity by tendering the unpaid balance plus interest at the lawful rate. Usury was treated as a statutory defense which could only be used as a shield but not as a sword. Since it was a defense, it could be waived by voluntary payment of usurious interest. The penal provision of forfeiture of interest was attached only upon an attempt by the seller, lender or assigns to seek enforcement of the note, bill, etc., by way of a suit upon said note, bill, etc., or by way of foreclosure upon any secured property. Once enforcement was sought and the penal provisions were invoked, all interest paid was treated as payment against any unpaid principal. Even if enforcement of the contract, bill, note, etc. was sought by the seller, lender or assigns, the borrower would not be able to recover the interest already paid if that amount exceeded the unpaid principal, the rationale being that the excess was voluntarily paid and thus the defense of usury was waived as to that amount. Thus there was never the right to recover interest that had been paid; and the right to have whatever interest which had been paid credited against the principal was dependent upon the lender seeking enforcement of the usurious note, bill, contract, etc. Likewise, since usury was a defense, the borrower could not seek injunctive relief. The borrower had to either wait until enforcement was sought by the lender or seek to have the usurious instrument set aside in equity. Obviously, in order to seek equitable avoidance of the usurious contract, the borrower was required to do equity by tendering the unpaid balance due plus interest at the legal rate. The rationale of such a requirement is, of course, that one who seeks to avoid the provisions of the written instrument must stand ready to discharge the implied obligation of repayment of the sum borrowed plus the lawful rate of interest. The borrower must first offer to place the lender back in his original position by tendering repayment of the principal and compensate the lender for the use of the funds by a tender of interest at the legal rate before the borrower can stir the conscience of a court of equity to release him from the written instrument. As noted above, 1966 PA 326 changed the language of the enforcement section of the general usury law. Plaintiffs herein argue that the language changes made by the 1966 revision evidence a legislative intent to now empower borrowers to bring an independent action to recover interest paid on usurious contracts. It will suffice to say that we find nothing in the 1966 language which compels that conclusion. Indeed, since it must be presumed that the Legislature was aware of the construction given the 1891 statute, we hold that the lack of any clear statement by the Legislature to the effect that recovery of interest could now be had in an independent suit by borrowers is indicative of the fact that the Legislature intended no change from the prior procedure. Certainly we cannot presume such a change from the mere fact that the 1966 revision used the term "borrower or buyer” in place of the 1891 term "defendant”. A reading of both statutes, rather, reveals that in both cases the focus is upon barring recovery to the lender and penalizing the lender who attempts to enforce a usurious contract. Plaintiffs also argue that the Legislature by its enactment of 1971 PA 228, which amended 1969 PA 305, which in turn amended 1966 PA 326, adding subsection 8 to section lc, MCLA 438.31c(8); MSA 19.15(lc)(8), evidenced an intent to allow borrowers to bring independent actions to recover interest paid, where said interest was in violation of the general usury statute. MCLA 438.31c(8), supra, provides: "Any party to a transaction subject to this act shall be entitled to have his rights under the provisions of this act enforced or protected by injunctive order of a court.” Contrary to the determination of the trial court, we find this provision applies to any rights which a party might have to any provision of 1966 PA 326, as amended, rather than applying only to the provisions of MCLA 438.31c supra. While MCLA 438.31c(8), supra, applies to violations of the equal provisions found in MCLA 438.31, supra, it cannot be said that the language of that subsection supports the plaintiffs’ conclusion that the Legislature was thereby evidencing an intent that borrowers may now bring an inde pendent action to recover interest paid under a usurious contract. By its very language, the relief spoken of is injunctive relief. Certainly it would be a perverse reading of the phrase “enforced or protected by injunctive order” to say that the Legislature thereby intended that borrowers should be able to recover in an independent action interest paid on a usurious contract. If the Legislature had intended to allow such a recovery on equitable grounds, it would seem that they would have used the term “equitable relief’ rather than the term "injunctive order”. It would appear that the Legislature in enacting subsection (8) intended to provide a means by which borrowers could restrain lenders from undertaking enforcement of a usurious contract or loan by foreclosure of a mortgage or land contract or seizure of goods pursuant to a security agreement. In this manner the borrower would no longer have to sit by helplessly waiting for actual foreclosure or seizure of the goods to have the question of whether the contract is usurious litigated. We do hold, however, that the remedy is limited to an injunctive order restraining enforcement of the usurious contract, loan, note, mortgage, etc. We therefore hold under 1966 PA 326, as amended, the same being MCLA 438.31 et seq.; MSA 19.15(1) et seq., that: (1) there is no right to repayment of usurious interest which has been paid by means of an independent action brought by the borrower, usury being in the nature of a defense, and as such the penal provisions are invoked by the lender or his assigns bringing an action to enforce the note or contract; (2) one seeking the equitable relief of avoidance of a usurious contract must first do equity by tendering the unpaid balance owing plus interest at the legal rate; and (3) the injunctive relief provided by the statute does not create any right other than the right to an injunctive order restraining the lender or his assigns from taking enforcement measures against the borrower. Given this construction of the contract, it is necessary to now look to the relief prayed for by plaintiffs. Paragraph A of their prayer for relief relates only to disclosure of the names and addresses of the potential member of the class covered by the class action and thus need not concern us here since such a demand is relevant only if they have otherwise stated a claim upon which relief can be granted. Paragraph B of their prayer for relief seeks an accounting and refund of all interest charges, finance charges and fees collected. Since plaintiffs cannot recover interest already paid by means of an independent action, they have not requested relief which can be granted. It also follows that, since plaintiffs cannot bring an independent action for usurious interest that has been paid and the penal provisions of the statute are only invoked by the lender or his assigns seeking enforcement of the usurious contract, plaintiffs are not entitled to expenses, costs and attorney fees as requested in paragraph C of their prayer for relief. As to paragraph D of their prayer for relief, it should be noted that plaintiffs are not requesting that defendants be enjoined from undertaking enforcement against plaintiffs as is authorized by MCLA 438.31c(8), supra, but rather they are seeking an injunctive order restraining defendants from entering into written agreements or receiving agreements involving the sale of mobile homes where the finance charges exceed 7% interest per annum. Clearly the statute does not authorize this type of injunctive order, since the statute speaks of the rights of a party to a transaction subject to the act enforcing or protecting his right by an injunctive order. Plaintiffs are not requesting that their rights be enforced or protected but are rather attempting to restrain defendants with respect to their dealings with an inchoate class of persons who may in the future deal with defendants. Further, it is questionable whether the trial court could enjoin defendants from entering into usurious contracts in the future, since those persons who might enter into such contracts could, if they so desired, waive the defense of usury by voluntary payment. We have found no authority, either statutory or otherwise, which would support the relief requested with respect to the general usury statute. As to paragraph E of their prayer for relief, it has already been noted that to invoke equitable relief plaintiffs must first offer to do equity by tendering the unpaid balance plus interest at the legal rate. This they have not done. Accordingly, they have sought relief which cannot be granted. It is clear that even assuming that these contracts are controlled by the provisions of MCLA 438.31 et seq., supra, plaintiffs have failed to state a claim upon which relief can be granted. It follows that the trial court properly dismissed plaintiffs’ complaint and granted summary judgment in favor of defendants. II In light of the holding above, it becomes unnecessary to decide whether the amendment to the Retail Installment Sales Act should be given retro active effect. Neither do we decide the question of whether a mobile home which is not self-propelled fell within the meaning of the motor vehicle exclusion contained in MCLA 445.852(c), supra, prior to its amendment by 1972 PA 191. While we find it unnecessary to decide the question of whether the amendatory language of 1972 PA 191 should be given retroactive application to the suit at bar which was commenced prior to the enactment of that act, we feel constrained to add that the right to now bring the action has been extinguished. The defense of usury under the general usury statute, MCLA 438.31 et seq., supra, would be available only if the transaction was not subject to the provisions of some other statute. Since the amendatory language of 1972 PA 191 clearly brings the retail sales of mobile homes within the scope of the Retail Installment Sales Act, even if the defense of usury under MCLA 438.31 et seq., supra, was available prior to the enactment of 1972 PA 191, once 1972 PA 191 became effective that right as to all future cases was extinguished. As to the question of whether plaintiffs have a vested right to assert the defense of usury provided by MCLA 438.31 et seq., supra, in a new action, we quote from Lahti v Fosterling, 357 Mich 578, 588-589; 99 NW2d 490, 495 (1959): "The question of determining what is a vested right has always been a source of much difficulty to all courts. The right which defendants claim sprang from the kindness and grace of the legislature. It is the general rule that that which the legislature gives, it may take away. A statutory defense, or a statutory right, though a valuable right, is not a vested right, and the holder thereof may be deprived of it.” Whatever rights plaintiffs may have had under MCLA 438.31 et seq., supra, had they prayed for relief which could be granted, were extinguished by the amendment to the Retail Installment Sales Act which clearly brought retail mobile home sales within the scope of that act. Their usury defense, if any, must now be gauged by the provisions of the Retail Installment Sales Act, not with the provisions of MCLA 438.31 et seq., supra. Affirmed. No costs, a public question. All concurred. It would appear that defendant financial institutions and the dealers who sold the mobile homes presumed that these sales of mobile homes were sales within the scope of the Retail Installment Sales Act. Accordingly, the finance charges were set in compliance with the provisions of that act. Plaintiffs do not allege that these contracts would be usurious under the provisions of the Retail Installment Sales Act. The problem arose when the Attorney General determined that mobile homes were trailers and therefore motor vehicles within the meaning of MCLA 445.852(c); MSA 19.416(102Xc). Being motor vehicles, the Attorney General determined that mobile home sales were not subject to the provision of the Retail Installment Sales Act, but were, rather, subject to the provisions of the general usury statute. See OAG, 1971, No 4729, p 57 (June 21,1971). MCLA 438.31; MSA 19.15(1) provides, in part: "This act shall not apply to the rate of interest on any note, bond or other evidence of indebtedness issued by any corporation, association or person, the issue and rate of interest of which * * * is regulated by any other law of this state * * * .” MCLA 438.31; MSA 19.15(1) further provides, in part: “ * * * nor shall [this act] apply to any time price differential which may be charged upon sales of goods or services on credit.” McKenna v Wilson, 280 Mich 227; 273 NW 457 (1937); Gladwin State Bank v Dow, 212 Mich 521; 180 NW 601 (1920). Vandervelde v Wilson, 176 Mich 185; 142 NW 553 (1913). Hogan v Hester Investment Co, 251 Mich 627; 241 NW 881 (1932); People, ex rel Attorney General v Detroit Mortgage Corp, 239 Mich 495; 214 NW 430 (1927); Gladwin State Bank v Dow, supra; Vandervelde v Wilson, supra. Gladwin State Bank v Dow, supra. Wright v First National Bank of Monroe, 297 Mich 315; 297 NW 505 (1941); Union Guardian Trust Co v Crawford, 270 Mich 207; 258 NW 248 (1935); Hogan v Hester Investment Co, supra. McKenna v Wilson, supra; Gladwin State Bank v Dow, supra; Leach v Dolese, 186 Mich 695; 153 NW 47 (1915); Vandervelde v Wilson, supra. Since MCLA 445.852(c), supra, prior to its amendment by 1972 PA 191, defined a motor vehicle for the purpose of the Retail Installment Sales Act as "any self-propelled device * * * drawn upon a public highway, including * * * all trailers”, it could be well argued that in order to be a motor vehicle within the meaning of the statute the trailer must be self-propelled. In other words, only self-propelled trailers would be motor vehicles which would be thereby excluded from the definition of "goods” as used by that act.
