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# Food preservation
## Traditional techniques {#traditional_techniques}
### Cooling
Cooling preserves food by slowing down the growth and reproduction of microorganisms and the action of enzymes that causes the food to rot. The introduction of commercial and domestic refrigerators drastically improved the diets of many in the Western world by allowing food such as fresh fruit, salads and dairy products to be stored safely for longer periods, particularly during warm weather.
Before the era of mechanical refrigeration, cooling for food storage occurred in the forms of root cellars and iceboxes. Rural people often did their own ice cutting, whereas town and city dwellers often relied on the ice trade. Today, root cellaring remains popular among people who value various goals, including local food, heirloom crops, traditional home cooking techniques, family farming, frugality, self-sufficiency, organic farming, and others.
### Curing
*Main article: Curing (food preservation)* The earliest form of curing was dehydration or drying, used as early as 12,000 BC. Smoking and salting techniques improve on the drying process and add antimicrobial agents that aid in preservation. Smoke deposits a number of pyrolysis products onto the food, including the phenols syringol, guaiacol and catechol. Salt accelerates the drying process using osmosis and also inhibits the growth of several common strains of bacteria. More recently nitrites have been used to cure meat, contributing a characteristic pink colour.
In 2015, the International Agency for Research on Cancer of the World Health Organization classified processed meat---i.e., meat that has undergone salting, curing, and smoking---as \"carcinogenic to humans\".
### Fermentation
Some foods, such as many cheeses, wines, and beers, are prepared by fermentation. This involves cultivating specific microorganisms to combat spoilage from other, less benign organisms. These microorganisms keep pathogens in check by producing acid or alcohol, which eventually creates an environment toxic for themselves and other microorganisms.
Methods of fermentation include, but are not limited to, starter microorganisms, salt, hops, controlled (usually cool) temperatures and controlled (usually low) levels of oxygen. These methods are used to create the specific controlled conditions that will support the desirable organisms that produce food fit for human consumption. Fermentation is the microbial conversion of starch and sugars into alcohol. Not only can fermentation produce alcohol, but it can also be a valuable preservation technique. Fermentation can also make foods more nutritious and palatable.
Water was also turned into alcoholic beverages through fermentation. When water is used to make beer, the boiling during the brewing process may kill bacteria that could make people sick. The barley and other ingredients also infuse the drink with nutrients, and the microorganisms can also produce vitamins as they ferment. However, the common belief that premodern people avoided drinking ordinary water is a myth. While people avoided drinking dirty or polluted water, they also avoided using it for the production of beer and wine. Water was visually inspected, smelled, tasted, filtered, and boiled if necessary. It was used for drinking as well as for diluting wine, cooking, and many other processes.
### Freezing
Freezing is also one of the most commonly used processes, both commercially and domestically, for preserving a very wide range of foods, including prepared foods that would not have required freezing in their unprepared state. For example, potato waffles are stored in the freezer, but potatoes themselves require only a cool dark place to ensure many months\' storage. Cold stores provide large-volume, long-term storage for strategic food stocks held in case of national emergency in many countries.
### Heating
Heating to temperatures which are sufficient to kill microorganisms inside the food is a method used with perpetual stews.
### Jellying
Food may be preserved by cooking in a material that solidifies to form a gel. Such materials include gelatin, agar, maize flour, and arrowroot flour.
Some animal flesh forms a protein gel when cooked. Eels and elvers, and sipunculid worms, are a delicacy in Xiamen, China, as are jellied eels in the East End of London, where they are eaten with mashed potatoes. British cuisine has a rich tradition of potted meats. Meat off-cuts were, until the 1950s, preserved in aspic, a gel made from gelatin and clarified meat broth. Another form of preservation is setting the cooked food in a container and covering it with a layer of fat. Potted chicken liver can be prepared in this way, and so can potted shrimps, to be served on toast. Calf\'s foot jelly used to be prepared for invalids.
Jellying is one of the steps in producing traditional pâtés. Many jugged meats (see below) are also jellied.
Another type of jellying is fruit preserves, which are preparations of cooked fruits, vegetables and sugar, often stored in glass jam jars and Mason jars. Many varieties of fruit preserves are made globally, including sweet fruit preserves, such as those made from strawberry or apricot, and savory preserves, such as those made from tomatoes or squash. The ingredients used and how they are prepared determine the type of preserves; jams, jellies, and marmalades are all examples of different styles of fruit preserves that vary based upon the fruit used. In English, the word *preserves*, in plural form, is used to describe all types of jams and jellies.
### Jugging
Meat can be preserved by jugging. Jugging is the process of stewing the meat (commonly game or fish) in a covered earthenware jug or casserole. The animal to be jugged is usually cut into pieces, placed into a tightly sealed jug with brine or gravy, and stewed. Red wine and/or the animal\'s own blood is sometimes added to the cooking liquid. Jugging was a popular method of preserving meat up until the middle of the 20th century.
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# Food preservation
## Traditional techniques {#traditional_techniques}
### *Kangina*
In rural Afghanistan, grapes are preserved in disc-shaped vessels made of mud and straw, called *kangina*. The vessels, which can preserve fresh grapes for up to 6 months, passively control their internal environments to restrict gas exchange and water loss, prolonging the lives of late-harvested grapes stored within them.
### Lye
Sodium hydroxide (lye) makes food too alkaline for bacterial growth. Lye will saponify fats in the food, which will change its flavor and texture. Lutefisk uses lye in its preparation, as do some olive recipes. Modern recipes for century eggs also call for lye.
### Pickling
Pickling is a method of preserving food in an edible, antimicrobial liquid. Pickling can be broadly classified into two categories: chemical pickling and fermentation pickling.
In chemical pickling, the food is placed in an edible liquid that inhibits or kills bacteria and other microorganisms. Typical pickling agents include brine (high in salt), vinegar, alcohol, and vegetable oil. Many chemical pickling processes also involve heating or boiling so that the food being preserved becomes saturated with the pickling agent. Common chemically pickled foods include cucumbers, peppers, corned beef, herring, and eggs, as well as mixed vegetables such as piccalilli.
In fermentation pickling, bacteria in the liquid produce organic acids as preservation agents, typically by a process that produces lactic acid through the presence of lactobacillales. Fermented pickles include sauerkraut, nukazuke, kimchi, and surströmming.
### Sugaring
The earliest cultures have used sugar as a preservative, and it was commonplace to store fruit in honey. \"Sugar tends to draw water from the microbes (plasmolysis). This process leaves the microbial cells dehydrated, thus killing them. In this way, the food will remain safe from microbial spoilage.\"
In northern climates without sufficient sun to dry foods, preserves are made by heating the fruit with sugar. Sugar is used to preserve fruits, either in an antimicrobial syrup with fruit such as apples, pears, peaches, apricots, and plums, or in crystallized form where the preserved material is cooked in sugar to the point of crystallization and the resultant product is then stored dry. The latter method is used for the skins of citrus fruit (candied peel), angelica, and ginger.
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# Food preservation
## Modern industrial techniques {#modern_industrial_techniques}
Techniques of food preservation were developed in research laboratories for commercial applications.
### Aseptic processing {#aseptic_processing}
Aseptic processing works by placing sterilized food (typically by heat, see ultra-high temperature processing) into sterlized packaging material under sterile conditions. The result is a sealed, sterile food product similar to canned food, but depending on the technique used, damage to food quality is typically reduced compared to canned food. A greater variety of packaging materials can be used as well.
Besides UHT, aseptic processing may be used in conjunction with any of the microbe-reduction technologies listed below. With pasteurization and \"high pressure pasteurization\", the food may not be completely sterilized (instead achieving a specified log reduction), but the use of sterile packaging and environments is retained.
### Pasteurization
Pasteurization is a process for preservation of liquid food. It was originally applied to combat the souring of young local wines. Today, the process is mainly applied to dairy products. In this method, milk is heated at about 70 C for 15--30 seconds to kill the bacteria present in it and cooling it quickly to 10 C to prevent the remaining bacteria from growing. The milk is then stored in sterilized bottles or pouches in cold places. This method was invented by Louis Pasteur, a French chemist, in 1862.
### Vacuum packing {#vacuum_packing}
Vacuum-packing stores food in a vacuum environment, usually in an air-tight bag or bottle. The vacuum environment strips bacteria of oxygen needed for survival. Vacuum-packing is commonly used for storing nuts to reduce loss of flavor from oxidization. A major drawback to vacuum packaging, at the consumer level, is that vacuum sealing can deform contents and rob certain foods, such as cheese, of its flavor.
### Freeze drying {#freeze_drying}
### Preservatives
Preservative food additives can be *antimicrobial* -- which inhibit the growth of bacteria or fungi, including mold -- or *antioxidant*, such as oxygen absorbers, which inhibit the oxidation of food constituents. Common antimicrobial preservatives include nisin, sorbates, calcium propionate, sodium nitrate/nitrite, sulfites (sulfur dioxide, sodium bisulfite, potassium hydrogen sulfite, etc.), EDTA, hinokitiol, and ε-polylysine. Antioxidants include tocopherols (Vitamin E), butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT). Other preservatives include ethanol.
There is also another approach of impregnating packaging materials (plastic films or other) with antioxidants and antimicrobials.
### Irradiation
Irradiation of food is the exposure of food to ionizing radiation. Multiple types of ionizing radiation can be used, including beta particles (high-energy electrons) and gamma rays (emitted from radioactive sources such as cobalt-60 or cesium-137). Irradiation can kill bacteria, molds, and insect pests, reduce the ripening and spoiling of fruits, and at higher doses induce sterility. The technology may be compared to pasteurization; it is sometimes called \"cold pasteurization\", as the product is not heated. Irradiation may allow lower-quality or contaminated foods to be rendered marketable.
National and international expert bodies have declared food irradiation as \"wholesome\"; organizations of the United Nations, such as the World Health Organization and Food and Agriculture Organization, endorse food irradiation. Consumers may have a negative view of irradiated food based on the misconception that such food is radioactive; in fact, irradiated food does not and cannot become radioactive. Activists have also opposed food irradiation for other reasons, for example, arguing that irradiation can be used to sterilize contaminated food without resolving the underlying cause of the contamination. International legislation on whether food may be irradiated or not varies worldwide from no regulation to a full ban.
Approximately 500,000 tons of food items are irradiated per year worldwide in over 40 countries. These are mainly spices and condiments, with an increasing segment of fresh fruit irradiated for fruit fly quarantine.
### Pulsed electric field electroporation {#pulsed_electric_field_electroporation}
Pulsed electric field (PEF) electroporation is a method for processing cells by means of brief pulses of a strong electric field. PEF holds potential as a type of low-temperature alternative pasteurization process for sterilizing food products. In PEF processing, a substance is placed between two electrodes, then the pulsed electric field is applied. The electric field enlarges the pores of the cell membranes, which kills the cells and releases their contents. PEF for food processing is a developing technology still being researched. There have been limited industrial applications of PEF processing for the pasteurization of fruit juices. To date, several PEF treated juices are available on the market in Europe. Furthermore, for several years a juice pasteurization application in the US has used PEF. For cell disintegration purposes especially potato processors show great interest in PEF technology as an efficient alternative for their preheaters. Potato applications are already operational in the US and Canada. There are also commercial PEF potato applications in various countries in Europe, as well as in Australia, India, and China.
### Modified atmosphere {#modified_atmosphere}
Modifying atmosphere is a way to preserve food by operating on the atmosphere around it. It is often used to package:
- Fresh fruits and vegetables, especially salds crops, which contain living cells that respire even while refrigerated. Reducing oxygen (`{{chem2|O2}}`{=mediawiki}) concentration and increasing the carbon dioxide (`{{CO2}}`{=mediawiki}) concentration slows down their respiration, conserves stored energy, and therefore increases shelf life. High humidity is also used to reduce water loss.
- Red meat, which needs high `{{chem2|O2}}`{=mediawiki} to reduce oxidation of myoglobin and maintain an attractive bright red color of the meat.
- Other meat and fish, which uses higher `{{chem2|CO2}}`{=mediawiki} to reduce oxidation and slow down some microbes.
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# Food preservation
## Modern industrial techniques {#modern_industrial_techniques}
### Nonthermal plasma {#nonthermal_plasma}
This process subjects the surface of food to a \"flame\" of ionized gas molecules, such as helium or nitrogen. This causes micro-organisms to die off on the surface.
### High-pressure food preservation {#high_pressure_food_preservation}
High pressure can be used to disable harmful microorganisms and spoilage enzymes while retaining the food\'s fresh appearance, flavor, texture and nutrients. By 2005, the process was being used for products ranging from orange juice to guacamole to deli meats and widely sold. Depending on temperature and pressure settings, HP processing can achieve either pasteurization-equivalent log reduction or go all the way to achieve sterilization of all microbes.
### Biopreservation
*Main article: Biopreservation*
Biopreservation is the use of natural or controlled microbiota or antimicrobials as a way of preserving food and extending its shelf life. Beneficial bacteria or the fermentation products produced by these bacteria are used in biopreservation to control spoilage and render pathogens inactive in food. It is a benign ecological approach which is gaining increasing attention.
Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) have antagonistic properties that make them particularly useful as biopreservatives. When LABs compete for nutrients, their metabolites often include active antimicrobials such as lactic acid, acetic acid, hydrogen peroxide, and peptide bacteriocins. Some LABs produce the antimicrobial nisin, which is a particularly effective preservative.
LAB bacteriocins are used in the present day as an integral part of hurdle technology. Using them in combination with other preservative techniques can effectively control spoilage bacteria and other pathogens, and can inhibit the activities of a wide spectrum of organisms, including inherently resistant Gram-negative bacteria.
### Hurdle technology {#hurdle_technology}
Hurdle technology is a method of ensuring that pathogens in food products can be eliminated or controlled by combining more than one approach. These approaches can be thought of as \"hurdles\" the pathogen has to overcome if it is to remain active in the food. The right combination of hurdles can ensure all pathogens are eliminated or rendered harmless in the final product.
Hurdle technology has been defined by Leistner (2000) as an intelligent combination of hurdles that secures the microbial safety and stability as well as the organoleptic and nutritional quality and the economic viability of food products. The organoleptic quality of the food refers to its sensory properties, that is its look, taste, smell, and texture.
Examples of hurdles in a food system are high temperature during processing, low temperature during storage, increasing the acidity, lowering the water activity or redox potential, and the presence of preservatives or biopreservatives. According to the type of pathogens and how risky they are, the intensity of the hurdles can be adjusted individually to meet consumer preferences in an economical way, without sacrificing the safety of the product
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# Faith and rationality
**Faith and rationality** exist in varying degrees of conflict or compatibility. Rationality is based on reason or facts. Faith is belief in inspiration, revelation, or authority. The word *faith* sometimes refers to a belief that is held in spite of or against reason or empirical evidence, or it can refer to belief based upon a degree of evidential warrant.
## Relationship between faith and reason {#relationship_between_faith_and_reason}
Rationalists point out that many people hold irrational beliefs, for many reasons. There may be evolutionary causes for irrational beliefs---irrational beliefs may increase our ability to survive and reproduce.
One more reason for irrational beliefs can perhaps be explained by operant conditioning. For example, in one study by B. F. Skinner in 1948, pigeons were awarded grain at regular time intervals regardless of their behaviour. The result was that each of the pigeons developed their own idiosyncratic response which had become associated with the consequence of receiving grain.
Believers in the value of faith---for example those who believe salvation is possible through faith alone---frequently suggest that everyone holds beliefs arrived at by faith, not reason.
One form of belief held \"by faith\" may be seen existing in a faith as based on warrant. In this view some degree of evidence provides warrant for faith; it consists in other words in \"explain\[ing\] great things by small.\"
## Christianity
### `{{Anchor|Views of the Roman Catholic Church}}`{=mediawiki}Catholic views {#catholic_views}
Thomas Aquinas was the first to write a full treatment of the relationship, differences, and similarities between faith, which he calls \"an intellectual assent\", and reason.
*Dei Filius* was a dogmatic constitution of the First Vatican Council on the Roman Catholic faith. It was adopted unanimously on 24 April 1870. It states that \"not only can faith and reason never be opposed to one another, but they are of mutual aid one to the other\".
Recent popes have spoken about faith and rationality: *Fides et ratio*, an encyclical letter promulgated by Pope John Paul II on 14 September 1998, deals with the relationship between faith and reason. Pope Benedict XVI\'s Regensburg lecture, delivered on 12 September 2006, was on the subject of \"faith, reason and the university\".
### Lutheran views {#lutheran_views}
### Reformed views {#reformed_views}
Alvin Plantinga upholds that faith may be the result of evidence testifying to the reliability of the source of truth claims, but although it may involve this, he sees faith as being the result of hearing the truth of the gospel with the internal persuasion by the Holy Spirit moving and enabling him to believe. \"Christian belief is produced in the believer by the internal instigation of the Holy Spirit, endorsing the teachings of Scripture, which is itself divinely inspired by the Holy Spirit. The result of the work of the Holy Spirit is faith.\"
### Evangelical views {#evangelical_views}
American biblical scholar Archibald Thomas Robertson stated that the Greek word *pistis* used for faith in the New Testament (over two hundred forty times), and rendered \"assurance\" in Acts 17:31 (KJV), is \"an old verb to furnish, used regularly by Demosthenes for bringing forward evidence.\" Likewise Tom Price (Oxford Centre for Christian Apologetics) affirms that when the New Testament talks about faith positively it only uses words derived from the Greek root \[pistis\] which means \"to be persuaded.\"
In contrast to faith meaning blind trust, in the absence of evidence, even in the teeth of evidence, Alister McGrath quotes Oxford Anglican theologian W. H. Griffith-Thomas (1861--1924), who states faith is \"not blind, but intelligent\" and \"commences with the conviction of the mind based on adequate evidence\", which McGrath sees as \"a good and reliable definition, synthesizing the core elements of the characteristic Christian understanding of faith.\"
## Jewish views {#jewish_views}
The 14th-century Jewish philosopher Levi ben Gerson tried to reconcile faith and reason. He wrote: \"the Law cannot prevent us from considering to be true that which our reason urges us to believe
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# F wave
In neuroscience, an **F wave** is one of several motor responses which may follow the direct motor response (M) evoked by electrical stimulation of peripheral motor or mixed (sensory and motor) nerves. F-waves are the second of two late voltage changes observed after stimulation is applied to the skin surface above the distal region of a nerve, in addition to the H-reflex (Hoffman\'s Reflex) which is a muscle reaction in response to electrical stimulation of innervating sensory fibers. Traversal of F-waves along the entire length of peripheral nerves between the spinal cord and muscle, allows for assessment of motor nerve conduction between distal stimulation sites in the arm and leg, and related motoneurons (MN\'s) in the cervical and lumbosacral cord. F-waves are able to assess both afferent and efferent loops of the alpha motor neuron in its entirety. As such, various properties of F-wave motor nerve conduction are analyzed in nerve conduction studies (NCS), and often used to assess polyneuropathies, resulting from states of neuronal demyelination and loss of peripheral axonal integrity.
With respect to its nomenclature, the F-wave is so named as it was initially studied in the smaller muscles of the foot. The observation of F-waves in the same motor units (MU) as those present in the direct motor response (M), along with the presence of F-waves in deafferented animal and human models, indicates that F-waves require direct activation of motor axons to be elicited, and do not involve conduction along afferent sensory nerves. Thus, the F-wave is considered a wave, as opposed to a reflex.
## Physiology
F-waves are evoked by strong electrical stimuli (supramaximal) applied to the skin surface above the distal portion of a nerve. This impulse travels both in orthodromic fashion (towards the muscle fibers) and antidromic fashion (towards the cell body in the spinal cord) along the alpha motor neuron. As the orthodromic impulse reaches innervated muscle fibers, a strong direct motor response (M) is evoked in these muscle fibers, resulting in a primary compound muscle action potential (CMAP). As the antidromic impulse reaches the cell bodies within the anterior horn of the motor neuron pool by retrograde transmission, a select portion of these alpha motor neurons, (roughly 5-10% of available motor neurons), \'backfire\' or rebound. This antidromic \'backfiring\' elicits an orthodromic impulse that follows back down the alpha motor neuron, towards innervated muscle fibers. Conventionally, axonal segments of motor neurons previously depolarized by preceding antidromic impulses enter a hyperpolarized state, disallowing the travel of impulses along them. However, these same axonal segments remains excitable or relatively depolarized for a sufficient period of time, allowing for rapid antidromic backfiring, and thus the continuation of the orthodromic impulse towards innervated muscle fibers. This successive orthodromic stimulus then evokes a smaller population of muscle fibers, resulting in a smaller CMAP known as an F-wave.
Several physiological factors may possibly influence the presence of F-waves after peripheral nerve stimulation. The shape and size of F-waves, along with the probability of their presence is small, as a high degree of variability exists in motor unit (MU) activation for any given stimulation. Thus, the generation of CMAP\'s which elicit F-waves is subject to the variability in activation of motor units in a given pool over successive stimuli. Moreover, stimulation of peripheral nerve fibers account for both orthodromic impulses (along sensory fibers, towards the dorsal horn), as well as antidromic activity (along alpha motor neurons towards the ventral horn). Antidromic activity along collateral branches of alpha motor neurons may result in the activation of inhibitory Renshaw cells or direct inhibitory collaterals between motorneurons. Inhibition by these means may lower excitability of adjacent motor neurons and decrease the potential for antidromic backfiring and resultant F-waves; although it has been argued Renshaw cells preferentially inhibit smaller alpha motor neurons limited influence on modulation of antidromic backfiring.
Because a different population of anterior horn cells is stimulated with each stimulation, F waves are characterized as ubiquitous, low amplitude, late motor responses, which can vary in amplitude, latency and configuration across a series of stimuli.
## Properties
F waves can be analyzed by several properties including:
- *amplitude* (μV) - height or voltage of F wave
- *duration* (ms) - length of F wave
- *latency* (ms) - period between initial stimulation and F wave elicitation
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# F wave
## Measurements
Several measurements can be done on the F responses, including:
- *minimal and maximal F wave latencies (ms) -* frequently used in the assessment of demyelinating neuropathic conditions including Guillain-Barré syndrome.
- *chronodispersion -* difference in maximal and minimal latencies across a series of F waves
- *F wave persistence -* measure of alpha motor neuron excitability calculated as the number of F responses elicited divided by the number of stimuli presented.
The minimal F wave latency is typically 25-32 ms in the upper extremities and 45-56 ms in the lower extremities.
F wave persistence is the number of F waves obtained per the number of stimulations, which is normally 80-100% (or above 50%)
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# French materialism
**French materialism** is the name given to a handful of French 18th-century philosophers during the Age of Enlightenment, many of them clustered around the salon of Baron d\'Holbach. Although there are important differences between them, all of them were materialists who believed that the world was made up of a single substance, matter, the motions and properties of which could be used to explain all phenomena
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# February
FEB}} `{{pp-move}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Calendar}}`{=mediawiki}
**February** is the second month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars. The month has 28 days in common years and 29 in leap years, with the 29th day being called the *leap day*. February is the third and last month of meteorological winter in the Northern Hemisphere. In the Southern Hemisphere, February is the third and last month of meteorological summer, being the seasonal equivalent of August in the Northern Hemisphere.
## Pronunciation
\"February\" can be pronounced in several different ways. The beginning of the word is commonly pronounced either as `{{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-February.ogg|ˈ|f|ɛ|b|j|u|-}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|FEB|yoo|-}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{IPAc-en|ˈ|f|ɛ|b|r|u|-}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|FEB|roo|-}}`{=mediawiki}; many people drop the first \"r\", replacing it with `{{IPAc-en|j}}`{=mediawiki}, as if it were spelled \"Febuary\". This comes about by analogy with \"January\" (`{{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-January.ogg|ˈ|dʒ|æ|n|.|j|u|-}}`{=mediawiki}), as well as by a dissimilation effect whereby having two \"r\"s close to each other causes one to change. The ending of the word is pronounced `{{IPAc-en|-|ɛr|i}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|-|err|ee}}`{=mediawiki} in the US and `{{IPAc-en|-|ər|i}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|-|ər|ee}}`{=mediawiki} in the UK.
## History
The Roman month *\[\[Februarius\]\]* was named after the Latin term *februum*, which means \"purification\", via the purification ritual *\[\[Februa\]\]* held on February 15 (full moon) in the old lunar Roman calendar. January and February were the last two months to be added to the Roman calendar, since the Romans originally considered winter a monthless period of the year. They were added by Numa Pompilius about 713 BC. February remained the last month of the calendar year until the time of the decemvirs (c. 450 BC), when it became the second month. At certain times February was truncated to 23 or 24 days, and a 27-day intercalary month, Intercalaris, was occasionally inserted immediately after February to realign the year with the seasons.
February observances in Ancient Rome included Amburbium (precise date unknown), Sementivae (February 2), Februa (February 13--15), Lupercalia (February 13--15), Parentalia (February 13--22), Quirinalia (February 17), Feralia (February 21), Caristia (February 22), Terminalia (February 23), Regifugium (February 24), and Agonium Martiale (February 27). These days do not correspond to the modern Gregorian calendar.
Under the reforms that instituted the Julian calendar, Intercalaris was abolished, leap years occurred regularly every fourth year, and in leap years February gained a 29th day. Thereafter, it remained the second month of the calendar year, meaning the order that months are displayed (January, February, March, \..., December) within a year-at-a-glance calendar. Even during the Middle Ages, when the numbered Anno Domini year began on March 25 or December 25, the second month was February whenever all twelve months were displayed in order. The Gregorian calendar reforms made slight changes to the system for determining which years were leap years, but also contained a 29-day February.
Historical names for February include the Old English terms Solmonath (mud month) and Kale-monath (named for cabbage) as well as Charlemagne\'s designation Hornung. In Finnish, the month is called *helmikuu*, meaning \"month of the pearl\"; when snow melts on tree branches, it forms droplets, and as these freeze again, they are like pearls of ice. In Polish and Ukrainian, respectively, the month is called *luty* or *лютий* (`{{transliteration|uk|lyutiy}}`{=mediawiki}), meaning the month of ice or hard frost. In Macedonian the month is `{{transliteration|mk|sečko}}`{=mediawiki} (*сечко*), meaning month of cutting (wood). In Czech, it is called *únor*, meaning month of submerging (of river ice).
In Slovene, February is traditionally called *svečan*, related to icicles or Candlemas. This name originates from *sičan*, written as *svičan* in the *New Carniolan Almanac* from 1775 and changed to its final form by Franc Metelko in his *New Almanac* from 1824. The name was also spelled *sečan*, meaning \"the month of cutting down of trees\". In 1848, a proposal was put forward in *Kmetijske in rokodelske novice* by the Slovene Society of Ljubljana to call this month *talnik* (related to ice melting), but it did not stick. The idea was proposed by a priest, Blaž Potočnik. Another name of February in Slovene was *vesnar*, after the mythological character Vesna.
## Patterns
Having only 28 days in common years, February is the only month of the year that can pass without a single full moon. Using Coordinated Universal Time as the basis for determining the date and time of a full moon, this last happened in 2018 and will next happen in 2037. The same is true regarding a new moon: again using Coordinated Universal Time as the basis, this last happened in 2014 and will next happen in 2033.
February is also the only month of the calendar that, at intervals alternating between one of six years and two of eleven years, has exactly four full 7-day weeks. In countries that start their week on a Monday, it occurs as part of a common year starting on Friday, in which February 1st is a Monday and the 28th is a Sunday; the most recent occurrence was 2021, and the next one will be 2027. In countries that start their week on a Sunday, it occurs in a common year starting on Thursday; the most recent occurrence was 2015 and the next occurrence will be 2026. The pattern is broken by a skipped leap year, but no leap year has been skipped since 1900 and no others will be skipped until 2100.
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# February
## Astronomy
February meteor showers include the Alpha Centaurids (appearing in early February), the March Virginids (lasting from February 14 to April 25, peaking around March 20), the Delta Cancrids (appearing December 14 to February 14, peaking on January 17), the Omicron Centaurids (late January through February, peaking in mid-February), Theta Centaurids (January 23 -- March 12, only visible in the southern hemisphere), Eta Virginids (February 24 and March 27, peaking around March 18), and Pi Virginids (February 13 and April 8, peaking between March 3 and March 9).
## Symbols
The zodiac signs of February are Aquarius (until February 18) and Pisces (February 19 onward).
Its birth flowers are the violet (*Viola*), the common primrose (*Primula vulgaris*), and the Iris. Its birthstone is the amethyst, which symbolizes piety, humility, spiritual wisdom, and sincerity.
## Observances
*This list does not necessarily imply either official status nor general observance.*
### Month-long {#month_long}
- In Catholic tradition, February is the Month of the Purification of the Blessed Virgin Mary.
- American Heart Month (United States)
- Black History Month (United States, Canada)
- National Bird-Feeding Month (United States)
- National Children\'s Dental Health Month (United States)
- Season for Nonviolence: January 30 -- April 4 (International observance)
- Turner Syndrome Awareness Month (United States)
- LGBT History Month (United Kingdom, Ireland)
### Non-Gregorian {#non_gregorian}
*(All Baha\'i, Islamic, and Jewish observances begin at the sundown prior to the date listed, and end at sundown of the date in question unless otherwise noted.)*
- List of observances set by the Bahá\'í calendar
- List of observances set by the Chinese calendar
- List of observances set by the Hebrew calendar
- List of observances set by the Islamic calendar
- List of observances set by the Solar Hijri calendar
### Movable
- Food Freedom Day (Canada): Date changes each year
- Safer Internet Day: First day of second week
- National Day of the Sun (Argentina): Date varies based on province
**First Saturday**
- Ice Cream for Breakfast Day
**First Sunday**
- Mother\'s Day (Kosovo)
**First Week of February (first Monday, ending on Sunday)**
- World Interfaith Harmony Week
**First Monday**
- Constitution Day (Mexico)
- National Frozen Yogurt Day (United States)
**First Friday**
- National Wear Red Day (United States)
**Second Saturday**
- International Purple Hijab Day
**Second Sunday**
- Autism Sunday (United Kingdom)
- Children\'s Day (Cook Islands, Nauru, Niue, Tokelau, Cayman Islands)
- Mother\'s Day (Norway)
- Super Bowl Sunday (United States)
- World Marriage Day
**Second Monday**
- Meal Monday (Scotland)
**Second Tuesday**
- National Sports Day (Qatar)
**Week of February 22**
- National Engineers Week (U.S.)
**Third Monday**
- Family Day (Canada) (provinces of British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island.)
- President\'s Day/Washington\'s Birthday (United States)
**Third Thursday**
- Global Information Governance Day
**Third Friday**
- Yukon Heritage Day (Canada)
**Last Friday**
- International Stand Up to Bullying Day
**Last Saturday**
- Open That Bottle Night
**Last day of February**
- Rare Disease Day
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# February
## Observances
### Fixed
- February 1
- Abolition of Slavery Day (Mauritius)
- Air Force Day (Nicaragua)
- Federal Territory Day (Kuala Lumpur, Labuan and Putrajaya, Malaysia)
- Heroes\' Day (Rwanda)
- Imbolc (Ireland, Scotland, Isle of Man, and some Neopagan groups in the Northern hemisphere)
- Lammas (some Neopagan groups in the Southern hemisphere)
- Memorial Day of the Republic (Hungary)
- National Freedom Day (United States)
- February 2
- Anniversary of Treaty of Tartu (Estonia)
- Constitution Day (Philippines)
- Day of Youth (Azerbaijan)
- Feast of the Presentation of Jesus at the Temple (or Candlemas) (Western Christianity), and its related observances:
- A quarter day in the Christian liturgical calendar (due to Candlemas) (Scotland)
- Celebration of Yemanja (Candomblé)
- Groundhog Day (United States and Canada)
- Marmot Day (Alaska, United States)
- Inventor\'s Day (Thailand)
- National Tater Tot Day (United States)
- World Wetlands Day
- February 3
- Anniversary of The Day the Music Died (United States)
- Communist Party of Vietnam Foundation Anniversary (Vietnam)
- Day of the Virgin of Suyapa (Honduras)
- Heroes\' Day (Mozambique)
- Martyrs\' Day (São Tomé and Príncipe)
- Setsubun (Japan)
- Veterans\' Day (Thailand)
- February 4
- Day of the Armed Struggle (Angola)
- Independence Day (Sri Lanka)
- Rosa Parks Day (California and Missouri, United States)
- World Cancer Day
- February 5
- Crown Princess Mary\'s birthday (Denmark)
- Kashmir Solidarity Day (Pakistan)
- Liberation Day (San Marino)
- National Weatherperson\'s Day (United States)
- Runeberg\'s Birthday (Finland)
- Unity Day (Burundi)
- February 6
- International Day of Zero Tolerance to Female Genital Mutilation
- Ronald Reagan Day (California, United States)
- Sami National Day (Russia, Finland, Norway and Sweden)
- Waitangi Day (New Zealand)
- February 7
- Independence Day (Grenada)
- February 8
- Parinirvana Day (some Mahayana Buddhist traditions, most celebrate on February 15)
- Prešeren Day (Slovenia)
- Propose Day
- February 9
- National Pizza Day (United States)
- St. Maroun\'s Day (Maronite Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, public holiday in Lebanon)
- February 10
- Feast of St. Paul\'s Shipwreck (Public holiday in Malta)
- Fenkil Day (Eritrea)
- National Memorial Day of the Exiles and Foibe (Italy)
- February 11
- 112 day (European Union)
- Armed Forces Day (Liberia)
- Day of Revenue Service (Azerbaijan)
- Evelio Javier Day (Panay Island, the Philippines)
- Feast day of Our Lady of Lourdes (Catholic Church), and its related observance:
- World Day of the Sick (Roman Catholic Church)
- Inventors\' Day (United States)
- National Foundation Day (Japan)
- Youth Day (Cameroon)
- February 12
- Darwin Day (International)
- Georgia Day (Georgia (U.S. state))
- International Day of Women\'s Health
- Lincoln\'s Birthday (United States)
- National Freedom to Marry Day (United States)
- Red Hand Day (United Nations)
- Sexual and Reproductive Health Awareness Day (Canada)
- Union Day (Myanmar)
- Youth Day (Venezuela)
- February 13
- Black Love Day (United States)
- Children\'s Day (Myanmar)
- World Radio Day
- February 14
- Statehood Day (Arizona, United States)
- Statehood Day (Oregon, United States)
- Presentation of Jesus at the Temple (Armenian Apostolic Church)
- V-Day (movement) (International)
- Valentine\'s Day (International)
- Singles Awareness Day
- February 15
- Candlemas (Eastern Orthodox Church)
- International Duties Memorial Day (Russia, regional)
- John Frum Day (Vanuatu)
- Liberation Day (Afghanistan)
- National Flag of Canada Day (Canada)
- National I Want Butterscotch Day (United States)
- Parinirvana Day (most Mahayana Buddhist traditions, some celebrate on February 8)
- Serbia\'s National Day
- Statehood Day (Serbia)
- Susan B. Anthony Day (United States)
- The ENIAC Day (Philadelphia, United States)
- Total Defence Day (Singapore)
- February 16
- Day of the Shining Star (North Korea)
- Restoration of Lithuania\'s Statehood Day (Lithuania)
- February 17
- Independence Day (Kosovo)
- Random Acts of Kindness Day (United States)
- Revolution Day (Libya)
- February 18
- National Democracy Day (Nepal)
- Dialect Day (Amami Islands, Japan)
- Independence Day (Gambia)
- Kurdish Students Union Day (Iraqi Kurdistan)
- Wife\'s Day (Iceland)
- February 19
- Armed Forces Day (Mexico)
- Brâncuși Day (Romania)
- Commemoration of Vasil Levski (Bulgaria)
- Flag Day (Turkmenistan)
- Shivaji Jayanti (Maharashtra, India)
- February 20
- Day of Heavenly Hundred Heroes (Ukraine)
- World Day of Social Justice
- February 21
- International Mother Language Day
- Language Movement Day (Bangladesh)
- February 22
- Feast of the Chair of Saint Peter (Roman Catholic Church)
- Independence Day (Saint Lucia)
- Founder\'s Day (Saudi Arabia)
- Founder\'s Day or \"B.-P
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# February 1
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# Fictional language
**Fictional languages** are the subset of constructed languages (conlangs) that have been created as part of a fictional setting (e.g. for use in a book, movie, television show, or video game). Typically they are the creation of one individual, while natural languages evolve out of a particular culture or people group, and other conlangs may have group involvement. Fictional languages are also distinct from natural languages in that they have no native speakers. By contrast, the constructed language of Esperanto now has native speakers.
