id
int64 39
11.1M
| section
stringlengths 3
4.51M
| length
int64 2
49.9k
| title
stringlengths 1
182
| chunk_id
int64 0
68
|
|---|---|---|---|---|
13,859 |
# Hayling Island
## Sport and leisure {#sport_and_leisure}
Hayling Island has a non-League football club, Hayling United F.C., which plays at Hayling Park.
Although largely residential, Hayling is also a holiday, windsurfing and sailing centre, the site where windsurfing was invented.
In summer 2010, the Hayling Island Sailing Club hosted the 2010 World Laser Standard Senior and Junior Championships (27 August -- 5 September). The Senior championship was won by Australian Tom Slingsby, whilst Dane Thorbjoern Schierup won the Junior competition. Today it is home to many different types of sailing, including a growing Fireball fleet.
Because of the island\'s popularity for water activities, there are two lifeboat services: Hayling Island Lifeboat Station, run by the RNLI, and Hayling Island Rescue Service, an independent service run by retired RNLI helmsman Frank Dunster.
The island hosts one of the few active Real Tennis courts in the UK. Founded in 1911, Seacourt Tennis club is one of only a handful in the UK where it is possible to play every recognised racquet sport. The racquets court itself was opened by Sir Colin Cowdrey.
Seacourt Tennis Club also hosts a weekly fencing club featuring all ages, levels and weapons.
Hayling Golf Club has been voted in the top 100 golf courses in the UK. A traditional links course, although relatively short by modern standards, the strong prevailing south-westerly winds, fast greens, gorse bushes and traditional deep links bunkers make this a stern test for any golfer.
Funland, an amusement park situated at Beachlands, is open year-round, as is the Hayling Seaside Railway which runs from the funfair to Eastoke corner.
The 5 mi Hayling Billy Trail is a former light rail right-of-way which has been converted to one of many footpaths on the island. The Ordnance Survey Explorer 120 map covers the area and the local tourist information office supplies leaflets of local interest walks.
The Station Theatre hosts a variety of plays staged by the Hayling Island Amateur Dramatics Society, Hayling Musical Society, musical events and films throughout the year.
The island has several churches of different denominations including three Anglican churches: St Peter\'s at Northney, St Mary\'s at Gable Head and the more recently built St Andrew\'s in South Hayling.
| 369 |
Hayling Island
| 1 |
13,859 |
# Hayling Island
## Transport
Hayling Ferry links Portsmouth and Hayling Island. The ferry is busy in summer in good weather, bringing tourists and cyclists to Hayling. In winter, there was a significant reduction of use. The ferry service to and from Portsea Island was subsidised by the local authorities, leaving it under constant threat of closure due to limited resources. The ferry service ceased when the company running the ferry went into administration in March 2015. It was reopened in August 2016 by Baker Trayte Marine Ltd.
During the ferry\'s closure, the only public connection between Hayling Island and the mainland was the single carriageway road linking Northney to Langstone Havant. In summer, in particular, this road can become very congested, rendering the journey between the bridge and South Hayling (the most populated area) anything from 30 minutes to an hour. A proposed Millennium project to create a new shared pedestrian and cycle bridge was unsuccessful.
A railway to the island was active in the 19th and 20th centuries. It opened on 17 July 1867, coinciding with the local races. Terrier steam locomotives pulled carriages along the 5 mi Hayling Billy Line from Havant Station on the mainland to a station which was located at the northern end of Staunton Avenue, passing through Langstone where there was a Halt. The railway was popular with tourists throughout the summer, though it saw little service in winter, and at peak times ran up to 24 services per day. Despite its popularity, the line was marked for closure in the Beeching Report owing to the prohibitive cost of replacing Langstone Bridge, which connected the island to the mainland, estimated at up to £400,000 to repair. Services ended on 3 November 1963, and the bridge was demolished in 1966. The remaining railway buildings are a goods shed, which has now been converted into a theatre run by HIADS, and a station, opposite the Ship Inn over the bridge. A railway gatehouse, located opposite Mill Lane, was burned down on 15 November 2018; no other building is believed to survive.
A tourist attraction, the East Hayling Light Railway, is a `{{RailGauge|2ft|lk=on}}`{=mediawiki} gauge railway which runs for just over 1 mi from Beachlands Station to Eastoke Corner with aspirations to extend the route to Ferry Point within the next few years.
The nearest railway station to Hayling Island is Havant, just on to the mainland off Hayling Island. Alternatively, Portsmouth & Southsea is another railway station, used for connections to Bristol Temple Meads and Cardiff.
| 420 |
Hayling Island
| 2 |
13,859 |
# Hayling Island
## Notable people {#notable_people}
- Marjorie Bowen (1885--1952), writer, was born on Hayling Island. In her autobiography she wrote: \"I was born in Hayling Island in the cottage of an old woman named Mrs. Cole, of whom I know nothing save that she made a quantity of sloe gin and hoarded it, leaving it to be drunk on the day of her funeral\".
- Peter Chilvers, inventor of the windsurfer
- Stephanie Lawrence, \"a musical actress of rare glamour\", dancer and star of West End musicals such as *Evita* and *Starlight Express*, lived during her childhood on Hayling Island, where her parents ran Broadview House School on Beach Road.
- Gary Mehigan, chef and judge on *MasterChef Australia*, was born and raised on Hayling Island.
- Herbert Arnould Olivier, a portrait and landscape painter, and uncle of Laurence Olivier, died on Hayling Island in 1952.
- William Padwick (1791--1861), purchased the manor and large estates from the Duke of Norfolk inheriting title and rights of \'Lord of the Manor\'. Considerable involvement in the developing transport links to the island.
- Nevil Shute (Nevil Shute Norway), the Ealing-born aeronautical engineer and novelist, lived at Pond Head on Hayling Island during World War II. His novels include *A Town Like Alice* and *On the Beach*.
- William Thomas Stead, notable political and social campaigner and journalist, had a home on Hayling Island -- Hollybush House. He died with the sinking of the *Titanic*.
- Martin White (1779--1846), hydrologist responsible for maritime mapping of areas including Jersey, English Channel, Bristol Channel and Irish Sea
- Princess Catherine Yurievskaya, the youngest daughter of Alexander II of Russia, lived on Hayling Island for many years and was buried at St Peter\'s church in 1959.
- Maurice Wilks, automotive and aeronautical engineer, was born at Eastoke, Hayling Island on 19 August 1904. He became chairman of the Rover Car Company, and was involved in the development of the Land Rover. He also led Rover\'s involvement in the development of the jet engine during World War II.
## Hayling oysterbeds {#hayling_oysterbeds}
Oysters have been fished on the Hayling oysterbeds, at the northwest corner of the island, from as long ago as Roman times, documented in town records since 1615. The oysters were actively farmed between as early as 1819 until the 1970s. Oysters became a delicacy exported throughout the country under the classification of \"Emsworth Oysters\". Large complexes consisting of several pens separated by a series of bund walls and sluice gates were built to contain the oysters at varying stages of growth. Although large sections of the walls have since collapsed into the harbour, much of the shape and scale of the beds can still be seen.
In 1996, the oyster beds on the northwest coast of Hayling Island were restored by the Havant Borough Council, creating a wildlife haven which has become an important seabird breeding site. The Design Council awarded this project \'Millennium Product\' status for the renovation.
## Twinning
Hayling Island started twinning with Gorron, France, in 1997, after many years of social exchanges between the two communities rather than the normal council-led route. Charters were signed and exchanged in 1998 and are now displayed in the library in Elm Grove. In recognition of the twinning Gorron appears on the welcome signs, there is also a \'twinning\' tree outside the library and a Gorron roundabout at Beachlands. Gorron has similar recognitions including the \'Rue de Hayling Island\' -- previously Rue Victor Hugo.
## Paris to Hayling cycle ride {#paris_to_hayling_cycle_ride}
The island is the home of the Hayling Charity Cycle Ride which organises an annual charity cycle ride most often from Hayling Island to Paris and back. This event, run entirely by local unpaid volunteers, was started in 1986 by local cyclist Peter McQuade and has been run every year since. Up to 2023 over £1,800,000 had been collected for more than 500 good causes. Entrants have come from 15 different countries on five continents. Based on their research the organisers believe it may be the oldest long distance charity ride in the world.
| 683 |
Hayling Island
| 3 |
13,859 |
# Hayling Island
## Population
In the mid- to late 20th century, Hayling Island\'s population was known to double during the summer months, due to a large influx of holiday makers and the associated tourism employees to accommodate. As domestic holidays have declined and Hayling\'s prominence as a traditional English seaside resort have followed in parallel, the population only swells by approximately 20%--25% (English Tourist Board estimate, 2001).
Population Date
------------ --------------------------------------------
\~300 1086 (Domesday Book)
578 1801 (census)
\>1,600 1901
\>5,500 1950
16,887 2001 (census, usually resident population)
17,379 2011 (census)
## List of settlements {#list_of_settlements}
- Mengham
- Northney
- Eastoke
- West Town
- Sinah
- Sandy Point
- South Hayling
- Gable Head
- Ferry Point
- Mill Rythe
- Tournerbury
- Stoke
- Tye
The island\'s place-names are discussed in an online work by Richard Coates (2007)
| 142 |
Hayling Island
| 4 |
13,870 |
# Helvetii
`{{Location mark
|image=Map Gallia Tribes Towns.png|alt=|float=right|width=400
|caption=Map of [[Gaul]] with tribes, 1st century BC; the Helvetii are circled.|position=right
|mark=Red circle.svg|mark_width=60
|x=860|y=508|type=thumb
}}`{=mediawiki} The **Helvetii** (*Ἐλουήτιοι*, *Helvētiī* `{{IPA|la|hɛɫˈweːti.iː|}}`{=mediawiki}, Gaulish: \**Heluētī*), anglicized as **Helvetians**, were a Celtic tribe or tribal confederation occupying most of the Swiss plateau at the time of their contact with the Roman Republic in the 1st century BC. According to Julius Caesar, the Helvetians were divided into four subgroups or *pagi.* Of these, Caesar names only the Verbigeni and the Tigurini, while Posidonius mentions the Tigurini and the Tougeni (*Τωυγενοί*). They feature prominently in the *Commentaries on the Gallic War,* with their failed migration attempt to southwestern Gaul (58 BC) serving as a catalyst for Caesar\'s conquest of Gaul.
The Helvetians were subjugated after 52 BC, and under Augustus, Celtic oppida, such as Vindonissa or Basilea, were re-purposed as garrisons. In AD 68, a Helvetian uprising was crushed by Aulus Caecina Alienus. The Swiss plateau was at first incorporated into the Roman province of Gallia Belgica (22 BC), later into Germania Superior (AD 83). The Helvetians, like the rest of Gaul, were largely Romanized by the 2nd century. In the later 3rd century, Roman control over the region waned, and the Swiss plateau was exposed to the invading Alemanni. The Alemanni and Burgundians established permanent settlements in the Swiss plateau in the 5th and 6th centuries, resulting in the early medieval territories of Alemannia (Swabia) and Upper Burgundy. The Helvetii were largely assimilated by their new rulers, contributing to the ethnogenesis of modern Swiss people.
## Name
They are mentioned as *Helvetii* by Cicero (mid-1st c. BC), Caesar (mid-1st c. BC) and Tacitus (early 2nd c. AD), in the genitive case as *Helvetiorum* by Livy (late 1st c. BC), as *Helveti* by Pliny (mid-1st c. AD), and as *Elouḗtioi* (Ἐλουήτιοι) by Ptolemy (2nd c. AD).
The Gaulish ethnic name *Helvetii* is generally interpreted as *(h)elu-ētioi* (\'rich in land\'), from *elu*- (\'numerous\', cf. OIr. *il*) attached to *etu*- (\'grassland\'; cf. OIr. *iath*). The presence of the initial *h*-, remnant of a previous *p*- (PIE *\*pelh~1~u-* \> Celt. *helu-* \> *elu-*), attests of an archaic formation.
The earliest attestation of the name is found in a *graffito* on a vessel from Mantua, dated to c. 300 BC. The inscription in Etruscan letters reads *eluveitie,* which has been interpreted as the Etruscan form of the Celtic *elu̯eti̯os* (\"the Helvetian\"), presumably referring to a man of Helvetian descent living in Mantua.
## Tribal organisation {#tribal_organisation}
Of the four Helvetian *pagi* or sub-tribes, Caesar names only the Verbigeni (*Bell. Gall.* 1.27) and the Tigurini (1.12), Posidonius the Tigurini and the Tougeni (*Τωυγενοί*). There has been substantial debate in Swiss historiography (beginning with Felix Stähelin 1927) on whether the Tougeni may or may not be identified with the Teutones mentioned by Titus Livius.
According to Caesar, the territory abandoned by the Helvetii had comprised 400 villages and 12 *oppida* (fortified settlements). His tally of the total population taken from captured Helvetian records written in Greek is 263,000 people, including fighting men, old men, women and children. However, the figures are generally dismissed as too high by modern scholars (see hereafter).
Like many other tribes, the Helvetii did not have kings at the time of their clash with Rome but instead seem to have been governed by a class of noblemen (Lat. *equites*). When Orgetorix, one of their most prominent and ambitious noblemen, was making plans to establish himself as their king, he faced execution at the stake if found guilty. Caesar does not explicitly name the tribal authorities prosecuting the case and gathering men to apprehend Orgetorix, but he refers to them by the Latin terms *civitas* (\"state\" or \"tribe\") and *magistratus* (\"officials\").
| 621 |
Helvetii
| 0 |
13,870 |
# Helvetii
## History
### Earliest historical sources and settlement {#earliest_historical_sources_and_settlement}
In his *Natural History* (c. 77 AD), Pliny provides a foundation myth for the Celtic settlement of Cisalpine Gaul in which a Helvetian named Helico plays the role of culture hero. Helico had worked in Rome as a craftsman and then returned to his home north of the Alps with a dried fig, a grape, and some oil and wine, the desirability of which caused his countrymen to invade northern Italy.
The Greek historian Posidonius (c. 135--50 BC), whose work is preserved only in fragments by other writers, offers the earliest historical record of the Helvetii. Posidonius described the Helvetians of the late 2nd century BC as \"rich in gold but peaceful,\" without giving clear indication to the location of their territory. His reference to gold washing in rivers has been taken as evidence for an early presence of the Helvetii in the Swiss plateau, with the Emme as being one of the gold-yielding rivers mentioned by Posidonius. This interpretation is now generally discarded, as Posidonius\' narrative makes it more likely that the country some of the Helvetians left in order to join in the raids of the Teutones, Cimbri, and Ambrones was in fact southern Germany and not Switzerland.
That the Helvetians originally lived in southern Germany is confirmed by the Alexandrian geographer Claudius Ptolemaios (c. 90--168 AD), who tells us of an Ἐλουητίων ἔρημος (i.e. \"Helvetic deserted lands\") north of the Rhine. Tacitus knows that the Helvetians once settled in the swath between Rhine, Main, and the Hercynian forest. The abandonment of this northern territory is now usually placed in the late 2nd century BC, around the time of the first Germanic incursions into the Roman world, when the Tigurini and Toygenoi/Toutonoi are mentioned as participants in the great raids.
At the later Vicus *Turicum*, probably in the first 1st century BC or even much earlier, the Celts settled at the Lindenhof Oppidium. In 1890, so-called *Potin lumps* were found, whose largest weights 59.2 kg at the Prehistoric pile dwelling settlement *Alpenquai* in Zürich, Switzerland. The pieces consist of a large number of fused Celtic coins, which are mixed with charcoal remnants. Some of the 18,000 coins originate from the *Eastern Gaul*, others are of the *Zürich* type, that were assigned to the local *Helvetii*, which date to around 100 BC. The find is so far unique, and the scientific research assumes that the melting down of the lump was not completed, therefore the aim was to form cultic offerings. The site of the find was at that time at least 50 m from the lake shore, and probably 1 m to three meters deep in the water. There\'s also an island sanctuary of the Helvetii in connection with the settlement at the preceding Oppidi Uetliberg on the former *Grosser Hafner* island, as well as the settlement *Kleiner Hafner* at the *Sechseläuten square* on the effluence of the Limmat on Zürichsee lake shore.
### First contact with the Romans {#first_contact_with_the_romans}
The Germanic tribes of the Cimbri and Ambrones probably reached southern Germany around the year 111 BC, where they were joined by the Tigurini, and, probably the Teutoni-Toutonoi-Toygenoi. (The precise identity of the latter group is unclear).
The tribes began a joint invasion of Gaul, including the Roman Provincia Narbonensis. A Roman army under the consul L. Cassius Longinus opposed them. At the Battle of Burdigala near Agendicum in 107 BC, the Tigurini killed Longinus and captured many of his soldiers. According to Caesar, the captured Roman soldiers were ordered to pass under a yoke set up by the triumphant Gauls, a dishonour that called for both public as well as private vengeance. Caesar is the only narrative source for this episode, as the corresponding books of Livy\'s histories are preserved only in the *Periochae*, short summarising lists of contents, in which hostages given by the Romans, but no yoke, are mentioned.
In 105 BC, the allies defeated another Roman army near Arausio and went on to harry Spain, Gaul, Noricum, and northern Italy. They split up in two groups in 103 BC, with the Teutones and Ambrones marching on a western route through the *Provincia* and the Cimbri and Tigurini crossing the eastern Alps (probably by the Brenner Pass). While the Teutones and Ambrones were slaughtered in 102 BC by Gaius Marius near Aquae Sextiae, the Cimbri and the Tigurini wintered in the Padan plain. The following year, Marius virtually destroyed the Cimbri in the battle of Vercellae. The Tigurini, who had planned on following the Cimbri, turned back over the Alps with their booty and joined those of the Helvetians who had not participated in the raids.
| 782 |
Helvetii
| 1 |
13,870 |
# Helvetii
## History
### Caesar and the Helvetian campaign of 58 BC {#caesar_and_the_helvetian_campaign_of_58_bc}
#### Prelude
The Helvetii were the first Gallic tribe of the campaign to be confronted by Caesar. He narrates the events of the conflict in the opening sections of *Commentarii de Bello Gallico*. Due to the political nature of the *Commentarii*, Caesar\'s purpose in publicizing his own achievements may have distorted the significance of events and the motives of those who participated.
The nobleman Orgetorix is presented as the instigator of a new Helvetian migration, in which the entire tribe was to leave their territory and, according to Caesar, to establish a supremacy over all of Gaul. This exodus was planned over three years, in the course of which Orgetorix conspired with two noblemen from neighbouring tribes, Casticus of the Sequani and Dumnorix of the Aedui, that each should accomplish a coup d\'état in his own country, after which the three new kings would collaborate. When word of his aspirations to make himself king reached the Helvetii, Orgetorix was summoned to stand trial, facing execution on the pyre should he be found guilty. For the time being, he averted a verdict by arriving at the hearing set for him with ten thousand followers and bondsmen; yet before the large force mustered by the authorities could apprehend him, he died under unexplained circumstances, the Helvetii believed by his own hand.
Nevertheless, the Helvetii did not give up their planned emigration, but burned their homes in 58 BC. They were joined by a number of tribal groups from neighbouring regions: the Raurici, the Latobrigi, the Tulingi and a group of Boii, who had besieged Noreia. They abandoned their homes completely with the intention of settling among the Santones (Saintonge). The easiest route would take them through the Rhône valley, and thus through the Roman *Provincia Narbonensis*.
#### Battle of the Saône {#battle_of_the_saône}
When they reached the boundaries of the Allobroges, the northernmost tribe of the *Provincia*, they found that Caesar had already dismantled the bridge of Geneva to stop their advance. The Helvetians sent \"the most illustrious men of their state\" to negotiate, promising a peaceful passage through the *Provincia*. Caesar stalled them by asking for some time for consideration, which he used to assemble reinforcements and to fortify the southern banks of the Rhône. When the embassy returned on the agreed-upon date, he was strong enough to bluntly reject their offer. The Helvetii now chose the more difficult northern route through the Sequani territory, which traversed the Jura Mountains via a very narrow pass at the site of the modern Fort l\'Écluse, but bypassed the *Provincia*. After ravaging the lands of the Aedui tribe, who called upon Caesar to help them, they began the crossing of the Saône, which took them several days. As only a quarter of their forces were left on the eastern banks, Caesar attacked and routed them. According to Caesar, those killed had been the Tigurini, on whom he had now taken revenge in the name of the Republic and his family.
After the battle, the Romans quickly bridged the river, thereby prompting the Helvetii to once again send an embassy, this time led by Divico, another figure whom Caesar links to the ignominious defeat of 107 BC by calling him *bello Cassio dux Helvetiorum* (i.e. \"leader of the Helvetii in the Cassian campaign\"). What Divico had to offer was almost a surrender, namely to have the Helvetii settle wherever Caesar wished them to, although it was combined with the threat of an open battle if Caesar should refuse. Caesar demanded hostages to be given to him and reparations to the Aedui and Allobroges. Divico responded by saying that \"they were accustomed to receive, not to give hostages; a fact the Roman people could testify to\", this once again being an allusion to the giving of hostages by the defeated Romans at Agen.
#### Battle of Bibracte {#battle_of_bibracte}
In the cavalry battle that followed, the Helvetii prevailed over Caesar\'s Aedui allies under Dumnorix\' command, and continued their journey, while Caesar\'s army was being detained by delays in his grain supplies, caused by the Aedui on the instigations of Dumnorix, who had married Orgetorix\' daughter. A few days later, however, near the Aeduan *oppidum* Bibracte, Caesar caught up with the Helvetii and faced them in a major battle, which ended in the Helvetii\'s retreat and the capture of most of their baggage by the Romans.
Leaving the largest part of their supplies behind, the Helvetii covered around 60 km in four days, eventually reaching the lands of the Lingones (the modern Langres plateau). Caesar did not pursue them until three days after the battle, while still sending messengers to the Lingones warning them not to assist the Helvetii in any way. The Helvetii then offered their immediate surrender and agreed both to providing hostages and to giving up their weapons the next day. In the course of the night, 6000 of the Verbigeni fled from the camp out of fear of being massacred once they were defenceless. Caesar sent riders after them and ordered those who were brought back to be \"counted as enemies\", which probably meant being sold into slavery.
#### Return of the migrants {#return_of_the_migrants}
In order for them to defend the Rhine frontier against the Germans, he then allowed the Helvetii, Tulingi and Latobrigi to return to their territories and to rebuild their homes, instructing the Allobroges to supply them with a sufficient supply of grain. Caesar does not mention the Raurici, who seem to have built a new *oppidum* at Basel-Münsterhügel upon their return. The Aedui were granted their wish that the Boii who had accompanied the Helvetii would settle on their own territory as allies in the *oppidum* Gorgobina. The nature of Caesar\'s arrangement with the Helvetii and the other tribes is not further specified by the consul himself, but in his speech *[Pro Balbo](http://la.wikisource.org/wiki/Pro_Cornelio_Balbo)* of 56 BC, Cicero mentions the Helvetii as one among several tribes of *foederati*, i.e. allied nations who were neither citizens of the Republic nor her subjects, but obliged by treaty to support the Romans with a certain number of fighting men.
| 1,028 |
Helvetii
| 2 |
13,870 |
# Helvetii
## History
### Caesar and the Helvetian campaign of 58 BC {#caesar_and_the_helvetian_campaign_of_58_bc}
#### Caesar\'s report of the numbers {#caesars_report_of_the_numbers}
According to the victor, tablets with lists in Greek characters were found at the Helvetian camp, listing in detail all men able to bear arms with their names and giving a total number for the women, children and elderly who accompanied them. The numbers added up to a total of 263,000 Helvetii, 36,000 Tulingi, 14,000 Latobrigi, 23,000 Rauraci, and 32,000 Boii, all in all 368,000 heads, 92,000 of whom were warriors. A census of those who had returned to their homes listed 110,000 survivors, which meant that only about 30 percent of the emigrants had survived the war.
Caesar\'s report has been partly confirmed by excavations near Geneva and Bibracte. However, much of his account has not yet been corroborated by archaeology, whilst his narrative must in wide parts be considered as biased and, in some points, unlikely. For a start, only one`{{which|date=January 2013}}`{=mediawiki} out of the fifteen Celtic *oppida* in the Helvetii territory so far has yielded evidence for destruction by fire. Many other sites, for example the sanctuary at Mormont, do not exhibit any signs of damage for the period in question, and Celtic life continued seemingly undisturbed for the rest of the 1st century BC up to the beginning of the Roman era, with an accent rather on an increase in prosperity than on a \"Helvetic twilight\". With the honourable status as *foederati* taken into account, it is hard to believe that the Helvetii ever sustained casualties quite as heavy as those given by the Roman military leader.
In general, numbers written down by ancient military authors have to be taken as gross exaggerations. What Caesar claims to have been 368,000 people is estimated by other sources to be rather around 300,000 (Plutarch), or 200,000 (Appian); in the light of a critical analysis, even these numbers seem far too high. Furger-Gunti considers an army of more than 60,000 fighting men extremely unlikely in the view of the tactics described, and assumes the actual numbers to have been around 40,000 warriors out of a total of 160,000 emigrants. Delbrück suggests an even lower number of 100,000 people, out of which only 16,000 were fighters, which would make the Celtic force about half the size of the Roman body of c. 30,000 men. The real numbers will never be determined exactly. Caesar\'s specifications can at least be doubted by looking at the size of the baggage train that an exodus of 368,000 people would have required: Even for the reduced numbers that Furger-Gunti uses for his calculations, the baggage train would have stretched for at least 40 km, perhaps even as far as 100 km.
In spite of the now much more balanced numerical weight we have to assume for the two opposing armies, the battle seems far less glorious a victory than Caesar presented it to be. The main body of the Helvetii withdrew from the battle at nightfall, abandoning, as it seemed, most of their wagons, which they had drawn up into a wagon fort; they retreated northwards in a forced night march and reached the territory of the Lingones four days after the battle. What Caesar implies to have been a desperate flight without stopping could actually have been an ordered retreat of moderate speed, covering less than 40 km a day. Caesar himself does not appear as a triumphant victor in turn, being unable to pursue the Helvetii for three days, \"both on account of the wounds of the soldiers and the burial of the slain\". However, it is clear that Caesar\'s warning to the Lingones not to supply his enemies was quite enough to make the Helvetii leaders once again offer peace. On what terms this peace was made is debatable, but as said before, the conclusion of a *foedus* casts some doubt on the totality of the defeat.
| 656 |
Helvetii
| 3 |
13,870 |
# Helvetii
## History
### Caesar and the Helvetian campaign of 58 BC {#caesar_and_the_helvetian_campaign_of_58_bc}
#### Questions of motive {#questions_of_motive}
As Caesar\'s account is heavily influenced by his political agenda, it is difficult to determine the actual motive of the Helvetii movement of 58 BC. One might see the movement in the light of a Celtic retreat from areas which were later to become Germanic; it can be debated whether they ever had plans to settle in the Saintonge, as Caesar claims (Bell. Gall. 1,10.). It was certainly in the latter\'s personal interest to emphasise any kind of parallel between the traumatic experience of the Cimbrian and Teutonic incursions and the alleged threat that the Helvetii were to the Roman world. The Tigurini\'s part in the destruction of L. Cassius Longinus and his army was a welcome pretext to engage in an offensive war in Gaul whose proceeds permitted Caesar not only to fulfil his obligations to the numerous creditors he owed money to, but also to further strengthen his position within the late Republic. In this sense, even the character of Divico, who makes his appearance in the *Commentarii* half a century after his victory over L. Cassius Longinus, seems more like another hackneyed argument stressing Caesar\'s justification to attack, than like an actual historical figure. That the victor of Agen was still alive in 58 BC or, if yes, that he was physically still capable of undertaking such a journey at all, seems more than doubtful.
| 247 |
Helvetii
| 4 |
13,870 |
# Helvetii
## History
### The Helvetii as Roman subjects {#the_helvetii_as_roman_subjects}
The Helvetii and Rauraci most likely lost their status as *foederati* only six years after the battle of Bibracte, when they supported Vercingetorix in 52 BC with 8,000 and 2,000 men, respectively. Sometime between 50 and 45 BC, the Romans founded the *Colonia Iulia Equestris* at the site of the Helvetian settlement *Noviodunum* (modern Nyon), and around 44 BC the *Colonia Raurica* on Rauracan territory. These colonies were probably established as a means of controlling the two most important military access routes between the Helvetian territory and the rest of Gaul, blocking the passage through the Rhône valley and Sundgau.
In the course of Augustus\' reign, Roman dominance became more concrete. Some of the traditional Celtic oppida were now used as legionary garrisons, such as Vindonissa or Basilea (modern Basel); others were relocated, such as the hill-fort on the Bois de Châtel, whose inhabitants founded the new \"capital\" of the civitas at nearby Aventicum. First incorporated into the Roman province of Gallia Belgica, later into the Germania Superior and finally into the Diocletian province of Maxima Sequanorum, the former territories of the Helvetii and their inhabitants were as thoroughly romanised as the rest of Gaul.
### The rising of 68/69 AD {#the_rising_of_6869_ad}
What seems to have been the last action of the Helvetii as a tribal entity happened shortly after the death of emperor Nero in 68 AD. Like the other Gallic tribes, the Helvetii were organised as a *civitas*; they even retained their traditional grouping into four *pagi* and enjoyed a certain inner autonomy, including the defence of certain strongholds by their own troops. In the civil war which followed Nero\'s death, the *civitas Helvetiorum* supported Galba; unaware of his death, they refused to accept the authority of his rival, Vitellius. The Legio XXI Rapax, stationed in Vindonissa and favouring Vitellius, stole the pay of a Helvetian garrison, which prompted the Helvetians to intercept Vitellian messengers and detain a Roman detachment. Aulus Caecina Alienus, a former supporter of Galba who was now at the head of a Vitellian invasion of Italy, launched a massive punitive campaign, crushing the Helvetii under their commander Claudius Severus and routing the remnants of their forces at Mount Vocetius, killing and enslaving thousands. The capital Aventicum surrendered, and Julius Alpinus, head of what was now seen as a Helvetian uprising, was executed. In spite of the extensive damage and devastations the *civitas* had already sustained, according to Tacitus the Helvetii were saved from total annihilation owing to the pleas of one Claudius Cossus, a Helvetian envoy to Vitellius, and, as Tacitus puts it, \"of well-known eloquence\".
| 443 |
Helvetii
| 5 |
13,870 |
# Helvetii
## Legacy
Roman occupation in the aftermath of the Gallic Wars had pacified the Celtic-Germanic contact zone along the Rhine. The Suebi and Marcomanni who under Ariovistus had planned to invade Gaul were pushed back beyond the Black Forest, where they amalgamated into the future Alemanni. The Romans allowed Germanic tribes such as the Ubii, Triboci, Nemetes and Vangiones to settle in the deserted areas left of the Rhine. On the right bank of the Upper Rhine, which according to the testimony of Tacitus (*Germania* 28) had formerly also been occupied by the Helvetians, both the historical and archaeological records are sparse. Ptolemy (2.4.11) in the 2nd century uses the term *Eremus Helvetiorum* (also rendered *Heremus Helvetiorum*) \"desolation of the Helvetians\" to refer to this area (largely corresponding to modern Baden). The term was adopted by Aegidius Tschudi in the 16th century, and remains in use in modern historiography (German: *Helvetier-Einöde*). It has been proposed that the area inhabited by the Helvetians had extended beyond the Swiss plateau, far into what is now Baden-Württemberg, but had been displaced in the course of the Cimbrian War, some two generations prior to Caesar\'s invasion of Gaul.
The Swiss plateau was gradually romanized during the 1st to 3rd centuries. The principal Roman settlements were the cities of Iulia Equestris (Nyon), Aventicum (Avenches), Augusta Raurica (Augst) and Vindonissa (Windisch). Evidence has also been found of almost twenty Roman villages (*vici*) and hundreds of villas.
In the course of Romanization, the Celtic polytheism of the Helvetians was syncretized with Roman religion. The Celtic deities came to be worshiped under the names of their Roman counterparts, and Roman gods acquired the names of local gods, such as *Mars Caturix*, *Mercurius Cissonius* and *Jupiter Poeninus*. A major cultic center of Gallo-Roman religion, consisting of eight chapels or small temples, was found in Allmendingen near Thun. Deities worshipped at the site included Mars (presumably in lieu of Caturix) and Rosmerta as well as Mithras.
Although the Gaulish language had mostly been ousted by Latin by the 3rd century, many Celtic toponyms have survived in Switzerland. Of the ten largest present-day Swiss cities, at least six have Celtic placename etymologies, and most major Swiss rivers have either Celtic or pre-Celtic names.
The order and prosperity of the *Pax Romana* ended with the Crisis of the Third Century. In 260, when the Gallic Empire briefly seceded from Rome, emperor Gallienus withdrew the legions from the Rhine to fight the usurper Ingenuus, allowing the Alemanni to invade the Swiss plateau. There, cities, villages and most *villae* were raided or sacked by marauding bands. The numerous caches of coins recovered from the period between 250 and 280 attest to the severity of the crisis.
The Helvetii were re-discovered as the forebears of the Swiss in the early historiography of Switzerland, in the late 15th to early 16th century. Their name was adopted as the Latin equivalent of the designation *Switzer*, and the Swiss Confederacy was given the Latin name of *Republica Helvetiorum*. The name of the national personification of Switzerland, *Helvetia*, and the country\'s contemporary Neo-Latin name, *Confoederatio Helvetica* (abbreviated CH), are derived from this tradition.
In 2015, the star 51 Pegasi, the first main-sequence star found to have an exoplanet, was named Helvetios after the Helvetii as part of the IAU\'s NameExoWorlds contest.
## Celtic oppida in Switzerland {#celtic_oppida_in_switzerland}
The distribution of La Tène culture burials in Switzerland indicates that the Swiss plateau between Lausanne and Winterthur was relatively densely populated. Settlement centres existed in the Aare valley between Thun and Bern, and between Lake Zurich and the river Reuss. The Valais and the regions around Bellinzona and Lugano also seem to have been well-populated; however, those lay outside the Helvetian borders.
Almost all the Helvetic *oppida* were built in the vicinity of the larger rivers of the Swiss midlands. Not all of them existed at the same time. For most of them, we do not have any idea as to what their Gaulish names might have been, with one or two possible exceptions. Where a pre-Roman name is preserved, it is added in brackets. Those marked with an asterisk (\*) were most likely occupied by neighbouring tribes (Raurici, Veragri, etc.) rather than the Helvetii
| 706 |
Helvetii
| 6 |
13,873 |
# Halakha
Halakha LeMoshe MiSinai}} `{{Judaism|law}}`{=mediawiki} ***Halakha*** (`{{IPAc-en|h|ɑː|ˈ|l|ɔː|x|ə}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|hah|LAW|khə}}`{=mediawiki}; *translit=hălāḵā*, `{{small|[[Sephardi Hebrew|Sephardic]]:}}`{=mediawiki} `{{IPA|he|halaˈχa|}}`{=mediawiki}), also transliterated as ***halacha***, ***halakhah***, and ***halocho*** (`{{small|[[Ashkenazi Hebrew|Ashkenazic]]:}}`{=mediawiki} `{{IPA|he|haˈlɔχɔ|}}`{=mediawiki}), is the collective body of Jewish religious laws that are derived from the Written and Oral Torah. *Halakha* is based on biblical commandments (*mitzvot*), subsequent Talmudic and rabbinic laws, and the customs and traditions which were compiled in the many books such as the *Shulchan Aruch* or *Mishneh Torah*. *Halakha* is often translated as \"Jewish law\", although a more literal translation might be \"the way to behave\" or \"the way of walking\". The word is derived from the root, which means \"to behave\" (also \"to go\" or \"to walk\"). *Halakha* not only guides religious practices and beliefs; it also guides numerous aspects of day-to-day life.
Historically, widespread observance of the laws of the Torah is first in evidence beginning in the second century BCE, and some say that the first evidence was even earlier. In the Jewish diaspora, *halakha* served many Jewish communities as an enforceable avenue of law -- both civil and religious, since no differentiation of them exists in classical Judaism. Since the Jewish Enlightenment (*Haskalah*) and Jewish emancipation, some have come to view the *halakha* as less binding in day-to-day life, because it relies on rabbinic interpretation, as opposed to the authoritative, canonical text which is recorded in the Hebrew Bible. Under contemporary Israeli law, certain areas of Israeli family and personal status law are, for Jews, under the authority of the rabbinic courts, so they are treated according to *halakha*. Some minor differences in *halakha* are found among Ashkenazi Jews, Mizrahi Jews, Sephardi Jews, Yemenite, Ethiopian and other Jewish communities which historically lived in isolation.
| 282 |
Halakha
| 0 |
13,873 |
# Halakha
## Etymology and terminology {#etymology_and_terminology}
thumb\|right\|upright=1.35\|A full set of the Babylonian Talmud The word *halakha* is derived from the Hebrew root *halakh* -- \"to walk\" or \"to go\". Taken literally, therefore, *halakha* translates as \"the way to walk\", rather than \"law\". The word *halakha* refers to the corpus of rabbinic legal texts, or to the overall system of religious law. The term may also be related to Akkadian `{{transliteration|akk|ilku}}`{=mediawiki}, a property tax, rendered in Aramaic as `{{transliteration|arc|halakh}}`{=mediawiki}, designating one or several obligations. It may be descended from hypothetical reconstructed Proto-Semitic root *\*halakh-* meaning \"to go\", which also has descendants in Akkadian, Arabic, Aramaic, and Ugaritic.
*Halakha* is often contrasted with *aggadah* (\"the telling\"), the diverse corpus of rabbinic exegetical, narrative, philosophical, mystical, and other \"non-legal\" texts. At the same time, since writers of *halakha* may draw upon the aggadic and even mystical literature, a dynamic interchange occurs between the genres. *Halakha* also does not include the parts of the Torah not related to commandments.
*Halakha* constitutes the practical application of the 613 *mitzvot* (\"commandments\") in the Torah, as developed through discussion and debate in the classical rabbinic literature, especially the Mishnah and the Talmud (the \"Oral Torah\"), and as codified in the *Mishneh Torah* and *Shulchan Aruch*. Because *halakha* is developed and applied by various halakhic authorities rather than one sole \"official voice\", different individuals and communities may well have different answers to halakhic questions. With few exceptions, controversies are not settled through authoritative structures because during the Jewish diaspora, Jews lacked a single judicial hierarchy or appellate review process for *halakha*.
According to some scholars, the words *halakha* and sharia both mean literally \"the path to follow\". The fiqh literature parallels rabbinical law developed in the Talmud, with fatwas being analogous to rabbinic *responsa*.
| 297 |
Halakha
| 1 |
13,873 |
# Halakha
## Commandments (mitzvot) {#commandments_mitzvot}
According to the Talmud (*Tractate Makot*), 613 *mitzvot* are in the Torah, 248 positive (\"thou shalt\") *mitzvot* and 365 negative (\"thou shalt not\") *mitzvot*, supplemented by seven *mitzvot* legislated by the rabbis of antiquity. Currently, many of the 613 commandments cannot be performed until the building of the Temple in Jerusalem and the universal resettlement of the Jewish people in the Land of Israel by the Messiah. According to one count, only 369 can be kept, meaning that 40% of mitzvot are not possible to perform. Of these 369, 77 of these are positive mtizvot and 194 are negative.
Rabbinic Judaism divides laws into categories:
- The Law of Moses which are believed to have been revealed by God to the Israelites at biblical Mount Sinai. These laws are composed of the following:
- The Written Torah, laws written in the Hebrew Bible.
- The Oral Torah, laws believed to have been transmitted orally prior to their later compilation in texts such as the Mishnah, Talmud, and rabbinic codes.
- Laws of human origin, including rabbinic decrees, interpretations, customs, etc.
This division between revealed and rabbinic commandments may influence the importance of a rule, its enforcement and the nature of its ongoing interpretation. Halakhic authorities may disagree on which laws fall into which categories or the circumstances (if any) under which prior rabbinic rulings can be re-examined by contemporary rabbis, but all Halakhic Jews hold that both categories exist and that the first category is immutable, with exceptions only for life-saving and similar emergency circumstances.
