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	abstract	A protective assembly comprises a first region formulated and configured to provide protection from alpha, beta, and electromagnetic radiation and comprising a composite of particles and polymer; a second region formulated and configured to provide protection from ballistic impact and comprising a composite of fibers and polymer; and a third region formulated and configured to provide protection from thermal radiation and comprising a composite of particles, fiber, and polymer. The protective assembly may be provided on an aerospace structure. The protective assembly may be formed on the aerospace structure body using a co-curing process.
	claims	1. A method comprising:flowing a molten salt out of a molten salt reactor at a first temperature, the molten salt comprising a first salt mixture comprising at least uranium, the first temperature being a temperature above the melting point of the first salt mixture, the molten salt reactor comprising a housing with a salt wall coating an interior surface of the housing, the salt wall comprising a second salt mixture, and the second salt mixture being solid at the first temperature;heating the molten salt reactor to a second temperature above the melting point of the second salt mixture causing the second salt mixture to melt;flowing the second salt mixture out of the molten salt reactor;flowing a third salt mixture into the molten salt reactor; andcooling the molten salt reactor from the second temperature to the third temperature causing the third salt mixture to solidify on the interior surface of the housing. 2. The method according to claim 1, wherein the third salt mixture and the second salt mixture comprise the same salt. 3. The method according to claim 1, wherein the third salt mixture comprises the same salts as the second salt mixture with a correct eutectic ratio. 4. The method according to claim 1, wherein the third salt mixture comprises the same salts as the second salt mixture with fewer impurities. 5. The method according to claim 1, further comprising cleaning the interior surface of the housing prior to flowing the third salt mixture into the molten salt reactor. 6. The method according to claim 1, further comprising flowing a molten salt into the molten salt reactor after cooling the molten salt reactor from the second temperature to the first temperature causing the third salt mixture to solidify on the interior surface of the housing. 7. The method according to claim 1, wherein the second salt mixture comprises an actinide and the third salt mixture does not include substantial amounts of actinides. 8. The method according to claim 1, wherein the second temperature is at least 50° C. greater than the first temperature. 9. The method according to claim 1, wherein cooling the molten salt reactor from the second temperature to the first temperature causing the third salt mixture to solidify on the interior surface of the housing continues until the third salt mixture has solidified to a thickness of about 1 centimeter on the interior surface of the housing. 10. The method according to claim 1, wherein one or more of the first salt mixture, the second salt mixture, or the third salt mixture comprises one or more salts selected from the group consisting of sodium fluoride, potassium fluoride, aluminum fluoride, zirconium fluoride, lithium fluoride, beryllium fluoride, rubidium fluoride, magnesium fluoride, and calcium fluoride. 11. The method according to claim 1, wherein one or more of the first salt mixture, the second salt mixture, or the third salt mixture comprises at least one salt selected from the group consisting of sodium chloride, magnesium chloride, and potassium chloride. 12. The method according to claim 1, wherein one or more of the first salt mixture, the second salt mixture, or the third salt mixture comprises a salt mixture comprising at least one salt selected from the group consisting of sodium fluoride, magnesium fluoride, and potassium fluoride. 13. A method comprising:flowing a molten salt out of a molten salt reactor at a first temperature, the molten salt comprises a mixture including uranium and one or more salts selected from the group consisting of sodium fluoride, potassium fluoride, aluminum fluoride, zirconium fluoride, lithium fluoride, beryllium fluoride, rubidium fluoride, magnesium fluoride, and calcium fluoride;heating the molten salt reactor to a second temperature above the melting point of a second salt mixture disposed as a salt wall on a surface of the molten salt reactor causing the second salt mixture to melt;flowing the second salt mixture out of the molten salt reactor;flowing a third salt mixture into the molten salt reactor; andcooling the molten salt reactor from the second temperature to the third temperature causing the third salt mixture to solidify on the interior surface of the housing. 14. The method according to claim 13, wherein the salt wall comprises a second salt mixture that is solid at the first temperature. 15. The method according to claim 13, wherein the first temperature is a temperature above the melting point of the first salt mixture. 16. The method according to claim 13, wherein the third salt mixture does not include uranium. 17. The method according to claim 13, further comprising flowing a molten salt into the molten salt reactor after cooling the molten salt reactor from the second temperature to the first temperature causing the third salt mixture to solidify on the interior surface of the housing. 18. The method according to claim 13, wherein one or more of the first salt mixture, the second salt mixture, or the third salt mixture comprises one or more salts selected from the group consisting of sodium fluoride, potassium fluoride, aluminum fluoride, zirconium fluoride, lithium fluoride, beryllium fluoride, rubidium fluoride, magnesium fluoride, and calcium fluoride. 19. The method according to claim 13, wherein one or more of the first salt mixture, the second salt mixture, or the third salt mixture comprises at least one salt selected from the group consisting of sodium chloride, magnesium chloride, and potassium chloride. 20. The method according to claim 13, wherein one or more of the first salt mixture, the second salt mixture, or the third salt mixture comprises a salt mixture comprising at least one salt selected from the group consisting of sodium fluoride, magnesium fluoride, and potassium fluoride.
	summary
047048018	summary	FIELD OF THE INVENTION The invention relates to a device for checking the vertical alignment of the upper internal equipment and the lower internal equipment of a pressurized water nuclear reactor. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Pressurized water nuclear reactors are known, which contain, inside a vessel, assemblies, known as internal equipment, which make it possible, in particular, to provide the support and the screening of the reactor core which consists of fuel assemblies, and which are responsible for guiding the reactor control rods which move vertically inside some of the core assemblies. such internal equipment can be subdivided into lower internal equipment comprising the lower core support plate and the core enclosure, which are suspended inside the vessel, and upper internal equipment which comprises an upper plate and a lower plate, both horizontal, which are connected together by vertical spacers. The lower plate of the upper internal equipment forms the upper core plate. When the vessel is being fitted out, it is necessary to ensure very good vertical alignment of the upper internal equipment which contains the guide tubes for the control rods and of the lower internal equipment which is responsible for the positioning of the core assemblies. In fact, the reaactor core and the control rod guide tubes are of considerable height, of the order of four meters each. To ensure that the control rods travel under satisfactory conditions inside the guide tubes and in the assemblies situated in the extension of these guide tubes, and to ensure that the control rods fall under gravity into a position of maximum insertion into the core in the event of an emergency shutdown, alignment of the vertical directions in which the control rods travel in the guide tubes and in the assemblies must be ensured within very fine tolerances. These travel directions of the control rods are materialized by guiding members situated in the guide tubes of the upper internal equipment and by the guide tubes which form part of the structure of the assemblies. The guide tubes in the upper internal equipment consist of an upper part which rests on the upper plate of the upper internal equipment, and a lower part containing the guiding members and arranged between the upper plate of the upper internal equipment and the upper core plate. This lower part of the guide tube rests on the upper core plate and has centering pins intended to cooperate with holes in the upper core plate to ensure the accurate positioning and alignment of the guide tube with the assembly situated vertically below the guide tube. In the case where new nuclear reactor components are being assembled and adjusted, the alignment-checking operations may be carried out under good conditions, because access is then available to all the parts of the lower and upper internal equipment, which are not irradiated. In the case of a pressurized water nuclear reactor which has already been in operation, it may be necessary to carry out repairs or replacements of some components of the internal equipment which have sustained some deterioration in use. Thus, the replacement, during a scheduled shutdown of the power station, of the upper internal equipment assembly of a nuclear reactor which has already been in operation has been envisaged. Such replacement assumes that new, replacement, upper internal equipment is adapted to the irradiated lower internal equipment of the reactor, which is kept in the vessel. This operation must be carried out inside the water-filled vessel, with the irradiated lower internal equipment in place and the core fuel assemblies removed. Checking of the alignment of the upper internal equipment with the lower internal equipment is very difficult to carry out under these conditions, since direct access to the lower internal equipment kept in the vessel is not available. Until the present, there was no known device for checking alignment which made it possible to carry out an accurate check of the alignment of new replacement upper internal equipment with irradiated lower internal equipment kept in the vessel. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The object of the invention is therefore to offer a device for checking the vertical alignment of the upper internal equipment and of the lower internal equipment of a pressurized water nuclear reactor, these equipments being placed in the reactor vessel which is open and filled with water, the upper internal equipment comprising an upper plate supporting the upper part of the reactor guide tubes and a lower plate which forms the upper core plate supporting the lower part of the guide tubes, and the lower internal equipment comprising the lower core plate supporting the fuel assemblies, and the checking of alignment of the internal equipment being carried out with the fuel assemblies and at least some of the guide tubes in the upper internal equipment removed, which device has to enable the alignment of the internal equipment to be checked accurately, expecially in the case of the adaptation of new upper internal equipment onto the lower internal equipment kept in the reactor vessel. To this end, the device for checking alignment according to the invention comprises: (a) a vertical tubular body to which are fixed, at its top end, a flange equipped with means enabling it to be centered on a guide tube position on the upper plate of the upper internal equipment, a lower end member for centering at its other end, and an intermediate flange equipped with means enabling it to be centered on a guide tube position on the upper core plate, (b) a means for receiving the lower end member, fixed on the lower core plate for locating this end member in the center of an assembly bottom fitting in the region of the lower core, (c) a metal wire placed substantially along the axis of the tubular body over its entire length and fixed in its lower part to the lower end of the end member and its upper part to a fitting which can move in at least two directions at 90.degree. in the horizontal plane and is mounted on the upper flange, (d) means for accurately determining the movements of the movable fitting, (e) four electrodes fixed to the intermediate flange, the ends of which are arranged on two horizontal axes at 90.degree. around the axis of the guide tube position on which the intermediate flange is placed, and an electrical monitoring circuit which makes it possible to determine when the wire comes into contact with the four electrodes in succession, when its upper end is moved in the direction of each of the electrodes in succession by means of the movable fitting.
	abstract	The invention relates to a process for recovering at least one platinoid element contained in an acidic aqueous solution comprising chemical elements other than the platinoid element, the process comprising the steps of (a) bringing the acidic aqueous solution into contact with a reducing amount of a reducing agent which is a non-sulphurous and non-glucidic alcoholic compound chosen from cyclic, optionally aromatic, alcohols and aliphatic polyols, which reduces the platinoid element to its 0 oxidation state; and (b) separating the reduced platinoid element from the acidic aqueous solution.