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Carland, J. On December 22, 1971, one Janice Ott was allegedly killed in the City of Detroit during the course of an armed robbery. On December 28 of that year, Glenn Peters, the defendant herein, was placed under arrest as a suspect in the murder here involved. The defendant was born February 14, 1955, and was therefore on the dates mentioned 16 years of age. Following the arrest, the defendant was taken to the Youth Home and questioned by the police. The next day, December 29, 1971, a conference was held between the police and Wayne County Probate Judge James H. Lincoln, from whom the police requested permission to remove the defendant from the Youth Home and take him to police headquarters for the purpose of taking blood and hair samples and administering a polygraph test. Judge Lincoln advised the police to obtain the consent of a Mr. and Mrs. O’Neal, cousins of the defendant and with whom he was making his home. (The mother of defendant was deceased and the whereabouts of his father unknown.) The consent of the O’Neals was obtained. No guardian ad litem was appointed nor was the defendant represented by an attorney. Following this conference with Judge Lincoln, the defendant was taken before a juvenile referee where he was advised of his rights to an attorney at public expense if he was financially unable to furnish one for himself. The defendant was further advised that any statements made by him and the results of any tests administered could be used against him. Although the defendant acknowledged that he understood his rights, it does not appear that he ever specifically waived his right to have an attorney present. At the conclusion of the hearing before the referee, defendant was then taken by the police to headquarters where samples of his hair and blood were taken. Before the polygraph test was administered, his Miranda rights were read to him and at the request of the police, he wrote on the rights form his reason for taking the test. The defendant wrote "To prove that I didn’t do it”. The defendant was then told to read the rights form and sign the same, which he did. No objection was made by Mrs. O’Neal who was present. After the polygraph was completed, the defendant was advised that he had failed the test and the defendant thereupon said "I did. I stabbed her”. It should be remembered that apparently there was no stenographic record made of what occurred at the conference with Judge Lincoln, nor of the proceedings before the referee. No formal order was entered authorizing the police to take custody of the defendant, remove him from the Youth Home or to question him or administer tests. No attorney was appointed for the defendant until the time of the formal waiver hearing. On February 15, 1972 such formal waiver hearing was held and Judge Lincoln issued and signed an order waiving the jurisdiction of the juvenile division over the defendant to the Recorder’s Court of the City of Detroit under the provisions of MCLA 712A.4; MSA 27.3178(598.4) which provided: "In any case where a child over the age of 15 years is accused of any act the nature of which constitutes a felony, the judge of probate of the county wherein the offense is alleged to have been committed may, after investigation and examination, including notice to the prosecuting attorney, and parents or guardians if addresses are known, and upon the court’s own motion or motion of the prosecuting attorney, waive jurisdiction; whereupon it shall be lawful to try such child in the court having general criminal jurisdiction of such offense.” On March 6, 1972, a warrant was issued charging defendant with first-degree murder. Following preliminary examination on March 15, 1972, the defendant was bound over for trial, and upon arraignment stood mute and a plea of not guilty was entered for him. On September 19, 1972, a motion to quash the information on the grounds that the above cited waiver statute was unconstitutional was heard and denied. On October 26, 1972, the defendant pled guilty to second-degree murder, MCLA 750.317; MSA 28.549. The defendant was sentenced to life imprisonment on November 22, 1972 and appeals as a matter of right. The people have filed a motion to affirm. The real question before this Court is whether the statute, MCLA 712A.4; MSA 27.3178(598.4), is unconstitutional when applied to the facts existing in this case. In People v Fields, 388 Mich 66; 199 NW2d 217 (1972), the Supreme Court determined that the absence of standards to guide a probate judge in deciding waiver requests fatally flawed the statute and thus declared it to be unconstitutional. On rehearing in Fields, 391 Mich 206; 216 NW2d 51 (1974), the Court adhered to its original holding as to the unconstitutionality of the statute and went on to specify the circumstances under which its decision was to have retroactive effect. On page 221, the Court said: "We hold that the retroactive effect of this decision is limited to those cases pending prior to October 3, 1972 (the date 1972 PA 265 was signed into law and given immediate effect) in which the issue of waiver was raised before the trial court and properly preserved on appeal.” Since the instant case was pending prior to October 3, 1972, and since the issue was properly raised before the trial court and preserved on appeal, we hold that the recorder’s court never constitutionally acquired jurisdiction over the person of the defendant. We further conclude that the other issues advanced by the defendant were not raised in the court below (only "poisonous tree” doctrine was argued) and therefore not subject to review on appeal. The motion to affirm is denied. We reverse and discharge the defendant without prejudice to the taking of proper and timely procedures whereby the defendant may be tried as an adult. All concurred. Miranda v Arizona, 384 US 436; 86 S Ct 1602; 16 L Ed 2d 694; 10 ALR3d 974 (1966).
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Allen, J. Defendants Detroit Edison Company (Edison) and the Pontiac Mall Shopping Center (Mall) appeal from a jury verdict of $325,000 granted in favor of plaintiff for the wrongful death of her husband, Gerald, who was electrocuted on August 11, 1965, while painting some metal trim near some high-tension electric lines. The Mall has also appealed from the trial court’s order granting summary judgment in favor of the third-party defendants, against whom the Mall had sought contribution and/or indemnity. The trial court denied both defendants’ motions for judgment notwithstanding the verdict and for a new trial, and also denied the Mali’s motion for a new trial on its cause of action against the third-party defendants. Plaintiff’s decedent, Gerald Wilhelm, was a painter employed by the I. H. Hill Painting Company, had been so employed for approximately 12 years before his death, and was the foreman of the crew engaged in the painting project at the Pontiac Mall. He had two sons, Gerald, Jr., who was seven years old at the time of his father’s death, and Michael, then aged five and an orthopedically handicapped child requiring repeated hospital visits, placement in a school for the orthopedically handicapped, and constant attention from his mother. Mildred Wilhelm, plaintiff herein, married Gerald September 5, 1956, and was 34 years old when her husband died. It was plaintiff’s theory that the Mall had failed to use a high degree of care regarding the installation of the electrical service near the point at which her husband met his death. Plaintiff claimed that the Mall had a duty to provide Wilhelm with a safe place to work, knew that the metal trim around the edge of the building known as "flashing” or "coping” needed painting, and failed to properly insulate wires, failed to provide a proper wire screen around the wires, and failed to adequately warn of the danger. Plaintiff claimed that Detroit Edison was involved in the planning, inspection and the approval of the electrical installation, and that it had failed to use a high degree of care in the course of engaging in these duties. The Pontiac Mall was the first enclosed shopping center built in Michigan. Charles N. Agree, Inc., an architectural firm, was hired by Pontiac Mall to design the complex, and David Zabner, a mechanical engineer also trained in electrical engineering, was hired as a consultant on the project by the Agree firm. Detroit Edison provided Zabner with what was known as an "XPC drawing”, a conceptual design prepared by Detroit Edison for the project planners. These plans showed how the electrical service was to be provided to the Mall. Edison was to provide the service to the Mall, and the Mall would then own the electricity and sell it, pursuant to approval from the Michigan Public Service Commission, to its tenants. The XPC drawings showed that a protective fence was to be built on top of a wall above the point at which the electrical lines met the buildings, and a sign was to be attached to the fence, indicating the presence of danger, namely, 4800 volts. This sign was to be placed on a fence so that a person standing on the roof could read it. The plans also called for this fence to be constructed 4 inches away from the brick facing of the building. In 1961, the Mall contracted with the Walter Couse Company to build the protective fence above the electrical installation. Couse in turn contracted with the Ornamental Iron Company which built the fence only 1/2 inch away from the wall. The Mall paid for the fence. In 1964, when it was deemed necessary to provide additional electrical service to the Mall, the Mall contracted with Harlan Electric Company to build a protective fence above the second electrical installation. Although the plans called for a similar 4-inch distance between the fence and the wall, the blueprints contained the notation "fence to match existing” fence. Harlan then built the fence 1/2 inch away from the wall, and it was near this point that plaintiffs decedent met his death. The parties involved in building the fences were joined by the Mall as third-party defendants, and successfully obtained summary judgment in their favor previous to trial. GCR 1963, 117.2(3). The metal "flashing” or "coping” supposedly required painting every two to five years, depending on the weather. The Hill Painting Company made a contract with the Mall to do that painting, and Mr. Mudloff, in charge of maintenance for the Mall, took Mr. Hill on a tour around the Mall to show him which areas to paint and not to paint. Witnesses testifying for Detroit Edison could not recall if a representative of the Mall ever requested the power to be shut off while this painting was being done near the electrical lines, although testimony was presented that this was the safest way in which to paint near the lines. Melvin H. Sachs, an architect, testified that the electrical installation, with the fence built only 1/2 inch from the wall, presented an unsafe condition and that a man could not paint it while standing on the roof, but instead had to use a ladder to reach that area. If there was a 4-inch space between the wall and the fence, the painter could have stood on the roof and reached down to paint the metal trim. As an alternative, the electric lines could have been installed underground rather than overhead, but Charles Agree testified that the owners of the Mall, with cost as their prime consideration, decided that the lines should be overhead. However, Zabner testified that the XPC drawing prepared by Edison showed that the lines were to be overhead, and he said that he did no "layout work” regarding this project before he went to Detroit Edison and received those plans. As indicated above, the Edison Company supplied the electrical power to the Mall. It provided the Mall’s architect and planners with the "XPC drawings”, and the specifications for the project indicated that the entire electrical system was to meet Detroit Edison approval. Although the drawings provided that the fence was to be built on top of the parapet wall, a wall that extends above the roof, no such wall was built. Employees of Edison, although unable to recall any discussions regarding the need for painting the metal trim, had the authority to resist turning on the power if the owner had not constructed the electrical installation, including the fence, pursuant to Edison plans. The wires met the building at the west wall above the SS Kresge store, 23 feet and 5 inches above ground, well in excess of the 20 feet electrical code requirement. However, no warning sign was placed on the wall, nor was the fence built in such a way that a person involved in maintenance work near the lines, such as a painter, would be aware of the danger of the uninsulated lines or would be protected from the same. However, the director of Edison’s engineering division testified that the electrical installation met good industry construction practice, and that it met the Michigan Public Service Commission requirements contained in 1966 AACS, R 460.540 and R 460.541. He testified that the safest way to remove any danger was by de-energizing (shutting off the power) and that Detroit Edison would have done so upon request from the Mall. Both defendants asserted that Gerald Wilhelm was contributorily negligent. Testimony was presented that it was unsafe to use a ladder near the electrical installation. However, Mr. Hill, Wilhelm’s employer, testified that he did not regard the wires as dangerous because they were so thick he assumed that they were insulated. Although it was easier to paint from the roof, Wilhelm had to use a ladder at this point because of the fence. Other painters testified that they generally avoid touching wires, and testimony was received that either Wilhelm or the other foreman on the job had cautioned the painters about the "wire cage” on the roof. However, at the time of the accident, August 1965, no wire cage was present on the roof, and one was not constructed until sometime in 1966. Another painter on the crew testified that no one from the Mall ever told the painters to avoid the area near the electrical installation, that the painters were not advised that the wires were high tension wires, although on previous painting projects the power was usually shut off if painting near wires was necessary. The record was substantial, and other facts relevant to the many problems in this case will be presented in conjunction with discussion of the issues. The issues can be broken down into six general areas, of which all but the last relate to the integrity of the jury verdict against defendants Edison and the Mall. The sixth issue concerns the Pontiac Mall’s potential right of contribution from the third-party defendants. I. Did either Edison or the Mall owe a duty to plaintiff’s decedent? If so, does the record contain sufficient evidence of a breach of duty to sustain the trial court’s denial of motions for a directed verdict in favor of defendants? Relying upon Koehler v Detroit Edison Co, 383 Mich 224; 174 NW2d 827 (1970), Edison argues that it owed no duty to plaintiff, and that the trial court erred in failing to grant Edison’s motion for directed verdict. According to Mackey v Island of Bob-Lo Co, 39 Mich App 64, 65; 197 NW2d 151, 152 (1972): "The test for reviewing a refusal of a directed verdict * * * is whether, viewing the facts most favorably to the opposing party, reasonable men could differ. If they can, the question is for the jury.” Viewing the evidence in a light favorable to plaintiff, the court must determine whether there was any evidence which was competent and sufficient to support the jury’s finding. If so, we should not reverse that finding. Kupkowski v Avis Ford, Inc, 51 Mich App 668, 670; 215 NW2d 767 (1974). The situation at hand is governed by the following rule: "The test to be applied is, was there a likelihood or reasonable probability of human contact with the wires by persons who had a right to be in a place from which such contact was possible? If so, the danger should have been foreseen or anticipated by the defendant. [Omitted citations.] It is not necessary that the manner in which a person might suffer injury should be foreseen or anticipated in specific detail. * * * The care to be observed by it [defendant] must be in proportion to the danger involved and extends to every place where persons have a right to be, whether for business, conve nience or pleasure.” Clumfoot v St Clair Tunnel Co, 221 Mich 113, 117; 190 NW 759 (1922). Clumfoot affirmed a judgment for a plaintiff who, while in the course of unloading a railroad car, lost his balance, threw up his hands and came in contact with some electric wires which ran to a box located on a wall near the door of the railroad car. 221 Mich 113, 115. Clumfoot said that the case presented a question for the jury to determine whether an ordinary prudent person, installing or maintaining high voltage wires near a place where men were engaged in work such as that performed by plaintiff should have "foreseen or anticipated that contact with such wires would probably result”. 