A second classical distinction is between the Written Law, laws written in the Hebrew Bible, and the Oral Law, laws which are believed to have been transmitted orally prior to their later compilation in texts such as the Mishnah, Talmud, and rabbinic codes.
Commandments are divided into positive and negative commands, which are treated differently in terms of divine and human punishment. Positive commandments *require* an action to be performed and are considered to bring the performer closer to God. Negative commandments (traditionally 365 in number) *forbid* a specific action, and violations create a distance from God.
A further division is made between *chukim* (\"decrees\" -- laws without obvious explanation, such as *shatnez*, the law prohibiting wearing clothing made of mixtures of linen and wool), *mishpatim* (\"judgements\" -- laws with obvious social implications) and *eduyot* (\"testimonies\" or \"commemorations\", such as the Shabbat and holidays). Through the ages, various rabbinical authorities have classified some of the 613 commandments in many ways.
A different approach divides the laws into a different set of categories:
- Laws in relation to God (*bein adam laMakom*, `{{abbr|lit.|literally}}`{=mediawiki} \"between a person and the Place\"), and
- Laws about relations with other people (*bein adam le-chavero*, \"between a person and his friend\").
| 466 |
Halakha
| 2 |
13,873 |
# Halakha
## Views today {#views_today}
Orthodox Judaism holds that *halakha* is divine law laid down in the Torah, rabbinical laws, rabbinical decrees, and customs combined. The rabbis, who made many additions and interpretations of Jewish law, did so only in accordance with regulations they believed, as Orthodox Jews still believe, were given for this purpose to Moses on Mount Sinai.
Conservative Judaism holds that *halakha* is normative and binding and is developed as a partnership between people and God based on the Sinaitic Torah. While there is a wide variety of Conservative views, a common belief is that *halakha* is, and has always been, an evolving process subject to interpretation by rabbis in every time period.
Reconstructionist Judaism asserts that *halakha* is normative and binding; however, it also views *halakha* as an evolving concept. The traditional halakhic system, according to this perspective, cannot produce a code of conduct that is meaningful and acceptable to the majority of contemporary Jews. Reconstructionism\'s founder, Rabbi Mordecai Kaplan, believed that \"Jewish life \[is\] meaningless without Jewish law.\" One of the planks of the Society for the Jewish Renascence, of which Kaplan was a founder, stated: \"We accept the halakha, which is rooted in the Talmud, as the norm of Jewish life, availing ourselves, at the same time, of the method implicit therein to interpret and develop the body of Jewish Law in accordance with the actual conditions and spiritual needs of modern life.\"
Reform Judaism holds that modern views of how the Torah and rabbinic law developed imply that the body of rabbinic Jewish law is no longer normative (seen as binding) on Jews today. Those in the \"traditionalist\" wing believe that the *halakha* represents a personal starting point, holding that each Jew is obligated to interpret the Torah, Talmud, and other Jewish works for themselves, and this interpretation will create separate commandments for each person. Those in the liberal and classical wings of Reform believe that in this day and era, most Jewish religious rituals are no longer necessary, and many hold that following most Jewish laws is actually counter-productive. They propose that Judaism has entered a phase of ethical monotheism and that the laws of Judaism are only remnants of an earlier stage of religious evolution and need not be followed. This is considered wrong, and even heretical, by Orthodox and Conservative Judaism.
Humanistic Jews value the Torah as a historical, political, and sociological text written by their ancestors. They do not believe \"that every word of the Torah is true, or even morally correct, just because the Torah is old\". The Torah is both disagreed with and questioned. Humanistic Jews believe that the entire Jewish experience, and not only the Torah, should be studied as a source for Jewish behavior and ethical values.
Some Jews believe that gentiles are bound by a subset of *halakha* called the Seven Laws of Noah, also referred to as the Noahide Laws. According to the Talmud, they are a set of imperatives given by God to the \"children of Noah\" -- that is, all of humanity.
| 512 |
Halakha
| 3 |
13,873 |
# Halakha
## Views today {#views_today}
### Flexibility
Despite its internal rigidity, *halakha* has a degree of flexibility in finding solutions to modern problems not explicitly mentioned in the Torah. From the very beginnings of Rabbinic Judaism, halakhic inquiry allowed for a \"sense of continuity between past and present, a self-evident trust that their pattern of life and belief now conformed to the sacred patterns and beliefs presented by scripture and tradition\". According to an analysis by Jewish scholar Jeffrey Rubenstein of Michael Berger\'s book *Rabbinic Authority*, the authority that rabbis hold \"derives not from the institutional or personal authority of the sages but from a *communal* decision to recognize that authority, much as a community recognizes a certain judicial system to resolve its disputes and interpret its laws.\" Given this covenantal relationship, rabbis are charged with connecting their contemporary community with the traditions and precedents of the past.
When presented with contemporary issues, rabbis go through a halakhic process to find an answer. The classical approach has permitted new rulings regarding modern technology. For example, some of these rulings guide Jewish observers about the proper use of electricity on the Sabbath and holidays. Often, as to the applicability of the law in any given situation, the proviso is to \"consult your local rabbi or posek\". This notion lends rabbis a certain degree of local authority; however, for more complex questions, the issue is passed on to higher rabbis, who will then issue a *teshuva*, which is a *responsum* that is binding. Indeed, rabbis will continuously issue different opinions and will constantly review each other\'s work so as to maintain the truest sense of *halakha*. This process allows rabbis to maintain a connection of traditional Jewish law to modern life. Of course, the degree of flexibility depends on the sect of Judaism, with Reform being the most flexible, Conservative somewhat in the middle, and Orthodox being much more stringent and rigid. Modern critics, however, have charged that with the rise of movements that challenge the \"divine\" authority of *halakha*, traditional Jews have greater reluctance to change not only the laws themselves but also other customs and habits than traditional Rabbinical Judaism did before the advent of Reform in the 19th century.
| 371 |
Halakha
| 4 |
13,873 |
# Halakha
## Views today {#views_today}
### Denominational approaches {#denominational_approaches}
#### Orthodox Judaism {#orthodox_judaism}
Orthodox Jews believe that *halakha* is a religious system whose core represents the revealed will of God. Although Orthodox Judaism acknowledges that rabbis have made many decisions and decrees regarding Jewish Law where the written Torah itself is nonspecific, they did so only in accordance with regulations received by Moses on Mount Sinai (see `{{bibleverse|Deuteronomy|5:8–13}}`{=mediawiki}). These regulations were transmitted orally until shortly after the destruction of the Second Temple. They were then recorded in the Mishnah, and explained in the Talmud and commentaries throughout history up until the present day. Orthodox Judaism believes that subsequent interpretations have been derived with the utmost accuracy and care. The most widely accepted codes of Jewish law are known as Mishneh Torah and the *Shulchan Aruch*.
Orthodox Judaism has a range of opinions on the circumstances and extent to which change is permissible. Haredi Jews generally hold that even *minhagim* (customs) must be retained, and existing precedents cannot be reconsidered. Modern Orthodox authorities are more inclined to permit limited changes in customs and some reconsideration of precedent.
Despite the Orthodox views that *halakha* was given at Sinai, Orthodox thought (and especially modern Orthodox thought) encourages debate, allows for disagreement, and encourages rabbis to enact decisions based on contemporary needs. Rabbi Moshe Feinstein says in his introduction to his collection of responsa that a rabbi who studies the texts carefully is required to provide a halakhic decision. That decision is considered to be a true teaching, even if it is not the true teaching in according to the heavens. For instance, Rabbi Joseph B. Soloveitchik believes that the job of a halakhic decisor is to apply *halakha* − which exists in an ideal realm−to people\'s lived experiences. Moshe Shmuel Glasner, the chief rabbi of Cluj (*Klausenberg* in German or *קלויזנבורג* in Yiddish) stated that the Oral Torah was an oral tradition by design, to allow for the creative application of halakha to each time period, and even enabling halakha to evolve. He writes:
#### Conservative Judaism {#conservative_judaism}
thumb\|upright=1.2\|A mixed-gender, egalitarian Conservative service at Robinson\'s Arch, Western Wall The view held by Conservative Judaism is that the Torah is not the word of God in a literal sense. However, the Torah is still held as mankind\'s record of its understanding of God\'s revelation, and thus still has divine authority. Therefore, *halakha* is still seen as binding. Conservative Jews use modern methods of historical study to learn how Jewish law has changed over time, and are, in some cases, willing to change Jewish law in the present.
A key practical difference between Conservative and Orthodox approaches is that Conservative Judaism holds that its rabbinical body\'s powers are not limited to reconsidering later precedents based on earlier sources, but the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards (CJLS) is empowered to override Biblical and Taanitic prohibitions by *takkanah* (decree) when perceived to be inconsistent with modern requirements or views of ethics. The CJLS has used this power on a number of occasions, most famously in the \"driving teshuva\", which says that if someone is unable to walk to any synagogue on the Sabbath, and their commitment to observance is so loose that not attending synagogue may lead them to drop it altogether, their rabbi may give them a dispensation to drive there and back; and more recently in its decision prohibiting the taking of evidence on *mamzer* status on the grounds that implementing such a status is immoral. The CJLS has also held that the Talmudic concept of *Kavod HaBriyot* permits lifting rabbinic decrees (as distinct from carving narrow exceptions) on grounds of human dignity, and used this principle in a December 2006 opinion lifting all rabbinic prohibitions on homosexual conduct (the opinion held that only male-male anal sex was forbidden by the Bible and that this remained prohibited). Conservative Judaism also made a number of changes to the role of women in Judaism including counting women in a minyan, permitting women to chant from the Torah, and ordaining women as rabbis.
The Conservative approach to halakhic interpretation can be seen in the CJLS\'s acceptance of Rabbi Elie Kaplan Spitz\'s responsum decreeing the biblical category of *mamzer* as \"inoperative.\" The CJLS adopted the responsum\'s view that the \"morality which we learn through the larger, unfolding narrative of our tradition\" informs the application of Mosaic law. The responsum cited several examples of how the rabbinic sages declined to enforce punishments explicitly mandated by Torah law. The examples include the trial of the accused adulteress (*sotah*), the \"law of breaking the neck of the heifer,\" and the application of the death penalty for the \"rebellious child.\" Kaplan Spitz argues that the punishment of the *mamzer* has been effectively inoperative for nearly two thousand years due to deliberate rabbinic inaction. Further he suggested that the rabbis have long regarded the punishment declared by the Torah as immoral, and came to the conclusion that no court should agree to hear testimony on *mamzerut*.
| 834 |
Halakha
| 5 |
13,873 |
# Halakha
## Codes of Jewish law {#codes_of_jewish_law}
The most important codifications of Jewish law include the following; for complementary discussion, see also History of responsa in Judaism.
- The Mishnah, composed by Judah haNasi, in 200 CE, as a basic outline of the state of the Oral Law in his time. This was the framework upon which the Talmud was based; the Talmud\'s dialectic analysis of the content of the Mishna (*gemara*; completed c. 500) became the basis for all later halakhic decisions and subsequent codes.
- Codifications by the Geonim of the halakhic material in the Talmud.
- An early work, *She\'iltot* (\"Questions\") by Ahai of Shabha (c. 752) discusses over 190 *mitzvot* -- exploring and addressing various questions on these. The *She\'iltot* was influential on both of the following, subsequent works.
- The first legal codex proper, *Halachot Pesukot* (\"Decided Laws\"), by Yehudai ben Nahman (c. 760), rearranges the Talmud passages in a structure manageable to the layman. (It was written in vernacular Aramaic, and subsequently translated into Hebrew as *Hilkhot Riu*.)
- *Halakhot Gedolot* (\"Great Law Book\"), by Simeon Kayyara, published two generations later (but possibly written c. 743 CE), contains extensive additional material, mainly from Responsa and Monographs of the Geonim, and is presented in a form that is closer to the original Talmud language and structure. (Probably since it was distributed, also, amongst the newly established Ashkenazi communities.)
- The Hilchot HaRif was written by the Rabbi Isaac Alfasi (1013--1103); it has summations of the legal material found in the Talmud. Alfasi transcribed the Talmud\'s halakhic conclusions verbatim, without the surrounding deliberation; he also excluded all aggadic (non-legal, and homiletic) matter. The *Hilchot* soon superseded the geonic codes, as it contained all the decisions and the laws then relevant, and additionally, served as an accessible Talmudic commentary; it has been printed with almost every subsequent edition of the Talmud.
- The Mishneh Torah by Maimonides (1135--1204). This work encompasses the full range of Talmudic law; it is organized and reformulated in a logical system -- in 14 books, 83 sections and 1000 chapters -- with each *halakha* stated clearly. The Mishneh Torah is very influential to this day, and several later works reproduce passages verbatim. It also includes a section on Metaphysics and fundamental beliefs. (Some claim this section draws heavily on Aristotelian science and metaphysics; others suggest that it is within the tradition of Saadia Gaon.) It is the main source of practical *halakha* for many Yemenite Jews -- mainly Baladi and Dor Daim -- as well as for a growing community referred to as *talmidei haRambam*.
- The work of *the Rosh*, Rabbi Asher ben Jehiel (1250?/1259?--1328), an abstract of the Talmud, concisely stating the final halakhic decision and quoting later authorities, notably Alfasi, Maimonides, and the Tosafists. This work superseded Rabbi Alfasi\'s and has been printed with almost every subsequent edition of the Talmud.
- The *Sefer Mitzvot Gadol* (The \"SeMaG\") of Rabbi Moses ben Jacob of Coucy (first half of the 13th century, Coucy, northern France). \"SeMaG\" is organised around the 365 negative and the 248 positive commandments, separately discussing each of them according to the Talmud (in light of the commentaries of Rashi and the Tosafot) and the other codes existent at the time. *Sefer Mitzvot Katan* (\"SeMaK\") by Isaac ben Joseph of Corbeil is an abridgement of the *SeMaG*, including additional practical *halakha*, as well as aggadic and ethical material.
- \"The Mordechai\" -- by Mordecai ben Hillel (d. Nuremberg 1298) -- serves both as a source of analysis, as well as of decided law. Mordechai considered about 350 halakhic authorities, and was widely influential, particularly amongst the Ashkenazi and Italian communities. Although organised around the *Hilchot* of *the Rif* (Rabbi Isaac Alfasi), it is, in fact, an independent work. It has been printed with every edition of the Talmud since 1482.
| 644 |
Halakha
| 6 |
13,873 |
# Halakha
## Codes of Jewish law {#codes_of_jewish_law}
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
- The Arba\'ah Turim (lit. \"The Four Columns\"; the *Tur*) by Rabbi Jacob ben Asher (1270--1343, Toledo, Spain). This work traces the *halakha* from the Torah text and the Talmud through the Rishonim, with the *Hilchot* of Alfasi as its starting point. Ben Asher followed Maimonides\'s precedent in arranging his work in a topical order, however, the *Tur* covers only those areas of Jewish law that were in force in the author\'s time. The code is divided into four main sections; almost all codes since this time have followed the *Tur*\'s arrangement of material.
- Orach Chayim (\"The Way of Life\"): worship and ritual observance in the home and synagogue, through the course of the day, the weekly sabbath and the festival cycle.
- Yoreh De\'ah (\"Teach Knowledge\"): assorted ritual instructions and prohibitions, dietary laws and regulations concerning menstrual impurity.
- Even Ha\'ezer (\"The Rock of the Helpmate\"): marriage, divorce and other issues in family law.
- Choshen Mishpat (\"The Breastplate of Judgement\"): The administration and adjudication of civil law.
- *Agur* (c. 1490) by Rabbi Jacob ben Judah Landau comprises principally an abridged presentation of the first and second parts of the *Tur*, emphasizing practice; it also excerpts other works, and includes Kabbalistic elements. The *Agur* was the first *sefer* to contain a *Haskama* (rabbinical approbation). It was influential on subsequent codes.
- The *Beit Yosef* and the *Shulchan Aruch* of Rabbi Yosef Karo (1488--1575). The *Beit Yosef* is a huge commentary on the *Tur* in which Rabbi Karo traces the development of each law from the Talmud through later rabbinical literature (examining 32 authorities, beginning with the Talmud and ending with the works of Rabbi Israel Isserlein). The *Shulchan Aruch* (literally \"set table\") is, in turn, a condensation of the *Beit Yosef* -- stating each ruling simply; this work follows the chapter divisions of the *Tur*. The *Shulchan Aruch*, together with its related commentaries, is considered by many to be the most authoritative compilation of *halakha* since the Talmud. In writing the *Shulchan Aruch*, Rabbi Karo based his rulings on three authorities -- Maimonides, Asher ben Jehiel (Rosh), and Isaac Alfasi (Rif); he considered *the Mordechai* in inconclusive cases. Sephardic Jews, generally, refer to the *Shulchan Aruch* as the basis for their daily practice.
- The works of Rabbi Moshe Isserles (\"Rema\"; Kraków, Poland, 1525 to 1572). Isserles noted that the *Shulchan Aruch* was based on the Sephardic tradition, and he created a series of glosses to be appended to the text of the Shulkhan Aruch for cases where Sephardi and Ashkenazi customs differed (based on the works of Yaakov Moelin, Israel Isserlein, and Israel Bruna). The glosses are called *ha-Mapah* (\"the Tablecloth\"). His comments are now incorporated into the body of all printed editions of the *Shulchan Aruch*, typeset in a different script; today, \"Shulchan Aruch\" refers to the combined work of Karo and Isserles. Isserles\' *Darkhei Moshe* is similarly a commentary on the *Tur* and the *Beit Yosef*.
- The *Levush Malkhut* (\"Levush\") of Rabbi Mordecai Yoffe (c. 1530--1612). A ten-volume work, five discussing *halakha* at a level \"midway between the two extremes: the lengthy *Beit Yosef* of Karo on the one hand, and on the other Karo\'s *Shulchan Aruch* together with the *Mappah* of Isserles, which is too brief\", that particularly stresses the customs and practices of the Jews of Eastern Europe. The Levush was exceptional among the codes, in that it treated certain *Halakhot* from a Kabbalistic standpoint.
- The *Shulchan Aruch HaRav* of Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi (c. 1800) was an attempt to re-codify the law as it stood at that time -- incorporating commentaries on the *Shulchan Aruch*, and subsequent responsa -- and thus stating the decided *halakha*, as well as the underlying reasoning. The work was written partly so that laymen would be able to study Jewish law. Unfortunately, most of the work was lost in a fire prior to publication. It is the basis of practice for Chabad-Lubavitch and other Hasidic groups and is quoted as authoritative by many subsequent works, Hasidic and non-Hasidic alike.
- Works structured directly on the *Shulchan Aruch*, providing analysis in light of Acharonic material and codes:
- The Mishnah Berurah of Rabbi Yisroel Meir ha-Kohen, (the \"Chofetz Chaim\", Poland, 1838--1933) is a commentary on the \"Orach Chayim\" section of the *Shulchan Aruch*, discussing the application of each *halakha* in light of all subsequent Acharonic decisions. It has become the authoritative halakhic guide for much of Orthodox Ashkenazic Jewry in the postwar period.
- Aruch HaShulchan by Rabbi Yechiel Michel Epstein (1829--1888) is a scholarly analysis of *halakha* through the perspective of the major Rishonim. The work follows the structure of the *Tur* and the *Shulchan Aruch*; rules dealing with vows, agriculture, and ritual purity, are discussed in a second work known as *Aruch HaShulchan he\'Atid*.
- Kaf HaChaim on Orach Chayim and parts of Yoreh De\'ah, by the Sephardi sage Yaakov Chaim Sofer (Baghdad and Jerusalem, 1870--1939) is similar in scope, authority and approach to the Mishnah Berurah. This work also surveys the views of many kabbalistic sages (particularly Isaac Luria), when these impact the Halakha.
- Yalkut Yosef, by Rabbi Yitzhak Yosef, is a voluminous, widely cited and contemporary work of *halakha*, based on the rulings of Rabbi Ovadia Yosef (1920--2013).
- *Piskei T\'shuvot*, by Rabbi Ben-Zion Simcha Isaac Rabinowitz, is a commentary on *Orach Chayim* and the *Mishna Berura*, drawing on contemporary *Acharonim*. Generally oriented towards the decrees of the Hassidic *poskim*, it includes practical solutions and instructions for modern Halakhic issues. *P\'sakim U\'T\'shuvot* by Rabbi Aharon Aryeh Katz (Rabinowitz\'s son in law) is a similar work on *Yoreh De\'ah*.
- Layman-oriented works of *halakha*:
- Thesouro dos Dinim (\"Treasury of religious rules\") by Menasseh Ben Israel (1604--1657) is a reconstituted version of the Shulkhan Arukh, written in Portuguese with the explicit purpose of helping *conversos* from Iberia reintegrate into halakhic Judaism.
- The *Kitzur Shulchan Aruch* of Rabbi Shlomo Ganzfried (Hungary 1804--1886), a \"digest\", covering applicable Halakha from all four sections of *Shulchan Aruch*, and reflecting the very strict Hungarian customs of the 19th century. It became immensely popular after its publication due to its simplicity, and is still popular in Orthodox Judaism as a framework for study, if not always for practice. This work is not considered binding in the same way as the Mishneh Torah or *Shulchan Aruch*.
- Chayei Adam and Chochmat Adam by Avraham Danzig (Poland, 1748--1820) are similar Ashkenazi works; the first covers *Orach Chaim*, the second in large *Yoreh De\'ah*, as well as laws from *Even Ha\'ezer* and *Choshen Mishpat* pertinent to everyday life.
- The Ben Ish Chai by Yosef Chaim (Baghdad, 1832--1909) is a collection of the laws on everyday life -- parallel in scope to the *Kitzur Shulchan Aruch* -- interspersed with mystical insights and customs, addressed to the masses and arranged by the weekly Torah portion. Its wide circulation and coverage has seen it become a standard reference work in Sephardi Halakha.
- Contemporary \"series\":
- Peninei Halakha by Rabbi Eliezer Melamed. Fifteen volumes thus far, covering a wide range of subjects, from Shabbat to organ donations, and in addition to clearly posing the practical law -- reflecting the customs of various communities -- also discusses the spiritual foundations of the Halakhot. It is widely studied in the Religious Zionist community.
- *Tzurba M'Rabanan* by Rabbi Benzion Algazi. Six volumes covering 300 topics from all areas of the *Shulchan Aruch*, \"from the Talmudic source through modern-day halachic application\", similarly studied in the Religious Zionist community (and outside Israel, through Mizrachi in numerous Modern Orthodox communities; 15 bilingual translated volumes).
- *Nitei Gavriel* by Rabbi Gavriel Zinner. Thirty volumes on the entire spectrum of topics in *halachah*, known for addressing situations not commonly brought in other works, and for delineating the varying approaches amongst the *Hasidic* branches; for both reasons they are often reprinted.
- *Temimei Haderech* (\"A Guide to Jewish Religious Practice\") by Rabbi Isaac Klein with contributions from the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Rabbinical Assembly. This scholarly work is based on the previous traditional law codes, but written from a Conservative Jewish point of view, and not accepted among Orthodox Jews
| 1,378 |
Halakha
| 7 |
13,879 |
# Henry J. Heinz
**Henry John Heinz** (October 11, 1844 -- May 14, 1919) was an American entrepreneur who co-founded the H. J. Heinz Company of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
He was involved in the passage of the 1906 Pure Food and Drug Act. Many of his descendants are known for philanthropy and involvement in politics and public affairs. His fortune became the basis for the Heinz Foundations.
## Early life {#early_life}
Henry John Heinz was born in Birmingham, Pennsylvania, to John Henry Heinz (1811--1891) and Anna Margaretha Schmidt (1822--1899). John Henry was born Johann Heinrich Heinz to parents Johann Georg and Charlotte Louisa (née Trump) Heinz in Kallstadt of the Palatinate, which at that time was part of the Kingdom of Bavaria. In 1840, John Henry emigrated to Birmingham, where he got a job making bricks and then met and married Anna in 1843, who herself had recently emigrated from `{{interlanguage link|Kruspis|de}}`{=mediawiki} (today a part of Haunetal), Hesse-Kassel. Then when Henry was five years old, his parents moved to Sharpsburg where Henry's father went into the brick making business for himself. Anna Schmidt was the daughter of a farmer and church administrator, Johann Adam Schmidt, and his wife Dorothea (Thiel) Schmidt. Anna came from Hesse-Kassel, which was a Reformed Protestant (Calvinist) territory, so she was raised in the Calvinist Christian faith. Anna\'s husband, John Heinz, was a Lutheran, and they raised and confirmed their son to that faith.
## H. J. Heinz Company {#h._j._heinz_company}
Henry John Heinz began packing foodstuffs on a small scale at Sharpsburg, Pennsylvania, in 1869. There, he founded Heinz Noble & Company with a friend, L. Clarence Noble, and started marketing bottled horseradish, soon followed by sauerkraut, vinegar, and pickles. The company went bankrupt in 1875. The following year, Heinz founded another company, F & J Heinz, with his brother John Heinz and a cousin, Frederick Heinz.
The company grew and, in 1888, Heinz bought out his other two partners and reorganized it as the H. J. Heinz Company, the name carried to the present day. The company was incorporated in 1905, with Heinz serving as its first president and retaining that position for the rest of his life.
The company\'s slogan, \"57 varieties,\" was introduced by Heinz in 1896, though by then, the company was selling more than 60 different products. Heinz said he chose \"5\" because it was his lucky number, while \"7\" was his wife\'s lucky number.
At the time of Heinz\'s death in Pittsburgh at the age of 74, the H. J. Heinz Company had more than 20 food processing plants and owned seed farms and container factories.
## Later life {#later_life}
Heinz led a successful lobbying effort in favor of the Pure Food and Drug Act in 1906. During World War I, he worked with the Food Administration. He was a director in many financial institutions, and was chairman of a committee to devise ways of protecting Pittsburgh from floods.
### Marriage and family {#marriage_and_family}
Heinz married Sarah Sloan Young on September 3, 1869. She was of Scots-Irish ancestry and had grown up in the Presbyterian Church. They had five children:
- Irene Edwilda Heinz-Given (1871--1956)
- Clarence Henry Heinz (1873--1920)
- Howard Covode Heinz (1877--1941)
- Robert Eugene Heinz (1882--1882, lived about 1 month)
- Clifford Sloan Heinz (1883--1935)
They were raised as Presbyterians.
### Religious faith {#religious_faith}
Later in life Heinz worshipped as a member of Methodist and Presbyterian churches, and worked closely with Baptists as well.
When Heinz visited England, his \"tourist stops\" included the graves of religious leaders John Bunyan, Isaac Watts, and John Wesley. He visited a chapel that Wesley founded, later writing that \"I felt I was upon holy ground.\" At the beginning of his will Heinz wrote: \"I desire to set forth, at the very beginning of this Will, as the most important item in it, a confession of my faith in Jesus Christ as my Savior.\"
## Death and legacy {#death_and_legacy}
Heinz died at his home on May 14, 1919, after contracting pneumonia. His funeral was at East Liberty Presbyterian Church. He was buried at Homewood Cemetery in Pittsburgh, in the Heinz Family Mausoleum.
A bronze statue of Heinz by Emil Fuchs was dedicated on October 11, 1924, at the Heinz Company building in Pittsburgh.
Heinz is the grandfather of H. J. Heinz II (1908--1987) the great-grandfather of U.S. Senator H. John Heinz III (1938--1991) of Pennsylvania (who was later buried in the same family mausoleum), and great-great grandfather of Henry John Heinz IV, André Thierstein Heinz and Christopher Drake Heinz.
Through his paternal grandmother, Charlotte Louisa Trump, he was a second cousin of Friedrich Trump, second cousin (once removed) of real estate magnate Fred Trump, and second cousin (twice removed) of 45th and 47th President of the United States, Donald Trump
| 798 |
Henry J. Heinz
| 0 |
13,889 |
# Percolozoa
The **Percolozoa** are a group of colourless, non-photosynthetic excavates, including many that can transform between amoeboid, flagellate, and cyst stages.
## Characteristics
Most Percolozoa are found as bacterivores in soil, fresh water and occasionally in the ocean. The only member of this group that is infectious to humans is *Naegleria fowleri*, the causative agent of the often fatal disease amoebic meningitis. The group is closely related to the Euglenozoa, and share with them the unusual characteristic of having mitochondria with discoid cristae. The presence of a ventral feeding groove in the flagellate stage, as well as other features, suggests that they are part of the Excavata group.
The amoeboid stage is roughly cylindrical, typically around 20--40 μm in length. They are traditionally considered lobose amoebae, but are not related to the others, and unlike them, do not form true lobose pseudopods. Instead, they advance by eruptive waves, where hemispherical bulges appear from the front margin of the cell, which is clear. The flagellate stage is slightly smaller, with two or four anterior flagella anterior to the feeding groove.
Usually, the amoeboid form is taken when food is plentiful, and the flagellate form is used for rapid locomotion. However, not all members are able to assume both forms. The genera *Percolomonas*, *Lyromonas*, and *Psalteriomonas* are known only as flagellates, while *Vahlkampfia*, *Pseudovahlkampfia*, and most acrasids do not have flagellate stages. As mentioned above, under unfavourable conditions, the acrasids aggregate to form sporangia. These are superficially similar to the sporangia of the dictyostelids, but the amoebae only aggregate as individuals or in small groups and do not die to form the stalk.
center\|thumb\|upright=2\|`{{center|'''Representation of a heterolobosean'''}}`{=mediawiki}
| 276 |
Percolozoa
| 0 |
13,889 |
# Percolozoa
## Terminology and classification {#terminology_and_classification}
These are collectively referred to as schizopyrenids, amoeboflagellates, or vahlkampfids. They also include the acrasids, a group of social amoebae that aggregate to form sporangia. The entire group is usually called the **Heterolobosea**, but this may be restricted to members with amoeboid stages.
One Heterolobosea classification system is:
- Order Schizopyrenida
- Family Vahlkampfiidae
- Family Gruberellidae
- Order Acrasida
- Family Acrasidae
*Pleurostomum flabellatum* has recently been added to Heterolobosea.
### Phylogeny
Based on the cladogram from Tolweb and updated by Pánek and Čepička 2014.
### Taxonomy
Phylum Percolozoa Cavalier-Smith 1991
- Subphylum Pharyngomonada Cavalier-Smith 1991
- Class Pharyngomonadea Cavalier-Smith 2008 \[Macropharyngomonadidea\]
- Order Pharyngomonadida Cavalier-Smith 2008 \[Macropharyngomonadida\]
- Family Pharyngomonadidae Cavalier-Smith 2008 \[Macropharyngomonadidae Cavalier-Smith 2008\]
- Genus *Pharyngomonas* Cavalier-Smith 2008 \[*Macropharyngomonas* nomen nudum\]
- Subphylum Tetramitia Cavalier-Smith 1993 em. Cavalier-Smith 2008
- Genus ?*Costiopsis* Senn 1900
- Genus ?*Hoehnemastix* Skvortzov 1974
- Genus ?*Planiosculum* Szabados 1948
- Genus ?*Protomyxomyces* Cunningham 1881
- Genus ?*Protonaegleria* Michel & Raether 1985
- Genus ?*Pseudovahlkampfia* Sawyer 1980
- Genus ?*Schizamoeba* Davis 1926
- Genus ?*Tetramastigamoeba* Singh & Hanumaiah 1977
- Genus ?*Trimastigamoeba* Whitmore 1911
- Genus ?*Wasielewskia* Hartmann & Schuessler 1913
- Family Euhyperamoebidae Goodkov & Seravin 1984 \[Hyperamoebidae Goodkov, Seravin & Railkin 1982\]
- Genus *Euhyperamoeba* Goodkov & Seravin 1984 \[*Hyperamoeba* Goodkov, Seravin & Railkin 1982 non Alexeieff 1923\]
- Class Lunosea Cavalier-Smith 2021
- Order Selenaionida Hanousková, Táborský & Čepička 2018
- Family Selenaionidae Hanousková, Táborský & Čepička 2018
- Genus *Selenaion* Park, De Jonckheere & Simpson 2012
- Genus *Dactylomonas* Hanousková, Táborský & Čepička 2018
- Class Neovahlkampfiea Cavalier-Smith 2021
- Order Neovahlkampfiida Cavalier-Smith 2021
- Family Neovahlkampfiidae Hanousková, Táborský & Čepička 2018
- Genus *Neovahlkampfia* Brown & de Jonckheere 1999
- Class Lyromonadea Cavalier-Smith 1993
- Order Lyromonadida Cavalier-Smith 1993
- Family Gruberellidae Page & Blanton 1985
- Genus *Gruberella* Page 1984 non Gruber 1889 non Corliss 1960
- Genus *Oramoeba* de Jonckheere et al. 2011
- Genus *Stachyamoeba* Page 1975
- Genus *Vrihiamoeba* Murase, Kawasak & Jonckheere 2010
- Family Paravahlkampfiidae
- Genus *Fumarolamoeba* De Jonckheere, Murase & Opperdoes 2011
- Genus *Parafumarolamoeba* Geisen et al. 2015
- Genus *Paravahlkampfia* Brown & de Jonckheere 1999
- Family Plaesiobystridae
- Genus *Euplaesiobystra* Park et al. 2009
- Genus *Heteramoeba* Droop 1962
- Genus *Pernina* El Kadiri, Joyon & Pussard 1992
- Family Psalteriomonadidae Cavalier-Smith 1993 \[Lyromonadidae Cavalier-Smith 1993\]
- Genus *Harpagon* Pánek et al. 2012
- Genus *Monopylocystis* O\'Kelly et al. 2003
- Genus *Psalteriomonas* Broers et al. 1990 \[*Lyromonas* Cavalier-Smith 1993\]
- Genus *Pseudoharpagon* Pánek et al. 2012
- Genus *Pseudomastigamoeba*
- Genus *Sawyeria* O\'Kelly et al. 2003
- Class Heterolobosea Page & Blanton 1985
- Order Acrasida Schröter 1886
- Family Acrasidae van Tieghem 1880 ex Hartog 1906
- Genus *Acrasis* van Tieghem 1880
- Genus *Allovahlkampfia* Walochnik & Mulec 2009
- Genus *Pocheina* Loeblich & Tappan 1961 \[*Guttulina* Cienkowski 1873 non D\'Orbigny 1839\]
- Genus *Solumitrus* Wang et al. 2011
- Order Naegleriida Starobogatov 1980
- Genus *Marinamoeba* De Jonckheere et al. 2009
- Family Tulamoebidae Kirby et al. 2015
- Genus *Aurem* Jhin & Park 2018
- Genus *Pleurostomum* Namyslowski 1913
- Genus *Tulamoeba* Park et al. 2009
- Family Naegleriidae Kudo 1954 \[Schizopyrenidae Singh 1951 ex Singh 1952; Bistadiidae Doflein 1916\]
- Genus *Naegleria* Aléxéieff 1912 \[*Adelphamoeba* Napolitano, Wall & Ganz 1970; *Didascalus* Singh 1952; *Schizopyrenus* Singh 1951 ex Singh 1952\]
- Genus *Willaertia* de Jonckheere et al. 1984
- Order Tetramitida Doweld 2001
- Family Vahlkampfiidae Jollos 1917 s.s.
- Genus *Tetramitus* Perty 1852 \[*Copromastix* Aragao 1916; *Learamoeba* Sawyer et al. 1998, *Paratetramitus* Darbyshire, Page & Goodfellow 1976, *Singhamoeba* Sawyer, Nerad & Munson 1992\]
- Genus *Vahlkampfia* Chatton & LaLung-Bonnaire 1912 \[*Guttulidium* Frenzel 1892\]
- Order Creneida Cavalier-Smith 2021
- Family Creneidae Pánek et al. 2014
- Genus *Creneis* Pánek et al. 2014
- Order Percolomonadida Cavalier-Smith 1993
- Family Barbeliidae Arndt 2023
- Genus *Barbelia* Arndt 2021
- Genus *Nonamonas* Hohlfeld, Meyer & Arndt 2023
- Family Lulidae Hohlfeld & Arndt 2023
- Genus *Lula* Arndt, Nitsche & Carduck 2021
- Family Percolomonadidae Cavalier-Smith 1993 \[Choanogasteraceae\]
- Genus *Percolomonas* Fenchel & Patterson 1986 \[*Choanogaster* Pochmann 1959\]
- Family Stephanopogonidae Corliss 1961
- Genus *Nakurumonas* Carduck, Nitsche & Arndt 2021
- Genus *Stephanopogon* Entz 1884
## History
The Heterolobosea were first defined by Page and Blanton in 1985 as a class of amoebae, and so only included those forms with amoeboid stages. Cavalier-Smith created the phylum Percolozoa for the extended group, together with the enigmatic flagellate *Stephanopogon*.
Cavalier-Smith maintained the Heterolobosea as a class for amoeboid forms. He has defined Percolozoa as \"Heterolobosea plus Percolatea classis nov
| 772 |
Percolozoa
| 1 |
13,893 |
# List of ships called HMS Hood
Three ships of the Royal Navy have been named **HMS *Hood*** after several members of the Hood family, who were notable naval officers:
- , a 91-gun second-rate ship of the line, originally laid down as HMS *Edgar*, but renamed in 1848 and launched in 1859. She was used for harbour service from 1872 and was sold in 1888
| 66 |
List of ships called HMS Hood
| 0 |
13,902 |
# Federation of Expellees
The **Federation of Expellees** (*Bund der Vertriebenen*; **BdV**) is a non-profit organization formed in West Germany on 27 October 1957 to represent the interests of German nationals of all ethnicities and foreign ethnic Germans and their families (usually naturalised as German nationals after 1949) who either fled their homes in parts of Central and Eastern Europe, or were forcibly expelled following World War II.
Since 2014 the president of the Federation has been Bernd Fabritius, who arrived in West Germany in 1984 as a Transylvanian Saxon refugee from Agnita, Socialist Republic of Romania, and who has since been elected as a Christian Social Union in Bavaria Member of the Bundestag.
## History
It is estimated that in the aftermath of World War II between 13 and 16 million ethnic Germans fled or were expelled from parts of Central and Eastern Europe, including the former eastern territories of Germany (parts of present-day Poland), the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Hungary, Croatia, Serbia (mostly from the Vojvodina region), the Kaliningrad Oblast of (now) Russia, hitherto USSR (in the immediate aftermath of the Second World War) and prior to this, the northern part of East Prussia, Lithuania, Romania and other East European countries.
### Charter of the German Expellees {#charter_of_the_german_expellees}
The Charter of the German Expellees (*Charta der deutschen Heimatvertriebenen*) of 5 August 1950, announced their belief in requiring that \"the right to the homeland is recognized and carried out as one of the fundamental rights of mankind given by God\", while renouncing revenge and retaliation in the face of the \"unending suffering\" (*unendliche Leid*) of the previous decade, and supporting the unified effort to rebuild Germany and Europe.
The charter has been criticised for avoiding mentioning Nazi atrocities of Second World War and Germans who were forced to emigrate due to Nazi repressions. Critics argue that the Charter presents the history of German people as starting from the expulsions, while ignoring events like the Holocaust.
Professor Micha Brumlik pointed out that one third of signatories were former devoted Nazis and many actively helped in realisation of Hitler\'s goals.
Ralph Giordano wrote in *Hamburger Abendblatt* \"the Charter doesn\'t contain a word about Hitler, Auschwitz and Buchenwald. Not to mention any sign of apologies for the suffering of the murdered people\", \"avoids mentioning the reasons for expulsions\" and called the document \"example of German art of crowding out the truth (\...) The fact that the charter completely ignores the reasons for the expulsions deprives it of any value\".
### German laws concerning the expellees {#german_laws_concerning_the_expellees}
Between 1953, when the Federal Expellee Law was passed, and 1991, the West German government passed several laws dealing with German expellees. The most notable of these is the \"Law of Return\" which granted German citizenship to any ethnic German. Several additions were later made to these laws.
The German Law of Return declared refugee status to be inheritable. According to the Federal Expellee Law, \"the spouse and the descendants\" of an expellee are to be treated as if they were expellees themselves, regardless of whether they had been personally displaced. The Federation of Expellees has steadily lobbied to preserve the inheritability clause.