	claims	1. A waste immobilising medium having a sodium silicate based glass matrix in which there is contained radioactive waste at a waste loading from about 80 weight % to about 90 weight % wherein the waste comprises at least 90% of a first metals containing component wherein the metals include iron, nickel and chromium, and up to 10% of a second component containing one or more fission products, these % being calculated using the masses of the oxides of the metals of the first component and of the fission products respectively. 2. A waste immobilising medium according to claim 1 wherein at least a portion of the first component is dissolved in the glass matrix. 3. A waste immobilising medium according to claim 2 wherein the metals of the first component are dissolved in the glass matrix up to their solubility limits. 4. A waste immobilising medium according to claim 1 wherein at least 90% of the waste calculated as above is comprised of iron, nickel, chromium and zinc. 5. A waste immobilising medium according to claim 1 wherein at least 90% of the waste calculated as above is comprised of iron, nickel and chromium. 6. A waste immobilising medium according to claim 1 wherein the glass comprises a weight ratio of silica to sodium oxide of between about 4.5–2.5:1. 7. A waste immobilising medium according to claim 6 wherein the weight ratio is about 4:1. 8. A waste immobilising medium according to claim 1 wherein there is a monazite phase. 9. A method of preparing a waste immobilising medium including the steps offorming a mixture comprising radioactive waste, a sodium containing precursor and silica, wherein the waste comprises at least 90% of a first metals containing component wherein the metals include iron, nickel and chromium, and unto 10% of a second component containing one or more fission products, these % being calculated using the masses of the oxides of the metals of the first component and of the fission products respectively;drying the mixture;calcining the dried mixture; andpressing and sintering the calcined mixture so that the resulting medium contains from about 80 weight % to about 90 weight % of radioactive waste. 10. A method according to claim 9 wherein the sodium containing precursor is sodium oxide (Na2O) or sodium silicate. 11. A method according to claim 9 wherein the mixture is formed between the waste and a composition which comprises a glass frit of about 20 weight % sodium oxide (Na2O) and about 80 weight % silica (SiO2). 12. A method according to claim 9 wherein a rare earth element is included in the mixture. 13. A method according to claim 9 wherein the waste is denitrated before or whilst forming the mixture. 14. A method according to claim 9 wherein the calcination is carried out in a neutral or reducing atmosphere. 15. A method according to claim 9 wherein the calcination is carried out between 650–800° C., preferably about 750° C. 16. A method according to claim 9 wherein the compaction and sintering is carried out by hot uniaxial pressing or hot isostatic pressing. 17. A method according to claim 16 wherein the temperature for hot isostatic pressing is 1000–1400° C. 18. A method of treating radioactive waste streams from the decontamination of plants, said streams comprising at least 90% of oxides of iron, nickel and chromium as well as one or more fission products, the method including the steps offorming a mixture comprising the radioactive waste, a sodium containing precursor, andsilica;drying the mixture;calcining the dried mixture; andpressing and sintering the calcined mixture to provide a sodium silicate glass based matrix. 19. A method according to claim 18 wherein the sodium containing precursor is sodium oxide (Na2O) or sodium silicate. 20. A method according to claim 18 wherein the mixture is formed between the waste and a composition which comprises a glass frit of about 20 weight % sodium oxide (Na2O) and about 80 weight % silica (SiO2). 21. A method according to claim 18 wherein a rare earth element is included in the mixture. 22. A method according to claim 18 wherein the waste is denitrated before or whilst forming the mixture. 23. A method according to claim 18 wherein the calcination is carried out in a neutral or reducing atmosphere. 24. A method according to claim 18 wherein the calcination is carried out between 650–800° C., preferably about 750° C. 25. A method according to claim 18 wherein the compaction and sintering is carried out by hot uniaxial pressing or hot isostatic pressing. 26. A method according to claim 25 wherein the temperature for hot isostatic pressing is 1000–1400° C. 27. A waste immobilising medium having a sodium silicate based glass matrix in which there is contained radioactive waste wherein the waste comprises at least 90% of a first metals containing component and up to 10% of a second component including one or more fission products calculated using the masses of the oxides of the fission products and of the metals of the first component, wherein the metals include iron, nickel and chromium, and, optionally, zinc, the metals of the first component being dissolved in the glass matrix up to their solubility limits, and wherein the glass comprises a weight ratio of silica to sodium oxide of between about 4.5–2.5:1. 28. A waste immobilising medium according to claim 27 wherein there is a monazite phase. 29. A method of treating radioactive waste streams from the decontamination of plants, said streams comprising at least 90% of oxides of iron, nickel and chromium as well as one or more fission products, the method including the steps offorming a mixture comprising the radioactive waste and a glass flit of about 20 weight % sodium oxide (Na2O) and about 80 weight % silica (SiO2), optionally with the inclusion of a rare earth element;drying the mixture;calcining the dried mixture between 650–800° C.; and pressing and sintering the calcined mixture by hot uniaxial pressing or hot isostatic pressing to provide a sodium silicate glass based matrix.
	description	The present invention relates to a control rod operation monitoring method and a control rod operation monitoring system, and in particular, a control rod motion monitoring method and a control rod motion monitoring system which can monitor an insertion motion of a control rod and is suitable for application to a boiling water reactor. Generally, monitoring of a control rod operation, specifically, a drawing operation of a control rod in a boiling water reactor is performed. The monitoring of the drawing operation of the control rod is performed using a control rod drawing monitor to which an output signal from a local power range monitor (LPRM), which is a kind of a neutron detector arranged in a core, is input. A plurality of fuel assemblies are loaded in the core that exists in a reactor pressure vessel of the boiling water reactor. The core has a plurality of cells including one control rod and four fuel assemblies arranged around the control rod. A plurality of LPRM assemblies including LPRMs are respectively arranged in parts of a range (a range where no control rod is inserted) surrounded by corner portions of the four adjacent fuel assemblies included respectively in four adjacent cells. Specifically, when ½ symmetry with respect to a diagonal line of the core is considered and the core is folded at the diagonal line, the LPRM assemblies are loaded at all positions of a diagonal corner where the control rod is loaded. Each LPRM assembly includes a tube and four LPRMs respectively arranged in the tube at four positions (A, B, C and D) which are different in an axial direction of the core. Among the positions A, B, C, and D, the position A is the lowermost, and the positions B, C, and D are higher in this order in the axial direction of the core. During operation of the boiling water reactor, the control rod to be drawn out from the core is selected to increase reactor power. The control rod is drawn out in a single mode for drawing out one control rod or in a gang mode for simultaneously drawing out a plurality of control rods. As the background art in the technical field, there is a technique such as that in Patent Literature 1. Patent Literature 1 discloses “a control rod drawing monitor including a plurality of channels having the same function, in which all LPRM signals are input to each of the plurality of channels to acquire output signals of the LPRMs, an output signal of an average power range monitor (APRM), and a recirculation flow in the channels, so as to prevent drawing of the control rod”. In the control rod drawing monitor of Patent Literature 1, when the control rod drawn out from the core is selected, four LPRM assemblies that exist around the selected control rod and are close to the control rod are selected. Signals output from a total of eight LPRMs arranged at the position A and the position C in the four selected LPRM assemblies are input to one channel of the control rod drawing monitor and averaged. Further, signals (LPRM signals) output from a total of eight LPRMs arranged at the position B and the position D in the four LPRM assemblies are input to another channel of the control rod drawing monitor and averaged. When either the average of the LPRM signals obtained in the former channel (A and C) or the average of the LPRM signals obtained in the latter channel (B and D) exceeds a set point, the control rod drawing monitor outputs a control rod drawing prevention signal for preventing the selected control rod from being drawn out to a control rod drive device that operates the selected control rod. The control rod drive device stops driving and the selected control rod is prevented from being drawn out. The control rod drawing monitor has a function of preventing an abnormal increase in the output of the fuel assembly adjacent to the control rod to be drawn out in a drawing operation of the control rod for increasing the reactor power, and preventing a fuel rod included in the fuel assembly from being broken. From the viewpoint of preventing the fuel rod from being broken due to an increase in output, such a control rod drawing monitor monitors only the control rod drawing in which the reactor power increases. Patent Literature 2 discloses an example of a control rod operation monitor having a function of preventing insertion of a control rod into a core. The control rod operation monitor also has a function of preventing the control rod from being drawn out from the core. In a reactor, a cold critical test is conducted during shutdown of the reactor in which a plurality of control rods is drawn out to make the reactor locally critical for a short time. In the cold critical test, a reactivity input at the time of drawing out one notch of the control rod is limited, and a dispersing operation is performed before drawing out the one notch of the control rod when this limit is exceeded. In the dispersing operation, before drawing out the control rod having a high reactivity worth, another control rod is drawn out and a small reactivity worth is input to confirm an input reactivity worth. If there is no problem, the former control rod having a high reactivity worth is drawn out after the other control rod is inserted. In the dispersing operation, both drawing out the control rod and inserting the other control rod are performed. The control rod operation monitor described in Patent Literature 2 prevents insertion of a selected control rod into the core when the control rod to be inserted in the dispersing operation is selected differently from a sequence. In addition, the control rod operation monitor prevents drawing out the selected control rod from the core when the control rod drawn out in the dispersing operation is selected differently from the sequence. PTL 1: JP-A-1-253695 PTL 2: JP-A-2012-163438 Insertion of the control rod into the core during operation of the reactor reduces reactor power. However, even in the case of inserting the control rod into the core, when a plurality of control rods are inserted simultaneously, an output distribution in the axial direction of the core is distorted and the output at an upper portion of the core where no control rod is