221 Mich 113, 117. Huber v Twin City General Electric Co, 168 Mich 531, 535; 134 NW 980 (1912), noted that "the handling of electrical currents of high voltage is a business extremely hazardous” and said that persons in the electrical business "are charged with the duty of exercising a very high degree of care for the protection of life”. Koehler, supra, without referring to the cases discussed above, affirmed a directed verdict rendered in favor of Edison. In that case, plaintiff, an ironworker, came in contact with some power lines while he was riding on a cable which, was in turn connected to a crane. The wires were 30 to 35 feet above ground level, and plaintiff struck the wires as the crane swung the cable over near the power lines. 383 Mich 224, 227-228. Koehler found in favor of Edison, noting that "there is no testimony in this case from which a jury could find that the operation carried on with the crane was dangerous because of Detroit Edison’s distribution line”. The court noted that the evidence showed that there was "sufficient room in which to work”, and that the ironworkers on the job "fully understood the danger from electric wires and the importance of staying away from them”. The court noted that there was no reason to expect any difficulties from the line and no reason to alert Edison that a crane was being used, and that plaintiff, the other workers and other defendants were aware of the presence of a line and could have requested Edison to insulate the line if they thought it was necessary to do so. Also, Edison was not advised of the operation nor was it requested to take any precautions. The court said that the fact that Edison knew that a building was under construction near its power line and that occasionally mobile cranes were used at this construction work, "would not, standing alone, create a duty upon Detroit Edison to remove the charge, insulate the line, or notify the parties of a dangerous condition”. 383 Mich 224, 231. In the instant case, a view of the evidence favorable to plaintiff shows that there was insufficient space in which to paint the metal trim near the power lines. The uninsulated lines, carrying 4800 volts, met the wall just below the metal trim, and the fence was located so near the wall that a person, such as plaintiff’s decedent, attempting to paint the metal trim had to use a ladder and stand near the lines rather than stand on the roof and reach over to paint the trim. Wilhelm’s boss, Mr. Hill, an experienced painter, did not regard the wires as dangerous, stating they were so thick that he assumed they were insulated. Also, unlike the situation in Koehler, evidence was present to indicate that Edison was involved in the planning, inspection and approval of the electrical installation, and that Edison could resist turning on the power if its plans were not met. Although the Edison employees involved in both the 1961 and the 1964 electrical installations could not recall whether they were apprised of the presence of the metal trim or its need for painting every two to five years, we find that the evidence was sufficient to present a question to the jury as to whether Edison should have foreseen or anticipated the "reasonable probability” that a maintenance worker, or painter, such as plaintiffs decedent, would come in contact with the wires. Clumfoot, supra. Edison did not, of course, have the duty to foresee or anticipate "every possible fortuitous circumstance that might cause injurious contacts with those power lines”. Dees v LF Largess Co, 1 Mich App 421, 427; 136 NW2d 715 (1965). Dees said that the wires involved were insulated by 35 feet of air space "from any foreseeable contact” and that Edison lacked the duty to add insulation "in anticipation of construction in the area”. 1 Mich App 421, 427. While the lines at issue were located 23 feet, 5 inches above, the ground, and thus were insulated by air space as far as one staying on the ground was concerned, MCLA 460.552, 460.554; MSA 22.152, 22.154 and 1954 AC, R 460.521(38) (cited in Dees, supra), the lines were not insulated or protected from any foreseeable contact at the point where they met the building. Edison must have anticipated the presence of persons near the lines because they chose to plan for and require the protective fence. No warning sign was placed so that a person standing on a ladder and looking towards the wall would be able to be advised of the danger, and the wires were uninsulated. Unlike contact by a crane in a construction project as in Dees, or an airplane collision with the power lines where the plane chose not to use the regular approach pattern as in Gunn v Edison Sault Electric Co, 24 Mich App 43, 46; 179 NW2d 680 (1970), the instant case does not involve a "fortuitous circumstance”, but was rather reasonably foreseeable. Unlike Carr v Detroit Edison Co, 49 Mich App 332, 340; 212 NW2d 70 (1973), the evidence failed to disclose that Wilhelm was "admittedly aware” of the danger present in the uninsulated wires, or even that the wires were not insulated. Hobbs v Detroit Edison Co, 42 Mich App 477, 480; 202 NW2d 431 (1972), lv den, 389 Mich 757 (1972), although involving buried electric cables, said that Edison had a duty: "to warn persons legally on the premises doing any of the kind of digging that could reasonably be expected to be performed on that type of a development.” In the instant case, Edison had a duty at least to warn persons legally on the premises, doing any kind of work that could reasonably be expected to be performed near the lines, of the danger involved. Although the lines in the instant case were "overhead and readily observable”, as in Koehler, supra, and as noted in Hobbs, 42 Mich App 477, 481, Mr. Hill, plaintiffs decedent’s employer, testified that the wires were so thick that he thought they were insulated and that there was no danger. We note the rule that "summary dispositions of negligence cases are to be employed only in the clearest cases”. Schulte v Detroit Edison Co, 50 Mich App 326, 330; 213 NW2d 311 (1973), lv den, 391 Mich 774 (1974), citing Davis v Thornton, 384 Mich 138; 180 NW2d 11 (1970), and find that this was not one of those "clearest cases”. The trial court did not err in denying Edison’s motion for a directed verdict. Likewise, the trial court did not err in denying Edison’s motion for directed verdict on the grounds that the evidence was insufficient to show that it was a "volunteer”, and that it had not sanctioned an unsafe condition. Citing 2 Restatement Torts, 2d, § 324A, p 142, Edison argues that the rule that one who assumes to do something must act reasonably in doing so does not apply unless plaintiff was able to show reliance upon Edison’s inspection. Ray v Transamerica Ins Co, 46 Mich App 647, 656-657; 208 NW2d 610 (1973), held that the above Restatement citation governed a "volunteer-inspector” situation. That rule is: "One who undertakes, gratuitously or for consideration to render services to another which he should recognize as necessary for the protection of a third person or his things, is subject to liability to the third person for physical harm resulting from his failure to exercise reasonable care to protect his undertaking, if "(a) his failure to exercise reasonable care increases the risk of harm, or "(b) he has undertaken to perform a duty owed by the other to the third person, or "(c) the harm is suffered because of reliance of the other or the third person upon the undertaking.” 46 Mich App 647, 657. Ray noted that the above rule provided for "three alternative theories of recovery”. One does not have to prove a combination of theories or all of them; "proof of either theory is a valid basis for recovery”. 46 Mich App 647, 657. Although Ray said that reliance was a factor to be considered when subsection (b) is at issue, 46 Mich App 647, 657- 658, the instant case seems to fall more within subsection (a), and we find that the evidence was sufficient to present a question for the jury as to whether Edison exercised reasonable care, and if not, whether that increased the risk of harm to plaintiffs decedent. In any event, if reliance is to be a factor to be considered regardless of which subsection is involved, as perhaps indicated in Watson v Employers Ins Co of Wausau, 50 Mich App 597, 602; 213 NW2d 765 (1973), a view of the evidence favorable to plaintiff shows that perhaps Wilhelm relied upon the absence of a warning sign and the thickness of the wires as indications that he could safely paint around the wires. Although there was evidence to the contrary, namely, other painters stating that they would not paint near power lines, we find that the evidence was sufficient to present a question for the jury. Among the cases cited by Edison for its assertion that reliance must be proven is Northwest Airlines, Inc v Glenn L Martin Co, 224 F2d 120 (CA 6, 1955). However, unlike Edison, the court noted there that Northwest did not participate in the design of the portion of the airplane wing that failed, nor did Northwest decide upon any of the specifications involved therein. 224 F2d 120, 127. Edison, on the other hand, furnished "XPC drawings”, and was involved in the planning and design of the electrical installation. Edison’s argument that the jury should not have been instructed that they could find Edison negligent if it had sanctioned an unsafe condition is without merit in view of the above. Also, we note that Edison’s counsel failed to object to this jury instruction, and thus Edison’s objection to the instruction has not been preserved for appellate review. Hunt v Deming, 375 Mich 581, 584-585; 134 NW2d 662 (1965), and GCR 1963, 516.2. The Mall argues on appeal, as it did below in the course of its motion for directed verdict and for judgment notwithstanding the verdict, that it owed no duty to plaintiffs decedent, that it was not bound to insulate or de-energize the lines, or provide a warning to Mr. Wilhelm, and that it further had no duty to protect Wilhelm against a risk which was intimately connected "with the defects of the premises which the contractor had undertaken to repair”. The Mall cites 31 ALR2d 1375, §2, p 1381, for the latter assertion. Cited therein is the case of McDade v West, 80 Ga App 481; 56 SE2d 299 (1949), which the Mall also cites. However, the above source noted that McDade, supra, was one of the "few” cases in which it has been held that the exception to the "safe place” doctrine was applicable to a situation involving painting. It stated: "In most of the cases the general rules of the law in negligence prevailing in a particular jurisdiction have been applied in determining whether the contractee is or is not liable for injury or death of a painting contractor or one of the latter’s employees.” 31 ALR2d 1375 § 5,p 1388-1389. Also, this exception to the "safe place” rule would not apply because Wilhelm was not engaged in repairing the electrical installation or the electric wires, but was instead painting near those wires. He was not attempting to "repair” any alleged defect in the electrical system. Keeping in mind our task to view the evidence in a light most favorable to plaintiffs, Mackey v Island of Bob-Lo Co, 39 Mich App 64, 65; 197 NW2d 151, 152 (1972), we will now examine the balance of the Mall’s argument. The Mall, owner not only of the building but also of the electricity which it had purchased from Detroit Edison for resale to its tenants, entered into a contract with the I.H. Hill Company, Mr. Wilhelm’s employer. Thompson v Essex Wire Co, 27 Mich App 516, 524; 183 NW2d 818 (1970), said: "In 18 Callaghan’s Michigan Civil Jurisprudence, Negligence, § 10, pp 215-217, it is stated in part as follows: " 'The owner of premises is under a duty to use such care as an ordinarily careful and prudent person uses under the same or similar circumstances to avoid injury to invitees. * * * While one in lawful control of premises is not an insurer of safety of an invitee, if the proprietor knows or reasonably should know of a dangerous condition on his premises, he may become liable for an injury resulting therefrom, and he may not delegate his responsibility to another, and thus escape liability.’ " '[W]hoever expressly or impliedly invites others upon his premises assumes the duty of warning all who may accept the invitation of any danger in coming, of which he knows or ought to know, but of which they are not aware.’ ” Kirner v General Motors Corp, 41 Mich App 211, 213; 199 NW2d 827 (1972), said that an owner had a duty to warn an invitee, contractor or subcontractor performing services on the premises of hidden defects or dangerous conditions located therein. Citing Dees v L F Largess Co, 1 Mich App 421, 136 NW2d 715 (1965), Kirner, supra, noted an exception to this rule, situations in which "the condition or defect is obvious to the contractor or invitee * * * ”, 41 Mich App 211, 213. We stated earlier that Mr. Hill, Wilhelm’s employer, did not think that the danger was obvious, stating that he felt the wires looked to be insulated. On the Saturday previous to beginning the painting job, Wilhelm was shown the job site by Mr. Hill, and the evidence does not show that Wilhelm knew any more than his employer had learned, or had failed to learn, of the nature of the danger. The Mall also refers to Koehler, supra, and Dees, supra, to support its conclusion that it lacked the obligation to de-energize or insulate the lines or warn plaintiffs decedent of the dangerous condition. Perhaps even more so than Edison, the Mall’s reliance upon these cases is misplaced. Rather than requiring the Mall to protect plaintiff’s decedent from a "fortuitous contact” with the electric line, our affirmance of the trial court’s decision merely holds the Mall to the duty to exercise reasonable care in light of the circumstances. The Mall had a contract with Wilhelm’s employer in which it was specifically stated that the metal trim was to be painted. The Mall obviously knew that some of this trim was located quite near the power lines. Unlike the owner of the electricity in Carr v Detroit Edison Co, supra, the Mall obviously knew of the painting activity being carried on "in close proximity to the lines”, and we have seen that the evidence fails to disclose that Wilhelm was "admittedly well aware” of the hazard involved. 