### Formation of the Federation {#formation_of_the_federation}
The Federation of Expellees was formed on 27 October 1957 in West Germany. Before its founding, the *Bund der Heimatvertriebenen* (League of Expellees and Deprived of Rights), formed in 1950, represented the interests of displaced German expellees. Intriguingly, in its first few years, the league was more successful in West Germany than in East Germany.
### German reunification {#german_reunification}
Previous West German governments, especially those led by the Christian Democratic Union, had shown more rhetorical support for the territorial claims made on behalf of German refugees and expellees. Although the Social Democrats showed strong support for the expellees, especially under Kurt Schumacher and Erich Ollenhauer, Social Democrats in more recent decades have generally been less supportive -- and it was under Willy Brandt that West Germany recognized the Oder-Neisse line as the eastern German border with Poland under his policy of Ostpolitik. In reality, accepting the internationally recognized boundary made it more possible for eastern Germans to visit their lost homelands.
In 1989--1990 the West German government realized they had an opportunity to reunify the Federal Republic of Germany and the Soviet created German Democratic Republic. But they believed that if this were to be achieved, it had to be done quickly. One of the potential complications was the claim to the historical eastern territories of Germany; unless this was renounced, some foreign governments might not agree to German reunification. The West German government under the CDU accepted the 1990 Treaty on the Final Settlement With Respect to Germany (Two Plus Four Agreement), which officially re-established the sovereignty of both German states. A condition of this agreement was that Germany accept the post-World War II frontiers. Upon reunification in 1990, the constitution was amended to state that Germany\'s territory had reached its full extent. Article 146 was amended so that Article 23 of the current constitution could be used for reunification. Once the five \"reestablished federal states\" in the east had been united with the west, the Basic Law was amended again to show that *there were no other parts of Germany, which existed outside of the unified territory*, that had not acceded.
### 2000s
In 2000 the Federation of Expellees also initiated the formation of the Center Against Expulsions (*Zentrum gegen Vertreibungen*). Chairwoman of this Center is Erika Steinbach, who headed it together with former SPD politician Prof. Dr. Peter Glotz (died 2005).
Recently Erika Steinbach, the chair of the Federation of Expellees, has rejected any compensation claims. The vice president of the Federation Rudi Pawelka is however a chairman of the supervisory board of the Prussian Trust.
A European organisation for expellees has been formed --- EUFV --- headquartered in Trieste, Italy.
| 977 |
Federation of Expellees
| 0 |
13,902 |
# Federation of Expellees
## Organization
The expellees are organized in 21 regional associations *(Landsmannschaften)*, according to the areas of origin of its members, 16 state organizations *(Landesverbände)* according to their current residence, and 5 associate member organizations. It is the single representative federation for the approximately 15 million Germans who after fleeing, being expelled, evacuated or emigrating, found refuge in the Federal Republic of Germany. The Federation claims to have 1.3 million members (including non-displaced persons), and to be a political force of some influence in Germany. This figure was disputed in January 2010 by the German news service DDP, which reported an actual membership of 550,000. According to Erika Steinbach only 100,000 of the members contribute financially.
The federation helps its members to integrate into German society. Many of the members assist the societies of their place of birth.
### Presidents
From 1959 to 1964, the first president of the Federation was Hans Krüger, a former Nazi judge and activist. After the war Krüger was a West German politician of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU), was a member of parliament from 1957 to 1965, served as Federal Minister for Displaced Persons, Refugees and War Victims for 4 months in 1963--64 in the First Cabinet of Ludwig Erhard. He stepped down from cabinet and other positions in 1964 amid controversy about his war-time background. Krüger was succeeded as president by Wenzel Jaksch in 1964 who held the position until his untimely death in 1966.
- Hans Krüger (1959--1963) [BdV - Der BdV - Geschichte des BdV](https://web.archive.org/web/20050408214102/http://www.bund-der-vertriebenen.de/derbdv/historie-2.php3?druck=1) (resigned from his post due to his Nazi past)
- Wenzel Jaksch (1964--1966)
- Reinhold Rehs (1967--1970)
- Herbert Czaja (1970--1994)
- Fritz Wittmann (1994--1998)
- Erika Steinbach (1998--2014)
- Bernd Fabritius (2014--)
### Member organizations {#member_organizations}
#### Regional
- Landsmannschaft Ostpreußen
- Landsmannschaft Schlesien
- Deutsch-Baltische Gesellschaft
- Landsmannschaft der Banater Schwaben e.V.
- Landsmannschaft Berlin-Mark Brandenburg
- Landsmannschaft der Bessarabiendeutschen e.V.
- Landsmannschaft der Buchenlanddeutschen (Bukowina) e.V.
- Bund der Danziger e.V.
- Landsmannschaft der Dobrudscha und Bulgariendeutschen
- Landsmannschaft der Donauschwaben, Bundesverband e.V.
- Karpatendeutsche Landsmannschaft Slowakei e.V.
- Landsmannschaft der Deutschen aus Litauen e.V.
- Landsmannschaft der Oberschlesier e.V. -- Bundesverband --
- Pommersche Landsmannschaft -- Zentralverband -- e.V.
- Landsmannschaft der Deutschen aus Russland e.V.
- Landsmannschaft der Sathmarer Schwaben in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland e.V.
- Landsmannschaft der Siebenbürger Sachsen in Deutschland e.V.
- Sudetendeutsche Landsmannschaft Bundesverband e.V.
- Landsmannschaft der Deutschen aus Ungarn
- Landsmannschaft Weichsel-Warthe Bundesverband e.V.
- Landsmannschaft Westpreußen e.V.
#### State
- Landesverband Baden-Württemberg
- Landesverband Bayern
- Landesverband Berlin
- Landesverband Brandenburg
- Landesverband Bremen
- Landesverband Hamburg
- Landesverband Hessen
- Landesverband Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
- Landesverband Niedersachsen
- Landesverband Nordrhein-Westfalen
- Landesverband Rheinland-Pfalz
- Landesverband Saar
- Landesverband Sachsen / Schlesische Lausitz
- Landesverband Sachsen-Anhalt
- Landesverband Schleswig-Holstein
- Landesverband Thüringen
| 468 |
Federation of Expellees
| 1 |
13,902 |
# Federation of Expellees
## Criticism
When in government, both CDU and SPD have tended to favor improved relations with Central and Eastern Europe, even when this conflicts with the interests of the displaced people. The issue of the eastern border and the return of the *Heimatvertriebene* to their ancestral homes are matters which the current German government, German constitutional arrangements and German treaty obligations have virtually closed.
The refugees\' claims were unanimously rejected by the affected countries and became a source of mistrust between Germany, Poland and the Czech Republic. These governments argue that the expulsion of Germans and related border changes were not enacted by the Polish or Czech governments, but rather were ordered by the Potsdam Conference. Furthermore, the nationalization of private property by Poland\'s former communist government did not apply only to Germans but was enforced on all people, regardless of ethnic background. A further complication is that many of the current Polish population in historical eastern Germany are themselves expellees (or descendants of expellees) who, totaling 1.6 million, were driven from Polish areas annexed by the Soviet Union and were forced to leave their homes and property behind as well.
Some German-speakers had been settled in occupied Poland after 1939 by the Nazis. Treating these ex-colonists as expellees under German law, Erika Steinbach included, adds to the controversy. However, the vast majority of expelled Germans were descended from families who had lived in Eastern Europe for many centuries, while the majority of German colonists in Nazi-occupied Poland were Baltic and other East European Germans themselves displaced by the Nazi-Soviet population transfers.
### Nazi background {#nazi_background}
During the Cold War, the Federation was accused by the GDR and Poland of continuing Nazi ideology. A 2012 study confirmed that eleven of the thirteen members of the first council of the Federation \"\...were deeply involved in the Nazi regime.\"
The Polish daily newspaper *Rzeczpospolita* reported that during BdV meetings in 2003, publications expressing anti-Polish sentiment and accusing Poles of ethnic cleansing towards ethnic Germans were available for sale, as were recordings of Waffen SS marches on compact discs, including songs glorifying the Invasion of Poland. Also, far right organizations openly distributed their materials at BdV meetings. While the BdV officially denied involvement in this, no steps were taken to address the concerns raised.
In February 2009, the Polish newspaper *Polska* alleged that over one third of the Federation top officials were former Nazi activists, and based this on a 2006 article published by the German magazine *Der Spiegel*. The German paper *Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung*, later revealed that *Der Spiegel* had written this not in respect to the Federation of Expellees, but instead about a previous organization that was dissolved in 1957.
In 2019, the Federation\'s Vice President Siegbert Ortmann acknowledged that several members of the organization had been former Nazis, as well that some members had expressed support for far-right parties like NPD and AfD, he also reiterated that the organization would not cooperate with AfD
| 498 |
Federation of Expellees
| 2 |
13,908 |
# Handfasting
**Handfasting** is a traditional practice that, depending on the term\'s usage, may define an unofficiated wedding (in which a couple marries without an officiant, usually with the intent of later undergoing a second wedding with an officiant), a betrothal (an engagement in which a couple has formally promised to wed, and which can be broken only through divorce), or a temporary wedding (in which a couple makes an intentionally temporary marriage commitment). The phrase refers to the making fast of a pledge by the shaking or joining of hands.
The terminology and practice are especially associated with Germanic peoples, including the English and Norse, as well as the Scots. As a form of betrothal or unofficiated wedding, handfasting was common up through Tudor England; as a form of temporary marriage, it was practiced in 17th-century Scotland and has been revived in Neopaganism, though misattributed as Celtic rather than Danish and Old English.
Sometimes the term is also used synonymously with \"wedding\" or \"marriage\" among Neopagans to avoid perceived non-Pagan religious connotations associated with those terms. It is also used, apparently ahistorically, to refer to an alleged pre-Christian practice of symbolically fastening or wrapping the hands of a couple together during the wedding ceremony.
## Etymology
The verb *to handfast* in the sense of \"to formally promise, to make a contract\" is recorded for Late Old English, especially in the context of a contract of marriage. The derived *handfasting* as for a ceremony of engagement or betrothal, is recorded in Early Modern English. The term was presumably loaned into English from Old Norse *handfesta* \"to strike a bargain by joining hands\"; there are also comparanda from the Ingvaeonic languages: Old Frisian *hondfestinge* and Middle Low German *hantvestinge*. The term is derived from the verb *to handfast*, used in Middle to Early Modern English for the making of a contract. In modern Dutch, \"handvest\" is the term for \"pact\" or \"charter\" (e.g., \"Atlantisch handvest\", \"Handvest der Verenigde Naties\"); cf. also the Italian loan word manifesto in English.
| 337 |
Handfasting
| 0 |
13,908 |
# Handfasting
## Medieval and Tudor England {#medieval_and_tudor_england}
The Fourth Lateran Council (1215) forbade clandestine marriage, and required marriages to be publicly announced in churches by priests. In the sixteenth century, the Council of Trent legislated more specific requirements, such as the presence of a priest and two witnesses, as well as promulgation of the marriage announcement thirty days prior to the ceremony. These laws did not extend to the regions affected by the Protestant Reformation. In England, clergy performed many clandestine marriages, such as so-called Fleet Marriage, which were held legally valid; and in Scotland, unsolemnised common-law marriage was still valid.
From about the 12th to the 17th century, \"handfasting\" in England was simply a term for \"engagement to be married\", or a ceremony held on the occasion of such a contract, usually about a month prior to a church wedding, at which the marrying couple formally declared that each accepted the other as spouse. Handfasting was legally binding: as soon as the couple made their vows to each other they were validly married. It was not a temporary arrangement. Just as with church weddings of the period, the union which handfasting created could only be dissolved by death. English legal authorities held that even if not followed by intercourse, handfasting was as binding as any vow taken in church before a priest.
During handfasting, the man and woman, in turn, would take the other by the right hand and declare aloud that they there and then accepted each other as husband and wife. The words might vary but traditionally consisted of a simple formula such as \"I (Name) take thee (Name) to my wedded husband/wife, till death us depart, and thereto I plight thee my troth\". Because of this, handfasting was also known in England as \"troth-plight\". Gifts were often exchanged, especially rings: a gold coin broken in half between the couple was also common. Other tokens recorded include gloves, a crimson ribbon tied in a knot, and even a silver toothpick. Handfasting might take place anywhere, indoors or out. It was frequently in the home of the bride, but according to records handfastings also took place in taverns, in an orchard and even on horseback. The presence of a credible witness or witnesses was usual.
For much of the relevant period, church courts dealt with marital matters. Ecclesiastical law recognised two forms of handfasting, *sponsalia per verba de praesenti* and *sponsalia per verba de futuro*. In *sponsalia de praesenti*, the most usual form, the couple declared they there and then accepted each other as man and wife. The *sponsalia de futuro* form was less binding, as the couple took hands only to declare their intention to marry each other at some future date. The latter was closer to a modern engagement and could, in theory, be ended with the consent of both parties -- but only providing intercourse had not occurred. If intercourse did take place, then the *sponsalia de futuro* \"was automatically converted into *de iure* marriage\".
Despite the validity of handfasting, it was expected to be solemnised by a church wedding fairly soon afterwards. Penalties might follow for those who did not comply.`{{page needed|date=March 2017}}`{=mediawiki} Ideally the couple were also supposed to refrain from intercourse until then. Complaints by preachers suggest that they often did not wait, but at least until the early 1600s the common attitude to this kind of anticipatory behaviour seems to have been lenient.
Handfasting remained an acceptable way of marrying in England throughout the Middle Ages but declined in the early modern period.`{{page needed|date=March 2017}}`{=mediawiki} In some circumstances handfasting was open to abuse, with persons who had undergone \"troth-plight\" occasionally refusing to proceed to a church wedding, creating ambiguity about their former betrothed\'s marital status. Shakespeare negotiated and witnessed a handfasting in 1604, and was called as a witness in the suit *Bellott v Mountjoy* about the dowry in 1612. Historians speculate that his own marriage to Anne Hathaway was so conducted when he was a young man in 1582, as the practice still had credence in Warwickshire at the time.
After the beginning of the 17th century, gradual changes in English law meant the presence of an officiating priest or magistrate became necessary for a marriage to be legal.`{{page needed|date=March 2017}}`{=mediawiki} Finally the 1753 Marriage Act, aimed at suppressing clandestine marriages by introducing more stringent conditions for validity, effectively ended the handfasting custom in England.`{{page needed|date=March 2017}}`{=mediawiki}
| 738 |
Handfasting
| 1 |
13,908 |
# Handfasting
## Early modern Scotland {#early_modern_scotland}
In February 1539 Marie Pieris, a French lady-in-waiting to Mary of Guise, the consort of James V of Scotland, was married by handfasting to Lord Seton at Falkland Palace. This ceremony was recorded in the royal accounts for the payment to an apothecary for his work on the day of \"Lord Seytounis handfasting\".
The Scottish Hebrides, particularly in the Isle of Skye, show some records of \'Handfast\" or \"left-handed\" marriage occurring in the late 1600s, when the Gaelic scholar Martin Martin noted, \"It was an ancient custom in the Isles that a man take a maid as his wife and keep her for the space of a year without marrying her; and if she pleased him all the while, he married her at the end of the year and legitimatised her children; but if he did not love her, he returned her to her parents.\"
The most disastrous war fought between the MacLeods and MacDonalds of Skye culminated in the Battle of Coire Na Creiche when Donald Gorm Mor, who handfasted \[for a year and a day\] with Margaret MacLeod, a sister of Rory Mor of Dunvegan, ignominiously expelled his mistress from Duntulm. It is probable that it was as a result of this war that Lord Ochiltree\'s Committee, which formed the Statutes of Iona in 1609 and the Regulations for the Chiefs in 1616, was induced to insert a clause in the Statutes of Iona by which \"marriages contracted for several \[archaic definition \'single\'\] years\" were prohibited; and any who might disregard this regulation were to be \"punished as fornicators\".
By the 18th century, the Kirk of Scotland no longer recognised marriages formed by mutual consent and subsequent sexual intercourse, even though the Scottish civil authorities did. To minimise any resulting legal actions, the ceremony was to be performed in public. This situation persisted until 1939, when Scottish marriage laws were reformed by the Marriage (Scotland) Act 1939 and handfasting was no longer recognised.
The existence of handfasting as a distinct form of \"trial marriage\" was doubted by A. E. Anton, in *Handfasting in Scotland* (1958). In the article, he asserted that the first reference to such a practice is by Thomas Pennant in his 1790 *Tour in Scotland*, that this report had been taken at face value throughout the 19th century, and was perpetuated in Walter Scott\'s 1820 novel *The Monastery*. However, the Pennant claim in 1790 was not the first time this had been discussed or put to print, as the Martin Martin texts predate Pennant by almost 100 years.
| 430 |
Handfasting
| 2 |
13,908 |
# Handfasting
## Neopaganism
The term \"handfasting\" or \"hand-fasting\" was appropriated into modern Celtic neopaganism and Wicca for wedding ceremonies from at least the late 1960s, apparently first used in print by Hans Holzer.
Handfasting was mentioned in the 1980 Jim Morrison biography *No One Here Gets Out Alive* and again in the 1991 film *The Doors*, where a version of the real 1970 handfasting ceremony of Morrison and Patricia Kennealy was depicted (with the actual Kennealy-Morrison portraying the Celtic neopagan priestess).
### Handfasting ribbon {#handfasting_ribbon}
The term has entered the English-speaking mainstream, most likely from neopagan wedding ceremonies during the early 2000s, often erroneously being described as \"pre-Christian\" by wedding planners. Evidence that the term \"handfasting\" had been re-interpreted as describing this ceremony specifically is found in the later 2000s, e.g. \"handfasting---the blessed marriage rite in which the hands of you and your beloved are wrapped in ribbon as you \'tie the knot\'.\"
By the 2010s, \"handfasting ceremonies\" were on offer by commercial wedding organizers and had mostly lost their neopagan association (apart from occasional claims that attributes the ceremony to the \"ancient Celts\"). The term \"handfasting ribbon\" appears from about 2005
| 193 |
Handfasting
| 3 |
13,910 |
# History of the Pacific Islands
The **history of the Pacific Islands** covers the history of the islands in the Pacific Ocean.
## Histories
### Cook Islands {#cook_islands}
In Cook Islands Māori pre-history, Chieftains from present day French Polynesia and their tribes, along with navigators, took their ships in search of unknown or newly found lands, first arriving in the southern island groups around 800 AD or earlier. Many other tribal migrations from French Polynesia, notably Tahiti would continue for centuries forming a unique Māori society. Similarly, the northern islands were also settled from the east, with some of the northern islands possibly having had later interactions with Western Polynesia. The capital Rarotonga, is known, from various oral histories to have been the launching site of seven waka ship voyagers who settled in New Zealand, becoming the major tribes of the New Zealand Māori. Up until relatively recently there was continuous contact between both lands where back and forth migration and trade took place. The Cook Islands Te Reo Māori language is closely related to the Te Reo Maori indigenous language of New Zealand. Spanish ships visited the islands in the 16th century; the first written record of contact with the islands came with the sighting of Pukapuka by Spanish sailor Álvaro de Mendaña de Neira in 1595 who called it *San Bernardo* (Saint Bernard). A few years later, a Spanish expedition led by Pedro Fernandes de Queirós made the first recorded European landing in the islands when he set foot on Rakahanga in 1606, calling it *Gente Hermosa* (Beautiful People). The country is named after British captain Captain James Cook who surveyed and landed on some of the islands between 1774 and 1777.
### Easter Island {#easter_island}
Easter Island is one of the youngest inhabited territories on earth, and for most of the history of Easter Island it was the most isolated inhabited territory on Earth. Its inhabitants, the Rapa Nui, have endured famines, epidemics, civil war, slave raids, and colonialism; have seen their population crash on more than one occasion.
### Fiji
The history of Fiji dates back to ancient times. There are many theories as to how the Fijian race came into existence. Around 1500 BC Fiji was settled by Austronesian seafarers. Around 900--600 BC Moturiki Island was settled. By 500 BC, Melanesian seafarers had reached Fiji and intermarried with the Austronesian inhabitants, giving rise to the modern Fijian people. In 1643 AD, Abel Tasman sighted Vanua Levu Island and northern Taveuni. According to native oral legends Fijians were also descendants of a nomadic tribe from Tanganika (Tanzania).
### Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands {#guam_and_the_northern_mariana_islands}
The history of Guam involves phases including the early arrival of people known today as the ancient Chamorros, the development of \"pre-contact\" society, Spanish colonization, and the present American rule of the island. Archaeologists using carbon-dating have broken Pre-Contact Guam (i.e. Chamorro) history into three periods: \"Pre-Latte\" (BC 2000? to AD 1) \"Transitional Pre-Latte\" (AD 1 to AD 1000), and \"Latte\" (AD 1000 to AD 1521). Archaeological evidence also suggests that Chamorro society was on the verge of another transition phase by 1521, when Ferdinand Magellan\'s expedition arrived, as latte stones became bigger. The original inhabitants of Guam are believed to be descendants of Taiwanese indigenous peoples originating from the high mountains of Taiwan as early as 4,000 BC, having linguistic and cultural similarities to Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines. Guam\'s history of colonialism is the longest among the Pacific islands and Chamorros are considered one of the oldest mixed race in the Pacific. In 1668 the Spanish formally incorporated the islands to the Spanish East Indies and founded a colony on Guam as a resting place for the west-bound Manila galleons. The territory was ceded by Spain more than two centuries later, when in 1898 the United States took over the islands following the Spanish--American War. The chamorro culture has evolved much since European contact and has been much influenced by Spanish and American colonization. Although the original culture no longer exists, it is now being revived with contemporary alternatives and similarities in styles with all the other pacific islands. Not one unique, but all combined to form a uniqueness in style, to today\'s modern interpretation of what their culture might have been. It should also be mentioned that the Chamorros on Guam view their culture & language differently than the Chamorros on the Northern Mariana Islands.
### Hawaii
Hawaiian history is inextricably tied into a larger Polynesian phenomenon. Hawai`{{okina}}`{=mediawiki}i is the northernmost vertex of the Polynesian Triangle, a region of the Pacific Ocean anchored by three island groups: Hawai`{{okina}}`{=mediawiki}i, Rapa Nui (Easter Island), and Aotearoa (New Zealand). The many island cultures within the Polynesian Triangle share similar languages derived from a proto-Malayo-Polynesian language used in Southeast Asia 5,000 years ago. Polynesians also share cultural traditions, such as religion, social organization, myths, and material culture. Anthropologists believe that all Polynesians have descended from a South Pacific proto-culture created by an Austronesian (Malayo-Polynesian) people that had migrated from Southeast Asia. The seven main Polynesian cultures are Aotearoa, Hawai`{{okina}}`{=mediawiki}i, Rapa Nui, Marquesas, Samoa, Tahiti, and Tonga.
The early settlement history of Hawai`{{okina}}`{=mediawiki}i is a topic of continuing debate. Estimates for the date of first settlement of the Hawai\'ian islands range from the 3rd century C.E. to between 940 and 1130 C.E.
| 889 |
History of the Pacific Islands
| 0 |
13,910 |
# History of the Pacific Islands
## Histories
### Kiribati
In the history of Kiribati, the islands which now form the Republic of Kiribati have been inhabited for at least seven hundred years, and possibly much longer. The initial Micronesian population, which remains the overwhelming majority today, was visited by Polynesian and Melanesian invaders before the first European sailors \"discovered\" the islands in the 16th century. For much of the subsequent period, the main island chain, the Gilbert Islands, was ruled as part of the British Empire. The country gained its independence in 1979 and has since been known as Kiribati.
### New Caledonia {#new_caledonia}
In the history of New Caledonia, the diverse group of people that settled over the Melanesian archipelagos are known as the Lapita. They arrived in the archipelago now commonly known as New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands around 1500 BC. The Lapita were highly skilled navigators and agriculturists with influence over a large area of the Pacific. From about the 11th century Polynesians also arrived and mixed with the populations of the archipelago. Europeans first sighted New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands in the late 18th century. The British explorer James Cook sighted Grande Terre in 1774 and named it *New Caledonia*, Caledonia being the Latin name for Scotland. During the same voyage he also named the islands to the north of New Caledonia the New Hebrides (now Vanuatu), after the islands north of Scotland.
### New Zealand {#new_zealand}
The History of New Zealand dates back to at least 700 years to when it was discovered and settled by Polynesians, who developed a distinct Māori culture centred on kinship links and land. The first European explorer, the Dutch Abel Tasman, came to New Zealand in 1642. From the late 18th century, the country was regularly visited by explorers and other sailors, missionaries, traders and adventurers. In 1840 the Treaty of Waitangi was signed between the British Crown and various Māori chiefs, bringing New Zealand into the British Empire and giving Māori equal rights with British citizens. There was extensive European and some Asian settlement throughout the rest of the century. War and the imposition of a European economic and legal system led to most of New Zealand\'s land passing from Māori to European ownership, and most Māori subsequently became impoverished.
From the 1890s the New Zealand parliament enacted a number of progressive initiatives, including women\'s suffrage and old age pensions. From the 1930s the economy was highly regulated and an extensive welfare state was developed. Meanwhile, Māori culture underwent a renaissance, and from the 1950s Māori began moving to the cities in large numbers. This led to the development of a Māori protest movement which in turn led to greater recognition of the Treaty of Waitangi in the late 20th century. In the 1980s the economy was largely deregulated and a number of socially liberal policies, such as decriminalisation of homosexuality, were put in place. Foreign policy, which had previously consisted mostly of following Britain or the United States, became more independent. Subsequent governments have generally maintained these policies, although tempering the free market ethos somewhat.
### Niue
The history of Niue can be traced back to a 1,000 years when the Polynesian settles came here. Traces of Pukapulan dialect are still there in the native language which is based on the Samoan and Tongan language. The Polynesian settlers were rather isolated as there was very little inter island trade and the existence of the limestone island was in itself very difficult due to lack of rivers and cultivable soil.
The modern history of Niue can be traced back to 1774 with the arrival of Captain James Cook. Cook described the island as \"Savage Island\" in his records as the natives were not very welcoming to strangers. This was in complete contrast to the Tongans he described as \"The Friendly Islands\". Captain Cook tried to set his foot thrice on the island but was repulsed each of the three times. The natives at that time were quite hostile to strangers. Christianity was brought to the island by Peniamina in the year 1846 when he got converted during his stay at Samoa. The islanders were completely converted to Christianity by the end of the 19th century. Colonization took place thereafter and the island was declared as a part of the British Empire.
The island country became independent in 1974 but still have a free association agreement with New Zealand and many of its citizens have become citizens of New Zealand. Now the Island country has a democracy and is governed by a legislative assembly consisting of 20 members. Niue is the smallest democracy in the world.
### Papua New Guinea {#papua_new_guinea}
The History of Papua New Guinea can be traced back to about 60,000 years ago when people first migrated towards the Australian continent. The written history began when European navigators first sighted New Guinea in the early part of the 16th century. Portuguese explorers first arrived from the west and later Spanish navigators from the east, after crossing the Pacific. The island was given its name \"New Guinea\" by Spanish explorer Yñigo Ortiz de Retez who sailed its coast in 1545. Archaeological evidence indicates that humans arrived on New Guinea at least 60,000 years ago, probably by sea from Southeast Asia during an ice age period when the sea was lower and distances between islands shorter. For an overview of the geological history of the continent of which New Guinea is a part, see Australia -- New Guinea. Although the first arrivals were hunter-gatherers, early evidence shows that people managed the forest environment to provide food. The gardens of the New Guinea highlands are ancient, intensive permacultures, adapted to high population densities, very high rainfalls (as high as 10,000mm/yr (400in/yr)), earthquakes, hilly land, and occasional frost. There are indications that gardening was being practised at the same time that agriculture was developing in Mesopotamia and Egypt.
| 991 |
History of the Pacific Islands
| 1 |
13,910 |
# History of the Pacific Islands
## Histories
### Samoa
In the history of Samoa, contact with Europeans began in the early 18th century but did not intensify until the arrival of the English. In 1722, Dutchman Jacob Roggeveen was the first European to sight the islands. Missionaries and traders arrived in the 1830s. Halfway through the 19th century, the United Kingdom, Germany, and the United States all claimed parts of the kingdom of Samoa, and established trading posts. King Malietoa Leaupepe died in 1898 and was succeeded by Malietoa Tooa Mataafa. The US and British consuls supported Malietoa Tanu, Leaupepe\'s son. US and British warships, including the USS *Philadelphia* shelled Apia on 15 March 1899. After World War I, the League of Nations carved up Samoa. Britain and New Zealand took over the western islands which became \'Western Samoa\' and USA claimed the eastern half of the country which became American Samoa. In 1962, Western Samoa became the first Pacific Island nation to gain political independence. In 1997, Samoa officially dropped the \'Western\' from its name as it was an appendage from its colonial era.
### Solomon Islands {#solomon_islands}
The human history of the Solomon Islands begins with the first settlement at least 30,000 years ago from New Guinea. They represented the furthest expansion of humans into the Pacific Ocean until the expansion of Austronesian-language speakers through the area around 4000 BCE, bringing new agricultural and maritime technology. Most of the languages spoken today in the Solomon Islands derive from this era, but some thirty languages of the pre-Austronesian settlers survive *(see East Papuan languages).* The first European contact was that of Spanish explorer Álvaro de Mendaña de Neira whose expedition first sighted Santa Isabel island on 7 February 1568. Finding signs of alluvial gold on Guadalcanal, Mendaña believed he had found the source of King Solomon\'s wealth, and consequently named the islands \"The Islands of Solomon\". Many of the islands were also named by these explorers, including Guadalcanal, the Santa Cruz Islands, San Cristobal, Santa Ana and Santa Isabel. In 1595 and 1605 Spain again sent several expeditions to find the islands and establish a colony, though these were unsuccessful. In 1767 Captain Philip Carteret rediscovered Santa Cruz and Malaita. Later, Dutch, French and British navigators visited the islands; their reception was often hostile.
### Tahiti
In the history of Tahiti, Tahiti is estimated to have been settled by Polynesians between CE 300 and 800 coming from Tonga and Samoa, although some estimates place the date earlier. The fertile island soil combined with fishing provided ample food for the population. Although the first European sighting of the islands was by a Spanish ship in 1606, Spain made no effort to trade with or colonize the island. Samuel Wallis, an English sea captain, sighted Tahiti on 18 June 1767, and is considered the first European visitor to the island. The perceived relaxation and contented nature of the local people and the characterization of the island as a paradise much impressed early European visitors, planting the seed for a romanticization by the West that endures to this day.
### Tokelau
Archaeological evidence indicates that history of Tokelau\'s atol---Atafu, Nukunonu, and Fakaofo---were settled about 1,000 years ago, probably by voyages from Samoa, the Cook Islands and Tuvalu. Oral history traces local traditions and genealogies back several hundred years. Inhabitants followed Polynesian mythology with the local god Tui Tokelau; and developed forms of music (see Music of Tokelau) and art. The three atolls functioned largely independently while maintaining social and linguistic cohesion. Tokelauan society was governed by chiefly clans, and there were occasional inter-atoll skirmishes and wars as well as inter-marriage. Fakaofo, the \"chiefly island,\" held some dominance over Atafu and Nukunonu. Life on the atolls was subsistence-based, with reliance on fish and coconut. Commodore John Byron discovered Atafu on 24 June 1765 and named it \"Duke of York\'s Island.\" Parties onshore reported that there were no signs of current or previous inhabitants.
### Tonga
The history of Tonga stretches back to around roughly 450 AD, when the Polynesians arrived. Tonga became known as the Tongan Empire through extensive trading and its influence and show of strength and domination over parts of the Pacific (e.g. Samoa, Fiji). The Europeans arrived in the 17th century which was followed after a couple hundred years by a single unified Tongan kingdom. Archaeological evidence shows that the first settlers in Tonga sailed from the Santa Cruz Islands, as part of the original Austronesian-speakers\' (Lapita) migration which originated out of southeast Asia some 6,000 years before present. Archaeological dating places Tonga as the oldest known site in Polynesia for the distinctive Lapita ceramic ware, at 2800--2750 years before present.
| 782 |
History of the Pacific Islands
| 2 |
13,910 |
# History of the Pacific Islands
## Histories
### Tuvalu
The history of Tuvalu dates back to at least 1,000 years to when it was discovered and settled by Polynesians. the origins of the people of Tuvalu is addressed in the theories regarding the spread of humans out of Southeast Asia, from Taiwan, via Melanesia and across the Pacific islands to create Polynesia.
During pre-European-contact times there was frequent canoe voyaging between the islands as Polynesian navigation skills are recognised to have allowed deliberate journeys on double-hull sailing canoes or outrigger canoes. Eight of the nine islands of Tuvalu were inhabited; thus the name, Tuvalu, means \"eight standing together\" in Tuvaluan. The pattern of settlement that is believed to have occurred is that the Polynesians spread out from the Samoan Islands into the Tuvaluan atolls, with Tuvalu providing a stepping stone to migration into the Polynesian Outlier communities in Melanesia and Micronesia.
In 1568, Spanish navigator Álvaro de Mendaña was the first European to sail through the islands and sighted Nui during his expedition in search of Terra Australis. European explorers did not return until two centuries later. In 1819 the island of Funafuti was named Ellice\'s Island; the name Ellice was applied to all nine islands after the work of English hydrographer Alexander George Findlay (1812--1876). The islands came under Britain\'s sphere of influence in the late 19th century, when each of the Ellice Islands was declared a British protectorate by Captain Gibson R.N., of HMS *Curacoa*, between 9 and 16 October 1892. The Ellice Islands were administered as British protectorate by a resident commissioner from 1892 to 1916 as part of the British Western Pacific Territories (BWPT), and later as part of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands colony from 1916 to 1974.
A referendum was held in December 1974 to determine whether the Gilbert Islands and Ellice Islands should each have their own administration. As a consequence of the referendum, the Gilbert and Ellice Islands colony ceased to exist on 1 January 1976 and the separate British colonies of Kiribati and Tuvalu came into existence. Tuvalu became fully independent within the Commonwealth on 1 October 1978. On 17 September 2000 Tuvalu became the 189th member of the United Nations.
| 371 |
History of the Pacific Islands
| 3 |
13,910 |
# History of the Pacific Islands
## Histories
### Vanuatu
In the history of Vanuatu, the commonly held theory of Vanuatu\'s prehistory from archaeological evidence supports that peoples speaking Austronesian languages first came to the islands some 4,000 to 6,000 years ago. Pottery fragments have been found dating back to 1300 BC What little is known of the pre-European contact history of Vanuatu has been gleaned from oral histories and legends. One important early king was Roy Mata, who united several tribes, and was buried in a large mound with several retainers. The first European contact with Vanuatu came in 1606, when a Spanish expedition led by the Portuguese explorer Pedro Fernández de Quirós discovered Espiritu Santo, naming it *Australia del Espiritu Santo*, believing he had arrived in the southern continent. Europeans did not return until 1768, when Louis Antoine de Bougainville rediscovered the islands.
### Other islands {#other_islands}
The history of American Samoa begins with inhabitation as early as 1000 BC, Samoa was not reached by European explorers until the 18th century.
The history of Baker Island began when the United States of America took possession of the island in 1857, and its guano deposits were mined by U.S. and British companies during the second half of the 19th century. In 1935, a short-lived attempt at colonization was begun on this island -- as well as on nearby Howland Island -- but was disrupted by World War II and thereafter abandoned. Presently the island is a National Wildlife Refuge run by the U.S. Department of the Interior; a day beacon is situated near the middle of the west coast.
Westerners arrived in Caroline Islands in 1525, by the Portuguese Diogo da Rocha and his pilot Gomes de Sequeira, naming them the *Sequeira Islands*. At about the same time, in 1526, they were sighted by the Spanish Toribio Alonso de Salazar, he called them \"Carolinas\" after Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. Though early Spanish navigators in the area (from 1543) called them the *Nuevas Filipinas* (\"New Philippines\"), Admiral Francisco Lazeano named them the *Carolinas* after King Charles II of Spain in 1686.
In the history of French Polynesia, the French Polynesian island groups do not share a common history before the establishment of the French protectorate in 1889. The first French Polynesian islands to be settled by Polynesians were the Marquesas Islands in AD 300 and the Society Islands in AD 800. The Polynesians were organized in petty chieftainships.
Historical evidence suggests that Howland Island was the site of prehistoric settlement, which may have extended down to Rawaki, Canton, Manra, and Orona of the Phoenix Islands 500 to 700 km southeast. This settlement might have taken the form of a single community utilising several adjacent islands, but the hard life on these isolated islands, together with the uncertainty of fresh water supplies, led to an extinction of or dereliction by the settled peoples, in such a way that other islands in the area (such as Kiritimati and Pitcairn) were abandoned. Such settlements probably began around 1000 BC, when eastern Melanesians traveled north.
The history of Jarvis Island begins with the island\'s first known sighting by Europeans was on 21 August 1821 by the British ship *Eliza Francis* (or *Eliza Frances*) owned by Edward, Thomas, and William Jarvis and commanded by Captain Brown. In March 1857 the uninhabited island was claimed for the United States under the Guano Islands Act and formally annexed on 27 February 1858.
In the history of Marquesas Islands, the first recorded settlers of the Marquesas were Polynesians, who, from archеological evidence, are believed to have arrived before 100 AD. Ethnological and linguistic evidence suggests that they likely arrived from the region of Tonga and Samoa. The islands were given their name by the Spanish explorer Álvaro de Mendaña de Neira who reached them on 21 July 1595. He named them after his patron, García Hurtado de Mendoza, 5th Marquis of Cañete, who was Viceroy of Peru at the time. Mendaña visited first Fatu Hiva and then Tahuata before continuing on to the Solomon Islands.
In the history of Melanesia, the original inhabitants of the islands now named Melanesia were likely the ancestors of the present day Papuan-speaking people. These people are thought to have occupied New Guinea tens of millennia ago and reached the islands 35,000 years ago (according to radiocarbon dating). They appear to have occupied these islands as far east as the main islands in the Solomon Islands (i.e., including San Cristobal) and perhaps even to the smaller islands farther to the east.
The ancestors of the so-called \"Micronesians\" in the history of Micronesia settled there over 4,000 years ago. A decentralized chieftain-based system eventually evolved into a more centralized economic and religious empire centred on Yap. European explorers -- first the Portuguese in search of the Spice Islands (Indonesia) and then the Spaniards -- reached the Carolines in the 16th century, with Spain establishing sovereignty.
Researchers of the history of the Marshall Islands agree on little more than that successive waves of migratory peoples from Southeast Asia spread across the Western Pacific about 3,000 years ago, and that some of them landed on and remained on these islands. The Spanish explorer Alonso de Salazar landed there in 1529. They were named for English explorer John Marshall, who visited them in 1799. The Marshall Islands were claimed by Spain in 1874. Following papal mediation and German compensation of \$4.5 million, Spain recognised Germany\'s claim in 1885, which established a protectorate and set up trading stations on the islands of Jaluit and Ebon to carry out the flourishing copra (dried coconut meat) trade. Marshallese Iroij (high chiefs) continued to rule under indirect colonial German administration.
In the history of the Society Islands, the archipelago is generally believed to have been named by Captain James Cook in honour of the Royal Society, sponsor of the first British scientific survey of the islands; however, Cook states in his journal that he called the islands Society \"as they lay contiguous to one another\".
In the history of Tuamotu, the Tuamotus were first discovered by a Spanish expedition led by Ferdinand Magellan in 1521. From the Inca Empire, Tupac Inca Yupanqui is also credited with leading a nearly 10-month voyage of exploration into the Pacific around 1480. None of these visits were of political consequence, the islands being in the sphere of influence of the Pomare dynasty of Tahiti. At the beginning 18th century, the first Christian missionaries arrived. The islands\' pearls penetrated the European market in the late 19th century, making them a coveted possession. Following the forced abdication of King Pomare V of Tahiti, the islands were annexed as an overseas territory of France
| 1,117 |
History of the Pacific Islands
| 4 |
13,920 |
# Homeland
*Homeland* (TV series)\|other uses}} `{{Redirect|Old Country|the silent film|The Old Country{{!}}`{=mediawiki}*The Old Country*\|the album by Nat Adderley\'s Quintet\|The Old Country (album){{!}}*The Old Country* (album)}} `{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2021}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Nationalism sidebar}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Conservatism sidebar}}`{=mediawiki} A **homeland** is a place where a national or ethnic identity has formed. The definition can also mean simply one\'s country of birth. When used as a proper noun, the Homeland, as well as its equivalents in other languages, often has ethnic nationalist connotations. A homeland may also be referred to as a *fatherland*, a *motherland*, or a *mother country*, depending on the culture and language of the nationality in question.