inserted increases, which may result in breaking of the fuel rod in that part. Therefore, it is necessary to monitor a control rod insertion in the entire core at all time. In the control rod drawing monitor of Patent Literature 1, when a control rod to be drawn out is selected, as described above, the LPRM signals from the eight LPRMs that exist at the position A and the position C and are close to the selected control rod in one channel (A and C) are averaged, and the LPRM signals from the eight LPRMs that exist at the position B and the position D and are close to the selected control rod in the other one channel (B and D) are averaged. Values of the respectively averaged LPRM signals in these two channels are normalized to a value of the output signal of the average power range monitor (APRM). For example, when the reactor power before drawing out the selected control rod is 100% of a rated power, the respectively averaged values obtained in the above two channels of the control rod drawing monitor are 100%. Then, when the average value obtained in any one of the channels becomes, for example, 105% by the drawing out the control rod, the selected control rod is prevented from being drawn out. When either of the averages of LPRM signals obtained in the two channels exceeds the set point, the control rod drawing prevention in the control rod drawing monitor prevents the control rod from being drawn out. The following problem occurs when such a concept is applied to the control rod insertion prevention. When a plurality of control rods are simultaneously inserted into the core, a gas phase portion of water as a coolant reduces, and the output at the upper portion of the core increases; however, the output at a lower portion of the core decreases. Therefore, when the LPRM signals at the position A and the position C as well as the LPRM signals at the position B and the position D are averaged, it is difficult to detect an increase in the output, and the control rod insertion prevention cannot be appropriately performed. Further, the above control rod drawing monitor starts monitoring after the control rod to be drawn out is selected, and monitors the drawing out of the control rod by processing the LPRM signals. However, when the control rod moves regardless of operation of an operator due to a malfunction of equipment, an abnormal increase in the output of the core cannot be detected. In addition, in a target control rod insertion event, the fuel rod breaks when a plurality of control rods are simultaneously inserted. Accordingly, it is necessary to lower a set point for event detection when monitoring the control rod insertion with LPRMs in a limited longitudinal direction range. However, a malfunction may occur frequently when the set point is lowered. Therefore, an object of the invention is to provide a control rod motion monitoring method and a control rod motion monitoring system in which control rod insertion in the entire core is monitored at all time during operation of a reactor and, when an abnormality occurs, a signal is issued to a countermeasure device that automatically starts operation and an alarm is issued to prompt operation of an operator. In order to solve the above problems, the invention has functions of dividing an LPRM detector in an LPRM assembly of an entire core into four channels for each height and averaging the indicated values, and of comparing the average indicated value with a set point at all time and issuing a signal to a countermeasure device when an abnormality occurs. The invention provides a control rod motion monitoring system for a reactor, in which a plurality of neutron detector assemblies, which includes a plurality of neutron detectors arranged in an axial direction of a core, is arranged in a radial direction of the entire core. The control rod motion monitoring system includes: a signal processing device which averages neutron fluxes measured by neutron detectors located at substantially the same height in the axial direction of the core at all time; and an arithmetic device which transmits a signal to a plurality of devices based on the average value processed by the signal processing device. The invention provides a control rod motion monitoring method for a reactor, in which a plurality of neutron detector assemblies, which includes a plurality of neutron detectors arranged in an axial direction of a core, is arranged in a radial direction of the entire core. The method includes: averaging neutron fluxes measured by neutron detectors located at substantially the same height in the axial direction of the core at all time; and transmitting a signal to a plurality of devices based on the average value. According to the invention, the control rod insertion in the entire core can be monitored at all time during operation of the reactor; when an abnormality occurs, an alarm can be issued to prompt a countermeasure device that automatically starts operation or operation of the operator, so that the influence on the fuel rod when the abnormality occurs can be reduced. Problems, configurations, and effects other than those described above will be clarified by the description of the embodiments below. Embodiments of the invention will be described below with reference to the drawings. In the drawings, the same components are denoted by the same reference numerals, and detailed descriptions of repeated parts will be omitted. The invention divides an LPRM arranged in a core into four channels, and is conducted in a system including a signal processing device which averages indicated values of the channels and an arithmetic device having functions of comparing an average indicated value with a set point and of issuing a signal to a countermeasure device. First, an arrangement of an LPRM assembly will be described with reference to FIG. 1. FIG. 1 is a plan view illustrating an arrangement of the LPRM assembly and a fuel assembly in a core 10. In the core 10, for example, 52 LPRM assemblies 1 including, for example, four LPRMs (not shown) are arranged at positions where there is no hindrance to operation of a control rod (not shown) between fuel assemblies 2. When ½ symmetry with respect to a diagonal line of the core 10 is considered and the core 10 is folded at the diagonal line, the LPRM assemblies 1 are loaded at all positions of a diagonal corner where the control rod is loaded. A control rod motion monitoring method and a control rod motion monitoring system of the present embodiment will be described with reference to FIG. 2. FIG. 2 illustrates a schematic system of the control rod motion monitoring system according to a preferred embodiment of the invention. In the present embodiment, all the LPRM assemblies 1 in a furnace are used to detect an output fluctuation of the entire core 10. As illustrated in FIG. 2, an LPRM included in the LPRM assembly 1 is divided into, for example, four channels A to D for each core height, and indicated values of the LPRM (LPRMs 3a to 3d) of the channels are averaged by a signal processing device (4a to 4d). FIG. 2 illustrates an example of a reactor in which a plurality of neutron detector assemblies (LPRM assemblies 1), which includes a plurality of neutron detectors arranged in an axial direction of the core 10, is arranged in a radial direction of the entire core 10. The neutron detectors (LPRMs 3a-3d) are arranged at substantially the same height in the axial direction of the core 10. After the average indicated value is transmitted to an arithmetic device 5, a start signal is transmitted from the arithmetic device 5 to a countermeasure device and an alarm when it is determined that there is an abnormal result of signal processing. Such processing is performed at all time during operation of the reactor, so as to cope with a case where a control rod is inserted unexpectedly due to a malfunction or an erroneous operation of a device. Next, a signal processing method performed in the arithmetic device 5 will be described. When a plurality of control rods start to be inserted into the core 10, the indicated value of the channel A (LPRM 3a) decreases while the indicated values of the other channels (LPRM 3b to 3d) increase. In the arithmetic device 5, a deviation of the indicated value of the channel A (LPRM 3a) and a deviation of the indicated values of the other channels (LPRMs 3b to 3d) are respectively calculated. When a maximum value of these deviations deviates from a preset set point, the start signal is transmitted to the countermeasure device, the control rod drive device, and the alarm (none of them shown). As described above, it is possible to prevent a fuel rod from being broken in the event that the plurality of control rods is simultaneously inserted into the core 10. In the first embodiment, by respectively calculating the deviation of the indicated value of the channel A (LPRM 3a) and the deviation of the indicated values of the other channels (LPRMs 3b to 3d) and comparing a maximum value thereof with a set point, an abnormal increase in the output of the core 10 is detected. However, a ratio of the indicated values of the channels B, C, D (LPRMs 3b to 3d) to the channel A (LPRM 3a) may be compared with a prescribed set point. In addition, when any indicated value of the channels exceeds a set point, a start signal may be transmitted to the countermeasure device or the alarm. As described above, similarly to the first embodiment, it is possible to prevent a fuel rod from being broken in an event that a plurality of control rods is simultaneously inserted into a core. In each of the above embodiments, a signal from an LPRM assembly at an outermost peripheral portion of the core may be ignored. In this case, the signal from the LPRM assembly at the outermost peripheral portion of the core, which is a likely low indicated value and causes a variation, is excluded from the averaging. Accordingly, the set point for an event detection can be increased to prevent malfunction. In each of the above embodiments, the LPRMs (LPRMs 3a to 3d) that belong to the channels of A to D may be further divided into a plurality of sub-channels and signal processing may be performed, as long as an output fluctuation of the core can be detected. With sub-channeling, the system can be superimposed and the reliability of a control rod motion monitoring system can be improved. The invention is not limited to the above embodiments, and includes various modifications. For example, the above embodiments are described in detail for easy understanding of the invention, and the invention is not necessarily limited to those including all the configurations described above. In addition, a part of the configuration of one embodiment can be replaced with the configuration of another embodiment, and the configuration of another embodiment can be added to the configuration of one embodiment. For a part of the configurations of each embodiment, other configurations can be added, removed, or replaced.
	abstract	An X-ray distribution adjusting filter apparatus for supplying a desired X-ray intensity distribution or adjusting the X-ray distribution to a desired profile, the bowtie filter as the X-ray distribution adjusting filter apparatus has a fixed section having a base portion and inclined portions, first and second movable sections configured to be tiltable pivoting on a center point, and first and second deformable sections whose cavities defined by the fixed section, the movable sections and an expansible bellows is to be filled with fluid, wherein the inclined faces of the fixed section and the flat faces of the movable sections are caused to approach or move away from each other by the tilting of the movable sections pivoting on the center point to vary the quantity of the fluid in the cavities of the movable sections, and to vary the sectional shape of the X-ray absorbing portion of the bowtie filter.
	abstract	A method and system are provided for inspecting a plurality of target features arrayed in spaced arrangement on a surface of a target object, such as but not limited to inspection of the location of cooling air holes in the surface of a turbine blade or vane.