49 Mich App 332, 340. Gunn v Edison Sault Electric Co, supra, has previously been distinguished, and the Court is unpersuaded that it, as well as the Dees and Koehler cases, require reversal. Although Katz v Arundel-Brooks Concrete Corp, 220 Md 200; 151 A2d 731 (1959), used the "obviousness” of the danger of uninsulated high tension lines as an example of when a warning from an owner is unnecessary, Mr. Hill, with whom Wilhelm had examined the job site, testified that the danger was not obvious. Mr. Murray, a fellow painter, said that he painted quite often around electric wires, and that they were generally marked as dangerous or he is generally told to avoid going near them. However, no such warning or verbal advise was provided in this case. Although Murray later stated that he would not have touched the wires deliberately despite the absence of a warning, we find that the evidence was such as to allow the jury "to find that defendant breached its duty to exercise reasonable care to protect plaintiff-invitee from injury”. Kucken v Hygrade Food Products Corp, 51 Mich App 471, 474; 215 NW2d 772 (1974). Thus, denial of the Mali’s motion for directed verdict and judgment notwithstanding the verdict was proper. II. Was plaintiff’s decedent contributorily negligent as a matter of law? Both defendants argue that the danger of working near the electric wires was so obvious that plaintiff’s decedent was contributorily negligent, and that the trial court should have granted their motions for directed verdict on this basis. We must once again view the evidence in a light most favorable to plaintiff when reviewing the trial court’s denial of defendant’s motion for directed verdict. Misiulis v Milbrand Maintenance Corp, 52 Mich App 494, 508; 218 NW2d 68, 75 (1974). This is a wrongful death case. MCLA 600.2922; MSA 27A.2922. Plaintiff’s decedent died by electrocution, and there were no eyewitnesses to his death. Thus, "he was presumed to have been in the exercise of due care for his safety”. Jordan v Whiting Corp (On Rehearing), 49 Mich App 481, 485; 212 NW2d 324 (1973), lv granted, 391 Mich 771 (1974). While defendants are correct when they assert that this presumption may be rebutted by circumstantial evidence, defendants may prevail only when such evidence will " ' * * * lead to [the] inevitable conclusion by all reasonable minds that the decedent was contributorily negligent’ [Citation omitted.] Miller v Hall, 45 Mich App 28, 32; 205 NW2d 825 (1973). In re Blackwell Estate, 50 Mich App 204, 226; 213 NW2d 201 (1973), reversed on other grounds, 391 Mich 798 (1974), in the course of stating that the trial court did not err in submitting the question of contributory negligence to the jury, said: "The presumption of due care can be overcome where physical facts in evidence * * * might demonstrate that the plaintiffs decedent failed to exercise reasonable care.” Mackey v Island of Bob-Lo Co, 39 Mich App 64, 66; 197 NW2d 151 (1972) said that the fact that plaintiff "was aware of the danger does not make her actions contributorily negligent as a matter of law”. Ray v Transamerica Ins Co, 46 Mich App 647, 655; 208 NW2d 610 (1973), repeated the rule that "awareness of the danger is not by itself sufficient for a finding of contributory negligence as a matter of law” citing Pigg v Bloom, 22 Mich App 325; 177 NW2d 441 (1970), and said that unless "all reasonable men” would have to agree that plaintiff was contributorily negligent, the question should be left for the jury’s determination. Clumfoot v St Clair Tunnel Co, 221 Mich 113, 118; 190 NW 759 (1922), involved the assertion that plaintiff, who came in contact with some high voltage wires, was contributorily negligent. Referring to Teachout v Grand Rapids, G H & M R Co, 179 Mich 388; 146 NW 241 (1914), Clumfoot said: "To give rise to this defense, however, it must be shown that plaintiff, in coming in contact with the appliances [or wire], voluntarily and unnecessarily ex posed himself to danger, and if reasonable men might honestly differ on the question, the court will not hold plaintiff guilty of contributory negligence as a matter of law.” Although some of the painters on Wilhelm’s crew testified that they would not have touched the electric wires, Mr. Hill, with whom Wilhelm had examined the job site, said that he thought that the electric wires were insulated due to their thickness. Mr. Murray, the other foreman on the job, testified that he did not really consider the wires to be dangerous because of the absence of a cage or a warning sign. Although he also said that he would generally avoid touching such wires deliberately, a view of the evidence favorable to plaintiff leads us to conclude that all reasonable men could not "inevitably conclude” that plaintiff’s decedent was contributorily negligent. The trial court properly allowed this issue to go to the jury, and therefore committed no error in failing to grant defendants’ motions for directed verdict. Even in Koehler, in which the court said that all of the ironworkers had fully understood the danger of the electric wires, and in which the wires were quite obvious to all parties, the conduct of plaintiff’s decedent was a question of fact for the jury to determine. 383 Mich 224, 233-234. III. Did the trial court erroneously exclude testimony of a warning of the danger of the wires and safety regulations prohibiting the use of metal ladders near electric lines? Defendants argue that the trial court erred in excluding the testimony of James Lantto, who was an apprentice painter and a member of the crew of which ’Wilhelm was the foreman on the day he met his death. Defendants argue that Lantto should have been allowed to testify that he had been told by one of the foremen not to paint near the electric lines. A close reading of the record belies the contention that the jury failed to hear this evidence. Mr. Murray, who was also employed as a foreman for the I.H. Hill Company at the time of the accident, testified that he did not work on the job at the Mall, but stated that he had taken all of the equipment to the job site. In response to defense counsel’s question, he stated that he had never talked to Mr. Lantto during the course of the Mall project, and had never told Lantto to stay away from the electric wires. Lantto, on the other hand, said that either Mr. Murray or Wilhelm had told him of the presence of the wires. Plaintiffs counsel objected on the grounds that this was hearsay, and that Lantto was unable to identify which person had warned him of the electric lines. Lantto then said that one of the foremen had told him, and that he was not sure which one. After Lantto stated that he could not remember which person had advised him of the power lines, the jury was excused and a separate record was made as to the admissibility of Lantto’s testimony. The trial judge then ruled that this testimony should be excluded. However, when the jury was returned to the courtroom, the trial judge failed to instruct the jury to disregard Lantto’s previous testimony, and the record fails to reflect an order striking that testimony. Lantto continued to testify, stating that he "believed” that Wilhelm was the foreman on the day in question, that shortly before the accident Wilhelm told Lantto to go up onto the roof to assist another painter, and Wilhelm continued painting the trim from that point until he was electrocuted. Lantto was then asked if he had received instruction not to paint around the electric wires. Plaintiffs counsel then asked "Aren’t we right back to the area where we were; deliberately?” The trial judge said "He can answer that question”. Lantto then affirmatively replied to defense counsel’s question as to whether Lantto had received any instructions about not painting around the wires. He then said that Murray and Wilhelm were the two foremen, and that he could not recall whether they were on the job together. Defense counsel continued to question Lantto, asking "You received explicit instructions about not going near the wires?” Lantto replied "I was told not to go near the wire cage on the roof’. He then identified exhibit 11 as the "wire cage” which he was talking about, said exhibit being a photograph of the two wire fences and the respective electrical installations near which Wilhelm was electrocuted. On cross-examination, plaintiffs counsel asked whether the wire cage, enclosing a group of electric wires behind the Kroger store, exhibit 19, was the cage of which Lantto was speaking. He said that he was unable to recall the door, but "sort of recalled” that cage. Lantto vacillated as to whether he and/or the wires and/or the cage were on the roof, was unable to affirmatively state whether Murray or Wilhelm had spoken to him, and said, "he says, whoever told me, he said that I was to stay away from them”. The foregoing summary of the transcript reveals that the jury was in fact informed that either Murray or Wilhelm had told Lantto not to paint near the wires and defendants’ argument to the contrary is without merit. In any event, Lantto exhibited some confusion as to the precise location and description of the wires of which he was advised, and perhaps the only prejudice encountered by defendants in this episode was the admission, rather than the alleged exclusion, of his testimony. The Mall argues that the trial court erred in excluding evidence of safety regulations prohibiting the use of metal ladders near electrical lines. Among other things, the Mall argues that it was deprived of the use of this evidence in its argument to the jury. At the outset, we note that defense counsel, although unable to rely upon the regulation, argued in his closing argument that Mr. Wilhelm was contributorily negligent in his use of an aluminum ladder near the electrical lines, and that common sense dictated that one should not put metal around electricity. During the course of trial, 1964-1965 AACS, R 408.2204 was read to the jury. That rule states in part: "All metal ladders are electrical conductors. Metal ladders shall not be used around electrical lines or conductors.” Subsequent to its admission, plaintiffs counsel voiced an objection on the grounds that it was irrelevant to the case, the trial court so found, and instructed the jury that this rule was inapplicable to a maintenance rather than a construction situation. The general rules of the Construction Safety Commission, including Rule 1204 quoted above, were promulgated pursuant to the Construction Safety Act of 1963, MCLA 408.711 et seq.; MSA 17.469(1) et seq., and in particular MCLA 408.717; MSA 17.469(7). According to MCLA 408.712(b); MSA 17.469(2)(b) (as it then read): " 'Construction industry’ means construction firms and contractors (but not including firms or companies, whose principal business is other than construction work, and whose construction work consists only of maintenance construction work performed on their own property by their own employees) whose classification as construction industry is in accordance with the standard industrial classification manual prepared by the technical committee on industrial classifications, office of statistical standards, 1957 edition, and who are subject to the workmen’s compensation law other than by voluntary assumption of the law.” The manual cited above was referred to in Carr v Detroit Edison Co, 49 Mich App 332, 335-336; 212 NW2d 70 (1973). It notes that "the term 'construction’ includes new work, additions, alterations, and repairs”. The types of construction activity covered was said to be building construction by general contractors, other construction by general contractors, and construction by special trade contractors. 49 Mich App 332, 336. The I. H. Hill Company, a painting contractor, entered into a contract with the Mall to paint certain areas of the Mall’s building. The contract was signed by Mr. Mudloff, apparently the person in charge of maintenance at the Mall. Was the trial court correct in finding that the rules applicable to the "construction industry” did not apply to Mr. Wilhelm and his employer? Waters v Lakewood Utilities Co, 203 Mich 166, 171; 168 NW 1021 (1918), defined the word "construction” as follows: "To construct is to bring together, to put together, the constituent parts of something in their proper place and order; to build; to form; to make; as, to construct an edifice. Synonyms are, to build; to erect; form; compile; make; fabricate. Construction means the process or act of constructing, the act of building; erection; the act of devising and forming; fabrication; composition. Vide Webster’s Inter. Diet.” The Hill Painting Company was not hired to build the metal trim, nor was it hired to "erect, form, compile, make, or fabricate” anything on the Mall’s building. It was merely hired to paint certain portions of the building, and was specifically excluded from painting in an area "where they (the Mall) anticipated an alteration job * * * ”. Hill was told "Don’t paint that and other areas similar”. Certain areas "were not to be painted because they were going to increase in size or something to that effect”. As indicated in Carr, supra, the standard industrial classification manual seemed to indicate that "repairs” were included in the definition of construction. Attorney General ex rel Gibson v Board of Supervisors of Montcalm County, 141 Mich 590, 597; 104 NW 792 (1905), noted the difficulty of determining "the dividing line between repairs and new construction * * * ”. The Court noted that these words should be given their ordinary meaning, and referred to a number of definitions of the word "repair”. Words such as restore, mend, refit and "make good” were found to be synonyms for the word repair. The Court also noted that the general rule seemed to be that repair did not imply "the power to rebuild or reconstruct”. 141 Mich 590, 597-599. Walker v Detroit, 143 Mich 427, 430; 106 NW 1123 (1906), referred to a general definition of repair, and noted "thus the term does not include construction, reconstruction, or rebuilding”. In Michigan, the word "construction” does not include "repair”. The determination of "the rele vancy of the proffered evidence” is within the "reasonable discretion” of the trial judge, and appellate courts generally do not "second-guess such judgment. They should intervene only when clear abuse is shown.” People v Howard, 391 Mich 597, 603; 218 NW2d 20 (1974). See also People v Hodo, 51 Mich App 628, 638; 215 NW2d 733 (1974). The Hill Painting Company was not part of the construction industry, was excluded from the operation of the Construction Safety Act, MCLA 408.712(b); MSA 17.469(2)(b), and therefore the prohibition against using metal ladders near electric lines was inapplicable to the Hill Company and its employee, Mr. Wilhelm. We find no abuse of discretion by the trial court in excluding this evidence. In any event, a finding that Hill and/or Wilhelm had violated the safety rule would only be evidence of negligence, and would not establish that Hill was contributorily negligent as a matter of law. Price v Manistique Area Public Schools, 54 Mich App 127, 131; 220 NW2d 325, 328 (1974). There is no dispute at trial that Wilhelm had used an aluminum ladder, and defense counsel referred to this fact in the course of his final argument to show that Wilhelm was negligent. In light of this and the absence of an abuse of the trial court’s discretion, our Court’s refusal to find reversible error is not "inconsistent with substantial justice”. GCR 1963, 529.1. IV. Did the trial court abuse its discretion in admitting testimony from the plaintiff’s two expert witnesses regarding the safety of the protective fence and the electrical installation? Melvin Sachs, a registered architect with Sachs, Freid and Associates, and Professor John J. Carey, a registered professional engineer and a professor of electrical engineering at the University of Michigan, offered their opinions as to the relative safeness of the electrical installation and protective fence which together comprised the setting for the electrocution of Mr. Wilhelm. The Mall argues that their testimony should have been excluded on the grounds that the opinions of a registered architect and registered electrical engineer would tend to establish a standard of care for specialists in those respective fields, and that this standard of care is inapplicable to the Mall. Edison argues that Mr. Sachs’ testimony was irrelevant to Edison’s duty to Mr. Wilhelm, and that Carey had assumed that the metal trim needed painting every two to four years, although Edison states that it lacks such knowledge. Both defendants argue that the testimony of both experts should have been excluded in light of the principles announced in O’Dowd v Linehan, 385 Mich 491, 509-510; 189 NW2d 333 (1971), in particular the third requirement that there must be knowledge in a particular area that belongs more to an expert than to the common man so as to allow that expert to testify. Defendants argue that the testimony at issue improperly invaded the province of the jury, especially as far as the alleged violation of some Michigan Public Service Commission rules was concerned. Defendants also argue that evidence of what could have been done to make the installation and fence safer should have been excluded on the grounds that evidence of what could have been done to make something safer is generally inadmissible, citing Warner v Kewanee Machinery & Conveyor Co, 411 F2d 1060 (CA 6, 1969), and Fisher v Johnson Milk Co Inc, 383 Mich 158; 174 NW2d 752 (1970). O’Dowd v Linehan, supra and People v Zimmerman, 385 Mich 417; 189 NW2d 259 (1971), involved the test to be applied regarding the admissibility of expert testimony. At issue is the requirement in O’Dowd, supra, that "there must be knowledge in a particular area that belongs more to an expert than to the common man”. 