## Motherland
Motherland refers to a *mother country*, i.e. the place in which somebody grew up or had lived for a long enough period that somebody has formed their own cultural identity, the place that one\'s ancestors lived for generations, or the place that somebody regards as home, or a Metropole in contrast to its colonies. People often refer to Mother Russia as a personification of the Russian nation. The Philippines is also considered as a motherland which is derived from the word \"*Inang Bayan*\" which means \"Motherland\". Within the British Empire, many natives in the colonies came to think of Britain as the mother country of one, large nation. India is often personified as Bharat Mata (Mother India). The French commonly refer to France as \"la mère patrie\"; Hispanic countries that were former Spanish viceroyalties commonly referred to Spain as \"*la Madre Patria*\". Turks refer to Turkey as \"ana vatan\" (lit: mother homeland.). Kathleen Ni Houlihan is a mythical symbol of Irish nationalism found in literature and art including work by W.B. Yeats and Seán O\'Casey, She was an emblem during colonial rule, and became associated with the Irish Republican Army in Northern Ireland, especially during The Troubles.
| 303 |
Homeland
| 0 |
13,920 |
# Homeland
## Fatherland
Fatherland is the nation of one\'s \"fathers\", \"forefathers\", or ancestors. The word can also mean the country of nationality, the country in which somebody grew up, the country that somebody\'s ancestors lived in for generations, or the country that somebody regards as home, depending on how the individual uses it. It can be viewed as a nationalist concept, in so far as it is evocative of emotions related to family ties and links them to national identity and patriotism. It can be compared to motherland and homeland, and some languages will use more than one of these terms.
The Ancient Greek *patris*, fatherland, led to *patrios*, *of our fathers* and thence to the Latin *patriota* and Old French *patriote*, meaning compatriot; from these the English word patriotism is derived. Romans and the subjects of Rome saw Italy as the fatherland (*patria* or *terrarum parens*) of the Roman Empire, in contrast to Roman provinces. The related Ancient Roman word *Patria* led to similar forms in modern Romance languages.
The term fatherland is used throughout Europe where a Germanic language is spoken. In Dutch *vaderland* is used in the national anthem, \"Het Wilhelmus\", which lyrics are written around 1570. It is also common to refer to the national history as *vaderlandse geschiedenis*.
In German, the term *Vaterland* became more prominent in the 19th century. It appears in numerous patriotic songs and poems, such as Hoffmann\'s song *Lied der Deutschen* which became the national anthem in 1922. German government propaganda used its appeal to nationalism when making references to Germany and the state. It was used in *Mein Kampf*, and on a sign in a German concentration camp, also signed, Adolf Hitler.
Because of the use of *Vaterland* in Nazi-German war propaganda, the term \"Fatherland\" in English has become associated with domestic British and American anti-Nazi propaganda during World War II. This is not the case in Germany itself, or in other Germanic speaking and Eastern European countries, where the word remains used in the usual patriotic contexts.
Terms equating \"Fatherland\" in Germanic languages:
- Afrikaans: *Vaderland*
- Danish: *fædreland*
- Dutch (Flemish): *vaderland*
- West Frisian: *heitelân*
- German: *Vaterland* (as in the national anthem Das Lied der Deutschen, also Austrians, the Swiss as in the national anthem Swiss Psalm and Liechtensteiners)
- Icelandic: *föðurland*
- Norwegian: *fedreland*
- Scots: *faitherland*
- Swedish: *fäderneslandet* (besides the more common *fosterlandet*; the word *faderlandet* also exists in Swedish but is never used for Sweden itself, but for other countries such as Germany).
A corresponding term is often used in Slavic languages, in:
- Russian *otechestvo* (отечество) or *otchizna* (отчизна)
- Polish *ojczyzna* in common language literally meaning \"fatherland\", *ziemia ojców* literally meaning \"land of fathers\", sometimes used in the phrase *ziemia ojców naszych* literally meaning \"land of our fathers\" (besides rarer name *macierz* \"motherland\")
- Ukrainian *batʹkivshchyna* (батьківщина) or *vitchyzna* (вітчизна).
- Czech *otčina* (although the normal Czech term for \"homeland\" is *vlast*)
- the Belarusians as *Бацькаўшчына* (*Baćkaŭščyna*)
- Serbo-Croatian *otadžbina* (отаџбина) meaning \"fatherland\", *domovina* (домовина) meaning \"homeland\", *dedovina* (дедовина) or *djedovina* meaning \"grandfatherland\" or \"land of grandfathers\"
- Bulgarian татковина (*tatkovina*) as well as *otechestvo* (Отечество)
- Macedonian татковина (*tatkovina*)
### Other groups that refer to their native country as a \"fatherland\" {#other_groups_that_refer_to_their_native_country_as_a_fatherland}
Groups with languages that refer to their native country as a \"fatherland\" include:
- the Arabs as *أرض الآباء* *\'arḍ al-\'abā\'* (\"land of the fathers\")
- the Albanians as *Atdhe*
- the Amharas as *አባት አገር* (*Abbat Ager*)
- the Arakanese as `{{transliteration|rki|italic=no|A pha rakhaing pray}}`{=mediawiki} (အဖရခိုင်ပြည်)
- the Chechens as *Daimokh*
- the Estonians as *isamaa* (as in the national anthem Mu isamaa, mu õnn ja rõõm)
- the Finns as *isänmaa*
- the Georgians as *Samshoblo* (სამშობლო - \"\[land\] of parents\") or *Mamuli* (მამული)
- the Ancient Greeks as πατρίς *patris*
- the Ancient Romans as *patria "fatherland"*
- the Greeks as πατρίδα `{{transliteration|el|patrida}}`{=mediawiki}\'
- the Kazakhs as *atameken*
- the Kyrgyz as *ata meken*
- the Latvians as tēvzeme
- the Lithuanians as *tėvynė*
- the Nigerians as *fatherland*
- the Oromo as *Biyya Abaa*
- the Pakistanis as *Vatan* (madar-e-watan means motherland. Not fatherland)
- the Somali as *Dhulka Abaa*, land of the father
- the Thais as *pituphum* (ปิตุภูมิ), the word is adapted from *Sanskrit*
- the Tibetans as *ཕ་ཡུལ* (*pha yul*)
- the Welsh as *Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau*, \'the ancient land of my fathers\'
### Romance languages {#romance_languages}
In Romance languages, a common way to refer to one\'s home country is *Patria/Pátria/Patrie* which has the same connotation as *Fatherland*, that is, the nation of our parents/fathers (From the Latin, Pater, father). As *patria* has feminine gender, it is usually used in expressions related to one\'s mother, as in Italian *la Madrepatria*, Spanish *la Madre Patria* or Portuguese *a Pátria Mãe* (Mother Fatherland). Examples include:
- the Esperantists as *patrio*, *patrolando* or *patrujo*
- Aragonese, Asturian, Franco-Provençal, Galician, Italian, Spanish (in its many dialects): *Patria*
- Catalan: *Pàtria*
- Occitans: *Patrìo*
- French: *Patrie*
- Romanian: *Patrie*
- Portuguese: *Pátria*
| 841 |
Homeland
| 1 |
13,920 |
# Homeland
## Fatherland
### Multiple references to parental forms {#multiple_references_to_parental_forms}
- the Armenians, as *Hayrenik* (Հայրենիք), home. The national anthem Mer Hayrenik translates as *Our Fatherland*
- the Azerbaijanis as *Ana vətən* (lit. mother homeland; vətən from Arabic) or *Ata ocağı* (lit. father\'s hearth)
- the Bosniaks as *Otadžbina* (Отаџбина), although *Domovina* (Домовина) is sometimes used colloquially meaning *homeland*
- the Chinese as *zǔguó* (祖国 or 祖國 (traditional chinese), \"land of ancestors\"), *zǔguómǔqīn* (祖国母亲 or 祖國母親, \"ancestral land, the mother\") is frequently used.
- the Czechs as *vlast*, *power* or (rarely) *otčina*, fatherland
- the Hungarians as *szülőföld* (literally: \"bearing land\" or \"parental land\")
- the Indians as मातृभूमि literally meaning \"motherland\", or पितृभूमि translating to \"fatherland\" in the Indo-Aryan liturgical tradition
- the Kurds as *warê bav û kalan* meaning \"land of the fathers and the grandfathers\"
- the Japanese as *sokoku* (祖国, \"land of ancestors\")
- the Koreans as *joguk* (조국, Hanja: 祖國, \"land of ancestors\")
- French speakers: *Patrie*, although they also use *la mère patrie*, which includes the idea of motherland
- the Latvians as *tēvija* or *tēvzeme* (although *dzimtene* -- roughly translated as \"place that somebody grew up\" -- is more neutral and used more commonly nowadays)
- the Burmese as အမိမြေ (ami-myay) literally meaning \"motherland\"
- the Persians as *Sarzamin e Pedari (Fatherland), Sarzamin e Mādari (Motherland) or Mihan (Home)*
- the Poles as *ojczyzna* (*ojczyzna* is derived from *ojciec*, Polish for father, but *ojczyzna* itself and *Polska* are feminine, so it can also be translated as motherland), also an archaism *macierz* \"mother\" is rarely used.
- the Russians, as *Otechestvo* (отечество) or *Otchizna* (отчизна), both words derived from *отец*, Russian for father. *Otechestvo* is neuter, *otchizna* is feminine.
- the Slovenes as *očetnjava*, although *domovina* (homeland) is more common.
- the Swedes as *fäderneslandet*, although *fosterlandet* is more common (meaning the land that fostered/raised a person)
- the Vietnamese as *Tổ quốc* (Chữ Nôm: 祖國, \"land of ancestors\")
## In Hebrew {#in_hebrew}
Jews, especially Modern-Day Israelis, use several different terms, all referring to Israel, including:
- *Moledet* (מולדת; Birth Land). The most analogous Hebrew word to the English term \'Homeland\'.
- *Erets Israel* (ארץ ישראל; Land of Israel). This is the most common usage.
- *Haarets* (הארץ; The Land). This is used by Israelis, and Jews abroad, when making distinctions between Israel and other countries in conversation.
- *Haarets Hamuvtachat* (הארץ המובטחת; The Promised Land). This is a term with historical and religious connotations.
- *Erets Zion* (ארץ ציון; Land of Zion; Land of Jerusalem). Notably use in The Israeli Anthem.
- *Erets Avot* (ארץ אבות; Land of the Fathers). This is a common biblical and literary usage. Equivalent to \'Fatherland\'.
- *Erets Zavat Chalav Oudvash* (ארץ זבת חלב ודבש; Land Flowing with Milk and Honey). This is a biblical term which is still sometimes used.
- *Haarets Hatova* (הארץ הטובה; The Good Land). Originated in the Book of Deuteronomy.
| 488 |
Homeland
| 2 |
13,920 |
# Homeland
## Uses by country {#uses_by_country}
- The Soviet Union created homelands for some minorities in the 1920s, including the Volga German ASSR and the Jewish Autonomous Oblast. In the case of the Volga German ASSR, these homelands were later abolished, and their inhabitants deported to either Siberia or the Kazakh SSR.
- In the United States, the Department of Homeland Security was created soon after the 11 September 2001, terrorist attacks, as a means to centralize response to various threats. In a June 2002 column, Republican consultant and speechwriter Peggy Noonan expressed the hope that the Bush administration would change the name of the department, writing that, \"The name Homeland Security grates on a lot of people, understandably. *Homeland* isn\'t really an American word, it\'s not something we used to say or say now\".
- In the apartheid era in South Africa, the concept was given a different meaning. The white government had designated approximately 25% of its non-desert territory for black tribal settlement. Whites and other non-blacks were restricted from owning land or settling in those areas. After 1948 they were gradually granted an increasing level of \"home-rule\". From 1976 several of these regions were granted independence. Four of them were declared independent nations by South Africa, but were unrecognized as independent countries by any other nation besides each other and South Africa. The territories set aside for the African inhabitants were also known as bantustans.
- In Australia, the term refers to relatively small Aboriginal settlements (referred to also as \"outstations\") where people with close kinship ties share lands significant to them for cultural reasons. Many such homelands are found across Western Australia, the Northern Territory, and Queensland. The homeland movement gained momentum in the 1970 and 1980s. Not all homelands are permanently occupied owing to seasonal or cultural reasons. Much of their funding and support have been withdrawn since the 2000s.
- In Turkish, the concept of \"homeland\", especially in the patriotic sense, is \"*ana vatan*\" (lit. mother homeland), while \"*baba ocağı*\" (lit. father\'s hearth) is used to refer to one\'s childhood home. (Note: The Turkish word \"*ocak*\" has the double meaning of *january* and *fireplace*, like the Spanish \"*hogar*\", which can mean \"home\" or \"hearth\".)
## Land of one\'s home {#land_of_ones_home}
In some languages, there are additional words that refer specifically to the place where one is home to, but is narrower in scope than one\'s nation, and often have some sort of nostalgic, fantastic, heritage connection, for example:
- In German language, *\[\[heimat\]\]*.
- In Dutch and Afrikaans, *t(h)uisland*, equivalent to the term bantustan
- In Japanese language, `{{nihongo||故郷|kokyō, </i>or<i>, furusato}}`{=mediawiki}, or `{{nihongo||郷土|kyōdo}}`{=mediawiki}.
- In Chinese languages, `{{lang-zh|t=故鄉|s=故乡|p=gùxiāng|labels=no}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{lang-zh|t=家鄉|s=家乡|p=jiāxiāng|labels=no}}`{=mediawiki}.
- In Vietnamese language, *cố hương*.
- In Korean language, *label=none*, *故鄕*
| 459 |
Homeland
| 3 |
13,928 |
# Hershey–Chase experiment
The **Hershey--Chase experiments** were a series of experiments conducted in 1952 by Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase that helped to confirm that DNA is genetic material. While DNA had been known to biologists since 1869, many scientists still assumed at the time that proteins carried the information for inheritance because DNA appeared to be an inert molecule, and, since it is located in the nucleus, its role was considered to be phosphorus storage. In their experiments, Hershey and Chase showed that when bacteriophages, which are composed of DNA and protein, infect bacteria, their DNA enters the host bacterial cell, but most of their protein does not. Hershey and Chase and subsequent discoveries all served to prove that DNA is the hereditary material.
Hershey shared the 1969 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Max Delbrück and Salvador Luria for their \"discoveries concerning the genetic structure of viruses\".
## Historical background {#historical_background}
In the early twentieth century, biologists thought that proteins carried genetic information. This was based on the belief that proteins were more complex than DNA. Phoebus Levene\'s influential \"tetranucleotide hypothesis\", which incorrectly proposed that DNA was a repeating set of identical nucleotides, supported this conclusion. The results of the Avery--MacLeod--McCarty experiment, published in 1944, suggested that DNA was the genetic material, but there was still some hesitation within the general scientific community to accept this, which set the stage for the Hershey--Chase experiment.
Hershey and Chase, along with others who had done related experiments, confirmed that DNA was the biomolecule that carried genetic information. Before that, Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty had shown that DNA led to the transformation of one strain of *Streptococcus pneumoniae* to another. The results of these experiments provided evidence that DNA was the biomolecule that carried genetic information.
| 299 |
Hershey–Chase experiment
| 0 |
13,928 |
# Hershey–Chase experiment
## Methods and results {#methods_and_results}
Hershey and Chase needed to be able to examine different parts of the phages they were studying separately, so they needed to distinguish the phage subsections. Viruses were known to be composed of a protein shell and DNA, so they chose to uniquely label each with a different elemental isotope. This allowed each to be observed and analyzed separately. Since phosphorus is contained in DNA but not amino acids, radioactive phosphorus-32 was used to label the DNA contained in the T2 phage. Radioactive sulfur-35 was used to label the protein sections of the T2 phage, because sulfur is contained in protein but not DNA.
Hershey and Chase inserted the radioactive elements in the bacteriophages by adding the isotopes to separate media within which bacteria were allowed to grow for 4 hours before bacteriophage introduction. When the bacteriophages infected the bacteria, the progeny contained the radioactive isotopes in their structures. This procedure was performed once for the sulfur-labeled phages and once for phosphorus-labeled phages. The labeled progeny were then allowed to infect unlabeled bacteria. The phage coats remained on the outside of the bacteria, while genetic material entered. Disruption of phage from the bacteria by agitation in a blender followed by centrifugation allowed for the separation of the phage coats from the bacteria. These bacteria were lysed to release phage progeny. The progeny of the phages that were labeled with radioactive phosphorus remained labeled, whereas the progeny of the phages labeled with radioactive sulfur were unlabeled. Thus, the Hershey--Chase experiment helped to confirm that DNA, not protein, is the genetic material.
Hershey and Chase showed that the introduction of deoxyribonuclease (referred to as DNase), an enzyme that breaks down DNA, into a solution containing the labeled bacteriophages did not introduce any ^32^P into the solution. This demonstrated that the phage is resistant to the enzyme while intact. Additionally, they were able to plasmolyze the bacteriophages so that they went into osmotic shock, which effectively created a solution containing most of the ^32^P and a heavier solution containing structures called \"ghosts\" that contained the ^35^S and the protein coat of the virus. It was found that these \"ghosts\" could adsorb to bacteria that were susceptible to T2, although they contained no DNA and were simply the remains of the original viral capsule. They concluded that the protein protected the DNA from DNase, but that once the two were separated and the phage was inactivated, the DNase could hydrolyze the phage DNA.
### Experiment and conclusions {#experiment_and_conclusions}
Hershey and Chase were also able to prove that the DNA from the phage is inserted into the bacteria shortly after the virus attaches to its host. Using a high-speed blender they were able to force the bacteriophages from the bacterial cells after adsorption. The lack of ^32^P-labeled DNA remaining in the solution after the bacteriophages had been allowed to adsorb to the bacteria showed that the phage DNA was transferred into the bacterial cell. The presence of almost all the radioactive ^35^S in the solution showed that the protein coat that protects the DNA before adsorption stayed outside the cell.
Hershey and Chase concluded that DNA, not protein, was the genetic material. They determined that a protective protein coat was formed around the bacteriophage, but that the internal DNA is what conferred its ability to produce progeny inside a bacterium. They showed that, in growth, protein has no function, while DNA has some function. They determined this from the amount of radioactive material remaining outside of the cell. Only 20% of the ^32^P remained outside the cell, demonstrating that it was incorporated with DNA in the cell\'s genetic material. All of the ^35^S in the protein coats remained outside the cell, showing it was not incorporated into the cell, and that protein is not the genetic material.
Hershey and Chase\'s experiment concluded that little sulfur-containing material entered the bacterial cell. However no specific conclusions can be made regarding whether material that is sulfur-free enters the bacterial cell after phage adsorption. Further research was necessary to conclude that it was solely bacteriophages\' DNA that entered the cell and not a combination of protein and DNA where the protein did not contain any sulfur.
| 705 |
Hershey–Chase experiment
| 1 |
13,928 |
# Hershey–Chase experiment
## Discussion
### Confirmation
Hershey and Chase concluded that protein was not likely to be the hereditary genetic material. However, they did not make any conclusions regarding the specific function of DNA as hereditary material, and only said that it must have some undefined role.
Confirmation and clarity came a year later in 1953, when James D. Watson and Francis Crick correctly hypothesized, in their journal article \"Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid\", the double helix structure of DNA, and suggested the copying mechanism by which DNA functions as hereditary material. Furthermore, Watson and Crick suggested that DNA, the genetic material, is responsible for the synthesis of the thousands of proteins found in cells. They had made this proposal based on the structural similarity that exists between the two macromolecules: both protein and DNA are linear sequences of monomers (amino acids and nucleotides, respectively).
### Other experiments {#other_experiments}
Once the Hershey--Chase experiment was published, the scientific community generally acknowledged that DNA was the genetic code material. This discovery led to a more detailed investigation of DNA to determine its composition as well as its 3D structure. Using X-ray crystallography, the structure of DNA was discovered by James Watson and Francis Crick with the help of previously documented experimental evidence by Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin. Knowledge of the structure of DNA led scientists to examine the nature of genetic coding and, in turn, understand the process of protein synthesis. George Gamow proposed that the genetic code was composed of sequences of three DNA base pairs known as triplets or codons which represent one of the twenty amino acids. Genetic coding helped researchers to understand the mechanism of gene expression, the process by which information from a gene is used in protein synthesis. Since then, much research has been conducted to modulate steps in the gene expression process. These steps include transcription, RNA splicing, translation, and post-translational modification which are used to control the chemical and structural nature of proteins. Moreover, genetic engineering gives engineers the ability to directly manipulate the genetic materials of organisms using recombinant DNA techniques. The first recombinant DNA molecule was created by Paul Berg in 1972 when he combined DNA from the monkey virus SV40 with that of the lambda phage.
Experiments on hereditary material during the time of the Hershey--Chase experiment often used bacteriophages as a model organism. Bacteriophages lend themselves to experiments on hereditary material because they incorporate their genetic material into their host cell\'s genetic material (making them useful tools), they multiply quickly, and they are easily collected by researchers.
| 435 |
Hershey–Chase experiment
| 2 |
13,928 |
# Hershey–Chase experiment
## Legacy
The Hershey--Chase experiment, its predecessors, such as the Avery--MacLeod--McCarty experiment, and successors served to unequivocally establish that hereditary information was carried by DNA. This finding has numerous applications in forensic science, crime investigation and genealogy. It provided the background knowledge for further applications in DNA forensics, where DNA fingerprinting uses data originating from DNA, not protein sources, to deduce genetic variation
| 66 |
Hershey–Chase experiment
| 3 |
13,963 |
# Hultsfred Municipality
**Hultsfred Municipality** (*Hultsfreds kommun*) is a municipality in Kalmar County, in south-eastern Sweden. The seat is in the town of Hultsfred.
The present municipality was created in 1971 through the amalgamation of the market town (*köping*) of Hultsfred (instituted in 1927) with a number of surrounding municipalities. In 1863 there were eight entities in the area.
Hultsfred is known as the site of a major rock festival in Sweden, the Hultsfred Festival.
## History
In the age known as the Nordic Bronze Age, the area had some shipping of furs to northern Germany and the Roman army, but not much is known from that time other than the area being inhabited; there have also been older finds from 3000 to 4000 BC. However, from the medieval age, around 1100 AD, a few churches remain.
The area continued to be inhabited mainly by farmers until the 20th century. In the 17th and 18th there was some production of iron in Kalmar County, totalling about 10 mines; of those 2 were located in the municipality of Hultsfred. Hultsfred was a center for some military exercising companies during the 19th century, and some remaining building can be visited in the vicinity of Silverån. When the railroads through Sweden were built late in that century, Hultsfred received a population boost.
There are several folks museums around the area that keeps trace of its history.
## Geography
Basically every one of the localities of Hultsfred Municipality are situated on the railway. Besides Hultsfred, in the mid north of the municipality, there are the towns of Virserum in the south-west and other ever smaller settlements such as Lönneberga, Silverdalen and Målilla. The population of the municipality has however been decreasing with some 2,000 people in the last 10 years, as many people move to larger cities, causing a decrease in nativity.
Much of the geography is taken up with forests, a notability for the entire province of Småland, with some few scattered areas suitable for agriculture.
### Localities
There are eight urban areas (also called a Tätort or locality) in Hultsfred Municipality.
In the table the localities are listed according to the size of the population as of December 31, 2005. The municipal seat is in bold characters.
\# Locality Population
---- --------------- ------------
1 **Hultsfred** 5,305
2 Virserum 1,847
3 Målilla 1,605
4 Mörlunda 956
5 Silverdalen 791
6 Järnforsen 539
7 Vena 380
8 Rosenfors 308
## Demographics
This is a demographic table based on Hultsfred Municipality\'s electoral districts in the 2022 Swedish general election sourced from SVT\'s election platform, in turn taken from SCB official statistics.
In total there were 14,027 residents, including 10,283 Swedish citizens of voting age. 47.4% voted for the left coalition and 50.9% for the right coalition. Indicators are in percentage points except population totals and income.
Location
------------------------------ ------------------------------ -------------------------------- -------------------------------- ------------------------------ ------------------------------ ------------------------------ ------------------------------ ------------------------------ ----
data-sort-type=\"number\" \| data-sort-type=\"number\" \| data-sort-type=\"number\" \| % data-sort-type=\"number\" \| % data-sort-type=\"number\" \| data-sort-type=\"number\" \| data-sort-type=\"number\" \| data-sort-type=\"number\" \| data-sort-type=\"number\" \|
Ekeberg 1,664 1,270 59.6 37.5 73 68 32 21,173 24
Hultsfred N 2,544 1,907 49.6 49.1 82 81 19 25,421 26
Hultsfred S 1,606 1,033 56.6 41.2 65 54 46 19,789 26
Järeda 569 426 42.9 53.6 79 80 20 24,270 22
Lönneberga 1,015 776 44.9 53.3 78 80 20 22,293 29
Målilla 1,796 1,309 45.5 53.6 75 80 20 21,859 22
Mörlunda 1,542 1,130 40.9 57.6 78 80 20 20,530 27
Vena 1,076 829 41.7 57.0 87 92 8 24,461 29
Virserum 2,215 1,603 41.3 57
| 589 |
Hultsfred Municipality
| 0 |
13,967 |
# Habakkuk
**Habakkuk** or **Habacuc** is the main figure described in the Book of Habakkuk, the eighth of the Twelve Minor Prophets in the Hebrew Bible. He is traditionally regarded as a prophet active around 612 BCE.
Almost all information about Habakkuk is drawn from the book of the Bible bearing his name, with no biographical details provided other than his title, \"the prophet\". The name "Habakkuk" appears only in Habakkuk 1:1 and 3:1 in the Hebrew Bible, has uncertain etymology, and may derive from an Akkadian word for a fragrant plant or the Hebrew root meaning "embrace." He is mentioned in the deuterocanonical Additions to Daniel, and outside the Bible, he is mentioned over the centuries in the forms of Christian and Rabbinic tradition.
Habakkuk's tomb is claimed by multiple sites, notably a traditional hillside location in northern Israel near Kadarim and a mausoleum in Tuyserkan, Iran.
Habakkuk is commemorated in Christianity with feast days and celebrated through notable religious artworks by artists like Donatello and Gian Lorenzo Bernini. In Islam, he is recognized as a prophet whose writings are interpreted as foretelling the coming of Muhammad and the revelation of the Quran.
## Name
The name Habakkuk, or Habacuc, appears in the Hebrew Bible only in Habakkuk 1:1 and 3:1. In the Masoretic Text, it is written in *חֲבַקּוּק* (Standard *Ḥavaqquq* Tiberian *Ḥăḇaqqûq*). This name does not occur elsewhere. The Septuagint transcribes his name into Greek as *Ἀμβακοὺμ* (*Ambakoum*), and the Vulgate transcribes it into Latin as *Abacuc*.
The etymology of the name is not clear, and its form has no parallel in Hebrew. The name is possibly related to the Akkadian *khambbaququ* (*𒄩𒄠𒁀𒄣𒄣*, *ḫâmbaququ*), the name of a fragrant plant, or the Hebrew root *חבק*, meaning \"embrace\".
| 290 |
Habakkuk
| 0 |
13,967 |
# Habakkuk
## Life
Almost nothing is known about Habakkuk, aside from what is stated within the book of the Bible bearing his name, or those inferences that may be drawn from that book. No biographical details are provided other than his title \"the prophet\".
For almost every other prophet, more information is given, such as the name of the prophet\'s hometown, his occupation, or information concerning his parentage or tribe. For Habakkuk, however, there is no reliable account of any of these. Although his home is not identified, scholars conclude that Habakkuk lived in Jerusalem at the time he wrote his prophecy. Further analysis has provided an approximate date for his prophecy and possibilities concerning his activities and background.
Beyond the Bible, considerable conjecture has been put forward over the centuries in the form of Christian and Rabbinic tradition, but such accounts are dismissed by modern scholars as speculative and apocryphal.
The Septuagint translation of Daniel in the Codex Chisianus refers to him as \"the son of Jesus of the tribe of Levi\".
### Biblical account {#biblical_account}
Because the book of Habakkuk consists of five oracles about the Chaldeans (Babylonians), and the Chaldean rise to power is dated circa 612 BC, it is assumed he was active about that time, making him an early contemporary of Jeremiah and Zephaniah. Jewish sources, however, do not group him with those two prophets, who are often placed together, so it is possible that he was slightly earlier than these prophets.
Because the final chapter of his book is a song, it is sometimes assumed that he was a member of the Tribe of Levi, who served as musicians in Solomon\'s Temple.
### Tradition
A reference to \"the prophet Habakkuk\" appears in Bel and the Dragon, which is part of the deuterocanonical Additions to Daniel. Verses 33--39 place Habakkuk in Judea; after making some stew, he is instructed by an angel of the Lord to take the stew to Daniel, who is in the lion\'s den in Babylon. After Habakkuk proclaims that he is unaware of either the den or Babylon, the angel transports Habakkuk to the lion\'s den. Habakkuk gives Daniel the food to sustain him, and he is immediately taken back to \"his place\" or \"his own country\".
Habakkuk is also mentioned in the *Lives of the Prophets*, which also mentions his time in Babylon.
According to the Zohar (Volume 1, page 8b),`{{clarify|date=October 2022}}`{=mediawiki} Habakkuk is the boy born to the Shunamite woman through Elisha\'s blessing: `{{Blockquote|1= And he said, About this season, according to the time of life, thou shalt ''' embrace''' ({{Script/Hebrew|חֹבֶקֶת}} – ''ḥōḇeqeṯ'') a son. And she said, Nay, my lord, [thou] man of God, do not lie unto thine handmaid.|source=''Bible'', 2 Kings 4:16<ref>''Bible'', {{Bibleverse|2|Kings|4:16|HE}}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
## Works
The only work attributed to Habakkuk is the short biblical text which bears his name. The Book of Habakkuk consists of the taunting riddle, which are five woes about the Chaldeans (Babylonians) in chapter 2, and a song of praise to God in chapter 3.
Habakkuk is unusual among the prophets in that he openly questions the working of God. In the first part of the first chapter, the prophet sees the injustice among his people and asks why God does not take action: \"O LORD, how long shall I cry for help, and you will not hear? Or cry to you \"Violence!\" and you will not save?\"
| 566 |
Habakkuk
| 1 |
13,967 |
# Habakkuk
## Tombs
The final resting place of Habakkuk has been claimed at multiple locations. The fifth-century Christian historian Sozomen claimed that the relics of Habakkuk were found at Cela near Bayt Jibrin, when God revealed their location to Zebennus, bishop of Eleutheropolis, in a dream. Currently, one location in Israel and one in Iran lay claim to being the burial site of the prophet.
### Tomb in Israel {#tomb_in_israel}
The burial place of Habakkuk is identified by Jewish tradition as a hillside in the Upper Galilee region of northern Israel, close to the villages Kadarim and Hukok, about six miles southwest of Safed and twelve miles north of Mount Tabor. A small stone building, erected during the 20th century, protects the tomb. Tradition dating as early as the 12th century AD holds that Habakkuk\'s tomb is at this location, but the tomb may also be of a local sheikh of Yaquq, a name related to the biblical place named \"Hukkok\", whose pronunciation and spelling in Hebrew are close to \"Habakkuk\". Archaeological findings in this location include several burial places dated to the Second Temple period.
### Persian shrine {#persian_shrine}
A mausoleum southeast of the city of Tuyserkan in the west of Iran is also believed to be Habakkuk\'s burial place. It is protected by Iran\'s Cultural Heritage, Handcrafts and Tourism Organization. The Organization\'s guide to the Hamadan province states that Habakkuk was believed to be a guardian to Solomon\'s Temple, and that he was captured by the Babylonians and remained in their prison for some years. After being freed by Cyrus the Great, he went to Ecbatana and remained there until he died, and was buried somewhere nearby, in what is today Tuyserkan. Habakkuk is called both Habaghugh and Hayaghugh by the Muslim locals.
The surrounding shrine may date to the period of the Seljuq Empire (11--12th century); it consists of an octagonal wall and conical dome. Underneath the shrine is a hidden basement with three floors. In the center of the shrine\'s courtyard is the grave where Habakkuk is said to be buried. A stone upon the grave is inscribed in both Hebrew and Persian stating that the prophet\'s father was Shioua Lovit, and his mother was Lesho Namit. Both Muslims and Jews visit it to pay their respects.
| 382 |
Habakkuk
| 2 |
13,967 |
# Habakkuk
## Commemoration
### Christian
On the Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar, his feast day is December 2. In the Roman Catholic Church, the twelve minor prophets are read in the Roman Breviary during the fourth and fifth weeks of November, which are the last two weeks of the liturgical year, and his feast day is January 15. In 2011, he was commemorated with the other Minor Prophets in the calendar of saints of the Armenian Apostolic Church on February 8.
Habakkuk has also been commemorated in sculpture. In 1435, the Florentine artist Donatello created a sculpture of the prophet for the bell tower of Florence. This statue, nicknamed *Zuccone* (\"Big Head\") because of the shape of the head, now resides in the Museo dell\'Opera del Duomo. The Basilica of Santa Maria del Popolo in Rome contains a Baroque sculpture of Habakkuk by the 17th-century artist Bernini. Between 1800 and 1805, the Brazilian sculptor Aleijadinho completed a soapstone sculpture of Habakkuk as part of his *Twelve Prophets*. The figures are arranged around the forecourt and monumental stairway in front of the *Santuário do Bom Jesus do Matosinhos* at Congonhas.
### Islam
#### Ali al-Ridha debate at al-Ma\'mun\'s court {#ali_al_ridha_debate_at_al_mamuns_court}
Although not mentioned by name in the Qu\'ran, Habakkuk (*translit=Hab\'aqūq*), is recognized as an Islamic prophet because he is believed to herald the coming of last prophet and divine scripture Muhammad and the Qu\'ran in the Book of Habakkuk.
In the court of Al-Ma\'mun, Imam Ali al-Ridha, a descendant of Muhammad and chief Islamic scholar in the time of the Abbasid Caliphs, was asked by the Exilarch to prove that Muhammad was a prophet through the Torah. Imam Ridha asks \"Do you know the prophet Habakkuk?\" He said, \"Yes. I know of him.\" al-Ridha said, \"and this is narrated in your book, \'Allah brought down speech on Mount Faran, and the heavens were filled with the glorification of Muhammad and his community. His horse carries him over water as it carries him over land. He will bring a new book to us after the ruin of the holy house \[the temple in Jerusalem\].\' What is meant by this book is the Qur\'an. Do you know this and believe in it?\" The Exilarch said, \"Habakkuk the prophet has said this and we do not deny what he said.\"
#### Further evidence of prophethood {#further_evidence_of_prophethood}
Although the Quran only mentions around twenty-five prophets by name, and alludes to a few others, it has been a cardinal doctrine of Islam that many more prophets were sent by God who are not mentioned in the scripture. Thus, Muslims have traditionally had no problem accepting those other Hebrew prophets not mentioned in the Quran or hadith as legitimate prophets of God, especially as the Quran itself states: \"Surely We sent down the Torah (to Moses), wherein is guidance and light; thereby the prophets (who followed him), who had surrendered themselves, gave judgment for those who were Jewish, as did the masters and the rabbis, following such portion of God\'s Book as they were given to keep and were witnesses to,\" with this passage having often been interpreted by Muslims to include within the phrase \"prophets\" an allusion to all the prophetic figures of the Jewish scriptural portion of the nevi\'im, that is to say all the prophets of Israel after Moses and Aaron. Thus, Islamic authors have often alluded to Habakkuk as a prophet in their works, and followed the pronunciation of his name with the traditional salutations of peace bestowed by Muslims onto prophets after the utterance of their names.
Some medieval Muslim scholars even provided commentaries on the biblical Book of Habakkuk, with the primary purpose of showing that the prophet had predicted the coming of Muhammad in Habakkuk 3:2--6, in a manner akin to the earlier Christian tradition of seeing in the book\'s prophecies allusions to the advent of Christ. For example, the medieval exegete Najm al-Dīn al-Ṭūfī (d. 716 AH/1316 CE) provided a commentary on select verses from the Book of Habakkuk, saying the prophet\'s words \"for his rays become light\" (Habakkuk 3:4) alluded to the spread of Islam; that his words \"his glory comes to town, his power appears in his courts\" (Habakkuk 3:4) referred to Muhammad\'s stay in the town of Yathrib and the help he received there from the ansar; and that his words \"death goes before him\" (Habakkuk 3:5). Likewise, Habakkuk 3:5--6 also received similar commentaries from medieval Islamic thinkers.
The famous and revered Persian Islamic scholar and polymath Ibn Qutaybah, who served as a judge during the Abbasid Caliphate, said of the prophet Habakkuk: \"Among the words of Habakkuk, who prophesied in the days of Daniel, Habakkuk says: \'God came from Teman, and the holy one from the mountains of Paran and the earth was filled with the sanctification of the praiseworthy one (*aḥmad*, which is a name of Muhammad in Islam), and with his right hand he exercised power over the earth and the necks of the nations,{{\'\"}} which has been interpreted by scholars to be a clear allusion to Habakkuk 3:3-4. Elsewhere, the same scholar glossed Habakkuk 3:4, 15 as follows: \"The earth shines with his light, and his horses launched into the sea\", again interpreting the prophecy to be an allusion to the coming of Muhammad. One further prophecy of Habakkuk which Ibn Qutaybah cited, from extra-canonical Hebraic literature, was \"You shall be exceedingly filled in your bows \... O Praised One (Muhammad).\" This final prophecy attributed to Habakkuk was also referred to by later scholars like Ibn al-Jawzi and Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah
| 929 |
Habakkuk
| 3 |
13,968 |
# Haggai
**Haggai** or **Aggeus** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|æ|ɡ| aɪ}}`{=mediawiki}; *חַגַּי* -- *Ḥaggay*; `{{Literal translation|One who celebrates}}`{=mediawiki}; Koine Greek: Ἀγγαῖος; *Aggaeus*) was a Hebrew prophet active during the building of the Second Temple in Jerusalem, one of the twelve minor prophets in the Hebrew Bible, and the author or subject of the Book of Haggai. He is known for his prophecy in 520 BCE, commanding the Jews to rebuild the Temple. He was the first of three post-exilic prophets from the Neo-Babylonian Exile of the House of Judah (with Zechariah, his contemporary, and Malachi, who lived about one hundred years later), who belonged to the period of Jewish history which began after the return from captivity in Babylon. His name means \"my holidays\".
## Life
Scarcely anything is known of his personal history, with the book of Haggai offering no biographical details about his ancestry or anything else in his life outside the prophecies of 520 BCE. Haggai is only mentioned in one other book of the Bible, the book of Ezra. He may have been one of the captives taken to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar. Some commenters suggest he may have been an old man, and seen the previous temple before its destruction due to what he says about the former glory of the Temple in Haggai 2:3. He began God\'s prophecy about sixteen years after the return of the Jews to Judah (ca. c. 520 BCE). The work of rebuilding the temple had been put to a stop through the intrigues of the Samaritans. After having been suspended for eighteen years, the work was resumed through the efforts of Haggai and Zechariah. They exhorted the people, which roused them from their lethargy, and induced them to take advantage of a change in the policy of the Persian government under Darius I.
## Haggai prophecies {#haggai_prophecies}
Haggai prophesied in late 520 BCE Jerusalem, about the people needing to complete building the Temple. He has four messages, which begin on August 29 and culminate on December 18. The new Temple was bound to exceed the awesomeness of the previous Temple. He claimed if the Temple was not built there would be poverty, famine and drought affecting the Jewish nation.
There is a controversy regarding who edited Haggai\'s works. According to scholars, they credit it to his students. However, Jewish traditions state that the Men of the Great Assembly were responsible for the edits. The Men of the Great Assembly are traditionally known for continuing the work of Ezra and Nehemiah.