	summary
	description	1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a particle beam therapy system, and more particularly to a particle beam therapy system in which a charged particle beam, such as a proton or carbon ion beam, is irradiated to a diseased part (tumor) for treatment. 2. Description of the Related Art There is known a therapy method of irradiating a beam of charged particles, such as protons, to a tumor, e.g., a cancer, in a patient's body. A large-scaled one of therapy systems for use with that therapy method comprises a charged particle beam generator, a beam transport system, and a plurality of treatment rooms. A charged particle beam accelerated by the charged particle beam generator reaches an irradiation unit in each of the treatment rooms through the beam transport system, and is irradiated to the tumor in the patient's body from a nozzle of the irradiation unit. In addition, the beam transport system comprises one common beam transport system and a plurality of branched beam transport systems which are branched from the one common beam transport system and extended into the respective irradiation units in the treatment rooms. At a position where each of the branched beam transport system is branched, a switching electromagnet is disposed which deflects the charged particle beam incoming from the one common beam transport system and introduces it into the corresponding branched beam transport system (see, e.g., Patent Reference; U.S. Pat. No. 5,585,642(JP,A 11-501232); from line 47, column 4 to line 34, column 5). In the known particle beam therapy system described above, when performing irradiation treatment in each treatment room, the charged particle beam is selectively introduced from the one common beam transport system to only the relevant treatment room. At that occasion, all the switching electromagnets are controlled in accordance with control signals from a controller to switch over excitation such that a beam transport path (route) to the relevant treatment room is formed. With that control, the charged particle beam is prevented from being erroneously introduced to another treatment room different from one to which the charged particle beam is to be introduced in a normal state. Considering the possibility that the controller may malfunction or cause an instable state in control for some reason, however, the above-mentioned process of merely forming the beam transport path by switching control of the electromagnet excitation in accordance with the control signals from the controller still has a room for improvement from a safety point of view in reliably preventing the beam from being erroneously transported to other treatment room than the irradiation target. It is an object of the present invention to provide a particle beam therapy system, which can reliably prevent a charged particle beam from being erroneously transported to other treatment room than the irradiation target and can improve safety. To achieve the above object, a feature of the first invention resides in that, in at least one of a plurality of beam transport systems for transporting a charged particle beam emitted from a charged particle beam generator separately to respective irradiation units in a plurality of treatment rooms, a first shutter is provided to shut off a beam path in that one beam transport system. With the provision of the shutter in the beam path for physically blocking the beam itself, safety can be remarkably improved in comparison with the related art resorting to only reliability of software used in an electromagnet switching controller. For more remarkably improving safety, it is preferable to provide the first shutter to shut off each of the beam paths in all the beam transport systems. A feature of the second invention resides in including a control information forming unit for forming control command information, which includes control information for a plurality of elements provided in the beam transport system introducing the charged particle beam to an irradiation unit in a selected treatment room, by using at least treatment room information representing the selected treatment room and treatment plan information specified depending on patient identification information for a patient who enters the selected treatment beam. With this feature, the system construction can be simplified and the treatment can be smoothly conducted at higher efficiency. More specifically, the doctor side is just required to prepare only the treatment plan information for each patient, and the operator side is just required to input only the patient identification information and the treatment room information, both representing who is present as the patient in which one of the treatment rooms, to the control information forming unit. Based on both the treatment plan information obtained depending on the patient identification information and the treatment room information, the control information forming unit automatically forms final control command information for operating the charged particle beam generator and switching electromagnets. As a result, when forming the control command information, it is no longer required to prepare a large amount of data covering all of the treatment plan information for each patient set from the medical point of view and the information necessary for operating the therapy system. Thus, since work for preparing data can be separately allocated to the doctor side and the operator side, the system construction can be simplified and the treatment can be smoothly conducted at higher efficiency. A feature of the third invention resides in including a control system for deciding the sequence of introducing the charged particle beam to the plurality of treatment rooms based on respective irradiation ready signals corresponding to the treatment rooms, and forming the beam paths for introducing the charged particle beam, emitted from the charged particle beam generator, to the respective irradiation units in the treatment rooms in accordance with the decided sequence. With that feature, the time and labor imposed on the operator can be reduced to a large extent. Practically, when making preparations for irradiation in one treatment room, it is possible to flexibly progress the preparations for irradiation with no need of taking into account situations in the other treatment rooms. In other words, unlike the case of presetting the irradiation sequence for the respective treatment rooms and transporting the beam in accordance with the preset sequence, the treatment room in which the preparations for irradiation are lasting for a longer time or the patient's feeling has worsened, for example, can be automatically put off after the treatment room in which the patient has already been brought into an irradiation ready state at that time. With such flexibility, a wasteful waiting time can be reduced and the therapy system can be utilized at maximum efficiency. Hence, treatment can be smoothly conducted on a larger number of patients at higher efficiency. Other advantages reside in that presetting of the irradiation sequence and schedule is not always required, and the schedule can be flexibly changed with ease. This means that the time and labor required for the operator during the treatment can be reduced to a large extent. A feature of the forth invention resides in comprising a control information forming unit for forming control command information for a first element group disposed in the beam path extended into the selected treatment room, and an information confirming unit for selecting, from among element information including status information representing respective statuses of the first element groups, the status information of the first element group in the beam path extended into the selected treatment room, and confirming that the selected status information is matched with the control command information for the relevant first element group, which is included in the control command information for the first element groups. With this feature, a durable therapy system can be realized which undergoes less reduction of the treatment capability in the event of a trouble. More specifically, even when a trouble occurs in any one of the plurality of treatment rooms and a detected signal having a value other than an ordinary one is outputted from an electromagnet actual operation detecting device associated with the relevant treatment room, selection processing to exclude the relevant treatment room from actual use for the treatment enables the extracting and determining unit to reliably fulfill the intended role, i.e., the comparison between a command value and an actual value, without being affected by the detected signal having such an unordinary value. As a result, even in the case of a trouble occurring in one of the treatment rooms, the treatment operation can be continued by using the remaining normal treatment rooms. It is hence possible to prevent or minimize reduction of the treatment capability and to smoothly continue the treatment. In other words, a durable therapy system can be realized which undergoes less reduction of the treatment capability in the event of a trouble. A feature of the fifth invention resides in that a plurality of element groups are successively arranged in the beam paths in the direction in which the charged particle beam advances through the beam paths, the element groups including respective elements disposed in the plurality of beam paths, and the element groups are each provided with an alternatively selecting device for alternatively selecting the respective elements in the element groups. With this feature, the beam can be positively prevented from being erroneously introduced to the treatment room in which the irradiation is not scheduled at that time, and safety can be improved. More specifically, in a normal condition, electric power is supplied to only one electromagnet group system to establish one beam transport path so that the beam is introduced to only the treatment room in which the irradiation is to be carried out. On the other hand, if electric power is supplied to the plural electromagnet group systems at the same time because of any error, no beam transport paths are formed and the beam is not introduced to all of the treatment rooms. Thus, it is possible to reliably prevent the beam from being erroneously introduced to the treatment room in which the irradiation is not scheduled at that time, and hence to improve safety. A feature of the sixth invention resides in operating a first manual input device provided in the treatment room or a control room formed corresponding to the treatment room for inputting a signal indicating an irradiation ready state in the treatment room; thereafter confirming that preparations for transport of the charged particle beam in the beam transport system for introducing the charged particle beam to the irradiation unit in the selected treatment room are completed; displaying ready information regarding the transport of the charged particle beam on a ready state display unit; and then operating a second manual input device provided in the selected treatment room or the corresponding control room for inputting an instruction to start the irradiation. With that feature, whether to start the irradiation or not can be decided until a point in time immediately before the preparations for transport of the charged particle beam in the relevant beam transport system are completed after the completion of the preparations for irradiation to the patient in the treatment room. As a result, the irradiation can be canceled in a flexible way at any point in time until just before the start of the irradiation, taking into account, for example, that the patient's condition and feeling are in a state sufficiently allowable to receive the irradiation treatment, that the patient's feeling is not worsened, or that the patient does not want to go to the toilet. Hence, the irradiation treatment can be performed on each patient in a safe and prudent manner without problems. A particle beam therapy system (a particle beam irradiating system) according to one preferable embodiment of the present invention will be described below with reference to the drawings. A proton beam therapy system constituting a particle beam therapy system of this embodiment comprises, as shown in FIG. 1, a charged particle beam generator 1, four treatment rooms 2A, 2B, 2C and 3, a beam transport system made up of a first beam transport system 4 connected to the downstream side of the charged particle beam generator 1 and a plurality of second beam transport systems 5A, 5B, 5C and 5D branched from the first beam transport system 4, switching electromagnets (path switching devices) 6A, 6B and 6C, shutters (first group of shutters) 7A, 7B, 7C and 7D provided in a one-to-one relation to the treatment rooms, and a shutter (second shutter) 8 common to all the treatment rooms. The first beam transport system 4 serves as a common beam transport system for introducing an ion beam to any of the second beam transport systems 5A, 5B, 5C and 5D. The charged particle beam generator 1 comprises an ion source (not shown), a pre-stage charged particle beam generator (linac) 11, and a synchrotron 12. Ions (e.g., proton ions (or carbon ions)) generated from the ion source are accelerated by the pre-stage charged particle beam generator (e.g., a linear charged particle beam generator) 11. An ion beam (proton beam) exiting from the pre-stage charged particle beam generator 11 enters the synchrotron 12 through quadrupole electromagnets 9 and a bending electromagnet 10. The ion beam in the form of a charged particle beam (also called a particle beam) is accelerated by being given with energy applied as high-frequency electric power from a high-frequency acceleration cavity (now shown) in the synchrotron 12. After the energy of the ion beam circling in the synchrotron 12 has been increased up to a preset level of energy (e.g., 100 to 200 MeV), a high frequency wave is applied to the ion beam from a high-frequency applying device (not shown) for exiting of the ion beam. With the application of that high