385 Mich 491, 510. Zimmerman, supra, involved three opinions, and apparently spoke of the "necessity” test, namely, whether or not the jury could "get along” without the expert testimony and the "value” test, which is concerned with the experience of the expert and its bearing upon his opinion. Friedman v Farmington School District, 40 Mich App 197, 205; 198 NW2d 785 (1972), said that "the application of the two tests is properly left to the common sense and discretion of the trial court”. Sachs testified that based upon his experience and knowledge, the erection of a safety fence only 1/2 inch, rather than 4 inches as called for in the plans, away from the wall, made this an unsafe condition in that a man could not paint the metal trim from the roof, and that a person in Mr. Wilhelm’s position had to use a ladder and stand near the uninsulated wires which met the building shortly below the metal trim. He said that safety is a "prime consideration” in the planning of any construction project, and that the Mall and its architect had three alternatives to make this a safer situation. First, it could have provided sufficient space between the wall and the fence so that one could paint the metal trim from the roof without having to be where Mr. Wilhelm was. Second, the Mall could have provided a flashing that would not require painting. Third, the Mall could have provided the electrical service underground. Sachs said that upkeep and maintenance are always considered at the planning stage of a construction project, and we find that Sachs’ testimony did not tend to establish a duty higher than that to which the Mall was already bound, but merely went to the question of foreseeability and reasonable care in the circumstances. Likewise, his testimony as far as Edison was concerned related to the question of whether Edison exercised and observed a standard of care in proportion to the danger involved. Clumfoot v St Clair Tunnel Co, supra. The trial court properly exercised its discretion in allowing the introduction of this testimony. Professor Carey referred to three Michigan Public Service Commission rules in the course of his testimony, and offered the opinion that the Mall should have requested the power be turned off or that a warning be given, and that Detroit Edison should have either insulated the lines, provided underground electrical service, or connected the lines to the building by means of an aerial cable. It was his opinion that good practice was not followed in this situation. The Michigan Public Service rules referred to by Professor Carey were the following: (1) 1966 AACS, R 460.541(211) — "Installation and maintenance. All electrical supply and communication lines and equipment shall be installed and maintained so as to reduce hazards to life as far as practicable.” (2) 1966 AACS, R 460.540(200) C. — "Conformity with good practice. Construction should be made in accordance with accepted good practice for the local conditions and all particulars not specified hereafter.” (3) 1966 AACS, R 460.541(210) — "Design and Construction. All electric supply and communication lines and equipment shall be of suitable design and construc tion for the service and conditions under which they are to be operated.” Defendants argue that an opinion as to whether the above rules are violated contravenes the policy of O’Dowd, supra, that this was not an area in which expertise could properly function. The question of whether there has been a violation of the rules is said to be one within the knowledge of the common man. Friedman, supra, affirmed the exclusion of expert testimony as to the proper janitorial and maintenance services involved in that case. The Court felt that janitorial service, namely, the washing of a floor and the resulting slippery conditions, was within the common knowledge and experience of ordinary people. Friedman, supra, however, referred to Great American Ins Co v Michigan Consolidated Gas Co, 13 Mich App 410, 417; 164 NW2d 575 (1968), which said that facts regarding the ignition of gas or gasoline are generally beyond the common knowledge and that the testimony of an expert on the subject would "aid the jury in reaching a proper conclusion”. 40 Mich App 197, 205. Architectural planning for maintenance and safety of maintenance workers as well as the installation of electrical service are areas which are generally beyond the common knowledge of ordinary people. Such activities are more akin to the "ignition of gas or gasoline” situation rather than the "janitorial service” situation. Unlike In re Blackwell Estate, 50 Mich App 204, 215; 213 NW2d 201 (1973), reversed on other grounds, 391 Mich 798 (1974), there were facts presented in evidence which required and were subject to examination and analysis by the experts, and the requirements of O’Dowd, supra, were met. The Mall cites Kapalczynski v Globe Construc tion Co, 19 Mich App 396, 402-403; 172 NW2d 852 (1969), stating that there is no basis for distinguishing between a products liability and a contractor’s liability case, and that the former will provide assistance to our Court, which is concerned with the latter. Fisher v Johnson Milk Co Inc, supra, a products liability case, adopted a rule that a manufacturer has no obligation to make his product accident-proof or fool-proof, and held that defendant therein had no legal duty to design and provide a milk bottle carrier so as to prevent bottles contained therein from breaking when the carrier was dropped to a hard surface. 383 Mich 158, 162-163. Warner v Kewanee Machinery, supra, involved the allegation that a portable farm elevator could and should have been designed differently so as to be safer. The court noted that plaintiff had failed to present evidence sufficient to create a jury question, and applied the rule that evidence of what is thought by some to be a safer design or a safer method is generally inadmissible. 411 F2d 1060, 1066. Grant v National Acme Co, 351 F Supp 972, 977 (WD Mich, 1972), while acknowledging that a manufacturer did not have to "produce a foolproof, or even safer, product”, said there remained the issue as to whether reasonable men could find that the machine "was reasonably designed to protect its user against reasonably foreseeable risks of harm”. If the injury is reasonably foreseeable, the jury must determine if the manufacturer should have installed a safety device. Coger v Mackinaw Products Co, 48 Mich App 113, 122; 210 NW2d 124 (1973). Although the issue is a close one, we find that the expert testimony was introduced not to show what some had thought to be a "safer design or method” of electrical installation, but rather was admissible to show whether defendants had acted reasonably to protect against reasonably foreseeable risks of harm. Unlike Fisher, supra, the instant case does not involve a "simple tool”, 48 Mich App 113, 122, but instead involves three uninsulated high tension lines carrying 4800 volts which meet a building shortly below some metal trim. Although factually different, Byrnes v Economic Machinery Co, 41 Mich App 192, 200-201; 200 NW2d 104 (1972), lv den, 388 Mich 765 (1972), and its reference to the rule that "liability can be predicated on a safety device’s failure to work under some conditions”, applies to our case. Also, Wayne-Oakland Bank v Adam’s Rib, 48 Mich App 144, 148; 210 NW2d 121 (1973), lv den, 390 Mich 796 (1973), noted that "the jury could consider the omission of such known safety devices improper”, and we find that the expert testimony was properly admitted and was relevant to both defendants’ duty to use reasonable care in the circumstances. Unlike Warner, supra, there was adequate evidence to go to the jury on the questions of reasonable care and foreseeability. In view of the above, the trial court did not abuse its discretion in admitting the expert opinions of Sachs and Carey. V. Jury Instructions Six separate alleged errors in jury instructions, either by commission or omission, are assigned by defendants Edison and Mall. Our review discloses no reversible error but, succinctly, we discuss each. 1. Did the trial court err in instructing that defendant Edison owed decedent a "high degree of care”? The phrase "high degree of care” was used by the court. Had it stood alone and unqualified it probably would have amounted to reversible error. See Feigner v Anderson, 375 Mich 23, 30; 133 NW2d 136 (1965). However, the court proceeded to explain this meant reasonable care under the circumstances of the case. The trial court’s instruction closely parallels Frederick v Detroit, 370 Mich 425, 427-429; 121 NW2d 918 (1963), where, after first employing the words "a higher degree of care” the trial court then went on to explain this means due care under the circumstances. We conclude that no error was committed and, additionally, note that defendant Edison did not object to the charge. 2. Did the trial court err in its instructions removing assumption of risk from the jury’s consideration? As part of its instructions on contributory negligence, the trial court included instructions on assumption of risk. When the jury retired, plaintiff’s counsel objected and counsel for Edison objected because of the omission of his requested instruction 9. Whereupon the jury was returned to the courtroom and the trial judge gave instruction 9 and also removed assumption of risk from the jury’s consideration. Defendants contend the corrected instruction on assumption of risk constitutes error because the jury could not distinguish between contributory negligence and assumption of risk. Counsel claim the corrected instruction removed both assumption of risk and contributory negligence from jury consideration. Reading the instruction as a whole, we do not find that the corrective addition removed from the jury consideration the issue of contributory negligence. The supplemental instruction was a correct statement of law. Assumption of risk has been abolished in Michigan. Felgner v Anderson, supra; Bumstead v Bucht, 4 Mich App 4, 7; 143 NW2d 789 (1966). 3. Did the trial court err in refusing to give Edison’s requested instruction number 4? Requested instruction number 4 concerned reference to Edison’s specifications for electrical work appearing in exhibit 25 which was introduced in evidence upon stipulation of all parties. These references were in writings between the Mall, its engineers and architect and to which Edison was not a party. Edison requested an instruction to disregard any statements as to Edison requirements contained in the writings but, in lieu thereof, the trial court instructed the jury that Edison was not to be charged thereunder unless the jury found Edison had knowledge and approved or sanctioned the same. We do not agree with Edison that under the authority of Colgrove v Goodyear, 325 Mich 127; 37 NW2d 779 (1949), the instruction was prejudicial error. That case dealt with the admissibility of the document in question, whereas in the instant case the document was received in evidence by stipulation. Further, Edison did not object to the modified charge as given and, under GCR 1963, 516.2, cannot raise the issue on appeal. 4. Did the trial court err in refusing to give verbatim Edison’s requested instruction 9? Following Edison’s objection to the failure to give its requested instruction 9, the trial court gave the instruction verbatim except that the court omitted the words "and guarded” and added a comment "there are other claims of negligence in this case”. The trial court’s modification is justified since some evidence is found in the record that the wiring leading to the Mall building was not adequately guarded according to electrical code provisions. The instruction as given left the issue of guarding open and this in turn became a claim of negligence referred to in the addition of the comment made by the court. Further, Edison did not object to the modified charge as given and, under GCR 1963, 516.2, cannot raise the issue on appeal. 5. Did the trial court err in instructing that damages could be awarded plaintiff for loss of love and companionship? During trial, the court ruled that plaintiff could not include, as part of the children’s damages, loss of the father’s society or companionship. Yet, in its instructions the court included as an element of damage loss of the father’s "love, affection, companionship”. The defendant Edison contends that in light of the court’s earlier ruling on evidence the jury instruction was inconsistent and confusing and under Heiman v Kolle, 317 Mich 548; 27 NW2d 92 (1947), a new trial is mandated. We find just the reverse. The court’s ruling on evidence was wrong and the instruction was correct. Breckon v Franklin Fuel Co, 383 Mich 251; 174 NW2d 836 (1970), was overruled by Smith v Detroit, 388 Mich 637, 649; 202 NW2d 300 (1972). Loss of companionship is an element of damage under the wrongful death act even though injury occurred prior to the amendment. Again we observe Edison did not object to the modified charge as given and under GCR 1963, 516.2, cannot raise the issue on appeal. 6. Did the trial court err in failing to give defendant Mali’s requested instruction number 2? Instruction 2, set forth in its entirety with counsel’s citations in the footnote, basically denies the Mall’s duty to supply a safe place to work to independent contractors. An alternate and less sweeping instruction 2, also submitted by counsel for the Mall, was given substantially verbatim. While the rule as set forth in the requested instruction is still applicable under standard conditions, it is not applicable in the situation involved in the instant case where the independent contractor is employed to work under conditions involving special danger to others. As noted, McDonough v General Motors Corp, 28 Mich App 7; 183 NW2d 904 (1970), cited by the Mall, was reversed. A majority of the Court found that the work conditions involved an inherently dangerous activity and that the prevailing Michigan rule as set forth in 2 Restatement Torts 2d, § 416 and § 427, pp 395 and 415, should be followed. Alternate instruction 2 given by the trial court paralleled the Restatement rule. In our opinion, unguarded high voltage wires entering a wall a few inches from metal trim to be painted by an employee of an independent contractor and without the posting of warning signs visible from the employee’s position presents a more dangerous working condition than the operation of the crane involved in McDonough, supra. The trial court was correct in rejecting the instruction. VI. Did the trial court err in granting the third-party defendants’ motions for summary judgment? Our opinion sustains the jury verdict of $325,000 against defendants Edison and Pontiac Mall. Remaining is the issue of whether the three third-party defendants should share with defendant Mall the Mall’s portion of liability. Determination of this question will not affect plaintiff’s verdict or Edison’s liability. It only affects Pontiac Mall’s obligation by potentially compelling — should the jury so determine — the third-party defendants to share in the Mali’s liability. The essential facts in the Mall’s third-party complaint are set forth in the first part of this opinion. The complaint requested indemnity "and/ or contribution”. The trial court first granted the motions for a directed verdict in favor of Walter Couse Company and Ornamental Iron Company, assigning two reasons for its decision. First, the court stated the 1961 fencing had been inspected by the Mall and approved. The defect was not hidden or undiscoverable by inspection. The court acknowledged that the case of Kapalczynski v Globe Construction Co, 19 Mich App 396; 172 NW2d 852 (1969), abolished the "accepted work” defense but stated such holding was not applicable to the present case since no third person was involved and the suit was brought by the parties to the original contract. Second, the court observed that to be a proximate cause, the subsequent injury must be one which, in the light of attending circumstances, should have been reasonably foreseen. The court doubted that it was reasonably foreseeable that because fence #1 had been constructed in a certain manner, some three years later some other person would build a fence just like it. Accordingly, the court found that if there was negligence in the construction of fence #1, it was not the proximate cause of the injury occurring at fence #2. The motion for a directed verdict in favor of Harlan Electric Company was also granted, the court repeating the first reason given for granting summary judgments to Couse and Ornamental Iron. Again the court commented that the claim was between the parties to the contract and that a third party had not intervened. In an apparent reference to the fact that the blueprint for construction of fence #2 carried the notation "fence to match existing — including painting” the court further ruled that it appeared to be undisputed that, as to the second fence, the plans were carried out. To the extent that the trial court action rejected the third-party complaint for indemnity, we agree. Common-law indemnity is intended only to make whole again a party held vicariously liable to another through no fault of its own. Obviously, for the reasons set forth in paragraph I, the Mall could not prove an absence of negligence. We disagree with the trial court as to contribution. Contribution is a statutory right. MCLA 600.2925; MSA 27A.2925. It comes into use where two or more tort-feasors cause a single indivisible injury to a third party. If the third party elects to sue only one of the joint tort-feasors the other tortfeasor may be joined as a third-party defendant. "The statutory right of action for contribution between joint tort-feasors arises because one tort-feasor pays more than his pro rata share of a joint judgment. The theory is that each tort-feasor, through his tortious conduct, has caused a single indivisible injury to the plaintiff. Plaintiff can look to either or both for relief and is entitled to a full satisfaction from one or the other or both. Under the present rules if plaintiff chooses to sue one tort-feasor, the other tort-feasor can be added as a third-party defendant so that the requirement of a joint judgment is satisfied. The statute seeks to do equity between the tort-feasors by equalizing the loss between them without interfering with the plaintiff’s rights.” Morgan v McDermott, 8 Mich App 260, 264-265; 154 NW2d 576 (1967), reversed on other grounds, 382 Mich 333; 169 NW2d 897 (1969). Had plaintiff joined the third-party defendants in the original action the defense that the work had been completed, inspected and paid for would be of no avail, the "accepted work” doctrine having been abolished in Michigan. Hilla v Gross, 43 Mich App 648; 204 NW2d 712 (1972); Hargis v Dearborn Heights, 34 Mich App 594; 192 NW2d 44 (1971); Kapalczynski v Globe Construction Co, supra. Having been abolished in suits brought by the injured party against each tort-feasor, we believe it is also abolished in a suit for contribution. It is the same as though the injured third party had joined the independent contractors as parties defendant in the original complaint. We, therefore, respectfully must disagree with the first reason assigned by the trial court for granting summary judgments to the third-party defendants. This brings us then to the other reasons assigned by the learned trial judge for granting summary judgment. In effect, the court found that, as a matter of law, none of the three defendants were tort-feasors. In the case of fence #1, the court found that, as a matter of law, Walter Couse Company and Ornamental Iron Company were not tort-feasors since their alleged negligence was not a reasonably foreseeable cause of the accident occurring at another fence some four years later. In the case of fence #2, the court found Harlan Electric Company was not a tort-feasor as a matter of law since it had followed the blueprint notation "fence to match existing — including painting”. It is only when all reasonable men must agree on the issue of negligence or contributory negligence that a court may decide a question as a matter of law rather than allowing it to go to the jury. Brown v Page, 39 Mich App 50, 52; 197 NW2d 74 (1972). See also Lover v Sampson, 44 Mich App 173, 184; 205 NW2d 69 (1972), where the Court said: "It is well settled that the question of proximate cause is ordinarily a question of fact for the jury 'to be solved by the exercise of good common sense in consideration of each particular case.’ ” Davis v Thornton, 384 Mich 138; 180 NW2d 11 (1970), relied upon in Price v Manistique Area Public Schools, 54 Mich App 127; 220 NW2d 325 (1974), involved the questions of foreseeability and intervening causes. Davis reversed the granting of a summary judgment, noting that foreseeability, the remoteness between one’s acts and another’s injuries, and negligence "should almost always be left up to the jury”. 384 Mich 138, 148. Kubasinski v Johnson, 46 Mich App 287; 208 NW2d 74 (1973), said that "in all but rare instances” the issues of negligence and proximate cause should be left for the jury’s consideration. This Court has recently reversed four summary judgments which had been entered in favor of defendants. Rowen & Blair Electric Co v Flushing Operating Corp, 49 Mich App 89, 92; 211 NW2d 527 (1973), Johnston v American Oil Co, 51 Mich App 646, 648-649; 215 NW2d 719 (1974), Hutchings v Dave Demarest & Co, 52 Mich App 274, 278; 217 NW2d 72 (1974), and McLaughlin v Consumers Power Co, 52 Mich App 663, 666-667; 218 NW2d 122 (1974). The most recent case, McLaughlin, supra, stated the rule as follows: "Plaintiff first contends that the trial court erred in granting defendant’s motion for summary judgment. We agree. A motion for summary judgment under GCR 1963, 117.2(3), made before trial has commenced, is not to be granted unless it can be said, giving the benefit of every reasonable doubt to the party opposing the motion, that there is no genuine issue as to any material fact. Rizzo v Kretschmer, 389 Mich 363; 207 NW2d 316 (1973); Rowen & Blair Electric Co v Flushing Operating Corp, 49 Mich App 89, 211 NW2d 527 (1973). When such an issue is found to exist, after reviewing all affidavits filed under GCR 1963, 117.3 and all 'pleadings, depositions, admissions and documentary evidence then filed in the action or submitted by the parties’, the case should be allowed to go to trial.” The foregoing rules for the proper determination of questions of negligence, proximate cause, and summary judgments lead us to conclude that, though the issue is admittedly complex and close, the trial judge erred in the granting of summary judgments. The plans and specifications were carefully prepared to prevent the accident which occurred in the instant case. The claim against Harlan Electric Company raises the question of whether Harlan complied with the contract. Harlan claimed it had complied, and the trial court so found, because across the face of the plans (exhibit 5) were written the words "fence to match existing fence — including painting”. The Mall argued that the written words referred to matching the first fence with respect to the same type of materials and esthetically, and did not refer to matching by dimensions since the 4-inch dimension was also a part of exhibit 5. Clearly, this is an issue of fact which, looking at the facts most favorably to the Mall and under the guidelines set forth in McLaughlin, supra, should be resolved by a jury. For this reason we hold that the summary judgment in favor of Harlan Electric Company was error. The claim against Walter Couse Company and Ornamental Iron and Stair Company presents the issue of foreseeability. Foreseeability, measured even in hours or days, is admittedly an inexact science. Projected into four years, as here, it obviously is one upon which judicial minds will differ. Much which appears in the record can be cited to support the findings of the trial court. Nevertheless, we cannot conclude that it was totally unforeseeable that the Pontiac Mall would expand and require additional electrical service. If this were to occur we believe it reasonably foreseeable that new power lines would be required including a protective fence which, for esthetic reasons alone, would be constructed like the first protective fence. Admittedly, a jury, after hearing all the facts, might conclude that the time span was too great or that the construction of the second fence was an unforeseeable event. But the very fact that reasonable minds can differ on this issue requires it be submitted for jury determination. Supporting our conclusion is the fact that if Harlan Electric Company is retained as a third-party defendant, as we have concluded it should be, the reference to the 1961 fence itself invites retaining as defendants those who built the first fence. Therefore, we hold that summary judgments in favor of Walter Couse Company and its subcontractor, Ornamental Iron and Stair Company, were error. Third-party plaintiffs raise two other grounds for error. Except as noted in the footnote below, we believe our disposition of the third-party claim makes further discussion of these issues unnecessary. The verdict in favor of plaintiff and against defendants Edison and Pontiac Mall is affirmed. Costs to plaintiff. The summary judgments in favor of third-party defendants are set aside and the claim of third-party plaintiffs against third-party defendants is remanded for trial on the merits. Costs to third-party plaintiff. All concurred. Appellants’ briefs raise 15 issues which, for purposes of this opinion, are categorized in the 6 general areas. Infra, within the 6 areas, all 15 issues are discussed. The manual includes within its classifications Industry No. 1721, Group No. 172, "Special trade contractors primarily engaged in interior and exterior painting of buildings * * * ”. Manual, p 38. Professor Carey testified that the substance of these three 1966 Rules was applicable in 1964, although this was not an issue. Plaintiff argued the amendment MCLA 600.2922; MSA 27A.2922 was procedural and under Lahti v Fosterling, 357 Mich 578; 99 NW2d 490 (1959), could be applied retroactively. The trial court disagreed, holding that the amendment gave a new cause of action for recovery for loss of society and companionship and therefore only applied to injuries sustained after its effective date, March 30,1972. 1971 PA 65. 1 charge you ladies and gentlemen that a property owner who contracts to have work performed on his property by an independent contractor and his employees, and who does not retain control over the methods and procedures of the subcontractor, does not have an affirmative legal duty to protect an employee of the subcontractor from injury caused by the use by the subcontractor of his equipment, or by the employee’s work methods because a property owner is not required to substitute its judgment for that of the subcontractor or its employees who hold themselves to be proficient in their area of work. McDonough v General Motors Corp, 28 Mich App 7 [183 NW2d 904 (1970)]; Funk v General Motors Corp, 37 Mich App 482 [194 NW2d 916 (1972)]; Lenderink v Village of Rockford, 135 Mich 531 [98 NW 4 (1904)]. We note that McDonough, supra and Funk, supra, were reversed, 388 Mich 430; 201 NW2d 609 (1972), and 392 Mich 91; 220 NW2d 641 (1974). "Mr. Watters: Did you rule — You said it was undisputed that the plans and specifications were carried out. Does that mean you find that the fence as constructed was in conformity with the plans and specifications? "The Court: I think so. "The Court: I have already ruled, it was between these parties, it was in the plans and specifications. You having directed it be built like the other fence now— "Mr. Watters: I see, you are saying the language on there 'match the existing fence’ superseded the dimension as a matter of law is that — ” The Mall contends that under GCR 1963, 8C6.3(lXaXii), the trial court had to certify that the order dismissing third-party defendants involved a controlling question of law. A full reading of the rule indicates to the contrary. The rule allows an alternative “or” under which the Mall could have filed an application for interlocutory leave to appeal but did not proceed to do so. Mall’s issue number 3, namely, that the court erred in not granting its motion for judgment notwithstanding the verdict against third-party defendants becomes academic in view of our determination of this issue. If the issue should go to the jury as we have determined, obviously the motion should not be granted.
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R. L. Smith, J. We hear this case de novo. We have examined the entire record carefully and hold that the findings of facts made by the trial court are not clearly erroneous and the application of the law to be proper, GCR 1963, 517.1; GCR 1963, 810(2). Edna Pearle Spencer, hereinafter referred to as vendee, met Donald R. Oselette some time in 1969 when the latter, a real estate salesman for Associates Land Co., sold a house for her and assisted her in the purchase of other property. In the latter part of 1969 Oselette approached her concerning the purchase of 62 acres of land which was listed with Associates by Stella George, hereinafter referred to as vendor. This acreage was listed on September 15, 1969, as industrial property and in fact was zoned industrial at the time under the Washington Township Zoning Ordinance of 1962. On October 16, 1969, Washington Township, as part of an effort to adopt a master zoning plan, enacted an interim ordinance zoning the subject property at its existing use, i.e., agricultural-residential. Subsequent to the interim ordinance the subject property continued to be offered on the market as industrial property. The township master plan was completed on July 20, 1972, and listed the subject property as heavy industrial. Oselette convinced the vendee that the George property would be a good investment for her, that he could get it for her for $2000 an acre, that it was industrial property, that he had several purchasers who were interested in buying it, and that he could sell it for $2500 an acre with a profit for both of them. In January, 1970, the vendee entered into a preliminary agreement to purchase the property for $120,000, with $20,000 as down payment, semiannual payments of $5000 plus interest, and payment in full in ten years. The land contract was signed on March 6, 1970. Prior to signing the land contract the vendee obtained an attorney’s opinion on the subject property and understood that the property was subject to the zoning and building ordinances of the township. She did nothing to verify the zoning. On March 21, 1970, the vendee listed the property with Oselette for sale as industrial property at $2500 an acre. The vendee defaulted on the first payment due September 15, 1970, and made no response to a request for payment by the vendor’s attorney. When the vendee remained silent in the face of further requests for payment a complaint was filed on January 5, 1971, for the recovery of the subject property. On February 21, 1971, an order to answer was entered by the district court requiring the vendee to appear on or before April 2, 1971. Thereafter the vendee appeared, answered, and filed a countercomplaint for rescission alleging that the vendor’s agent represented that the property was zoned industrial and that he could make a quick sale of the subject property for $2500 an acre, and the matter was removed to the circuit court for trial. In the meantime Oselette had moved his family to Mexico. However, the vendee corresponded with him concerning the sale of the property and inquired if he had located a buyer. In her correspondence with Oselette the vendee never mentioned the fact that the subject property was not zoned industrial at the time she purchased it. On January 17, 1971, she listed the property with Short Realty for sale as industrial property at $2500 an acre and again relisted it as industrial with Short Realty in March of 1972. The trial court found that there had been no misrepresentation to the vendee on the subject of zoning and that Oselette’s representation that he had parties interested at $2500 was mere "puffing”. We agree. The testimony substantiates the finding that the vendor, vendee, Township of Washington, and the realtors with whom the property was listed all treated the subject property as industrial, and that the interim ordinance was used to "control future industrial uses of the property”. As further evidence that the vendee was satisfied the property was industrial she admitted she never complained or mentioned to anyone that the zoning had been misrepresented to her after she learned of the interim zoning either shortly after she listed the property with Oselette as she at first testified or in December, 1970, as she later testified. In a highly restrictive sense it is true that the property was not zoned as industrial. But a fair reading of the record finds support for the trial court’s conclusion that everyone involved in the transaction treated the property as industrial and indeed it was industrial. We find no misrepresentation. In her testimony concerning value the vendee acknowledged that she knew Oselette had no firm offers at $2500 and that if he did he would be obligated to sell at that price for Stella George. She also testified that she was not relying "wholeheartedly” on the representations that he had parties interested at $2500. The inference is that the vendee was relying on Oselette’s representation that he could sell the property quickly at a profit. This the trial court found was "puffing”. We agree. Such statements are expressions of opinion, not fact. See Schuler v American Motors Sales, 39 Mich App 276; 197 NW2d 493 (1972), and cases therein cited. Kowalski v Rusin, 242 Mich 1; 217 NW 768 (1928). The further finding by the trial court that the property was worth more than the vendee paid for it is not clearly erroneous. The testimony supports the finding that at the time vendee purchased the property it was worth at least $2100 an acre and at the time of trial $2500 an . acre as agricultural land and that as industrial property the value could reach as much as $5000 an acre. "The general rule is that to constitute actionable fraud it must appear: (1) that defendant made a material representation; (2) that it was false; (3) that when he made it he knew that it was false, or made it recklessly, without any knowledge of its truth and as a positive assertion: (4) that he made it with the intention that it should be acted upon by plaintiff; (5) that plaintiff acted in reliance upon it; and (6) that he thereby suffered injury. Each of these facts must be proved with a reasonable degree of certainty, and all of them must be found to exist; the absence of any one of them is fatal to a recovery.” A & A Asphalt Paving Co v Pontiac Speedway, Inc, 363 Mich 634, 639; 110 NW2d 601 (1961). The trial court applied the rule in A&A Asphalt, supra, and found the countercomplainant’s case wanting as above set forth in this opinion. In view of this result we find it unnecessary to deal with the other alleged errors. We affirm with costs to appellees. All concurred.