## Haggai and officials of his time {#haggai_and_officials_of_his_time}
Haggai supported the officials of his time, specifically Zerubbabel, the governor of Judah, and Joshua the High Priest. In the Book of Haggai, God refers to Zerubbabel as \"my servant\" as King David was, and says he will make him as a \"signet ring\", as King Jehoiachin was. The signet ring symbolized a ring worn on the hand of Yahweh, showing that a king held divine favour. Thus, Haggai is implicitly, but not explicitly, saying that Zerubbabel would preside over a restored Davidic kingdom.
## Jewish Persian diplomacy {#jewish_persian_diplomacy}
The Persian Empire was growing weak, and Haggai saw time as an opportunity to restore the Davidic Kingdom. He believed that the Kingdom of David was able to rise and take back their part in Jewish issues. Haggai\'s message was directed to the nobles and Zerubbabel, as he would be the first Davidic monarch restored. He saw this as important because the Kingdom would be an end to Jewish idol worship.
## Haggai in Jewish tradition {#haggai_in_jewish_tradition}
Haggai, in rabbinic writing, is often referred to as one of the men of the Great Assembly. The Babylonian Talmud (5th century CE) mentions a tradition concerning the prophet Haggai, saying that he gave instruction concerning three things: (a) that it is not lawful for a man whose brother married his daughter (as a co-wife in a polygamous relationship) to consummate a levirate marriage with one of his deceased brother\'s co-wives (a teaching accepted by the School of Hillel, but rejected by the School of Shammai); (b) that Jews living in the regions of Ammon and Moab separate from their produce the poor man\'s tithe during the Sabbatical year; (c) that they accept of proselytes from the peoples of Tadmor (Palmyra) and from the people of Ḳardu.
| 717 |
Haggai
| 0 |
13,968 |
# Haggai
## Liturgical commemoration {#liturgical_commemoration}
On the Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar, Haggai is commemorated as a saint and prophet. His feast day is 16 December (for those churches which follow the traditional Julian Calendar, 16 December currently falls on 29 December of the modern Gregorian Calendar). He is also commemorated, in common with the other righteous persons of the Old Testament, on the Sunday of the Holy Fathers (the second Sunday before the Nativity of the Lord).
Haggai is commemorated with the other Minor prophets in the Calendar of saints of the Armenian Apostolic Church on 31 July.
## Haggai in Freemasonry {#haggai_in_freemasonry}
In the Masonic degree of Holy Royal Arch Haggai is one of the Three Principals of the Chapter. Named after Haggai the prophet and accompanies Zerubbabel, Prince of the People, and Joshua, the son of Josedech, the High Priest
| 143 |
Haggai
| 1 |
13,978 |
# Hopwood Award
The **Hopwood Awards** are a major scholarship program at the University of Michigan, founded by Avery Hopwood.
Under the terms of the will of Avery Hopwood, a prominent American dramatist and member of the class of 1905 of the University of Michigan, one-fifth of Mr. Hopwood\'s estate was given to the regents for the encouragement of creative work in writing. The first awards were made in 1931, and today, the Hopwood Program offers around \$120,000 in prizes every year to aspiring writers at the University of Michigan. According to Nicholas Delbanco, UM English professor and former director of the Hopwood Awards Program, \"This is the oldest and best-known series of writing prizes in the country, and it is a very good indicator of future success.\"
## Contests and prizes {#contests_and_prizes}
### The Graduate and Undergraduate Hopwood Contests {#the_graduate_and_undergraduate_hopwood_contests}
Awards are offered in these genres: drama/screenplay, essay, the novel, short fiction, nonfiction, and poetry. These awards are classified under two categories, graduate or undergraduate, except the novel and drama/screenplay, which are combined categories. Award amounts for this contest vary, but usually fall in the range of \$1000 to \$6000.
### Summer Hopwood Contest {#summer_hopwood_contest}
The Summer Hopwood Contest was discontinued in 2017, but archives of winning Summer Hopwood manuscripts continue to be held in the Hopwood Room. When it ran, the contest was open only to students who took writing courses during spring and summer terms. Awards were given in the categories of drama or screenplay, nonfiction, short fiction, and poetry. Novels were not eligible for the Summer Hopwood Contest.
### Hopwood Underclassmen Contest {#hopwood_underclassmen_contest}
This contest is open only to freshmen and sophomores who are enrolled in writing courses. Awards are given in the categories of nonfiction, fiction, and poetry.
## Hopwood Program {#hopwood_program}
The Hopwood Program administers the Hopwood Award, and several other awards in writing. It is located in the Hopwood Room at the University of Michigan and serves the needs and interests of Hopwood contestants. The room was established by Professor Roy W. Cowden, director of the Hopwood Awards from 1933 to 1952, who generously contributed a part of his library, which has grown through the addition of many volumes of contemporary literature. In addition to housing the winning manuscripts from the past years of the contests, the Hopwood Room has a lending library of 20th-century literature, a generous supply of noncirculating current periodicals, some reference books on how to get published, information on graduate and summer writing programs, and a collection of screen plays donated by former Hopwood winner Lawrence Kasdan.
## Prizes administered by the Hopwood Program {#prizes_administered_by_the_hopwood_program}
The Hopwood Program also administers these writing contests:
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------+
| - The Kasdan Scholarship in Creative Writing | - The Helen S. and John Wagner Prize |
| - Arthur Miller Award of the U-M Club of New York Scholarship | - The Robert F. Haugh Prize |
| - The Jeffery L. Weisberg Poetry Prize | - The Meader Family Award |
| - The Chamberlain Award for Creative Writing | - The Naomi Saferstein Literary Award |
| - The Dennis McIntyre Poetry Prize | - The Leonard and Eileen Newman Writing Prizes |
| - The Andrea Beauchamp Prize | - The Paul and Sonia Handleman Poetry Award |
| | - The Keith Taylor Award for Excellence in Poetry |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------+
| 561 |
Hopwood Award
| 0 |
13,978 |
# Hopwood Award
## Notable Hopwood winners {#notable_hopwood_winners}
- Max Apple, (BA 1963). Author of: \"The Oranging of America\" (1976, short stories), \"Zip: A Novel of the Left and the Right\" (1978, novel), \"Three Stories\" (1983, short stories), \"Free Agents\" (1984, novel), \"The Propheteers: A Novel\" (1987, novel), \"Roommates: My Grandfather\'s Story\" (1994, biography, of Apple\'s grandfather)
- Brett Ellen Block, (BFA) award-winning short story author and novelist.
- Victoria Chang, (BA 1992) poet and children\'s writer. Recipient of 2017 Guggenheim Fellowship.
- John Ciardi, (MA 1939) author of: A Browser\'s Dictionary, A Second Browser\'s Dictionary, A Third Browser\'s Dictionary, The Collected Poems of John Ciardi, Good Words to You: An All-New Dictionary and Native\'s Guide to the Unknown, American Language, How Does a Poem Mean?, His translation of The Inferno, Limericks (with Isaac Asimov), You Read to Me, I\'ll Read to You, (illustrated by Edward Gorey)
- Richard Cohen (BA 1973). Novelist.
- Harold Courlander, (BA 1931) First winner of the award & author of The African, on which much of Roots was later based.
- Christopher Paul Curtis (BA 1999) Newbery and Coretta Scott King award-winning author of: The Watsons Go To Birmingham-1963 (1996, novel), Bud, Not Buddy (1999, novel), Elijah Of Buxton (2006, novel)
- Rebecca Frazier, (BA 1998), bluegrass singer. Received the award twice.
- Mary Gaitskill, (BA) Bad Behavior (1988), Two Girls, Fat and Thin (1991), Because They Wanted To (1997) (stories), Veronica (2005).
- Peggy Goodin, (AB 1945) author of *Clemetine*, *Take Care of My Little Girl*; novels adapted multiple times to film
- Steve Hamilton, (BA 1983), author of \"Blood Is the Sky\", \"North of Nowhere\", \"A Cold Day in Paradise\", \"Winter of the Wolf Moon\", \"The Hunting Wind\", \"North of Nowhere\", and \"Ice Run\". \"A Cold Day In Paradise,\" won the 1999 Edgar Allan Poe Award, one of the mystery genre\'s most prestigious awards.
- Cynthia Haven, author of \"Czesław Miłosz: A California Life\" (2021) nominated for a Northern California Book Award, and \"Evolution of Desire: A Life of René Girard\" (2018).
- Robert Hayden, (M.A. 1944). Former Poet Laureate of the United States.
- Garrett Hongo, a finalist for the 1989 Pulitzer Prize for Poetry and winner of the 1987 Lamont Poetry Prize.
- Lawrence Kasdan (MA) three-times Academy Awards-nominated screenwriter and director.
- Laura Kasischke (BA 1983, M.F.A. 1987) winner of the National Book Critics Circle Award for Poetry and a Pushcart prize.
- Jane Kenyon, (BA 1970, MA 1972). New Hampshire\'s poet laureate. Winner of a PEN/Voelcker Award for Poetry
- Elizabeth Kostova, (MFA) Novel-in-Progress The Historian
- Arthur Miller (BA 1938) Pulitzer Prize for Drama winning playwright.
- Howard Moss, won the Pulitzer Prize for Poetry for *Selected Poems* in 1971.
- Davi Napoleon, (BA 1966, MA 1968; known then as Davi Skurnick), theater historian and critic, author of *Chelsea on the Edge: The Adventures of an American Theater.*
- Celeste Ng, (MFA) Novelist. Author of Little Fires Everywhere.
- Chigozie Obioma, (MFA) Nigerian writer. Finalist for 2015 Man Booker Prize and The Guardian First Book Award.
- Frank O\'Hara, (M.A. 1951), poet. Leading figure of the New York School. Author of: \"A City Winter and Other Poems\", \"Oranges: 12 pastorals\", \"Second Avenue\", \"Odes\", \"Lunch Poems. Love Poems\".
- Patrick O\'Keeffe, (MFA), winner of the Chamberlain Award for Creative Writing for \"Above the Bar.\" (administered by the Hopwood Program) and instructor in the University of Michigan\'s Sweetland Writing Center has won the 2005 Story Prize, the richest U.S. prize for short fiction, for \"The Hill Road\", a collection of four novellas set in a fictional Irish farming village. O\'Keeffe\'s writing has been compared to the Irish short-story and novel writer William Trevor.
- Marge Piercy, (BA) Poetry and Fiction (1957); author of seventeen volumes of poems
- Paisley Rekdal, (MFA) poet and essayist. Poet Laureate of Utah.
- Theodore Roethke, (B.A. 1930, M.A. 1932) regarded as one of the most accomplished and influential poets of his generation. Winner of a Pulitzer Prize for Poetry and two National Book Awards for Poetry.
- Betty Smith (B.A.) Author of *A Tree Grows in Brooklyn*
- Danez Smith (MFA) Poet. Finalist for 2017 National Book Award for Poetry.
- Keith Waldrop (Ph.D. 1964) poet and translator. Winner of a National Book Award for Poetry.
- Ronald Wallace
- Jesmyn Ward, (MFA 2005), novelist. Two-time winner of National Book Award for Fiction (2011, 2017).
- Nancy Willard (B.A. 1958; Ph.D.) author of eleven poetry books. Newbery Medal for \"A Visit to William Blakes\' Inn,\" finalist for National Book Award, O\'Henry Award, Devins Poetry Award
| 762 |
Hopwood Award
| 1 |
13,983 |
# Hawick
**Hawick** (`{{IPAc-en|audio=En-uk-Hawick.ogg|h|ɔɪ|k}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|HOYK}}`{=mediawiki}; *Haaick*; *Hamhaig*) is a town in the Scottish Borders council area and historic county of Roxburghshire in the east Southern Uplands of Scotland. It is 10 mi south-west of Jedburgh and 8.9 mi south-south-east of Selkirk. It is one of the furthest towns from the sea in Scotland, in the heart of Teviotdale, and is the biggest town in Roxburghshire. The town is at the confluence of the Slitrig Water with the River Teviot.
The town was formally established in the 16th century, but was previously the site of historic settlement going back hundreds of years. By the late 17th century, the town began to grow significantly, especially during the Industrial Revolution and Victorian era as a centre for the production of textiles, with a focus on knitting and weaving, involving materials such as tweed and cashmere. By the late 20th century, textile production had declined but the town remains an important regional centre for shopping, tourism and services. Hawick\'s architecture is distinctive in that it has many sandstone buildings with slate roofs. The town has several museums, parks and heritage sites. The town hosts the annual Alchemy Film and Moving Image Festival.
## History
The name Hawick is Old English in origin, first recorded in 1167 and translates as \"enclosed farm\" or \"enclosed hamlet\". The origin of the name of Hawick was first researched in the 1860s by James Murray, a local teacher and later the primary editor of the *Oxford English Dictionary.* The town has a long history of habitation being settled at the confluence of Slitrig Water and the River Teviot. The west end of the town contains \"the Motte\", the remains of a likely 12th century Scoto-Norman motte-and-bailey castle.
On 20 June 1342, as Alexander Ramsay of Dalhousie according to the duty of his office as Sheriff of Teviotsdale was holding court in the church of Hawick, William Douglas, Lord of Liddesdale came with an armed retinue and entered the church. He was courteously welcomed. Douglas and his men attacked Ramsay and dragged him bleeding and in chains to Hermitage Castle; It is generally assumed because Douglas believed he should be Sheriff of Teviotdale. There Ramsay was imprisoned in a dungeon where he died of starvation.
The origin of Hawick being formally declared a town are said to originate with the Battle of Hornshole which was fought in 1514 between an English raiding party and young locals from Hawick. In 2014, on the 500th anniversary of the battle, some 1,800 children dressed in period costumes re-enacted the battle. The oldest official document of the town is a deed dated 11 October 1537 in which the town was re-declared a free burgh since time immemorial.
St Mary\'s and Old Parish Church is the oldest church in the town, being constructed in 1764 on the site of an earlier 13th century church. The church was extensively damaged by fire in the late 19th century but was reconstructed in a similar style. The cemetery contains 17th and 18th century gravestones, as well as an elaborate ironwork memorial gate given by the town council.
Hawick developed in the late 18th and 19th centuries as an important town in the manufacture of textiles and knitwear. The first knitting machines were brought to Hawick in 1771 by John Hardie, building on an existing carpet manufacturing trade and with a view to expanding into the production of stockings. As a result of a decline in the stocking trade by 1815, some weaving manufacturers had set up in the town using resources from the stocking trade. These industries continued to grow in size, when in the early 1830s, the term \"Tweed\" originated from the town as a result of a miscommunication of twill for the River Tweed. The town subsequently focused on the manufacturer of different textiles, hosiery and knitwear, including cashmere, adapting to different patterns and materials as fashions changed. In the 1930s, over 1200 persons were employed in producing knitwear in the town. However, by the late 20th century, changing production methods, costs and tastes resulted in the decline of the textile industries to all but a few small businesses.
July 2020 saw the start of work on a £92m flood-defence scheme. But in October 2021, with engineering work still in progress, the town was severely affected by heavy rainfall and subsequent flooding.
## Governance
Local government services for Hawick are provided by Scottish Borders Council. There is also a community council covering the town.
Hawick was designated a burgh of regality in 1669 and became a police burgh in 1868. Hawick Town Hall on the High Street was built in 1886, designed by James Campbell Walker in the Scottish baronial style.
When elected county councils were created in 1890 under the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1889, the burgh of Hawick was deemed capable of running its own affairs and so was excluded from the jurisdiction of Roxburghshire County Council. Further local government reform in 1930 brought the burgh of Hawick within the area controlled by the county council, with the town being reclassified as a small burgh, ceding most of its functions to the county council.
In 1975 local government across Scotland was reformed under the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973. The burghs and counties were abolished as administrative areas, replaced with a two-tier system of upper-tier regions and lower-tier districts. Hawick therefore became part of the Roxburgh district within the Borders region. Roxburgh District Council used Hawick Town Hall as its headquarters. Further local government reform in 1996 abolished the regions and districts, since when Hawick has been administered by Scottish Borders Council.
| 938 |
Hawick
| 0 |
13,983 |
# Hawick
## Economy
The companies William Lockie, Hawico, Hawick Knitwear, Johnstons of Elgin, Lyle & Scott, Peter Scott, Pringle of Scotland, and Scott and Charters, have had and in many cases still have manufacturing plants in Hawick, producing luxury cashmere and merino wool knitwear. Engineering firm Turnbull and Scott had their headquarters in an Elizabethan-style listed building on Commercial Road before moving to Burnfoot.
In recent times, unemployment has been an issue in Hawick. The rate of unemployment exceeded the average for the Scottish Borders between 2014 and 2017. The closure of once-significant employers, including mills like Peter Scott\'s and Pringle\'s have reduced the number of jobs in the town. The population has declined partly because of this; at 13,730 in 2016, it was at its lowest since the 1800s. Despite efforts to improve the economic situation, unemployment and poverty remain relatively high, with the number of children living in poverty in the town one-tenth higher than the average for the Borders region in 2017. Developments such as a new business centre, which opened in 2024, an Aldi supermarket, and distillery, which opened in 2018--19, have benefitted Hawick. Despite this, continued business closures, for example that of Homebase and the Original Factory Store in 2018, suggest continued economic decline for the town.
## Transport
Hawick lies in the centre of the valley of the Teviot. The A7 Edinburgh--Carlisle road passes through the town, with main roads also leading to Berwick-upon-Tweed (the A698) and Newcastle upon Tyne (the A6088, which joins the A68 at the Carter Bar, 16 mi south-east of Hawick).
The town lost its rail service in 1969, when, as part of the Beeching Axe, the Waverley Route from Carlisle to Edinburgh via Hawick railway station was closed. It was then said to be the farthest large town from a railway station in the United Kingdom, but this changed as a result of the opening of the Borders Railway, which, in 2015, reopened part of the former Waverley Route to Tweedbank, near Galashiels. Regular buses serve the railway station at Carlisle, 42 mi away. Reconnecting Hawick to the Borders Railway would require reinstatement of a further approximately 17 mi of the former Waverley Route from Hawick to Tweedbank station via Hassendean, St Boswells and Melrose, with refurbishment of the four-arch Ale Water viaduct near New Belses. Hawick station was on the north bank of the river Teviot, below Wilton Hill Terrace, with a now demolished viaduct (near the Mart Street bridge) carrying the route south towards Carlisle. Waverley Walk in Hawick is a footpath along the former railway route, north-eastward from the former station site near Teviotdale Leisure Centre. A feasibility study is now underway to evaluate the possible reopening of the southern section of the former Waverley railway to link the Borders Railway terminus at Tweedbank through Hawick to Carlisle.
The nearest major airports are at Edinburgh, 57 mi away, and Newcastle, 56 mi away.
| 488 |
Hawick
| 1 |
13,983 |
# Hawick
## Culture and traditions {#culture_and_traditions}
### Culture
The town hosts the annual Common Riding, which combines the annual riding of the boundaries of the town\'s common land with the commemoration of a victory of local youths over an English raiding party in 1514. In March 2007, this was described by the *Rough Guide* publication *World Party* as one of the best parties in the world.
People from Hawick call themselves \"Teries\", after a traditional song which includes the line \"Teribus ye teri odin\".
Hawick and surrounding border residents are known to possess a dialect and accent slightly different from broader Scots, being classed as Southern Scots or Borders Scots. For example, the term a \"Hawick Gill\" is a large measure of spirits, equivalent to 0.28 litre (half a pint).
### Monuments
Hawick High Street has an equestrian statue at the east end, known as \"the Horse\", erected in 1914. Drumlanrig\'s Tower, now a museum, dates largely from the mid-16th century.
In 2009 another monument the *Turning of the Bull* (artist, Angela Hunter, Innerleithen) was unveiled in Hawick. This monument depicts William Rule turning the wild bull as it was charging King Robert the Bruce, thus saving the king\'s life and beginning the Scottish Clan of Turnbull. A poem written by John Leyden commemorates this historical event. \"His arms robust the hardy hunter flung around his bending horns, and upward wrung, with writhing force his neck retorted round, and rolled the panting monster to the ground, crushed, with enormous strength, his bony skull; and courtiers hailed the man who turned the bull.\"
### Media and film {#media_and_film}
Local news and television programmes are provided by BBC Scotland and ITV Border. Television signals are received from the Selkirk TV transmitter and the local relay transmitter. Local radio stations are BBC Radio Scotland on 93.5 FM, Greatest Hits Radio Scottish Borders and North Northumberland on 96.8 FM and TD9 Radio, an online community based station which broadcast from the town. The town is served by its own local newspaper, *The Hawick Paper*. Other newspapers that cover the town are *The Border Telegraph* and *Southern Reporter*.
Hawick is home to Alchemy Film & Arts, and its internationally renowned flagship annual event Alchemy Film and Moving Image Festival. Investing in film \"as a means of generating discussion, strengthening community, and stimulating creative thought\", Alchemy works with artists and communities within Hawick and the Scottish Borders on a year-round basis. In summer 2019, Alchemy launched its award-winning *Film Town* project, which \"aims to work to the benefit of Hawick and its unique communities by widening accessibility and inclusion for audiences, participants and partners, and by challenging social, physical and communication barriers\... while contributing to Hawick\'s economic regeneration through an investment in its cultural identity\".
In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, Alchemy delivered the tenth and eleventh editions of its annual film festival as livestream events delivered from Hawick, and assisted in helping the town\'s communities to digitise their own services, including the production of virtual lectures for the town\'s 164-year-old Hawick Archaeological Society.
### Sports
The town is the home of Hawick Rugby Football Club which was founded in 1873. The town has a senior football team, Hawick Royal Albert, who currently play in the East of Scotland Football League.
The Hawick baw game was once played here by the \"uppies\" and the \"doonies\" on the first Monday after the new moon in the month of February. The river of the town formed an important part of the pitch. Although no longer played at Hawick, it is still played at nearby Jedburgh.
### Confectionery
*Hawick balls* or *baws*, also known as Hills Balls or taffy rock bools, are a peppermint-flavoured boiled sweet that originated in the town. They are particularly associated with rugby commentator Bill McLaren who was known to offer them from a bag that he always carried. They are now produced in Greenock.
| 651 |
Hawick
| 2 |
13,983 |
# Hawick
## Education and services {#education_and_services}
Hawick Library is a Carnegie funded library that opened in 1904.
Teviotdale Leisure Centre is the local public fitness centre, with a gym, children\'s soft-play area and swimming pool. The previous public baths, now disused were built in 1913 on Commercial Road and closed in the 1980s.
The Borders Textile Towerhouse is a local museum focusing on the history of textiles in Hawick and the Borders area. Examples of temporary exhibitions held include an exhibit on fashion designer Bernat Klein and a history of shops in the town. The museum occupies a restored heritage building, formerly a hotel and inn which incorporates Drumlanrig Tower, a 16th-century fortified tower.
Wilton Lodge Park is a large public park in the south-west of the town. The park is home to Hawick Museum, a public museum focusing on art and local history. The museum includes local artwork, some of which was produced by members of Hawick Art Club.
The Borders Abbeys Way passes through Hawick. A statue of the popular rugby commentator Bill McLaren (1923--2010) is in Wilton Lodge Park, to the west of the town centre. In October 2021, the local council began construction of a new £2m footbridge to link local communities, as part of a broader improvements in the town to create an improved travel network in Hawick, alongside a new flood protection scheme.
Hawick Community Hospital is the local hospital for the area, itself replacing Hawick Cottage Hospital in 2005.
Hawick High School is a non-denominational secondary school in the town. In September 2021, it was announced that a new circa £49 million will be built to replace the current school on its existing site by 2027. Hawick High School is part of the Hawick cluster of schools including Burnfoot Community School, Denholm Primary School (in the Village of Denholm), Drumlanrig St Cuthberts Primary School, Newcastleton Primary School (in the village of Newcastleton), Stirches Primary School, Trinity Primary School and Wilton Primary School.
| 330 |
Hawick
| 3 |
13,983 |
# Hawick
## Town twinning {#town_twinning}
Hawick is twinned with Bailleul, Nord, France.
## Notable people {#notable_people}
### Arts
- Dame Isobel Baillie (1895--1983), singer
- Brian Balfour-Oatts (born 1966), art dealer
- Brian Bonsor (1926--2011), composer
- Andrew Cranston (born 1969), artist
- William Landles (1923--2016), artist
- Sir John Blackwood McEwen, composer
- Peter McRobbie (born 1943), actor
- Will H
| 63 |
Hawick
| 4 |
13,987 |
# Helene Kröller-Müller
**Helene Emma Laura Juliane Kröller-Müller** (`{{IPA|de|heˈleːnə ˈkʁœlɐ ˈmʏlɐ}}`{=mediawiki}; `{{nee|'''Müller'''}}`{=mediawiki}; 11 February 1869 -- 14 December 1939) was a German art collector. She was one of the first European women to put together a major art collection. She is credited with being one of the first collectors to recognise the genius of Vincent van Gogh. Her entire collection was eventually sold to the Dutch government, along with her and her husband, Anton Kröller\'s, large forested country estate. Today it is the Kröller-Müller Museum and sculpture garden and Hoge Veluwe National Park, one of the largest national parks in the Netherlands.
## Life and career {#life_and_career}
Helene Emma Laura Juliane Müller was born in `{{Interlanguage link multi|Essen-Horst|de}}`{=mediawiki}, Essen, into a wealthy industrialist family. Her father, Wilhelm Müller, owned Wm. H. Müller & Co., a prosperous supplier of raw materials to the mining and steel industries.
She studied under painter Henk Bremmer in 1906--1907. As she was one of the wealthiest women in the Netherlands at the time, Bremmer recommended that she form an art collection. In 1907, she began her collection with the painting *Train in a Landscape* by Paul Gabriël. Subsequently, Helene Kröller-Müller became an avid art collector, and one of the first people to recognise the genius of Vincent van Gogh. She eventually amassed more than 90 van Gogh paintings and 185 drawings, one of the world\'s largest collections of the artist\'s work, second only to the Van Gogh Museum in Amsterdam. She also bought more than 400 works by Dutch artist Bart van der Leck, but his popularity did not take off like van Gogh\'s.
Kröller-Müller also collected works by modern artists, such as Picasso, Georges Braque, Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes, Fernand Léger, Diego Rivera, Juan Gris, Piet Mondrian, Gino Severini, Joseph Csaky, Auguste Herbin, Georges Valmier, María Blanchard, Léopold Survage and Tobeen. However, Bremmer advised her not to buy *A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte* by Georges Seurat, which turned out to be an important icon of 20th-century art. She did purchase however *Le Chahut* by Seurat, another icon in the history of modern art. Also, she steered away from artists of her native Germany, whose work she found \"insufficiently authoritative.\"
On a trip to Florence in June 1910, she conceived the idea of creating a museum-house. From 1913 onwards parts of her collection were open to the public; until the mid-1930s her exhibition hall in The Hague was one of the very rare places where one could see more than a few works of modern art. In 1928, Anton and Helene created the Kröller-Müller Foundation to protect the collection and the estates. In 1935, they donated to the Dutch people their entire collection totaling approximately 12,000 objects, on condition that a large museum be built in the gardens of her park. Held in the care of the Dutch government, the Kröller-Müller Museum was opened in 1938.
The Kröller-Müller Museum is nestled in their 75-acre (300,000 m^2^) forested country estate, today the largest national park in the Netherlands, the Hoge Veluwe National Park near the town of Otterlo and the city of Arnhem. A lavish art gallery was planned near their iconic lakeside Jachthuis Sint Hubertus hunting lodge and landscape statue of their close personal friend, the South African Boer General Christian de Wet on the estate. Due to threat of war the plans were never implemented in their lifetime but once the war was over a large forest sculpture garden and understated open exhibition extension was opened, housing statues by Rodin and the second largest collection of van Gogh paintings in the world, including the famous Sunflowers
| 607 |
Helene Kröller-Müller
| 0 |
13,992 |
# Harold Kushner
**Harold Samuel Kushner** (April 3, 1935 -- April 28, 2023) was an American rabbi, author, and lecturer. He was a member of the Rabbinical Assembly of Conservative Judaism and served as the congregational rabbi of Temple Israel of Natick, in Natick, Massachusetts, for 24 years.
Kushner gained widespread recognition for his many popular books that simplify complex theological ideas for both Jewish and non-Jewish readers. He received numerous awards, including the Christopher Award in 1987 and the Jewish Book Council\'s Lifetime Achievement Award in 2007. His most prominent works include *When Bad Things Happen to Good People*, delving into human suffering, divine kindness, and theodicy following his son\'s death from progeria, and *When All You\'ve Ever Wanted Isn\'t Enough*, exploring existential themes of life\'s purpose and the pursuit of fulfillment.
Considered to be have been one of America\'s most prominent rabbis, Kushner was known for his Reconstructionist views and for his ideological progressiveness within the Conservative movement. He argued against the notion of an omnipotent, interventionist God, and instead focused on God\'s role in offering comfort and solace to those who suffer.
## Early life and education {#early_life_and_education}
Harold Samuel Kushner was born to Conservative Jewish parents Julius and Sarah (`{{Nee|Hartman}}`{=mediawiki}) Kushner in Brooklyn, New York City. When he began elementary school, his family relocated to the Crown Heights neighborhood. Kushner was an avid fan of the Brooklyn Dodgers in his early years. While his mother was a homemaker, his father owned Playmore Publishing, a shop at Fifth Avenue and 23rd Street that specialized in selling children\'s books and toys, primarily Bible stories. Julius had hoped that his son would take over the business someday, but Harold did not believe he possessed the same level of business acumen as his father.
After graduating from Erasmus Hall High School, he attended Columbia University, where he initially intended to major in psychology but later switched to literature after being taught by Mark Van Doren, a Pulitzer Prize-winning poet. At Columbia, Kushner\'s extracurricular positions included working for *Jester of Columbia* and WKCR, where he eventually became the director of sports broadcasting, and serving as the president of the student Zionist organization.
Despite having a strong religious upbringing, Kushner had no plans to become a rabbi until he joined an evening program at the Jewish Theological Seminary in New York City. He became certain about his calling to be a rabbi during his junior year at Columbia. He completed his bachelor\'s degree in religious education in 1955, and after completing his master\'s degree in the social and philosophical foundations of education in 1960, he enrolled full-time at the seminary, where he was ordained that same year. Kushner received his doctorate in Hebrew literature in 1972. He also completed a year of graduate work at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and held teaching positions at Clark University and the Rabbinical School of the JTS.
| 482 |
Harold Kushner
| 0 |
13,992 |
# Harold Kushner
## Rabbinical career {#rabbinical_career}
Following his rabbinic ordination, Kushner went to court to request the waiver of his military exemption. He served for two years as a first lieutenant in the Army\'s Chaplain Corps at Fort Sill in Oklahoma. After his discharge from the military, Kushner returned to New York and served as an assistant rabbi at Temple Israel in Great Neck from 1962 to 1966.
In 1966, Kushner assumed the position of rabbi at the 450-family congregation Temple Israel in Natick, Massachusetts. He fulfilled the role of congregational rabbi there for 24 years while also being a member of the Rabbinical Assembly, the \"clerical arm\" of the Conservative movement. From 1972 to 1974, he served as the president of the New England Region of the Rabbinical Assembly. Initially serving as Temple Israel\'s full-time rabbi, he shifted to part-time in 1983 to allocate more time for writing and in 1990, he transitioned to full-time writing and lecturing. The synagogue deemed Kushner, who was 55 years old at the time, too young to be appointed as rabbi emeritus, so he was bestowed the title of rabbi laureate in 1983. The title, held by only a few American rabbis, underlined his commitment to maintaining an enduring connection with both his congregants and the rabbinate. He attended the synagogue until his death.
Kushner\'s presence in the Conservative movement was described as \"inescapable\". In 2001, he co-authored *Etz Hayim: A Torah Commentary*, the new official Torah commentary of the Conservative movement, in collaboration with Chaim Potok. The comprehensive work comprises four layers of commentary, encompassing insights on Conservative observance of Jewish law and traditional and contemporary interpretations of scripture (*midrash*), curated by Kushner.
Kushner spoke at the interfaith prayer service for the second inauguration of Bill Clinton. He was also a eulogist at the state funeral of Ronald Reagan in the Washington National Cathedral in 2004, where offered a reading from the Book of Isaiah.
| 324 |
Harold Kushner
| 1 |
13,992 |
# Harold Kushner
## Writing
With the backing of Rabbi Ira Eisenstein, the founder of the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College, Kushner released his inaugural book in 1971 under the title *When Children Ask About God: A Guide for Parents Who Don\'t Always Have All the Answers.* Rather than reinforcing the notion of God as an all-knowing and all-powerful creator, he aimed to foster a healthy skepticism and encourage questioning as a means of developing a meaningful religious faith. The book primarily targeted parents and aimed to address the concerns of people who were seeking a new Jewish belief system more in line with their broader worldview.
Kushner is best known for his international best-selling book on the problem of evil, *When Bad Things Happen to Good People,* published in 1981*.* Written following the death of his son, Aaron, from the premature aging disease progeria, it deals with questions about human suffering, God, omnipotence, and theodicy. Kushner aimed to assist individuals in maintaining their belief in God\'s benevolence despite experiencing personal tragedies. His book offers a fresh interpretation of the Book of Job, suggesting that while God may not have the power to prevent suffering, God provides solace to those who are afflicted. His contemporary interpretation of theodicy in the book laid the groundwork for the modernist theological literature within the Conservative Jewish community, alongside works by Elliott N. Dorff, Neil Gillman, Harold M. Schulweis, and David Wolpe. The book resonated with readers across religions and was translated into at least 12 languages. Its success propelled it to the top of *The New York Times* Best Seller list, and established Kushner as a well-known author and commentator. In 1991, it tied for the ninth position with four other books in the Book of the Month Club\'s list of the top ten books that had the most significant impact on American lives, based on a nationwide survey. The book was described as \"arguably one of the most widely read books written by a rabbi in centuries\" and as \"one of the most widely read Jewish books of our generation\" by Neil Gillman. Its popularity was partly attributed to Protestant clergy members promoting it in their sermons and distributing copies to their congregations. Four million copies had been sold by the book\'s 20th anniversary.
In 1986, Kushner published *When All You\'ve Ever Wanted Isn\'t Enough: The Search for a Life That Matters*, delving into existential themes of life\'s meaning and individual pursuit of happiness within the context of Ecclesiastes. Its title was deemed an \"apt summary of Ecclesiastes\". Kushner\'s goal was to dissect the unfulfillment experienced even by achievers, asserting that \"What we miss in our lives, no matter how much we have, is that sense of meaning.\" He rejected the notion of a singular answer to life\'s complexities and contended that such answers are found in daily experiences, relationships, and the quest for integrity. Central to his argument was Ecclesiastes, which he called \"the most dangerous book in the Bible\" for its call to contemplation over blind worship, as Kushner contended that life\'s richness emerges from thoughtful engagement, emphasizing that an unfulfilled life is more daunting than death itself. The book earned praise as a \"useful spiritual survival manual\" from *The Washington Post* and received the 1987 Christopher Award for its \"contribution to the exaltation of the human spirit.\"
*Who Needs God,* published in 1989*,* argued for the ongoing relevance of God in a world characterized by unprecedented human achievements. As with Kushner\'s previous works, Reconstructionist views were apparent in his attempt to make room for religious life and the notion of God without the belief in an all-powerful creator. He aimed to bridge the gap between religious fundamentalism and atheism, highlighting that organized religion\'s greatest offering is not theology but rather the comfort and support of a spiritual community. Kushner also asserted that the existence of God endows individuals with the ability to perceive holiness in the world and attain a greater sense of purpose.
Kushner authored several other well-received theological books, such as *How Good Do We Have to Be?* and *To Life!*. Works such as *When All You\'ve Ever Wanted Isn\'t Enough*, *Who Needs God?* and *How Good Do We Have to Be?* reached a wide readership of millions. In 2007, Kushner received a Lifetime Achievement Award from the Jewish Book Council.
Carolyn Hessel, director of the Jewish Book Council, attributed Kushner\'s success to his ability to appeal to everyone regardless of their background. Burton Cooper, a professor of theology at the Louisville Presbyterian Theological Seminary, argues that Kushner\'s popularity and significance arise from his skill in reaching individuals with a \"modern consciousness\", a perspective informed by science, and resonating with their longing for religious faith.
In the fall of 2001, Kushner achieved his sixth best-seller with *Living a Life That Matters*, focused on Jacob from the Old Testament, the sole figure with a complete biography in the Bible. He examines Jacob\'s complex moral choices, such as deceiving his father to secure his blessing. He interprets Jacob\'s encounter with an angel as an internal struggle, symbolizing the conflict within his soul and his progression towards integrity. While Kushner\'s stance suggests Jacob\'s victory through loss, the Torah presents an alternate perspective, depicting Jacob as the undisputed winner.
Kushner\'s response to Simon Wiesenthal\'s question of forgiveness was included in a revised 1997 edition of the book *The Sunflower: On the Possibilities and Limits of Forgiveness,* alongside those of 45 other leading intellectuals and commentators. Wiesenthal\'s inquiry emerged from a real-life scenario during the Holocaust, when he confronted a dying Nazi soldier who sought absolution for his heinous deeds, prompting the question: Can such profound wrongdoing be forgiven? Kushner conveyed the essence of forgiveness as follows:
> Forgiving is not something we do for another person, as the Nazi asked Wiesenthal to do for him. Forgiving happens inside us. It represents a letting go of the sense of grievance, and perhaps most importantly a letting go of the role of victim. For a Jew to forgive the Nazis would not mean, God forbid, saying to them \"What you did was understandable, I can understand what led you to it and I don\'t hate you for it.\" It would mean saying \"What you did was thoroughly despicable and puts you outside the category of decent human beings. But I refuse to give you the power to define me as a victim. I refuse to let your blind hatred define the shape and content of my Jewishness. I don\'t hate you; I reject you.\" And then the Nazi would remained chained to his past and to his conscience, but the Jew would be free.
Kushner was an editor of the journal *Conservative Judaism* from 1980 to 1984*.*
Kushner frequently used examples from TV shows and movies in his teachings and writings to connect with his audience, as he believed many people are more familiar with these cultural references than with the Bible, although he expressed concern over the semi-literacy of the Bible and found it surprising when people were not familiar with biblical stories.
| 1,179 |
Harold Kushner
| 2 |
13,992 |
# Harold Kushner
## Views
Kushner, affiliated with Conservative Judaism, championed progressive concepts within the movement while deeply influenced by Mordecai Kaplan, his teacher and the founder of Reconstructionist Judaism, whom he regarded as the most influential thinker in American Jewish history. During a speech to the Rabbinical Assembly in 1980, he commented that the Conservative movement had faced an ongoing crisis regarding the authority of *halakhah* (Jewish law) since its inception. He emphasized that the goal of Conservative rabbis was to demonstrate that leading a religious life in the modern era could be fulfilling, without imposing strict observance on less practicing Jews. Paraphrasing Jewish theologian Martin Buber, Kushner also once stated that \"people want less theology and more religion.\" He rejected the definition of religion \"as an individual experience\", emphasizing its communal aspect.
Informed by the teachings of Kaplan, Kushner was a proponent of Jewish religious naturalism. Discarding the notion of an omnipotent God, he proposed that God lacks complete dominion over the universe and is not culpable for evil. Within this Reconstructionist framework, he identified two core life forces: the randomness of nature and purposeful divine actions. He rejected the notion of God causing suffering as punishment, advocating instead for a God who shares in human pain, as evidenced by God\'s name \"I am with you\" in the Book of Exodus. Viewing God as a source of empathy and love, Kushner once recalled being concerned that during Yom Kippur, his synagogue\'s congregants focused too much on guilt and did not give themselves the chance to experience God\'s forgiveness. His aphorism \"forgiveness benefits us more than the person we forgive\" was one of many adopted by religious leaders of various faiths. Drawing from the Reconstructionist tradition, Kushner asserted that God shouldn\'t be perceived as a distant entity in space, emphasizing that the question of God\'s existence doesn\'t necessarily revolve around the concept of a heavenly population.