Fictional languages are intended to be the languages of a fictional world and are often designed with the intent of giving more depth, and an appearance of plausibility, to the fictional worlds with which they are associated. The goal of the author may be to have their characters communicate in a fashion which is both alien and dislocated. Within their fictional world, these languages do function as natural languages, helping to identify certain races or people groups and set them apart from others.
While some less-formed fictional languages are created as distorted versions or dialects of a pre-existing natural language, many are independently designed conlangs with their own lexicon (some more robust than others) and rules of grammar. Some of the latter are fully formed enough to be learned as a speakable language, and many subcultures exist of those who are \'fluent\' in one or more of these fictional languages. Often after the creator of a fictional language has accomplished their task, the fandom of that fictional universe will pick up where the creator left off and continue to flesh out the language, making it more like a natural language and therefore more usable.
## Purpose
Fictional languages are separated from artistic languages by both purpose and relative completion: a fictional language often has the least amount of grammar and vocabulary possible, and rarely extends beyond the absolutely necessary. At the same time, some others have developed languages in detail for their own sake, such as J. R. R. Tolkien\'s Quenya and Sindarin (two Elvish languages), *Star Trek*{{\'}}s Klingon language and *Avatar*\'s Na\'vi language which exist as functioning, usable languages.
By analogy with the word \"conlang\", the term *conworld* is used to describe these fictional worlds, inhabited by fictional constructed cultures. The conworld influences vocabulary (what words the language will have for flora and fauna, articles of clothing, objects of technology, religious concepts, names of places and tribes, etc.), as well as influencing other factors such as pronouns, or how their cultures view the break-off points between colors or the gender and age of family members. Sound is also a directing factor, as creators seek to show their audience through phonology the type of race or people group to whom the language belongs.
## Commercial fictional languages {#commercial_fictional_languages}
**Commercial fictional languages** are those languages created for use in various commercial media, such as:
- Books (*The Lord of the Rings*{{\'}} Quenya and Sindarin)
- Films (*Avatar*{{\'}}s Na\'vi, Baahubali\'s Kiliki and *Star Wars*{{\'}} Huttese.)
- Television shows (*Star Trek*{{\'}}s Klingon, the Ultra Series\' Ultra Language, *Game of Thrones*\' Valyrian and Dothraki)
- Video games (*Far Cry Primal*{{\'}}s Wenja, *The Sims*{{\'}} Simlish, *Splatoon*{{\'}}s inkling typeface, The *Ar Tonelico* Series\' Hymmnos.)
- Comics (*The Adventures of Tintin*{{\'}}s Bordurian and Syldavian)
- Toys (*Furby*\'s Furbish)
- Musical albums (*Magma*{{\'}}s Kobaïan)
- Children\'s TV shows (*Pingu*{{\'}}s Penguinese)
While some languages are created purely from the desire of the creator, language creation can be a profession. In 1974, Victoria Fromkin was the first person hired to create a language (*Land of the Lost*\'s Paku). Since then, notable professional language creators have included Marc Okrand (Klingon), David Peterson (Dothraki and others in *Game of Thrones*), and Paul Frommer (Na\'vi).
## Alien languages {#alien_languages}
*Main article: Alien language* A notable subgenre of fictional languages are alien languages, the ones that are used or might be used by putative extraterrestrial life forms. Alien languages are subject of both science fiction and scientific research. Perhaps the most fully developed fictional alien language is the Klingon language of the *Star Trek* universe -- a fully developed constructed language.
The problem of alien language has confronted generations of science fiction writers; some have created fictional languages for their characters to use, while others have circumvented the problem through translation devices or other fantastic technology. For example, the *Star Trek* universe makes use of a \"universal translator\", which explains why such different races, often meeting for the first time, are able to communicate with each other. Another more humorous example would be the Babel fish from *The Hitchhiker\'s Guide to the Galaxy*, an aurally-inserted fish that instantaneously translates alien speech to the speaker\'s native language.
While in many cases an alien language is but an element of a fictional reality, in a number of science fiction works the core of the plot involves linguistic and psychological problems of communication between various alien species.
### Visual alien languages {#visual_alien_languages}
A further subgenre of alien languages are those that are visual, rather than auditory. Notable examples of this type are Sherman\'s Circular Gallifreyan from BBC\'s *Doctor Who* series and the heptapod\'s written language, which is distinct from their spoken language, from the 2016 film *Arrival*.
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# Fictional language
## Internet-based fictional languages {#internet_based_fictional_languages}
**Internet-based fictional languages** are hosted along with their \"conworlds\" on the internet, and based at these sites, becoming known to the world through the visitors to these sites. Verdurian, the language of Mark Rosenfelder\'s Verduria on the planet of Almea, is an Internet-based fictional language
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# Stage (stratigraphy)
In chronostratigraphy, a **stage** is a succession of rock strata laid down in a single age on the geologic timescale, which usually represents millions of years of deposition. A given stage of rock and the corresponding age of time will by convention have the same name, and the same boundaries.
Rock series are divided into stages, just as geological epochs are divided into ages. Stages are divided into smaller stratigraphic units called chronozones or substages, and added together into superstages.
The term **faunal stage** is sometimes used, referring to the fact that the same fauna (animals) are found throughout the layer (by definition).
## Definition
Stages are primarily defined by a consistent set of fossils (biostratigraphy) or a consistent magnetic polarity (see paleomagnetism) in the rock. Usually one or more index fossils that are common, found worldwide, easily recognized, and limited to a single, or at most a few, stages are used to define the stage\'s bottom.
Thus, for example in the local North American subdivision, a paleontologist finding fragments of the trilobite *Olenellus* would identify the beds as being from the Waucoban Stage whereas fragments of a later trilobite such as *Elrathia* would identify the stage as Albertan.
Stages were important in the 19th and early 20th centuries as they were the major tool available for dating and correlating rock units prior to the development of seismology and radioactive dating in the second half of the 20th century. Microscopic analysis of the rock (petrology) is also sometimes useful in confirming that a given segment of rock is from a particular age.
Originally, faunal stages were only defined regionally. As additional stratigraphic and geochronologic tools were developed, they were defined over ever broader areas. More recently, the adjective \"faunal\" has been dropped as regional and global correlations of rock sequences have become relatively certain and there is less need for faunal labels to define the age of formations. A tendency developed to use European and, to a lesser extent, Asian stage names for the same time period worldwide, even though the faunas in other regions often had little in common with the stage as originally defined.
## International standardization {#international_standardization}
Boundaries and names are established by the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) of the International Union of Geological Sciences. As of 2008, the ICS is nearly finished with a task begun in 1974, subdividing the Phanerozoic eonothem into internationally accepted stages using two types of benchmark. For younger stages, a Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP), a physical outcrop clearly demonstrates the boundary. For older stages, a Global Standard Stratigraphic Age (GSSA) is an absolute date. The benchmarks will give a much greater certainty that results can be compared with confidence in the date determinations, and such results will have farther scope than any evaluation based solely on local knowledge and conditions.
In many regions local subdivisions and classification criteria are still used along with the newer internationally coordinated uniform system, but once the research establishes a more complete international system, it is expected that local systems will be abandoned.
## Stages and lithostratigraphy {#stages_and_lithostratigraphy}
Stages can include many lithostratigraphic units (for example formations, beds, members, etc.) of differing rock types that were being laid down in different environments at the same time. In the same way, a lithostratigraphic unit can include a number of stages or parts of them
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# Frequentist probability
thumb\|upright=0.9\|John Venn, who provided a thorough exposition of frequentist probability in his book, *The Logic of Chance*
**Frequentist probability** or **frequentism** is an interpretation of probability; it defines an event\'s probability (the *long-run probability*) as the limit of its relative frequency in infinitely many trials. Probabilities can be found (in principle) by a repeatable objective process, as in repeated sampling from the same population, and are thus ideally devoid of subjectivity. The continued use of frequentist methods in scientific inference, however, has been called into question.
The development of the frequentist account was motivated by the problems and paradoxes of the previously dominant viewpoint, the classical interpretation. In the classical interpretation, probability was defined in terms of the principle of indifference, based on the natural symmetry of a problem, so, for example, the probabilities of dice games arise from the natural symmetric 6-sidedness of the cube. This classical interpretation stumbled at any statistical problem that has no natural symmetry for reasoning.
## Definition
In the frequentist interpretation, probabilities are discussed only when dealing with well-defined random experiments. The set of all possible outcomes of a random experiment is called the sample space of the experiment. An event is defined as a particular subset of the sample space to be considered. For any given event, only one of two possibilities may hold: It occurs or it does not. The relative frequency of occurrence of an event, observed in a number of repetitions of the experiment, is a measure of the probability of that event. This is the core conception of probability in the frequentist interpretation.
A claim of the frequentist approach is that, as the number of trials increases, the change in the relative frequency will diminish. Hence, one can view a probability as the *limiting value* of the corresponding relative frequencies.
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# Frequentist probability
## Scope
The frequentist interpretation is a philosophical approach to the definition and use of probabilities; it is one of several such approaches. It does not claim to capture all connotations of the concept \'probable\' in colloquial speech of natural languages.
As an interpretation, it is not in conflict with the mathematical axiomatization of probability theory; rather, it provides guidance for how to apply mathematical probability theory to real-world situations. It offers distinct guidance in the construction and design of practical experiments, especially when contrasted with the Bayesian interpretation. As to whether this guidance is useful, or is apt to mis-interpretation, has been a source of controversy. Particularly when the frequency interpretation of probability is mistakenly assumed to be the only possible basis for frequentist inference. So, for example, a list of mis-interpretations of the meaning of p-values accompanies the article on `{{mvar|p}}`{=mediawiki}-values; controversies are detailed in the article on statistical hypothesis testing. The Jeffreys--Lindley paradox shows how different interpretations, applied to the same data set, can lead to different conclusions about the \'statistical significance\' of a result.
As Feller notes: `{{Blockquote|
There is no place in our system for speculations concerning the probability that the [[sunrise problem|sun will rise tomorrow]]. Before speaking of it we should have to agree on an (idealized) model which would presumably run along the lines ''"out of infinitely many worlds one is selected at random ..."'' Little imagination is required to construct such a model, but it appears both uninteresting and meaningless.<ref name=Feller-1957>
{{cite book
|first = W. |last = Feller |author-link = William Feller
|year = 1957
|title = An Introduction to Probability Theory and Its Applications
|volume = 1 |page = 4
}}
</ref>
}}`{=mediawiki}
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# Frequentist probability
## History
The frequentist view may have been foreshadowed by Aristotle, in *Rhetoric*, when he wrote: `{{Quote|
the probable is that which for the most part happens — [[Aristotle]] [[Rhetoric (Aristotle)|''Rhetoric'']]<ref name=aristorhetor>
{{cite book
|author = [[Aristotle]]
|title = Rhetoric |title-link = Rhetoric (Aristotle)
|at=Bk 1, Ch 2
}}
: discussed in
{{cite book
|first = J. |last = Franklin
|title = The Science of Conjecture: Evidence and probability before Pascal
|year = 2001
|publisher = The Johns Hopkins University Press
|place = Baltimore, MD
|ISBN = 0801865697
|page = 110
}}
</ref>
}}`{=mediawiki}
Poisson (1837) clearly distinguished between objective and subjective probabilities. Soon thereafter a flurry of nearly simultaneous publications by Mill, Ellis (1843) and Ellis (1854), Cournot (1843), and Fries introduced the frequentist view. Venn (1866, 1876, 1888) provided a thorough exposition two decades later. These were further supported by the publications of Boole and Bertrand. By the end of the 19th century the frequentist interpretation was well established and perhaps dominant in the sciences. The following generation established the tools of classical inferential statistics (significance testing, hypothesis testing and confidence intervals) all based on frequentist probability.
Alternatively, Bernoulli understood the concept of frequentist probability and published a critical proof (the weak law of large numbers) posthumously (Bernoulli, 1713). He is also credited with some appreciation for subjective probability (prior to and without Bayes\' theorem). Gauss and Laplace used frequentist (and other) probability in derivations of the least squares method a century later, a generation before Poisson. Laplace considered the probabilities of testimonies, tables of mortality, judgments of tribunals, etc. which are unlikely candidates for classical probability. In this view, Poisson\'s contribution was his sharp criticism of the alternative \"inverse\" (subjective, Bayesian) probability interpretation. Any criticism by Gauss or Laplace was muted and implicit. (However, note that their later derivations of least squares did not use inverse probability.)
Major contributors to \"classical\" statistics in the early 20th century included Fisher, Neyman, and Pearson. Fisher contributed to most of statistics and made significance testing the core of experimental science, although he was critical of the frequentist concept of *\"repeated sampling from the same population\"*; Neyman formulated confidence intervals and contributed heavily to sampling theory; Neyman and Pearson paired in the creation of hypothesis testing. All valued objectivity, so the best interpretation of probability available to them was frequentist.
All were suspicious of \"inverse probability\" (the available alternative) with prior probabilities chosen by using the principle of indifference. Fisher said, *\"\... the theory of inverse probability is founded upon an error, \[referring to Bayes\' theorem\] and must be wholly rejected.\"* While Neyman was a pure frequentist, Fisher\'s views of probability were unique: Both Fisher and Neyman had nuanced view of probability. von Mises offered a combination of mathematical and philosophical support for frequentism in the era.
## Etymology
According to the *Oxford English Dictionary*, the term *frequentist* was first used by M.G. Kendall in 1949, to contrast with Bayesians, whom he called *non-frequentists*. Kendall observed
: 3\. \... we may broadly distinguish two main attitudes. One takes probability as \'a degree of rational belief\', or some similar idea\...the second defines probability in terms of frequencies of occurrence of events, or by relative proportions in \'populations\' or \'collectives\';
: \...
: 12\. It might be thought that the differences between the frequentists and the non-frequentists (if I may call them such) are largely due to the differences of the domains which they purport to cover.
: \...
: *I assert that this is not so* \... The essential distinction between the frequentists and the non-frequentists is, I think, that the former, in an effort to avoid anything savouring of matters of opinion, seek to define probability in terms of the objective properties of a population, real or hypothetical, whereas the latter do not. \[emphasis in original\]
\"The Frequency Theory of Probability\" was used a generation earlier as a chapter title in Keynes (1921).
The historical sequence:
1. Probability concepts were introduced and much of the mathematics of probability derived (prior to the 20th century)
2. classical statistical inference methods were developed
3. the mathematical foundations of probability were solidified and current terminology was introduced (all in the 20th century).
The primary historical sources in probability and statistics did not use the current terminology of *classical*, *subjective* (Bayesian), and *frequentist* probability.
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# Frequentist probability
## Alternative views {#alternative_views}
Probability theory is a branch of mathematics. While its roots reach centuries into the past, it reached maturity with the axioms of Andrey Kolmogorov in 1933. The theory focuses on the valid operations on probability values rather than on the initial assignment of values; the mathematics is largely independent of any interpretation of probability.
Applications and interpretations of probability are considered by philosophy, the sciences and statistics. All are interested in the extraction of knowledge from observations---inductive reasoning. There are a variety of competing interpretations; All have problems. The frequentist interpretation does resolve difficulties with the classical interpretation, such as any problem where the natural symmetry of outcomes is not known. It does not address other issues, such as the dutch book.
- Classical probability assigns probabilities based on physical idealized symmetry (dice, coins, cards). The classical definition is at risk of circularity: Probabilities are defined by assuming equality of probabilities.
In the absence of symmetry the utility of the definition is limited.
- Subjective (Bayesian) probability (a family of competing interpretations) considers degrees of belief: All practical \"subjective\" probability interpretations are so constrained to rationality as to avoid most subjectivity. Real subjectivity is repellent to some definitions of science which strive for results independent of the observer and analyst. Other applications of Bayesianism in science (e.g. logical Bayesianism) embrace the inherent subjectivity of many scientific studies and objects and use Bayesian reasoning to place boundaries and context on the influence of subjectivities on all analysis.
The historical roots of this concept extended to such non-numeric applications as legal evidence.
- Propensity probability views probability as a causative phenomenon rather than a purely descriptive or subjective one
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# FM-2030
**FM-2030** (born **Fereidoun M. Esfandiary**; *فریدون اسفندیاری*; October 15, 1930 -- July 8, 2000) was a Belgian-born Iranian-American author, teacher, transhumanist philosopher, futurist, consultant, and Olympic athlete.
He became notable as a transhumanist with the book *Are You a Transhuman?: Monitoring and Stimulating Your Personal Rate of Growth in a Rapidly Changing World*, published in 1989. In addition, he wrote a number of works of fiction under his original name F. M. Esfandiary.
## Early life and education {#early_life_and_education}
FM-2030 was born Fereydoon M. Esfandiary on October 15, 1930, in Belgium to Iranian diplomat Abdol-Hossein \"A. H.\" Sadigh Esfandiary (1894--1986), who served from 1920 to 1960. He travelled widely as a child, having lived in 17 countries including Iran, India, and Afghanistan, by age 11. He represented Iran as a basketball player and wrestler at the 1948 Olympic Games in London. He attended primary school in Iran and England and completed his secondary education at Colleges Des Freres, a Jesuit school in Jerusalem. By the time he was 18, aside from his native Persian, he learned to speak 4 languages: Arabic, Hebrew, French and English. He then started his college education at the University of California, Berkeley, but later transferred to the University of California, Los Angeles, where he graduated in 1952. Afterwards, he served on the United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine from 1952 to 1954.
## Name change and opinions {#name_change_and_opinions}
In 1970, after publishing his book *Optimism One*, F. M. Esfandiary started going by FM-2030 for two main reasons: firstly, to reflect the hope and belief that he would live to celebrate his 100th birthday in 2030; secondly, and more importantly, to break free of the widespread practice of naming conventions that he saw as rooted in a collectivist mentality, and existing only as a relic of humankind\'s tribalistic past. He formalized his name change in 1988. He viewed traditional names as almost always stamping a label of collective identity -- varying from gender to nationality -- on the individual, thereby existing as *prima facie* elements of thought processes in the human cultural fabric, that tended to degenerate into stereotyping, factionalism, and discrimination. In his own words, \"Conventional names define a person\'s past: ancestry, ethnicity, nationality, religion. I am not who I was ten years ago and certainly not who I will be in twenty years. \[\...\] The name 2030 reflects my conviction that the years around 2030 will be a magical time. In 2030 we will be ageless and everyone will have an excellent chance to live forever. 2030 is a dream and a goal.\" As a staunch anti-nationalist, he believed \"There are no illegal immigrants, only irrelevant borders.\".
In 1973, he published a political manifesto *Up-Wingers: A Futurist Manifesto* in which he portrays both the ideological left and right as outdated, and in their place proposes a schema of Up-Wingers (those who look to the sky and the future) and Down-Wingers (those who look to the earth and the past). FM-2030 identified with the former. He argued that the nuclear family structure and the idea of a city would disappear, being replaced by modular social communities he called *mobilia*, powered by communitarianism, which would persist and then disappear.
FM-2030 believed that synthetic body parts would one day make life expectancy irrelevant; shortly before his death from pancreatic cancer, he described the pancreas as \"a stupid, dumb, wretched organ\".
In terms of civilization, he stated: \"No civilization of the past was great. They were all primitive and persecutory, founded on mass subjugation and mass murder.\" In terms of identity, he stated \"The young modern is not losing his identity. He is gladly disencumbering himself of it.\" He believed that eventually, nations would disappear, and that identities would shift from cultural to personal. In a 1972 op-Ed in *The New York Times*, he wrote that the leadership in the Arab--Israeli conflict had failed, and that the warring sides were \"acting like adolescents, refuse to resolve their wasteful 25-year-old brawl\", and he believed that the world was \"irreversibly evolving beyond the concept of national homeland\".
## Personal life {#personal_life}
FM-2030 was a lifelong vegetarian and said he would not eat anything that had a mother. He famously refused to answer any questions about his nationality, age and upbringing, claiming that such questions were irrelevant and that he was a \"global person\". FM-2030 once said, \"I am a 21st century person who was accidentally launched in the 20th. I have a deep nostalgia for the future.\" As he spent much of his childhood in India, he was noted to have spoken English with a slight Indian accent. He taught at The New School, University of California, Los Angeles, and Florida International University. He worked as a corporate consultant for Lockheed and J. C. Penney. He was also an atheist. FM-2030 was, in his own words, a follower of \"up-wing\" politics (i.e. neither right-wing nor left-wing but something else), and by which he meant that he endorsed universal progress. He had been in a non-exclusive \"friendship\" (his preferred term for relationship) with Flora Schnall, a lawyer and fellow Harvard Law Class of 1959 graduate, from the 1960s until his death. FM-2030 and Schnall attended the same class as Ruth Bader Ginsburg. He resided in Westwood, Los Angeles, as well as Miami.
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# FM-2030
## Death
FM-2030 died on July 8, 2000, from pancreatic cancer at a friend\'s apartment in Manhattan. He was placed in cryonic suspension at the Alcor Life Extension Foundation in Scottsdale, Arizona, where his body remains today. He did not yet have remote standby arrangements, so no Alcor team member was present at his death, but FM-2030 was the first person to be vitrified, rather than simply frozen as previous cryonics patients had been. FM-2030 was survived by four sisters and one brother.
## Published works {#published_works}
Fiction
- *The Day of Sacrifice* (1959) available as an eBook
- *The Beggar* (1965)
- *Identity Card* (1966) (`{{ISBN|0-460-03843-5}}`{=mediawiki}) available as an eBook
Non-fiction
- *Optimism one; the emerging radicalism* (1970) (`{{ISBN|0-393-08611-9}}`{=mediawiki})
- *Up-Wingers: A Futurist Manifesto* (1973) (`{{ISBN|0-381-98243-2}}`{=mediawiki}) (pbk.) Available as an eBook ISBN FW00007527, Publisher: e-reads, Pub. Date: Jan 1973, File Size: 153K
- *Telespheres* (1977) (`{{ISBN|0-445-04115-3}}`{=mediawiki})
- *Are You a Transhuman?: Monitoring and Stimulating Your Personal Rate of Growth in a Rapidly Changing World* (1989) (`{{ISBN|0-446-38806-8}}`{=mediawiki})
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# West Flemish
**West Flemish** (*West-Vlams* or *West-Vloams* or *Vlaemsch* (in French Flanders), *West-Vlaams*, *flamand occidental*) is a collection of Low Franconian varieties spoken in western Belgium and the neighbouring areas of France and the Netherlands.
West Flemish is spoken by about a million people in the Belgian province of West Flanders, and a further 50,000 in the neighbouring Dutch coastal district of Zeelandic Flanders (200,000 if including the closely related dialects of Zeelandic) and 10-20,000 in the northern part of the French department of Nord. Some of the main cities where West Flemish is widely spoken are Bruges, Dunkirk, Kortrijk, Ostend, Roeselare and Ypres.
West Flemish is listed as a \"vulnerable\" language in UNESCO\'s online Red Book of Endangered Languages. `{{Dutch dialects}}`{=mediawiki} `{{clear left}}`{=mediawiki}
## Phonology
West Flemish has a phonology that differs significantly from that of Standard Dutch, being similar to Afrikaans in the case of long E, O and A. Also where Standard Dutch has *sch*, in some parts of West Flanders, West-Flemish, like Afrikaans, has *sk*. However, the best known traits are the replacement of Standard Dutch (pre-)velar fricatives *g* and *ch* in Dutch (`{{IPA|/x, ɣ/}}`{=mediawiki}) with glottal *h* `{{IPA|[h, ɦ]}}`{=mediawiki},. The following differences are listed by their Dutch spelling, as some different letters have merged their sounds in Standard Dutch but remained separate sounds in West Flemish. Pronunciations can also differ slightly from region to region.
- *sch* - `{{IPA|/sx/}}`{=mediawiki} is realised as `{{IPA|[ʃh]}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA|[sh]}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{IPA|[skʰ]}}`{=mediawiki} (*sh* or *sk*).
- *ei* - `{{IPA|/ɛi/}}`{=mediawiki} is realised as `{{IPA|[ɛː]}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{IPA|[jɛ]}}`{=mediawiki} (*è* or *jè*).
- *ij* - `{{IPA|/ɛi/}}`{=mediawiki} is realised as `{{IPA|[i]}}`{=mediawiki} (short *ie*, also written as *y*) and in some words as `{{IPA|[y]}}`{=mediawiki}.
- *ui* - `{{IPA|/œy/}}`{=mediawiki} is realised as `{{IPA|[y]}}`{=mediawiki} (short *u*) and in some words as `{{IPA|[i]}}`{=mediawiki}.
- *au* - `{{IPA|/ʌu/}}`{=mediawiki} is realised as `{{IPA|[ɔu]}}`{=mediawiki} (*ow*)
- *ou* - `{{IPA|/ʌu/}}`{=mediawiki} is realised as `{{IPA|[ʊ]}}`{=mediawiki} (short *oe*), it is very similar to the long \"oe\" that is also used in Standard Dutch (`{{IPA|[u]}}`{=mediawiki}), which can cause confusion
- *e* - `{{IPA|/ɛ/}}`{=mediawiki} is realised as `{{IPA|[æ]}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{IPA|[a]}}`{=mediawiki}.
- *i* - `{{IPA|/ɪ/}}`{=mediawiki} is realised as `{{IPA|[ɛ]}}`{=mediawiki}.
- *ie* - `{{IPA|/i/}}`{=mediawiki} is longer `{{IPA|[iː]}}`{=mediawiki}
- *aa* - `{{IPA|/aː/}}`{=mediawiki} is realised as `{{IPA|[ɒː]}}`{=mediawiki}.
The absence of `{{IPA|/x/}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{IPA|/ɣ/}}`{=mediawiki} in West Flemish makes pronouncing them very difficult for native speakers. That often causes hypercorrection of the `{{IPA|/h/}}`{=mediawiki} sounds to a `{{IPA|/x/}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{IPA|/ɣ/}}`{=mediawiki}.
Standard Dutch also has many words with an *-en* (`{{IPA|/ən/}}`{=mediawiki}) suffix (mostly plural forms of verbs and nouns). While Standard Dutch and most dialects do not pronounce the final *n*, West Flemish typically drops the *e* and pronounces the *n* inside the base word. For base words already ending with *n*, the final *n* sound is often lengthened to clarify the suffix. That makes many words become similar to those of English: *beaten*, *listen* etc.
The short *o* (`{{IPA|[ɔ]}}`{=mediawiki}) can also be pronounced as a short *u* (`{{IPA|[ɐ]}}`{=mediawiki}), a phenomenon also occurring in Russian and some other Slavic languages, called akanye. That happens spontaneously to some words, but other words keep their original short *o* sounds. Similarly, the short *a* (`{{IPA|[ɑ]}}`{=mediawiki}) can turn into a short *o* (`{{IPA|[ɔ]}}`{=mediawiki}) in some words spontaneously.
The diphthong *ui* (`{{IPA|/œy/}}`{=mediawiki}) does not exist in West Flemish and is replaced by a long *u* (`{{IPA|[y]}}`{=mediawiki}) or a long *ie* (`{{IPA|[i]}}`{=mediawiki}). Like for the *ui*, the long *o* (`{{IPA|[o]}}`{=mediawiki}) can be replaced by an `{{IPA|[ø]}}`{=mediawiki} (*eu*) for some words but a `{{IPA|[uo]}}`{=mediawiki} for others. That often causes similarities to ranchers English. `{{clarification needed|reason=what is “ranchers English”?|date=January 2022}}`{=mediawiki}
Here are some examples showing the sound shifts that are part of the vocabulary:
Dutch West Flemish English
------------------ ---------------------------------------- ---------
vol (short *o*) vul `{{IPA|[vɐl]}}`{=mediawiki} full
zon (short *o*) zunne `{{IPA|[ˈzɐnːə]}}`{=mediawiki} sun
boter (long *o*) beuter `{{IPA|[ˈbøtər]}}`{=mediawiki} butter
boot (long *o*) boot `{{IPA|[buot]}}`{=mediawiki} boat
kuiken kiek\'n `{{IPA|[ˈkiːʔŋ̍]}}`{=mediawiki} chick
bruin brun `{{IPA|[bryn]}}`{=mediawiki} brown
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# West Flemish
## Grammar
### Plural form {#plural_form}
Plural forms in Standard Dutch most often add *-en*, but West Flemish usually uses *-s*, like the Low Saxon dialects and even more prominently in English in which *-en* has become very rare. Under the influence of Standard Dutch, *-s* is being used by fewer people, and younger speakers tend to use *-en*.
### Verb conjugation {#verb_conjugation}
The verbs *zijn* (\"to be\") and *hebben* (\"to have\") are also conjugated differently.
Dutch West Flemish English Dutch West Flemish English
------------- -------------- ---------- --------------- -------------- -----------
zijn zyn to be hebben èn to have
ik ben \'k zyn I am ik heb \'k è I have
jij bent gy zyt you are jij hebt gy èt you have
hij is ie is he is hij heeft ie èt he has
wij zijn wydder zyn we are wij hebben wydder èn we have
jullie zijn gydder zyt you are jullie hebben gydder èt you have
zij zijn zydder zyn they are zij hebben zydder èn they have
### Double subject {#double_subject}
West Flemish often has a double subject.
Dutch West Flemish English
------- ------------------------------------ ---------------------
**èt**gy\'\'\' da gedoan.}} You have done that.
K**èn**ekik\'\'\' da nie gedoan.}} I didn\'t do that.
### Articles
Standard Dutch has an indefinite article that does not depend on gender, unlike in West Flemish. However, a gender-independent article is increasingly used. Like in English, *n* is pronounced only if the next word begins with a vowel sound.
Dutch West Flemish English
--------------- -------------- ---------
een stier (m) ne stier a bull
een koe (f) e koeje a cow
een kalf (o) e kolf a calf
een aap (m) nen oap an ape
een huis (o) en \'us a house
### Conjugation of *yes* and *no* {#conjugation_of_yes_and_no}
Another feature of West Flemish is the conjugation of *ja* and *nee* (\"yes\" and \"no\") to the subject of the sentence. That is somewhat related to the double subject, but even when the rest of the sentence is not pronounced, *ja* and *nee* are generally used with the first part of the double subject.
This conjugation can be negated with the extra word, *toet* (`{{IPA|[tut]}}`{=mediawiki}), or strengthened by adding mo- or ba- (or both).
Dutch West Flemish English
------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------
Heb jij dat gedaan? - Ja / Nee Èj gy da gedoan? - Joak / Nink Did you do that? - Yes / No \[I (did/didn\'t)\]
Je hebt dat niet gedaan, hé? - Maar jawel G\'èt da nie gedoan, é? - Bajoak (ja\'k en doe \'t) You didn\'t do that, eh? - On the contrary (But yes I did)
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# Plurality voting
**Plurality voting** refers to electoral systems in which the candidates in an electoral district who poll more than any other (that is, receive a plurality) are elected.
Under single-winner plurality voting, and in systems based on single-member districts, plurality voting is called single member \[district\] plurality (SMP), which is widely known as \"first-past-the-post\". In SMP/FPTP the leading candidate, whether or not they have a majority of votes, is elected.
There are several versions of plurality voting for multi-member district. The system that elects multiple winners at once with the plurality rule and where each voter casts as many X votes as the number of seats in a multi-seat district is referred to as plurality block voting. A semi-proportional system that elects multiple winners elected at once with the plurality rule and where each voter casts more than one vote but fewer than the number of seats to fill in a multi-seat district is known as limited voting. A semi-proportional system that elects multiple winners elected at once with the plurality rule and where each voter casts just one vote in a multi-seat district is known as single non-transferable voting.
Plurality voting is widely used throughout the English-speaking world as a result of its spread by the British Empire, including in most of the United States. Outside of the English-speaking world, it is less popular than its close relatives in the runoff family of methods. Overall, more countries in the world use a form of proportional representation than use plurality or a form of runoff.
## Plurality voting procedures {#plurality_voting_procedures}
### Single-winner and single-member systems {#single_winner_and_single_member_systems}
In single-winner plurality voting (first-past-the-post), each voter is allowed to vote for only one candidate, and the winner of the election is the candidate who represents a plurality of voters or, in other words, received more votes than any other candidate. In an election for a single seat, such as for president in a presidential system, voters may vote for one candidate from a list of the candidates who are competing, and the winner is whichever candidate receives the highest number of votes. Compare first-past-the-post to a *majority* system, the two-round system, where usually the top two candidates in the first ballot progress to the second round, also called the runoff. A runoff is by default not held, if a candidate already received an absolute majority in the first ballot (more than half of votes), and in the second ballot, where there are only two candidates, one of the candidates will (except for a tie) receive a majority. Under plurality rules, the candidates are not at any point in the election required to have majority support.
In an election for a legislative body with single-member seats, each voter in a geographically defined electoral district may vote for one candidate from a list of the candidates who are competing to represent that district. Under the plurality system, the winner of the election then becomes the representative of the whole electoral district and serves with representatives of other electoral districts. That makes plurality voting among the simplest of all electoral systems for voters and vote counting officials; however, the drawing of district boundary lines can be contentious in the plurality system (see gerrymandering). The system is also independent of parties; the party with the most votes overall may not win the most seats overall (electoral inversion). Note that issues arising from single-member districts are still in place with majority voting systems, like the two-round system and instant-runoff voting too.
The same principle used in single-winner plurality voting (electing the candidate with the most votes) is also used in approval voting, however with very different effects, as voters can choose to support as many or few candidates as they choose, not just one. For this reason, approval voting is usually distinguished from plurality voting, while technically being a sub-type of it.
### Multi-winner systems {#multi_winner_systems}
Multi-member plurality elections are only slightly more complicated. Where *n* is the number of seats in the district, the *n* candidates who get more votes than the others are elected; the winners are the *n* candidates with the largest number of votes. The rules may allow the voter to vote for one candidate, for a number of candidates more than one but less than *n*, for as many as *n* candidates, or some other number.
When voters may vote for only one candidate, it is called the single non-transferable vote. While seemingly most similar to first-past-the-post, in effect it is a semi-proportional system allowing for mixed representation in one district, and representation of both majority parties and electoral minorities within a district.
When voters can vote for one or more candidates, but in total less than the number of winners, it is called limited voting.
The multi-winner version considered to be the extension of first-past-the-post to multi-winner cases is plurality block voting. Here voters may vote for as many candidates as there are seats to fill, which means usually candidates from the largest party will fill all the seats in the district.
The party-list version of plurality voting in multi-member districts is called party block voting. Here the party receiving a plurality of votes wins all of the seats available.
### Ballot types {#ballot_types}
Generally, plurality ballots can be categorized into two forms. The simplest form is a blank ballot in which the name of a candidate(s) is written in by hand. A more structured ballot will list all the candidates and allow a mark to be made next to the name of a single candidate (or more than one, in some cases); however, a structured ballot can also include space for a write-in candidate.