frequency wave, the ion beam circling within a stable limit is caused to shift out of the stable limit and to exit (emit) from the synchrotron 12 through an exit deflector (not shown). When causing the ion beam to exit, currents supplied to electromagnets, i.e., quadrupole electromagnets 13 and bending electromagnets 14, disposed in the synchrotron 12 are held at respective setting values and the stable limit is held substantially constant. By stopping the application of the high-frequency electric power to the high-frequency applying device, the exiting (emission) of the ion beam from the synchrotron 12 is stopped. The ion beam having exited from the synchrotron 12 is transported to the downstream side of the first beam transport system 4. The first beam transport system 4 has a beam path 61 and includes a quadrupole electromagnet 18, a shutter 8, a bending electromagnet 17, another quadrupole electromagnet 18, the switching electromagnet 6A, a quadrupole electromagnet 19, the switching electromagnet 6B, a quadrupole electromagnet 20, and the switching electromagnet 6C, which are disposed in the beam path 61 in this order from the upstream side in the direction of beam advance. The ion beam introduced to the first beam transport system 4 is selectively introduced to one of the second beam transport systems 5A, 5B, 5C and 5D in accordance with the presence or absence of the bending actions produced upon switching between excitation and non-excitation of the above-mentioned electromagnets including the switching electromagnets 6A, 6B and 6C (as described in detail later). The switching electromagnets are each one type of bending electromagnet. The second beam transport system 5A has a beam path 62 branched from the beam path 61 and connected to an irradiation unit 15A disposed in the treatment room 2A, and it includes a bending electromagnet 21A, a quadrupole electromagnet 22A, a shutter 7A, a bending electromagnet 23A, a quadrupole electromagnet 24A, a bending electromagnet 25A, and a bending electromagnet 26A, which are disposed in the beam path 62 in this order from the upstream side in the direction of beam advance. It can be said that the switching electromagnet 6A is disposed in the beam path 62. The second beam transport system 5B has a beam path 63 branched from the beam path 61 and connected to an irradiation unit 15B disposed in the treatment room 2B, and it includes a bending electromagnet 21B, a quadrupole electromagnet 22B, a shutter 7B, a bending electromagnet 23B, a quadrupole electromagnet 24B, a bending electromagnet 25B, and a bending electromagnet 26B, which are disposed in the beam path 63 in this order from the upstream side in the direction of beam advance. It can be said that the switching electromagnet 6B is disposed in the beam path 63. The second beam transport system 5C has a beam path 64 branched from the beam path 61 and connected to an irradiation unit 15C disposed in the treatment room 2C, and it includes a bending electromagnet 21C, a quadrupole electromagnet 22C, a shutter 7C, a bending electromagnet 23C, a quadrupole electromagnet 24C, a bending electromagnet 25C, and a bending electromagnet 26C, which are disposed in the beam path 64 in this order from the upstream side in the direction of beam advance. Further, the second beam transport system 5D has a beam path 65 extended from the beam path 61 and connected to a fixed irradiation unit 16 disposed in a treatment room 3, and it includes quadrupole electromagnets 27, 28 and a shutter 7D, which are disposed in the beam path 65 in this order from the upstream side in the direction of beam advance. It can be said that the switching electromagnet 6C is disposed in the beam paths 64, 65. The ion beam introduced to the second beam transport system 5A is transported to the irradiation unit 15A through the beam path 62 with excitation of the corresponding electromagnets. The ion beam introduced to the second beam transport system 5B is transported to the irradiation unit 15B through the beam path 63 with excitation of the corresponding electromagnets. The ion beam introduced to the second beam transport system 5C is transported to the irradiation unit 15C through the beam path 64 with excitation of the corresponding electromagnets. Also, the ion beam introduced to the second beam transport system 5D is transported to the irradiation unit 16 through the beam path 65 with excitation of the corresponding electromagnets. The treatment rooms 2A to 2C include respectively the irradiation units 15A to 15C each mounted to a rotating gantry (not shown) installed in the corresponding treatment room. The treatment rooms 2A to 2C are employed as, e.g., first to third treatment rooms for cancer patients, and the treatment room 3 is employed as a fourth treatment room for ophthalmic treatment, which includes the fixed irradiation unit 16. The construction and equipment layout in the treatment room 2A will be described below with reference to FIG. 2. Note that since the treatment rooms 2B, 2C also have the same construction and equipment layout as those in the treatment room 2A, a description thereof is omitted here. The treatment room 2A comprises a medical treatment room (zone) 31 formed in the first floor, and a gantry room (zone) 32 formed at a one step lower level, i.e., in the first basement. Further, an irradiation control room 33 is formed outside the treatment room 2A in an adjacent relation to it. The irradiation control room 33 is similarly formed with respect to each of the treatment room 2B and 2C. The irradiation control room 33 is isolated from both the medical treatment room 31 and the gantry room 32. However, the condition of a patient 30A in the medical treatment room 31 can be observed, for example, through a glass window provided in a partition between the irradiation control room 33 and the medical treatment room 31, or by a monitoring image taken by a TV camera (not shown) disposed in the medical treatment room 31. An inverted U-shaped beam transport subsystem as a part of the second beam transport system 5A and the irradiation unit 15A are mounted to a substantially cylindrical rotating drum 50 of a rotating gantry (not shown). The rotating drum 50 is rotatable by a motor (not shown). A treatment gauge (not shown) is formed inside the rotating drum 50. Each of the irradiation units 15A to 15C comprises a casing (not shown) connected to the inverted U-shaped beam transport subsystem which is mounted to the rotating drum 50, and a snout (not shown) provided at the fore end of a nozzle through which the ion beam exits. The casing and the snout include, though not shown, a bending electromagnet, a scatterer, a ring collimator, a patient collimator, a bolus, etc. which are arranged therein. The irradiation field of the ion beam introduced to the irradiation unit 15A in the treatment room 2A from the inverted U-shaped beam transport subsystem through the beam path 62 is roughly collimated by the ring collimator in the irradiation unit 15A and is shaped by the patient collimator in match with the configuration of a tumor in the planar direction perpendicular to the direction of beam advance. Further, the range depth of the ion beam is adjusted by the bolus in match with a maximum depth of the tumor in the body of the patient 30A lying on a patient couch 29A. Prior to the irradiation of the ion beam from the irradiation unit 15A, the patient couch 29A is moved by a couch driver (not shown) to enter the treatment gauge, and is precisely positioned relative to the irradiation unit 15A for the start of the irradiation. The ion beam thus formed by the irradiation unit 15A to have a dose distribution optimum for the particle beam treatment is irradiated to a diseased part (e.g., an area where a tumor or a cancer is produced) of the patient 30A. The energy of the irradiated ion beam is released in the diseased part (hereinafter referred to as a “tumor”) to form a high dose region. The movement of the ion beam in each of the irradiation units 15B, 15C and the positioning of the treatment couch are performed in a similar manner to those in the irradiation unit 15A. In this respect, the rotating drum 50 is rotated by controlling the motor rotation by a gantry controller 34. Also, driving (energization) of the bending electromagnet, the scatterer, the ring collimator, etc. in each of the irradiation units 15A to 15C is controlled by an irradiation nozzle controller 35. Further, driving of the couch driver is controlled by a couch controller 36. These controllers 34, 35 and 36 are all controlled by an irradiation controller 40 disposed in the gantry room 32 inside the treatment room 2A. A pendant 41 is connected to the irradiation controller 40 through a cable extended to the side of the medical treatment room 31, and a doctor (or an operator) standing near the patient 30A transmits a control start signal and a control stop signal to the controllers 34 to 36 through the irradiation controller 40 by manipulating the pendant 41. When the control start signal for the rotating gantry is outputted from the pendant 41, a central control system 100 (described later) takes in rotational angle information of the rotating gantry regarding the patient 30A from treatment plan information stored in a storage 110 and transmits the rotational angle information to the gantry controller 34 through the irradiation controller 40. The gantry controller 34 rotates the rotating gantry based on the rotational angle information. A treatment (operator) console 37 disposed in the irradiation control room 33 includes a patient ready switch 38 serving as a first manual input device (ready information output device), a display 39 serving as a ready state display unit), an irradiation instruction switch 42 serving as a second manual input device, and an irradiation cancel switch 66 serving as a third manual input device. The functions of those components will be described in more detail later. Still another irradiation control room 33 is separately formed for the treatment room 3. A control system equipped in the proton beam therapy system of this embodiment will be described below with reference to FIG. 3. A control system 90 comprises a central control system 100, a storage 110 storing a treatment planning database, a central interlock system (safety device) 120, an electromagnet power supply controller 130, a power supply device for the accelerators (hereinafter referred to as an “accelerator power supply”) 140, a power supply device for the beam path electromagnets (hereinafter referred to as a “beam path power supply”) 150, a power supply device for the beam switching electromagnets (hereinafter referred to as an “switching power supply”) 160, and a switch yard controller 170. Further, the proton beam therapy system of this embodiment includes a switch yard 180, shutter drivers 190A to 190D, a shutter driver 200, and a shutter driver 210 (not shown in FIG. 3, see FIG. 15 described later). Note that, although the construction of only one 2A of the treatment rooms 2A to 2C is shown in FIG. 3 for the sake of simplicity of the drawing, the other two treatment rooms 2B, 2C are also similarly constructed. The patient 30A to be subjected to the irradiation treatment utilizing the ion beam enters one of the treatment rooms 2A to 2C. At that time, the operator (or the doctor, this is similarly applied to the following description) inputs an identifier (e.g., the so-called ID number), namely patient identification information allocated in a one-to-one relation to each patient 30A beforehand, through a patient ID input device (e.g., a PC) 43 provided, for example, on the treatment console 37 in the irradiation control room 33. As an alternative, an identifier (e.g., barcode information) may be written on an attachment wearing on the body of the patient 30A (e.g., a belt or the like fitted on a patient's wrist), and the identifier may be read by a not-shown identifier reader (e.g., a barcode reader) disposed at an inlet of the treatment room when the patient enters the treatment room. Because the patient ID input device 43 is provided for each of the treatment rooms 2A to 2C, the patient identification information is outputted to a CPU (central processing unit) 101 in a central control system 100 together with treatment room information representing the relevant treatment room (e.g., the treatment room number), which the patient 30A has entered, while making those data correspondent to each other. On the other hand, when the patient 30A having received predetermined examinations, etc. after entering the treatment room lies on the treatment couch 29A and comes into a state ready for the irradiation of the ion beam upon the completion of setups required prior to the irradiation, such as rotation of the rotating gantry and positioning of the treatment couch 29A, the operator goes out of the treatment room 2A, enters the corresponding irradiation control room 33, and depresses the patient ready switch (or button) 38 on the treatment console 37. The patient ready switch 38 may be provided in each of the treatment rooms 2A to 2C if protection of the operator against radiation exposure is reliably ensured by another means. Upon the patient ready switch 38 being depressed, a patient ready signal (irradiation ready signal) is generated and outputted to the central interlock system 120. The central interlock system 120 comprises (see FIG. 4) three AND circuits 121A, 121B and 121C corresponding respectively to the treatment rooms 2A, 2B and 2C, an AND circuit 121D (not shown, having the same function as the AND circuit 121A) corresponding to the treatment room 2D, and two other AND circuits 122, 123. The AND circuits 121A to 121D receive the patient ready signals outputted from the respective patient ready switches 38 provided in the irradiation control rooms 33 corresponding to the treatment rooms 2A to 2C and 3, and machine ready signals outputted, though not described here in detail, when respective devices and units related to the irradiation of the ion beam in the treatment rooms 2A to 2C and 3 are brought into a standby (ready) state. When the patient ready switch 38 in one of the irradiation control rooms 33 inside the treatment