Kushner\'s writing and ideas were popular among Christians, but traditional Jews held mixed opinions. He once expressed, \"I always thought Judaism was at its best when it not only looked at text, but when it looked at people.\" Kushner\'s approach, rooted in a focus on human needs, occasionally led him to reinterpret Jewish theology for emotional solace. This resulted in some Orthodox Jews feeling defensive of traditional Jewish teachings and accusing him of promoting un-Jewish ideas. In *When Bad Things Happen to Good People*, Kushner reconciled Jewish beliefs in God\'s omnipotence and benevolence constraining God\'s influence over random hazards in life. He likened God to a benevolent watchmaker who created the world and its natural laws. This perspective portrays God as taking pride in his creation while permitting it to operate within these established laws, including the occurrence of random challenges. This implies that God intentionally refrains from complete control over every aspect of life, enabling individuals to navigate and respond to various situations while supporting them only with his presence. This view contradicts traditional Jewish teaching and led to criticism from Orthodox Jews, although Kushner himself acknowledged that he may have been wrong about God. Literary critic and journalist Ron Rosenbaum was not convinced by Kushner\'s argument in the book, describing Kushner\'s position as \"diminishing God to something less than an Omnipotent Being -- to something more like an eager cheerleader for good, but one decidedly on the sidelines in the struggle against evil.\"
In line with Kaplan\'s influence and Reconstructionist theology, Kushner perceived the Torah as a fully human creation that, while acknowledging its human origins, serves to commemorate significant religious experiences in life. He sometimes expressed doubt about the reliability of individuals who claim to have heard divine messages, and cited the Binding of Isaac as a problematic narrative that contradicts fundamental religious tenets. The story tells of Abraham going to sacrifice his son, Isaac, as an offering to God in obedience to a divine directive. Although Kushner believed that Abraham heard the message, he was skeptical that God actually said it.
| 662 |
Harold Kushner
| 3 |
13,992 |
# Harold Kushner
## Personal life {#personal_life}
In 1960, Kushner married Suzette Estrada and moved to Massachusetts. Estrada died in 2022. The couple had a son named Aaron, who died of progeria at the age of 14, a daughter named Ariel, and two grandchildren. Kushner\'s brother Paul was a rabbi in Bellmore and Merrick on Long Island, and died in 2019.
In 1995, Christian inspirational group the Christophers included Kushner in their list of \"50 individuals who have made a positive impact on the world over the past 50 years.\" He was the recipient of six honorary doctorates.
Kushner moved into a senior residence in Canton, Massachusetts in 2017. He died on April 28, 2023, at age 88
| 118 |
Harold Kushner
| 4 |
13,998 |
# Hierarchy
Subordination}} A **hierarchy** (from Greek: *label=none*, from `{{transliteration|grc|[[ordinary (officer)|hierarkhes]]}}`{=mediawiki}, \'president of sacred rites\') is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) that are represented as being \"above\", \"below\", or \"at the same level as\" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as architecture, philosophy, design, mathematics, computer science, organizational theory, systems theory, systematic biology, and the social sciences (especially political science).
A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one\'s immediate superior or to one of one\'s subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend \"vertically\" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be \"horizontally\" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. Heterarchy is one such form.
## Nomenclature
Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see below).
In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:
- **Object**: one entity (e.g., a person, department or concept or element of arrangement or member of a set)
- **System**: the entire set of objects that are being arranged hierarchically (e.g., an administration)
- **Dimension**: another word for \"system\" from on-line analytical processing (e.g. cubes)
- **Member**: an (element or object) at any (level or rank) in a (class-system, taxonomy or dimension)
- **Terms about Positioning**
- **Rank**: the relative value, worth, complexity, power, importance, authority, level etc. of an object
- **Level or Tier**: a set of objects with the same rank OR importance
- **Ordering**: the arrangement of the (ranks or levels)
- **Hierarchy**: the arrangement of a particular set of members into (ranks or levels). Multiple hierarchies are possible per (dimension taxonomy or Classification-system), in which selected levels of the dimension are omitted to flatten the structure
- **Terms about Placement**
- **Hierarch**, the apex of the hierarchy, consisting of one single orphan (object or member) in the top level of a dimension. The root of an inverted-tree structure
- **Member**, a (member or node) in any level of a hierarchy in a dimension to which (superior and subordinate) members are attached
- **Orphan**, a member in any level of a dimension without a parent member. Often the apex of a disconnected branch. Orphans can be grafted back into the hierarchy by creating a relationship (interaction) with a parent in the immediately superior level
- **Leaf**, a member in any level of a dimension without subordinates in the hierarchy
- **Neighbour**: a member adjacent to another member in the same (level or rank). Always a peer.
- **Superior**: a higher level or an object ranked at a higher level (A parent or an ancestor)
- **Subordinate**: a lower level or an object ranked at a lower level (A child or a descendant)
- **Collection**: all of the objects at one level (i.e. Peers)
- **Peer**: an object with the same rank (and therefore at the same level)
- **Interaction**: the relationship between an object and its direct superior or subordinate (i.e. a superior/inferior pair)
- a **direct** interaction occurs when one object is on a level exactly one higher or one lower than the other (i.e., on a tree, the two objects have a line between them)
- **Distance**: the minimum number of connections between two objects, i.e., one less than the number of objects that need to be \"crossed\" to trace a path from one object to another
- **Span**: a qualitative description of the width of a level when diagrammed, i.e., the number of subordinates an object has
- **Terms about Nature**
- **Attribute**: a heritable characteristic of (members and their subordinates) in a level (e.g. *hair-colour*)
- **Attribute-value**: the specific value of a heritable characteristic (e.g. *Auburn*)
In a mathematical context (in graph theory), the general terminology used is different.
Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with data structures, objects are known as nodes, superiors are called parents and subordinates are called children. In a business setting, a superior is a supervisor/boss and a peer is a colleague.
| 780 |
Hierarchy
| 0 |
13,998 |
# Hierarchy
## Nomenclature
### Degree of branching {#degree_of_branching}
Degree of branching refers to the number of direct subordinates or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other vertices connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the \"maximum degree\", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: *linear* and *branching*.
In a **linear hierarchy** , the maximum degree is 1. In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. This is referring to the *objects* and not the *levels*; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects.
In a **branching hierarchy** , one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher). For many people, the word \"hierarchy\" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy. Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including organizations and classification schemes. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.
A **flat hierarchy** (also known for companies as flat organization) is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span. Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, diamonds and graphite are flat hierarchies of numerous carbon atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.
An **overlapping hierarchy** is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects. For example, a graduate student can have two co-supervisors to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the university hierarchy (i.e., they have the same position or tenure status).
## Etymology
Possibly the first use of the English word *hierarchy* cited by the *Oxford English Dictionary* was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (5th--6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related Greek word (ἱεραρχία, `{{transliteration|grc|hierarchia}}`{=mediawiki}) both in reference to the celestial hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy. The Greek term *hierarchia* means \'rule of a high priest\', from `{{transliteration|grc|hierarches}}`{=mediawiki} (ἱεράρχης, \'president of sacred rites, high-priest\') and that from *hiereus* (ἱερεύς, \'priest\') and *arche* (ἀρχή, \'first place or power, rule\'). Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun.
Since hierarchical churches, such as the Roman Catholic (see Catholic Church hierarchy) and Eastern Orthodox churches, had tables of organization that were \"hierarchical\" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with God as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in secular settings.
| 497 |
Hierarchy
| 1 |
13,998 |
# Hierarchy
## `{{anchor|Visually representing hierarchies}}`{=mediawiki}Representing hierarchies {#representing_hierarchies}
A hierarchy is typically depicted as a pyramid, where the height of a level represents that level\'s status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole. For example, the few Directors of a company could be at the apex, and the base could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.
These pyramids are often diagrammed with a triangle diagram which serves to emphasize the size differences between the levels (but not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 USDA food guide pyramid). An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right.
Another common representation of a hierarchical scheme is as a tree diagram. Phylogenetic trees, charts showing the structure of `{{section link||Organizations}}`{=mediawiki}, and playoff brackets in sports are often illustrated this way.
More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer\'s screen. Examples include fractal maps, TreeMaps and Radial Trees.
## Visual hierarchy {#visual_hierarchy}
In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of visual hierarchy. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.
An example of visually representing hierarchy is through nested clusters. Nested clusters represent hierarchical relationships using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a Venn diagram. This structure is most effective in representing simple hierarchical relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.
For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. Child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and parent elements are at the top. This structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking.
## Informal representation {#informal_representation}
In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a set in which:
1. No element is superior to itself, and
2. One element, the (*apex* or *hierarch*), is superior to all of the other elements in the set.
The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no circular relationships; the association between two objects is always transitive. The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or root that is common to all of the objects.
## Mathematical representation {#mathematical_representation}
Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a partially ordered set or *poset*. The system in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting levels is referred to as a class.
\"Hierarchy\" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parentheses is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example: (2 + 5) × (7 - 4). In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.
| 715 |
Hierarchy
| 2 |
13,998 |
# Hierarchy
## Subtypes
### Nested hierarchy {#nested_hierarchy}
A nested hierarchy or *inclusion hierarchy* is a hierarchical ordering of nested sets. The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian matryoshka dolls. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:
: $\text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \,$
A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can *only* be a quadrilateral; it can never be a triangle, hexagon, etc.
Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind taxonomies and systematic classifications. For example, using the original Linnaean taxonomy (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of *Systema Naturae*), a human can be formulated as:
: $\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}$
Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in biological taxonomy), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.
In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of self-similarity and recursion. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.
### Containment hierarchy {#containment_hierarchy}
A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the nested hierarchy concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be \"strict\"---no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:
: $\text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \,$
The notation $x \subsetneq y \,$ means *x* is a subset of *y* but is not equal to *y*.
A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in class inheritance in object-oriented programming.
Two types of containment hierarchies are the *subsumptive* containment hierarchy and the *compositional* containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy \"subsumes\" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is \"composed\" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive *and* compositional`{{example needed|date=August 2018}}`{=mediawiki}.
### Subsumptive containment hierarchy {#subsumptive_containment_hierarchy}
A *subsumptive* containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are \"taxonomic hierarchy\" and \"IS-A hierarchy\". The last term describes the relationship between each level---a lower-level object \"is a\" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is a member of the level *Mammalia* \"is a\" member of the level *Animalia*; more specifically, a human \"is a\" primate, a primate \"is a\" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of \"concepts\". For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like *Animalia* is a way to group all the species that fit the conceptualization of an animal.
### Compositional containment hierarchy {#compositional_containment_hierarchy}
A *compositional* containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system---the system is \"composed\" of these parts. Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.
The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the hierarchy of life. Every person can be reduced to organ systems, which are composed of organs, which are composed of tissues, which are composed of cells, which are composed of molecules, which are composed of atoms. In fact, the last two levels apply to all matter, at least at the macroscopic scale. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their children.
In this particular example, there are also *emergent properties*---functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., cognition is not a property of neurons but is of the brain)---and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These *level hierarchies* are characterized by bi-directional causation. *Upward causation* involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. *Downward causation* refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity *x* into a higher-level entity can have on *x*\'s properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are *autonomous*.
| 821 |
Hierarchy
| 3 |
13,998 |
# Hierarchy
## Contexts and applications {#contexts_and_applications}
Kulish (2002) suggests that almost every system of organization which humans apply to the world is arranged hierarchically.`{{request quotation|date=November 2021}}`{=mediawiki} Some conventional definitions of the terms \"nation\"`{{failed verification|date=November 2021}}`{=mediawiki} and \"government\"`{{failed verification|date=November 2021}}`{=mediawiki} suggest that every nation has a government and that every government is hierarchical. Sociologists can analyse socioeconomic systems in terms of stratification into a social hierarchy (the social stratification of societies), and all systematic classification schemes (taxonomies) are hierarchical. Most organized religions, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under deities and priesthoods. Many Christian denominations have an autocephalous ecclesiastical hierarchy of leadership. Families can be viewed as hierarchical structures in terms of cousinship (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), ancestry (as depicted in a family tree) and inheritance (succession and heirship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and lifestyle can be organized using Maslow\'s hierarchy of human needs - according to Maslow\'s hierarchy of human needs. Learning steps often follow a hierarchical scheme---to master differential equations one must first learn calculus; to learn calculus one must first learn elementary algebra; and so on. Nature offers hierarchical structures, as numerous schemes such as Linnaean taxonomy, the organization of life, and biomass pyramids attempt to document.`{{request quotation|date=November 2021}}`{=mediawiki}
While the above examples are often`{{quantify|date=November 2021}}`{=mediawiki} clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most postal-code systems are hierarchical. Using the Canadian postal code system as an example, the top level\'s binding concept, the \"postal district\", consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the \"zone\", where the objects are the digits 0--9. This is an example of an overlapping hierarchy, because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format *A0A 0A0* (the second and third letter positions allow 20 objects each). Most library classification systems are also hierarchical. The Dewey Decimal System is infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.
### Organizations
Organizations can be structured as a dominance hierarchy. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most power or authority, and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including governments, companies, armed forces, militia and organized religions. The units or persons within an organization may be depicted hierarchically in an organizational chart.
In a reverse hierarchy, the conceptual pyramid of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.
### Biology
Empirically, when we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. System hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s, laid the empirical foundations for a field that would become, from the 1980s, **hierarchical ecology**.
The theoretical foundations are summarized by thermodynamics. When biological systems are modeled as physical systems, in the most general abstraction, they are thermodynamic open systems that exhibit self-organised behavior, and the set/subset relations between dissipative structures can be characterized`{{by whom|date=November 2021}}`{=mediawiki} in a hierarchy.
Other hierarchical representations related to biology include ecological pyramids which illustrate energy flow or trophic levels in ecosystems, and taxonomic hierarchies, including the Linnean classification scheme and phylogenetic trees that reflect inferred patterns of evolutionary relationship among living and extinct species.
### Computer-graphic imaging {#computer_graphic_imaging}
CGI and computer-animation programs mostly use hierarchies for models. On a 3D model of a human for example, the chest is a parent of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the hand. This pattern is used in modeling and animation for almost everything built as a 3D digital model.
### Linguistics
Many grammatical theories, such as phrase-structure grammar, involve hierarchy.
Direct--inverse languages such as Cree and Mapudungun distinguish subject and object on verbs not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.
In this system, the three (or four with Algonquian languages) persons occur in a hierarchy of salience. To distinguish which is subject and which object, *inverse markers* are used if the object outranks the subject.
On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun-phrase to which it refers commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.
### Music
The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by Heinrich Schenker (1768--1835, see Schenkerian analysis), and in the (1985) Generative Theory of Tonal Music, by composer Fred Lerdahl and linguist Ray Jackendoff). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker\'s theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or Ursatz, which is one of only a few basic \"long-range counterpoint\" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.
The pitches and form of tonal music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a tonic key, and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme.
| 968 |
Hierarchy
| 4 |
13,998 |
# Hierarchy
## Contexts and applications {#contexts_and_applications}
### Examples of other applications {#examples_of_other_applications}
#### Information-based {#information_based}
- Library classification
- Dewey Decimal Classification
#### City planning-based {#city_planning_based}
- Green transport hierarchy
- Roads
- Streets
- Settlement hierarchy
- As of 2010
- As of 2100 (estimate according to Doxiadis, 1968)
#### Linguistics-oriented {#linguistics_oriented}
- Language family tree
- Levels of adequacy for evaluating grammars
- Direct--inverse languages
- Structural linguistics
- Parse tree
- Formal grammars
- Abstract syntax tree
- Evolution of basic color terminology in languages
#### Power- or authority-based {#power__or_authority_based}
- Aristocratic hierarchies
- In Europe
- In China
- Ecclesiastical hierarchies
- Catholic Church hierarchy
- LDS Church hierarchy
- Kimbanguist Church hierarchy
- Raëlism Church hierarchy
- see also autocephaly
- Prussian three-class franchise
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
- Political party hierarchies
- Nazi Party (*pace* overlapping fields
Compare:
)
- - SS
- Hierarchy of subdivisions within the Gau
- - Communist Party of the Soviet Union
- Chinese Communist Party
- Chain of command
- Military ranks
- Military units
- U.S. Military Combatant Commands
- Intraspecial dominance
- Pecking order
- Social classes
- Caste system in India
- Hierarchical structure of Feudal Japan
- White racist hierarchy
- Hierarchy of Exclusion (Ender\'s Game)
#### Value-related {#value_related}
- Hierarchy of genres in art
- Evidence
- Human needs
- Precious substances
- Judicial hierarchy of social values
#### Perception-based {#perception_based}
- Color wheel
- Primary colors
- Secondary colors
- Tertiary colors
#### History-oriented {#history_oriented}
- Three-age system
- Cyclic theory of civilization
- Oswald Spengler
- Arnold J. Toynbee
- Spiral dynamics
#### Science-focussed {#science_focussed}
- Hierarchy of organization within the Universe
- Star systems
- Biological classification
- Biological organization
- Phylogenetic tree
- Evolutionary development
- Hierarchy of ecological georegions
#### Technology-based {#technology_based}
- Memory hierarchy
- Cache hierarchy
- Clusters
- Class constructs
- Data organization
- Hierarchical query
- Data storage
- Computer files
- Devices
- IP addresses
- Memory
- Virtual memory allocation
- Networks
- Radio cells
- States (configurations)
- Web addresses
- Structure
- Data Structure
- Inheritance (object-oriented programming)
#### Religion-related {#religion_related}
- Levels of consciousness
- Chakras
- Great chain of being
- G.I. Gurdjieff
- Timothy Leary
- Levels of spiritual development
- In Theravada Buddhism
- In Mahayana Buddhism
- Ages in the evolution of society
- In Astrology
- In Hellenism (the Ancient Greek Religion)
- Dispensations in Protestantism
- Dispensations in Mormonism
- Degrees of communion between various Christian churches
- UFO religions
- Command hierarchy of the *Ashtar Galactic Command* flying saucer fleet
- Deities
- In Japanese Buddhism
- In Theosophy
- Angels
- In Christianity
- In Islam
- In Judaism
- Kabbalistic
- In Zoroastrianism
- Devils and Demons
- Devils
- Demons
- Hells
- In Catholicism (Nine Levels of Hell)
- In Buddhism (Sixteen Levels of Hell)
- Religions in society
- (organizational hierarchies are listed under `{{nowrap|"[[#Power- or authority-based|Power- or authority-based]]"}}`{=mediawiki})
### Methods using hierarchy {#methods_using_hierarchy}
## Criticisms
In the work of diverse theorists such as William James (1842 to 1910), Michel Foucault (1926 to 1984) and Hayden White (1928 to 2018), important critiques of hierarchical epistemology are advanced. James famously asserts in his work Radical Empiricism that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.
Feminists, Marxists, anarchists, communists, critical theorists and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.
### Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity {#ethics_behavioral_psychology_philosophies_of_identity}
In ethics, various virtues are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of virtue theory.
In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of \'compositional\' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason
| 765 |
Hierarchy
| 5 |
14,009 |
# Hemicellulose
A **hemicellulose** (also known as **polyose**) is one of a number of heteropolymers (matrix polysaccharides), such as arabinoxylans, present along with cellulose in almost all terrestrial plant cell walls. Cellulose is crystalline, strong, and resistant to hydrolysis. Hemicelluloses are branched, shorter in length than cellulose, and also show a propensity to crystallize. They can be hydrolyzed by dilute acid or base as well as a myriad of hemicellulase enzymes.
## Composition
Diverse kinds of hemicelluloses are known. Important examples include xylan, glucuronoxylan, arabinoxylan, glucomannan, and xyloglucan.
Hemicelluloses are polysaccharides often associated with cellulose, but with distinct compositions and structures. Whereas cellulose is derived exclusively from glucose, hemicelluloses are composed of diverse sugars, and can include the five-carbon sugars xylose and arabinose, the six-carbon sugars glucose, mannose and galactose, and the six-carbon deoxy sugar rhamnose. Hemicelluloses contain most of the D-pentose sugars, and occasionally small amounts of L-sugars as well. Xylose is in most cases the sugar monomer present in the largest amount, although in softwoods mannose can be the most abundant sugar. Not only regular sugars can be found in hemicellulose, but also their acidified forms, for instance glucuronic acid and galacturonic acid can be present.
## Structural comparison to cellulose {#structural_comparison_to_cellulose}
Unlike cellulose, hemicelluloses consist of shorter chains -- 500--3,000 sugar units. In contrast, each polymer of cellulose comprises 7,000--15,000 glucose molecules. In addition, hemicelluloses may be branched polymers, while cellulose is unbranched. Hemicelluloses are embedded in the cell walls of plants, sometimes in chains that form a \'ground\' -- they bind with pectin to cellulose to form a network of cross-linked fibres.
Based on the structural difference, like backbone linkages and side groups, as well as other factors, like abundance and distributions in plants, hemicelluloses can be categorized into four groups as following: 1) xylans, 2) mannans; 3) mixed linkage β-glucans; 4) xyloglucans.
### Xylans
Xylans usually consist of a backbone of β-(1→4)-linked xylose residues and can be further divided into homoxylans and heteroxylans. Homoxylans have a backbone of D-xylopyranose residues linked by β(1→4) glycosidic linkages. Homoxylans mainly have structural functions. Heteroxylans such as glucuronoxylans, glucuronoarabinoxylans, and complex heteroxylans, have a backbone of D-xylopyranose and short carbohydrate branches. For example, glucuronoxylan has a substitution with α-(1→2)-linked glucuronosyl and 4-O-methyl glucuronosyl residues. Arabinoxylans and glucuronoarabinoxylans contain arabinose residues attached to the backbone
### Mannans
The mannan-type hemicellulose can be classified into two types based on their main chain difference, galactomannans and glucomannans. Galactomannans have only β-(1→4) linked D-mannopyranose residues in linear chains. Glucomannans consist of both β-(1→4) linked D-mannopyranose and β-(1→4) linked D-glucopyranose residues in the main chains. As for the side chains, D-galactopyranose residues tend to be 6-linked to both types as the single side chains with various amount.
### Mixed linkage β-glucans {#mixed_linkage_β_glucans}
The conformation of the mixed linkage glucan chains usually contains blocks of β-(1→4) D-Glucopyranose separated by single β-(1→3) D-Glucopyranose. The population of β-(1→4) and β-(1→3) are about 70% and 30%. These glucans primarily consist of cellotriosyl (C~18~H~32~O~16~) and cellotraosyl (C~24~H~42~O~21~)segments in random order. There are some study show the molar ratio of cellotriosyl/cellotraosyl for oat (2.1-2.4), barley (2.8-3.3), and wheat (4.2-4.5).
### Xyloglucans
Xyloglucans have a backbone similar to cellulose with α-D-xylopyranose residues at position 6. To better describe different side chains, a single letter code notation is used for each side chain type. G \-- unbranched Glc residue; X \-- α-d-Xyl-(1→6)-Glc. L \-- β-Gal , S \-- α-l-Araf, F\-- α-l-Fuc. These are the most common side chains.
The two most common types of xyloglucans in plant cell walls are identified as XXXG and XXGG.
| 593 |
Hemicellulose
| 0 |
14,009 |
# Hemicellulose
## Biosynthesis
Hemicelluloses are synthesised from sugar nucleotides in the cell\'s Golgi apparatus. Two models explain their synthesis: 1) a \'2 component model\' where modification occurs at two transmembrane proteins, and 2) a \'1 component model\' where modification occurs only at one transmembrane protein. After synthesis, hemicelluloses are transported to the plasma membrane via Golgi vesicles.
Each kind of hemicellulose is biosynthesized by specialized enzymes.
Mannan chain backbones are synthesized by cellulose synthase-like protein family A (CSLA) and possibly enzymes in cellulose synthase-like protein family D (CSLD). Mannan synthase, a particular enzyme in CSLA, is responsible for the addition of mannose units to the backbone. The galactose side-chains of some mannans are added by galactomannan galactosyltransferase. Acetylation of mannans is mediated by a mannan O-acetyltransferase, however, this enzyme has not been definitively identified.
Xyloglucan backbone synthesis is mediated by cellulose synthase-like protein family C (CSLC), particularly glucan synthase, which adds glucose units to the chain. Backbone synthesis of xyloglucan is also mediated in some way by xylosyltransferase, but this mechanism is separate to its transferase function and remains unclear. Xylosyltransferase in its transferase function is, however, utilized for the addition of xylose to the side-chain. Other enzymes utilized for side-chain synthesis of xyloglucan include galactosyltransferase (which is responsible for the addition of \[galactose and of which two different forms are utilized), fucosyltransferase (which is responsible for the addition of fucose), and acetyltransferase (which is responsible for acetylation).
Xylan backbone synthesis, unlike that of the other hemicelluloses, is not mediated by any cellulose synthase-like proteins. Instead, xylan synthase is responsible for backbone synthesis, facilitating the addition of xylose. Several genes for xylan synthases have been identified. Several other enzymes are utilized for the addition and modification of the side-chain units of xylan, including glucuronosyltransferase (which adds \[glucuronic acid units), xylosyltransferase (which adds additional xylose units), arabinosyltransferase (which adds arabinose), methyltransferase (responsible for methylation), and acetyltransferase\] (responsible for acetylation). Given that mixed-linkage glucan is a non-branched homopolymer of glucose, there is no side-chain synthesis, only the addition of glucose to the backbone in two linkages, β1-3 and β1-4. Backbone synthesis is mediated by enzymes in cellulose synthase-like protein families F and H (CSLF and CSLH), specifically glucan synthase. Several forms of glucan synthase from CSLF and CSLH have been identified. All of them are responsible for addition of glucose to the backbone and all are capable of producing both β1-3 and β1-4 linkages, however, it is unknown how much each specific enzyme contributes to the distribution of β1-3 and β1-4 linkages.
| 421 |
Hemicellulose
| 1 |
14,009 |
# Hemicellulose
## Applications
In the sulfite pulp process the hemicellulose is largely hydrolysed by the acid pulping liquor ending up in the brown liquor where the fermentable hexose sugars (around 2%) can be used for producing ethanol. This process was primarily applied to calcium sulfite brown liquors.
Arabinogalactan
: Arabinogalactans can be used as emulsifiers, stabilizers and binders according to [the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act](https://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?path=/prelim@title21/chapter9&edition=prelim). Arabinogalactans can also be used as bonding agent in sweeteners.
Xylan
: The films based on xylan show low oxygen permeability and thus are of potential interest as packaging for oxygen-sensitive products.
Agar
: Agar is used in making jellies and puddings. It is also growth medium with other nutrients for microorganisms.
Curdlan
: Curdlan can be used in fat replacement to produce diet food while having a taste and a mouth feel of real fat containing products.
beta-glucan
: b-glucans have an important role in food supplement while b-glucans are also promising in health-related issues, especially in immune reactions and the treatment of cancer.
Xanthan
: Xanthan, with other polysaccharides can form gels that have high solution viscosity which can be used in the oil industry to thicken drilling mud. In the food industry, xanthan is used in products such as dressings and sauces.
Alginate
: Alginate has an important role in the development of antimicrobial textiles due to its characteristics of environmental friendliness, and high industrialization level as a sustainable biopolymer.
It is also abundantly found in cereal hull/husk, bran, and straw. A number of proposed processes aim to break it down into the above-mentioned parts for utilization.
## Natural functions {#natural_functions}
As a polysaccharide compound in plant cell walls similar to cellulose, hemicellulose helps cellulose in the strengthening of plant cell walls. Hemicellulose interacts with the cellulose by providing cross-linking of cellulose microfibrils: hemicellulose will search for voids in the cell wall during its formation and provide support around cellulose fibrils in order to equip the cell wall with the maximum possible strength it can provide. Hemicellulose dominates the middle lamella of the plant cell, unlike cellulose which is primarily found in the secondary layers. This allows for hemicellulose to provide middle-ground support for the cellulose on the outer layers of the plant cell. In few cell walls, hemicellulose will also interact with lignin to provide structural tissue support of more vascular plants.
| 394 |
Hemicellulose
| 2 |
14,009 |
# Hemicellulose
## Extraction
There are many ways to obtain hemicellulose; all of these rely on extraction methods through hardwood or softwood trees milled into smaller samples. In hardwoods the main hemicellulose extract is glucuronoxlyan (acetylated xylans), while galactoglucomannan is found in softwoods. Prior to extraction the wood typically must be milled into wood chips of various sizes depending on the reactor used. Following this, a hot water extraction process, also known as autohydrolysis or hydrothermal treatment, is utilized with the addition of acids and bases to change the yield size and properties. The main advantage to hot water extraction is that it offers a method where the only chemical that is needed is water, making this environmentally friendly and cheap.
The goal of hot water treatment is to remove as much hemicellulose from the wood as possible. This is done through the hydrolysis of the hemicellulose to achieve smaller oligomers and xylose. Xylose when dehydrated becomes furfural. When xylose and furfural`{{typo help inline|date=December 2020}}`{=mediawiki} are the goal, acid catalysts, such as formic acid, are added to increase the transition of polysaccharide to monosaccharides. This catalyst also has been shown to also utilize a solvent effect to be aid the reaction.
One method of pretreatment is to soak the wood with diluted acids (with concentrations around 4%). This converts the hemicellulose into monosaccharides. When pretreatment is done with bases (for instance sodium or potassium hydroxide) this destroys the structure of the lignin. This changes the structure from crystalline to amorphous. Hydrothermal pretreatment is another method.`{{explain|date=July 2021}}`{=mediawiki} This offers advantages such as no toxic or corrosive solvents are needed, nor are special reactors, and no extra costs to dispose of hazardous chemicals.
The hot water extraction process is done in batch reactors, semi-continuous reactors, or slurry continuous reactors. For batch and semi-continuous reactors wood samples can be used in conditions such as chips or pellets while a slurry reactor must have particles as small as 200 to 300 micrometers. While the particle size decreases the yield production decreases as well. This is due to the increase of cellulose.
The hot water process is operated at a temperature range of 160 to 240 degrees Celsius in order to maintain the liquid phase. This is done above the normal boiling point of water to increase the solubilization of the hemicellulose and the depolymerization of polysaccharides. This process can take several minutes to several hours depending on the temperature and pH of the system. Higher temperatures paired with higher extraction times lead to higher yields. A maximum yield is obtained at a pH of 3.5. If below, the extraction yield exponentially decreases. In order to control pH, sodium bicarbonate is generally added. The sodium bicarbonate inhibits the autolysis of acetyl groups as well as inhibiting glycosyl bonds. Depending on the temperature and time the hemicellulose can be further converted into oligomers, monomers and lignin.
Solid bits of wood remain after autohydrolysis, as the lignin is largely untouched. A proper degree of autohydrolysis can preserve the lignin well enough to be used for paper production. This is useful for the Kraft process, which normally does not recover wood hemicellulose into useful products
| 527 |
Hemicellulose
| 3 |
14,018 |
# Helen Gandy
**Helen Wilburforce Gandy** (April 8, 1897 -- July 7, 1988) was the American longtime secretary to Federal Bureau of Investigation director J. Edgar Hoover, who called her \"indispensable\". Serving in that role for 54 years she exercised great behind-the-scenes influence on Hoover and the operations of the Bureau. Following Hoover\'s death in 1972, she spent weeks destroying his \"Personal File,\" thought to contain the most incriminating material Hoover used to manipulate or blackmail the most powerful figures in Washington.
## Early life {#early_life}
Helen Gandy was born in Rockville, New Jersey, one of three children (two daughters and a son) born to Franklin Dallas and Annie (née Williams) Gandy. She grew up in New Jersey in Fairton or the Port Norris section of Commercial Township (sources differ) and graduated from Bridgeton High School in Bridgeton, New Jersey. In 1918, aged 21, she moved to Washington, D.C., where she later took classes at Strayer Business College and George Washington University Law School.
## Career
Gandy briefly worked in a department store in Washington before finding a job as a file clerk at the Justice Department in 1918. Within weeks, she went to work as a typist for Hoover, effective March 25, 1918, having told Hoover in her interview she had \"no immediate plans to marry\". She, like Hoover, would never marry; both were completely devoted to the Bureau.
When Hoover went to the Bureau of Investigation (its original title; it became the FBI in 1935) as its assistant director on August 22, 1921, he specifically requested Gandy return from vacation to help him in the new post. Hoover became director of the Bureau in 1924, and Gandy continued in his service. She was promoted to \"office assistant\" on August 23, 1937, and \"executive assistant\" on October 1, 1939. Though she would receive promotions in her civil service grade subsequently, she retained her title as executive assistant until her retirement on May 2, 1972, the day Hoover died. Hoover said of her: \"if there is anyone in this Bureau whose services are indispensable, I consider Miss Gandy to be that person.\" Despite this, Curt Gentry wrote:
> Theirs was a rigidly formal relationship. He always called her \"Miss Gandy\" (when angry, barking it out as one word). In all those fifty-four years he never once called her by her first name.
Hoover biographers Theoharis and Cox would say \"her stern face recalled Cerberus at the gate\", a view echoed by Anthony Summers in his life of Hoover, who also pictured Gandy as Hoover\'s first line of defense against the outside world. When Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, Hoover\'s superior, had a direct telephone line installed between their offices, Hoover refused to answer the phone. \"Put that damn thing on Miss Gandy\'s desk where it belongs\", Hoover would declare.
Gentry described Gandy\'s influence:
> Her genteel manner and pleasant voice contrasted sharply with this domineering presence. Yet behind the politeness was a resolute firmness not unlike his, and no small amount of influence. Many a career in the Bureau had been quietly manipulated by her. Even those who disliked him praised her, most often commenting on her remarkable ability to get along with all kinds of people. That she held her position for fifty-four years was the best evidence of this, for it was a Bureau tradition that the closer you were to him, the more demanding he was.
William C. Sullivan, an agent with the Bureau for three decades, reported in his memoir that when he worked in the public relations section answering mail from the public, he gave a correspondent the wrong measurements for Hoover\'s personal popover recipe, relying on memory rather than the files. Gandy, ever protective of her boss, caught the error and brought it to Hoover\'s attention. The director then placed an official letter of reprimand in Sullivan\'s file for the lapse. Mark Felt, deputy associate director of the FBI, wrote in his memoir that Gandy \"was bright and alert and quick-tongued---and completely dedicated to her boss, whose interests she constantly protected\".
| 677 |
Helen Gandy
| 0 |
14,018 |
# Helen Gandy
## Career
### Files
Hoover died during the night of May 1--2, 1972. According to Curt Gentry, who wrote the 1991 book *J Edgar Hoover: The Man and the Secrets*, Hoover\'s body was not discovered by his live-in cook and general housekeeper, Annie Fields; rather, it was discovered by James Crawford, who had been Hoover\'s chauffeur for 37 years. Crawford then yelled out to Fields and Tom Moton (Hoover\'s new chauffeur after Crawford had retired in January 1972). Fields first called Hoover\'s personal physician, Dr. Robert Choisser, then used another phone to call Clyde Tolson\'s private number. Tolson then called Gandy\'s private number with the news of Hoover\'s death along with orders to begin destroying the files. Within an hour, the \"D List\" (\"d\" standing for destruction) was being distributed, and the destruction of files began. However, *The New York Times* quoted an anonymous FBI source in spring 1975, who said: \"Gandy had begun the destruction of files almost a year before Mr. Hoover\'s death and was instructed to purge the files that were presently in his office.\"
Anthony Summers reported that G. Gordon Liddy had said of his sources in the FBI: \"by the time Gray went in to get the files, Miss Gandy had already got rid of them.\" The day after Hoover died, L. Patrick Gray, who had been named acting director by President Richard Nixon upon Tolson\'s resignation from that position, went to Hoover\'s office. Gandy paused from her work to give Gray a tour. He found file cabinets open and packing boxes being filled with papers. She informed him the boxes contained personal papers of Hoover\'s. Gandy stated Gray flipped through a few files and approved her work, but Gray was to deny he looked at any papers. Gandy also told Gray it would be a week before she could clear Hoover\'s effects out so Gray could move into the suite.
Gray reported to Nixon that he had secured Hoover\'s office and its contents. However, he had sealed only Hoover\'s personal inner office, where no files were stored, not the entire suite of offices. Since 1957, Hoover\'s \"Official/Confidential\" files, containing material too sensitive to include in the FBI\'s central files, had been kept in the outer office, where Gandy sat. Gentry reported that Gray would not have known where to look in Gandy\'s office for the files, as her office was lined floor to ceiling with filing cabinets; moreover, without her index to the files, he would not have been able to locate incriminating material, for files were deliberately mislabeled, e.g., President Nixon\'s file was labeled \"Obscene Matters\".
On May 4, Gandy transferred 12 boxes labelled \"Official/Confidential\", containing 167 files and 17,750 pages, to Mark Felt. Many of them contained inflammatory and derogatory information. Gray told the press that afternoon that \"there are no dossiers or secret files. There are just general files, and I took steps to preserve their integrity.\" Yet, Gandy retained the \"Personal File.\"
Gandy went through Hoover\'s \"Personal File\" in the office until May 12. She then transferred at least 32 file drawers of material to the basement recreation room of Hoover\'s Washington home at 4936 Thirtieth Place, NW, where she continued her work from May 13 to July 17. Gandy later testified in court that nothing official had been removed from the FBI\'s offices, \"not even Mr. Hoover\'s badge.\" At Hoover\'s residence, the destruction was overseen by John P. Mohr, the third highest-ranking official in the FBI after Hoover and Tolson. They were aided by James Jesus Angleton, the Central Intelligence Agency\'s counterintelligence chief, whom Hoover\'s neighbors saw removing boxes from Hoover\'s home. Mohr would claim the boxes Angleton removed were cases of spoiled wine.
In 1975, when the House Committee on Government Oversight investigated the FBI\'s illegal COINTELPRO program of spying on and harassment of Martin Luther King Jr. and others, Gandy was summoned to testify regarding the \"Personal Files.\" \"I tore them up, put them in boxes, and they were taken away to be shredded,\" she told the congressmen about the papers. The FBI Washington field office had FBI drivers transport the material to Hoover\'s home, then once Gandy had gone through the material, the drivers transported it back to the field office in the Old Post Office Building on Pennsylvania Avenue, where it was shredded and burned.
Gandy stated that Hoover had left standing instructions to destroy his personal papers upon his death, and this instruction was confirmed by Tolson and Gray. She also stated that she destroyed no official papers; that everything was personal papers of Hoover\'s. The staff of the subcommittee did not believe her, but she told the committee: \"I have no reason to lie.\" Representative Andrew Maguire (D-New Jersey), a freshman member of the 94th Congress, said \"I find your testimony very difficult to believe.\" Gandy held her ground: \"That is your privilege.\"
\"I can give you my word. I know what there was---letters to and from friends, personal friends, a lot of letters,\" she testified. Gandy also said the files she took to Hoover\'s home included his financial papers, such as tax returns and investment statements, the deed to his home, and papers relating to his dogs\' pedigrees.
Curt Gentry wrote:
Helen Gandy must have felt quite safe in testifying as she did, for who could contradict her? Only one other person knew exactly what the files contained, and he was dead.
In *J. Edgar Hoover: The Man and His Secrets*, Gentry describes the nature of the files: \"their contents included blackmail material on the patriarch of an American political dynasty, his sons, their wives, and other women; allegations of two homosexual arrests which Hoover leaked to help defeat a witty, urbane Democratic presidential candidate; the surveillance reports on one of America\'s best-known first ladies and her alleged lovers, both male and female, white and black; the child molestation documentation the director used to control and manipulate one of the Red-baiting proteges; a list of the Bureau\'s spies in the White House during the eight administrations when Hoover was FBI director; the forbidden fruit of hundreds of illegal wiretaps and bugs, containing, for example, evidence that an attorney general, Tom C. Clark, who later became Supreme Court justice, had received payoffs from the Chicago syndicate; as well as celebrity files, with all the unsavory gossip Hoover could amass on some of the biggest names in show business.\"
## Personal life and death {#personal_life_and_death}
Gandy lived for decades with Margaret E. Morrow. Morrow died on April 16, 1986.
Gandy died of a heart attack on July 7, 1988, either in DeLand (as indicated by her *New York Times* obituary) or in nearby Orange City, Florida, (as stated in her *Washington Post* obituary).
| 1,122 |
Helen Gandy
| 1 |
14,018 |
# Helen Gandy
## Later years {#later_years}
Hoover left Gandy \$5,000 in his will.