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# Plurality voting
## Plurality voting procedures {#plurality_voting_procedures}
### Examples
#### Single-winner {#single_winner}
This is a general example for single-winner plurality voting (\"first-past-the-post\"), using population percentages taken from one state for illustrative purposes. `{{Tenn voting example}}`{=mediawiki}
If each voter in each city naively selects one city on the ballot (Memphis voters select Memphis, Nashville voters select Nashville, and so on), Memphis will be selected, as it has the most votes 42%. The system does not require that the winner have a majority, only a plurality. Memphis wins because it has the most votes even though 58% of the voters in the example preferred Memphis least. The opposite result would occur in instant-runoff, where Knoxville (the city furthest to the east, and the \"second-worst\" choice) would accumulate a majority from vote transfers from voter who initially voted for Chattanooga and Nashville. Nashville is the majority-preferred winner, and as a result would be elected by any Condorcet method.
#### Multi-winner {#multi_winner}
Candidates are running in a 3-member district of 10 000 voters.
Under non-transferable (and non-cumulative) plurality voting, each voter may cast no more than one vote for a single candidate, even if they have multiple votes to cast.
- Under block voting, the standard multiple-winner non-transferable vote election method, voters may cast 3 votes (but do not have to)
- Under limited voting, voters may cast 2 votes maximum
- Under the single non-transferable vote, voters may cast 1 vote
Party A has about 35% support among the electorate (with one particularly well-liked candidate), Party B around 25% (with two well-liked candidates) and the remaining voters primarily support independent candidates, but mostly lean towards party B if they have to choose between the two parties. All voters vote sincerely; there is no tactical voting. (Percentage of votes under MNTV and Limited Voting is the percentage of voters who voted for the candidate, not the percentage of votes cast.)
Candidate Party Multiple non-transferable vote
------------------------ ------- ------------- --------------------------------
Plurality block voting
Votes \% Elected?
Candidate A1 Party A **3700**
Candidate A2 Party A **3600**
Candidate A3 Party A **3555**
Candidate B1 Party B 2600
Candidate B2 Party B 2500
Candidate B3 Party B 2400
Candidate I1 Independent 2300
Candidate I2 Independent 2395
Candidate I3 Independent 1900
Candidate I4 Independent 1800
Candidate I5 Independent 650
Candidate I6 Independent 600
*TOTAL votes cast* 28000
TOTAL possible votes 30000
Voters 10000
Under all three versions of multi-winner plurality voting, the three most popular candidates according to voters\' first preferences are elected, regardless of party affiliation, but with three different results.
- Under block voting (Plurality block voting), the three candidates of the most popular party are elected if its supporters vote along party lines. In this case a party with only 35 percent support took all the seats.
- Under limited voting, it is most likely that the party with a plurality takes two seats (or the same number of seats as the number of votes each voter has), and another less-popular party receives the remaining seat(s).
- Under the single non-transferable vote (like in the other two methods) the number of seats are sometimes not proportionately allocated. Over-optimism (running too many candidates) and vote splitting is harshly punished. But each popular party that runs one candidate is assured of success to that degree anyway. In this case, even though the most-popular party ran three and risked vote splitting, it did elect one member.
- In a situation where three are to be elected and single transferable voting is used, ranked votes are used and each voter has just one vote, any candidate that accumulates about 25 percent of the vote will be elected and supporters of one party even if initially spread over two or three candidates can concentrate behind only one or two, just the candidates of the party that are electable. The plurality rule applies in that the most-popular candidates of the party are the ones that are elected.
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# Plurality voting
## Issues
### In all plurality systems {#in_all_plurality_systems}
#### Wasted votes {#wasted_votes}
Wasted votes are those cast for candidates or parties who did not get elected. Some number of wasted votes by this definition is practically unavoidable, but plurality systems suffer from large numbers of wasted votes. For example, in the UK general election of 2005, 52% of votes were cast for losing candidates and 18% were excess votes, a total of 70% wasted votes. That is perhaps the most fundamental criticism of FPTP, the single-member plurality system, since at least half the votes are always wasted in a district, either as being placed on un-elected candidates or being surplus to what could be needed to win.
SMP is in practice similar in plurality block voting. They both operate under the \"winner-takes-all\" principle, which means that the party of the losing candidates in each district receive no representation, regardless of the number of votes they receive. Even the single non-transferable vote can result in very inefficient results if many candidates with small support compete or the most-popular candidates receive a large excess of votes. This is because like other plurality systems, SNTV does not transfer loser and surplus votes.
Another way to count wasted votes, is to see the ones that may play no part in determining the outcome. Under FPTP for example, usually only votes for the top two candidates can be seen as really competing for the position, with only one possible to win; votes placed on other candidates are almost certain not to be used to elect anyone and therefore wasted. Sometimes not even two candidate are seen as being competitive. Due to having a history of repeatedly electing candidates of a certain party, many districts are known to have safe seats. On such, a candidate or party has a near 100% chance that they win the seats. Supporters of others sometimes do not even bother to vote knowing of the odds that face their candidate.
Alternative electoral systems, such as proportional representation, attempt to ensure that almost all of the votes are effective in influencing the result and electing a representative, which minimizes vote wastage. Such systems decreases disproportionality in election results and are also credited for increasing voter turnout.
#### Tactical voting {#tactical_voting}
To a much greater extent than many other electoral methods, plurality electoral systems encourage tactical voting techniques like \"compromising\". Voters are under pressure to vote for one of the two candidates most likely to win, even if their true preference is neither of them; because a vote for any other candidate is unlikely to lead to the preferred candidate being elected. In single-member plurality, this will instead reduce support for one of the two major candidates whom the voter might prefer to the other. Electors who prefer not to waste their vote by voting for a candidate with a very low chance of winning their constituency vote for their lesser preferred candidate who has a higher chance of winning. The minority party will then simply take votes away from one of the major parties, which could change the outcome and gain nothing for the voters. Any other party will typically need to build up its votes and credibility over a series of elections before it is seen as electable.
In the Tennessee example, if all the voters for Chattanooga and Knoxville had instead voted for Nashville, Nashville would have won (with 58% of the vote). That would have only been the third choice for those voters, but voting for their respective first choices (their own cities) actually results in their fourth choice (Memphis) being elected.
The difficulty is sometimes summed up in an extreme form, as \"All votes for anyone other than the second place are votes for the winner\". That is because by voting for other candidates, voters have denied those votes to the second-place candidate, who could have won had they received them. It is often claimed by United States Democrats that Democrat Al Gore lost the 2000 Presidential Election to Republican George W. Bush because some voters on the left voted for Ralph Nader of the Green Party, who, exit polls indicated, would have preferred Gore at 45% to Bush at 27%, with the rest not voting in Nader\'s absence.
That thinking is illustrated by elections in Puerto Rico and its three principal voter groups: the Independentistas (pro-independence), the Populares (pro-commonwealth), and the Estadistas (pro-statehood). Historically, there has been a tendency for Independentista voters to elect Popular candidates and policies. This results in more Popular victories even though the Estadistas have the most voters on the island. It is so widely recognised that the Puerto Ricans sometimes call the Independentistas who vote for the Populares \"melons\" in reference to the party colours, because the fruit is green on the outside but red on the inside.
Such tactical voting can cause significant perturbation to the system:
- Substantial power is given to the news media. Some voters will tend to believe the media\'s assertions as to who the leading contenders are likely to be in the election. Even voters who distrust the media know that other voters believe the media, and so those candidates who receive the most media attention will nonetheless be the most popular, and thus most likely to be one of the top two.
- A new candidate, who is in principle supported by the majority of voters, may be considered unlikely to become one of the top two candidates, because of the lack of a track record. The candidate will thus receive fewer votes, which will then give them a reputation as a low poller in future elections, which perpetuates the problem.
- The system may promote votes against than for a candidate. In the UK, entire campaigns have been organised with the aim of voting against the Conservative Party by voting either Labour or Liberal Democrat. For example, in a constituency held by the Conservatives, with the Liberal Democrats as the second-placed party and the Labour Party in third, Labour supporters might be urged to vote for the Liberal Democrat candidate, who has a smaller hurdle to overcome and more support in the constituency than their own party candidate, on the basis that Labour supporters would prefer an MP from a competing leftist or liberal party than a Conservative one. Similarly, in Labour/Liberal Democrat marginals in which the Conservatives are third, Conservative voters may be encouraged or tempted to vote Liberal Democrat to help defeat Labour.
- If enough voters use this tactic, the first-past-the-post system becomes, effectively, runoff voting, a completely different system, in which the first round is held in the court of public opinion. A good example was the 1997 Winchester by-election.
Proponents of other single-winner electoral systems argue that their proposals would reduce the need for tactical voting and reduce the spoiler effect. Other systems include the commonly used two-round system of runoffs and instant-runoff voting, along with less-tested and perhaps less-understood systems such as approval voting, score voting and Condorcet methods.
Tactical voting is when a voter decides to vote in a way that does not represent their true preference or choice, motivated by an intent to influence election outcomes. Strategic behaviour by voters can and does influence the outcome of voting in different plurality voting systems. Strategic behaviour is when a voter casts their vote for a different party or alternative district/constituency/riding`{{clarify|date=August 2023}}`{=mediawiki} in order to induce, in their opinion, a better outcome. An example of this is when a person really likes party A but votes for party B because they do not like party C or D or because they believe that party A has little to no chance of winning. This can cause the outcome of very close votes to be swayed for the wrong reason. This might have had an impact on the 2000 United States election that was essentially decided by fewer than 600 votes, with the winner being President Bush. When voters behave in a strategic way and expect others to do the same, they end up voting for one of the two leading candidates, making the Condorcet alternative more likely to be elected. The prevalence of strategic voting in an election makes it difficult to evaluate the true political state of the population, as their true political ideologies are not reflected in their votes.
#### Spoiler effect {#spoiler_effect}
The spoiler effect is especially severe in plurality voting, where candidates with similar ideologies are forced to split the vote with each other. One spoiler candidate\'s presence in the election draws votes from a major candidate with similar politics, which causes a strong opponent of both or several to win. Even extremely small parties with very little first-preference support can therefore affect the outcome of an FPTP election.
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# Plurality voting
## Issues
### In all plurality systems {#in_all_plurality_systems}
#### Manipulation charges {#manipulation_charges}
The presence of spoilers often gives rise to suspicions that manipulation of the slate has taken place. The spoiler may have received incentives to run. A spoiler may also drop out at the last moment, which induces charges that such an act was intended from the beginning. Voters who are uninformed do not have a comparable opportunity to manipulate their votes as voters who understand all opposing sides, understand the pros and cons of voting for each party.
#### Gerrymandering
Because FPTP permits a high level of wasted votes, an election under FPTP is easily gerrymandered unless safeguards are in place. In gerrymandering, a party in power deliberately manipulates constituency boundaries to increase the number of seats that it wins unfairly.
In brief, if a governing party G wishes to reduce the seats that will be won by opposition party O in the next election, it can create a number of constituencies in each of which O has an overwhelming majority of votes. O will win these seats, but many of its voters will waste their votes. Then, the rest of the constituencies are designed to have small majorities for G. Few G votes are wasted, and G will win many seats by small margins. As a result of the gerrymander, O\'s seats have cost it more votes than G\'s seats.
**Efficiency gap**: The *efficiency gap* measures gerrymandering and has been scrutinized in the Supreme Court of the United States. The efficiency gap is the difference between the two parties\' wasted votes, divided by the total number of votes.
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# Plurality voting
## Issues
### In some plurality systems {#in_some_plurality_systems}
#### Fewer political parties {#fewer_political_parties}
Duverger\'s law is a theory that constituencies that use first-past-the-post systems will eventually become a two-party system after enough time. The two dominating parties regularly alternate in power and easily win constituencies due to the structure of plurality voting systems. This puts smaller parties who struggle to meet the threshold of votes at a disadvantage, and inhibits growth.
Plurality voting tends to reduce the number of political parties to a greater extent than most other methods do, making it more likely that a single party will hold a majority of legislative seats. (In the United Kingdom, 22 out of 27 general elections since 1922 have produced a single-party majority government or, in the case of the National Governments, a parliament from which such a single-party government could have been drawn.)
Plurality voting\'s tendency toward fewer parties and more-frequent majorities of one party can also produce a government that may not consider as wide a range of perspectives and concerns. It is entirely possible that a voter finds all major parties to have similar views on issues, and that a voter does not have a meaningful way of expressing a dissenting opinion through their vote.
As fewer choices are offered to voters, voters may vote for a candidate although they disagree with them because they disagree even more with their opponents. That will make candidates less closely reflect the viewpoints of those who vote for them.
Furthermore, one-party rule is more likely to lead to radical changes in government policy even though the changes are favoured only by a plurality or a bare majority of the voters, but a multi-party system usually requires more consensus to make dramatic changes in policy.
#### Voter turnout {#voter_turnout}
Political apathy is prevalent in plurality voting systems such as FPTP. Studies suggest that plurality voting system fails to incentivize citizens to vote, which results in very low voter turnouts. Under this system, many people feel that voting is an empty ritual that has no influence on the composition of legislature. Voters are not assured that the number of seats that political parties are accorded will reflect the popular vote, which disincentivizes them from voting and sends the message that their votes are not valued, and participation in elections does not seem necessary.
#### Spoiled ballots {#spoiled_ballots}
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# Plurality voting
## Issues
### Issues specific to particular countries {#issues_specific_to_particular_countries}
#### Solomon Islands {#solomon_islands}
In August 2008, Sir Peter Kenilorea commented on what he perceived as the flaws of a first-past-the-post electoral system in the Solomon Islands: `{{Blockquote|''An... underlying cause of political instability and poor governance, in my opinion, is our electoral system and its related problems. It has been identified by a number of academics and practitioners that the First Past the Post system is such that a Member elected to Parliament is sometimes elected by a small percentage of voters where there are many candidates in a particular constituency. I believe that this system is part of the reason why voters ignore political parties and why candidates try an appeal to voters' material desires and relationships instead of political parties.... Moreover, this system creates a political environment where a Member is elected by a relatively small number of voters with the effect that this Member is then expected to ignore his party's philosophy and instead look after that core base of voters in terms of their material needs. Another relevant factor that I see in relation to the electoral system is the proven fact that it is rather conducive, and thus has not prevented, corrupt elections practices such as ballot buying.''|author=[http://solomonstarnews.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=3184&change=103&changeown=89&Itemid=45 "Realising political stability"], Sir Peter Kenilorea, ''Solomon Star'', 30 August 2008}}`{=mediawiki}
### Arguments for plurality {#arguments_for_plurality}
#### Simplicity and familiarity {#simplicity_and_familiarity}
Plurality voting is generally considered one of the simplest methods and of the most widely known. Because of its widespread use, in situations where people become voters, it will not be a new concept for most and may even be expected. Other systems may specifically need to be explained to the voters and may be perceived as more complicated.
Widespread familiarity with the system does not imply widespread familiarity with the effects. Voters may not be aware of the issues in plurality voting, therefore they may vote sincerely even in situations where voting theory would suggest they should vote tactically, thereby voting against their rational interests.
Another counter-argument is that plurality voting is partially considered simple because of its familiarity, which in turn results from its prevalence. Such argument is made by proponents of another plurality-based system, approval voting, where unlike usual plurality voting, voters may vote for any number of candidates. If approval voting is default, plurality voting (where voters only cast one otherwise fixed number of votes) would be seen at least equally unfamiliar to voters.
#### Ease of balloting {#ease_of_balloting}
Under plurality voting, ballots use simple marks instead of ranking or scoring, which can make especially paper-based ballots simpler. However, non-plurality systems such as closed list PR may also use just as simple ballots.
In cases without ballots, such as open voting by raised hands, for example, there are simpler methods that do not require checking for people who voted more than they are allowed to, for example, approval voting.
#### Ease of counting {#ease_of_counting}
With plurality voting, counting and summing up votes is generally an easy process, and this may be done on a precinct level and then summed up for a total with the same results. Some alternative methods, such as instant-runoff-voting do not work this way and either counting has to take place centrally, or complete (non-aggregated) results from precincts need to be submitted to the central authority for results.
#### Arguments for single-member plurality {#arguments_for_single_member_plurality}
Common arguments for specifically the single-winner variant of plurality voting are constituency representation (which all other single-winner systems provide to the same degree) and governmental stability (which is dependent on other factors as well). These arguments can be made for some multi-member versions and plurality voting in general too.
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# Plurality voting
## Voting system attributes and comparison to non-plurality systems {#voting_system_attributes_and_comparison_to_non_plurality_systems}
### Attributes and criteria {#attributes_and_criteria}
**Majority criterion:** Will a candidate always win who is ranked as the unique favorite by a majority of voters?
Independence of clone alternatives (cloneproof)
: Does the outcome never change if non-winning candidates similar to an existing candidate are added? There are three different phenomena which could cause a method to fail this criterion:
Spoilers
: Candidates which decrease the chance of any of the similar or clone candidates winning, also known as a spoiler effect.
Teams
: Sets of similar candidates whose mere presence helps the chances of any of them winning.
Crowds
: Additional candidates who affect the outcome of an election without either helping or harming the chances of their factional group, but instead affecting another group.
**No favorite betrayal:** Can voters be sure that they do not need to rank any other candidate above their favorite in order to obtain a result they prefer?
Number of winners System Candidate/list Ballot type (number of votes) Representation Majority criterion Independence of clones No favorite betrayal
------------------- --------------------------------------------------- ---------------- ----------------------------------- ----------------------- -------------------- --------------------------- ----------------------
**Single-winner** **First-past-the-post** Candidate **mark 1** **Majoritarian** **Yes** **No (spoilers)** **No**
Approval voting Candidate mark any number Majoritarian Yes Yes No
**Multi-winner** **Plurality block voting** Candidate **mark at most as many as seats** **Majoritarian** **Yes** **No (spoilers, crowds)** **No**
**Limited voting** Candidate **mark k** **Semi-proportional** **Yes** **No (spoilers, crowds)** **No**
**Single non-transferable vote** Candidate **mark 1** **Semi-proportional** **Yes** **No (spoilers, crowds)** **No**
**Party block voting/General ticket (plurality)** List **mark 1** **Majoritarian** **Yes** **No (spoilers)** **No**
Cumulative voting Candidate distribute fixed number of votes Semi-proportional **No (spoilers, crowds)**
### Comparison to non-plurality systems {#comparison_to_non_plurality_systems}
Plurality voting is often contrasted with (absolute) majority voting where variant of runoff voting (multi-round voting) are also classified. However, in formal social choice theory, the term majority voting has a different definition, and runoff voting methods could also be classified under plurality.
Number of winners Plurality-based systems Non-plurality systems Explanation (what makes non-plurality system fundamentally different)
------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
**Single-winner** **First-past-the-post** Anti-plurality Voters mark one candidate they do not want elected, the candidate with least votes wins
Multi-round voting Usually majority rule in first round (candidate wins only if they have more than half of the votes), typically plurality voting (technically: SNTV) determines which candidates compete in second round, majority rule for second round (with only two candidates).
Ranked systems Voters may rank candidates. Some ranked systems simulate multi-round voting. Some ranked systems use plurality rule with weighted (positional) inputs (Borda count), but are not considered plurality voting.
Score voting Voters score candidates on a scale.
Random ballot Winner gets sorted randomly from ballots
Sortition Does not use ballots
**Multi-winner** Candidate-based plurality voting: **Plurality block voting**, **limited voting**, **single non-transferable vote** Single-transferable vote Voters may rank candidates. Quota determines who gets elected (and which votes get transferred), not plurality rule (except last seats).
Score voting Voters may score candidates on a scale. Approval block voting, while using the plurality rule is also technically a score voting system.
Proportional approval voting
Multiple random ballots Winners get sorted randomly from ballots
Sortition Does not use ballots
Panachage While voters vote only for candidates (and may vote across party lines), the seat allocation is primarily based on list-PR, in an open list-system.
List-based plurality voting: **Party block voting/General ticket (plurality)**
Open list proportional representation (list-PR) While voters may vote only for candidates (or lists) within lists, the seat allocation is primarily based on list-PR. The candidate votes change ranking within list (usually with plurality rule).
Closed list proportional representation (list-PR) Voters usually can vote for just one party, but seat allocation is proportional, not by plurality rule.
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# Plurality voting
## International examples {#international_examples}
Plurality voting is used for local and/or national elections in 43 of the 193 countries that are members of the United Nations. It is particularly prevalent in the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada and India.
### General elections in the United Kingdom {#general_elections_in_the_united_kingdom}
The United Kingdom, like the United States and Canada, uses single-member districts as the base for national elections. Each electoral district (constituency) chooses one member of parliament, the candidate who gets the most votes, whether or not they get at least 50% of the votes cast (\"first past the post\"). In 1992, for example, a Liberal Democrat in Scotland won a seat (Inverness, Nairn and Lochaber) with just 26% of the votes. The system of single-member districts with plurality winners tends to produce two large political parties. In countries with proportional representation there is not such a great incentive to vote for a large party, which contributes to multi-party systems.
Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland use the first-past-the-post system for UK general elections but versions of proportional representation for elections to their own assemblies and parliaments. All of the UK used one form or another of proportional representation for European Parliament elections.
The countries that inherited the British majoritarian system tend toward two large parties: one left and the other right, such as the U.S. Democrats and Republicans. Canada is an exception, with three major political parties consisting of the New Democratic Party, which is to the left; the Conservative Party, which is to the right; and the Liberal Party, which is slightly off-centre but to the left. A fourth party that no longer has major party status is the separatist Bloc Québécois party, which is territorial and runs only in Quebec. New Zealand once used the British system, which yielded two large parties as well. It also left many New Zealanders unhappy because other viewpoints were ignored, which made the New Zealand Parliament in 1993 adopt a new electoral law modelled on Germany\'s system of proportional representation (PR) with a partial selection by constituencies. New Zealand soon developed a more complex party system.
After the 2015 UK general election, there were calls from UKIP for a switch to the use of proportional representation after it received 3,881,129 votes that produced only one MP. The Green Party was similarly underrepresented, which contrasted greatly with the SNP, a Scottish separatist party that received only 1,454,436 votes but won 56 seats because of more geographically concentrated support.
The United Kingdom continues to use the first-past-the-post electoral system for general elections, and for local government elections in England and Wales. Changes to the UK system have been proposed, and alternatives were examined by the Jenkins Commission in the late 1990s. After the formation of a new coalition government in 2010, it was announced as part of the coalition agreement that a referendum would be held on switching to the alternative vote system. However the alternative vote system was rejected 2--1 by British voters in a referendum held on 5 May 2011.
### Outside the United Kingdom {#outside_the_united_kingdom}
Canada also uses FPTP for national and provincial elections. In May 2005 the Canadian province of British Columbia had a referendum on abolishing single-member district plurality in favour of multi-member districts with the Single Transferable Vote system after the Citizens\' Assembly on Electoral Reform made a recommendation for the reform. The referendum obtained 57% of the vote, but failed to meet the 60% requirement for passing. A second referendum was held in May 2009, this time the province\'s voters defeated the change with 39% voting in favour.
An October 2007 referendum in the Canadian province of Ontario on adopting a Mixed Member Proportional system, also requiring 60% approval, failed with only 36.9% voting in favour. British Columbia again called a referendum on the issue in 2018 which was defeated by 62% voting to keep current system.
Northern Ireland, Scotland, Wales, the Republic of Ireland, Australia and New Zealand are notable examples of countries within the UK, or with previous links to it, that use non-FPTP electoral systems (Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales use FPTP in United Kingdom general elections, however).
Nations which have undergone democratic reforms since 1990 but have not adopted the FPTP system include South Africa, almost all of the former Eastern bloc nations, Russia, and Afghanistan.
### List of countries {#list_of_countries}
Countries that use plurality voting to elect the lower or only house of their legislature include: (Some of these may be undemocratic systems where there is effectively only one candidate allowed anyway
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# Free trade area
A **free trade area** is the region encompassing a trade bloc whose member countries have signed a free trade agreement (FTA). Such agreements involve cooperation between at least two countries to reduce trade barriers, import quotas and tariffs, and to increase trade of goods and services with each other. If natural persons are also free to move between the countries, in addition to a free trade agreement, it would also be considered an open border. It can be considered the second stage of economic integration.
Customs unions are a special type of free trade area. All such areas have internal arrangements which parties conclude in order to liberalize and facilitate trade among themselves. The crucial difference between customs unions and free trade areas is their approach to third parties. While a customs union requires all parties to establish and maintain identical external tariffs with regard to trade with non-parties, parties to a free trade area are not subject to this requirement. Instead, they may establish and maintain whatever tariff regime applying to imports from non-parties as deemed necessary. In a free trade area without harmonized external tariffs, to eliminate the risk of trade deflection, parties will adopt a system of preferential rules of origin.
The term *free trade area* was originally meant by the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT 1994) to include only trade in goods. An agreement with a similar purpose, i.e., to enhance liberalization of trade in services, is named under Article V of the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) as an \"economic integration agreement\". However, in practice, the term is now widely used to refer to agreements covering not only goods but also services and even investment.
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# Free trade area
## Legal aspects of free trade areas {#legal_aspects_of_free_trade_areas}
The formation of free trade areas is considered an exception to the most favored nation (MFN) principle in the World Trade Organization (WTO) because the preferences that parties to a free trade area exclusively grant each other go beyond their accession commitments. Although Article XXIV of the GATT allows WTO members to establish free trade areas or to adopt interim agreements necessary for the establishment thereof, there are several conditions with respect to free trade areas, or interim agreements leading to the formation of free trade areas.
Firstly, duties and other regulations maintained in each of the signatory parties to a free trade area, which are applicable at the time such free trade area is formed, to the trade with non-parties to such free trade area shall not be higher or more restrictive than the corresponding duties and other regulations existing in the same signatory parties prior to the formation of the free trade area. In other words, the establishment of a free trade area to grant preferential treatment among its member is legitimate under WTO law, but the parties to a free trade area are not permitted to treat non-parties less favorably than before the area was established. A second requirement stipulated by Article XXIV is that tariffs and other barriers to trade must be eliminated to substantially all the trade within the free trade area.
Free trade agreements forming free trade areas generally lie outside the realm of the multilateral trading system. However, WTO members must notify to the Secretariat when they conclude new free trade agreements and in principle the texts of free trade agreements are subject to review under the Committee on Regional Trade Agreements. Although a dispute arising within free trade areas is not subject to litigation at the WTO\'s Dispute Settlement Body, \"there is no guarantee that WTO panels will abide by them and decline to exercise jurisdiction in a given case\".
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# Free trade area
## Economic aspects of free trade areas {#economic_aspects_of_free_trade_areas}
**Trade diversion and trade creation**
In general, *trade diversion* means that a free trade area would divert trade away from more efficient suppliers outside the area towards less efficient ones within the areas. Whereas, *trade creation* implies that a free trade area creates trade which may not have otherwise existed. In all cases trade creation will raise a country\'s national welfare.
Both trade creation and trade diversion are crucial effects found upon the establishment of a free trade area. Trade creation will cause consumption to shift from a high-cost producer to a low-cost one, and trade will thus expand. In contrast, trade diversion will lead to trade shifting from a lower-cost producer outside the area to a higher-cost one inside the area. Such a shift will not benefit consumers within the free trade area as they are deprived the opportunity to purchase cheaper imported goods. However, economists find that trade diversion does not always harm aggregate national welfare: it can even improve aggregate national welfare if the volume of diverted trade is small.
**Free trade areas as public goods**
Economists have made attempts to evaluate the extent to which free trade areas can be considered public goods. They firstly address one key element of free trade areas, which is the system of embedded tribunals which act as arbitrators in international trade disputes. This system as a force of clarification for existing statutes and international economic policies is affirmed within the trade treaties.
The second way in which free trade areas are considered public goods is tied to the evolving trend of them becoming \"deeper\". The depth of a free trade area refers to the added types of structural policies that it covers. While older trade deals are deemed \"shallower\" as they cover fewer areas (such as tariffs and quotas), more recently concluded agreements address a number of other fields, from services to e-commerce and data localization. Since transactions among parties to a free trade area are relatively cheaper as compared to those with non-parties, free trade areas are conventionally found to be excludable. Now that deep trade deals will enhance regulatory harmonization and increase trade flows with non-parties, thus reduce the excludability of FTA benefits, new generation free trade areas are obtaining essential characteristics of public goods.
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# Free trade area
## Databases on free trade areas {#databases_on_free_trade_areas}
Since there are hundreds of free trade areas currently in force and being negotiated (about 800 according to ITC\'s [Rules of Origin Facilitator](http://findrulesoforigin.org/home/agreements), counting also non-reciprocal trade arrangements), it is important for businesses and policy-makers to keep track of their status. There are a number of depositories of free trade agreements available either at national, regional or international levels. Some significant ones include the database on Latin American free trade agreements constructed by the Latin American Integration Association (ALADI), the database maintained by the Asian Regional Integration Center (ARIC) providing information agreements of Asian countries, and the portal on the European Union\'s free trade negotiations and agreements.
At the international level, there are two important free access databases developed by international organizations for policy-makers and businesses:
**WTO\'s [Regional Trade Agreements Information System](http://rtais.wto.org/ui/PublicMaintainRTAHome.aspx)**
As WTO members are obliged to notify to the Secretariat their free trade agreements, this database is constructed based on the most official source of information on free trade agreements (referred to as regional trade agreements in the WTO language). The database allows users to seek information on trade agreements notified to the WTO by country or by topic (goods, services or goods and services). This database provides users with an updated list of all agreements in force, however, those not notified to the WTO may be missing. It also displays reports, tables and graphs containing statistics on these agreements, and particularly preferential tariff analysis.
**ITC\'s [Market Access Map](https://www.macmap.org/)**
The Market Access Map was developed by the International Trade Centre (ITC) with the objectives to facilitate businesses, governments and researchers in market access issues. The database, visible via the online tool Market Access Map, includes information on tariff and non-tariff barriers in all active trade agreements, not limited to those officially notified to the WTO. It also documents data on non-preferential trade agreements (for instance, Generalized System of Preferences schemes). Up until 2019, Market Access Map has provided downloadable links to texts agreements and their rules of origin. The new version of Market Access Map forthcoming this year will provide direct web links to relevant agreement pages and connect itself to other ITC\'s tools, particularly the [Rules of Origin Facilitator](http://findrulesoforigin.org/). It is expected to become a versatile tool which assists enterprises in understanding free trade agreements and qualifying for origin requirements under these agreements
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# Finagle's law
**Finagle\'s law of dynamic negatives** (also known as **Melody\'s law**, **Sod\'s Law** or **Finagle\'s corollary to Murphy\'s law**) is usually rendered as \"Anything that can go wrong, will---at the worst possible moment.\"
The term \"Finagle\'s law\" is often associated with John W. Campbell Jr., the influential editor of *Astounding Science Fiction* (later *Analog*).
## Variants
One variant (known as O\'Toole\'s corollary of Finagle\'s law) favored among hackers is a takeoff on the second law of thermodynamics (related to the augmentation of entropy): `{{Blockquote|The perversity of the Universe tends towards a maximum.}}`{=mediawiki}
In the *Star Trek* episode \"Amok Time\" (written by Theodore Sturgeon in 1967), Captain Kirk tells Spock, \"As one of Finagle\'s laws puts it: \'Any home port the ship makes will be somebody else\'s, not mine.{{\'\"}}
The term \"Finagle\'s law\" was popularized by science fiction author Larry Niven in several stories (for example, *Protector* \[Ballantine Books paperback edition, 4th printing, p. 23\]), depicting a frontier culture of asteroid miners; this \"Belter\" culture professed a religion or running joke involving the worship of the dread god Finagle and his mad prophet Murphy.
\"Finagle\'s law\" can also be the related belief \"Inanimate objects are out to get us\", also known as Resistentialism. Similar to Finagle\'s law is the verbless phrase of the German novelist Friedrich Theodor Vischer: \"*die Tücke des Objekts*\" (the perfidy of inanimate objects).
A related concept, the \"Finagle factor\", is an *ad hoc* multiplicative or additive term in an equation, which can be justified only by the fact that it gives more correct results. Also known as Finagle\'s variable constant, it is sometimes defined as the correct answer divided by your answer.
One of the first records of \"Finagle factor\" is probably a December 1962 article in *The Michigan Technic*, credited to Campbell, but bylined \"I Finaglin\"
The term is also used in a 1960 wildlife management article.
Arthur Bloch, in his book \"Murphy\'s Law and Other Reasons Why Things Go Wrong\" (1977) stated variations on this:
- Finagle\'s First Law: "If an experiment works, something has gone wrong."
- Finagle\'s Second Law: "No matter what the anticipated result, there will always be someone eager to (a) misinterpret it, (b) fake it, (c) believe it happened to his own pet theory."
- Finagle\'s Third Law: "In any collection of data, the figure most obviously correct, beyond all need of checking, is the mistake.
:
: Corollaries: 1. No one whom you ask for help will see it. 2. Everyone who stops by with unsought advice will see it immediately."
- Finagle\'s Fourth Law: "Once a job is fouled up, anything done to improve it only makes it worse
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# Fencing
**Fencing** is a combat sport that features sword fighting. It consists of three primary disciplines: foil, épée, and sabre (also spelled *saber*), each with its own blade and set of rules. Most competitive fencers specialise in one of these disciplines. The modern sport gained prominence near the end of the 19th century, evolving from historical European swordsmanship. The Italian school altered the historical European martial art of classical fencing, and the French school later refined that system. Scoring points in a fencing competition is done by making contact with the opponent with one\'s sword.
The 1904 Olympic Games featured a fourth discipline of fencing known as singlestick, but it was dropped after that year and is not a part of modern fencing. Competitive fencing was one of the first sports to be featured in the Olympics and, along with athletics, cycling, swimming, and gymnastics, has been featured in every modern Olympics.
## Competitive fencing {#competitive_fencing}
### Governing body {#governing_body}
Fencing is governed by the Fédération Internationale d\'Escrime (FIE), headquartered in Lausanne, Switzerland. The FIE is composed of 155 national federations, each of which is recognised by its state Olympic Committee as the sole representative of Olympic-style fencing in that country.
### Rules
The FIE maintains the current rules used by major international events, including world cups, world championships and the Olympic Games. The FIE handles proposals to change the rules at an annual congress.
#### Bout scoring and duration {#bout_scoring_and_duration}
In fencing, each bout (i.e. a match between two individuals or teams) is decided by either reaching a set number of hits or outscoring the opponent within a specified time limit, depending on the format of the competition.
##### Individual matches {#individual_matches}
**Pool bouts**: In pool rounds, each bout is fenced to 5 hits or a single period of 3 minutes. If neither fencer has reached 5 hits when time expires, the bout ends and the higher-scoring fencer is declared the winner. If the score is tied, a tie is recorded. At the end of each bout, the number of hits scored by both fencers is also recorded.
**Direct elimination bouts:** In the knockout stage, each bout continues until one fencer scores 15 hits, or until the 9-minute total fencing time (split into three 3-minute periods) expires. A 1-minute break separates each period. The clock is paused whenever the action stops, such as after a valid hit. If the score is tied at the end of the third period, a 1-minute sudden-death overtime period is fenced. The first valid hit decides the winner; if no hit is scored, the fencer with priority (determined by a draw) wins.
##### Team matches {#team_matches}
Each team usually fields three fencers (plus a substitute). A match consists of nine consecutive bouts, with every fencer on one team facing each fencer on the opposing team in a preset rotation. Scoring is cumulative, generally progressing in increments of up to five hits per bout, until one team reaches 45 hits or time expires. If tied at the end of the final bout, a 1-minute sudden-death period is fenced; the first valid hit wins, or if no hit is scored, the team with priority (decided by a draw) wins.
### Universities and schools {#universities_and_schools}
University students compete internationally at the World University Games. The United States holds two national-level university tournaments (the NCAA championship and the USACFC National Championships). The BUCS holds fencing tournaments in the United Kingdom. Many universities in Ontario, Canada have fencing teams that participate in an annual inter-university competition called the OUA Finals.