rooms 2A to 2C and 3 is depressed upon the related devices and units being brought into the ready state, an ON signal is inputted from corresponding one of the AND circuits 121A, 121B, 121C and 121D to a first-come, first-served basis controller (First Come First Serve (FCFS)) 102 in the central control system 100. The processing sequence executed by the First Come First Serve 102 will be described below with reference to FIG.6. The First Come First Serve 102 has three functions. First one is the function as a treatment sequence deciding device for executing processing of steps 75, 70 in FIG.6, and second one is the function as a treatment room information outputting device for executing processing of step 71 in FIG.6. The last third one is the function as a beam irradiation canceling device for executing processing of steps 72 to 74 in FIG.6. The first function will first be described. Step 75 is a step of deciding the treatment sequence, and step 70 is a step of adding the treatment room number (treatment room information). In the treatment sequence deciding step (step 75), the treatment sequence for the treatment rooms is decided based on the ON signals from the AND circuit 121A corresponding to the treatment room 2A (treatment room No. 1), the AND circuit 121B corresponding to the treatment room 2B (treatment room No. 2), the AND circuit 121C corresponding to the treatment room 2C (treatment room No. 3), and the AND circuit 121D corresponding to the treatment room 3 (treatment room No. 4) such that the ON signals are processed in the sequence in which they have been inputted (i.e., in the order in which the irradiation ready signals have been generated or outputted), namely that the earlier incoming ON signals are processed with higher priority ascending toward the first incoming one. In the treatment room number adding step (step 70), the treatment room number (treatment room information) corresponding to the AND circuit, which has outputted the ON signal having been inputted in accordance with the decided treatment sequence, is added to the last end of an irradiation queue stored in a memory (not shown) of the First Come First Serve 102. With the provision of the AND circuits 121A, 121B, 121C and 121D, even if the operator depresses the patient ready switch 38 by mistake, the ON signal is not outputted because the machine ready signal is not inputted to the relevant AND circuit. It is therefore possible to prevent the operation (e.g., excitation of the electromagnets described later) that may form an undesired beam path. Next, the second function will be described. In the treatment performed first (e.g., the first treatment in a day), the treatment room number having the top priority in the queue stored in the memory of the First Come First Serve 102 is outputted (step 71). The treatment room number (No. 1, No. 2, No. 3 or No. 4) having the top priority is inputted to the CPU 101 (see FIG. 4) in the central control system 100. For the treatment room numbers having the second and subsequent priority, when an irradiation completion signal (described later) outputted from a dose detection controller 220 (see FIG. 15) or a beam stop signal (described later) outputted from an OR circuit 69 (see FIG. 17) in the central interlock system 120 is inputted through a terminal 67, the treatment room number having the top priority at that time is outputted from the First Come First Serve 102 to the CPU 101. Each of the irradiation completion signal and the beam stop signal serves as an irradiation end signal, and the treatment room number having the top priority is outputted in response to the irradiation end signal. Each time the treatment room number having the top priority is outputted, the treatment room numbers in the irradiation queue stored in the above-mentioned memory are each forwarded by one in the output sequence. Finally, the third function will be described. This function is actuated when the irradiation of the ion beam to the patient 30A should be stopped in the case that the condition of the patient 30A lying on the treatment couch 29A has worsened during a period until the irradiation instruction switch 42 is depressed after depression of the patient ready switch 38 corresponding to one treatment room. For example, if the condition of the patient 30A in the No. 1 treatment room 2A has worsened, the doctor depresses the irradiation cancel switch 66 in the irradiation control room 33 corresponding to the treatment room 2A. A resulting irradiation cancel signal is inputted to the First Come First Serve 102, followed by determining in step 72 whether the relevant treatment room number has already been outputted. If the determination result is “NO”, the relevant treatment room number (No. 1 in this case) in the memory of the First Come First Serve 102 is canceled (step 74). At this time, the treatment room numbers put in the irradiation queue subsequent to the canceled treatment room number are each forwarded by one. If the determination result in step 72 is “YES”, a beam stop signal is outputted to the charged particle beam generator 1 to cancel the treatment room number having already been outputted (step 73). The beam stop signal is outputted from the OR circuit 69 (see FIG. 17) in the central interlock system 120 through a terminal 68, whereby the operation of the charged particle beam generator 1 is forcibly stopped. With the third function, it is possible to stop the irradiation of the ion beam toward the patient lying on the treatment couch 29A, whose condition has worsened. The First Come First Serve 102 outputs a plurality of treatment room numbers, which are stored in the internal memory in the treatment sequence, to the displays 39 disposed on the treatment consoles 37 in the irradiation control rooms 33 corresponding to the treatment rooms 2A to 2C and 3 in the same sequence. Because the treatment room numbers are displayed on each display 39 in the treatment sequence, the operator present in each of the irradiation control rooms 33 corresponding to the treatment rooms 2A to 2C and 3 is able to know the treatment sequence allocated to the relevant treatment room at that time. In addition to the display mentioned above, the First Come First Serve 102 may further display, on each display 39, how many patients are now waiting prior to the relevant patient, approximately how long time the relevant patient must wait until the start of the treatment, or the like. As an alternative, instead of displaying such detailed information, it is also possible to only the fact that the priority order is not the first (i.e., the irradiation cannot be started at once and the relevant patient must wait for a time required for the treatment of at least one other patient). The treatment room number having the top priority (i.e., the treatment room number selected to start the irradiation therein at that time) outputted from the First Come First Serve 102 in step 71, namely the treatment room number of the selected treatment room, is inputted to the CPU 101 in the central control system 100. For convenience of the following description, that treatment room number is assumed here to be “No. 1”. In other words, the treatment room 2A is assumed to be the selected treatment room. Based on that treatment room number and the above-described patient identification information inputted from the patient ID input device 43 in each of the treatment rooms 2A to 2C and 3 in correspondence to the treatment room information, the CPU 101 recognizes the patient who is going to receive the ion beam irradiation treatment from that time and the treatment room to which the ion beam is to be introduced for the treatment. Then, the CPU 101 accesses the treatment planning database stored in the storage 110. The treatment planning database records and accumulates therein treatment planning data that has been prepared by doctors in advance for all the patients who will receive the irradiation treatment. One example of the treatment planning data (patient data) stored in the storage 110 for each patient will be described with reference to FIG.7. The treatment planning data contains the patient ID number, dose (per one shot), irradiation energy, irradiation direction (not shown), irradiation position (not shown), etc. Because the patient identification information and the treatment room information are made correspondent to each other as described above, the treatment planning data is not always required to contain the treatment room information. It is needless to say that the treatment planning data may include the treatment room information for convenience in carrying out the treatment. By employing the inputted patient identification information, the CPU 101 reads from the storage 110 the treatment planning data for the patient who is going to receive the ion beam irradiation treatment from that time. Among the treatment planning data per patient, important one is a value of the irradiation energy. A control pattern for excitation power supplied to each electromagnet mentioned above is decided depending on the value of the irradiation energy. The power supply control table previously stored in a memory 103 provided in the central control system 100 will be described with reference to FIG. 8. As shown in FIG. 8, corresponding to respective values (70, 80, 90, . . . [MeV] in an illustrated example) of the irradiation energy, various parameters are preset which include excitation power values (though simply denoted by “. . . ” in the table, concrete numerical values are put in fact) or patterns of the excitation power values supplied to the quadrupole electromagnets 9, 13 and the bending electromagnets 10, 14 in the charged particle beam generator 1 including the synchrotron 12, the quadrupole electromagnets 18, 19, 20 and the bending electromagnet 17 in the first beam transport system 4, the quadrupole electromagnets 22A, 24A in the second beam transport system 5A for the treatment room 2A, the quadrupole electromagnets 22B, 24B in the second beam transport system 5B for the treatment room 2B, the quadrupole electromagnets 22C, 24C in the second beam transport system 5C for the treatment room 2C, and the quadrupole electromagnet 28 in the second beam transport system 5D for the treatment room 3, as well as electromotive values (though simply denoted by “. . . ” in the table, concrete numerical values are put in fact) of switching power sources 162-1, 162-2, 162-3 and 162-4 (described later). In this embodiment, the various electromagnets and power supplies are controlled by using the treatment planning data per patient, shown in FIG. 8, to control switching of the beam path. One major feature of this embodiment resides in that, when the beam path is switched over such that the ion beam is introduced from the beam path 61 to one of the four beam paths 62, 63, 64 and 65 for guiding the ion beam to the four treatment rooms 2A, 2B, 2C and 3, respectively, the electromagnets not directly taking part in setting of switching of the relevant beam path are not positively controlled and their states are not taken into consideration. This point will be described below with reference to FIG. 9. A power supply control table shown in FIG. 9 is previously stored in the memory 103 provided in the central control system 100. This control table represents control of power supply different from that represented in the power supply control table shown in FIG. 8. As shown in FIG. 9, it is preset that the quadrupole electromagnets 9, 13 and the bending electromagnets 10, 14 in the charged particle beam generator 1 including the synchrotron 12, the quadrupole electromagnets 18, 19, 20 and the bending electromagnet 17 in the first beam transport system 4, the quadrupole electromagnets 22A, 24A in the second beam transport system 5A for the treatment room 2A, the quadrupole electromagnets 22B, 24B in the second beam transport system 5B for the treatment room 2B, the quadrupole electromagnets 22C, 24C in the second beam transport system 5C for the treatment room 2C, and the quadrupole electromagnet 28 in the second beam transport system 5D for the treatment room 3 are controlled (indicated by “ON” in the table) corresponding to the treatment room numbers (No. 1 to No. 4). A box denoted by “No Care” in the table represents that control data for the relevant unit (e.g., the quadrupole electromagnet 22B) is not included. This is similarly applied to other tables described later. For example, when the ion beam is to be transported to the treatment room 2A through the second beam transport system 5A, the quadrupole electromagnets 9, 13 and the bending electromagnets 10, 14 in the charged particle beam generator 1, the quadrupole electromagnet 18 and the bending electromagnet 17 in the first beam transport system 4, and the quadrupole electromagnets 22A, 24A in the second beam transport system 5A must be ON-controlled because they are positioned on the beam path through which the ion beam is introduced to the treatment room 2A. On the other hand, the other electromagnets positioned on the other beam paths than the relevant one impose essentially no influences upon control for changing over the beam path regardless of whether the other electromagnets are turned ON or OFF. Incidentally, when information is added to the box of “No Care”, the added information is selected to be free from the relevant unit such that control for the relevant unit is not executed. Similarly, when the ion beam is to be transported to the treatment room 2B through the second beam transport system 5B, the quadrupole electromagnets 20, 27 in the first beam transport system 4, the quadrupole electromagnets 22A, 24A in the second beam transport system 5A for the treatment room 2A, the quadrupole electromagnets 22C, 24C in the second beam transport system 5C for the treatment room 2C, and the quadrupole electromagnet 28 in the second beam transport system 5D for the treatment room 3 are not controlled. Also, when the ion beam is to be transported to the treatment room 2C through the second beam transport system 5C, the electromagnets 22A, 24A, 22B, 24B, 27 and 28 are not controlled. Further, when the ion beam is to be transported to the treatment