In 1961, she and her sister, Lucy G. Rodman, donated a portrait of their mother by Thomas Eakins to the Smithsonian American Art Museum. Gandy lived in Washington until 1986, when she moved to DeLand, Florida, in Volusia County, where a niece lived. Gandy was an avid trout fisher.
## In popular culture {#in_popular_culture}
Gandy has been portrayed by actresses Lee Kessler in *J. Edgar Hoover* (1987), Naomi Watts in *J. Edgar* (2011), and Rebecca Toolan in *Bad Times at the El Royale* (2018)
| 98 |
Helen Gandy
| 2 |
14,023 |
# Hot or Not
**Hot or Not** was a rating site that allowed users to submit photos of themselves to be rated by other users on a scale of 1 to 10, with the average becoming the photo\'s score. The site also offered a matchmaking engine called \'Meet Me\' and an extended profile feature called \"Hotlists\". The domain hotornot.com is currently owned by Hot or Not Limited, and was previously owned by Avid Life Media. \'Hot or Not\' was a significant influence on the people who went on to create social media sites like YouTube.
## History
The site was founded in October 2000 by James Hong and Jim Young, two friends and Silicon Valley--based engineers. Both graduated from the University of California, Berkeley, in electrical engineering, with Young pursuing a Ph.D. at the time. It was inspired by some other developers\' ideas.
The site was a technical solution to a disagreement the founders had one day over a passing woman\'s attractiveness. The site was originally called \"Am I Hot or Not\". Within a week of launching, it had reached almost two million page views per day. Within a few months, the site was immediately behind CNET and NBCi on NetNielsen Rating\'s Top 25 advertising domains. To keep up with rising costs Hong and Young added a matchmaking component to their website called \"Meet Me at Hot or Not\". The matchmaking service has been especially successful, and the site continues to generate most of its revenue through subscriptions. In the December 2006 issue of *Time* magazine, the founders of YouTube stated that they originally set out to make a version of Hot or Not with Video before developing their more inclusive site.
Hot or Not was sold for a rumored \$20 million on February 8, 2008, to Avid Life Media, owners of Ashley Madison. Annual revenue reached \$7.5 million, with net profits of \$5.5 million. They initially started off \$60,000 in debt due to tuition fees James paid for his MBA. On July 31, 2008, Hot or Not launched Hot or Not Gossip and a Baresi rate box (a \"hot meter\") -- a subdivision to expand their market, run by former radio DJ turned celebrity blogger Zack Taylor.
In 2012, Hot or Not was purchased by Badoo, which is owned by Bumble Inc. The app is currently rebranded as Chat & Date which uses a similar user interface to Badoo and shares user accounts between both sites.
## Predecessors and spin-offs {#predecessors_and_spin_offs}
Hot or Not was preceded by other rating sites, like RateMyFace, which was registered a year earlier in the summer of 1999, and AmIHot.com, which was registered in January 2000 by MIT freshman Daniel Roy. Regardless, despite any head starts of its predecessors, Hot or Not quickly became the most popular. Since AmIHotOrNot.com\'s launch, the concept has spawned many imitators. The concept always remained the same, but the subject matter varied greatly. The concept has also been integrated with a wide variety of dating and matchmaking systems. In 2007 BecauseImHot.com launched and deleted anyone with a rating below seven after a voting audit or the first 50 votes (whichever is first).
The binary concept has been used in a variety of dating apps where users can swipe right or left on a user, to decide whether to match or ignore them (respectively), a similar mechanism to deciding whether a user is \"hot\".
| 564 |
Hot or Not
| 0 |
14,023 |
# Hot or Not
## Research
In 2005, as an example of using image morphing methods to study the effects of averageness, imaging researcher Pierre Tourigny created a composite of about 30 faces to find out the current standard of good looks on the Internet. On the Hot or Not web site, people rate others\' attractiveness on a scale of 1 to 10. An average score based on hundreds or even thousands of individual ratings take only a few days to emerge. To make this hot-or-not palette of morphed images, photos from the site were sorted by rank and used SquirlzMorph to create multi-morph composites from them. Unlike projects like Face of Tomorrow, where the subjects are posed for the purpose, the portraits are blurry because the source images are of low resolution with differences in variables such as posture, hair styles and glasses, so that in this instance images could use only 36 control points for the morphs. A similar study was done with Miss Universe contestants, as shown in the averageness article, as well as one for age, as shown in youthfulness article.
A 2006 \"hot or not\"-style study, involving 264 women and 18 men, at the Washington University School of Medicine, as published online in the journal *Brain Research*, indicates that a person\'s brain determines whether an image is erotically appealing long before the viewer is even aware they are seeing the picture. Moreover, according to these researchers, one of the basic functions of the brain is to classify images into a hot-or-not type categorization. The study\'s researchers also discovered that sexy shots induce a uniquely powerful reaction in the brain, equal in effect for both men and women, and that erotic images produced a strong reaction in the hypothalamus
| 293 |
Hot or Not
| 1 |
14,031 |
# Hierarchical organization
A **hierarchical organization** or **hierarchical organisation** (see spelling differences) is an organizational structure where every entity in the organization, except one, is subordinate to a single other entity. This arrangement is a form of hierarchy. In an organization, this hierarchy usually consists of a singular/group of power at the top with subsequent levels of power beneath them. This is the dominant mode of organization among large organizations; most corporations, governments, criminal enterprises, and organized religions are hierarchical organizations with different levels of management power or authority. For example, the broad, top-level overview of the hierarchy of the Catholic Church consists of the Pope, then the Cardinals, then the Archbishops, and so on. Another example is the hierarchy between the four castes in the Hindu caste system, which arises from the religious belief \"that each is derived from a different part of the creator God's (Brahma) body, descending from the head downwards.\"
Members of hierarchical organizational structures mainly communicate with their immediate superior and their immediate subordinates. Structuring organizations in this way is useful, partly because it reduces the communication overhead costs by limiting information flows.
## Visualization
A hierarchy is typically visualized as a pyramid, where the height of the ranking or person depicts their power status and the width of that level represents how many people or business divisions are at that level relative to the whole---the highest-ranking people are at the apex, and there are very few of them, and in many cases only one; the base may include thousands of people who have no subordinates. These hierarchies are typically depicted with a tree or triangle diagram, creating an organizational chart or organogram. Those nearest the top have more power than those nearest the bottom, and there being fewer people at the top than at the bottom. As a result, superiors in a hierarchy generally have higher status and obtain higher salaries and other rewards than their subordinates.
Although the image of organizational hierarchy as a pyramid is widely used, strictly speaking such a pyramid (or organizational chart as its representation) draws on two mechanisms: hierarchy and division of labour. As such, a hierarchy can, for example, also entail a boss with a single employee. When such a simple hierarchy grows by subordinates specialising (e.g. in production, sales, and accounting) and subsequently also establishing and supervising their own (e.g. production, sales, accounting) departments, the typical pyramid arises. This specialisation process is called division of labour.
## Common social manifestations {#common_social_manifestations}
Governmental organizations and most companies feature similar hierarchical structures. Traditionally, the monarch stood at the pinnacle of the state. In many countries, feudalism and manorialism provided a formal social structure that established hierarchical links pervading every level of society, with the monarch at the top.
In modern post-feudal states the nominal top of the hierarchy still remains a head of state -- sometimes a president or a constitutional monarch, although in many modern states the powers of the head of state are delegated among different bodies. Below or alongside this head there is commonly a senate, parliament or congress; such bodies in turn often delegate the day-to-day running of the country to a prime minister, who may head a cabinet. In many democracies, constitutions theoretically regard \"the people\" as the notional top of the hierarchy, above the head of state; in reality, the people\'s influence is often restricted to voting in elections or referendums.
In business, the business owner traditionally occupies the pinnacle of the organization. Most modern large companies lack a single dominant shareholder and for most purposes delegate the collective power of the business owners to a board of directors, which in turn delegates the day-to-day running of the company to a managing director or CEO. Again, although the shareholders of the company nominally rank at the top of the hierarchy, in reality many companies are run at least in part as personal fiefdoms by their management. Corporate governance rules attempt to mitigate this tendency.
## Origins and development of social hierarchical organization {#origins_and_development_of_social_hierarchical_organization}
Smaller and more informal social units -- families, bands, tribes, special interest groups -- which may form spontaneously, have little need for complex hierarchies -- or indeed for any hierarchies. They may rely on self-organizing tendencies. A conventional view ascribes the growth of hierarchical social habits and structures to increased complexity; the religious syncretism and issues of tax-gathering in expanding empires played a role here.
However, others have observed that simple forms of hierarchical leadership naturally emerge from interactions in both human and non-human primate communities. For instance, this occurs when a few individuals obtain more status in their tribe, (extended) family or clan, or when competences and resources are unequally distributed across individuals.
| 785 |
Hierarchical organization
| 0 |
14,031 |
# Hierarchical organization
## Studies
The organizational development theorist Elliott Jaques identified a special role for hierarchy in his concept of requisite organization.
The iron law of oligarchy, introduced by Robert Michels, describes the inevitable tendency of hierarchical organizations to become oligarchic in their decision making.
The Peter Principle is a term coined by Laurence J. Peter in which the selection of a candidate for a position in an hierarchical organization is based on the candidate\'s performance in their current role, rather than on abilities relevant to the intended role. Thus, employees only stop being promoted once they can no longer perform effectively, and managers in an hierarchical organization \"rise to the level of their incompetence.\"
Hierarchiology is another term coined by Laurence J. Peter, described in his humorous book of the same name, to refer to the study of hierarchical organizations and the behavior of their members.
David Andrews\' book *The IRG Solution: Hierarchical Incompetence and how to Overcome it* argued that hierarchies were inherently incompetent, and were only able to function due to large amounts of informal lateral communication fostered by private informal networks.
## Types of hierarchy {#types_of_hierarchy}
Hierarchical organization is a phenomenon with many faces. To understand and map this diversity, various typologies have been developed. Formal versus informal hierarchy is a well-known typology, but one can also distinguish four hierarchy types.
### Two types of hierarchy: Formal and informal {#two_types_of_hierarchy_formal_and_informal}
A well-known distinction is between formal and informal hierarchy in organizational settings. According to Max Weber, the formal hierarchy is the vertical sequence of official positions within one explicit organizational structure, whereby each position or office is under the control and supervision of a higher one. The *formal hierarchy* can thus be defined as \"an official system of unequal person-independent roles and positions which are linked via lines of top-down command-and-control.\" By contrast, an *informal hierarchy* can be defined as person-dependent social relationships of dominance and subordination, emerging from social interaction and becoming persistent over time through repeated social processes. The informal hierarchy between two or more people can be based on difference in, for example, seniority, experience or social status. The formal and informal hierarchy may complement each other in any specific organization and therefore tend to co-exist in any organization. But the general pattern observed in many organizations is that when the formal hierarchy decreases (over time), the informal hierarchy increases, or vice versa.
| 401 |
Hierarchical organization
| 1 |
14,031 |
# Hierarchical organization
## Types of hierarchy {#types_of_hierarchy}
### Four types of hierarchy {#four_types_of_hierarchy}
A more elaborate typology of hierarchy in social systems entails four types: hierarchy as a ladder of formal authority, ladder of achieved status, self-organized ladder of responsibility, and an ideology-based ladder. The first two types can be equated with the formal and informal hierarchy, as previously defined. Accordingly, this typology extends the formal and informal hierarchy with two other types.
#### Hierarchy as ladder of formal authority {#hierarchy_as_ladder_of_formal_authority}
This type of hierarchy is defined as a sequence of levels of formal authority, that is, the authority to make decisions. This results in a ladder that systematically differentiates the authority to make decisions. A typical authority-based hierarchy in companies is: the board of directors, CEO, departmental managers, team leaders, and other employees. The authority-based hierarchy, also known as the formal hierarchy, to a large extent arises from the legal structure of the organization: for example, the owner of the firm is also the CEO or appoints the CEO, who in turn appoints and supervises departmental managers, and so forth.
#### Hierarchy as ladder of achieved status {#hierarchy_as_ladder_of_achieved_status}
Also known as the informal hierarchy (defined earlier), this type of hierarchy draws on unofficial mechanisms for ranking people. It involves differences in status, other than those arising from formal authority. Status is one\'s social standing or professional position, relative to those of others. In anthropology and sociology, this notion of status is also known as achieved status, the social position that is earned instead of being ascribed. The underlying mechanism is social stratification, which draws on shared cultural beliefs (e.g. regarding expertise and seniority as drivers of status) that can make status differences between people appear natural and fair. A ladder of achieved status is socially constructed, which makes it fundamentally different from the ladder of authority that (largely) arises from an underlying legal structure. The social-constructivist nature of status also implies that ladders of achieved status especially arise in groups of people that frequently interact---for example, a work unit, team, family, or neighbourhood.
#### Hierarchy as self-organized ladder of responsibility {#hierarchy_as_self_organized_ladder_of_responsibility}
In the literature on organization design and agility, hierarchy is conceived as a requisite structure that emerges in a self-organized manner from operational activities. For example, a small firm composed of only three equivalent partners can initially operate without any hierarchy; but substantial growth in terms of people and their tasks will create the need for coordination and related managerial activities; this implies, for example, that one of the partners starts doing these coordination activities. Another example involves organizations adopting holacracy or sociocracy, with people at all levels self-organizing their responsibilities; that is, they exercise \"real\" rather than formal authority. In this respect, responsibility is an expression of self-restraint and intrinsic obligation. Examples of self-organized ladders of responsibility have also been observed in (the early stages of) worker cooperatives, like Mondragon, in which hierarchy is created in a bottom-up manner.
#### Hierarchy as ladder of ideology {#hierarchy_as_ladder_of_ideology}
In a hierarchy driven by ideology, people establish themselves as legitimate leaders by invoking some (e.g., religious, spiritual or political) idea to justify the hierarchical relationship between higher and lower levels. Ideological hierarchies have a long history, for example in the administrative hierarchies headed by pharaohs in ancient Egypt or those headed by kings in medieval Europe. The main legitimacy of any pharaoh or king arose from the strong belief in the idea that the pharaoh/king acts as the intermediary between the gods and the people, and thus deputizes for the gods. Another example is the hierarchy prevailing until today in the Balinese community, which is strongly connected to the rice cycle that is believed to constitute a hierarchical relationship between gods and humans, both of whom must play their parts to secure a good crop; the same ideology also legitimizes the hierarchical relationship between high and low castes in Bali. Ideological ladders have also long sustained the way the Catholic church and the Hindu caste system operates. Hierarchies of ideology also exist in many other settings, for instance, those driven by prevailing values and beliefs about how the (e.g. business) world should operate. An example is the ideology of \"maximizing shareholder value\", which is widely used in publicly traded companies. This ideology helps in creating and sustaining the image of a clear hierarchy from shareholders to employees---although, in practice, the separation of legal ownership and actual control implies that the CEO together with the Board of Directors are at the top of the corporate hierarchy. Given that public corporations (primarily) thrive on ladders of authority; this example also demonstrates how ladders of authority and ideology can complement and reinforce each other.
| 782 |
Hierarchical organization
| 2 |
14,031 |
# Hierarchical organization
## Criticism and alternatives {#criticism_and_alternatives}
The work of diverse theorists such as William James (1842--1910), Michel Foucault (1926--1984) and Hayden White (1928--2018) makes important critiques of hierarchical epistemology. James famously asserts in his work on radical empiricism that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved. A hesitation to declare success upon the discovery of ambiguities leaves heterarchy at an artificial and subjective disadvantage in the scope of human knowledge. This bias is an artifact of an aesthetic or pedagogical preference for hierarchy, and not necessarily an expression of objective observation.
Hierarchies and hierarchical thinking have been criticized by many people, including Susan McClary (born 1946), and by one political philosophy which vehemently opposes hierarchical organization: anarchism. Heterarchy, the most commonly proposed alternative to hierarchy, has been combined with responsible autonomy by Gerard Fairtlough in his work on triarchy theory. The most beneficial aspect of a hierarchical organization is the clear command-structure that it establishes. However, hierarchy may become dismantled by abuse of power.
Matrix organizations became a trend (or management fad) in the second half of the 20th century.
Amidst constant innovation in information and communication technologies, hierarchical authority structures are giving way to greater decision-making latitude for individuals and more flexible definitions of job activities; and this new style of work presents a challenge to existing organizational forms, with some`{{quantify|date=March 2023}}`{=mediawiki} research studies contrasting traditional organizational forms with groups that operate as online communities that are characterized by personal motivation and the satisfaction of making one\'s own decisions. When all levels of a hierarchical organization have access to information and communication via digital means, power structures may align more as a wirearchy, enabling the flow of power and authority to be based not on hierarchical levels, but on information, trust, credibility, and a focus on results
| 338 |
Hierarchical organization
| 3 |
14,063 |
# Hugh Binning
**Hugh Binning** (1627--1653) was a Scottish philosopher and theologian. He was born in Scotland during the reign of Charles I and was ordained in the (Presbyterian) Church of Scotland. He died in 1653, during the time of Oliver Cromwell and the Commonwealth of England.
## Personal life {#personal_life}
Hugh Binning was the son of John Binning of Dalvennan, Straiton, South Ayrshire. and Margaret M\'Kell. Margaret was the daughter of Matthew McKell, who was a minister in the parish of Bothwell, Scotland, and sister of Hugh M\'Kell, a minister in Edinburgh. Binning was born on his father\'s estate in Dalvennan. The family owned other lands in the parishes of Straiton and Colmonell as well as Maybole in Carrick.
A precocious child, Binning was admitted to the study of philosophy at the University of Glasgow at age thirteen. Binning has been described as \"an extraordinary instance of precocious learning and genius.\"
In 1645, James Dalrymple, 1st Viscount of Stair, who was Hugh\'s master (primary professor) in the study of philosophy, announced he was retiring from the University of Glasgow. Dalrymple was afterward President of the Court of Session, and Viscount Stair. After a national search for a replacement on the faculty, three men were selected to compete for the position. Binning was one of those selected, but was at a disadvantage because of his extreme youth and because he was not of noble birth. However, he had strong support from the existing faculty, who suggested that the candidates speak extemporaneously on any topic of the candidate\'s choice. After hearing Hugh speak, the other candidates withdrew, making Hugh a regent and professor of philosophy, while he was still 18 years old.
On 7 February 1648, (at the age of 21) Hugh was appointed an Advocate before the Court of Sessions (an attorney). In the same year, he married Barbara Simpson (sometimes called Mary), daughter of James Simpson a minister in Ireland. Their son, John, was born in 1650.
Binning became a minister on 25 October 1649. As minister of Govan, he was the successor of William Wilkie. His ordination took place on 8 January 1649, when Mr David Dickson, one of the theological professors at the College of Glasgow, and author of *Therapeutica Sacra*, presided. He was ordained in January, at the age of 22, holding his regency until 14 May that year. At that time Govan was a separate town rather than part of Glasgow.
Hugh died around September 1653 and was buried in the churchyard of Govan, where Patrick Gillespie, then principal of the University of Glasgow, ordered a monument inscribed in Latin, roughly translated: `{{blockquote|Here lies Mr. Hugh Binning, a man distinguished for his piety and eloquence, learned in philology, philosophy, and theology, a Prelate, faithful to the Gospel, and finally an excellent preacher. In the middle of a series of events, he was taken at the age of 26, in the year of our Lord 1653. Alive, he changed the society of his own land because he walked with God. And if you wish to make other inquires, the rest should keep silence, since neither you nor the marble can comprehend it.}}`{=mediawiki}
Hugh\'s widow, Barbara (or Mary), then remarried James Gordon, an Anglican priest at Cumber in Ireland. Together they had a daughter,Jean who married Daniel MacKenzie, who was on the winning side of the Battle of Bothwell Bridge serving as an ensign under Lieutenant-Colonel William Ramsay (who became the third Earl of Dalhousie), in the Earl of Mar\'s Regiment of Foot.
Binning\'s son, John Binning, married Hanna Keir, who was born in Ireland. The Binnings were Covenanters, a resistance movement that objected to the return of Charles II (who was received into the Catholic Church on his deathbed). They were on the losing side in the 1679 Battle of Bothwell Bridge. Most of the rebels who were not executed were exiled to the Americas; about 30 Covenanters were exiled to the Carolinas on the Carolina Merchant in 1684. After the battle, John and Hanna were separated.
In the aftermath of the battle at Bothwell Bridge, Hugh Binning\'s widow (now Barbara Gordon) tried to reclaim the family estate at Dalvennan by saying that John and his wife owed his stepfather a considerable some of money. The legal action was successful and Dalvennan became the possession of John\'s half-sister Jean, and her husband Daniel MacKenzie. In addition, Jean came into possession of Hanna Keir\'s property in Ireland.
By 1683, Jean was widowed. John Binning was branded a traitor, was sentenced to death and forfeited his property to the Crown. John\'s wife (Hanna Keir) was branded as a traitor and forfeited her property in Ireland. In 1685, Jean \"donated\" the Binning family\'s home at Dalvennan and other properties, along with the Keir properties, to Roderick MacKenzie, who was a Scottish advocate of James II (James VII of Scotland), and the baillie of Carrick. According to an act of the Scottish Parliament, Roderick MacKenzie was also very effective in \"suppressing the rebellious, fanatical party in the western and other shires of this realm, and putting the laws to vigorous execution against them\".
Since Bothwell Bridge, Hanna had been hiding from the authorities. In 1685, Hanna was in Edinburgh where she was found during a sweep for subversives and imprisoned in the Tolbooth of Edinburgh, a combination city hall and prison. Those arrested with Hanna were exiled to North America, however, she developed dysentery and remained behind. By 1687, near death, Hanna petitioned the Privy Council of Scotland for her release; she was exiled to her family in Ireland, where she died around 1692.
In 1690, the Scottish Parliament rescinded John\'s fines and forfeiture, but he was unable to recover his family\'s estates, the courts suggesting that he had relinquished his claim to Dalvennan in exchange for forgiveness of debt, rather than forfeiture.
There is little documentation about John after his wife\'s death. John received a small income from royalties on his father\'s works after parliament extended copyrights on Binning\'s writings to him. However, the income was not significant and John made several petitions to the Scottish parliament for money, the last occurring in 1717. It is thought that he died in Somerset county, in southwestern England.
He died of consumption at the age of 26 on September 1653. He was remarkably popular as a preacher, having been considered \"the most accomplished philosopher and divine in his time, and styled the Scottish Cicero.\" He married (cont. 17 May 1650), Mary (who died at Paisley in 1694) and had a son, John of Dalvennan. She was the daughter of Richard Simson, minister of Sprouston. After John\'s early death Mary married her second husband, James Gordon, minister of Comber, in Ireland. A marble tablet, with an inscription in classical Latin, was erected to his memory by his friend Mr Patrick Gillespie, who was then Principal of the University of Glasgow. It has been placed in the vestibule of the present parish church. The whole of his works are posthumous publications.
He was a follower of James Dalrymple. In later life, he was well known as an evangelical Christian.
| 1,186 |
Hugh Binning
| 0 |
14,063 |
# Hugh Binning
## Impact of the Commonwealth {#impact_of_the_commonwealth}
Hugh Binning was born two years after Charles I became monarch of England, Ireland, and Scotland. At the time, each was an independent country sharing the same monarch. The Acts of Union 1707 integrated Scotland and England to form the Kingdom of Great Britain, and the Acts of Union 1800 integrated Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
The period was dominated by both political and religious strife between the three independent countries. Religious disputes centered on questions such as whether religion was to be dictated by the monarch or was to be the choice of the people, and whether individuals had a direct relationship with God or needed to use an intermediary. Civil disputes centered on debates about the extent of the King\'s power (a question of the Divine right of kings), and specifically whether the King had the right to raise taxes and armed forces without the consent of the governed. These wars ultimately changed the relationship between king and subjects.
In 1638, the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland voted to remove bishops and the *Book of Common Prayer* that had been introduced by Charles I to impose the Anglican model on the Presbyterian Church of Scotland. Public riots followed, culminating in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, an interrelated series of conflicts that took place in the three countries. The first conflict, which was also the first of the Bishops\' Wars, took place in 1639 and was a single border skirmish between England and Scotland, also known as *the war the armys did not wanted to fight.*
To maintain his English power base, Charles I made secret alliances with Catholic Ireland and Presbyterian Scotland to invade Anglican England, promising that each country could establish their own separate state religion. Once these secret entreaties became known to the English Long Parliament, the Congregationalist faction (of which Oliver Cromwell was a primary spokesman) took matters into its own hands and Parliament established an army separate from the King. Charles I was executed in January 1649, which led to the rule of Cromwell and the establishment of the Commonwealth. The conflicts concluded with The English Restoration of the monarchy and the return of Charles II in 1660.
The Act of Classes was passed by the Parliament of Scotland on 23 January 1649; the act banned Royalists (people supporting the monarchy) from holding political or military office. In exile, Charles II signed the Treaty of Breda (1650) with the Scottish Parliament; among other things, the treaty established Presbyterianism as the national religion. Charles was crowned King of Scots at Scone in January 1651. By September 1651, Scotland was annexed by England, its legislative institutions abolished, Presbyterianism dis-established, and Charles was forced into exile in France.
The Scottish Parliament rescinded the Act of Classes in 1651, which produced a split within Scottish society. The sides of the conflict were called the Resolutioners (who supported the rescission of the act -- supported the monarchy and the Scottish House of Stewart) and the Protesters (who supported Cromwell and the Commonwealth); Binning sided with the Protestors. Binning joined the Protesters in 1651. When Cromwell had sent troops to Scotland, he was also attempting to dis-establish Presbyterianism and the Church of Scotland, Binning spoke against Cromwell\'s act.
On Saturday 19 April 1651, Cromwell entered Glasgow and the next day he heard a sermon by three ministers who condemned him for invading Scotland. That evening, Cromwell summoned those ministers and others, to a debate on the issue. a discussion on some of the controverted points of the times was held in his presence, between his chaplains, the learned Dr John Owen, Joseph Caryl, and others on the one side, and some Scots ministers on the other. Mr. Binning, who was one of the disputants, apparently nonplussed the Independents, which led Cromwell to ask who the learned and bold young man was. Told it was Binning, he said: \"He hath bound well, indeed,\" \... \" but, laying his hand on his sword, this will lose all again.\" The late Mr. Orme was of the opinion that there is nothing improbable in the account of the meeting, but that such a meeting took place is certain. This appears from two letters which were written by Principal Robert Baillie, who was then Professor of Theology at the University of Glasgow.At the debate, Rev Hugh Binning is said to have out-debated Cromwell\'s ministers so completely that he silenced them.
| 753 |
Hugh Binning
| 1 |
14,063 |
# Hugh Binning
## Politics
Hugh Binning\'s political views were based on his theology. Binning was a Covenanter, a movement that began in Scotland at Greyfriars Kirkyard in 1638 with the National Covenant and continued with the 1643 Solemn League and Covenant---in effect a treaty between the English Long Parliament and Scotland for the preservation of the reformed religion in exchange for troops to confront the threat of Irish Catholic troops joining the Royalist army. Binning could also be described as a Protestor; both political positions were taken because of their religious implications. However, he saw the evils of the politics of his day was not a \"fomenter of factions\" writing \"A Treatise of Christian Love\" as a response.
## Theology
Because of the tumultuous time in which Hugh Binning lived, politics and religion were inexorably intertwined. Binning was a Calvinist and follower of John Knox. As a profession, Binning was trained as a Philosopher, and he believed that philosophy was the servant of theology. He thought that both Philosophy and Theology should be taught in parallel. Binning\'s writing, which is primarily a collection of his sermons, \"forms an important bridge between the 17th century, when philosophy in Scotland was heavily dominated by Calvinism, and the 18th century when figures such as Francis Hutcheson re-asserted a greater degree of independence between the two and allied philosophy with the developing human sciences.\"
Religiously, Hugh Binning was, what we would call today, an Evangelical Calvinist. He spoke on the primacy of God\'s love as the ground of salvation: \"\... our salvation is not the business of Christ alone, but the whole Godhead is interested in it deeply, so deeply that you cannot say who loves it most, or who likes it most. The Father is the very fountain of it, his love is the spring of all.\"
With regards to the extent of the \'atonement\', Hugh Binning, did not hold that the offer of redemption applied only to the few that are elect but said that \"the ultimate ground of faith is in the electing will of God.\" In Scotland, during the 1600s, the questions concerning atonement revolved around the terms in which the offer was expressed.
Binning believed that \"forgiveness is based on Christ\'s death, understood as a satisfaction and as a sacrifice: \'If he had pardoned sin without any satisfaction what rich grace it had been! But truly, to provide the Lamb and sacrifice himself, to find out the ransom, and to exact it of his own Son, in our name, is a testimony of mercy and grace far beyond that. But then, his justice is very conspicuous in this work\'.\"
| 441 |
Hugh Binning
| 2 |
14,063 |
# Hugh Binning
## Works
All of the works of Hugh Binning were published posthumously and were primarily collections of his sermons. Of his speaking style, it was said: \"There is originality without any affectation, a rich imagination, without anything fanciful or extravert, the utmost simplicity, without an thing mean or trifling.\"
- *The Common Principles of the Christian Religion, Clearly Proved, and Singularly Improved; or, A Practical Catechism* published by Patrick Gillespie in 1660 An analysis of the Westminster Confession of Faith. The work was translated into Dutch in 1678 by James Koelman, a minister of Sluys in Flanders.
([The Common Principles of the Christian Religion](https://web.archive.org/web/20131106025837/http://www.covenanter.org/HBinning/commonprinciples/commonprinciples.html), fulltext) Quotations from the publication include:
:
: *On the love of God*
: And what is love but the very motion of the soul to God? And so till it have attained that, to be in him, it can find no place of rest.
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
:
: *On the free grace of the Gospel*
: I am guilty, and can say nothing against it, while I stand alone. But though I cannot satisfy, and have not; yet there is one, Jesus Christ, who gave his life a ransom for many, and whom God hath given as a propitiation for sins. He hath satisfied and paid the debt in my name; go and apprehend the cautioner, since he hath undertaken it, nay, he hath done it, and is absolved.
: *On Learning*
: Be not ignorant as beasts, that know no other things than to follow the drove; quæ pergunt, non quo eundum est, sed quo itur; *they follow not whither they ought to go, but whither most go*. You are men, and have reasonable souls within you; therefore I beseech you, be not composed and fashioned according to custom and example, that is, brutish, but according to some inward knowledge and reason. Retire once from the multitude, and ask in earnest at God, What is the way? Him that fears him he will teach the way that he should choose. The way to his blessed end is very strait, very difficult; you must have a guide in it,---you must have a lamp and a light in it,---else you cannot but go wrong.
- *Sinner\'s Sanctuary, being forty Sermons upon the eighth Chapter of the Epistle of the Romans, from the First Verse down to the Eighteenth.* a treatise originally published in 1670
- *Fellowship with God, being Twenty Eight Sermons on the First Epistle of John, Chap. 1st and Chap. 2nd, Verses 1, 2, 3.* a treatise originally published in 1671 by \"A.S. who in the preferace to the reader, styles himself, his servant in the gosple of our dearest Lord and Savior\"
- *Heart Humiliation or Miscellany Sermons, preached upon some choice texts at several solemn occasions.* originally published in 1676 by the same A.S. that published the treatice \"Fellowship with God\". The first of the sermons was preached July 1650
- *[An Useful Case of Conscience](https://web.archive.org/web/20120205212853/http://www.covenanter.org/HBinning/binningucc.html), Learnedly and Accurately Discussed and Resolved, Concerning Associations and Confederacies with Idolaters, Infidels, Heretics, Malignants or any other Known Enemies of Truth and Godliness.* The treatise was used by the Covenanters and seems to have been originally published in Holland in 1693. There is a reference to the treatise at a \"general meeting of Society people \... at Edinburgh 28 May 1683.\" The treatise expressed the opinion that Scotland should not support Charles I without some restraint placed on relatively absolute royal power and without assurance the Presbyterian religion could be maintained. The documents seem to have been presented to the Society either by Hugh Binning\'s son, John, or his widow, Barbara Gordon (who remarried about 1657 to James Gordon; he was born in Ireland and became a minister at Paisley, Renfrewshire, Scotland.) ([An Useful Case of Conscience](https://web.archive.org/web/20120205212853/http://www.covenanter.org/HBinning/binningucc.html), fulltext). In the treatise Binning writes:
:
: Where God hath given us liberty by the law of nature, or his word, no king can justly tie us, and when God binds and obliges us by any of these, no king or parliament can loose or untie us.
- *A Treatise of Christian Love* a sermon based on John 13:35, "By this shall all men know that ye are my disciples, if ye have love one to another" and 1 Corinthians 13. Binning explores the concept that as a believer in Christ, there is a need for Christians to show by their love for one another.
([A Treatise of Christian Love](https://web.archive.org/web/20120205212726/http://www.covenanter.org/HBinning/binninglove.html), fulltext) Binning argues:
:
: But Christ's last words persuade this, that unity in affection is more essential and fundamental. This is the badge he left to his disciples. If we cast away this upon every different apprehension of mind, we disown our Master, and disclaim his token and badge.
: *On Charity*
: Charity \"thinketh no evil.\" \[1 Cor. 13:5\] Charity is apt to take all things in the best sense. If a thing may be subject to diverse acceptations, it can put the best construction on it. It is so benign and good in its own nature that it is not inclinable to suspect others. It desires to condemn no man, but would gladly, as far as reason and conscience will permit, absolve every man. It is so far from desire of revenge, that it is not provoked or troubled with an injury. For that were nothing else but to wrong itself because others have wronged it already, and it is so far from wronging others, that it will not willingly so much as think evil of them. Yet if need requires, charity can execute justice, and inflict chastisement, not out of desire of another's misery, but out of love and compassion to mankind. Charitas non punit quia peccatum est, sed ne peccaretur, *it looks more to prevention of future sin, than to revenge of a bypast fault*, and can do all without any discomposure of spirit, as a physician cuts a vein without anger. Quis enim cut medetur irascitur? \"*Who is angry at his own patient*?\"
- In 1735, the collections of Binning\'s works were published posthumously, originally edited by M. Leishman, a minister who was a later successor to Hugh in the parish of Govan, which contained sermons not previously published. There have been several editions of *The Complete Works of the Rev. Hugh Binning*, one of the latest (Classic Reprint) was published by Forgotten Books in 2012
| 1,070 |
Hugh Binning
| 3 |
14,064 |
# Henry Home, Lord Kames
**Henry Home, Lord Kames** (1696--27 December 1782) was a Scottish writer, philosopher and judge who played a major role in Scotland\'s Agricultural Revolution. A central figure of the Scottish Enlightenment, he was a founding member of the Philosophical Society of Edinburgh and active in The Select Society. Home acted as patron to some of the most influential thinkers of the Scottish Enlightenment, including philosopher David Hume, economist Adam Smith, writer James Boswell, philosopher William Cullen and naturalist John Walker.
## Life
Henry Home was born in 1696 at Kames House, between Eccles and Birgham in Berwickshire. Henry was the son of George Home of Kames, and was homeschooled by Mr Wingate, a private tutor, until the age of 16. In 1712, Home was apprenticed as a lawyer under a Writer to the Signet in Edinburgh, and was called to the Scottish bar as an advocate bar in 1724. He soon acquired reputation by a number of publications on the civil and Scottish law, and was one of the leaders of the Scottish Enlightenment. In 1752, he was \"raised to the bench\", thus acquiring the title of Lord Kames.
Kames held an interest in the development and production of linen in Scotland. Kames was one of the original proprietors of the British Linen Company, serving as a director of the company from 1754 to 1756. Kames was on the panel of judges in the *Knight v. Wedderburn* case which ruled that slavery was illegal in Scotland. In 1775, he lived in a townhouse in Canongate. The house was located the head of the street\'s east side, facing onto the Canongate.
He died of old age, aged 86, and is buried in the Home-Drummond plot at Kincardine-in-Menteith west of Blair Drummond.
| 294 |
Henry Home, Lord Kames
| 0 |
14,064 |
# Henry Home, Lord Kames
## Writings
Home wrote much about the importance of property to society. In his *Essay Upon Several Subjects Concerning British Antiquities*, written just after the Jacobite rising of 1745, he showed that the politics of Scotland were based not on loyalty to Kings, as the Jacobites had said, but on the royal land grants that lay at the base of feudalism, the system whereby the sovereign maintained \"an immediate hold of the persons and property of his subjects\".
In *Historical Law Tracts* Home described a four-stage model of social evolution that became \"a way of organizing the history of Western civilization\". The first stage was that of the hunter-gatherer, wherein families avoided each other as competitors for the same food. The second was that of the herder of domestic animals, which encouraged the formation of larger groups but did not result in what Home considered a true society. No laws were needed at these early stages except those given by the head of the family, clan, or tribe. Agriculture was the third stage, wherein new occupations such as \"plowman, carpenter, blacksmith, stonemason\" made \"the industry of individuals profitable to others as well as to themselves\", and a new complexity of relationships, rights, and obligations required laws and law enforcers. A fourth stage evolved with the development of market towns and seaports, \"commercial society\", bringing yet more laws and complexity but also providing more benefit. Lord Kames could see these stages within Scotland itself, with the pastoral Highlands, the agricultural Lowlands, the \"polite\" commercial towns of Glasgow and Edinburgh, and in the Western Isles a remaining culture of rude huts where fishermen and gatherers of seaweed eked out their subsistence living.
Home was a polygenist, he believed God had created different races on earth in separate regions. In his book *Sketches of the History of Man*, in 1774, Home claimed that the environment, climate, or state of society could not account for racial differences, so that the races must have come from distinct, separate stocks.
The above studies created the genre of the story of civilization and defined the fields of anthropology and sociology and therefore the modern study of history for two hundred years.
In the popular book *Elements of Criticism* (1762) Home interrogated the notion of fixed or arbitrary rules of literary composition, and endeavoured to establish a new theory based on the principles of human nature. The late eighteenth-century tradition of sentimental writing was associated with his notion that \"the genuine rules of criticism are all of them derived from the human heart.\" Neil Rhodes has argued that Lord Kames played a significant role in the development of English as an academic discipline in the Scottish Universities.
## Family
He was married to Agatha Drummond of Blair Drummond. Their children included George Drummond-Home.
## Major works {#major_works}
- *Remarkable Decisions of the Court of Session 1706 to 1728* (1728)
- *Essays upon Several Subjects in Law* (1732)
- *Decisions of the Court of Session from its First Institution to the Year 1740* (1740)
- *Essay Upon Several Subjects Concerning British Antiquities* (1747)
- *Essays on the Principles of Morality and Natural Religion* (1751) He advocates the doctrine of philosophical necessity.
- *The Statute Law of Scotland* (1757)
- *Historical Law-Tracts* (1758)
- *The Principles of Equity* (1760)
- *Introduction to the Art of Thinking* (1761)
- *Elements of Criticism* (1762) Published by two Scottish booksellers, Andrew Millar and Alexander Kincaid
| 577 |
Henry Home, Lord Kames
| 1 |
14,065 |
# Harwich
**Harwich** `{{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|ær|ᵻ|tʃ}}`{=mediawiki} is a town in Essex, England, and one of the Haven ports on the North Sea coast. It is in the Tendring district. Nearby places include Felixstowe to the north-east, Ipswich to the north-west, Colchester to the south-west and Clacton-on-Sea to the south. It is the northernmost coastal town in Essex.
Its position on the estuaries of the Stour and Orwell rivers, with its usefulness to mariners as the only safe anchorage between the Thames and the Humber, led to a long period of civil and military maritime significance. The town became a naval base in 1657 and was heavily fortified, with Harwich Redoubt, Beacon Hill Battery, and Bath Side Battery.
Harwich is the likely launch point of the *Mayflower*, which carried English Puritans to North America, and is the presumed birthplace of *Mayflower* captain Christopher Jones.
Harwich today is contiguous with Dovercourt and the two, along with Parkeston, are often referred to collectively as *Harwich*.
## History
The town\'s name means \"military settlement\", from Old English *here-wic*.
In 885 the River Stour north of the town was the location for the two battles that took place on the river.