National fencing organisations have set up programmes to encourage more students to fence. Examples include the Regional Youth Circuit program in the US and the Leon Paul Youth Development series in the UK.
The UK hosts two national competitions in which schools compete against each other directly: the Public Schools Fencing Championship, a competition only open to Independent Schools, and the Scottish Secondary Schools Championships, open to all secondary schools in Scotland. It contains both teams and individual events and is highly anticipated. Schools organise matches directly against one another and school age pupils can compete individually in the British Youth Championships.
In recent years, attempts have been made to introduce fencing to a wider and younger audience, by using foam and plastic swords, which require much less protective equipment. This makes it much less expensive to provide classes, and thus easier to take fencing to a wider range of schools than traditionally has been the case. There is even a competition series in Scotland -- the Plastic-and-Foam Fencing FunLeague -- specifically for Primary and early Secondary school-age children using this equipment.
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# Fencing
## History
Fencing traces its roots to the development of swordsmanship for duels and self-defence. Described as \"high-speed chess\", each bout begins and ends with a salute. Good sportsmanship and honor are stressed at every level of training and competition.
The oldest surviving treatise on western fencing is the Royal Armouries Ms. I.33, also known as the Tower manuscript, written c. 1300 in present-day Germany, which discusses the usage of the arming sword together with the buckler. It was followed by a number of treatises, primarily from Germany and Italy, with the oldest surviving Italian treatise being *Fior di Battaglia* by Fiore dei Liberi, written c. 1400. However, because they were written for the context of a knightly duel with a primary focus on archaic weapons such as the arming sword, longsword, or poleaxe, these older treatises do not really stand in continuity with modern fencing.
From the 16th century onward, the Italian school of fencing would be dominated by the Bolognese or Dardi-School of fencing, named after its founder, Filippo Dardi, a Bolognese fencing master and Professor of Geometry at the University of Bologna. Unlike the previous traditions, the Bolognese school would primarily focus on the sidesword being either used alone or in combination with a buckler, a cape, a parrying dagger, or dual-wielded with another sidesword, though some Bolognese masters, such as Achille Marozzo, would still cover the usage of the two-handed greatsword or spadone. The Bolognese school would eventually spread outside of Italy and lay the foundation for modern fencing, eclipsing both older Italian and German traditions. This was partially due to the German schools\' focus on archaic weapons such as the longsword, but also due to a general decline in fencing within Germany.
The mechanics of modern fencing originated in the 18th century in an Italian school of fencing of the Renaissance, and under their influence, were improved by the French school of fencing. The Spanish school of fencing stagnated and was replaced by the Italian and French schools.
### Development into a sport {#development_into_a_sport}
The shift towards fencing as a sport rather than as military training happened from the mid-18th century, and was led by Domenico Angelo, who established a fencing academy, Angelo\'s School of Arms, in Carlisle House, Soho, London in 1763. There, he taught the aristocracy the fashionable art of swordsmanship. His school was run by three generations of his family and dominated the art of European fencing for almost a century.
thumb\|upright=1.65\|left\|1763 fencing print from Domenico Angelo\'s instruction book. Angelo was instrumental in turning fencing into an athletic sport. He established the essential rules of posture and footwork that still govern modern sport fencing, although his attacking and parrying methods were still much different from current practice. Although he intended to prepare his students for real combat, he was the first fencing master to emphasise the health and sporting benefits of fencing more than its use as a killing art, particularly in his influential book *L\'École des armes* (*The School of Fencing*), published in 1763.
Basic conventions were collated and set down during the 1880s by the French fencing master Camille Prévost. It was during this time that many officially recognised fencing associations began to appear in different parts of the world, such as the Amateur Fencers League of America was founded in 1891, the Amateur Fencing Association of Great Britain in 1902, and the Fédération Nationale des Sociétés d'Escrime et Salles d'Armes de France in 1906.
The first regularised fencing competition was held at the inaugural Grand Military Tournament and Assault at Arms in 1880, held at the Royal Agricultural Hall, in Islington in June. The Tournament featured a series of competitions between army officers and soldiers. Each bout was fought for five hits and the foils were pointed with black to aid the judges. The Amateur Gymnastic & Fencing Association drew up an official set of fencing regulations in 1896.
Fencing was part of the Olympic Games in the summer of 1896. Sabre events have been held at every Summer Olympics; foil events have been held at every Summer Olympics except 1908; épée events have been held at every Summer Olympics except in the summer of 1896 because of unknown reasons.
Starting with épée in 1933, side judges were replaced by the Laurent-Pagan electrical scoring apparatus, with an audible tone and a red or green light indicating when a touch landed. Foil was automated in 1956, sabre in 1988. The scoring box reduced the bias in judging, and permitted more accurate scoring of faster actions, lighter touches, and more touches to the back and flank than before.
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# Fencing
## Weapons
Each of the three weapons in fencing has its own rules and strategies.
### Foil
thumb\|upright=0.7\|Valid foil targets *Main article: Foil (fencing)* The foil is a light thrusting weapon with a maximum weight of 500 grams. The foil targets the torso, but not the arms or legs. The foil has a small circular hand guard that serves to protect the hand from direct stabs. As the hand is not a valid target in foil, this is primarily for safety. Touches are scored only with the tip; hits with the side of the blade do not register on the electronic scoring apparatus (and do not halt the action). Touches that land outside the target area (called an *off-target touch* and signalled by a distinct color on the scoring apparatus) stop the action, but are not scored. Only a single touch can be awarded to either fencer at the end of a phrase. If both fencers land touches within 300 ms (± 25 ms tolerance) to register two lights on the machine, the referee uses the rules of \"right of way\" to determine which fencer is awarded the touch, or if an off-target hit has priority over a valid hit, in which case no touch is awarded. If the referee is unable to determine which fencer has right of way, no touch is awarded.
### Épée
thumb\|upright=0.7\|Valid épée targets *Main article: Épée*
The épée is a thrusting weapon like the foil, but heavier, with a maximum total weight of 775 grams. In épée, the entire body is a valid target. The épée features a large, bell-shaped hand guard that extends to protect the entire hand and wrist. Like foil, hits must be with the tip and not the sides of the blade. Hits with the side of the blade do not register on the electronic scoring apparatus (and do not halt the action). As the entire body is a valid target, there is no concept of an off-target touch. Unlike foil and sabre, épée does not use \"right of way\", hence simultaneous hits score for both fencers. However, if the score is tied in a match at the last point and a double touch is scored, the point is null and void.
### Sabre
thumb\|upright=0.7\|Valid sabre targets *Main article: Sabre (fencing)* The sabre is a cutting and thrusting weapon that targets the body above the waist. Specifically, the target comprises any part of the body above a horizontal line drawn between the top of the hip bones and then horizontally round the fencer\'s trunk. Sabre is the newest weapon to be used. Like the foil, the maximum legal weight of a sabre is 500 grams. The hand guard on the sabre extends from hilt to the point at which the blade connects to the pommel. This guard is generally turned outwards during sport to protect the sword arm from touches. Hits with the entire blade or point are valid. As in foil, touches that land outside the target area are not scored. However, unlike foil, these *off-target* touches do not stop the action, and the fencing continues. In the case of both fencers landing a scoring touch, the referee determines which fencer receives the point for the action, according to the rules of the \"right of way\".
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# Fencing
## Equipment
### Protective clothing {#protective_clothing}
Most personal protective equipment for fencing is made of tough cotton or nylon. Kevlar was added to top level uniform pieces (jacket, breeches, underarm protector, lamé, and the bib of the mask) following the death of Vladimir Smirnov at the 1982 World Championships in Rome. However, Kevlar is degraded by both ultraviolet light and chlorine, which can complicate cleaning.
Other ballistic fabrics, such as Dyneema, have been developed that resist puncture, and which do not degrade the way that Kevlar does. FIE rules state that tournament wear must be made of fabric that resists a force of 800 N, and that the mask bib must resist twice that amount.
The complete fencing kit includes:
Jacket
: The jacket is form-fitting, and has a strap (*croissard*) that passes between the legs. A small gorget of folded fabric is sewn in around the collar to prevent an opponent\'s blade from slipping under the mask and along the jacket upwards towards the neck. Fencing instructors often wear more resistant kit, as additional protection from the frequent hits an instructor endures.
Plastron
: A plastron is an underarm protector worn underneath the jacket. It provides double protection on the side of the sword arm and upper arm. There is no seam under the arm, which would line up with the jacket seam and provide a weak spot.
Glove
: The sword hand is protected by a glove with a gauntlet that prevents blades from going up the sleeve and causing injury. The glove also improves grip.
Breeches
: Breeches or knickers are short trousers that end just below the knee. The breeches are required to have 10 cm of overlap with the jacket. Most are equipped with suspenders (braces).
Socks
: Fencing socks are long enough to cover the knee and feature padded reinforcement at the shin level to protect the part from hits.
Shoes
: Fencing shoes have flat soles, and are reinforced on the inside of the back foot, and in the heel for the front foot. The reinforcement prevents wear from lunging and protect the foot from hits (used in épée fencing).
Mask
: The fencing mask has a bib that protects the neck. The mask should support 12 kg on the metal mesh and 350 N of penetration resistance on the bib. FIE regulations dictate that masks must withstand 25 kg on the mesh and 1600 N on the bib. Some modern masks have a see-through visor in the front of the mask. These have been used at high level competitions (World Championships etc.), however, they are currently banned in foil and épée by the FIE, following a 2009 incident in which a visor was pierced during the European Junior Championship competition. There are foil, sabre, and three-weapon masks.
Chest protector
: A chest protector, made of plastic, is worn by female fencers and, sometimes, by males. Fencing instructors also wear them, as they are hit far more often during training than their students. In foil fencing, the hard surface of a chest protector decreases the likelihood that a hit registers.
Lamé
: A lamé is a layer of electrically conductive material worn over the fencing jacket in foil and sabre fencing. The lamé covers the entire target area, and makes the registration of the hits by the scoring box possible. In épée fencing the lamé is unnecessary, since the target area spans the competitor\'s entire body. In sabre fencing, the lamé\'s sleeves end in a straight line across the wrist; in foil fencing, the lamé is sleeveless. A body cord is necessary to register scoring. It attaches to the weapon and runs inside the jacket sleeve, then down the back and goes out to plug into the scoring box. In sabre and foil fencing, the body cord connects to the lamé as well in order to create a circuit to the scoring box.
<File:Fencing> jacket.jpg\|Jacket <File:Fencing> glove.jpg\|Glove <File:Fencing> plastron.jpg\|Sous-Plastron <File:Fencing> knickers.jpg\|Breeches/Knickers <File:Fencingmask.jpg%7CMask> <File:Chest> protector.jpg\|Chest protector for women
Traditionally, the fencer\'s uniform is white, while an instructor\'s uniform is black. This may be due to the occasional pre-electric practice of covering the point of the weapon in dye, soot, or coloured chalk in order to make it easier for the referee to determine the placing of the touches. As this is no longer a factor in the electric era, the FIE rules have been relaxed to allow coloured uniforms (save black). The guidelines also limit the permitted size and positioning of sponsorship logos.
### Grips
Some pistol grips used by foil and épée fencers
<File:Absolute> visconti.jpg\|Visconti grip <File:Uhlmann> Belgian.jpg\|Belgian grip <File:Russian> grip.jpg\|Russian grip <File:Hungarian> grip.jpg\|Hungarian grip
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# Fencing
## Equipment
### Electric equipment {#electric_equipment}
A set of electric fencing equipment is required to participate in electric fencing. Electric equipment in fencing varies depending on the weapon with which it is used in accordance. The main component of a set of electric equipment is the body cord. The **body cord** serves as the connection between a fencer and a reel of wire that is part of a system for electrically detecting that the weapon has touched the opponent. There are two types: one for épée, and one for foil and sabre.
Épée body cords consist of two sets of three prongs each connected by a wire. One set plugs into the fencer\'s weapon, with the other connecting to the reel. Foil and sabre body cords have only two prongs (or a twist-lock bayonet connector) on the weapon side, with the third wire connecting instead to the fencer\'s lamé. The need in foil and sabre to distinguish between on and off-target touches requires a wired connection to the valid target area.
A body cord consists of three wires known as the A, B, and C lines. At the reel connector (and both connectors for Épée cords) The B pin is in the middle, the A pin is 1.5 cm to one side of B, and the C pin is 2 cm to the other side of B. This asymmetrical arrangement ensures that the cord cannot be plugged in the wrong way around.
In foil, the A line is connected to the lamé and the B line runs up a wire to the tip of the weapon. The B line is normally connected to the C line through the tip. When the tip is depressed, the circuit is broken and one of three things can happen:
- The tip is touching the opponent\'s lamé (their A line): Valid touch
- The tip is touching the opponent\'s weapon or the grounded strip: nothing, as the current is still flowing to the C line.
- The tip is not touching either of the above: Off-target hit (white light).
In Épée, the A and B lines run up separate wires to the tip (there is no lamé). When the tip is depressed, it connects the A and B lines, resulting in a valid touch. However, if the tip is touching the opponents weapon (their C line) or the grounded strip, nothing happens when it is depressed, as the current is redirected to the C line. Grounded strips are particularly important in Épée, as without one, a touch to the floor registers as a valid touch (rather than off-target as in Foil).
In Sabre, similarly to Foil, the A line is connected to the lamé, but both the B and C lines are connected to the body of the weapon. Any contact between one\'s B/C line (either one, as they are always connected) and the opponent\'s A line (their lamé) results in a valid touch. There is no need for grounded strips in Sabre, as hitting something other than the opponent\'s lame does not register. In a professional fencing competition, a complete set of electric equipment is needed.
A complete set of foil electric equipment includes:
- An electric body cord, which runs under the fencer\'s jacket on his/her dominant side.
- An electric blade.
- A conductive lamé or electric vest.
- A conductive bib (often attached to the mask).
- An electric mask cord, connecting the conductive bib and the lamé.
The electric equipment of sabre is very similar to that of foil. In addition, equipment used in sabre includes:
- A larger conductive lame.
- An electric sabre.
- A completely conductive mask.
- A conductive glove or overlay.
Épée fencers lack a lamé, conductive bib, and head cord due to their target area. Also, their body cords are constructed differently as described above. However, they possess all of the other components of a foil fencer\'s equipment.
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# Fencing
## Techniques
Techniques or movements in fencing can be divided into two categories: offensive and defensive. Some techniques can fall into both categories (e.g. the beat). Certain techniques are used offensively, with the purpose of landing a hit on one\'s opponent while holding the right of way (foil and sabre). Others are used defensively, to protect against a hit or obtain the right of way.
The attacks and defences may be performed in countless combinations of feet and hand actions. For example, fencer A attacks the arm of fencer B, drawing a high outside parry; fencer B then follows the parry with a high line riposte. Fencer A, expecting that, then makes his own parry by pivoting his blade under fencer B\'s weapon (from straight out to more or less straight down), putting fencer B\'s tip off target and fencer A now scoring against the low line by angulating the hand upwards.
### Offensive
- Attack: A basic fencing technique, also called a thrust, consisting of the initial offensive action made by extending the arm and continuously threatening the opponent\'s target. There are four different attacks (straight thrust, disengage attack, counter-disengage attack and cutover). In sabre, attacks are also made with a cutting action.
- Riposte: An attack by the defender after a successful parry. After the attacker has completed their attack, and it has been parried, the defender then has the opportunity to make an attack, and (at foil and sabre) take right of way.
- Feint: A false attack with the purpose of provoking a reaction from the opposing fencer.
- Lunge: A thrust while extending the front leg by using a slight kicking motion and propelling the body forward with the back leg.
- Beat attack: In foil and sabre, the attacker beats the opponent\'s blade to gain priority (right of way) and continues the attack against the target area. In épée, a similar beat is made but with the intention to disturb the opponent\'s aim and thus score with a single light.
- Disengage: A blade action whereby the blade is moved around the opponent\'s blade to threaten a different part of the target or deceive a parry.
- Compound attack: An attack preceded by one or more feints which oblige the opponent to parry, allowing the attacker to deceive the parry.
- Continuation/renewal of Attack: A typical épée action of making a 2nd attack after the first attack is parried. This may be done with a change in line; for example, an attack in the high line (above the opponent\'s bell guard, such as the shoulder) is then followed with an attack to the low line (below the opponent\'s bell guard, such as the thigh, or foot); or from the outside line (outside the bell guard, such as outer arm) to the inside line (inside the bell guard, such as the inner arm or the chest). A second continuation is stepping slight past the parry and angulating the blade to bring the tip of the blade back on target. A renewal may also be direct (without a change of line or any further blade action), in which case it is called a remise. In foil or sabre, a renewal is considered to have lost right of way, and the defender\'s immediate riposte, if it lands, will score instead of the renewal.
- Flick: a technique used primarily in foil and épée. It takes advantage of the extreme flexibility of the blade to use it like a whip, bending the blade so that it curves over and strikes the opponent with the point; this allows the fencer to hit an obscured part of the target (e.g., the back of the shoulder or, at épée, the wrist even when it is covered by the guard). This technique has become much more difficult due to timing changes which require the point to stay depressed for longer to set off the light.
- Flèche: an offensive manoeuvre, in which the fencer leans forward past the point of balance, and then crosses their feet, running past the opponent after the touch is scored.
- Flunge: a technique used by sabreurs in which the attacker makes a flying lunge, as FIE rules state that crossing one\'s feet is illegal in Sabre.
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# Fencing
## Techniques
### Defensive
- Parry: Basic defence technique, block the opponent\'s weapon while it is preparing or executing an attack to deflect the blade away from the fencer\'s valid area and (in foil and sabre) to give fencer the right of way. Usually followed by a riposte, a return attack by the defender.
- Circle parry: A parry where the weapon is moved in a circle to catch the opponent\'s tip and deflect it away.
- Counter attack: A basic fencing technique of attacking one\'s opponent while generally moving back out of the way of the opponent\'s attack. Used quite often in épée to score against the attacker\'s hand/arm. More difficult to accomplish in foil and sabre unless one is quick enough to make the counterattack and retreat ahead of the advancing opponent without being scored upon, or by evading the attacking blade via moves such as the In Quartata (turning to the side) or Passata-sotto (ducking). Counterattacks can also be executed in opposition, grazing along the opponent\'s blade and deflecting it to cause the attack to miss.
- Point-in-line: A specific position where the arm is straight and the point is threatening the opponent\'s target area. In foil and sabre, this gives one priority if the extension is completed before the opponent begins the final action of their attack. When performed as a defensive action, the attacker must then disturb the extended weapon to re-take priority; otherwise the defender has priority and the point-in-line will win the touch if the attacker does not manage a single light. In épée, there is no priority; the move may be used as a means by either fencer to achieve a double-touch and advance the score by 1 for each fencer. In all weapons, the point-in-line position is commonly used to slow the opponent\'s advance and cause them to delay the execution of their attack.
## Other variants {#other_variants}
Other variants include wheelchair fencing for those with disabilities, chair fencing, *one-hit épée* (one of the five events which constitute modern pentathlon) and the various types of non-Olympic competitive fencing. Chair fencing is similar to wheelchair fencing, but for the able bodied. The opponents set up opposing chairs and fence while seated; all the usual rules of fencing are applied. An example of the latter is the American Fencing League (distinct from the United States Fencing Association): the format of competitions is different and the right of way rules are interpreted in a different way. In a number of countries, school and university matches deviate slightly from the FIE format. A variant of the sport using toy lightsabers earned national attention when ESPN2 acquired the rights to a selection of matches and included it as part of its \"ESPN8: The Ocho\" programming block in August 2018.
Two handed fencing refers to a type of fencing where a buckler or dagger is used to parry attacks.
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# Fencing
## In popular culture {#in_popular_culture}
One of the most notable films related to fencing is the 2015 Finnish-Estonian-German film *The Fencer*, directed by Klaus Härö, which is loosely based on the life of Endel Nelis, an accomplished Estonian fencer and coach. The film was nominated for the 73rd Golden Globe Awards in the Best Foreign Language Film category.
In 2017, the first issue of the *Fence* comic book series, which follows a fictional team of young fencers, was published by the US-based Boom! Studios
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# The Free Software Definition
***The Free Software Definition*** is a policy document written by Richard Stallman and published by the Free Software Foundation (FSF). It defines free software as software that grants users the freedom to use, study, share, and modify the software. The term \"free\" is used in the sense of \"free speech\", not \"free of charge\".
The earliest known publication of the definition appeared in the February 1986 edition of the now-discontinued *GNU\'s Bulletin* published by the FSF. Since 1996, the official version of the document has been maintained in the philosophy section of the GNU Project website. `{{As of|2025|03}}`{=mediawiki}, the definition had seen 27 major revisions since it was originally published online and it had been translated into 65 languages. The FSF also publishes a list of licenses that meet this definition.
## The Four Essential Freedoms {#the_four_essential_freedoms}
The definition published by the FSF in 1986 originally listed two key points:
In 1996, when the GNU Project website was launched, the definition was expanded to include \"three levels of freedom\", explicitly adding the freedom to study the software (which had been implied in the original). Stallman later discouraged describing them as \"levels,\" noting that all freedoms are equally essential.
A fourth freedom was later introduced to explicitly affirm the user\'s right to run the program. Because it was seen as more fundamental than the others, it was placed first. Since the existing freedoms were numbered one through three, this new one was designated \"freedom zero\". Such zero-based numbering, where counting begins at zero, is also a common convention in computer programming.
The modern definition states that a program is free software if it grants users the following four essential freedoms:
Freedoms 1 and 3 require source code to be available, as studying and modifying software without source code is impractical.
## Later definitions {#later_definitions}
In July 1997, Bruce Perens published the Debian Free Software Guidelines. A definition based on the DFSG was later adopted by the Open Source Initiative (OSI) under the name *The Open Source Definition*.
## Comparison with the Open Source Definition {#comparison_with_the_open_source_definition}
Despite philosophical differences between the free software movement and the open-source movement, the FSF\'s definition of free software and the OSI\'s definition of open-source software describe largely overlapping sets of licenses, with only a few minor differences
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# Foonly
**Foonly Inc.** was an American computer company formed by Dave Poole in 1976, that produced a series of DEC PDP-10 compatible mainframe computers.
The first and most famous Foonly machine, the F1, was the computer used by Triple-I to create some of the computer-generated imagery in the 1982 film *Tron*.
## History
At the beginning of the 1970s, the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (SAIL) began to study the building of a new computer to replace their DEC PDP-10 KA10, by a far more powerful machine, with a funding from Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). This project was named \"Super-Foonly\", and was developed by a team led by Phil Petit, Jack Holloway, and Dave Poole. The name itself came from FOO NLI, an error message emitted by a PDP-10 assembler at SAIL meaning \"FOO is Not a Legal Identifier\". In 1974, DARPA cut the funding, and a large part of the team went to DEC to develop the *PDP-10 model KL10*, based on the Super-Foonly.
But Dave Poole, with Phil Petit and Jack Holloway, preferred to found the Foonly Company in 1976, to try to build a series of computers based on the Super-Foonly.
During the early 1980s, after the construction of the first and only F1, Foonly built and sold some low cost DEC PDP-10 compatible machines: the F2, F4, F4B and F5.
In 1983, after the cancellation of the DEC Jupiter project, Foonly tried to propose a new F1, but it was eclipsed by Systems Concepts and their Mars project. Foonly never recovered, shutting down in 1989.
## Computers
### List of models {#list_of_models}
Model MIPS Word Size Frequency Memory Price Bays Power
------------ ---------- ----------- ----------- --------- ----------- ------ --------
Foonly F1 4.5 MIPS 36 bits 11.1 MHz 18 MB \$700 000 4 5 kW
Foonly F2 0.5 MIPS 36 bits 2.8 MHz 4.5 MB \$150 000 1 0.5 kW
Foonly F4 1.4 MIPS 36 bits 8 MHz 9 MB \$300 000 1 1 kW
Foonly F4B 1.8 MIPS 36 bits 8 MHz 9 MB \$350 000 1 1.5 kW
Foonly F5 0.3 MIPS 36 bits 3.3 MHz 2.25 MB \$80 000 0.5 0.8 kW
### The Foonly F1 {#the_foonly_f1}
The Foonly F1 was the first and most powerful Foonly computer, but also the only one being built of its kind. It was based on the Super-Foonly *project* designs, aiming to be the fastest DEC PDP-10 compatible computer, but using emitter-coupled logic (ECL) gates rather than transistor--transistor logic (TTL), and without the extended instruction set. It was developed with the help of Triple-I, its first customer, and began operations in 1978.
The computer consisted of four cabinets:
- One for the central processing unit (CPU)
- One AMPEX for the random-access memory (RAM), with 2 MB of core memory
- A specific cabinet holding the Magic Movie Memory, a 3 MB video buffer, used especially to render movie frames
- One cabinet with tape and disk controllers, and power switches.
It was able to reach 4.5 MIPS.
The F1 is mostly famous for having been the computer behind some of the Computer-generated imagery of the Disney 1982 *Tron* movie, and also *Looker* (1981).
After that, the computer was bought by the Canadian Omnibus Computer Graphics company, and was used on some movies, such as television logos for CBC, CTV, and Global Television Network channels, opening titles for the *Hockey Night in Canada* programme, scanner effects for the film *Star Trek III: The Search for Spock*, the alien spaceship Max flying and morphing in the film *Flight of the Navigator* and all of the CGI effects in the TV series *Captain Power and the Soldiers of the Future*.
## Other models {#other_models}
Unlike the F1, the other models (F2, F4, F4B, F5) were built with the slower TTL rather than ECL circuits, and housed in a single cabinet, rather than four.
Rather than use DEC\'s Massbus (or other DEC buses), Foonly developed F-bus, which can work with DEC and non-DEC peripherals.
### F2
Foonly described the F2 as \"a powerful mainframe at a minicomputer price,\" \"with an average execution speed about 25% of that of the DECSYSTEM-2060.\"
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# Foonly
## Peripherals
Standard equipment:
- Disk drives: 1--6 units, with choices of 160 MB Winchester or 300 MB removable
- Tape drives: 1--4 units, with choices of 800, 1600 & 6250 BPI
## Software
The Foonly machines, which could run the TENEX operating system, came with a derivative thereof, FOONEX.
## Tymshare
Tymshare attempted marketing the Foonly line under the name of the \"Tymshare XX Series Computer Family\", of which the \"*Tymshare System XXVI\"* was the main focus
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# Fontainebleau
**Fontainebleau** (`{{IPAc-en|'|f|ɒ|n|t|ɛ|n|b|l|əʊ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|FON|ten|bloh}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPAc-en|USalso|-|b|l|uː}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|-|bloo}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA|fr|fɔ̃tɛnblo|lang|LL-Q150 (fra)-Baidax-Fontainebleau.wav}}`{=mediawiki}) is a commune in the metropolitan area of Paris, France. It is located 55.5 km south-southeast of the centre of Paris. Fontainebleau is a sub-prefecture of the Seine-et-Marne department, and it is the seat of the *arrondissement* of Fontainebleau. The commune has the largest land area in the Île-de-France region; it is the only one to cover a larger area than Paris itself. The commune is closest to Seine-et-Marne Prefecture Melun.
Fontainebleau, together with the neighbouring commune of Avon and three other smaller communes, form an urban area of 36,724 inhabitants (2018). This urban area is a satellite of Paris.
Fontainebleau is renowned for the large and scenic Forest of Fontainebleau, a favourite weekend getaway for Parisians, as well as for the historic Château de Fontainebleau, which once belonged to the kings of France. It is also the home of INSEAD, one of the world\'s most elite business schools.
Inhabitants of Fontainebleau are called *Bellifontains*.
## History
### Name
thumb\|upright=1.2\|Fontaine Belle-Eau, the spring which gave its name to Fontainebleau
According to the official chateau history, \"Fontainebleau\" took its name in the 16th century from the \"Fontaine Belle-Eau\", a natural fresh water spring located in the English garden not far from the chateau. The name means \"Spring of beautiful water\". In the 19th century the spring was rebuilt to flow into an octagonal stone basin.
Before the 16th century, Fontainebleau was recorded in the Latinised forms *Fons Bleaudi*, *Fons Bliaudi*, and *Fons Blaadi* in the 12th and 13th centuries, and as *Fontem blahaud* in 1137. In the 17th century it was also sometimes called by the fanciful Latin *Fons Bellaqueus*. This the origin of the name *Bellifontains* sometimes used for residents.
A popular legend says that the spring and forest took their names from a favourite hunting dog of King Louis IX named \"Blaud\" or \"Blau\". According to the legend, during a hunt the dog became separated from the King, who finally found him by the spring.
According to another source, the name comes from the medieval compound noun of *fontaine*, meaning spring and fountain, and *blitwald*, consisting of the Germanic personal name Blit and the Germanic word for forest.
### Origins
This hamlet was endowed with a royal hunting lodge and a chapel by Louis VII in the middle of the twelfth century. A century later, Louis IX, also called Saint Louis, who held Fontainebleau in high esteem and referred to it as \"his wilderness\", had a country house and a hospital constructed there.
Philip the Fair was born there in 1268 and died there in 1314. In all, thirty-four sovereigns, from Louis VI, the Fat, (1081--1137) to Napoleon III (1808--1873), spent time at Fontainebleau.
The connection between the town of Fontainebleau and the French monarchy was reinforced with the transformation of the royal country house into a true royal palace, the Palace of Fontainebleau. This was accomplished by the great builder-king, Francis I (1494--1547), who, in the largest of his many construction projects, reconstructed, expanded, and transformed the royal château at Fontainebleau into a residence that became his favourite, as well as the residence of his mistress, Anne, duchess of Étampes.
### Early modern period {#early_modern_period}
From the sixteenth to the eighteenth century, every monarch, from Francis I to Louis XV, made important renovations at the Palace of Fontainebleau, including demolitions, reconstructions, additions, and embellishments of various descriptions, all of which endowed it with a character that is a bit heterogeneous, but harmonious nonetheless.
On 18 October 1685, Louis XIV signed the *Edict of Fontainebleau* there. Also known as the *Revocation of the Edict of Nantes*, this royal fiat reversed the permission granted to the Huguenots in 1598 to worship publicly in specified locations and hold certain other privileges. The result was that a large number of Protestants were forced to convert to the Catholic faith, killed, or forced into exile, mainly in the Low Countries, Prussia and in England.
The 1762 Treaty of Fontainebleau, a secret agreement between France and Spain concerning the Louisiana territory in North America, was concluded here. Also, preliminary negotiations, held before the 1763 Treaty of Paris was signed, ending the Seven Years\' War, were at Fontainebleau.
During the French Revolution, Fontainebleau was temporarily renamed Fontaine-la-Montagne, meaning \"Fountain by the Mountain\". (The mountain referred to is the series of rocky formations located in the forest of Fontainebleau.)
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# Fontainebleau
## History
### Modern period {#modern_period}
On 29 October 1807, Manuel Godoy, chancellor to the Spanish king, Charles IV and Napoleon signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau, which authorized the passage of French troops through Spanish territories so that they might invade Portugal.
On 20 June 1812, Pope Pius VII arrived at the château of Fontainebleau, after a secret transfer from Savona, accompanied by his personal physician, Balthazard Claraz. In poor health, the Pope was the prisoner of Napoleon, and he remained in his genteel prison at Fontainebleau for nineteen months. From June 1812 until 23 January 1814, the Pope never left his apartments.
On 20 April 1814, Napoleon Bonaparte, shortly before his first abdication, bid farewell to the Old Guard, the renowned *grognards* (grumblers) who had served with him since his first campaigns, in the \"White Horse Courtyard\" (la cour du Cheval Blanc) at the Palace of Fontainebleau. (The courtyard has since been renamed the \"Courtyard of Goodbyes\".) According to contemporary sources, the occasion was very moving. The 1814 Treaty of Fontainebleau stripped Napoleon of his powers (but not his title as Emperor of the French) and sent him into exile on Elba.
Until the 19th century, Fontainebleau was a village and a suburb of Avon. Later, it developed as an independent residential city.
For the 1924 Summer Olympics, the town played host to the riding portion of the modern pentathlon event. This event took place near a golf course.
In July and August 1946, the town hosted the Franco-Vietnamese Conference, intended to find a solution to the long-contested struggle for Vietnam\'s independence from France, but the conference ended in failure.
Fontainebleau also hosted the general staff of the Allied Forces in Central Europe (Allied Forces Center or AFCENT) and the land forces command (LANDCENT); the air forces command (AIRCENT) was located nearby at Camp Guynemer. These facilities were in place from the inception of NATO until France\'s partial withdrawal from NATO in 1967 when the United States returned those bases to French control. NATO moved AFCENT to Brunssum in the Netherlands and AIRCENT to Ramstein in West Germany. (The Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe, also known as SHAPE, was located at Rocquencourt, west of Paris, quite a distance from Fontainebleau).
In 2008, the men\'s World Championship of Real Tennis (Jeu de Paume) was held in the tennis court of the Chateau. The real tennis World Championship is the oldest in sport and Fontainebleau has one of only two active courts in France.
## Population
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# Fontainebleau
## Tourism
Fontainebleau is a popular tourist destination; each year, 300,000 people visit the palace and more than 13 million people visit the forest.
### Forest of Fontainebleau {#forest_of_fontainebleau}
The forest of Fontainebleau surrounds the town and dozens of nearby villages. It is protected by France\'s *Office National des Forêts*, and it is recognised as a French national park. It is managed in order that its wild plants and trees, such as the rare service tree of Fontainebleau, and its populations of birds, mammals, and butterflies, can be conserved. It is a former royal hunting park often visited by hikers and horse riders. The forest is also well regarded for bouldering and is particularly popular among climbers, as it is the biggest developed area of that kind in the world.
### Royal Château de Fontainebleau {#royal_château_de_fontainebleau}
The Royal Château de Fontainebleau is a large palace where the kings of France took their ease. It is also the site where the French royal court, from 1528 onwards, entertained the body of new ideas that became known as the Renaissance.
### INSEAD
The European (and historic) campus of the INSEAD business school is located at the edge of Fontainebleau, by the Lycee Francois Couperin. INSEAD students live in local accommodations around the Fontainebleau area, and especially in the surrounding towns.
### Other notables {#other_notables}
- The graves of the philosopher and mystic George Gurdjieff and the New Zealand-born writer Katherine Mansfield can be found in the cemetery at Avon.
- Synagogue of Fontainebleau
## Transport
Fontainebleau is served by stations on the Transilien Line R: Fontainebleau--Avon, Fontainebleau-Forêt and Thomery. Trains run from Paris to Montereau and Montargis. Fontainebleau--Avon station, the closest to the centre of Fontainebleau, is located in Avon near its boundary with the commune of Fontainebleau.
From 1896 to 1953, Fontainebleau and its surrounding area were served by the Fontainebleau tramway.
Fontainebleau is served by several bus lines of the Île-de-France bus network: lines 1, 3, 4, 8, 20, 21, 23, 43, 45, 112, 202, 208, 210 of the Fontainebleau -- Avon bus network and lines 7A, 7B, 34 of the Loing Valley -- Nemours bus network.
## Climate
## Hospital
Fontainebleau has a campus of the Centre hospitalier Sud Seine et Marne.