room 3 through the second beam transport system 5D, the electromagnets 22A, 24A, 22B, 24B, 22C and 24C are not controlled. The CPU 101 functions as a control information forming unit and, by using the treatment planning data shown in FIG. 7 and the power supply control table shown in FIGS. 7 and 8, it forms control command data (control command information) for controlling the electromagnets, which are disposed in the charged particle beam generator 1 and the various beam paths, depending on the patient who is going to receive the irradiation from that time. One example of the control command data thus prepared by the CPU 101 will be described with reference to FIG. 10. In this example, the patient is subjected to the irradiation at energy of 70 MeV in the treatment room 2A (i.e., the treatment room No. 1). The control command data in this example is formed by combining, subsequent to the patient data shown in FIG. 7, data resulting from extracting those of the numerical values and the pattern in the boxes corresponding to “70 MeV” shown in FIG. 8, which are denoted by “ON” in FIG. 9 (note that all the electromagnets are assigned with addresses for communication of the respective control data). At least at this time, as shown in FIG. 10, the treatment room number must be included in the control command data for later-described control for changing over the beam path. From this point of view, the control command data always corresponds to any number (one of No. 1 to No. 4) of the treatment rooms 2A to 2C and 3 (hence it is control command data per treatment room). Thus, the CPU 101 can also be said as functioning as a unit for forming control information per treatment room. The CPU 101 outputs the thus-formed control command data to the electromagnet power supply controller 130 and a determining unit (information confirming unit) 104 which is separately provided in the central control system 100. The electromagnet power supply controller 130 comprises a CPU (central processing unit) 131 having the processing function, and input/output conversion (e.g., so-called A/D, A/I, D/O and D/I) controllers having input/output units in the same number as the total number of constant current controllers and determining units in the accelerator power supply 140, the beam path power supply 150, and the switching power supply 160, to and from which signals are transmitted and received. The input/output conversion controllers comprises an input/output conversion controller 132 for transferring a signal with respect to the accelerator power supply 140, an input/output conversion controller 133 for transferring a signal with respect to the beam path power supply 150, and an input/output conversion controller 134 for transferring a signal with respect to the switching power supply 160. The CPU 131 in the electromagnet power supply controller 130 decomposes the control command data inputted from the CPU 101 in the central control system 100 again into components (element control information) required for control of the accelerator power supply 140, the beam path power supply 150, and the switching power supply 160, followed by distributing the respective data components to the corresponding input/output conversion controllers 132, 133 and 134. In other words, the CPU 131 distributes a part of the control command data shown, by way of example, in FIG. 10, i.e., power supply control data (element control information), which is related to the quadrupole electromagnets 9, 13 and the bending electromagnets 10, 14 in the charged particle beam generator 1, to the input/output conversion controller 132 corresponding to the accelerator power supply 140. Generally, the CPU 131 distributes, to the input/output conversion controller 133 corresponding to the beam path power supply 150, a part of the control command data shown, by way of example, in FIG. 10 other than those related to the charged particle beam generator 1, i.e., power supply control data (element control information) related to the quadrupole electromagnets 18, 19, 20 and the bending electromagnet 17 in the first beam transport system 4, the quadrupole electromagnets 22A, 24A in the second beam transport system 5A for the No. 1 treatment room 2A, the quadrupole electromagnets 22B, 24B in the second beam transport system 5B for the No. 2 treatment room 2B, the quadrupole electromagnets 22C, 24C in the second beam transport system 5C for the No. 3 treatment room 2C, and the quadrupole electromagnet 28 in the second beam transport system 5D for the No. 4 treatment room 3. That power supply control data is distributed in a different way depending on the treatment room information contained in the control command data, i.e., the information of the treatment room. For example, when the treatment room number contained in the control command data is “No. 1” as described above, the CPU 131 distributes, to the input/output conversion controller 133, the power supply control data for the quadrupole electromagnets 18, 22A and 24A and the bending electromagnet 17 which are arranged in the beam paths for introducing the ion beam from the synchrotron 12 to the treatment room designated by the treatment room number (i.e., the selected treatment room). When the control command data contains information of another treatment room number, the CPU 131 distributes the power supply control data for the relevant electromagnets in a similar manner. Furthermore, the CPU 131 distributes treatment room data (No. 1 in the example of FIG. 10) in the control command data shown, by way of example, in FIG. 10 to the input/output conversion controller 134 corresponding to the switching power supply 160. The accelerator power supply 140 comprises constant current controllers 141, power sources 142, and ammeters 143 in a multiple number of units each constituted by these three components (e.g., in the same number as that of current output targets, namely that of the quadrupole electromagnets 9, 13 and the bending electromagnets 10, 14 as control targets). Each of the constant current controllers 141 comprises a control unit (so-called ACR) 141a having the function of control to hold a constant current at a desired value, and a determining unit (element information confirming unit) 141b. The power supply control data (including a current value command signal) for each of the quadrupole electromagnets 9, 13 and the bending electromagnets 10, 14, which is outputted from the input/output conversion controller 132, is inputted to the ACR 141a of the constant current controller 141 provided corresponding to each of the electromagnets. The ACR 141a outputs a current value command signal to the power source 142 based on the inputted control data so that the power source 142 is turned on and controlled in accordance with the current value command signal. As a result, the magnitude of the current-supplied from the power source 142 to the relevant electromagnet, e.g., the bending electromagnet 10, is controlled. A value of the current outputted from the power source 142 is detected by the ammeter 143, and a detected actual current value Iact is inputted to the ACR 141a and the determining unit 141b. The ACR 141a performs feedback control based on the actual current value Iact outputted from the ammeter 143. With the feedback control, the current having a value (i.e., a current value varying with time depending on the beam acceleration and exiting status as known) substantially equal to that of the power supply control data is supplied to the bending electromagnet 10 as the control target. The current value command signal (current command value or current reference Iref) from the ACR 141a is also inputted to the determining unit 141b. The determining unit 141b compares the current command value (element control information) Iref and the actual current value (actual current data or element status information) Iact to determine whether the actual current value Iact is matched with the current command value Iref in consideration of an allowable margin as well. Stated another way, the determination as to the match between the actual current value and the current command value means confirmation that the actual current value is substantially equal to the current command value. The other constant current controllers 141 also function in a similar manner such that currents having respective current command values Iref are supplied to the quadrupole electromagnets 9, 13 and the other bending electromagnet 14. Accordingly, all the electromagnets are excited by the constant currents having the respective current command values Iref, and hence the beam acceleration adapted for the treatment condition for the patient who is going to receive the irradiation can be achieved with the synchrotron 12. In this respect, for the purpose of confirming the operation of the overall system described later, the ACR 141a outputs a signal representing the actual current value (element status information) from the ammeter 143 to the input/output conversion controller 132. The determining unit 141b outputs a result of the above-described determination (also called determination information or confirmation information), .i.e., “OK” (or “NG”), to the CPU 131 in the electromagnet power supply controller 130 (as described later). If the determination result indicates the occurrence of an error (abnormality), the determining unit 141b diagnoses the presence or absence of an error in the corresponding power source 142 and ACR 141a, and then outputs a diagnosis result (“OK” (or “NG”) for each diagnosis target) to the central interlock system 120. The other determining units 141b also function in a similar manner, thereby outputting the determination results and the diagnosis results to the central interlock system 120. As in the accelerator power supply 140, the beam path power supply 150 comprises constant current controllers 151, power sources 152, and ammeters 153 in a multiple number of units each constituted by these three components (e.g., in the same number as that of current output targets, namely that of the quadrupole electromagnets 18, 19, 20, 22A–22C, 24A–24C, 27 and 28 and the bending electromagnet 17 as control targets). Each of the constant current controllers 151 comprises a control unit (ACR) 151a having the function of control to hold a constant current at a desired value, and a determining unit (element information confirming unit) 151b. The power supply control data for each corresponding electromagnet, which is outputted from the input/output conversion controller 133, is inputted to the ACR 151a of the constant current controller 151 provided corresponding to each of the electromagnets (e.g., the electromagnets disposed in the beam path through which the ion beam introduced to the selected treatment room 2A passes). Similarly to the constant current controller 141 of the accelerator power supply 140, based on the inputted control data, the ACR 151a of one constant current controller 151 turns on the corresponding power source 152 and controls it through feedback of an actual current value detected by the ammeter 153. As a result, a current outputted from the power source 152 is adjusted to have a current command value Iref. Thus, a constant current having the current command value Iref is supplied from the power source 152 to corresponding one of the quadrupole electromagnets 18, 22A, 24A and the bending electromagnet 17 through which the ion beam introduced to the selected treatment room 2A passes. The electromagnet is thereby excited. Further, the ACR 15la outputs information of the actual current value Iact to the input/output conversion controller 133. Similarly to the determining unit 141b, the determining unit 151b of the constant current controller 151 compares the actual current value Iact detected by the ammeter 153 with the current command value Iref to determine a match between them (i.e., to confirm whether the actual current value Iact is substantially equal to the current command value Iref). Then, the determining unit 151b outputs a determination result (also called determination information or confirmation information), i.e., “OK” (or “NG”), and a diagnosis result (“OK” (or “NG”) for each diagnosis target) to the central interlock system 120. The ACR's 151a and the determining units 151b of the other constant current controllers 151 also operate with similar functions to those described above. As in the accelerator power supply 140, the switching power supply 160 comprises constant current controllers 161, power sources 162, and ammeters 163 in a multiple number of units each constituted by these three components (e.g., four units because there are four power sources 162). Each of the constant current controllers 161 comprises a control unit (ACR) 161a having the function of control to hold a constant current at a desired value, and a determining unit 161b. The power supply control data for each switching power source 162 (corresponding one of switching power sources 162-1, 162-2, 162-3 and 162-4 shown in FIG. 11), which is outputted from the input/output conversion controller 134, is inputted to the ACR 161a of the constant current controller 161 provided corresponding to each switching power source 162. Based on the inputted control data, the ACR 161a of one constant current controller 161 turns on the corresponding switching power source 162 and controls it through feedback of an actual current value detected by the ammeter 163. As a result, a constant current having a current command value Iref, outputted from the switching power source 162, is supplied to a relevant one of changeover switch groups (see FIG. 11), i.e., a power supply target, provided in the switch yard 180. Current supply to the corresponding electromagnet under control of the changeover switch groups will be described later. In addition, the ACR 161a outputs information of the actual current value Iact detected by the ammeter 163 to the input/output conversion controller 134. Similarly to the determining unit 141b, the determining unit 161b of the constant current controller 161 determines a match between the actual current value lact detected by the ammeter 163 and the current command value Iref (i.e., confirms whether the actual current value lact is substantially equal to the current command value Iref). Then, the determining unit 161b outputs a determination result (also called determination information or confirmation information), i.e., “OK” (or “NG”), and a diagnosis result (“OK” (or “NG”) for each diagnosis target) to the central interlock system 120. The ACR's 161a and the determining units 161b of the other constant current controllers 161 also operate with similar functions to those described above. The CPU 131 in the electromagnet power supply controller 130 outputs the treatment room number data.