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V. J. Brennan, J. Defendant, Ore Lake, appeals from a decision of the Livingston County Circuit Court wherein the summer resort owners corporation act (MCLA 455.201 et seq.; MSA 21.751 et seq.) was declared unconstitutional by reason of its extreme vagueness. On August 19, 1944, the owners of several parcels of property in a certain part of Livingston County filed articles of incorporation as a summer resort owners corporation under the above statute. This new corporation was denominated "Ore Lake” and embraced lands in several subdivisions in the area including a subdivision known as Ore Lake Little Farms. Two years later an election was called by the board- of trustees, pursuant to the provisions of MCLA 455.206; MSA 21.756, to determine whether all of the property within these subdivisions and the adjacent lands should be incorporated. Notice of the election was given using the words of MCLA 455.206c; MSA 21.756(3) to describe those eligible to vote. On August 24, 1946, the election was held and the full incorporation measure was passed. Thereafter all owners of property in the area were deemed to be members of the corporation and liable for the payment of dues and assessments. On May 24, 1971, plaintiffs, all property owners in Ore Lake Little Farms, brought an action against the summer resort corporation, Ore Lake, seeking to void all assessments and liens against their properties and requesting an injunction restraining defendant corporation from enforcing the same. By their complaint, plaintiffs alleged consti tutional deficiencies in the 1946 election and raised additional constitutional and non-constitutional objections to defendant’s exercise of jurisdiction over their property. Plaintiffs did not, however, argue that the above statute was unconstitutionally vague. Defendant answered plaintiffs’ complaint denying the material allegations thereof, counterclaimed for amounts owing on dues and assessments and sought $50,000 for malicious prosecution and slander. On September 7, 1971, plaintiffs filed a motion for summary judgment alleging there was no genuine issue as to any material fact. GCR 1963, 117.2(3). Defendant filed an affidavit and brief in opposition to the motion. On May 5, 1972, the trial judge filed his opinion granting plaintiffs’ motion, and declaring the 1946 election invalid. The trial judge, by order, declared the jurisdiction, control and authority of Ore Lake over plaintiffs to be null and void, declared all assessments and liens on plaintiffs’ property to be null and void and ordered Ore Lake to cease and desist from maintaining or exercising any jurisdiction over plaintiffs or their property. The trial judge’s decision in this regard was based on the decision of our Supreme Court in Baldwin v North Shore Estates Association, 384 Mich 42; 179 NW2d 398 (1970), wherein it was held that the voter eligibility provisions of MCLA 455.206c; MSA 21.756(3) were violative of the equal protection clauses of the Michigan and Federal Constitutions. Immediately following this judgment, defendant’s board of trustees called for a new election to be held on July 15, 1972, in a manner consistent with their interpretation of Baldwin v North Shore Estates, supra. All freeholders in the described area were notified to register and vote in the election. After publication of this notice, plaintiffs filed a motion for a temporary injunction and permanent restraining order against the election. In support of their motion, plaintiffs relied on the earlier decision rendered by the court. They also alleged that the act specified certain conditions which must be met for a landowner to be eligible for membership in such a corporation and that they did not fall within those terms. Specifically, plaintiffs argued that the act requires that those eligible for membership be freeholders of land and that the land be contiguous to the resort community in which the corporation is organized or reasonably adjacent to the resort community so as to be benefitted by membership therein. Plaintiffs alleged that they did not fall within these terms. They maintained that their subdivision, Ore Lake Little Farms, was "separate and distinct” from the other subdivisions incorporated in Ore Lake and, further, that they could not be benefit-ted by membership therein. Plaintiffs further argued that MCLA 455.206; MSA 21.756, the provision authorizing such elections, was unconstitutionally vague and that, therefore, no election could, constitutionally, be'conducted pursuant to its terms. On June 30, 1972, plaintiffs and defendant appeared in court to argue the motion as filed. A conference was held in chambers between the trial judge and the attorneys representing both sides. Following this conference, the court ordered the election to proceed but stayed the implementation of the results of the election and also ordered the parties on each side to submit briefs on the constitutionality of the entire statute. On January 16, 1973, after the parties had filed their respective briefs, the trial judge rendered a decision whereby he declared the entire act unconstitutional by reason of its severe vagueness. After judgment was entered defendant filed a motion for a new trial and a motion for findings of fact and conclusions of law in accordance with GCR 1963, 517. The motion for new trial was denied on April 9, 1973, and a new opinion, setting forth findings of fact and conclusions of law, was filed on September 12, 1973. It is from this decision that defendant now appeals. The constitutionality of the statute with which we are here concerned was placed in serious doubt by our Supreme Court in Baldwin v North Shore Estates, supra. Our Supreme Court there discussed the vagueness problems of MCLA 455.201 et seq.; MSA 21.751 et seq. in the following terms: "Before turning to discussion of the meaning and constitutionality of the weekend residency requirement, we note that the entire act borders on unconstitutionality by reason of its vagueness. This is so primarily because several of its basic terms — 'resided weekends’, 'summer resort’, 'resort community’, 'summer resort owners’ — are neither explicitly nor implicitly defined by any provisions of the act. However, because of the presumption of statutory, validity, because the vagueness issue has not been squarely briefed and argued in this case, and because we are able to make a less sweeping disposition of this case, we do not now discuss the vagueness question.” While we also recognize the serious problems created by the vague terms contained within this act, we should not, because of this fact, ignore the principles which guide appellate courts of this state in deciding cases where the constitutionality of acts passed by the Legislature are presented for determination. It has repeatedly been asserted that the appellate courts of this state will not reach constitutional questions when the case under consideration can fairly be disposed of on other grounds. Township of Warren v Raymond, 291 Mich 426; 289 NW 201 (1939); In re Fjerstad Estate, 47 Mich App 100; 209 NW2d 302 (1973); Stanek v Secretary of State, 33 Mich App 527; 190 NW2d 288 (1971). This policy is firmly imbedded in the jurisprudence of our state and is not to be lightly disregarded. In the case at bar possibilities of alternative dispositions are presented but we are unable to assess their validity in light of the present state of the record which, as we shall explain, is inadequate. MCLA 455.206; MSA 21.756, when fairly read, sets forth certain conditions with respect to the types of lands which may be brought within the jurisdiction of such a corporation. This section specifies that the land be within the county of the corporation’s organization and be contiguous to the resort community in which the corporation is organized or reasonably adjacent to the resort community so as to be benefitted by membership therein. If the lands are so situated and if the trustees of the corporation determine that the lands are sufficiently identified with the common interests of the other lands under the corporation’s jurisdiction then they may, by election if necessary, be brought under the jurisdiction of such a corporation. The plaintiffs herein, recognizing these conditions, alleged in their motion for permanent restraining order and permanent injunction that the lands contained in Ore Lake Little Farms subdivision were separate and distinct from the other subdivi sions incorporated in Ore Lake and that they could not be benefitted by membership therein. By these allegations plaintiffs alleged that their lands do not fall within those types of land permitted by MCLA 455.206; MSA 21.756 to be brought under the jurisdiction of this corporation. Because of the manner in which the trial judge disposed of this case, however, we are unable to determine whether the facts bear out these allegations. No hearing to determine the accuracy of these allegations was held below and the trial judge made no findings as to their validity or invalidity. As far as we can tell from the record presently before us no determination as to these claims was ever made. In the action below plaintiffs alleged that their lands did not fall within those types of lands which could, under the statute, be brought under the jurisdiction of Ore Lake. Since a disposition of these claims could well have rendered unnecessary any decision as to the constitutionality of the act, we find that the trial judge acted prematurely in reaching the constitutional issue presented. We therefore vacate the decision of the lower court and remand the case for a full hearing as to whether plaintiffs lands can, by election, be brought under the jurisdiction of Ore Lake. If, after such hearing, the trial judge finds it necessary to reach the constitutional question, consideration should be given to the question of whether a decision solely as to the constitutionality of MCLA 455.206; MSA 21.756 could, under the severability provisions of MCLA 8.5; MSA 2.216, validly be made and be sufficient to dispose of the case. Judgment vacated; case remanded. This Court retains no further jurisdiction. All concurred. Plaintiffs’ motion in this regard was supported by affidavit as required by GCR 1963, 117.3. See DeMare Brothers Construction Co, Inc, v Teska, 49 Mich App 642; 212 NW2d 602 (1973). 384 Mich at 49-60; 179 NW2d at 401-402. (Footnote omitted).