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# Fontainebleau
## Notable people {#notable_people}
- Aga Khan IV, international business magnate
- Alfonso XIII, king of Spain, after his abdication
- Raoul Anglès (1887--1967), politician
- Arnold Bennett (1867--1931), writer, lived in Fontainebleau from 1908 to 1912
- Rosa Bonheur, a 19th-century artist
- Gabrièle Buffet-Picabia (1881--1985), art critic, first wife of painter Francis Picabia was born in Fontainebleau
- Christina, Queen of Sweden; her lover, Gian Rinaldo Monaldeschi, was murdered in Fontainebleau
- Claude-François Denencourt, inventor of modern hiking and nature tourism
- Jean-Claude Gorgy, French playwright born in Fontainebleu
- Joseph Charles Hippolyte Crosse (1826--1898), conchologist, lived and died at Château d\'Argeville, near Fontainebleau
- Ernst August, Prince of Hanover and Caroline, Princess of Hanover
- Lin Fengmian, Chinese painter who advocated the synthesis of Western techniques and Eastern traditions and later became known as the father of modern Chinese painting, brushed up on his French in Fontainebleau before moving on to study art at the Ecole Nationale Superieure des Beaux-Arts of Paris
- Francis I of France, built a large part of the palace
- Francis II of France, born in Fontainebleau
- Henry III of France, born in Fontainebleau
- Henry IV of France, built a part of the palace
- Anna Elizabeth Klumpke, an early twentieth-century artist
- Pierre Levassor (1808--1870), actor
- Pascal Lecocq, born in 1958, fine art painter, study at École Comairas (1973--1977) and exhibit for the 1st time in 1977 ;
- Louis XIII, king of France, born in Fontainebleau
- Louis XIV of France, built a part of the palace
- Louis XV, king of France, built a part of the palace
- Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette, king and queen of France, built a part of the palace
- Mark Maggiori, lead vocalist of Pleymo
- Katherine Mansfield (1888--1923), New Zealander short story writer, died in Fontainebleau
- Oscar Milosz, poet, novelist, dramatist and Lithuanian diplomat died in Fontainebleau in 1939.
- Louis Victoire Lux de Montmorin-Saint-Hérem (1762--1792), French military man
- Napoleon
- Napoleon III
- Pope Pius VII, lived (as a prisoner of Napoleon) in the palace
- Philip IV of France, born and died in Fontainebleau
- Django Reinhardt, died near Fontainebleau, in Samois-sur-Seine
- Robert Louis Stevenson, a Scottish novelist, poet, essayist, and travel writer
- Romain Thievin, racing driver, born in Fontainebleau
- Lilian Thuram, football player, World Cup and European Championship winner
## Twinning
Fontainebleau is twinned with the following cities:
- Konstanz, Germany, since 28 May 1960
- Richmond-upon-Thames, England, United Kingdom, since 1977
- Siem Reap, Cambodia, since 11 June 2000
- Nanjing, China
- Lodi, Italy since 2011
- Sintra, Portugal since 2016
- Alba Iulia, Romania since 2023
## Image gallery {#image_gallery}
<File:Chateau> de Fontainebleau Fontaine de Diane 02.jpg\|The fountain of Diana <File:FontainebleauTower.jpg%7CBell> Tower <File:TrinityChapel.jpg%7CThe> Trinity Chapel at the Palace of Fontainebleau <File:La> salle du Trône (Château de Fontainebleau)
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# Albert Park Circuit
The **Albert Park Circuit** is a motorsport street circuit around Albert Park Lake in the suburb of Albert Park in Melbourne. It is used annually as a circuit for the Formula One Australian Grand Prix, the supporting Supercars Championship Melbourne SuperSprint and other associated support races. The circuit has an FIA Grade 1 licence.
Although the entire track consists of normally public roads, each sector includes medium to high-speed characteristics more commonly associated with dedicated racetracks facilitated by grass and gravel run-off safety zones that are reconstructed annually. However, the circuit also has characteristics of a street circuit\'s enclosed nature due to concrete barriers annually built along the Lakeside Drive curve, in particular, where run-off is not available due to the proximity of the lake shore.
## Design
The circuit uses everyday sections of road that circle Albert Park Lake, a small man-altered lake (originally a large lagoon formed as part of the ancient Yarra River course) just south of the Central Business District of Melbourne. The road sections that are used were rebuilt before the inaugural event in 1996 to ensure consistency and smoothness. As a result, compared to other circuits that are held on public roads, the Albert Park track has quite a smooth surface. Before 2007 there existed only a few other places on the Formula 1 calendar with a body of water close to the track. Many of the new tracks, such as Valencia, Singapore and Abu Dhabi are close to a body of water.
The course is considered to be quite fast and relatively easy to drive, drivers having commented that the consistent placement of corners allows them to easily learn the circuit and achieve competitive times. However, the flat terrain around the lake, coupled with a track design that features few true straights, means that the track is not conducive to overtaking or easy spectating unless in possession of a grandstand seat.
Each year, most of the trackside fencing, pedestrian overpasses, grandstands, and other motorsport infrastructure are erected approximately two months before the Grand Prix weekend and removed within 6 weeks after the event. The land around the circuit (including a large aquatic centre, a golf course, a Lakeside Stadium, some restaurants, and rowing boathouses) has restricted access during that entire period. Dissent is still prevalent among nearby residents and users of those other facilities, and some still maintain a silent protest against the event. Nevertheless, the event is reasonably popular in Melbourne and Australia (with a large European population and a general interest in motorsport). Middle Park, the home of South Melbourne FC was demolished in 1994 due to expansion at Albert Park.
The Grand Prix regularly draws crowds of over 270,000 spectators, with the 2024 drawing a record crowd of 452,055, including 132,106 on the main raceday. There has never been a night race at Albert Park, although the 2009 and 2010 events both started at 5:00 p.m. local time. The current contract for the Grand Prix at the circuit concludes in 2035.
Following the postponement of the Australian Grand Prix in 2021, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the track underwent layout changes, the most notable part was the modification of the turn 9--10 complex from a heavy right-left corner to a fast-sweeping right-left corner into turns 11 and 12. Further modifications included the widening of the pit lane by 2 m and the reprofiling of turn 13. Also, some corners were widened such as turn 1, turn 3, turn 6, turn 7, and turn 15. The 2022 pole position lap time was 2.6 seconds quicker than in 2019.
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# Albert Park Circuit
## Everyday access {#everyday_access}
During the nine months of the year when the track is not required for Grand Prix preparation or the race weekend, most of the track can be driven by ordinary street-registered vehicles either clockwise or anti-clockwise.
Only the sections between turns 3, 4, and 5, then 5 and 6, differ significantly from the race track configuration. Turn 4 is replaced by a car park access road running directly from turns 3 to 5. Between turns 5 and 6, the road is blocked. It is possible to drive from turn 5 on to Albert Road and back on to the track at turn 7 though three sets of lights control the flow of this option. The only set of lights on the actual track is halfway between turns 12 and 13, where drivers using Queens Road are catered for. The chicanes at turns 11 and 12 are considerably more open than that used in the Grand Prix, using the escape roads. Turn 9 is also a car park and traffic is directed down another escape road.
The speed limit is generally 40 km/h, while some short sections have a speed limit of 50 km/h, which is still slower than an F1 car under pit lane speed restrictions. The back of the track, turns 7 to 13 inclusive, is known as Lakeside Drive. Double lines separate the two-way traffic along most of Lakeside Drive with short road islands approximately every 50 m which means overtaking is illegal here. Black Swans live and breed in Albert Park, and frequently cross the road causing traffic delays, sometimes with up to five cygnets (young swans).
Approximately 80% of the track edge is lined with short parkland-style chain-linked fencing leaving normal drivers less room for error than F1 drivers have during race weekend. There is however substantial shoulder room between the outside of each lane and the fencing, which is used as parking along Aughtie Drive during the other nine months.
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# Albert Park Circuit
## History
### Albert Park Circuit (1953--1958) {#albert_park_circuit_19531958}
Prior to World War II, attempts were made to use Albert Park for motor racing. The first was in 1934 but failed due to opposition, and a second attempt for a motorcycle race in 1937 similarly failed. Finally in 1953 the Light Car Club of Australia were able to secure use of the circuit for that year\'s Australian Grand Prix.
Albert Park is the only venue to host the Australian Grand Prix in both World Championship and non-World Championship formats with an earlier configuration of the current circuit used for the race on two occasions during the 1950s. During this time racing was conducted in an anti-clockwise direction as opposed to the current circuit which runs clockwise.
Known as the Albert Park Circuit, the original 3.125 mi course hosted a total of six race meetings:
- 21 November 1953 -- featuring the 1953 Australian Grand Prix, won by Doug Whiteford (Talbot-Lago T26C)
- 26 and 27 March 1955 -- the first Moomba meeting, which involved an alliance with the Moomba festival and The Argus newspaper, featuring the Moomba TT, won by Doug Whiteford (Triumph TR2) and the Argus Trophy, also won by Doug Whiteford (Talbot-Lago)
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- 11 March and 18 March 1956 -- the second Moomba meeting, featuring the 1956 Moomba TT won by Tony Gaze (HWM Jaguar), and on the second weekend the 1956 Argus Trophy, won by Reg Hunt (Maserati 250F)
- 25 November & 2 December 1956 -- featuring the 1956 Australian Tourist Trophy, won by Stirling Moss (Maserati 300S), and on the second weekend the 1956 Australian Grand Prix, also won by Stirling Moss (Maserati 250F)
- 17 and 24 March 1957 -- the third Moomba meeting -- featuring the Victorian Tourist Trophy won by Doug Whiteford (Maserati 300S), and the Victorian Trophy, won by Lex Davison (Ferrari 500). The Victorian Trophy was retrospectively designated as the second round of the 1957 Australian Drivers\' Championship
- 23 and 30 November 1958 -- featuring the 1958 Victorian Tourist Trophy, won by Doug Whiteford (Maserati 300S), and, on the second weekend, the 1958 Melbourne Grand Prix, (a round of the 1958 Australian Drivers\' Championship), won by Stirling Moss (Cooper Coventry Climax)
The November 1958 meeting was the last on the original incarnation of the circuit, as it closed shortly after.
## Events
Current
- March: Formula One *Australian Grand Prix*, FIA Formula 2 Championship *Melbourne Formula 2 round*, FIA Formula 3 Championship, Supercars Championship *Melbourne SuperSprint*, Porsche Carrera Cup Australia Championship
Former
- Aussie Racing Cars (2007--2009)
- Australian Drivers\' Championship (1957--1958, 1996)
- Australian Mini Challenge (2009--2010)
- Australian Formula 4 Championship (2019)
- Australian Formula Ford Championship (2009--2010, 2012)
- Australian Grand Prix Formula Libre (1953, 1956)
- Australian GT Championship (2008--2010, 2016--2019)
- Australian Tourist Trophy (1956)
- Ferrari Challenge Asia-Pacific (2018--2019)
- Porsche Supercup (1999)
- S5000 Australian Drivers\' Championship (2022)
- Supercars Championship
- *Supercars Challenge* (1996--2006, 2008--2017)
- V8 Ute Racing Series (2005--2007)
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# Albert Park Circuit
## Race lap records {#race_lap_records}
As of March 2024, the fastest official race lap records at the Albert Park Circuit are listed as:
Category Driver Vehicle Time Date
---------------------------------------------- -------------------- ---------------------------------- --------------- ------------------
Grand Prix Circuit (2021--present): 5.278 km
Formula One Charles Leclerc Ferrari SF-24 **1:19.813** 24 March 2024
FIA F2 Frederik Vesti Dallara F2 2018 **1:30.712** 2 April 2023
FIA F3 Grégoire Saucy Dallara F3 2019 **1:34.405** 2 April 2023
S5000 Aaron Cameron Ligier JS F3-S5000 **1:40.3696** 8 April 2022
Supercars Championship Scott Pye Holden Commodore (ZB) **1:46.006** 9 April 2022
Porsche Carrera Cup Max Vidau Porsche 911 (992) GT3 Cup **1:47.9868** 1 April 2023
Grand Prix Circuit (1996--2020): 5.303 km
Formula One Michael Schumacher Ferrari F2004 **1:24.125** 7 March 2004
Formula Holden Todd Kelly Reynard 92D **1:49.246** March 1998
Formula 3 Bruno Senna Dallara F304 **1:50.8640** 30 March 2006
Formula 5000 Ken Smith Lola T430 **1:54.6975** 28 March 2010
GT3 Craig Baird Mercedes-AMG GT3 **1:54.7311** 22 March 2018
Group 7 Michael Lyons March 717 **1:55.541** 17 March 2013
Supercars Championship Chaz Mostert Ford Mustang S550 **1:55.7280** 15 March 2019
Porsche Carrera Cup Cooper Murray Porsche 911 (991 II) GT3 Cup **1:58.3294** 16 March 2019
Ferrari Challenge Renaldi Hutasoit Ferrari 488 Challenge **2:00.0713** 25 March 2018
Nations Cup Paul Stokell Lamborghini Diablo GTR **2:00.685** 8 March 2003
Formula 4 Jayden Ojeda Mygale M14-F4 **2:02.1683** 17 March 2019
Super Touring Jim Richards Volvo 850 **2:03.547** 8 March 1997
Formula Ford Chaz Mostert Spectrum 012 **2:04.4805** 27 March 2010
GT4 Ryan Simpson McLaren 570S GT4 **2:05.9644** 15 March 2019
Group A Terry Lawlor Nissan Skyline R32 GT-R **2:07.9622** 15 March 2015
Aussie Racing Cars James Small Holden Commodore-Yamaha **2:16.0196** 15 March 2008
Australian Mini Challenge Chris Alajajian Mini John Cooper Works Challenge **2:17.7962** 29 March 2009
Group C Milton Seferis Holden VH Commodore SS **2:18.9539** 14 March 2015
Pickup truck racing Grant Johnson Holden Commodore Ute **2:22.3877** 1 April 2006
Original Circuit (1953--1958): 5.027 km
Formula Libre Stirling Moss Cooper T45 **1:50.0** 30 November 1958
Sports car racing Stirling Moss Maserati 300S **1:55
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# Forgetting
**Forgetting** or **disremembering** is the apparent loss or modification of information already encoded and stored in an individual\'s short or long-term memory. It is a spontaneous or gradual process in which old memories are unable to be recalled from memory storage. Problems with remembering, learning and retaining new information are a few of the most common complaints of older adults. Studies show that retention improves with increased rehearsal. This improvement occurs because rehearsal helps to transfer information into long-term memory.
Forgetting curves (amount remembered as a function of time since an event was first experienced) have been extensively analyzed. The most recent evidence suggests that a power function provides the closest mathematical fit to the forgetting function.
## Overview
Failing to retrieve an event does not mean that this specific event has been forever forgotten. Research has shown that there are a few health behaviors that to some extent can prevent forgetting from happening so often. One of the simplest ways to keep the brain healthy and prevent forgetting is to stay active and exercise. Staying active is important because overall it keeps the body healthy. When the body is healthy the brain is healthy and less inflamed as well. Older adults who were more active were found to have had less episodes of forgetting compared to those older adults who were less active. A healthy diet can also contribute to a healthier brain and aging process which in turn results in less frequent forgetting.
## History
One of the first to study the mechanisms of forgetting was the German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885). Using himself as the sole subject in his experiment, he memorized lists of three letter nonsense syllable words---two consonants and one vowel in the middle. He then measured his own capacity to relearn a given list of words after a variety of given time period. He found that forgetting occurs in a systematic manner, beginning rapidly and then leveling off. Although his methods were primitive, his basic premises have held true today and have been reaffirmed by more methodologically sound methods. The Ebbinghaus *forgetting curve* is the name of his results which he plotted out and made 2 conclusions. The first being that much of what we forget is lost soon after it is originally learned. The second being that the amount of forgetting eventually levels off.
Around the same time Ebbinghaus developed the forgetting curve, psychologist Sigmund Freud theorized that people intentionally forgot things in order to push bad thoughts and feelings deep into their unconscious, a process he called \"repression\". There is debate as to whether (or how often) memory repression really occurs and mainstream psychology holds that true memory repression occurs only very rarely.
One process model for memory was proposed by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin in the 1960s as a way to explain the operation of memory. This modal model of memory, also known as the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory, suggests there are three types of memory: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Each type of memory is separate in its capacity and duration. In the modal model, how quickly information is forgotten is related to the type of memory where that information is stored. Information in the first stage, sensory memory, is forgotten after only a few seconds. In the second stage, short-term memory, information is forgotten after about 20 years. While information in long-term memory can be remembered for minutes or even decades, it may be forgotten when the retrieval processes for that information fail.
Concerning unwanted memories, modern terminology divides motivated forgetting into unconscious repression (which is disputed) and conscious thought suppression.
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# Forgetting
## Measurements
Forgetting can be measured in different ways all of which are based on recall:
### Recall
For this type of measurement, a participant has to identify material that was previously learned. The participant is asked to remember a list of material. Later on they are shown the same list of material with additional information and they are asked to identify the material that was on the original list. The more they recognize, the less information is forgotten.
#### Free recall and variants {#free_recall_and_variants}
Free recall is a basic paradigm used to study human memory. In a free recall task, a subject is presented a list of to-be-remembered items, one at a time. For example, an experimenter might read a list of 20 words aloud, presenting a new word to the subject every 4 seconds. At the end of the presentation of the list, the subject is asked to recall the items (e.g., by writing down as many items from the list as possible). It is called a free recall task because the subject is free to recall the items in any order that he or she desires.
##### Prompted (cued) recall {#prompted_cued_recall}
Prompted recall is a slight variation of free recall that consists of presenting hints or prompts to increase the likelihood that the behavior will be produced. Usually these prompts are stimuli that were not there during the training period. Thus in order to measure the degree of forgetting, one can see how many prompts the subject misses or the number of prompts required to produce the behavior.
#### Relearning method {#relearning_method}
This method measures forgetting by the amount of training required to reach the previous level of performance. German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885) used this method on himself. He memorized lists of nonsensical syllables until he could repeat the list two times without error. After a certain interval, he relearned the list and saw how long it would take him to do this task. If it took fewer times, then there had been less forgetting. His experiment was one of the first to study forgetting.
#### Recognition
Participants are given a list of words and that they have to remember. Then they are shown the same list of material with additional information and they are asked to identify the material that was on the original list. The more they recognize, the less information is forgotten.
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# Forgetting
## Theories
The four main theories of forgetting apparent in the study of psychology are as follows:
### Cue-dependent forgetting {#cue_dependent_forgetting}
Cue-dependent forgetting (also, context-dependent forgetting) or retrieval failure, is the failure to recall a memory due to missing stimuli or cues that were present at the time the memory was encoded. Encoding is the first step in creating and remembering a memory. How well something has been encoded in the memory can be measured by completing specific tests of retrieval. Examples of these tests would be explicit ones like cued recall or implicit tests like word fragment completion. Cue-dependent forgetting is one of five cognitive psychology theories of forgetting. This theory states that a memory is sometimes temporarily forgotten purely because it cannot be retrieved, but the proper cue can bring it to mind. A good metaphor for this is searching for a book in a library without the reference number, title, author or even subject. The information still exists, but without these cues retrieval is unlikely. Furthermore, a good retrieval cue must be consistent with the original encoding of the information. If the sound of the word is emphasized during the encoding process, the cue that should be used should also put emphasis on the phonetic quality of the word. Information is available however, just not readily available without these cues. Depending on the age of a person, retrieval cues and skills may not work as well. This is usually common in older adults but that is not always the case. When information is encoded into the memory and retrieved with a technique called spaced retrieval, this helps older adults retrieve the events stored in the memory better. There is also evidence from different studies that show age related changes in memory. These specific studies have shown that episodic memory performance does in fact decline with age and have made known that older adults produce vivid rates of forgetting when two items are combined and not encoded.
### Organic causes {#organic_causes}
Forgetting that occurs through physiological damage or dilapidation to the brain are referred to as organic causes of forgetting. These theories encompass the loss of information already retained in long-term memory or the inability to encode new information again. Examples include Alzheimer\'s, amnesia, dementia, consolidation theory and the gradual slowing down of the central nervous system due to aging.
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# Forgetting
## Theories
### Interference theories {#interference_theories}
Interference theory refers to the idea that when the learning of something new causes forgetting of older material on the basis of competition between the two. This essentially states that memory\'s information may become confused or combined with other information during encoding, resulting in the distortion or disruption of memories. In nature, the interfering items are said to originate from an overstimulating environment. Interference theory exists in three branches: **Proactive, Retroactive and Output**. Retroactive and Proactive inhibition each referring in contrast to the other. Retroactive interference is when new information (memories) interferes with older information. On the other hand, proactive interference is when old information interferes with the retrieval of new information. This is sometimes thought to occur especially when memories are similar. Output Interference occurs when the initial act of recalling specific information interferes with the retrieval of the original information. Another reason why retrieval failure occurs is due to encoding failure. The information never made it to long-term memory storage. According to the level of processing theory, how well information is encoded depends on the level of processing a piece of information receives. Certain parts of information are better encoded than others; for example, information this visual imagery or that has a survival value is more easily transferred to the long-term memory storage. This theory shows a contradiction: an extremely intelligent individual is expected to forget more hastily than one who has a slow mentality. For this reason, an intelligent individual has stored up more memory in his mind which will cause interferences and impair their ability to recall specific information. Based on current research, testing interference has only been carried out by recalling from a list of words rather than using situation from daily lives, thus it is hard to generalize the findings for this theory. It has been found that interference related tasks decreased memory performance by up to 20%, with negative effects at all interference time points and large variability between participants concerning both the time point and the size of maximal interference. Furthermore, fast learners seem to be more affected by interference than slow learners. People are also less likely to recall items when intervening stimuli are presented within the first ten minutes after learning. Recall performance is better without interference. Peripheral processes such as encoding time, recognition memory and motor execution decline with age. However proactive interference is similar. Suggesting contrary to earlier reports that the inhibitory processes observed with this paradigm remain intact in older adults.
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# Forgetting
## Theories
### Trace decay theory {#trace_decay_theory}
Decay theory states that when something new is learned, a neurochemical, physical \"memory trace\" is formed in the brain and over time this trace tends to disintegrate, unless it is occasionally used. Decay theory states the reason we eventually forget something or an event is because the memory of it fades with time. If we do not attempt to look back at an event, the greater the interval time between the time when the event from happening and the time when we try to remember, the memory will start to fade. Time is the greatest impact in remembering an event.
Trace decay theory explains memories that are stored in both short-term and long-term memory system, and assumes that the memories leave a trace in the brain. According to this theory, short-term memory (STM) can only retain information for a limited amount of time, around 15 to 30 seconds unless it is rehearsed. If it is not rehearsed, the information will start to gradually fade away and decay. Donald Hebb proposed that incoming information causes a series of neurons to create a neurological memory trace in the brain which would result in change in the morphological and/or chemical changes in the brain and would fade with time. Repeated firing causes a structural change in the synapses. Rehearsal of repeated firing maintains the memory in STM until a structural change is made. Therefore, forgetting happens as a result of automatic decay of the memory trace in brain. This theory states that the events between learning and recall have no effects on recall; the important factor that affects is the duration that the information has been retained. Hence, as longer time passes more of traces are subject to decay and as a result the information is forgotten.
One major problem about this theory is that in real-life situation, the time between encoding a piece of information and recalling it, is going to be filled with all different kinds of events that might happen to the individual. Therefore, it is difficult to conclude that forgetting is a result of only the time duration. It is also important to consider the effectiveness of this theory. Although it seems very plausible, it is about impossible to test. It is difficult to create a situation where there is a blank period of time between presenting the material and recalling it later.
This theory is supposedly contradicted by the fact that one is able to ride a bike even after not having done so for decades. \"Flashbulb memories\" are another piece of seemingly contradicting evidence. It is believed that certain memories \"trace decay\" while others do not. Sleep is believed to play a key role in halting trace decay, although the exact mechanism of this is unknown.
Physical and chemical changes in our brain lead to a memory trace, and this is based on the idea of the trace theory of memory. Information that gets into our short-term memory lasts a few seconds (15--20 seconds), and it fades away if it is not rehearsed or practiced as the neurochemical memory trace disappears rapidly. According to the trace decay theory of forgetting, what occurs between the creation of new memories and the recall of these memories is not influenced by the recall. However, the time between these events (memory formation and recalling) decides whether the information can be kept or forgotten. As there is an inverse correlation that if the time is short, more information can be recalled. On the other hand, if the time is long less information can be recalled or more information will be forgotten. This theory can be criticized for not sharing ideas on how some memories can stay and others can fade, though there was a long time between the formation and recall. Newness to something plays a crucial role in this situation. For instance, people are more likely to recall their very first day abroad than all of the intervening days between it and living there. Emotions also play a crucial role in this situation.
## Impairments and lack of forgetting {#impairments_and_lack_of_forgetting}
Forgetting can have very different causes than simply removal of stored content. Forgetting can mean access problems, availability problems, or can have other reasons such as amnesia caused by an accident.
An inability to forget can cause distress, as with post-traumatic stress disorder and hyperthymesia (in which people have an extremely detailed autobiographical memory).
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# Forgetting
## Social forgetting {#social_forgetting}
Psychologists have called attention to \"social aspects of forgetting\". Though often loosely defined, social amnesia is generally considered to be the opposite of collective memory. \"Social amnesia\" was first discussed by Russell Jacoby, yet his use of the term was restricted to a narrow approach, which was limited to what he perceived to be a relative neglect of psychoanalytical theory in psychology. The cultural historian Peter Burke suggested that \"it may be worth investigating the social organization of forgetting, the rules of exclusion, suppression or repression, and the question of who wants whom to forget what\". In an in-depth historical study spanning two centuries, Guy Beiner proposed the term \"social forgetting\", which he distinguished from crude notions of \"collective amnesia\" and \"total oblivion\", arguing that \"social forgetting is to be found in the interface of public silence and more private remembrance\". The philosopher Walter Benjamin sees social forgetting closely linked to the question of present-day interests, arguing that \"every image of the past that is not recognized by the present as one of its own concerns threatens to disappear irretrievably\". Building on this, the sociologist David Leupold argued in the context of competing national narratives that what is suppressed and forgotten in one national narrative \"might appear at the core of past narrations by the other\" - thus often leading to diametrically opposed, mutually exclusive accounts on the past
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# Fay Wray
**Vina Fay Wray** (September 15, 1907 -- August 8, 2004) was a Canadian-American actress best known for starring as Ann Darrow in the 1933 film *King Kong*. Through an acting career that spanned nearly six decades, Wray attained international recognition as an actress in horror films. She has been dubbed the first \"scream queen\".
She had minor film roles, and gained media attention as one of the \"WAMPAS Baby Stars\" in 1926. This led to her contract with Paramount Pictures as a teenager, where she made more than a dozen feature films. After leaving Paramount, she signed deals with various film companies, got her first roles in horror films and many other types, including in *The Bowery* (1933) and *Viva Villa!* (1934), both of which star Wallace Beery. For RKO Radio Pictures, Inc., Wray starred in her most identifiable film, *King Kong* (1933). After its success, she had numerous roles in film and television, retiring in 1980.
## Life and career {#life_and_career}
### Early life {#early_life}
Wray was born on a ranch near Cardston, Alberta, to parents who were members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints: Elvina Marguerite Jones from Salt Lake City, Utah, and Joseph Heber Wray from Kingston upon Hull, England. They had six children and she was a granddaughter of LDS pioneer Daniel Webster Jones. Her ancestors came from England, Scotland, Ireland, Northern Ireland, and Wales.
Her family returned to the United States a few years after she was born; they moved to Salt Lake City in 1912 and moved to Lark, Utah, in 1914. In 1919, the Wray family returned to Salt Lake City, and then relocated to Hollywood, where she attended Hollywood High School.
### Early acting career {#early_acting_career}
In 1923, Wray appeared in her first film at the age of 16, when she landed a role in a short historical film sponsored by a local newspaper. In the 1920s, Wray appeared in the silent film *The Coast Patrol* (1925), and uncredited bit parts at the Hal Roach Studios.
In 1926, the Western Association of Motion Picture Advertisers selected Wray as one of the \"WAMPAS Baby Stars\", a group of women whom they believed to be on the threshold of movie stardom. She was at the time under contract to Universal Studios, mostly co-starring in low-budget Westerns opposite Buck Jones.
The following year, Wray was signed to a contract with Paramount Pictures. In 1926, director Erich von Stroheim cast her as the main female lead in his film *The Wedding March*, released by Paramount two years later. The film was noted for its high budget and production values, but was a financial failure. It also gave Wray her first lead role. Wray stayed with Paramount to make more than a dozen films and made the transition from silent films to \"talkies\".
### Horror films and *King Kong* {#horror_films_and_king_kong}
After leaving Paramount, Wray signed with other film studios. Under these deals, Wray was cast in several horror films, including *Doctor X* (1932) and *Mystery of the Wax Museum* (1933). Her best known films were produced under her deal with RKO Radio Pictures. Her first film with RKO was *The Most Dangerous Game* (1932), co-starring Joel McCrea. The production was filmed at night on the same jungle sets used for *King Kong* during the day, and with Wray and Robert Armstrong starring in both movies.
*The Most Dangerous Game* was followed by the release of Wray\'s best-remembered film, *King Kong*. According to Wray, Jean Harlow had been RKO\'s original choice, but because MGM put Harlow under exclusive contract during the pre-production phase of the film, she became unavailable. Wray was approached by director Merian C. Cooper to play King Kong\'s blonde captive, Ann Darrow, for which she was paid `{{US$|10000|1933|about=yes|round=-5}}`{=mediawiki}. The film was a commercial success and Wray was reportedly proud that it saved RKO from bankruptcy.
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# Fay Wray
## Life and career {#life_and_career}
### Later career {#later_career}
Wray continued starring in films, including *The Richest Girl in the World*, but by the early 1940s, her appearances became less frequent. She retired in 1942 after her second marriage but due to financial exigencies she soon resumed her acting career, and over the next three decades, she appeared in several films and appeared frequently on television. She portrayed Catherine Morrison in the 1953--54 sitcom *The Pride of the Family* with Natalie Wood as her daughter. Wray appeared in *Queen Bee* and *The Cobweb*, both released in 1955.
Wray appeared in three episodes of *Perry Mason*: \"The Case of the Prodigal Parent\" (1958); \"The Case of the Watery Witness\" (1959), as murder victim Lorna Thomas; and \"The Case of the Fatal Fetish\" (1965), as voodoo practitioner Mignon Germaine. Wray also co-starred with *Perry Mason* star Raymond Burr in the 1957 noir film release *Crime of Passion*.
In 1959, Wray was cast as Tula Marsh in the episode \"The Second Happiest Day\" of *Playhouse 90.* Other roles around this time were in the episodes \"Dip in the Pool\" (1958) and \"The Morning After\" of CBS\'s *Alfred Hitchcock Presents*. In 1960, she appeared as Clara in an episode of *77 Sunset Strip*, \"Who Killed Cock Robin?\" Another 1960 role was that of Mrs. Staunton, with Gigi Perreau as her daughter, in the episode \"Flight from Terror\" of *The Islanders.*
Wray appeared in a 1961 episode of *The Real McCoys* titled \"Theatre in the Barn\" . In 1963, she played Mrs. Brubaker in *The Eleventh Hour* episode \"You\'re So Smart, Why Can\'t You Be Good?\" She ended her acting career with the 1980 made-for-television film *Gideon\'s Trumpet*.
In 1988, her autobiography was released, *On the Other Hand*. In her later years, Wray continued to make public appearances. In 1991, she was crowned Queen of the Beaux Arts Ball, presiding with King Herbert Huncke.
She was approached by James Cameron to play Rose Dawson Calvert for his blockbuster *Titanic* (1997) with Kate Winslet to play her younger self, but she turned down the role, which was subsequently portrayed by Gloria Stuart in an Oscar-nominated performance. She was a special guest at the 70th Academy Awards, where the show\'s host Billy Crystal introduced her as the \"Beauty who charmed the Beast\". She was the only 1920s Hollywood actress in attendance that evening. On October 3, 1998, she appeared at the Pine Bluff Film Festival, which showed *The Wedding March* with live orchestral accompaniment.
In January 2003, at age 95, she appeared at the Palm Beach International Film Festival to celebrate the Rick McKay documentary film *Broadway: The Golden Age, by the Legends Who Were There*, where she was honored with a \"Legend in Film\" award. In her later years, she visited the Empire State Building frequently; in 1991, she was a guest of honor at the building\'s 60th anniversary, and in May 2004, she made one of her last public appearances at the ESB. Her final public appearance was at the premiere of the documentary film *Broadway: The Golden Age, by the Legends Who Were There* in June 2004.
## Personal life {#personal_life}
Wray married three times -- to writers John Monk Saunders and Robert Riskin and the neurosurgeon Sanford Rothenberg (January 28, 1919 -- January 4, 1991). She had three children: Susan Saunders, Victoria Riskin, and Robert Riskin Jr.
After returning to the US after finishing *The Clairvoyant* she became a naturalized citizen of the United States in May 1935.
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# Fay Wray
## Death
Wray died in her sleep of natural causes on the night of August 8, 2004, in her apartment on Fifth Avenue Manhattan. She is interred at the Hollywood Forever Cemetery in Hollywood, California.
Two days after her death, the lights of the Empire State Building were lowered for 15 minutes in her memory.
## Honors
In 1989, Wray was awarded the Women in Film Crystal Award. Wray was honored with a Legend in Film award at the 2003 Palm Beach International Film Festival. For her contribution to the motion picture industry, Wray was honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6349 Hollywood Blvd. She received a star posthumously on Canada\'s Walk of Fame in Toronto on June 5, 2005. A small park near Lee\'s Creek on Main Street in Cardston, Alberta, her birthplace, was named Fay Wray Park in her honor. The small sign at the edge of the park on Main Street has a silhouette of King Kong. A large oil portrait of Wray by Alberta artist Neil Boyle is on display in the Empress Theatre in Fort Macleod, Alberta. In May 2006, Wray became one of the first four entertainers to be honored by Canada Post by being featured on a postage stamp.