The town received its charter in 1238, although there is evidence of earlier settlement -- for example, a record of a chapel in 1177, and some indications of a possible Roman presence.
The town was the target of an abortive raid by French forces under Antonio Doria on 24 March 1339 during the Hundred Years\' War.
Because of its strategic position, Harwich was the target for the invasion of Britain by William of Orange on 11 November 1688. However, unfavourable winds forced his fleet to sail into the English Channel instead and eventually land at Torbay. Due to the involvement of the Schomberg family in the invasion, Charles Louis Schomberg was made Marquess of Harwich.
Writer Daniel Defoe devotes a few pages to the town in *A tour thro\' the Whole Island of Great Britain*. Visiting in 1722, he noted its formidable fort and harbour \"of a vast extent\". The town, he recounts, was also known for an unusual chalybeate spring rising on Beacon Hill (a promontory to the north-east of the town), which \"petrified\" clay, allowing it to be used to pave Harwich\'s streets and build its walls. The locals also claimed that \"the same spring is said to turn wood into iron\", but Defoe put this down to the presence of \"copperas\" in the water. Regarding the atmosphere of the town, he states: \"Harwich is a town of hurry and business, not much of gaiety and pleasure; yet the inhabitants seem warm in their nests and some of them are very wealthy\".
Harwich played an important part in the Napoleonic and more especially the two world wars. Of particular note:
1793--1815: Post Office Station for communication with Europe, one of embarkation and evacuation bases for expeditions to Holland in 1799, 1809, and 1813/14; base for capturing enemy privateers. The dockyard built many ships for the Navy, including HMS *Conqueror* which captured the French Admiral Villeneuve at the Battle of Trafalgar. The Redoubt and the now-demolished Ordnance Building date from that era.
1914--1918: Base for the Royal Navy\'s Harwich Force light cruisers and destroyers under Commodore Tyrwhitt, and for British submarines. In November 1918, the German U-boat fleet surrendered to the Royal Navy in the harbour.
1939--1945: One of main East Coast minesweeping and destroyer bases, at one period base for British and French submarines; assembled fleets for Dutch and Dunkirk evacuations and follow-up to D-Day; unusually, a target for Italian bombers during the Battle of Britain.
### Royal Naval Dockyard {#royal_naval_dockyard}
Harwich Dockyard was established as a Naval Dockyard in 1652. It ceased to operate as a Royal Dockyard in 1713 (though a Royal Navy presence was maintained until 1829). During the various wars with France and Holland, through to 1815, the dockyard was responsible for both building and repairing numerous warships. HMS *Conqueror*, a 74-gun ship completed in 1801, captured the French admiral Villeneuve at Trafalgar. The yard was then a semi-private concern, with the actual shipbuilding contracted to Joseph Graham, who was sometimes mayor of the town. During World War II parts of Harwich were again requisitioned for naval use and ships were based at HMS *Badger*; *Badger* was decommissioned in 1946, but the Royal Naval Auxiliary Service maintained a headquarters on the site until 1992.
### Lighthouses
In 1665, not long after the establishment of the Dockyard, a pair of lighthouses were set up on the Town Green to serve as leading lights for ships entering the harbour. Completely rebuilt in 1818, both towers are still standing (though they ceased functioning as lighthouses in 1863, when they were replaced by a new pair of lights at Dovercourt).
## Transport
The Royal Navy no longer has a presence in Harwich but Harwich International Port at nearby Parkeston continues to offer regular ferry services to the Hook of Holland (Hoek van Holland) in the Netherlands. Many operations of the Port of Felixstowe and of Trinity House, the lighthouse authority, are managed from Harwich.
The Mayflower railway line serves Harwich and there are three operational passenger stations: `{{rws|Harwich International}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{rws|Dovercourt}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{rws|Harwich Town}}`{=mediawiki}. The line also allows freight trains to access the Port.
The port is famous for the phrase \"Harwich for the Continent\", seen on road signs and in London and North Eastern Railway (LNER) advertisements.
From 1924 to 1987 (with a break during the Second World War), a train ferry service operated between Harwich and Zeebrugge. The train ferry linkspan still exists today and the rails leading from the former goods yard of Harwich Town railway station are still in position across the road, although the line is blocked by the Trinity House buoy store.
| 963 |
Harwich
| 0 |
14,065 |
# Harwich
## Architecture
Despite, or perhaps because of, its small size Harwich is highly regarded in terms of architectural heritage, and the whole of the older part of the town, excluding Navyard Wharf, is a conservation area.
The regular street plan with principal thoroughfares connected by numerous small alleys indicates the town\'s medieval origins, although many buildings of this period are hidden behind 18th century facades.
The extant medieval structures are largely private homes. The house featured in the image of Kings Head St to the left is unique in the town and is an example of a sailmaker\'s house, thought to have been built circa 1600. Notable public buildings include the parish church of St. Nicholas of 1820--1822 (architect: M G Thompson of Dedham), in a restrained Gothic style, with many original furnishings, including a somewhat altered organ in the west end gallery. There is also the Harwich Guildhall of 1769, the only Grade I listed building in Harwich.
The Pier Hotel of 1860 and the building that was the Great Eastern Hotel of 1864 can both been seen on the quayside, both reflecting the town\'s new importance to travellers following the arrival of the Great Eastern Main Line from Colchester in 1854. In 1923, The Great Eastern Hotel was closed by the newly formed LNER, as the Great Eastern Railway had opened a new hotel with the same name at the new passenger port at Parkeston Quay, causing a decline in numbers. The hotel became the Harwich Town Hall, which included the Magistrates Court and, following changes in local government, was sold and divided into apartments. Also of interest are the High Lighthouse (1818), the unusual Treadwheel Crane (late 17th century), the Old Custom Houses on West Street, a number of Victorian shopfronts and the Electric Palace Cinema (1911), one of the oldest purpose-built cinemas to survive complete with its ornamental frontage and original projection room still intact and operational.
There is little notable building from the later parts of the 20th century, but major recent additions include the lifeboat station and two new structures for Trinity House. The Trinity House office building, next door to the Old Custom Houses, was completed in 2005. All three additions are influenced by the high-tech style.
## International Shanty Festival {#international_shanty_festival}
A Harwich International Shanty Festival was set up in 2006 to organise and co-ordinate an annual sea shanty festival in October. Through concerts, \'singarounds\', pub sessions, talks and workshops, the seafaring history and heritage of Harwich is celebrated by local people and international groups. This unique event for Essex attracts audiences countrywide and beyond. The festival is one of the biggest shanty festivals in the country.
| 447 |
Harwich
| 1 |
14,065 |
# Harwich
## Notable residents {#notable_residents}
Harwich has also historically hosted a number of notable inhabitants, linked with Harwich\'s maritime past.
- Christopher Newport (1561--1617), seaman and privateer, captain of the expedition that founded Jamestown, Virginia
- Christopher Jones (c.1570--1622) Captain of the 1620 voyage of the Pilgrim ship *Mayflower*
- Thomas Cobbold (1708--1767), brewer and owner of Three Cups
- William Shearman (1767--1861), physician and medical writer
- James Francillon (1802--1866), barrister and legal writer
- Captain Charles Fryatt (1872--1916), mariner executed by the Germans, brought back from Belgium and buried at Dovercourt
- Peter Firmin (1928--2018), artist and puppet maker
- Randolph Stow (1935--2010), reclusive but award-winning Australian-born writer made his home in Harwich
- Myles de Vries (born 1940), first-class cricketer
- Liana Bridges (born 1969) actress, best known for co-presenting *Sooty & Co*
- Kate Hall (born 1983), British-Danish singer
- Dan Rowe, singer
### Politicians
- Sir John Jacob, 1st Baronet of Bromley (c.1597--1666), politician who sat in the House of Commons in 1640 and 1641
- Sir Capel Luckyn, 2nd Baronet (1622--1680), politician who sat in the House of Commons variously between 1647 and 1679
- Samuel Pepys (1633--1703), diarist and member of parliament (MP) for Harwich
- Sir Anthony Deane (1638--1721), mayor of Harwich, naval architect, Master Shipwright, commercial shipbuilder and MP
- Lieutenant-General Edward Harvey (1718--1788) Adjutant-General to the Forces and MP for Harwich 1768 to 1778
- Tony Newton, Baron Newton of Braintree (1937--2012), Conservative politician and former Cabinet member
- Nick Alston (born 1952), Conservative Essex Police and Crime Commissioner
- Bernard Jenkin (born 1959), Conservative politician, MP for Harwich and North Essex since 2010
- Andrew Murrison (born 1961), doctor and Conservative Party politician, MP since 2001
## Sport
Harwich is home to Harwich & Parkeston F.C.; Harwich and Dovercourt RFC; Harwich Rangers FC; Sunday Shrimpers; Harwich & Dovercourt Sailing Club; Harwich, Dovercourt & Parkeston Swimming Club; Harwich & Dovercourt Rugby Union Football Club; Harwich & Dovercourt Cricket Club; and Harwich Runners who with support from Harwich Swimming Club host the annual Harwich Triathlons.
## Media
Local news and television programmes are provided by BBC East and ITV Anglia. Television signals are received from the Sudbury TV transmitter and the local relay transmitter.
The town is served by both BBC Essex and BBC Radio Suffolk. Other radio stations including Heart East, Greatest Hits Radio Essex, Actual Radio, Nation Radio Suffolk and *Radio Mi Amigo*, a community based station which broadcast from The Harwich Quay.
The town is served by the local newspaper, *Harwich and Manningtree Standard* which publishes on Fridays
| 431 |
Harwich
| 2 |
14,068 |
# Hans Baldung
**Hans Baldung** (1484 or 1485 -- September 1545), called **Hans Baldung Grien**, (being an early nickname, because of his predilection for the colour green), was a painter, printer, engraver, draftsman, and stained glass artist, who was considered the most gifted student of Albrecht Dürer and whose art belongs to both German Renaissance and Mannerism.
Throughout his lifetime, he developed a distinctive style, full of colour, expression and imagination. His talents were varied, and he produced a great and extensive variety of work including portraits, woodcuts, drawings, tapestries, altarpieces, and stained glass, often relying on allegories and mythological motifs.
## Life
### Early life, c. 1484--1500 {#early_life_c._14841500}
Hans was born in Schwäbisch Gmünd (formerly Gmünd in Germany), a small free city of the Empire, part of the East Württemberg region in former Swabia, Germany, in the year 1484 or 1485. Baldung was the son of Johann Baldung, a university-educated jurist, who held the office of legal adviser to the bishop of Strasbourg (Albert of Bavaria) from 1492, and Margarethe Herlin, daughter of Arbogast Herlin. His uncle, Hieronymus Baldung, was a doctor in medicine, with a son, Pius Hieronymus, Hans\' cousin, who taught law at Freiburg and became chancellor of Tyrol in 1527.
Hans was not propertyless, but with unknown occupation. He was the first male in his family not to attend university, but was one of the first German artists to come from an academic family.
## Life as a student of Dürer {#life_as_a_student_of_dürer}
Baldung\'s earliest training as an artist began around 1500 in the Upper Rhineland with an artist from Strasbourg. Beginning in 1503, during the \"Wanderjahre\" (\"years of wandering\") required of artists of the time, Baldung became an assistant in Albrecht Dürer\'s studio in Nuremberg, where he perfected his art between 1503 and 1507.
Here, he may have been given his nickname \"Grien\". This name is thought to have come foremost from a preference to the color green: he seems to have worn green clothing. He may also have been given this nickname to distinguish him from at least two other Hanses in Dürer\'s shop, Hans Schäufelin and Hans Suess von Kulmbach. He later included the name \"Grien\" in his monogram, and it has also been suggested that the name came from, or consciously echoed, \"grienhals\", a German word for witch---one of his signature themes.
Hans quickly picked up Dürer\'s influence and style, and they became friends. Baldung seems to have managed Dürer\'s workshop during the latter\'s second sojourn in Venice. In a later trip to the Netherlands in 1521 Dürer\'s account book records that he took with him and sold prints by Baldung. Near the end of his Nuremberg years, Grien oversaw the production by Dürer of stained glass, woodcuts and engravings, and therefore developed an affinity for these media and for the Nuremberg master\'s handing of them. On Dürer\'s death Baldung was sent a lock of his hair, which suggests a close friendship.
## Strasbourg
In 1509, when Baldung\'s time in Nuremberg was complete, he moved back to Strasbourg and became a citizen there. He became a celebrity of the town and received many important commissions. The following year, at age 26, he married Margarethe Herlin, a local merchant\'s daughter, with whom he had one child, Margarethe Baldungin. He also joined the guild \"Zur Steltz\", opened a workshop, and began signing his works with the HGB monogram that he used for the rest of his career.
His style became much more deliberately individual---a tendency art historians used to term \"mannerist.\" He stayed in Freiburg im Breisgau in 1513--1516 where he made, among other things, the High altar of the Freiburg Münster.
Like Dürer and Cranach, Baldung supported the Protestant Reformation. He was present at the diet of Augsburg in 1518, and one of his woodcuts represents Luther in quasi-saintly guise, under the protection of (or being inspired by) the Holy Spirit, which hovers over him in the shape of a dove.
| 657 |
Hans Baldung
| 0 |
14,068 |
# Hans Baldung
## Witchcraft and religious imagery {#witchcraft_and_religious_imagery}
In addition to traditional religious subjects, Baldung was concerned during these years with the profane themes of the imminence of death and the relation between the sexes, as well as with scenes of sorcery and witchcraft. The number of Baldung\'s religious works diminished with the Protestant Reformation, which generally repudiated church art as either wasteful or idolatrous.
While Dürer had occasionally included images of witches in his work, Baldung was the first German artist to heavily incorporate witches and witchcraft and erotic themes into his artwork. His most characteristic works in this area are small in scale and mostly in the medium of drawing; these include a series of puzzling, often erotic allegories and mythological works executed in quill pen and ink and white body color on primed paper.
His fascination with witchcraft began early, in 1510 when he produced an important chiaroscuro woodcut known as *The Witches\' Sabbath*, and lasted to the end of his career. Witches were also a local interest: Strasbourg\'s humanists studied witchcraft and its bishop was charged with finding and prosecuting witches.
Baldung\'s work depicting witches was produced in the first half of the 16th century, before witch hunting became a widespread cultural phenomenon in Europe. According to one view, Baldung\'s work did not represent widespread cultural beliefs at the time of creation but reflected largely individual choices.
On the other hand, Baldung may have taken inspiration from the humanism of the early 16th century. Baldung, through his family, stood closer to the leading humanist intellectuals of the day than any of his contemporaries and partook in this culture, producing not only many works depicting Strasbourg humanists and scenes from ancient art and literature, but also works reflecting their attitude, drawn in large part from classical poetry and satire, toward witches. To take one example, Baldung is believed to have alluded to the notion expressed in Latin and Greek literature that witches could control the weather in his 1523 oil painting *Weather Witches*, which showcases two attractive and naked witches in front of a stormy sky. As Gert von der Osten commented, \"Baldung \[treats\] his witches humorously, an attitude that reflects the dominant viewpoint of the humanists in Strasbourg at this time who viewed witchcraft as \'lustig,\' a matter that was more amusing than serious\".
However, it has also proved difficult to distinguish between the satirical tone that some critics observe in Baldung\'s work and a more serious vilifying intent, just as it is for many other artists, including his rough contemporary Hieronymus Bosch. Baldung could also draw on a burgeoning literature on witchcraft, as well as on developing juridical and forensic strategies for witch-hunting. While Baldung never worked directly with any Reformation leaders to spread religious ideals through his artwork, even though he lived in fervently religious Strasbourg, he was a supporter of the movement, working on the high altar in the city of Münster, Germany.
Baldung also regularly incorporated scenes of witches flying in his art, a characteristic that had been contested centuries before his artwork came into being. Flying was inherently attributed to witches by those who believed in the myth of the Sabbath Flight; without their ability to fly, the myth fragmented. Baldung depicted this in works such as *Witches Preparing for the Sabbath Flight* (1514).
| 554 |
Hans Baldung
| 1 |
14,068 |
# Hans Baldung
## Work
### Painting
Baldung settled eventually in Strasbourg and then to Freiburg im Breisgau, where he executed what is held to be his masterpiece: an eleven-panel altarpiece for the Freiburg Cathedral, still intact today, depicting scenes from the life of the Virgin, including *The Annunciation*, *The Visitation*, *The Nativity*, *The Flight into Egypt*, *The Crucifixion*, *Four Saints* and *The Donators*. These depictions were a large part of the artist\'s greater body of work containing several renowned depictions of the Virgin.
The earliest pictures assigned to him by some are altar-pieces with the monogram **H. B.** interlaced, and the date of 1496, in the monastery chapel of Lichtenthal near Baden-Baden. *The Martyrdom of St Sebastian and the Epiphany* (now Berlin, 1507) was painted for the market-church of Halle in Saxony.
Baldung is well known as a portrait painter, known for his sharp characterization of his subjects. His works include historical pictures and portraits, such as Maximilian I and Charles V. At a later period he had sittings with Margrave Christopher of Baden, Ottilia his wife, and all their children, and the picture containing these portraits is still in the gallery at Karlsruhe.
While Dürer rigorously details his models, Baldung\'s style differs by focusing more on the personality of the represented character, an abstract conception of the model\'s state of mind.
### Printmaking
His prints are more important than his paintings. Baldung\'s prints, though Düreresque, are very individual in style, and often in subject, showing little direct Italian influence. He worked mainly in woodcut, although he made six engravings, one very fine. He joined in the fashion for chiaroscuro woodcuts, adding a tone block to a woodcut of 1510. Most of his hundreds of woodcuts were commissioned for books, as was usual at the time; his \"single-leaf\" woodcuts (i.e. prints not for book illustration) are fewer than 100, though no two catalogues agree as to the exact number.
Unconventional as a draughtsman, his treatment of human form is often exaggerated and eccentric (hence his linkage, in the art historical literature, with European Mannerism), whilst his ornamental style---profuse, eclectic, and akin to the self-consciously \"German\" strain of contemporary limewood sculptors---is equally distinctive. Though Baldung has been commonly called the Correggio of the north, his compositions are a curious medley of glaring and heterogeneous colours, in which pure black is contrasted with pale yellow, dirty grey, impure red and glowing green. Flesh is a mere glaze under which the features are indicated by lines.
His works are notable for their individualistic departure from the Renaissance composure of his model, Dürer, for the wild and fantastic strength that some of them display, and for their remarkable themes. In the field of painting, his *Eve, the Serpent and Death* (National Gallery of Canada) shows his strengths well. There is special force in the *Death and the Maiden* panel of 1517 (Basel), in the *Weather Witches* (Frankfurt), in the monumental panels of *Adam* and *Eve* (Madrid), and in his many powerful portraits. Baldung\'s most sustained effort is the altarpiece of Freiburg, where the *Coronation of the Virgin*, and the *Twelve Apostles*, the *Annunciation*, *Visitation*, *Nativity* and *Flight into Egypt*, and the *Crucifixion*, with portraits of donors, are executed with some of that fanciful power that Martin Schongauer bequeathed to the Swabian school.
### Other works {#other_works}
One of his earliest works is a portrait of the emperor Maximilian, drawn in 1501 on a leaf of a sketch-book now in the print-room at Karlsruhe.
His bust of Margrave Philip in the Munich Gallery tells us that he was connected with the reigning family of Baden as early as 1514.
| 605 |
Hans Baldung
| 2 |
14,068 |
# Hans Baldung
## Selected works {#selected_works}
- *Phyllis and Aristotle*, Paris, Louvre. 1503
- Two altar wings (Charles the Great, St. George), Augsburg, State Gallery.
- *Portrait of a Youth*, Hampton Court, Royal Collection 1509
- *The Birth of Christ*, Basel, Kunstmuseum Basel, 1510
- *The Adoration of the Magi*, Dessau, Anhalt Art Gallery, 1510
- *The Witches*, 1510
- *The Mass of St. Gregory*, Cleveland, Cleveland Museum of Art, 1511
- *The Crucifixion of Christ*, Basel, Kunstmuseum Basel, 1512
- *The Crucifixion of Christ*, Berlin, Gemäldegalerie, 1512
- *The Holy Trinity*, London, National Gallery, 1512
- *The Rest on the Flight into Egypt*, Vienna, Paintings Gallery of the Academy of Fine Arts, 1513
- *Portrait of a Man*, London, National Gallery, 1514
- *The Lamentation of Christ*, Berlin, Gemäldegalerie, 1516
- *Death and the Maiden*, Basel, Kunstmuseum Basel, 1517
- *The Baptism of Christ*, Frankfurt am Main, Städel, 1518
- *Stoning of Saint Stephen*, Strasbourg, Musée de l'Œuvre Notre-Dame, 1522 (contains a self-portrait with a moustache)
- *Two Witches*, Frankfurt am Main, Städel, 1523
- *Venus with Cupid*, Otterlo, Rijksmuseum Kröller-Müller, 1525
- *Pyramus and Thisbe*, Berlin, Gemäldegalerie, around 1530
- *Ambrosius Volmar Keller*, Strasbourg, Musée de l'Œuvre Notre-Dame, 1538
- *Christ as a Gardener*, Darmstadt, Hessen State Museum, 1539
- *Adam and Eve*, Florence, Galleria degli Uffizi - Uffizi
- *The Unlikely Couple*, Liverpool, Walker Art Gallery, 1527
- *The Three Ages of Man and Death*, Museo del Prado, Madrid
- *Portrait of a lady*, Museo Thyssen-Bornemisza, Madrid, 1530
- *Mercury as a Planet God*, Stockholm, Nationalmuseum, 1530--1540
- *Harmony, or The Three Graces* *Die Jugend (Die drei Grazien) The youth (the three graces) Museo del Prado between 1541 and 1544*
- *The Seven Ages of Woman*, Museum der bildenden Künste, Leipzig, 1544
<File:The> Virgin as Queen of Heaven Suckling the Infant Christ, oil on timewood panel by Hans Baldung, called Grien.jpg\|*The Virgin as Queen of Heaven with the Christ Child in her arms*, date unknown <File:1510> Baldung Der Heilige Johannes auf Patmos anagoria.JPG\|*John of Patmos*, 1510 <File:Hans> Baldung - The Mass of Saint Gregory - 1952.112 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tiff\|*The Mass of St Gregory*, 1511 <File:Aristotle> and Phyllis.jpg\|Woodcut of Phyllis and Aristotle, 1515 <File:Hans> Baldung Grien - Ruhe auf der Flucht der heiligen Familie nach Ägypten.jpg\|*Rest on the Flight into Egypt*, c. 1515 <File:Hans> Baldung - Mater Dolorosa - WGA01205.jpg\|*Mater Dolorosa*, c. 1516 <File:Hans> Baldung 004.jpg\|*The Lamentation of Christ*, 1516 <File:Hans> Baldung Grien Enthauptung der hl Dorothea.jpg\|*Beheading of St Dorothea*, 1516 <File:Baldung> FR Hochaltar.02.JPG\|*Nativity*, 1516 <File:Gw11> 0001031 20170619 001 Baldung Der Tod und das Maedchen.jpg\|*Death and the Maiden*, 1517 <File:649_z-hans_baldung_grien-lucretia-1520.png>\|*Lucretia*, 1520. Drawing with bodycolor Two Witches (SM 1123).png\|*Two Witches*, 1523 <File:Hans> Baldung Grien - Adam - Google Art Project.jpg\|*Adam*, c. 1525--1526 <File:Hans> Baldung Grien - Eve - Google Art Project.jpg\|*Eve*, c. 1525--1526 <File:Hans> Baldung Grien - Venus and Amor - Google Art Project.jpg\|*Venus with Cupid*, 1525 <File:Mercury> (Hans Baldung Grien) - Nationalmuseum - 18076.tif\|*Mercury*, 1530--1540 <File:Hans> Baldung - The Three Graces - WGA01196.jpg\|*Harmony*, 1541 Baldung Vierge treille mba mb
| 504 |
Hans Baldung
| 3 |
14,070 |
# Hammered dulcimer
The **hammered dulcimer** (also called the **hammer dulcimer**) is a percussion-string instrument which consists of strings typically stretched over a trapezoidal resonant sound board. The hammered dulcimer is set before the musician, who in more traditional styles may sit cross-legged on the floor, or in a more modern style may stand or sit at a wooden support with legs. The player holds a small spoon-shaped mallet or *hammer* in each hand to strike the strings. The Graeco-Roman word *dulcimer* (sweet song) derives from the Latin *dulcis* (sweet) and the Greek *melos* (song). The dulcimer, in which the strings are beaten with small hammers, originated from the psaltery, in which the strings are plucked.
Hammered dulcimers and other similar instruments are traditionally played in Iraq, India, Iran, Southwest Asia, China, Korea, and parts of Southeast Asia, Central Europe (Hungary, Slovenia, Romania, Slovakia, Poland, Czech Republic, Switzerland \[particularly Appenzell\], Austria and Bavaria), the Balkans, Eastern Europe (Ukraine and Belarus), and Scandinavia. The instrument is also played in the United Kingdom (Wales, East Anglia, Northumbria), and the United States, where its traditional use in folk music saw a revival in the late 20th century.
## History
thumb\|left\|upright=0.7\|An angel playing a dulcimer and pipe in the c. 1490 fresco *Assumption of Mary* by Filippino Lippi at Santa Maria sopra Minerva The santur, a type of hammered dulcimer, originates from the Middle East. The earliest evidence comes from Assyrian and Babylonian stone carvings dated to 669 BC, showing the instrument being played while hanging from the player\'s neck. This instrument was traded and travelled to different parts of the Middle East. Musicians modified the original design over the centuries, yielding a wide array of musical scales and tunings. The original santur was likely made with wood and stone and strung with goat intestines. The Babylonian santur was the ancestor of the harp, yangqin, harpsichord, qanun, cimbalom and hammered dulcimers.
In Western Europe, a hammered dulcimer first appears in textual and iconographic sources from the early 15th century. The hammered dulcimer was extensively used during the Middle Ages in England, France, Italy, Germany, the Netherlands, and Spain.
| 354 |
Hammered dulcimer
| 0 |
14,070 |
# Hammered dulcimer
## Strings and tuning {#strings_and_tuning}
thumb\|upright=0.7\|Major scale pattern on a diatonic hammered dulcimer tuned in 5ths thumb\|upright=0.7\|The *Salzburger hackbrett*, a chromatic version thumb\|upright=0.7\|left\|Tuning of a hammered dulcimer (southeastern Slovenia) A dulcimer usually has two bridges, a bass bridge near the right and a treble bridge on the left side. The bass bridge holds up bass strings, which are played to the left of the bridge. The treble strings can be played on either side of the treble bridge. In the usual construction, playing them on the left side gives a note a fifth higher than playing them on the right of the bridge.
The dulcimer comes in various sizes, identified by the number of strings that cross each of the bridges. A 15/14, for example, has 15 strings crossing the treble bridge and 14 crossing the bass bridge, and can span three octaves. The strings of a hammered dulcimer are usually found in pairs, two strings for each note (though some instruments have three or four strings per note). Each set of strings is tuned in unison and is called a course. As with a piano, the purpose of using multiple strings per course is to make the instrument louder, although as the courses are rarely in perfect unison, a chorus effect usually results like a mandolin. The strings of the hammered dulcimer are wound around tuning pins with square heads (ordinarily, 5 mm \"zither pins\" are used, similar to, but smaller in diameter than piano tuning pins, which come in various sizes ranging upwards from \"1/0\" or 7 mm), and tuning requires a wrench as for an autoharp, harp, or piano.
The strings of the hammered dulcimer are often tuned according to a circle of fifths pattern. Typically, the lowest note (often a G or D) is struck at the lower right-hand of the instrument, just to the left of the right-hand (bass) bridge. As a player strikes the courses above in sequence, they ascend following a repeating sequence of two whole steps and a half step. With this tuning, a diatonic scale is broken into two tetrachords, or groups of four notes. For example, on an instrument with D as the lowest note, the D major scale is played starting in the lower-right corner and ascending the bass bridge: D -- E -- F`{{sharp}}`{=mediawiki} -- G. This is the lower tetrachord of the D major scale. At this point the player returns to the bottom of the instrument and shifts to the treble strings to the right of the treble bridge to play the higher tetrachord: A -- B -- C`{{Music|#}}`{=mediawiki} -- D. The player can continue up the scale on the right side of the treble bridge with E -- F`{{sharp}}`{=mediawiki} -- G -- A -- B, but the next note will be C, not C`{{sharp}}`{=mediawiki}, so he or she must switch to the left side of the treble bridge (and closer to the player) to continue the D major scale. See the drawing on the left above, in which \"DO\" would correspond to D (see Movable do solfège).
The shift from the bass bridge to the treble bridge is required because the bass bridge\'s fourth string G is the start of the lower tetrachord of the G scale. The player could go on up a couple notes (G -- A -- B), but the next note will be a flatted seventh (C natural in this case), because this note is drawn from the G tetrachord. This D major scale with a flatted seventh is the mixolydian mode in D.
The same thing happens as the player goes up the treble bridge -- after getting to La (B in this case), one has to go to the left of the treble bridge. Moving from the left side of the bass bridge to the right side of the treble bridge is analogous to moving from the right side of the treble bridge to the left side of the treble bridge.
The whole pattern can be shifted up by three courses, so that instead of a D-major scale one would have a G-major scale, and so on. This transposes one equally tempered scale to another. Shifting down three courses transposes the D-major scale to A-major, but of course the first Do-Re-Mi would be shifted off the instrument.
This tuning results in most, but not all, notes of the chromatic scale being available. To fill in the gaps, many modern dulcimer builders include extra short bridges at the top and bottom of the soundboard, where extra strings are tuned to some or all of the missing pitches. Such instruments are often called \"chromatic dulcimers\" as opposed to the more traditional \"diatonic dulcimers\".
The tetrachord markers found on the bridges of most hammered dulcimers in the English-speaking world were introduced by the American player and maker Sam Rizzetta in the 1960s.
In the Alps there are also chromatic dulcimers with crossed strings, which are in a whole tone distance in every row. This chromatic *Salzburger hackbrett* was developed in the mid 1930s from the diatonic hammered dulcimer by Tobi Reizer and his son along with Franz Peyer and Heinrich Bandzauner. In the postwar period it was one of the instruments taught in state-sponsored music schools.
Hammered dulcimers of non-European descent may have other tuning patterns, and builders of European-style dulcimers sometimes experiment with alternate tuning patterns.
## Hammers
thumb\|upright=0.7\|A piano hammering action The instrument is referred to as \"hammered\" in reference to the small mallets (referred to as *hammers*) that players use to strike the strings. Hammers are usually made of wood (most likely hardwoods such as maple, cherry, padauk, oak, walnut, or any other hardwood), but can also be made from any material, including metal and plastic. In the Western hemisphere, hammers are usually stiff, but in Asia, flexible hammers are often used. The head of the hammer can be left bare for a sharp attack sound, or can be covered with adhesive tape, leather, or fabric for a softer sound. Two-sided hammers are also available. The heads of two sided hammers are usually oval or round. Most of the time, one side is left as bare wood while the other side may be covered in leather or a softer material such as piano felt.
Several traditional players have used hammers that differ substantially from those in common use today. Paul Van Arsdale (1920--2018), a player from upstate New York, used flexible hammers made from hacksaw blades, with leather-covered wooden blocks attached to the ends (these were modeled after the hammers used by his grandfather, Jesse Martin). The Irish player John Rea (1915--1983) used hammers made of thick steel wire, which he made himself from old bicycle wheel spokes wrapped with wool. Billy Bennington (1900--1986), a player from Norfolk, England, used cane hammers bound with wool.
The piano, like the dulcimer, uses a hammering action to strike the strings.
| 1,152 |
Hammered dulcimer
| 1 |
14,070 |
# Hammered dulcimer
## Variants and adaptations {#variants_and_adaptations}
Versions of the hammered dulcimer, each of which has its own distinct manner of construction and playing style, are used throughout the world: `{{div col}}`{=mediawiki}
- Afghanistan -- santur
- Austria -- Hackbrett
- Bangladesh -- santoor
- Belarus -- tsymbaly (*цымбал*)
- Belgium -- hakkebord
- Brazil -- salterio
- Cambodia -- khim
- China -- yangqin (扬琴, formerly 洋琴)
- Croatian -- cimbal, cimbale, cimbule
- Czech Republic -- cimbál
- Denmark -- hakkebræt
- France -- tympanon
- Germany -- Zymbal, Hackbrett
- Greece -- Σαντούρι
- Hungary -- cimbalom
- India -- santoor
- Iran -- santur
- Iraq -- santur
- Ireland -- tiompan
- Israel -- *דולצימר פטישים*
- Italy -- salterio
- Japan -- darushimaa (ダルシマー)
- Korea -- yanggeum (양금)
- Laos -- khim
- Latgalia (Latvia) -- cymbala
- Latvia -- cimbole
- Lithuania -- cimbalai, cimbolai
- Mexico -- salterio
- Mongolia -- yoochin (ёочин or ёчин)
- Netherlands -- hakkebord
- Norway -- hakkebrett
- Pakistan -- santoor
- Poland -- *cymbały*
- Portugal -- salterio
- Romania -- *țambal*
- Russia -- цимбалы, dultsimer (дульцимер)
- Serbia -- tsimbal (*цимбал*)
- Slovakia -- cimbal
- Slovenia -- cimbale, oprekelj
- Spain (and Spanish-speaking countries) -- salterio, dulcémele
- Sweden -- *hackbräde*, hammarharpa
- Switzerland -- Hackbrett
- Thailand -- khim
- Turkey -- santur
- Tibet -- rgyud-mang or yangzi (*རྒྱུད་མང་*, lit. \"many strings\")
- Ukraine -- tsymbaly (цимбали)
- Uzbekistan -- chang
- Vietnam -- đàn tam thập lục (lit
| 261 |
Hammered dulcimer
| 2 |
14,076 |
# Horse breed
thumb\|upright=1.25\|Illustration of horse breeds from Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary (1890--1907) A **horse breed** is a selectively bred population of domesticated horses, often with pedigrees recorded in a breed registry. However, the term is sometimes used in a broader sense to define landrace animals of a common phenotype located within a limited geographic region, or even feral \"breeds\" that are naturally selected. Depending on definition, hundreds of \"breeds\" exist today, developed for many different uses. Horse breeds are loosely divided into three categories based on general temperament: spirited \"hot bloods\" with speed and endurance; \"cold bloods,\" such as draft horses and some ponies, suitable for slow, heavy work; and \"warmbloods,\" developed from crosses between hot bloods and cold bloods, often focusing on creating breeds for specific riding purposes, particularly in Europe.
Horse breeds are groups of horses with distinctive characteristics that are transmitted consistently to their offspring, such as conformation, color, performance ability, or disposition. These inherited traits are usually the result of a combination of natural crosses and artificial selection methods aimed at producing horses for specific tasks. Certain breeds are known for certain talents. For example, Standardbreds are known for their speed in harness racing. Some breeds have been developed through centuries of crossings with other breeds, while others, such as the Morgan horse, originated from a single sire from which all current breed members descend. More than 300 horse breeds exist in the world today.
## Origin of breeds {#origin_of_breeds}
Modern horse breeds developed in response to a need for \"form to function\", the necessity to develop certain physical characteristics to perform a certain type of work.`{{r|Sponenberg|page=155}}`{=mediawiki} Thus, powerful but refined breeds such as the Andalusian or the Lusitano developed in the Iberian Peninsula as riding horses that also had a great aptitude for dressage,`{{r|Sponenberg|page=155}}`{=mediawiki} while heavy draft horses such as the Clydesdale and the Shire developed out of a need to perform demanding farm work and pull heavy wagons.`{{r|Sponenberg|pages=156–57}}`{=mediawiki} Ponies of all breeds originally developed mainly from the need for a working animal that could fulfill specific local draft and transportation needs while surviving in harsh environments. However, by the 20th century, many pony breeds had Arabian and other blood added to make a more refined pony suitable for riding.`{{r|Sponenberg|pages=155, 170–173}}`{=mediawiki} Other horse breeds developed specifically for light agricultural work, heavy and light carriage and road work, various equestrian disciplines, or simply as pets.`{{r|Sponenberg|page=162}}`{=mediawiki}
| 401 |
Horse breed
| 0 |
14,076 |
# Horse breed
## Purebreds and registries {#purebreds_and_registries}
*Main article: Breed registry, Purebred* Horses have been selectively bred since their domestication. However, the concept of purebred bloodstock and a controlled, written breed registry only became of significant importance in modern times. Today, the standards for defining and registration of different breeds vary. Sometimes, purebred horses are called \"Thoroughbreds\", which is incorrect; \"Thoroughbred\" is a specific breed of horse, while a \"purebred\" is a horse (or any other animal) with a defined pedigree recognized by a breed registry.
An early example of people who practiced selective horse breeding were the Bedouin, who had a reputation for careful breeding practices, keeping extensive pedigrees of their Arabian horses and placing great value upon pure bloodlines. Though these pedigrees were originally transmitted by an oral tradition, written pedigrees of Arabian horses can be found that date to the 14th century. In the same period of the early Renaissance, the Carthusian monks of southern Spain bred horses and kept meticulous pedigrees of the best bloodstock; the lineage survives to this day in the Andalusian horse. One of the earliest formal registries was General Stud Book for Thoroughbreds, which began in 1791 and traced back to the Arabian stallions imported to England from the Middle East that became the foundation stallions for the breed.
Some breed registries have a closed stud book, where registration is based on pedigree, and no outside animals can gain admittance. For example, a registered Thoroughbred or Arabian must have two registered parents of the same breed.`{{Obsolete source|reason=Arabian standard is 15 years out of date|date=November 2023}}`{=mediawiki}
Other breeds have a partially closed stud book, but still allow certain infusions from other breeds. For example, the modern Appaloosa must have at least one Appaloosa parent, but may also have a Quarter Horse, Thoroughbred, or Arabian parent, so long as the offspring exhibits appropriate color characteristics. The Quarter Horse normally requires both parents to be registered Quarter Horses, but allows \"Appendix\" registration of horses with one Thoroughbred parent, and the horse may earn its way to full registration by completing certain performance requirements.
Open stud books exist for horse breeds that either have not yet developed a rigorously defined standard phenotype, or for breeds that register animals that conform to an ideal via the process of passing a studbook selection process. Most of the warmblood breeds used in sport horse disciplines have open stud books to varying degrees. While pedigree is considered, outside bloodlines are admitted to the registry if the horses meet the set standard for the registry. These registries usually require a selection process involving judging of an individual animal\'s quality, performance, and conformation before registration is finalized. A few \"registries,\" particularly some color breed registries, are very open and will allow membership of all horses that meet limited criteria, such as coat color and species, regardless of pedigree or conformation.
Breed registries also differ as to their acceptance or rejection of breeding technology. For example, all Jockey Club Thoroughbred registries require that a registered Thoroughbred be a product of a natural mating, so-called \"live cover\". A foal born of two Thoroughbred parents, but by means of artificial insemination or embryo transfer, cannot be registered in the Thoroughbred studbook. However, since the advent of DNA testing to verify parentage, most breed registries now allow artificial insemination, embryo transfer, or both. The high value of stallions has helped with the acceptance of these techniques because they allow a stallion to breed more mares with each \"collection\" and greatly reduce the risk of injury during mating. Cloning of horses is highly controversial, and at the present time most mainstream breed registries will not accept cloned horses, though several cloned horses and mules have been produced. Such restrictions have led to legal challenges in the United States, sometime based on state law and sometimes based on antitrust laws.
## Hybrids
Horses can crossbreed with other equine species to produce hybrids. These hybrid types are not breeds, but they resemble breeds in that crosses between certain horse breeds and other equine species produce characteristic offspring. The most common hybrid is the mule, a cross between a \"jack\" (male donkey) and a mare. A related hybrid, the hinny, is a cross between a stallion and a jenny (female donkey). Most other hybrids involve the zebra (see Zebroid). With rare exceptions, most equine hybrids are sterile and cannot reproduce. A notable exception is hybrid crosses between horses and *Equus ferus przewalskii*, commonly known as Przewalski\'s horse
| 748 |
Horse breed
| 1 |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.