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J. H. Gillis, P. J. Defendants Robert and Leon Smith, along with one Gus Smith, attempted an armed robbery of a Detroit pawn shop. Police were summoned to the scene, and an exchange of gunfire ensued. Both Gus Smith and a police officer, William Schmedding, were killed. Two bystanders were wounded. Defendants Robert and Leon Smith were convicted by a jury of first-degree murder,* and sentenced to life imprisonment. They appeal as of right. Defendants’ first assignment of error concerns the trial judge’s charge to the jury. Defendants sought a jury instruction to the effect that they could not be found guilty of felony murder if Patrolman Schmedding was killed by a bullet fired by a fellow policeman. The trial judge denied their request. Instead, he charged that the requirements of the felony-murder rule were satisfied "when the killing is a direct cause or result of the perpetration or attempt to perpetrate a felony”. The trial judge based his instruction on the holding of People v Podolski In that case, the Michigan Supreme Court affirmed Podolski’s conviction for the murder of a policeman, even though the fatal shot was fired by another policeman. At the time of the killing, Podolski was attempting the armed robbery of a bank. In finding him liable, the Court held that: "When a defendant deliberately engenders an affray, deliberately using therein a lethal weapon, it must be considered to be within his intent that death should result from the affray as a natural and probable consequence of his acts, where the death is directly attributable to the affray and not resulting from some independent intervening cause.” Podolski, supra, controls the instant case, and we therefore affirm the trial court. However, in light of developments subsequent to Podolski, we feel compelled to discuss the issue in some depth. Michigan’s felony-murder statute, MCLA 750.316; MSA 28.548, reads as follows: "All murder which shall be perpetrated by means of poison, or lying in wait, or any other kind of wilful, deliberate and premeditated killing, or which shall be committed in the perpetration, or attempt to perpetrate any arson, rape, robbery, burglary, larceny of any kind, extortion or kidnapping, shall be murder of the first degree, and shall be punished by solitary confinement at hard labor in the state prison for life.” The statute is modeled after an earlier Pennsylvania enactment. Consequently, when John Podolski appealed, the Michigan Supreme Court looked to Pennsylvania decisions for guidance in interpreting the felony-murder statute. The rationale of Commonwealth v Moyer, 357 Pa 181; 53 A2d 736 (1947), was adopted. In Moyer, supra, defendants attempted an armed robbery of a gas station. During the robbery, the owner of the gas station accidentally killed an attendant while attempting to shoot one of the defendants. The Pennsylvania Supreme Court affirmed their murder convictions, holding that the "malice” required to commit the underlying felony constituted sufficient malice for the murder when the death occurred during the felony. Defendants were liable "for any death which by direct and almost inevitable sequence results from the initial criminal act”. Relying on this analysis, the Michigan Supreme Court affirmed Podolski’s conviction. After Moyer, supra, Pennsylvania extended the reach of its felony-murder rule. In Commonwealth v Almeida an off-duty policeman was attempting to apprehend defendant following a robbery. The policeman was accidentally shot and killed by a fellow officer. The Pennsylvania Supreme Court affirmed defendant’s first-degree murder conviction, ruling that the felony-murder rule applied. Almeida, supra, proceeded on a proximate cause theory, with the court holding defendant responsible for any killing which was the proximate result of the robbery. In Commonwealth v Thomas, the court used its proximate cause theory again in holding defendant liable for the murder of his co-felon, even though the co-felon was killed by the intended robbery victim. The decisions in Almeida, supra, and Thomas, supra, were the two most extreme applications of the Pennsylvania felony-murder rule, and both decisions were highly criticized. Thomas, supra, was reversed three years later in Commonwealth v Redline. The proximate cause theory of felony murder was discarded, the court holding that: "In adjudging a felony-murder, it is to be remembered at all times that the thing which is imputed to a felon for a killing incidental to his felony is malice and not the act of killing. The mere coincidence of homicide and felony is not enough to satisfy the requirements of the felony-murder doctrine.” The court avoided directly overruling Almeida, supra, by distinguishing it on a somewhat metaphysical ground. The deaths in Thomas and Red-line were seen as "justifiable” (commanded or permitted by the law), since the victim of the crime was permitted to defend himself by shooting his assailants. Therefore, the court reasoned, no one may be held liable for a death which the law justifies. On the other hand, the death in Almeida was only "excusable” (accidental or in self-defense), and thus not necessarily affected by the Redline decision. The distinction is tenuous since an "excusable” homicide is by definition excused. Logically, it seems that the law should not punish someone for an "excused” killing if they do not punish someone for a "justifiable” killing. The Redline court did note that its distinction between "excusable” and "justifiable” killing was "more incidental than legally significant so far as relevancy to the felony-murder rule is concerned”. Redline declined to overrule Almeida, supra, despite its observation that Almeida was "a radical departure from common law”. This was the state of Pennsylvania law when People v Austin, 370 Mich 12; 120 NW2d 766 (1963), was decided. In Austin, as in Thomas, supra, and Redline, supra, defendant’s co-felon was killed by their intended robbery victim. The trial judge refused to give a felony-murder instruction, and the people appealed. Once again the Michigan Supreme Court turned to Pennsylvania decisions for guidance. The rationale of Redline, supra, was accepted, the Austin Court holding that defendants could not be charged with felony murder in this type of situation. Although Austin is thought to have changed the felony-murder rule in Michigan, the case did not specifically overrule People v Podolski, supra. The majority opinion in Austin, however, noted the implications of its decision on Podolski: "The writer of this opinion was not a member of this Court when the Podolski decision was handed down. "This is not a rehearing of People v Podolski, 332 Mich 508. We are deciding 1 important question, namely: Did the trial court err in refusing the people the right to try defendants Austin and Bell for the crime of murder? "It is not necessary to overrule Podolski to hold that the trial court did not commit error in quashing the indictment. "No killing under circumstances such as the instant case has ever been declared murder in this State. This opinion has repeatedly referred to and quoted from Redline because of the belief that the decision in Red-line more completely supports the trial court in this instant appeal than Moyer supported our opinion in Podolski. ” (Emphasis supplied.) People v Austin, supra, was Michigan’s last detailed discussion concerning the applicability of the felony-murder rule to a situation where a person is killed by other than a participant in the underlying felony. It is noteworthy, however, that Pennsylvania will no longer allow a murder conviction in a situation where one police officer is accidentally killed by another in attempting to halt a felony. In Commonwealth ex rel Smith v Myers, the Pennsylvania Supreme Court expressly overruled its previous decision in Almeida, supra. The court noted the distinction drawn in Redline, supra (as well as People v Austin, supra) between "excusable” and "justifiable” homicide to be nothing more than "a will of the wisp”, and abolished it. The opinion reiterated that "the thing which is imputed to a felon for a killing incidental to his felony is malice and not the act of killing”. Smith, supra, made clear that a defendant can only be held liable for a killing committed by one of the felons themselves. The last word in Michigan is Podolski, by which we are bound. The prosecutor contends on appeal that there was no evidence to support defendants’ contention that another officer killed Patrolman Schmedding. There need not be. If it were not for Podolski, supra, the prosecutor would be required to prove, beyond a reasonable doubt, that defendants themselves shot and killed the policeman. The jury would be free to disbelieve all of the prosecutor’s evidence irrespective of whether there is any contrary evidence. People v Wichman, 15 Mich App 110; 166 NW2d 298 (1968). We cannot say, beyond a reasonable doubt, that the jury found that defendants killed Schmedding. They were not required to so find. They were required to find only that "the killing was a direct cause or result of the perpetration or attempt to perpetrate a felony”. Defendants’ other contention is that the submission to the jury of four bullets in an envelope marked "fatal, Patrolman W. S.” without introducing the bullets into evidence requires reversal. We do not agree. It is unfortunate that such an incident occurred, but defendants have failed to show any prejudice. They are required to do so, even by the cases they cite. We also fail to see how defendants could have been prejudiced in this case, since defendants admit that Officer Schmedding was killed in the affray, and under People v Podolski, supra, it matters not whose gun fired the bullets in question. Affirmed. All concurred. MCLA 750.316; MSA 28.548. 332 Mich 508; 52 NW2d 201 (1952); cert den 344 US 845; 73 S Ct 62; 97 L Ed 657; reh den 344 US 888, 73 S Ct 185; 97 L Ed 687 (1952). Podolski, supra, 332 Mich 514r-515; 52 NW2d 204. 1939 PL 872, §701; 18 PS, §4701, was duplicated by MCLA 750.316; MSA 28.548. 362 Pa 596; 68 A2d 595 (1949); 12 ALK2d 183 (1949); cert den 339 US 924; 70 S Ct 614; 94 L Ed 1346 (1950); reh den 339 US 950; 70 S Ct 798; 94 L Ed 1364 (1950). 382 Pa 639; 117 A2d 204 (1955). Perhaps the most widely cited criticism, and one that obviously influenced the Redline, infra, court is Morris, The Felon’s Responsibility for the Lethal Acts of Others, 105 U Pa L R 50 (1956). 391 Pa 486; 137 A2d 472 (1958). Redline, supra, at 391 Pa 495; 137 A2d 476. Id. at 391 Pa 510; 137 A2d 483. Id. at 391 Pa 490; 137 A2d 473. This distinction was renounced in Commonwealth ex rel Smith v Myers, infra, a case discussed later in this opinion. The author of this opinion has some familiarity with People v Austin, 370 Mich 12; 120 NW2d 766 (1963), since he was defense counsel in both the trial court and the Michigan Supreme Court. In People v Carter, 387 Mich 397; 197 NW2d 57 (1972), the Court read Austin as follows: "[TJo constitute murder, even though malice may be implied from felonious acts, the killing must be attributable to the accused. So, in People v Austin, 370 Mich 12 (1963), the killing of one of three robbers by the victim of the attempted robbery was held to be justifiable homicide. It was not a killing committed by the felons." People v Carter, supra, 422. (Emphasis supplied.) Austin, supra, at 370 Mich 32-33; 120 NW2d 775. 438 Pa 218; 261 A2d 550; 56 ALR3d 217 (1970). Smith, supra, at 438 Pa 227-228; 261 A2d 555; 56 ALR3d 224.
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Garland, J. The land here involved is located in Van Burén Township, Wayne County, Michigan. The total acreage is approximately 100 acres. The property runs along the east side of Rawsonville Road, a paved, hardtopped road with one lane running in each direction which connects with 1-94 and is one of the main north and south highways of Van Burén Township. There is a frontage of 3,000 feet on Rawsonville Road and the property is bisected by Bog Road which runs east and west. Immediately to the west Ypsilanti Township is zoned for heavy industry and farther west lies the property of Ford Motor Company Parts Manufacturing and Storage Plant. To the north, south and east of the property is vacant or agricultural land with certain acreage having residences on the front of the land. To the north there are isolated medium priced homes along Rawsonville Road and Bog Road. The Wabash Railroad runs about a mile and a half south of the property. A contemplated change in the runways of Willow Run Airport (located immediately north of the land) will result in a flight pattern over the property here involved, bringing with it problems of air and noise pollution. As a result of the lack of sewer facilities, there is no development in the general area and no platted single family residential subdivisions in the area. There are no public sewers available to the occupants of this property and no plans for installation of public sewers by the township. The subject land is presently zoned R-1A single family, with a minimum lot size for dwelling units of 20,000 square feet if public water and sewer are used and one acre if no public water or sewer is used. These requirements result in low density housing. The property has been owned by plaintiffs and their families since sometime in the 1920’s, during which time it has never been farmed or used for any other purpose, although attempts have been made to develop it. The land has been up for sale for the past 15 years. Having sought advice and studied their problems, the plaintiffs decided to develop a mobile home park and in accordance with this decision applied to the township board for rezoning. The application for rezoning was denied and in 1971 the plaintiffs brought the present action, alleging the zoning ordinance of Van Burén Township, as it applied to plaintiffs’ property, (1) to be confiscatory and (2) that the ordinance insofar as it restricted the use of plaintiffs’ property for mobile park purposes was unconstitutional in that it bore no reasonable relationship to the public health, safety and welfare of the township. Plaintiffs produced proofs to the effect that the property could not be feasibly developed under the present zoning restrictions. Two expert witnesses, well-versed in land development questions, testified that the single family residential zoning restriction precluded any economically defensible use of the property. They also agreed that the best use of the subject property was consistent with the use proposed by plaintiffs: industrial or multiple family housing. Other evidence was introduced which tended to show that the land was of little value as farm property and indeed had no value except for speculative purposes under present restrictions. The defendant offered evidence that permissible uses of the property under present restrictions included agricultural use, playgrounds, churches, golf, schools. Upon special approval the property could be used for nursery schools, private stables and the raising of poultry. In an opinion filed after the submission of briefs, the trial court made the following findings: (1) that under the current zoning, and as it has been for some time, the subject land is almost valueless except for land speculation. (2) It would appear to the court that plaintiffs are being completely deprived of any economic use of their land under the present zoning as it applies to such land. (3) That the proofs clearly indicate that use of such land for either multiple housing or for a mobile home park are the only reasonable uses to which the property might be put and that to continue the present zoning would constitute an unlawful depri vation of economic use by the plaintiffs of their land. (4) That the present zoning of the subject property bears no reasonable relationship to public health, safety, morals or general welfare. While we view and consider the record de novo, from a careful reading and consideration of such record here made, we conclude that the trial judge made the correct findings. The proposed use would not interfere with the uses to which surrounding land is now being put. Constructive land use is a virtual impossibility under present conditions, according to uncontradicted expert testimony. Previous attempts to develop the land in accordance with zoning restrictions have failed. Even sale of the land has been unsuccessful. Enforcement of the present restrictions would assure maintenance of the status quo —100 acres of vacant and undeveloped but potentially useful land — while refusal to enforce the restrictions would enable plaintiffs to put their land to use by proceeding with a carefully planned development scheme which the trial judge reasonably found to be consistent with public health, safety, morals and general welfare. The recent case of Kropf v Sterling Heights, 391 Mich 139; 215 NW2d 179 (1974), provides the benchmark by which we must assess the proceedings below. A zoning ordinance is presumptively constitutional. Kropf, supra, at 162. However, it must meet the test of reasonableness. Id., at 157. The party attacking the ordinance has the burden of proving that the ordinance does not pass constitutional muster. Id., at 156. In the words of the Kropf Court: "[T]o sustain an attack on a zoning ordinance, an aggrieved property owner must show that if the ordinance is enforced the consequent restrictions on his property preclude its use for any purposes to which it is reasonably adapted.” Kropf, supra, at 162-163. The trial judge in the present case concluded that the plaintiffs sustained their burden of proof. He found that the zoning ordinance under attack prevented plaintiffs from using their property for the only purpose to which it was reasonably adapted. His findings are entitled to considerable weight on review. Kropf, supra, at 163. There is ample support in the record for those findings and we are unable to conclude, after careful consideration of the record, that we would have arrived at a different result. We further find the other issues raised by the defendant, namely: (a) the findings of the trial court were against the great weight of the evidence, (b) the court erred as to the extent of relief granted to plaintiffs, (c) that the plaintiffs’ failure to follow the statutory procedure for rezoning bars them from attacking the constitutionality of this ordinance in a court of equity, all to be without merit. Accordingly, we adhere to the mandate of Kropf v Sterling Heights, supra, and affirm. All concurred. The trial judge, purposely avoiding the burden of proof question, found that even if the plaintiffs have the burden of proof — as defendant asserted — that burden had been sustained in the present case.
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