## Filmography
### Features
Year Title Role Notes
------ --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------
1925 data-sort-value=\"Coast Patrol, The\" \| *The Coast Patrol* Beth Slocum
data-sort-value=\"Lover\'s Oath, A\" \| *A Lover\'s Oath* Uncredited; lost film
*Ben-Hur: A Tale of the Christ* Slave Girl Unconfirmed, uncredited
1926 data-sort-value=\"Man in the Saddle, The\" \| *The Man in the Saddle* Pauline Stewart lost film
data-sort-value=\"Wild Horse Stampede, The\" \| *The Wild Horse Stampede* Jessie Hayden
*Lazy Lightning* Lila Rogers
1927 *Loco Luck* Molly Vernon
data-sort-value=\"One Man Game, A\" \| *A One Man Game* Roberta
*Spurs and Saddles* Mildred Orth
1928 data-sort-value=\"Legion of the Condemned, The\" \| *The Legion of the Condemned* Christine Charteris lost film
data-sort-value=\"Street of Sin, The\" \| *The Street of Sin* Elizabeth lost film
data-sort-value=\"First Kiss, The\" \| *The First Kiss* Anna Lee lost film
data-sort-value=\"Wedding March, The\" \| *The Wedding March* Mitzi / Mitzerl Schrammell
1929 data-sort-value=\"Four Feathers, The\" \| *The Four Feathers* Ethne Eustace
*Thunderbolt* Ritzie
*Pointed Heels* Lora Nixon
1930 *Behind the Make-Up* Marie Gardoni
*Paramount on Parade* Sweetheart (Dream Girl) Filmed partly in Technicolor
data-sort-value=\"Texan, The\" \| *The Texan* Consuelo
data-sort-value=\"Border Legion, The\" \| *The Border Legion* Joan Randall
data-sort-value=\"Sea God, The\" \| *The Sea God* Daisy
data-sort-value=\"Honeymoon, The\" \| *The Honeymoon* Mitzi Unreleased
*Captain Thunder* Ynez
1931 *Stub Man*
*Dirigible* Helen Pierce
data-sort-value=\"Conquering Horde, The\" \| *The Conquering Horde* Taisie Lockhart
*Not Exactly Gentlemen* Lee Carleton
data-sort-value=\"Finger Points, The\" \| *The Finger Points* Marcia Collins
data-sort-value=\"Lawyer\'s Secret, The\" \| *The Lawyer\'s Secret* Kay Roberts
data-sort-value=\"Unholy Garden, The\" \| *The Unholy Garden* Camille de Jonghe
1932 *Stowaway* Mary Foster
*Doctor X* Joanne Xavier Filmed in Technicolor
data-sort-value=\"Most Dangerous Game, The\" \| *The Most Dangerous Game* Eve Trowbridge
1933 data-sort-value=\"Vampire Bat, The\" \| *The Vampire Bat* Ruth Bertin
*Mystery of the Wax Museum* Charlotte Duncan Filmed in Technicolor
*King Kong* Ann Darrow
*Below the Sea* Diana
*Ann Carver\'s Profession* Ann Carver Graham
data-sort-value=\"Woman I Stole, The\" \| *The Woman I Stole* Vida Carew
*Shanghai Madness* Wildeth Christie
data-sort-value=\"Big Brain, The\" \| *The Big Brain* Cynthia Glennon
*One Sunday Afternoon* Virginia Brush
data-sort-value=\"Bowery, The\" \| *The Bowery* Lucy Calhoun
*Master of Men* Kay Walling
1934 *Madame Spy* Marie Franck
data-sort-value=\"Countess of Monte Cristo, The\" \| *The Countess of Monte Cristo* Janet Krueger
*Once to Every Woman* Mary Fanshane
*Viva Villa!* Teresa
*Black Moon* Gail Hamilton
data-sort-value=\"Affairs of Cellini, The\" \| *The Affairs of Cellini* Angela
data-sort-value=\"Richest Girl in the World, The\" \| *The Richest Girl in the World* Sylvia Lockwood
*Cheating Cheaters* Nan Brockton
*Woman in the Dark* Louise Loring
*Mills of the Gods* Jean Hastings
1935 data-sort-value=\"Clairvoyant, The\" \| *The Clairvoyant* Rene US title: The Evil Mind
*Bulldog Jack* Ann Manders
*Come Out of the Pantry* Hilda Beach-Howard
*White Lies* Joan Mitchell
1936 *When Knights Were Bold* Lady Rowena
*Roaming Lady* Joyce Reid
*They Met in a Taxi* Mary Trenton
1937 *It Happened in Hollywood* Gloria Gay
*Murder in Greenwich Village* Kay Cabot aka Lucky
1938 data-sort-value=\"Jury\'s Secret, The\" \| *The Jury\'s Secret* Linda Ware
*Smashing the Spy Ring* Eleanor Dunlap
1939 *Navy Secrets* Carol Mathews -- Posing as Carol Evans
1940 *Wildcat Bus* Ted Dawson
1941 *Adam Had Four Sons* Molly Stoddard
*Melody for Three* Mary Stanley
1942 *Not a Ladies\' Man* Hester Hunter
1944 *This Is the Life* Based on a play by Wray and Sinclair Lewis
1953 *Treasure of the Golden Condor* Annette, Marquise de St. Malo
*Small Town Girl* Mrs. Kimbell
1955 data-sort-value=\"Cobweb, The\" \| *The Cobweb* Edna Devanal
*Queen Bee* Sue McKinnon
1956 *Hell on Frisco Bay* Kay Stanley
*Rock, Pretty Baby* Beth Daley
1957 *Crime of Passion* Alice Pope
*Tammy and the Bachelor* Mrs. Brent
1958 *Summer Love* Beth Daley
*Dragstrip Riot* Norma Martin / Mrs. Martin
1962 *Wagon Train* Mrs. Edward\'s, The Cole Crawford Story
1980 *Gideon\'s Trumpet* Edna Curtis
1997 *Off the Menu: The Last Days of Chasen\'s* Herself Documentary
2003 *Broadway: The Golden Age, by the Legends Who Were There* Herself Documentary
### Short subjects {#short_subjects}
Year Title Role Notes
------ --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------- ------------
1923 *Gasoline Love*
*Speed Bugs*
1924 *Just A Good Guy* Girl Getting Into Car
1925 *Sure-Mike* Salesgirl at Department Store
*What Price Goofy* Concerned Girl with Perfume Uncredited
*Isn\'t Life Terrible?* Potential Pen-Buyer Uncredited
*Thundering Landlords* The Wife
*Chasing the Chaser* Nursemaid
*Madame Sans Jane*
*No Father to Guide Him* Beach House Cashier Uncredited
*Unfriendly Enemies* The Girl
*Your Own Back Yard* Woman in Quarrelsome Couple
*Moonlight and Noses* Miss Sniff, the Professor\'s Daughter
*Should Sailors Marry?* Herself
1926 *WAMPAS Baby Stars of 1926* Herself
*One Wild Time*
*Don Key (A Son of a Burro)*
*Don\'t Shoot* Nancy Burton
data-sort-value=\"Saddle Tramp, The\" \| *The Saddle Tramp*
data-sort-value=\"Show Cowpuncher, The\" \| *The Show Cowpuncher*
1927 data-sort-value=\"Trip Through the Paramount Studio, A\" \| *A Trip Through the Paramount Studio* Herself
1931 data-sort-value=\"Slippery Pearls, The\" \| *The Slippery Pearls* Herself
1932 *Hollywood on Parade* Herself
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# Fay Wray
## Filmography
### Partial Television Credits {#partial_television_credits}
Year Title Role Notes
----------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------- --------------------------------------------------------
1953 *Cavalcade of America* Mrs. Jefferson Davis Episode: \"One Nation Indivisible\"
1953-1954 data-sort-value=\"Pride of the Family, The\" \| *The Pride of the Family* Catherine Morrison 27 episodes
1958 *Alfred Hitchcock Presents* Mrs. Renshaw Episode: \"Dip in the Pool\"
1959 *Playhouse 90* Tula Marsh Episode: \"The Second Happiest Day\"
*Alfred Hitchcock Presents* Mrs. Nelson Episode: \"The Morning After\"
1962 *Wagon Train* Mrs. Edwards Episode: \"The Cole Crawford Story\"
1964 data-sort-value=\"Eleventh Hour, The\" \| *The Eleventh Hour* Mrs. Brubaker Episode: \"You\'re So Smart, Why Can\'t You Be Good?\"
1965 *Bob Hope Presents the Chrysler Theatre* Mrs
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# Free-running sleep
**Free-running sleep** is a rare sleep pattern whereby the sleep schedule of a person shifts later every day. It occurs as the sleep disorder non-24-hour sleep--wake disorder or artificially as part of experiments used in the study of circadian rhythms and other rhythms in biology. Study subjects are shielded from all time cues, often by a constant light protocol, by a constant dark protocol or by the use of light/dark conditions to which the organism cannot entrain such as the ultrashort protocol of one hour dark and two hours light. Also, limited amounts of food may be made available at short intervals so as to avoid entrainment to mealtimes. Subjects are thus forced to live by their internal circadian \"clocks\".
## Background
The individual\'s or animal\'s circadian phase can be known only by the monitoring of some kind of output of the circadian system, the internal \"body clock\". The researcher can precisely determine, for example, the daily cycles of gene activity, body temperature, blood pressure, hormone secretion or sleep and activity/alertness. Alertness in humans can be determined by many kinds of verbal and non-verbal tests, whereas alertness in animals can usually be assessed by observing physical activity (for example, of wheel-running in rodents).
When animals or people *free-run*, experiments can be done to see what sort of signals, known as zeitgebers, are effective in entrainment. Also, much work has been done to see how long or short a circadian cycle can be entrained to various organisms. For example, some animals can be entrained to a 22-hour day, but they can not be entrained to a 20-hour day. In recent studies funded by the U.S. space industry, it has been shown that most humans can be entrained to a 23.5-hour day and to a 24.65-hour day.
The effect of unintended time cues is called *masking* and can totally confound experimental results. Examples of masking are morning rush traffic audible to the subjects, or researchers or maintenance staff visiting subjects on a regular schedule.
## In humans {#in_humans}
Non-24-hour sleep--wake disorder, also referred to as *free-running disorder* (FRD) or *Non-24*, is one of the circadian rhythm sleep disorders in humans. It affects more than half of people who are totally blind and a smaller number of sighted individuals.
Among blind people, the cause is the inability to register, and therefore to entrain to, light cues. The many blind people who do entrain to the 24-hour light/dark cycle have eyes with functioning retinas including operative non-visual light-sensitive cells, ipRGCs. These ganglion cells, which contain melanopsin, convey their signals to the \"circadian clock\" via the retinohypothalamic tract (branching off from the optic nerve), linking the retina to the pineal gland.
Among sighted individuals, Non-24 usually first appears in the teens or early twenties. As with delayed sleep phase disorder (DSPS or DSPD), in the absence of neurological damage due to trauma or stroke, cases almost never appear after the age of 30. Non-24 affects more sighted males than sighted females. A quarter of sighted individuals with Non-24 also have an associated psychiatric condition, and a quarter of them have previously shown symptoms of DSPS
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# Four Freedoms
The **Four Freedoms** were goals articulated by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt on Monday, January 6, 1941. In an address known as the Four Freedoms speech (technically the **1941 State of the Union address**), he proposed four fundamental freedoms that people \"everywhere in the world\" ought to enjoy:
1. Freedom of speech and expression
2. Freedom of worship
3. Freedom from want
4. Freedom from fear
Roosevelt delivered his speech 11 months before the surprise Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, which caused the United States to declare war on Japan on December 8, 1941. The State of the Union speech before Congress was largely about the national security of the United States and the threat to other democracies from world war. In the speech, he made a break with the long-held tradition of United States non-interventionism. He outlined the U.S. role in helping allies already engaged in warfare, especially Great Britain and China.
In that context, he summarized the values of democracy behind the bipartisan consensus on international involvement that existed at the time. A famous quote from the speech prefaces those values: \"As men do not live by bread alone, they do not fight by armaments alone.\" In the second half of the speech, he lists the benefits of democracy, which include economic opportunity, employment, social security, and the promise of \"adequate health care\". The first two freedoms, of speech and religion, are protected by the First Amendment in the United States Constitution. His inclusion of the latter two freedoms went beyond the traditional Constitutional values protected by the U.S. Bill of Rights. Roosevelt endorsed a broader human right to economic security and anticipated what would become known decades later as the \"human security\" paradigm in studies of economic development. He also included the \"freedom from fear\" against international aggression, calling for a \"world-wide reduction of armaments.\"
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# Four Freedoms
## Historical context {#historical_context}
In the 1930s many Americans, arguing that the involvement in World War I had been a mistake, were adamantly against continued intervention in European affairs. With the Neutrality Acts established after 1935, U.S. law banned the sale of armaments to countries that were at war and placed restrictions on travel with belligerent vessels.
When World War II began in September 1939, the neutrality laws were still in effect and ensured that no substantial support could be given to Britain and France. With the revision of the Neutrality Act in 1939, Roosevelt adopted a \"methods-short-of-war policy\" whereby supplies and armaments could be given to European Allies, provided no declaration of war could be made and no troops committed. By December 1940, Europe was largely at the mercy of Adolf Hitler and Germany\'s Nazi regime. With Germany\'s defeat of France in June 1940, Britain and its overseas Empire stood alone against the military alliance of Germany, Italy, and Japan. Winston Churchill, as Prime Minister of Britain, called for Roosevelt and the United States to supply them with armaments in order to continue with the war effort.
The 1939 New York World\'s Fair had celebrated Four Freedoms -- religion, speech, press, and assembly -- and commissioned Leo Friedlander to create sculptures representing them. Mayor of New York City Fiorello La Guardia described the resulting statues as the \"heart of the fair\". Later Roosevelt would declare his own \"Four Essential Freedoms\" and call on Walter Russell to create a *Four Freedoms Monument* that was eventually dedicated at Madison Square Garden in New York City.
They also appeared on the reverse of the AM-lira, the Allied Military Currency note issue that was issued in Italy during WWII, by the Americans, that was in effect occupation currency, guaranteed by the American dollar.
## Declarations
The Four Freedoms Speech was given on January 6, 1941. Roosevelt\'s hope was to provide a rationale for why the United States should abandon the isolationist policies that emerged from World War I. In the address, Roosevelt critiqued Isolationism, saying: \"No realistic American can expect from a dictator\'s peace international generosity, or return of true independence, or world disarmament, or freedom of expression, or freedom of religion--or even good business. Such a peace would bring no security for us or for our neighbors. \'Those, who would give up essential liberty to purchase a little temporary safety, deserve neither liberty nor safety.\'\"
The speech coincided with the introduction of the Lend-Lease Act, which promoted Roosevelt\'s plan to become the \"arsenal of democracy\" and support the Allies (mainly the British) with much-needed supplies. Furthermore, the speech established what would become the ideological basis for America\'s involvement in World War II, all framed in terms of individual rights and liberties that are the hallmark of American politics.
The speech delivered by President Roosevelt incorporated the following text, known as the \"Four Freedoms\":
Later in the same speech the president went on to specify six basic goals:
- Equality of opportunity for youth and for others.
- Jobs for those who can work.
- Security for those who need it.
- The ending of special privilege for the few.
- The preservation of civil liberties for all.
- The enjoyment of the fruits of scientific progress in a wider and constantly rising standard of living.
## Justification for war {#justification_for_war}
The declaration of the Four Freedoms as a justification for war would resonate through the remainder of the war, and for decades longer as a frame of remembrance. The Freedoms became the staple of America\'s war aims and the center of all attempts to rally public support for the war. With the creation of the Office of War Information (1942), as well as the famous paintings by Norman Rockwell, the Freedoms were advertised as values central to American life and examples of American exceptionalism.
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# Four Freedoms
## Opposition
The Four Freedoms Speech was popular, and the goals were influential in postwar politics. However, in 1941 the speech received heavy criticism from anti-war elements. Critics argued that the Four Freedoms were simply a charter for Roosevelt\'s New Deal, social reforms that had already created sharp divisions within Congress. Conservatives who opposed social programs and increased government intervention argued against Roosevelt\'s attempt to justify and depict the war as necessary for the defense of lofty goals.
While the Freedoms did become a forceful aspect of American thought on the war, they were never the exclusive justification for the war. Polls and surveys conducted by the United States Office of War Information (OWI) revealed that self-defense and vengeance for the attack on Pearl Harbor were still the most prevalent reasons for war.
## United Nations {#united_nations}
The concept of the Four Freedoms became part of the personal mission undertaken by former First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt in 1948. She helped inspire the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights, General Assembly Resolution 217A. Indeed, these Four Freedoms were explicitly incorporated into the preamble to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which reads: \"*Whereas* disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in barbarous acts which have outraged the conscience of mankind, and the advent of a world in which human beings shall enjoy the freedom of speech and belief and freedom from fear and want has been proclaimed the highest aspiration of the common people.\"
## Disarmament
FDR called for \"a world-wide reduction of armaments\" as a goal for \"the future days, which we seek to make secure\" but one that was \"attainable in our own time and generation.\" More immediately, though, he called for a massive build-up of U.S. arms production:
## Violation
In a 1942 radio address, President Roosevelt declared the Four Freedoms embodied \"rights of men of every creed and every race, wherever they live.\" On February 19, 1942, he authorized Japanese American internment with Executive Order 9066. It allowed local military commanders to designate \"military areas\" as \"exclusion zones\", from which \"any or all persons may be excluded\". This power was used to declare that all people of Japanese ancestry were excluded from the entire Pacific coast, including all of California and much of Oregon, Washington, and Arizona, except for those in internment camps. By 1946, the United States had incarcerated 120,000 individuals of Japanese descent, of whom about 80,000 had been born in the United States.
## Franklin D. Roosevelt Four Freedoms Park {#franklin_d._roosevelt_four_freedoms_park}
The Franklin D. Roosevelt Four Freedoms Park is a park designed by the architect Louis Kahn for the south point of Roosevelt Island. The park celebrates the famous speech, and text from the speech is inscribed on a granite wall in the final design of the park.
## Awards
The Roosevelt Institute honors outstanding individuals who have demonstrated a lifelong commitment to these ideals. The Four Freedoms Award medals are awarded at ceremonies at Hyde Park, New York and Middelburg, Netherlands during alternate years. The awards were first presented in 1982 on the centenary of President Roosevelt\'s birth as well as the bicentenary of diplomatic relations between the United States and the Netherlands.
Among the laureates have been: `{{div col|colwidth=20em}}`{=mediawiki}
- William Brennan
- H.M. Juan Carlos of Spain
- Jimmy Carter
- Bill Clinton
- The Dalai Lama
- Mikhail Gorbachev
- Averell Harriman
- Václav Havel
- H.R.H. Princess Juliana of the Netherlands
- John F. Kennedy
- Mike Mansfield
- Paul Newman
- Tip O\'Neill
- Shimon Peres
- Coretta Scott King
- Brent Scowcroft
- Harry S. Truman
- Liv Ullmann
- Elie Wiesel
- Joanne Woodward
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# Four Freedoms
## In popular culture {#in_popular_culture}
- John Crowley\'s novel *Four Freedoms* (2009) is largely based on the themes of Roosevelt\'s speech.
- FDR commissioned sculptor Walter Russell to design a monument to be dedicated to the first hero of the war. The *Four Freedoms Monument* was created in 1941 and dedicated at Madison Square Garden, in New York City, in 1943.
- Artist Kindred McLeary painted *America the Mighty* (1941), also known as *Defense of Human Freedoms*, in the State Department\'s Harry S. Truman Building.
- Artist Hugo Ballin painted *The Four Freedoms* mural (1942) in the Council Chamber of the City Hall of Burbank, California.
- New Jersey muralist Michael Lenson (1903--1972) painted *The Four Freedoms* mural (1943) for the Fourteenth Street School in Newark, New Jersey.
- Muralist Anton Refregier painted the *History of San Francisco* murals (completed 1948) in the Rincon Center in San Francisco, California; panel 27 depicts the four freedoms.
- Artist Mildred Nungester Wolfe painted a four-panel *Four Freedoms* mural (complete 1959) depicting the four freedoms for a country store in Richton, Mississippi. Those panels now hang in the Mississippi Museum of Art.
- Allyn Cox painted four *Four Freedoms* murals (completed 1982) that hang in the Great Experiment Hall in the United States House of Representatives; each of the four panels depicts allegorical figures representing the four freedoms.
- Since 1986, the fictional Four Freedoms Plaza has served as the headquarters for Marvel Comics superhero team Fantastic Four.
- In the early 1990s, artist David McDonald reproduced Rockwell\'s *Four Freedoms* paintings as four large murals on the side of an old grocery building in downtown Silverton, Oregon.
- In 2008, Florida International University\'s Wolfsonian museum hosted the *Thoughts on Democracy* exhibition that displayed posters created by 60 leading contemporary artists and designers, invited to create a new graphic design inspired by American illustrator Norman Rockwell\'s *Four Freedoms* posters.
- Four Freedoms is the adopted title of a bottom-shelf bourbon whiskey brand.
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# Four Freedoms
## Norman Rockwell\'s paintings {#norman_rockwells_paintings}
*Four Freedoms* (Rockwell)}} Roosevelt\'s speech inspired a set of four paintings by Norman Rockwell.
### Paintings
The members of the set, known collectively as *The Four Freedoms*, were published in four consecutive issues of *The Saturday Evening Post*. The four paintings subsequently were displayed around the US by the United States Department of the Treasury.
<File:%22Freedom> of Speech\" - NARA - 513536.jpg\|*Freedom of Speech* (Saturday, February 20, 1943) -- from the *Four Freedoms* series by Norman Rockwell <File:%22Freedom> of Worship\" - NARA - 513537.jpg\|*Freedom of Worship* (Saturday, February 27, 1943) -- from the *Four Freedoms* series by Norman Rockwell <File:%22Freedom> From Want\" - NARA - 513539.jpg\|*Freedom from Want* (Saturday, March 6, 1943) -- from the *Four Freedoms* series by Norman Rockwell <File:%22Freedom> from Fear\" - NARA - 513538.jpg\|*Freedom from Fear* (Saturday, March 13, 1943) -- from the *Four Freedoms* series by Norman Rockwell
### Essays
Each painting was published with a matching essay on that particular \"Freedom\":
- *Freedom of Speech*, by Booth Tarkington (February 20, 1943).
- *Freedom of Worship*, by Will Durant (February 27, 1943).
- *Freedom from Want*, by Carlos Bulosan (March 6, 1943).
- *Freedom from Fear*, by Stephen Vincent Benét (March 13, 1943; the date of Benét\'s death).
### Postage stamps {#postage_stamps}
Rockwell\'s *Four Freedoms* paintings were reproduced as postage stamps by the United States Post Office in 1943, in 1946, and in 1994, the centenary of Rockwell\'s birth
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# Fimbulwinter
**Fimbulwinter** (from *\'\'\'Fimbulvetr\'\'\'*, `{{lit|lk=yes|mighty winter}}`{=mediawiki}) is the immediate prelude to the events of Ragnarök in Norse mythology.
## Etymology
comes from Old Norse, meaning \"awful, mighty winter\". The prefix *fimbul*, albeit with a largely unknown etymology, means \"mighty, giant\" etc., so the literal interpretation is \"mighty winter\".
## Overview
Fimbulwinter is the harsh winter that precedes the end of the world. Fimbulwinter is three successive winters, when snow comes in from all directions, without any intervening summer. Innumerable wars follow.
The event is described primarily in the *Poetic Edda*. In the poem *\[\[Vafþrúðnismál\]\]*, Odin poses the question to Vafþrúðnir as to who of mankind will survive the Fimbulwinter. Vafþrúðnir responds that Líf and Lífþrasir will survive and that they will live in the forest of Hoddmímis holt.
The mythology might be related to the volcanic winter of 536, which resulted in a notable drop in temperature across northern Europe. There have also been several popular ideas about whether the particular piece of mythology has a connection to the climate change that occurred in the Nordic countries at the end of the Nordic Bronze Age from about 650 BC.
In Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and other Nordic countries, the term *Fimbulvetr* has been borrowed from Old Norse to refer to an unusually cold and harsh winter
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# François d'Aguilon
thumb\|upright=1.1\|*Opticorum libri sex*, 1613 **François d\'Aguilon** (`{{IPA|fr|fʁɑ̃swa daɡilɔ̃}}`{=mediawiki}; also d\'Aguillon or in Latin **Franciscus Aguilonius**) (4 January 1567 -- 20 March 1617) was a Jesuit, mathematician, physicist, and architect from the Spanish Netherlands.
D\'Aguilon was born in Brussels; his father was a secretary to Philip II of Spain. He became a Jesuit in Tournai in 1586. In 1598 he moved to Antwerp, where he helped plan the construction of the Saint Carolus Borromeus church. In 1611, he started a special school of mathematics in Antwerp, fulfilling a dream of Christopher Clavius for a Jesuit mathematical school; in 1616, he was joined there by Grégoire de Saint-Vincent. The notable geometers educated at this school included Jean-Charles della Faille, André Tacquet, and Theodorus Moretus.
thumb\|upright=1.5\|Illustration by Rubens for *Opticorum Libri Sex* demonstrating how the projection is computed.
His book, *Opticorum Libri Sex philosophis juxta ac mathematicis utiles,* or *Six Books of Optics,* is useful for philosophers and mathematicians. It was published by Balthasar I Moretus in Antwerp in 1613 and illustrated by the famous painter Peter Paul Rubens. It included one of the first studies of binocular vision. It also gave the names we now use to stereographic projection and orthographic projection, although the projections themselves were likely known to Hipparchus. This book inspired the works of Desargues and Christiaan Huygens.
He died in Antwerp, aged 50.
## Six Books of Optics {#six_books_of_optics}
Francois d\'Aguilon\'s *Six Books of Optics* concerns geometrical optics, which at the time in the Jesuit school was a subcategory of geometry. He taught logic, syntax, and theology while being charged with organizing the teaching of geometry and science which would be useful for geography, navigation, architecture and the military arts in Belgium. His superiors wanted him to synthesize the work of Euclid, Alhazen, Vitello, Roger Bacon and others. Although he died before completing the book, it still consists of six in-depth books, called *Opticorum Libri Sex.*
### Perception and the horopter {#perception_and_the_horopter}
D\'Aguilon extensively studied stereographic projection, which he wanted to use a means to aid architects, cosmographers, navigators and artists. For centuries, artists and architects had sought formal laws of projection to place objects on a screen. Aguilon\'s *Opticorum libri sex* successfully treated projections and the errors in perception. D\'Aguillon adopted Alhazen\'s theory that only light rays orthogonal to the cornea and lens surface are clearly registered. Aguilon was the first to use the term horopter, which is the line drawn through the focal point of both eyes and parallel to the line between the eyes. In other words, it describes how only objects on the horopter are seen in their true location. He then built an instrument to measure the spacing of double images in the horopter as he saw fit.
D\'Aguilon expanded on the horopter by saying in his book: `{{Blockquote|If objects fall upon different rays it can happen that things at different distances can be seen at equal angles. If point C be directly opposite the eyes, A and B, with a circle drawn through the three points, A, B, and C.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> By theorem 21 of [[Euclid|Euclid's]] Third book, any other point D on its circumference which lies closer to the observer than C, will subend an angle ADB which will equal angle ACB. Therefore, objects at C and at D are judged equally far from the eye.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> But this is false, because point C is farther away than D. Therefore a judgment of distance is false when based on the angles between converged axes, quod erat probandum.}}`{=mediawiki}
At first glance, it seems that Aguillon discovered the geometrical horopter more than 200 years before Prevost and Vieth and Muller. The horopter was then used by architect Girard Desargues, who in 1639 published a remarkable treatise on the conic sections, emphasizing the idea of projection.
### Similarity to other theorists {#similarity_to_other_theorists}
In Aguilon\'s book there are elements of perspectivities as well as the stereographic projections of Ptolemy and Hipparchus. Unaware that Johannes Kepler had already published optical theories years before him, Aguilon decided to share his insights on geometric optics. At the age of 20, the Dutch poet Constantijn Huygens read Aguilon\'s and was enthralled by it. He later said that it was the best book he had ever read in geometrical optics, and he thought that Aguilon should be compared to Plato, Eudoxus and Archimedes. In fact the title of Constantijn Huygens\' first publication imitated Aguilon\'s title (omitting letters p and c): Otiorum Libri Sex (1625).
### Accompanying art {#accompanying_art}
In Aguilon\'s book the beginning of each section had works of the Flemish Baroque painter, Peter Paul Rubens. The frontispiece at the beginning of the book shows an eagle, referring to Aguilon\'s name and a variety of optical and geometrical images. On either side of the title stands Mercury holding the head of Argus with a hundred eyes, and Minerva holding a shield reflecting the head of Medusa. Then, at the beginning of each of six sections are Rubens\' drawings describing Aguilon\'s experiments, one of which is the first known picture of a photometer This is one of six experiments drawn by Rubens and shows how intensity of light varies with the square of distance from the source. The experiment was later taken up by Mersenne and another Jesuit, Claude de Chales, and eventually led to Bouguer\'s more famous photometer. It is evident, from the detail that he put into his drawings, how enthused Rubens was about the subject matter, perspective geometry and optical rules
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# Hyphanet
**Hyphanet** (until mid-2023: **Freenet**) is a peer-to-peer platform for censorship-resistant, anonymous communication. It uses a decentralized distributed data store to keep and deliver information, and has a suite of free software for publishing and communicating on the Web without fear of censorship.Taylor, Ian J. *From P2P to Web Services and Grids: Peers in a Client/Server World*. London: Springer, 2005.
Both Freenet and some of its associated tools were originally designed by Ian Clarke, who defined Freenet\'s goal as providing freedom of speech on the Internet with strong anonymity protection.
The distributed data store of Freenet is used by many third-party programs and plugins to provide microblogging and media sharing, anonymous and decentralised version tracking, blogging, a generic web of trust for decentralized spam resistance, Shoeshop for using Freenet over sneakernet, and many more.
## History
The origin of Freenet can be traced to Ian Clarke\'s student project at the University of Edinburgh, which he completed as a graduation requirement in the summer of 1999. Ian Clarke\'s resulting unpublished report \"A distributed decentralized information storage and retrieval system\" (1999) provided foundation for the seminal paper written in collaboration with other researchers, \"Freenet: A Distributed Anonymous Information Storage and Retrieval System\" (2001). According to CiteSeer, it became one of the most frequently cited computer science articles in 2002.
Freenet can provide anonymity on the Internet by storing small encrypted snippets of content distributed on the computers of its users and connecting only through intermediate computers which pass on requests for content and sending them back without knowing the contents of the full file. This is similar to how routers on the Internet route packets without knowing anything about files`{{px2}}`{=mediawiki}`{{mdash}}`{=mediawiki}`{{hsp}}`{=mediawiki}except Freenet has caching, a layer of strong encryption, and no reliance on centralized structures. This allows users to publish anonymously or retrieve various kinds of information.
### Release history {#release_history}
Freenet has been under continuous development since 2000.
Freenet 0.7, released on 8 May 2008, is a major re-write incorporating a number of fundamental changes. The most fundamental change is support for darknet operation. Version 0.7 offered two modes of operation: a mode in which it connects only to friends, and an opennet-mode in which it connects to any other Freenet user. Both modes can be run simultaneously. When a user switches to pure darknet operation, Freenet becomes very difficult to detect from the outside. The transport layer created for the darknet mode allows communication over restricted routes as commonly found in mesh networks, as long as these connections follow a small-world structure. Other modifications include switching from TCP to UDP, which allows UDP hole punching along with faster transmission of messages between peers in the network.
Freenet 0.7.5, released on 12 June 2009, offers a variety of improvements over 0.7. These include reduced memory usage, faster insert and retrieval of content, significant improvements to the FProxy web interface used for browsing freesites, and a large number of smaller bugfixes, performance enhancements, and usability improvements. Version 0.7.5 also shipped with a new version of the Windows installer.
As of build 1226, released on 30 July 2009, features that have been written include significant security improvements against both attackers acting on the network and physical seizure of the computer running the node.
As of build 1468, released on 11 July 2015, the Freenet core stopped using the db4o database and laid the foundation for an efficient interface to the Web of Trust plugin which provides spam resistance.
Freenet has always been free software, but until 2011 it required users to install Java. This problem was solved by making Freenet compatible with OpenJDK, a free and open source implementation of the Java Platform.
On 11 February 2015, Freenet received the SUMA-Award for \"protection against total surveillance\".
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# Hyphanet
## Features and user interface {#features_and_user_interface}
Freenet served as the model for the Japanese peer to peer file-sharing programs Winny, Share and Perfect Dark, but this model differs from p2p networks such as Bittorrent and emule. Freenet separates the underlying network structure and protocol from how users interact with the network; as a result, there are a variety of ways to access content on the Freenet network. The simplest is via FProxy, which is integrated with the node software and provides a web interface to content on the network. Using FProxy, a user can browse freesites (websites that use normal HTML and related tools, but whose content is stored within Freenet rather than on a traditional web server). The web interface is also used for most configuration and node management tasks. Through the use of separate applications or plugins loaded into the node software, users can interact with the network in other ways, such as forums similar to web forums or Usenet or interfaces more similar to traditional P2P \"filesharing\" interfaces.
While Freenet provides an HTTP interface for browsing freesites, it is not a proxy for the World Wide Web; Freenet can be used to access only the content that has been previously inserted into the Freenet network. In this way, it is more similar to Tor\'s onion services than to anonymous proxy software like Tor\'s proxy.
Freenet\'s focus lies on free speech and anonymity. Because of that, Freenet acts differently at certain points that are (directly or indirectly) related to the anonymity part. Freenet attempts to protect the anonymity of both people inserting data into the network (uploading) and those retrieving data from the network (downloading). Unlike file sharing systems, there is no need for the uploader to remain on the network after uploading a file or group of files. Instead, during the upload process, the files are broken into chunks and stored on a variety of other computers on the network. When downloading, those chunks are found and reassembled. Every node on the Freenet network contributes storage space to hold files and bandwidth that it uses to route requests from its peers.
As a direct result of the anonymity requirements, the node requesting content does not normally connect directly to the node that has it; instead, the request is routed across several intermediaries, none of which know which node made the request or which one had it. As a result, the total bandwidth required by the network to transfer a file is higher than in other systems, which can result in slower transfers, especially for infrequently accessed content.
Since version 0.7, Freenet offers two different levels of security: opennet and darknet. With opennet, users connect to arbitrary other users. With darknet, users connect only to \"friends\" with whom they previously exchanged public keys, named node-references. Both modes can be used together.
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# Hyphanet
## Content
Freenet\'s founders argue that true freedom of speech comes only with true anonymity and that the beneficial uses of Freenet outweigh its negative uses. Their view is that free speech, in itself, is not in contradiction with any other consideration---the information is not the crime. Freenet attempts to remove the possibility of any group imposing its beliefs or values on any data. Although many states censor communications to different extents, they all share one commonality in that a body must decide what information to censor and what information to allow. What may be acceptable to one group of people may be considered offensive or even dangerous to another. In essence, the purpose of Freenet is to ensure that no one is allowed to decide what is acceptable.
Reports of Freenet\'s use in authoritarian nations is difficult to track due to the very nature of Freenet\'s goals. One group, *Freenet China*, used to introduce the Freenet software to Chinese users starting from 2001 and distribute it within China through e-mails and on disks after the group\'s website was blocked by the Chinese authorities on the mainland. It was reported that in 2002 *Freenet China* had several thousand dedicated users. However, Freenet opennet traffic was blocked in China around the 2010s.
## Technical design {#technical_design}
The Freenet file sharing network stores documents and allows them to be retrieved later by an associated key, as is now possible with protocols such as HTTP. The network is designed to be highly survivable. The system has no central servers and is not subject to the control of any one individual or organization, including the designers of Freenet. The codebase size is over 192,000 lines of code. Information stored on Freenet is distributed around the network and stored on several different nodes. Encryption of data and relaying of requests makes it difficult to determine who inserted content into Freenet, who requested that content, or where the content was stored. This protects the anonymity of participants, and also makes it very difficult to censor specific content. Content is stored encrypted, making it difficult for even the operator of a node to determine what is stored on that node. This provides plausible deniability; which, in combination with request relaying, means that safe harbor laws that protect service providers may also protect Freenet node operators. When asked about the topic, Freenet developers defer to the EFF discussion which says that not being able to filter anything is a safe choice.
### Distributed storage and caching of data {#distributed_storage_and_caching_of_data}
Like Winny, Share and Perfect Dark, Freenet not only transmits data between nodes but actually stores them, working as a huge distributed cache. To achieve this, each node allocates some amount of disk space to store data; this is configurable by the node operator, but is typically several GB (or more).
Files on Freenet are typically split into multiple small blocks, with duplicate blocks created to provide redundancy. Each block is handled independently, meaning that a single file may have parts stored on many different nodes.
Information flow in Freenet is different from networks like eMule or BitTorrent; in Freenet:
1. A user wishing to share a file or update a freesite \"inserts\" the file \"to the network\"
2. After \"insertion\" is finished, the publishing node is free to shut down, because the file is stored in the network. It will remain available for other users whether or not the original publishing node is online. No single node is responsible for the content; instead, it is replicated to many different nodes.
Two advantages of this design are high reliability and anonymity. Information remains available even if the publisher node goes offline, and is anonymously spread over many hosting nodes as encrypted blocks, not entire files.
The key disadvantage of the storage method is that no one node is responsible for any chunk of data. If a piece of data is not retrieved for some time and a node keeps getting new data, it will drop the old data sometime when its allocated disk space is fully used. In this way Freenet tends to \'forget\' data which is not retrieved regularly (see also Effect).
While users can insert data into the network, there is no way to delete data. Due to Freenet\'s anonymous nature the original publishing node or owner of any piece of data is unknown. The only way data can be removed is if users don\'t request it.
### Network
Typically, a host computer on the network runs the software that acts as a node, and it connects to other hosts running that same software to form a large distributed, variable-size network of peer nodes. Some nodes are end user nodes, from which documents are requested and presented to human users. Other nodes serve only to route data. All nodes communicate with each other identically -- there are no dedicated \"clients\" or \"servers\". It is not possible for a node to rate another node except by its capacity to insert and fetch data associated with a key. This is unlike most other P2P networks where node administrators can employ a ratio system, where users have to share a certain amount of content before they can download.
Freenet may also be considered a small world network.
The Freenet protocol is intended to be used on a network of complex topology, such as the Internet (Internet Protocol). Each node knows only about some number of other nodes that it can reach directly (its conceptual \"neighbors\"), but any node can be a neighbor to any other; no hierarchy or other structure is intended. Each message is routed through the network by passing from neighbor to neighbor until it reaches its destination. As each node passes a message to a neighbor, it does not know whether the neighbor will forward the message to another node, or is the final destination or original source of the message. This is intended to protect the anonymity of users and publishers.
Each node maintains a data store containing documents associated with keys, and a routing table associating nodes with records of their performance in retrieving different keys.
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# Hyphanet
## Technical design {#technical_design}
### Protocol
The Freenet protocol uses a key-based routing protocol, similar to distributed hash tables. The routing algorithm changed significantly in version 0.7. Prior to version 0.7, Freenet used a heuristic routing algorithm where each node had no fixed location, and routing was based on which node had served a key closest to the key being fetched (in version 0.3) or which is estimated to serve it faster (in version 0.5). In either case, new connections were sometimes added to downstream nodes (i.e. the node that answered the request) when requests succeeded, and old nodes were discarded in least recently used order (or something close to it). Oskar Sandberg\'s research (during the development of version 0.7) shows that this \"path folding\" is critical, and that a very simple routing algorithm will suffice provided there is path folding.
The disadvantage of this is that it is very easy for an attacker to find Freenet nodes, and connect to them, because every node is continually attempting to find new connections. In version 0.7, Freenet supports both \"opennet\" (similar to the old algorithms, but simpler), and \"darknet\" (all node connections are set up manually, so only your friends know your node\'s IP address). Darknet is less convenient, but much more secure against a distant attacker.
This change required major changes in the routing algorithm. Every node has a location, which is a number between 0 and 1. When a key is requested, first the node checks the local data store. If it\'s not found, the key\'s hash is turned into another number in the same range, and the request is routed to the node whose location is closest to the key. This goes on until some number of hops is exceeded, there are no more nodes to search, or the data is found. If the data is found, it is cached on each node along the path. So there is no one source node for a key, and attempting to find where it is currently stored will result in it being cached more widely. Essentially the same process is used to insert a document into the network: the data is routed according to the key until it runs out of hops, and if no existing document is found with the same key, it is stored on each node. If older data is found, the older data is propagated and returned to the originator, and the insert \"collides\".
But this works only if the locations are clustered in the right way. Freenet assumes that the darknet (a subset of the global social network) is a small-world network, and nodes constantly attempt to swap locations (using the Metropolis--Hastings algorithm) in order to minimize their distance to their neighbors. If the network actually is a small-world network, Freenet should find data reasonably quickly; ideally on the order of $O\big([\log(n)]^2\big)$ hops in big O notation. However, it does not guarantee that data will be found at all.
Eventually, either the document is found or the hop limit is exceeded. The terminal node sends a reply that makes its way back to the originator along the route specified by the intermediate nodes\' records of pending requests. The intermediate nodes may choose to cache the document along the way. Besides saving bandwidth, this also makes documents harder to censor as there is no one \"source node\".
### Effect
Initially, the locations in darknet are distributed randomly. This means that routing of requests is essentially random. In opennet connections are established by a join request which provides an optimized network structure if the existing network is already optimized. So the data in a newly started Freenet will be distributed somewhat randomly.
As location swapping (on darknet) and path folding (on opennet) progress, nodes which are close to one another will increasingly have close locations, and nodes which are far away will have distant locations. Data with similar keys will be stored on the same node.
The result is that the network will self-organize into a distributed, clustered structure where nodes tend to hold data items that are close together in key space. There will probably be multiple such clusters throughout the network, any given document being replicated numerous times, depending on how much it is used. This is a kind of \"spontaneous symmetry breaking\", in which an initially symmetric state (all nodes being the same, with random initial keys for each other) leads to a highly asymmetric situation, with nodes coming to specialize in data that has closely related keys.
There are forces which tend to cause clustering (shared closeness data spreads throughout the network), and forces that tend to break up clusters (local caching of commonly used data). These forces will be different depending on how often data is used, so that seldom-used data will tend to be on just a few nodes which specialize in providing that data, and frequently used items will be spread widely throughout the network. This automatic mirroring counteracts the times when web traffic becomes overloaded, and due to a mature network\'s intelligent routing, a network of size *n* should require only log(*n*) time to retrieve a document on average.
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# Hyphanet
## Technical design {#technical_design}
### Keys
Keys are hashes: there is no notion of semantic closeness when speaking of key closeness. Therefore, there will be no correlation between key closeness and similar popularity of data as there might be if keys did exhibit some semantic meaning, thus avoiding bottlenecks caused by popular subjects.
There are two main varieties of keys in use on Freenet, the Content Hash Key (CHK) and the Signed Subspace Key (SSK). A subtype of SSKs is the Updatable Subspace Key (USK) which adds versioning to allow secure updating of content.
A CHK is a SHA-256 hash of a document (after encryption, which itself depends on the hash of the plaintext) and thus a node can check that the document returned is correct by hashing it and checking the digest against the key. This key contains the meat of the data on Freenet. It carries all the binary data building blocks for the content to be delivered to the client for reassembly and decryption. The CHK is unique by nature and provides tamperproof content. A hostile node altering the data under a CHK will immediately be detected by the next node or the client. CHKs also reduce the redundancy of data since the same data will have the same CHK and when multiple sites reference the same large files, they can reference to the same CHK.
SSKs are based on public-key cryptography. Currently Freenet uses the DSA algorithm. Documents inserted under SSKs are signed by the inserter, and this signature can be verified by every node to ensure that the data is not tampered with. SSKs can be used to establish a verifiable pseudonymous identity on Freenet, and allow for multiple documents to be inserted securely by a single person. Files inserted with an SSK are effectively immutable, since inserting a second file with the same name can cause collisions. USKs resolve this by adding a version number to the keys which is also used for providing update notification for keys registered as bookmarks in the web interface. Another subtype of the SSK is the Keyword Signed Key, or KSK, in which the key pair is generated in a standard way from a simple human-readable string. Inserting a document using a KSK allows the document to be retrieved and decrypted if and only if the requester knows the human-readable string; this allows for more convenient (but less secure) URIs for users to refer to.
## Scalability
A network is said to be scalable if its performance does not deteriorate even if the network is very large. The scalability of Freenet is being evaluated, but similar architectures have been shown to scale logarithmically. This work indicates that Freenet can find data in $O(\log^2 n)$ hops on a small-world network (which includes both opennet and darknet style Freenet networks), when ignoring the caching which could improve the scalability for popular content. However, this scalability is difficult to test without a very large network. Furthermore, the security features inherent to Freenet make detailed performance analysis (including things as simple as determining the size of the network) difficult to do accurately. As of now, the scalability of Freenet has yet to be tested.
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# Hyphanet
## Darknet versus opennet {#darknet_versus_opennet}
As of version 0.7, Freenet supports both \"darknet\" and \"opennet\" connections. Opennet connections are made automatically by nodes with opennet enabled, while darknet connections are manually established between users that know and trust each other. Freenet developers describe the trust needed as \"will not crack their Freenet node\". Opennet connections are easy to use, but darknet connections are more secure against attackers on the network, and can make it difficult for an attacker (such as an oppressive government) to even determine that a user is running Freenet in the first place.
The core innovation in Freenet 0.7 is to allow a globally scalable darknet, capable (at least in theory) of supporting millions of users. Previous darknets, such as WASTE, have been limited to relatively small disconnected networks. The scalability of Freenet is made possible by the fact that human relationships tend to form small-world networks, a property that can be exploited to find short paths between any two people. The work is based on a speech given at DEF CON 13 by Ian Clarke and Swedish mathematician Oskar Sandberg. Furthermore, the routing algorithm is capable of routing over a mixture of opennet and darknet connections, allowing people who have only a few friends using the network to get the performance from having sufficient connections while still receiving some of the security benefits of darknet connections. This also means that small darknets where some users also have opennet connections are fully integrated into the whole Freenet network, allowing all users access to all content, whether they run opennet, darknet, or a hybrid of the two, except for darknet pockets connected only by a single hybrid node.
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# Hyphanet
## Tools and applications {#tools_and_applications}
Unlike many other P2P applications Freenet does not provide comprehensive functionality itself. Freenet is modular and features an API called Freenet Client Protocol (FCP) for other programs to use to implement services such as message boards, file sharing, or online chat.
### Communication
**Freenet Messaging System (FMS)**
: FMS was designed to address problems with Frost such as denial of service attacks and spam. Users publish trust lists, and each user downloads messages only from identities they trust and identities trusted by identities they trust. FMS is developed anonymously and can be downloaded from *the FMS freesite* within Freenet. It does not have an official site on the normal Internet. It features random post delay, support for many identities, and a distinction between trusting a user\'s posts and trusting their trust list. It is written in C++ and is a separate application from Freenet which uses the Freenet Client Protocol (FCP) to interface with Freenet.
**Frost**
: Frost includes support for convenient file sharing, but its design is inherently vulnerable to spam and denial of service attacks. Frost can be downloaded from the Frost home page on SourceForge, or from *the Frost freesite* within Freenet. It is not endorsed by the Freenet developers. Frost is written in Java and is a separate application from Freenet.
**Sone**
: Sone provides a simpler interface inspired by Facebook with public anonymous discussions and image galleries. It provides an API for control from other programs is also used to implement a comment system for static websites in the regular internet.
### Utilities
**jSite**
: jSite is a tool to upload websites. It handles keys and manages uploading files.
**Infocalypse**
: Infocalypse is an extension for the distributed revision control system Mercurial. It uses an optimized structure to minimize the number of requests to retrieve new data, and allows supporting a repository by securely reuploading most parts of the data without requiring the owner\'s private keys.
### Libraries
**FCPLib**
: FCPLib (Freenet Client Protocol Library) aims to be a cross-platform natively compiled set of C++-based functions for storing and retrieving information to and from Freenet. FCPLib supports Windows NT/2K/XP, Debian, BSD, Solaris, and macOS.
**lib-pyFreenet**
: lib-pyFreenet exposes Freenet functionality to Python programs. Infocalypse uses it.
## Vulnerabilities
Law enforcement agencies have claimed to have successfully infiltrated Freenet opennet in order to deanonymize users but no technical details have been given to support these allegations. One report stated that, \"A child-porn investigation focused on \... \[the suspect\] when the authorities were monitoring the online network, Freenet.\" A different report indicated arrests may have been based on the BlackICE project leaks, that are debunked for using bad math and for using an incorrectly calculated false positives rate and a false model.
A court case in the Peel Region of Ontario, *Canada R. v. Owen*, 2017 ONCJ 729 (CanLII), illustrated that law enforcement do in fact have a presence, after Peel Regional Police located who had been downloading illegal material on the Freenet network. The court decision indicates that a Canadian Law Enforcement agency operates nodes running modified Freenet software in the hope of determining who is requesting illegal material.
- **Routing Table Insertion** (RTI) Attack
## Notability
Freenet has had significant publicity in the mainstream press, including articles in *The New York Times*, and coverage on CNN, *60 Minutes II*, the BBC, *The Guardian*, and elsewhere.
Freenet received the SUMA-Award 2014 for \"protection against total surveillance\".
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# Hyphanet
## Freesite
A \"freesite\" is a site hosted on the Freenet network. Because it contains only static content, it cannot contain any active content like server-side scripts or databases. Freesites are coded in HTML and support as many features as the browser viewing the page allows; however, there are some exceptions where the Freenet software will remove parts of the code that may be used to reveal the identity of the person viewing the page (making a page access something on the internet, for example)
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# Five-spice powder
**Five-spice powder** (`{{zh|t=五香粉|p=wǔxiāng fěn}}`{=mediawiki}) is a spice mixture of five or more spices---commonly star anise, cloves, Chinese cinnamon, Sichuan pepper, and fennel seeds---used predominantly in almost all branches of Chinese cuisine. The five flavors of the spices reflect the five traditional Chinese elements (wood, fire, earth, metal, and water) and flavors (sweet, bitter, sour, salty, and savory).`{{bsn|date=February 2025}}`{=mediawiki} The addition of eight other spices creates thirteen-spice powder (*十三香*), which is used less commonly.
## Ingredients
While there are many variants, a common mix is:
- Star anise (*bājiǎo* 八角)
- Fennel seeds (*xiǎohuíxiāng* 小茴香)
- Cloves (*dīngxiāng* 丁香)
- Chinese cinnamon (*ròuguì* 肉桂)
- Sichuan pepper (*huājiāo* 花椒)
Other recipes may contain anise seed, ginger root, nutmeg, turmeric, *Amomum villosum* pods (*shārén* *砂仁*), *Amomum cardamomum* pods (*báidòukòu* *白豆蔻*), licorice, Mandarin orange peel or galangal.
In Southern China, *Cinnamomum loureiroi* and Mandarin orange peel are commonly used as substitutes for *Cinnamomum cassia* and cloves respectively. These ingredients collectively produce southern five-spice powders\' distinctive, slightly different flavor profile.
## Use
Five-spice powder is used as a spice rub for chicken, duck, goose, pork, and seafood, in red cooking recipes, or added to the breading for fried foods. Five-spice powder is used in recipes for Cantonese roasted duck, as well as beef stew. Canned spiced pork cubes are very popular as well. Five-spice powder is used as a marinade for Vietnamese broiled chicken. The five-spice powder mixture has followed the Chinese diaspora and has been incorporated into other national cuisines throughout Asia.
In Hawaii, some restaurants place a shaker of the spice on each patron\'s table.`{{Fact|date=January 2025}}`{=mediawiki} A seasoned salt can be easily made by dry-roasting common salt with five-spice powder under low heat in a dry pan until the spice and salt are well mixed.
Five-spice powder can also add complexity and savoriness to sweets and savory dishes alike.
It has a traditional use as an antiseptic and a cure for indigestion. In one study, the potential antioxidant capacities of Chinese five-spice powder (consisting of Sichuan pepper, fennel seed, cinnamon, star anise, and clove) with varying proportion of individual spice ingredients was investigated through four standard methods. The results suggest that clove is the major contributor to the high antioxidant capacities of the five-spice powder, whereas the other four ingredients contribute only to the flavor
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# February 21
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# Francisco Álvares
**Francisco Álvares** (c. 1465 -- 1536--1541) was a Portuguese missionary and explorer. In 1515 he traveled to Ethiopia as part of the Portuguese embassy to emperor Lebna Dengel accompanied by returning Ethiopian ambassador Matheus. The embassy arrived only in 1520 to Ethiopia where he joined long sought Portuguese envoy Pêro da Covilhã. There he remained six years, returning to Lisbon in 1526-27 having written a report entitled *Verdadeira Informação das Terras do Preste João das Índias* (\"A True Relation of the Lands of Prester John of the Indies\").
## 1515 embassy to Ethiopia {#embassy_to_ethiopia}
Francisco Álvares was a chaplain-priest and almoner to King Manuel I of Portugal. He was sent in 1515 as part of the Portuguese embassy to the nəgusä nägäst (Emperor of Ethiopia), accompanied by the Ethiopian ambassador Matheus. Their first attempt to reach the port of Massawa failed due to the actions of Lopo Soares de Albergaria, governor of Portuguese India, which got no closer than the Dahlak Archipelago and was aborted with the death of the Portuguese ambassador, old Duarte Galvão at Kamaran. Álvares and Mattheus were forced to wait until the arrival of Soares\' replacement, Diogo Lopes de Sequeira, who successfully sent the embassy on, with Dom Rodrigo de Lima replacing Duarte Galvão. The party at last reached Massawa on April 9, 1520, and reached the court of Lebna Dengel where he befriended several Europeans who had gained the favor of the Emperor, which included Pêro da Covilhã and Nicolao Branceleon. Father Álvares remained six years in Ethiopia, returning to Lisbon in either 1526 or 1527.
In 1533 he was allowed to accompany Dom Martinho de Portugal to Rome on an embassy to Pope Clement VII, to whom Father Álvares delivered the letter Lebna Dengel had written to the Pope. The precise date of Francisco Álvares death, like that of his birth, is unknown, but according to the *Encyclopædia Britannica* Eleventh Edition, it was later than 1540, in which year an account of his travels were published at Lisbon. In the introduction of their mid 20th century translation of Álvares\' work, C.F. Beckingham and G.W.B. Huntingford furnish evidence that points to Álvares\' death in Rome, and admit that he may have died before his work was published.
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# Francisco Álvares
## Álvares\' writings {#álvares_writings}
In 1540, Luís Rodrigues published a version of Álvares account in a one volume folio, entitled *Verdadeira Informação das Terras do Preste João das Indias* (\"A True Relation of the Lands of Prester John of the Indies\"). C.F. Beckingham and G.W.B. Huntingford cite evidence, based in part on the earlier work of Professor Roberto Almagia, showing that Rodrigues\'s publication is only a part of Álvares\'s entire account. Another version of what Álvares wrote was included in an anthology of travel narratives, *Navigationi et Viaggi* (1550) assembled and published by Giovanni Battista Ramusio. Almagia also identified three manuscripts in the Vatican Library which contain versions of excerpts from the original manuscript.
Francisco Álvares\' work has been translated into English at least twice. The first time was the work of Henry Stanley, 3rd Baron Stanley of Alderley, for the Hakluyt Society in 1881. This translation was revised and augmented with notes by C. F. Beckingham and G. W. B. Huntingford, *The Prester John of the Indies* (Cambridge: Hakluyt Society, 1961).
The author of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article was critical of Álvares\' information, believing it should \"be received with caution, as the author is prone to exaggerate, and does not confine himself to what came within his own observation.\" Beckingham and Huntingford, however, have a higher opinion of Álvares\' testimony, stating that not only is it \"incomparably more detailed than any earlier account of Ethiopia that has survived; it is also a very important source for Ethiopian history, for it was written just before the country was devastated by the \[\...\] invasions of the second quarter of the sixteenth century.\" He provides the first recorded and detailed descriptions of Axum and Lalibela. They continue:
: \"He is sometimes wrong, but very rarely silly or incredible. He made a few mistakes; he may well have made others that we cannot detect because he is our sole authority; when he tried to describe buildings his command of language was usually inadequate; he is often confused and obscure, though this may be as much his printer\'s fault as his own; his prose is frequently difficult to read and painful to translate; but he seems to us to be free from the dishonesty of the traveller who tries to exaggerate his own knowledge, importance, or courage\"
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# Fifth Monarchists
thumb\|right\|upright=1.0\|Title page of *A Brief description of the Fifth Monarchy or Kingdome* (1653) by William Aspinwall.
The **Fifth Monarchists**, or **Fifth Monarchy Men**, were a Protestant sect with millennialist views active between 1649 and 1660 in the Commonwealth of England. The group took its name from a prophecy that claimed the four kingdoms of Daniel would precede the fifth, which would see the establishment of the kingship and kingdom of God on Earth.
One of a number of Nonconformist sects that emerged during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, its best-known adherent was Major-General Thomas Harrison, who was executed in October 1660 as a regicide. Oliver Cromwell was a sympathiser until 1653, when many Fifth Monarchists opposed his creation of The Protectorate.
Members believed the execution of Charles I in January 1649 marked the end of the Fourth Monarchy and viewed the Protectorate and 1660 Stuart Restoration as preventing the coming of the Fifth. Since some believed this justified military action, they were persecuted by both regimes and never became a mass movement. Many of their remaining leaders were executed after Thomas Venner\'s rising in January 1661, and the group dissolved.
Along with millenarianism and antinomianism, Fifth Monarchists shared many of their views with other Nonconformists. However, they were primarily united by shared political beliefs rather than being a religious group with a distinctive and coherent doctrine. The links this created between different factions gave them influence disproportionate to their numbers.
## Beliefs
The Fifth Monarchists took their inspiration from the four kingdoms of Daniel. This prophesied that the Fifth Monarchy, or Kingdom of God, would be preceded by the Babylonian, Persian, Greek and Roman kingdoms. Followers believed the execution of Charles I in January 1649 marked the end of the Fourth or Roman Monarchy. Several became regicides in the belief his death would usher in the Kingdom of the Saints, or rule by those who were \"saved\", such as the Fifth Monarchists. The role of these so-called \"Saints\" was to prepare the masses for the Second Coming, although exactly when this would happen was debated. Based on the Book of Revelation, some believed Christ would return in 1666, which corresponded with the biblical number of the beast, while it was also common to refer to a \"Thousand Years\".
Many supported \"Antinomianism\", a rejection of the legal system on the grounds that the \"Saved\" were not bound by the Ten Commandments, while they also believed it was their duty to resist any regime which hindered the coming of the Kingdom. Although the movement eventually split between those who opposed violence, the \"suffering Saints\", and the \"insurrectionist Saints\" like Thomas Venner who advocated taking up arms, these beliefs caused Oliver Cromwell and later contemporaries to see them as wild revolutionaries and enemies of the established order.
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# Fifth Monarchists
## Origins and the Commonwealth {#origins_and_the_commonwealth}
left\|thumb\|upright=0.8\|Major-General Thomas Harrison, Fifth Monarchist leader executed as a regicide in 1660
The outbreak of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms in 1639 led to an exponential increase in the dissemination of radical political and religious views, including Millennialist ideas. Although Millenarianism was common among Puritans and even shared by some Royalist members of the Church of England, Fifth Monarchists were unique in that the concept was central to their theology. However, one recent historian argues it is more accurate to see them as a political group, rather than a religious sect with a distinctive and coherent doctrine.
In general, Fifth Monarchists also opposed Religious tolerance for non-Protestants, and unlike groups such as the Diggers had no desire to end the existing social order or extend political rights, since they argued only the \"Saved\" were worthy of power. Exceptions included the Levellers sympathiser Christopher Feake, and Mary Cary, who supported gender equality and measures to alleviate poverty; prior to her death in 1654, she wrote under the name \"MC\", and many assumed she was a man.
The Fifth Monarchists began life as a faction of the religious Independents who dominated the post-1648 Rump Parliament, with close links to Anabaptists. Their emergence as a separate sect is usually dated to December 1651, when a group of preachers including Feake, John Rogers, and John Simpson met in London. Disillusioned by the apparent failure of Parliament to further the \"Godly Revolution\", they agreed a programme of action to support their objectives, including active resistance to the Commonwealth government.
Primarily recruited from the London artisan class, the Fifth Monarchists attracted attention disproportionate to their actual numbers because these included senior officers of the New Model Army. Among them were Major Generals Thomas Harrison and Robert Overton, along with Colonels Nathaniel Rich, John Jones Maesygarnedd and William Goffe, as well as senior administrators such as John Carew. Many others were initially sympathetic to their views, including Cromwell and Sir Henry Vane, and the highpoint of their political influence came in April 1653 when Cromwell dismissed the Rump Parliament, an action which led the Fifth Monarchists to hail him as a new Moses.
They also supported his declaration of war on the Dutch Republic. Despite it being waged against fellow Protestants, the Monarchists argued that it was their duty to spread the Kingdom of the Saints to every country, whether Protestant or Catholic.. Cromwell replaced the Rump with a nominated body popularly known as \"Barebone\'s Parliament\"; out of 149 MPs, 15 can be identified as Fifth Monarchists, including Praise-God Barebone, Carew and Harrison. The inaugural session began in July 1653 but the different factions quickly became entangled in bitter disputes over tithes, which the Monarchists wanted to abolish rather than reduce, and reform of the legal system, which they argued should be based solely on laws contained in the Bible. On 8 December, the moderate majority passed a motion urging Cromwell to dissolve Parliament, leading to the establishment of the Protectorate on 16th.
The result was open conflict between the regime and the Fifth Monarchists; Harrison, Overton and Rich were dismissed from the army, while Rogers and Feake attacked Cromwell for his Apostasy and preached revolt to their followers. This caused a split with elements of the movement like John Carew who held Anabaptist views, notably their opposition to the use of violence. Rogers and Feake were arrested, while the government placed other members under surveillance and thereafter alternated persecution with tolerance in an attempt to split the movement. This policy had some success, with Rogers, Goffe, John Jones Maesygarnedd and the Welsh preacher Morgan Llwyd becoming reconciled with the regime, leaving a minority of insurrectionists like Venner who was imprisoned in 1657 for planning a rising. By the time he was released in 1659, the Monarchists had lost much of their influence and were no longer a significant force.
## Restoration and after {#restoration_and_after}
right\|thumb\|upright=1.0\|Ian Bone speaking at the installation of the Thomas Rainsborough memorial plaque (12 May 2013), championing Thomas Venner and the Fifth Monarchy Men. The banner is a replica of that used by the insurgents at the time.
Following the Stuart Restoration in May 1660, Harrison was the first person to be found guilty of regicide and then hanged, drawn and quartered on 13 October. One reason was his justification of violent action against \"un-Godly rulers\", which meant he was viewed as an ongoing threat to the re-established order. This seemed confirmed on 6 January 1661, when Venner tried to incite a popular uprising to capture London in the name of \"King Jesus\", with fifty followers based in Norton Folgate.
Most were killed or taken prisoner, with Venner and ten others executed for high treason on 19 and 21 January, while its failure led to the suppression of Non-conformist sects, culminating in the Act of Uniformity 1662. Although the Great Plague of London and the Great Fire of London briefly revived belief in the end of a world ruled by carnal human beings, Fifth Monarchy ceased to exist as a separate sect, although some doctrines were absorbed by Baptists and others who believed \"God\'s Kingdom\" could be achieved through spiritual means.
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# Fifth Monarchists
## Notable members and sympathisers {#notable_members_and_sympathisers}
- Praise-God Barebone; gave his name to the 1653 Barebone\'s Parliament, arrested after the 1660 Restoration but later released and died in 1679;
- John Carew; executed as a regicide in 1661;
- Mary Cary (prophetess); died c. 1654;
- Christopher Feake; a Fifth Monarchist who shared the egalitarian political views of the Levellers, he was arrested in 1655 under the Protectorate. Released after Cromwell\'s death in 1658, he disappears from the historical record after 1660;
- Major General William Goffe; regicide, fled to New England in 1660, where he is thought to have died around 1679;
thumbnail\|left\|upright=0.8\|Thomas Venner, executed for treason in 1661
- Major-General Thomas Harrison; dismissed from the army in 1654 and imprisoned several times under the Protectorate, he was executed as a regicide in October 1660;
- Morgan Llwyd; leader of the Welsh Fifth Monarchists and Welsh language author, died 1659;
- John Jones Maesygarnedd; served in the Parliamentarian army in Wales during the First and Second English Civil Wars, continued to hold office under the Protectorate, executed as a regicide in October 1660;
- Major-General Robert Overton; arrested several times during the Protectorate, imprisoned on the island of Jersey from 1661 to 1668, died at home in London 1679;
- Major General William Packer; imprisoned briefly after the Restoration, died 1662;
- Vavasor Powell; Welsh preacher, imprisoned by both the Protectorate and the Stuart regime, died in prison 1670;
- Colonel Thomas Rainsborough; often cited as a Fifth Monarchist, he was the leading Leveller spokesman during the 1647 Putney Debates, shared Anabaptist sympathies and died in 1648
- Colonel Nathaniel Rich; dismissed from the army along with Harrison and Overton, he was imprisoned under the Protectorate in 1655, then released in 1656. Since he was not a regicide, he escaped punishment after the Restoration, but was arrested during the Venner Rising and held until 1665, after which he lived quietly at home in Essex;
- John Rogers; preacher, imprisoned under the Protectorate, went into exile in the Dutch Republic post 1660;
- John Simpson; London-based preacher
- Anna Trapnell; religious visionary from Poplar, London, who opposed The Protectorate, and was considered mad for her advocacy of gender equality. Arrested in 1654, released in 1656, and thereafter disappears from the historical record;
- Thomas Venner; leader of the \"Fighting Saints\", executed after an abortive rising in January 1661;
- Arthur Haselrig; one of the Five Members whose attempted arrest in January 1642 was a major step on the road to civil war in August, he shared many of their views, including opposition to The Protectorate. He sought to prevent the Stuart Restoration, and was confined in the Tower of London where he died in January 1661. In his will, Haselrig claimed to be a Fifth Monarchist
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# February 20
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# Freyr
**Freyr** (Old Norse: \'Lord\'), sometimes anglicized as **Frey**, is a widely attested god in Norse mythology, associated with kingship, fertility, peace, prosperity, fair weather, and good harvest. Freyr, sometimes referred to as Yngvi-Freyr, was especially associated with Sweden and seen as an ancestor of the Swedish royal house.`{{reference needed|date=June 2024}}`{=mediawiki} According to Adam of Bremen, Freyr was associated with peace and pleasure, and was represented with a phallic statue in the Temple at Uppsala. According to Snorri Sturluson, Freyr was \"the most renowned of the æsir\", and was venerated for good harvest and peace.
In the mythological stories in the Icelandic books the *Poetic Edda* and the *Prose Edda*, Freyr is presented as one of the Vanir, the son of the god Njörðr and his sister-wife, as well as the twin brother of the goddess Freyja. The gods gave him Álfheimr, the realm of the Elves, as a teething present. He rides the shining dwarf-made boar Gullinbursti, and possesses the ship Skíðblaðnir, which always has a favorable breeze and can be folded together and carried in a pouch when it is not being used. Freyr is also known to have been associated with the horse cult. He also kept sacred horses in his sanctuary at Trondheim in Norway. He has the servants Skírnir, Byggvir and Beyla.
The most extensive surviving Freyr myth relates Freyr\'s falling in love with the female jötunn Gerðr. Eventually, she becomes his wife but first Freyr has to give away his sword, which fights on its own \"if wise be he who wields it.\" Although deprived of this weapon, Freyr defeats the jötunn Beli with an antler. However, lacking his sword, Freyr will be killed by the fire jötunn Surtr during the events of Ragnarök.
Like other Germanic deities, veneration of Freyr was revived during the modern period through the Heathenry movement.
## Name
The Old Norse name *Freyr* (\'lord\') is generally thought to descend from a Proto-Norse form reconstructed as *\*frawjaʀ*, stemming from the Proto-Germanic noun *\*frawjaz* \~ \**fraw(j)ōn* (\'lord\'), and cognate with Gothic *frauja*, Old English *frēa*, or Old High German *frō*, all meaning \'lord, master\'. The runic form *frohila*, derived from an earlier *\*frōjila*, may also be related. Recently, however, an etymology deriving the name of the god from a nominalized form of the Proto-Scandinavian adjective \**fraiw(i)a*- (\'fruitful, generative\') has also been proposed. According to linguist Guus Kroonen, \"within Germanic, the attestation of ON *frjar*, *frjór*, *frær*, Icel. *frjór* adj. \'fertile; prolific\' \< \**fraiwa*- clearly seems to point to a stem \**frai(w)*- meaning \'fecund\'. Both in form and meaning, *fraiwa*- (\'seed\') is reminiscent of *Freyr* \'fertility deity\' \< \**frauja*-. The possibility must be considered, therefore, that \**fraiwa*- was metathesized from \**frawja*-, a collective of some kind.\" Freyr is also known by a series of other names which describe his attributes and role in religious practice and associated mythology.
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# Freyr
## Adam of Bremen {#adam_of_bremen}
Written c. 1080, one of the oldest written sources on pre-Christian Scandinavian religious practices is Adam of Bremen\'s *\[\[Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum\]\]*. Adam claimed to have access to first-hand accounts on pagan practices in Sweden. He refers to Freyr with the Latinized name **Fricco** and mentions that an image of him at Skara was destroyed by the Christian missionary Bishop Egino. Adam\'s description of the Temple at Uppsala gives some details on the god.
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---+
| In hoc templo, quod totum ex auro paratum est, statuas atrium deorum veneratur populus, ita ut potentissimus eorum Thor in medio solium habeat triclinio; hinc et inde locum possident Wodan et Fricco. Quorum significationes eiusmodi sunt: \'Thor\', inquiunt, \'praesidet in aere, qui tonitrus et fulmina, ventos ymbresque, serena et fruges gubernat. Alter Wodan, id est furor, bella gerit, hominique ministrat virtutem contra inimicos. Tertius est Fricco, pacem voluptatem que largiens mortalibus\'. Cuius etiam simulacrum fingunt cum ingenti priapo. | In this temple, entirely decked out in gold, the people worship the statues of three gods in such wise that the mightiest of them, Thor, occupies a throne in the middle of the chamber; Woden and Frikko have places on either side. The significance of these gods is as follows: Thor, they say, presides over the air, which governs the thunder and lightning, the winds and rains, fair weather and crops. The other, Woden---that is, the Furious---carries on war and imparts to man strength against his enemies. The third is Frikko, who bestows peace and pleasure on mortals. His likeness, too, they fashion with an immense phallus. | |
| | | |
| : | : | |
| | | |
| : *Gesta Hammaburgensis* 26, [Waitz\' edition](https://web.archive.org/web/20050207105412/http://hbar.phys.msu.su/gorm/chrons/bremen.htm) | : *Gesta Hammaburgensis* 26, Tschan\'s translation 164815 | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---+
Later in the account Adam states that when a marriage is performed a libation is made to the image of Fricco.
Historians are divided on the reliability of Adam\'s account.
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# Freyr
## *Prose Edda* {#prose_edda}
When Snorri Sturluson was writing in 13th century Iceland, the indigenous Germanic gods were still remembered although they had not been openly worshiped for more than two centuries.
### *Gylfaginning*
In the *Gylfaginning* section of his *Prose Edda*, Snorri introduces Freyr as one of the major gods.
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Njörðr í Nóatúnum gat síðan tvau börn, hét sonr Freyr en dóttir Freyja. Þau váru fögr álitum ok máttug. Freyr er hinn ágætasti af ásum. Hann ræðr fyrir regni ok skini sólar, ok þar með ávexti jarðar, ok á hann er gott at heita til árs ok friðar. Hann ræðr ok fésælu manna. *Gylfaginning* 24, [EB\'s edition](https://web.archive.org/web/20060219152329/http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/gg/ggrpar23.html) Njördr in Nóatún begot afterward two children: the son was called Freyr, and the daughter Freyja; they were fair of face and mighty. Freyr is the most renowned of the Æsir; he rules over the rain and the shining of the sun, and therewithal the fruit of the earth; and it is good to call on him for fruitful seasons and peace. He governs also the prosperity of men. *Gylfaginning* XXIV, [Brodeur\'s translation](https://web.archive.org/web/20100401223136/http://northvegr.org/lore/prose/037040.php)
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This description has similarities to the older account by Adam of Bremen but the differences are interesting. Adam assigns control of the weather and produce of the fields to Thor but Snorri says that Freyr rules over those areas. Snorri also omits any explicitly sexual references in Freyr\'s description. Those discrepancies can be explained in several ways. Adam and Snorri were writing with different goals in mind. It is possible that the Norse gods did not have exactly the same roles in Icelandic and Swedish paganism. Either Snorri or Adam may also have had distorted information.
The only extended myth related to Freyr in the *Prose Edda* is the story of his marriage.
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Þat var einn dag er Freyr hafði gengit í Hliðskjálf ok sá of heima alla. En er hann leit í norðrætt, þá sá hann á einum bœ mikit hús ok fagrt, ok til þess húss gekk kona, ok er hon tók upp höndum ok lauk hurð fyrir sér þá lýsti af höndum hennar bæði í lopt ok á lög, ok allir heimar birtusk af henni. *Gylfaginning* 37, [EB\'s edition](https://web.archive.org/web/20060219152340/http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/gg/ggrpar33.html) It chanced one day that Freyr had gone to Hlidskjálf, and gazed over all the world; but when he looked over into the northern region, he saw on an estate a house great and fair. And toward this house went a woman; when she raised her hands and opened the door before her, brightness gleamed from her hands, both over sky and sea, and all the worlds were illumined of her. *Gylfaginning* XXXVII, [Brodeur\'s translation](https://web.archive.org/web/20090604222039/http://www.northvegr.org/lore/prose/045048.php)
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The woman is Gerðr, a beautiful giantess. Freyr immediately falls in love with her and becomes depressed and taciturn. After a period of brooding, he consents to talk to Skírnir, his foot-page. He tells Skírnir that he has fallen in love with a beautiful woman and thinks he will die if he cannot have her. He asks Skírnir to go and woo her for him.
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Þá svarar Skírnir, sagði svá at hann skal fara sendiferð en Freyr skal fá honum sverð sitt. Þat var svá gott sverð at sjálft vásk. En Freyr lét eigi þat til skorta ok gaf honum sverðit. Þá fór Skírnir ok bað honum konunnar ok fekk heitit hennar, ok níu nóttum síðar skyldi hon þar koma er Barey heitir ok ganga þá at brullaupinu með Frey. *Gylfaginning* 37, [EB\'s edition](https://web.archive.org/web/20060219152340/http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/gg/ggrpar33.html) Then Skírnir answered thus: he would go on his errand, but Freyr should give him his own sword---which is so good that it fights of itself---and Freyr did not refuse, but gave him the sword. Then Skírnir went forth and wooed the woman for him, and received her promise; and nine nights later she was to come to the place called Barrey, and then go to the bridal with Freyr. *Gylfaginning* XXXVII, [Brodeur\'s translation](https://web.archive.org/web/20090604221954/http://www.northvegr.org/lore/prose/049052.php)
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The loss of Freyr\'s sword has consequences. According to the *Prose Edda*, Freyr had to fight Beli without his sword, and slew him with an antler. But the result at Ragnarök, the end of the world, will be much more serious. Freyr is fated to fight the fire-giant Surtr, and since he does not have his sword he will be defeated. Even after the loss of his weapon Freyr still has two magical artifacts, both dwarf-made. One is the ship Skíðblaðnir, which will have favoring breeze wherever its owner wants to go and can also be folded together like a napkin and carried in a pouch. The other is the boar Gullinbursti whose mane glows to illuminate the way for his owner. No myths involving Skíðblaðnir have come down to us but Snorri relates that Freyr rode to Baldr\'s funeral in a wagon pulled by Gullinbursti.
### Skaldic poetry {#skaldic_poetry}
Freyr is referred to several times in skaldic poetry. In *Húsdrápa*, partially preserved in the Prose Edda, he is said to ride a boar to Baldr\'s funeral.
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| : Ríðr á börg til borgar | : The battle-bold Freyr rideth | |
| : böðfróðr sonar Óðins | : First on the golden-bristled | |
| : Freyr ok folkum stýrir | : Barrow-boar to the bale-fire | |
| : fyrstr enum golli byrsta. *Húsdrápa* 7, [FJ\'s edition](https://web.archive.org/web/20070304005008/http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/ugm/skindex/hdr.html) | : Of Baldr, and leads the people. *Húsdrápa* 7, [Brodeur\'s translation](https://web.archive.org/web/20060108014642/http://www.northvegr.org/lore/prose/109112.php) | |
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In a poem by Egill Skalla-Grímsson, Freyr is called upon along with Njörðr to drive Eric Bloodaxe from Norway. The same skald mentions in *Arinbjarnarkviða* that his friend has been blessed by the two gods.
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| : \[E\]n Grjótbjörn | : Frey and Njord | |
| : of gæddan hefr | : have endowed | |
| : Freyr ok Njörðr | : rock-bear | |
| : at féar afli. *Arinbjarnarkviða* 17, [FJ\'s edition](https://web.archive.org/web/20070304005018/http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/ugm/skindex/egar.html) | : with wealth\'s force. *Arinbjarnarkviða* 17, Scudder\'s translation | |
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# Freyr
## *Prose Edda* {#prose_edda}
### *Nafnaþulur*
In *Nafnaþulur* Freyr is said to ride the horse Blóðughófi (*Bloody Hoof*).
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# Freyr
## *Poetic Edda* {#poetic_edda}
thumb\|right\|upright=1.36\|A detail from Gotland runestone G 181, in the Swedish Museum of National Antiquities in Stockholm. The three men are interpreted as Odin, Thor, and Freyr. Freyr is mentioned in several of the poems in the *Poetic Edda*. The information there is largely consistent with that of the *Prose Edda* while each collection has some details not found in the other.
### *Völuspá*
*Völuspá*, the best known of the Eddic poems, describes the final confrontation between Freyr and Surtr during Ragnarök.
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| : Surtr fer sunnan | : Surtr moves from the south | |
| : með sviga lævi, | : with the scathe of branches: | |
| : skínn af sverði | : there shines from his sword | |
| : sól valtíva. | : the sun of Gods of the Slain. | |
| : Grjótbjörg gnata, | : Stone peaks clash, | |
| : en gífr rata, | : and troll wives take to the road. | |
| : troða halir helveg, | : Warriors tread the path from Hel, | |
| : en himinn klofnar. | : and heaven breaks apart. | |
| | | |
| ```{=html} | ```{=html} | |
| <!-- --> | <!-- --> | |
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| : Þá kømr Hlínar | : Then is fulfilled Hlín\'s | |
| : harmr annarr fram, | : second sorrow, | |
| : er Óðinn ferr | : when Óðinn goes | |
| : við úlf vega, | : to fight with the wolf, | |
| : en bani Belja | : and Beli\'s slayer, | |
| : bjartr at Surti, | : bright, against Surtr. | |
| : þá mun Friggjar | : Then shall Frigg\'s | |
| : falla angan. *Völuspá* 51--52, [EB\'s edition](https://web.archive.org/web/20090413124631/http://www3.hi.is/~eybjorn/ugm/vsp3.html) | : sweet friend fall. *Völuspá* 50--51, Dronke\'s translation | |
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Some scholars have preferred a slightly different translation, in which the sun shines \"from the sword of the gods\". The idea is that the sword which Surtr slays Freyr with is the \"sword of the gods\" which Freyr had earlier bargained away for Gerðr. This would add a further layer of tragedy to the myth. Sigurður Nordal argued for this view but the possibility represented by Ursula Dronke\'s translation above is equally possible.
### *Grímnismál*
*Grímnismál*, a poem which largely consists of miscellaneous information about the gods, mentions Freyr\'s abode.
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| : Alfheim Frey | : Alfheim the gods to Frey | |
| : gáfu í árdaga | : gave in days of yore | |
| : tívar at tannféi. *Grímnismál* 5, GJ\'s edition`{{dead link|date=October 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}`{=mediawiki} | : for a tooth-gift. *Grímnismál* 5, [Thorpe\'s translation](https://web.archive.org/web/20080106055516/http://www.northvegr.org/lore/poetic2/003_01.php) | |
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A tooth-gift was a gift given to an infant on the cutting of the first tooth. Since *Alfheimr* or *Álfheimr* means \"World of Álfar (Elves)\" the fact that Freyr should own it is one of the indications of a connection between the Vanir and the obscure Álfar. *Grímnismál* also mentions that the sons of Ívaldi made Skíðblaðnir for Freyr and that it is the best of ships.
### *Lokasenna*
In the poem *Lokasenna*, Loki accuses the gods of various misdeeds. He criticizes the Vanir for incest, saying that Njörðr had Freyr with his sister. He also states that the gods discovered Freyr and Freyja having sex together. The god Týr speaks up in Freyr\'s defense.
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| : Freyr er beztr | : Frey is best | |
| : allra ballriða | : of all the exalted gods | |
| : ása görðum í; | : in the Æsir\'s courts: | |
| : mey hann né grætir | : no maid he makes to weep, | |
| : né manns konu | : no wife of man, | |
| : ok leysir ór höftum hvern. *Lokasenna* 37, GJ\'s edition`{{dead link|date=October 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}`{=mediawiki} | : and from bonds looses all. *Lokasenna* 37, [Thorpe\'s translation](https://web.archive.org/web/20100330165232/http://www.northvegr.org/lore/poetic2/013_02.php) | |
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*Lokasenna* also mentions that Freyr has servants called Byggvir and Beyla. They seem to have been associated with the making of bread.
### *Skírnismál*
The courtship of Freyr and Gerðr is dealt with extensively in the poem *Skírnismál*. Freyr is depressed after seeing Gerðr. Njörðr and Skaði ask Skírnir to go and talk with him. Freyr reveals the cause of his grief and asks Skírnir to go to Jötunheimr to woo Gerðr for him. Freyr gives Skírnir a steed and his magical sword for the journey.
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| : Mar ek þér þann gef, | : My steed I lend thee | |
| : er þik um myrkvan berr | : to lift thee o\'er the weird | |
| : vísan vafrloga, | : ring of flickering flame, | |
| : ok þat sverð, | : the sword also | |
| : er sjalft mun vegask | : which swings itself, | |
| : ef sá er horskr, er hefr. *Skírnismál* 9, [GJ\'s edition](http://wayback.vefsafn.is/wayback/20070910215457/http%3A//www.heimskringla.no/original/edda/skirnismal.php) | : if wise be he who wields it. *Skírnismál* 9, [Hollander\'s translation](https://web.archive.org/web/20060226015034/http://www.jackowitch.com/Skirnismal.html) | |
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When Skírnir finds Gerðr he starts by offering her treasures if she will marry Freyr. When she declines he forces her to accept by threatening her with destructive magic. `{{Expand section|date=June 2008}}`{=mediawiki}
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# Freyr
## *Ynglinga saga* {#ynglinga_saga}
Snorri Sturluson starts his epic history of the kings of Norway with *Ynglinga saga*, a euhemerized account of the Norse gods. Here Odin and the Æsir are men from Asia who gain power through their prowess in war and Odin\'s skills. But when Odin attacks the Vanir he bites off more than he can chew and peace is negotiated after the destructive and indecisive Æsir-Vanir War. Hostages are exchanged to seal the peace deal and the Vanir send Freyr and Njörðr to live with the Æsir. At this point the saga, like *Lokasenna*, mentions that incest was practised among the Vanir.
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Þá er Njörðr var með Vönum, þá hafði hann átta systur sína, því at þat váru þar lög; váru þeirra börn Freyr ok Freyja. En þat var bannat með Ásum at byggja svá náit at frændsemi. *Ynglinga saga* 4, [Schultz\'s edition](http://www.heimskringla.no/original/heimskringla/ynglingasaga.php) `{{Webarchive|url=http://web.archive.bibalex.org/web/20051231070651/http://www.heimskringla.no/original/heimskringla/ynglingasaga.php |date=31 December 2005 }}`{=mediawiki} While Njord was with the Vanaland people he had taken his own sister in marriage, for that was allowed by their law; and their children were Frey and Freya. But among the Asaland people it was forbidden to intermarry with such near relations. *Ynglinga saga* 4, [Laing\'s translation](https://web.archive.org/web/20051211092306/http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/OMACL/Heimskringla/ynglinga.html)
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Odin makes Njörðr and Freyr priests of sacrifices and they become influential leaders. Odin goes on to conquer the North and settles in Sweden where he rules as king, collects taxes and maintains sacrifices. After Odin\'s death, Njörðr takes the throne. During his rule there is peace and good harvest and the Swedes come to believe that Njörðr controls these things. Eventually Njörðr falls ill and dies.
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Freyr tók þá ríki eptir Njörð; var hann kallaðr dróttinn yfir Svíum ok tók skattgjafir af þeim; hann var vinsæll ok ársæll sem faðir hans. Freyr reisti at Uppsölum hof mikit, ok setti þar höfuðstað sinn; lagði þar til allar skyldir sínar, lönd ok lausa aura; þá hófst Uppsala auðr, ok hefir haldizt æ síðan. Á hans dögum hófst Fróða friðr, þá var ok ár um öll lönd; kendu Svíar þat Frey. Var hann því meir dýrkaðr en önnur goðin, sem á hans dögum varð landsfólkit auðgara en fyrr af friðinum ok ári. Gerðr Gýmis dóttir hét kona hans; sonr þeirra hét Fjölnir. Freyr hét Yngvi öðru nafni; Yngva nafn var lengi síðan haft í hans ætt fyrir tignarnafn, ok Ynglingar váru síðan kallaðir hans ættmenn. Freyr tók sótt; en er at honum leið sóttin, leituðu menn sér ráðs, ok létu fá menn til hans koma, en bjoggu haug mikinn, ok létu dyrr á ok 3 glugga. En er Freyr var dauðr, báru þeir hann leyniliga í hauginn, ok sögðu Svíum at hann lifði, ok varðveittu hann þar 3 vetr. En skatt öllum heltu þeir í hauginn, í einn glugg gullinu, en í annan silfrinu, í hinn þriðja eirpenningum. Þá hélzt ár ok friðr. *Ynglinga saga* 12, [Schultz\'s edition](http://www.heimskringla.no/original/heimskringla/ynglingasaga.php) `{{Webarchive|url=http://web.archive.bibalex.org/web/20051231070651/http://www.heimskringla.no/original/heimskringla/ynglingasaga.php |date=31 December 2005 }}`{=mediawiki} Frey took the kingdom after Njord, and was called *drot* by the Swedes, and they paid taxes to him. He was, like his father, fortunate in friends and in good seasons. Frey built a great temple at Upsal, made it his chief seat, and gave it all his taxes, his land, and goods. Then began the Upsal domains, which have remained ever since. Then began in his days the Frode-peace; and then there were good seasons, in all the land, which the Swedes ascribed to Frey, so that he was more worshipped than the other gods, as the people became much richer in his days by reason of the peace and good seasons. His wife was called Gerd, daughter of Gymir, and their son was called Fjolne. Frey was called by another name, Yngve; and this name Yngve was considered long after in his race as a name of honour, so that his descendants have since been called Ynglinger. Frey fell into a sickness; and as his illness took the upper hand, his men took the plan of letting few approach him. In the meantime they raised a great mound, in which they placed a door with three holes in it. Now when Frey died they bore him secretly into the mound, but told the Swedes he was alive; and they kept watch over him for three years. They brought all the taxes into the mound, and through the one hole they put in the gold, through the other the silver, and through the third the copper money that was paid. Peace and good seasons continued. *Ynglinga saga* 12, [Laing\'s translation](https://web.archive.org/web/20051211092306/http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/OMACL/Heimskringla/ynglinga.html)
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Þá er allir Svíar vissu, at Freyr var dauðr, en hélzt ár ok friðr, þá trúðu þeir, at svá mundi vera, meðan Freyr væri á Svíþjóð, ok vildu eigi brenna hann, ok kölluðu hann veraldar goð ok blótuðu mest til árs ok friðar alla ævi síðan. *Ynglinga saga* 13, [Schultz\'s edition](http://www.heimskringla.no/original/heimskringla/ynglingasaga.php) `{{Webarchive|url=http://web.archive.bibalex.org/web/20051231070651/http://www.heimskringla.no/original/heimskringla/ynglingasaga.php |date=31 December 2005 }}`{=mediawiki} When it became known to the Swedes that Frey was dead, and yet peace and good seasons continued, they believed that it must be so as long as Frey remained in Sweden; and therefore they would not burn his remains, but called him the god of this world, and afterwards offered continually blood-sacrifices to him, principally for peace and good seasons. *Ynglinga saga* 13, [Laing\'s translation](https://web.archive.org/web/20051211092306/http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/OMACL/Heimskringla/ynglinga.html)
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Freyr had a son named Fjölnir, who succeeds him as king and rules during the continuing period of peace and good seasons. Fjölnir\'s descendants are enumerated in *Ynglingatal* which describes the mythological kings of Sweden.
## *Ögmundar þáttr dytts* {#ögmundar_þáttr_dytts}
The 14th century Icelandic *Ögmundar þáttr dytts* contains a tradition of how Freyr was transported in a wagon and administered by a priestess, in Sweden. Freyr\'s role as a fertility god needed a female counterpart in a divine couple (McKinnell\'s translation 1987):
In this short story, a man named Gunnar was suspected of manslaughter and escaped to Sweden, where Gunnar became acquainted with this young priestess. He helped her drive Freyr\'s wagon with the god effigy in it, but the god did not appreciate Gunnar and so attacked him and would have killed Gunnar if he had not promised himself to return to the Christian faith if he would make it back to Norway. When Gunnar had promised this, a demon jumped out of the god effigy and so Freyr was nothing but a piece of wood. Gunnar destroyed the wooden idol and dressed himself as Freyr, then Gunnar and the priestess travelled across Sweden where people were happy to see the god visiting them. After a while he made the priestess pregnant, but this was seen by the Swedes as confirmation that Freyr was truly a fertility god and not a scam. Finally, Gunnar had to flee back to Norway with his young bride and had her baptized at the court of Olaf Tryggvason.
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# Freyr
## *Gesta Danorum* {#gesta_danorum}
The 12th Century Danish *Gesta Danorum* describes Freyr, under the name **Frø**, as the \"viceroy of the gods\".
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Frø quoque deorum satrapa sedem haud procul Upsala cepit, ubi veterem litationis morem tot gentibus ac saeculis usurpatum tristi infandoque piaculo mutavit. Siquidem humani generis hostias mactare aggressus foeda superis libamenta persolvit. *Gesta Danorum* 3, [Olrik\'s edition](http://www.kb.dk/elib/lit/dan/saxo/lat/or.dsr/3/2/index.htm) There was also a viceroy of the gods, Frø, who took up residence not far from Uppsala and altered the ancient system of sacrifice practised for centuries among many peoples to a morbid and unspeakable form of expiation. He delivered abominable offerings to the powers above by instituting the slaughter of human victims. *Gesta Danorum* 3, Fisher\'s translation
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That Freyr had a cult at Uppsala is well confirmed from other sources. The reference to the change in sacrificial ritual may also reflect some historical memory. There is archaeological evidence for an increase in human sacrifices in the late Viking Age though among the Norse gods human sacrifice is most often linked to Odin. Another reference to Frø and sacrifices is found earlier in the work, where the beginning of an annual *blót* to him is related. King Hadingus is cursed after killing a divine being and atones for his crime with a sacrifice.
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Siquidem propitiandorum numinum gratia Frø deo rem divinam furvis hostiis fecit. Quem litationis morem annuo feriarum circuitu repetitum posteris imitandum reliquit. Frøblot Sueones vocant. *Gesta Danorum* 1, [Olrik\'s edition](http://www.kb.dk/elib/lit/dan/saxo/lat/or.dsr/1/8/index.htm) \[I\]n order to mollify the divinities he did indeed make a holy sacrifice of dark-coloured victims to the god Frø. He repeated this mode of propitiation at an annual festival and left it to be imitated by his descendants. The Swedes call it Frøblot. *Gesta Danorum* 1, Fisher\'s translation
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The sacrifice of dark-coloured victims to Freyr has a parallel in Ancient Greek religion where the chthonic fertility deities preferred dark-coloured victims to lighter ones.
In book 9, Saxo identifies Frø as the \"king of Sweden\" (*rex Suetiae*):
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Quo tempore rex Suetiae Frø, interfecto Norvagiensium rege Sywardo, coniuges necessariorum eius prostibulo relegatas publice constuprandas exhibuit. *Gesta Danorum* 9, [Olrik\'s edition](http://www.kb.dk/elib/lit/dan/saxo/lat/or.dsr/9/4/index.htm) About this time the Swedish ruler Frø, after killing Sivard, king of the Norwegians, removed the wives of Sivard\'s relatives to a brothel and exposed them to public prostitution. *Gesta Danorum* 9, Fisher\'s translation
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The reference to public prostitution may be a memory of fertility cult practices. Such a memory may also be the source of a description in book 6 of the stay of Starcatherus, a follower of Odin, in Sweden.
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Mortuo autem Bemono, Starcatherus ab athletis Biarmensibus ob virtutem accitus, cum plurima apud eos memoratu digna edidisset facinora, Sueonum fines ingreditur. Ubi cum filiis Frø septennio feriatus ab his tandem ad Haconem Daniae tyrannum se contulit, quod apud Upsalam sacrificiorum tempore constitutus effeminatos corporum motus scaenicosque mimorum plausus ac mollia nolarum crepitacula fastidiret. Unde patet, quam remotum a lascivia animum habuerit, qui ne eius quidem spectator esse sustinuit. Adeo virtus luxui resistit. *Gesta Danorum* 6, [Olrik\'s edition](http://www.kb.dk/elib/lit/dan/saxo/lat/or.dsr/6/5/index.htm) After Bemoni\'s death Starkather, because of his valour, was summoned by the Biarmian champions and there performed many feats worthy of the tellings. Then he entered Swedish territory where he spent seven years in a leisurely stay with the sons of Frø, after which he departed to join Haki, the lord of Denmark, for, living at Uppsala in the period of sacrifices, he had become disgusted with the womanish body movements, the clatter of actors on the stage and the soft tinkling of bells. It is obvious how far his heart was removed from frivolity if he could not even bear to watch these occasions. A manly individual is resistant to wantonness. *Gesta Danorum* 6, Fisher\'s translation
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# Freyr
## Yngvi
A strophe of the Anglo-Saxon rune poem (c. 1100) records that:
: *Ing was first among the East Danes seen by men*
This may refer to the origins of the worship of **Ingui** in the tribal areas that Tacitus mentions in his *Germania* as being populated by the Inguieonnic tribes. A later Danish chronicler lists Ingui was one of three brothers that the Danish tribes descended from. The strophe also states that \"then he (Ingui) went back over the waves, his wagon behind him\" which could connect Ingui to earlier conceptions of the wagon processions of Nerthus and the later Scandinavian conceptions of Freyr\'s wagon journeys.
Ingui is mentioned also in some later Anglo-Saxon literature under varying forms of his name, such as \"For what doth Ingeld have to do with Christ\" and the variants used in Beowulf to designate the kings as \'leader of the friends of Ing\'. The compound Ingui-Frea (OE) and Yngvi-Freyr (ON) likely refer to the connection between the god and the Germanic kings\' role as priests during the sacrifices in the pagan period, as *Frea* and *Freyr* are titles meaning \'Lord\'.
The Swedish royal dynasty was known as the Ynglings from their descent from Yngvi-Freyr. This is supported by Tacitus, who wrote about the Germans: \"In their ancient songs, their only way of remembering or recording the past they celebrate an earth-born god Tuisco, and his son Mannus, as the origin of their race, as their founders. To Mannus they assign three sons, from whose names, they say, the coast tribes are called Ingaevones; those of the interior, Herminones; all the rest, Istaevones\".
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# Freyr
## Archaeological record {#archaeological_record}
### Rällinge statuette {#rällinge_statuette}
In 1904, a Viking Age statuette identified as a depiction of Freyr was discovered on the farm Rällinge in Lunda, Södermanland parish in the province of Södermanland, Sweden. The depiction features a cross-legged seated, bearded male with an erect penis. He is wearing a pointed cap or helmet and stroking his triangular beard. The seven-centimeter-tall statue is displayed at the Swedish Museum of National Antiquities.
### Skog tapestry {#skog_tapestry}
A part of the Swedish Skog tapestry depicts three figures that have been interpreted as allusions to Odin, Thor, and Freyr, but also as the three Scandinavian holy kings Canute, Eric and Olaf. The figures coincide with 11th century descriptions of statue arrangements recorded by Adam of Bremen at the Temple at Uppsala and written accounts of the gods during the late Viking Age. The tapestry is originally from Hälsingland, Sweden but is now housed at the Swedish Museum of National Antiquities.
### Gullgubber
Small pieces of gold foil featuring engravings dating from the Migration Period into the early Viking Age (known as *gullgubber*) have been discovered in various locations in Scandinavia, at one site almost 2,500. The foil pieces have been found largely on the sites of buildings, only rarely in graves. The figures are sometimes single, occasionally an animal, sometimes a man and a woman with a leafy bough between them, facing or embracing one another. The human figures are almost always clothed and are sometimes depicted with their knees bent. Scholar Hilda Ellis Davidson says that it has been suggested that the figures are taking part in a dance, and that they may have been connected with weddings, as well as linked to the Vanir group of gods, representing the notion of a divine marriage, such as in the *Poetic Edda* poem *Skírnismál*; the coming together of Gerðr and Freyr.
<File:Guldgubbe.jpg> Image:Three kings or three gods.jpg\|The Skog Church Tapestry portion possibly depicting Odin, Thor and Freyr <File:Goldgubb.jpg%7CAn> example of the small gold pieces of foil that may depict Gerðr and Freyr
## Toponyms
### Norway
- *Freysakr* (\"Freyr\'s field\") - name of two old farms in Gol Municipality and Torpa Municipality.
- *Freyshof* (\"Freyr\'s temple\") - name of two old farms in Hole Municipality and Trøgstad Municipality.
- *Freysland* (\"Freyr\'s land/field\") - name of six old farms in Feda Municipality, Halse og Harkmark Municipality, Førde Municipality, Sogndal Municipality, Søgne Municipality, and Torpa Municipality.
- *Freyslíð* (\"Freyr\'s hill\") - name of two old farms in Lunner Municipality and Torpa Municipality.
- *Freysnes* (\"Freyr\'s headland\") - name of an old farm in Sandnes Municipality.
- *Freyssetr* (\"Freyr\'s farm\") - name of two old farms in Masfjorden Municipality and Soknedal Municipality.
- *Freyssteinn* (\"Freyr\'s stone\") - name of an old farm in Lista Municipality.
- *Freysteigr* (\"Freyr\'s field\") - name of an old farm in Ramnes Municipality.
- *Freysvík* (\"Freyr\'s inlet/bay\") - name of two old farms in Vik Municipality and Ullensvang Municipality.
- *Freysvin* (\"Freyr\'s meadow\") - name of four old farms in Hole Municipality, Lom Municipality, Sunnylven Municipality, and Østre Gausdal Municipality.
- *Freysvǫllr* (\"Freyr\'s field\") - name of an old farm in Sør-Odal Municipality.
- *Freysþveit* (\"Freyr\'s thwaite\") - name of an old farm in Hedrum Municipality.
### Sweden
- *Fröslunda* (\"Freyr\'s grove\") - Uppland
- *Frösåker* (\"Freyr\'s field\") - Uppland
- *Frösön* (\"Freyr\'s island\") - Jämtland
- *Fröseke* (\"Freyr\'s oak forest\") - Småland
- *Frösve* (\"Freyr\'s sanctuary\") - Västergötland
- *Frösakull* (\"Freyr\'s hill\") -- Halland
### Denmark
- *Frøs Herred* (\"Freyr\'s Shire\") - Southern Jutland
## Modern influence {#modern_influence}
Freyr appears in numerous works of modern art and literature. He appears, for example, alongside numerous other figures from Norse mythology in the Danish poet Adam Gottlob Oehlenschläger\'s *Nordens Guder* (1819). He also appears in Icelandic poet Gerður Kristný\'s *Blóðhófnir* (2010), a feminist retelling of the Eddic poem *Skírnismál* that won the 2010 Icelandic Literature Award
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# Front line
A **front line** (alternatively **front-line** or **frontline**) in military terminology is the position(s) closest to the area of conflict of an armed force\'s personnel and equipment, usually referring to land forces. When a front (an intentional or unintentional boundary) between opposing sides forms, the front line is the area where each side\'s forces are engaged in conflict. Leaders have often fought at the front lines either purposefully or due to a collapse in battle formation. While a calculated risk, fighting on the front has in instances reduced communication and heightened morale. The front is in direct contrast to the rear, which is the position furthest from conflict.
All branches of the United States Armed Forces use the related technical terms, **Forward Line of Own Troops** (**FLOT**) and **Forward Edge of Battle Area** (**FEBA**). These terms are used as battlespace control measures that designate the forward-most friendly maritime or land forces on the battlefield at a given point in time during an armed conflict. FLOT/FEBA may include covering and screening forces. The **Forward Line of Enemy Troops** (**FLET**) is the FEBA from the enemy\'s perspective.
## Etymology
Although the term \"front line\" first appeared in the 1520s, it took until 1842 for it to be used in the military sense. Its first use as an adjective was from 1915.
The word \"front\" gained the military sense of \"foremost part of an army\" in the mid-14th century, which, in turn, led the word to take on the meaning \"field of operations in contact with the enemy\" in the 1660s. That sense led to the phrase home front, which first appeared in 1919. In a non-combat situation or when a combat situation is not assumed, front can mean the direction in which the command is faced.
The attributive adjective version of the term front line (as in \"our front-line personnel\") describes materiel or personnel intended for or actively in forward use: at sea, on land or in the air: *at* the front line.
## Evolution of the concept {#evolution_of_the_concept}
In the land campaigns of World War I, FEBAs, FLOTs and FLETs could often be identified by eye. For example, in France and Belgium, they were defined by opposing defensive trench systems.
Typical modern conflicts are vastly different, characterised by \"war amongst the people\", the concept of a \"Three Block War\", and the presence of an asymmetric threat from irregular or terrorist combatants. In those cases, the concepts of front line, FEBA, FLOT and FLET may be of little relevance. The term \"front line\" has come to refer more to any place where bullets and bombs are flying or are likely to fly
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# List of presidents of FIFA
The following is a **list of presidents of the Fédération Internationale de Football Association** (FIFA), the world association football governing body.
Presidents Daniel Burley Woolfall, Rodolphe Seeldrayers, and Arthur Drewry died during their term in office.
The current president is Swiss-Italian Gianni Infantino, elected on 26 February 2016 during an extraordinary session of the FIFA Congress. Prior to his election, Cameroonian Issa Hayatou was acting president after the impeachment of Sepp Blatter on 8 October 2015, who was given an eight-year ban from all football-related activities on 21 December 2015 (reduced to six years on 24 February 2016), which was renewed for six years on 24 March 2021.
## Presidents of FIFA {#presidents_of_fifa}
+-------------+-------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | Portrait | Name\ | Term of office | |
| | | `{{small|(born–died)}}`{=mediawiki} | | |
+=============+=============+================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================+===================================================================+=============================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================+
| Took office | Left office | Time in office | | |
+-------------+-------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1 | | Robert Guérin\ | 22 May 1904 | 4 June 1906 |
| | | `{{small|(1876–1952)}}`{=mediawiki} | | |
+-------------+-------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 2 | | Daniel Burley Woolfall\ | 4 June 1906 | 24 October 1918\ |
| | | `{{small|(1852–1918)}}`{=mediawiki} | | (*died in office*) |
+-------------+-------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| -- | | Cornelis August Wilhelm Hirschman`{{refn|group=note|Named Honorary FIFA Secretary}}`{=mediawiki}\ | 24 October 1918 | 28 August 1920`{{refn|group=note|name=Antwerp 1920|Rimet was provisionally placed in control of FIFA as chairman during the [[1920 Summer Olympics]] in [[Antwerp]], Belgium.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fifa.com/news/jules-rimet-the-father-the-world-cup-71489 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927144814/https://www.fifa.com/news/jules-rimet-the-father-the-world-cup-71489 |url-status=dead |archive-date=27 September 2020 |title=Jules Rimet: The Father of the World Cup |work=FIFA |date=17 June 1998 |access-date=24 December 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fifa.com/news/history-fifa-more-associations-follow-450 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411140828/https://www.fifa.com/news/history-fifa-more-associations-follow-450 |url-status=dead |archive-date=11 April 2021 |title=History of FIFA – More associations follow |work=FIFA |access-date=24 December 2020}}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki} |
| | | `{{small|(1877–1951)<br />''acting''}}`{=mediawiki} | | |
+-------------+-------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| -- | | Jules Rimet`{{refn|group=note|Named Honorary FIFA President on 21 June 1954}}`{=mediawiki}\ | 28 August 1920`{{refn|group=note|name=Antwerp 1920}}`{=mediawiki} | 1 March 1921 |
| | | `{{small|(1873–1956)}}`{=mediawiki} | | |
+-------------+-------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 3 | | | 1 March 1921 | 21 June 1954 |
+-------------+-------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 4 | | Rodolphe Seeldrayers\ | 21 June 1954 | 7 October 1955\ |
| | | `{{small|(1876–1955)}}`{=mediawiki} | | (*died in office*) |
+-------------+-------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| -- | | Arthur Drewry\ | 7 October 1955 | 9 June 1956 |
| | | `{{small|(1891–1961)}}`{=mediawiki} | | |
+-------------+-------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 5 | | | 9 June 1956 | 25 March 1961\ |
| | | | | (*died in office*) |
+-------------+-------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| -- | | Ernst Thommen\ | 25 March 1961 | 28 September 1961 |
| | | `{{small|(1899–1967)<br />''acting''}}`{=mediawiki} | | |
+-------------+-------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 6 | | Stanley Rous`{{refn|group=note|Named Honorary FIFA President on 11 June 1974}}`{=mediawiki}\ | 28 September 1961 | 8 May 1974 |
| | | `{{small|(1895–1986)}}`{=mediawiki} | | |
+-------------+-------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 7 | | João Havelange`{{refn|group=note|Named Honorary FIFA President on 8 June 1998}}`{=mediawiki}\ | 8 May 1974 | 8 June 1998 |
| | | `{{small|(1916–2016)}}`{=mediawiki} | | |
+-------------+-------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 8 | | Sepp Blatter\ | 8 June 1998 | 8 October 2015\ |
| | | `{{small|(born 1936)}}`{=mediawiki} | | (*impeached*)`{{refn|group=note|Following his impeachment, Blatter was given an eight-year exclusion from all football-related activities on 21 December 2015 (reduced to six years on 24 February 2016), which was renewed for six years on 24 March 2021.<ref name="FIFA"/><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/sport/football/35655454 |title=Sepp Blatter & Michel Platini lose Fifa appeals but bans reduced |access-date= 24 February 2016 |work= BBC Sport }}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki} |
+-------------+-------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| -- | | Issa Hayatou`{{refn|group=note|Following the provisional exclusion on Sepp Blatter, Issa Hayatou assumed the Office of FIFA President on an interim basis in accordance with article 32(6) of the FIFA Statutes because Hayatou was the longest-serving vice-president on FIFA's Executive Committee.<ref>{{cite web|title=Acting FIFA President Issa Hayatou|url=https://www.fifa.com/about-fifa/acting-president/index.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151010023004/http://www.fifa.com/about-fifa/acting-president/index.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=10 October 2015|publisher=Fédération Internationale de Football Association|website=FIFA.com|date=December 21, 2015|access-date=December 22, 2015|quote="On 8 October 2015, given the decision of the Adjudicatory Chamber of the Independent Ethics Committee to provisionally ban Joseph S. Blatter from all football activities on a national and international level, Issa Hayatou assumed the Office of FIFA President on an interim basis, as the longest-serving vice-president on FIFA's Executive Committee - according to article 32 (6) of the FIFA Statutes."}}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}\ | 8 October 2015 | 26 February 2016 |
| | | `{{small|(1946–2024)<br />''acting''}}`{=mediawiki} | | |
+-------------+-------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 9 | | Gianni Infantino\ | 26 February 2016 | *Incumbent* |
| | | `{{small|(born 1970)}}`{=mediawiki} | | |
+-------------+-------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
**Notes** `{{reflist|group=note}}`{=mediawiki}
## Timeline
ImageSize = width:800 height:auto barincrement:12 PlotArea = top:10 bottom:50 right:130 left:20 AlignBars = late
DateFormat = dd/mm/yyyy Period = from:22/05/1904 till:01/01/2025 TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:10 start:1905
Colors =
` id:european value:rgb(0.2745,0.5098,0.7059) legend: European`\
` id:southamerican value:rgb(0.5608,0.7373,0
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