(No. 1 in the example shown in FIG. 10) to the switch yard controller 170 as well. The switch yard controller 170 comprises a switching controller 171, a memory 172, and a determining unit 173. The switching controller 171 carries out changeover control of various switches provided in the switch yard 180 in accordance with the treatment room number data from the CPU 131. The detailed construction of the switch yard 180 will be described below with reference to FIG. 11. The switch yard 180 comprises four switch groups. A first switch group has switches SW1, SW2, a second switch group has switches SW3, SW4, a third switch group has switches SW5, SW6, and a fourth switch group has switches SW7, SW8. By changing over the switches of those switch groups, the bending electromagnets 6A–6C, 21A–21C, 23A–23C, 25A–25C, and 26A–26C in the second beam transport systems 5A, 5B and 5C are selectively controlled. Each of the switches contains a mechanical switching device (including the so-called double throw mechanical switch) that serves as an alternative selector with an alternative switching function. In the first switch group, an input terminal of the switch SW1 is connected to one switching power source 160 of the switching power supply 162, and one input terminal of the switch SW2 is connected to an output terminal 1 of the switch SW1. The switching electromagnet (bending electromagnet) 6A and the bending electromagnet 21A arranged electrically in series are connected to one output terminal 1 of the switch SW2. The switching electromagnet (bending electromagnet) 6B and the bending electromagnet 21B arranged electrically in series are connected to the other output terminal 2 of the switch SW2. The switching electromagnet (bending electromagnet) 6C and the bending electromagnet 21C arranged electrically in series are connected to the other output terminal 2 of the switch SW1. With the later-described switch changeover operation by the switch yard controller 170, a current is supplied from the switching power source 162-1 to the switching electromagnet 6A for bending the ion beam from the beam path 61 to the beam path 62 that is extended to the irradiation unit 15A in the selected treatment room 2A. The switching electromagnet 6A is thereby excited. At this time, the switch SW1 makes a contact with the output terminal 1 thereof and the switch SW2 makes a contact with the output terminal 1 thereof. Terminals of the switches SW3, SW4 of the second switch group are connected to each other similarly to those of the switches of the first switch group, and the switching power source 162-2 is connected to an input terminal of the switch SW3. The bending electromagnet 23A is connected to one output terminal 1 of the switch SW4, the bending electromagnet 23B is connected to the other output terminal 2 of the switch SW4, and the bending electromagnet 23C is connected to the other output terminal 2 of the switch SW3. Also, terminals of the switches SW5, SW6 of the third switch group are connected to each other similarly to those of the switches of the first switch group, and the switching power source 162-3 is connected to an input terminal of the switch SW5. The bending electromagnet 25A is connected to one output terminal 1 of the switch SW6, the bending electromagnet 25B is connected to the other output terminal 2 of the switch SW6, and the bending electromagnet 25C is connected to the other output terminal 2 of the switch SW5. Further, terminals of the switches SW7, SW8 of the fourth switch group are connected to each other similarly to those of the switches of the first switch group, and the switching power source 162-4 is connected to an input terminal of the switch SW7. The bending electromagnet 26A is connected to one output terminal 1 of the switch SW8, the bending electromagnet 26B is connected to the other output terminal 2 of the switch SW8, and the bending electromagnet 26C is connected to the other output terminal 2 of the switch SW7. With the operations of the switch groups, respective currents are supplied to the bending electromagnets 23A, 25A and 26A arranged in the beam path 62 to excite them so that the ion beam is introduced to the selected treatment room 2A. The above-described construction of the switch yard 180 is further intended to constitute a first electromagnet group corresponding to the first switch group, a second electromagnet group corresponding to the second switch group, a third electromagnet group corresponding to the third switch group, and a fourth electromagnet group corresponding to the fourth switch group. These electromagnet groups are arranged respectively in the beam paths 62, 63 and 64 in order in the direction of advance of the ion beam. Looking at the electromagnet groups more closely, one of the electromagnets in each electromagnet group is disposed in each of the beam paths 62, 63 and 64. The electromagnets included in one electromagnet group are all connected to a common power source and are supplied with currents through alternative changeover of the switches. In each electromagnet group, an electric power is supplied to only one electromagnet from the power source, and no power is supplied to the remaining electromagnets from the same power source. Stated another way, the first, second, third and fourth switch groups constitute three different electromagnet groups arranged respectively in the beam routs 62, 63 and 64 for introducing the ion beam to the treatment rooms 2A, 2B and 2C. Thus, with the operations of the switches in the switch groups, five electromagnets included in one electromagnet group arranged along the relevant beam path (beam path 62) extended to the selected treatment room (e.g., the treatment room 2A) are excited by the four switching power sources 162-1, 162-2, 162-3 and 162-4. The changeover operation of each switch in the switch yard 180 is performed under control of the switch yard controller 170. The switch yard controller 170 comprises the switching controller 171, the memory 172, and the determining unit 173. The memory 173 stores information of reference changeover patterns, shown in FIG. 12, for the switches SW1 to SW8. In accordance with the information of each reference changeover pattern, the switching controller 171 outputs a changeover control signal to each of relevant ones of the switches SW1 to SW8 for shifting to the position 1 or 2 of the output terminal so that the relevant switches are each changed over. The reference changeover pattern for each switch contains the position 1 (“1” in FIG. 12) or the position 2 (“2” in FIG. 12) of the output terminal of the switch to be connected. “No Care” in FIG. 12 means, as described above, that no control information is contained in the relevant box. When the treatment room data (No. 1) is inputted to the switching controller 171 from the CPU 131 in the electromagnet power supply controller 130, the switching controller 171 refers to the memory 172 and reads the corresponding switch changeover pattern (changeover pattern for the switch numbers 1 to 8 corresponding to the treatment room No. 1). In accordance with the information of the reference changeover pattern, the switching controller 171 performs the changeover operations of the relevant switches. Because the reference changeover pattern for the treatment room No. 1 (the selected treatment room 2A) has the switch numbers 1 to 8 being all “1”, the switches SW1 to SW8 are all connected to their output terminals 1. As a result, respective currents are supplied from the switching power sources 162-1, 162-2, 162-3 and 162-4 to the switching electromagnet 6A and the bending electromagnets 21A, 23A, 25A and 26A which are arranged along the beam path 62. The supply of the currents to those electromagnets is realized by cooperation of the switching power source 160 and the switch yard controller 170. Another example of the switch yard will be described with reference to FIG. 19. The switch yard of this example includes four switches. The same electromagnets as those in the switch yard 180 described above are connected to output terminals 1 and 2 of switches SW1, SW2. The bending electromagnets 23A, 25A and 26A are connected in series to an output terminal 1 of a switch SW4. The bending electromagnets 23B, 25B and 26B are connected in series to an output terminal 2 of the switch SW4. The bending electromagnets 23C, 25C and 26C are connected in series to an output terminal 2 of the switch SW3. The reference changeover patterns used in this example correspond to those shown in FIG. 12 for the Nos. 1 to 4 switches. The switch yard of this example includes smaller numbers of switches and power sources than the switch yard 180. Therefore, the construction of the proton beam therapy system can be simplified. The control based on the control command data outputted from the CPU 101 is executed, as described above, under cooperation of the accelerator power supply 140, the beam path power supply 150, the switching power supply 160, and the switch yard controller 170. Such control actuates excitation of all the electromagnets arranged in the charged particle beam generator 1 and of all the electromagnets arranged in the beam paths 61 and 62 upstream and downstream of the junction between both the beam paths, which are required for introducing the ion beam to the selected treatment room, specifically the selected treatment room 2A. Detectors (e.g., known limit switches) for detecting the changeover status of the corresponding switches are associated with the respective output terminals of the switches SW1 to SW8 in the switch yard 180. More specifically, a limit switch L11 is associated with one output terminal 1 of the switch SW1, and a limit switch L12 is associated with the other output terminal 2 of the switch SW1. Likewise, limit switches L21, L22, L31, L32, L41, L42, L51, L52, L61, L62, L71, L72, L81 and L82 are associated with the corresponding output terminals of the other switches, as shown in FIG. 11. The determining unit 173 receives output signals from those limit switches and determines whether the actual changeover pattern (actual configuration data) provided in accordance with the output signals is identical to the reference changeover pattern (beam path configuration data) shown in FIG. 12. This determination means confirmation that the actual changeover pattern is matched with the reference changeover pattern. If the actual changeover pattern is matched with the reference changeover pattern, “OK” is outputted to the CPU 131 in the electromagnet power supply controller 130, and if not so, “NG” is outputted to it (as described in more detail later). Also, based on the detected signals regarding the switches SW1 to SW8, the determining unit 173 accesses the memory 172 to refer to the information of the reference changeover patterns stored therein, and determines which one (No.) of the treatment rooms 2A to 2C and 3 corresponds to the actual changeover condition of the switches SW1 to SW8. Thereafter, the determining unit 173 outputs a signal (actual treatment room information) representing a result of the determination to the CPU 131 in the electromagnet power supply controller 130. The CPU 131 in the electromagnet power supply controller 130 collects, as actual status data (element status information) of the corresponding electromagnets, the actual current values inputted to the input/output conversion controller 132 from the ACR's 141a of the constant current controllers 141 in the accelerator power supply 140, the actual current values inputted to the input/output conversion controller 133 from the ACR's 151a of the constant current controllers 151 in the beam path power supply 150, and the actual current values inputted to the input/output conversion controller 134 from the ACR's 161a of the constant current controllers 161 in the switching power supply 160, followed by outputting the collected actual status data to the determining unit (information confirming unit) 104 in the central control system 100. The determination result (also called determination information or confirmation information) outputted from the determining unit 173 in the switch yard controller 170 is also outputted to the determining unit 104 through the CPU 131. Thus, the determining unit 104 receives not only the actual status data (actual current value) representing the actual status of the electromagnet for each of the above-described units in the accelerator power supply 140, the beam path power supply 150, and the switching power supply 160, but also the actual status data of each corresponding electromagnet from the switch yard controller 170 (for example, the current value (actual current value) supplied from the switching power source 162, e.g., the switching power source 162-1, to the corresponding electromagnet). On the other hand, as described above, the determining unit 104 further receives the control command data (including the treatment room number data) prepared by the CPU 101. Then, the determining unit 104 compares the control command data with the electromagnet actual status data and compares the treatment room number data contained in the control command data with the treatment room information. Another major feature of this embodiment resides in a manner of confirming the data in the determining unit 104. The manner will be described below with reference to FIG. 13 and FIG. 14. FIG. 13 and FIG. 14 is a representation of data comparison for explaining how the data is confirmed in the determining unit 104. Data shown in FIG. 13 is the same as that shown in FIG. 10 as one example of the control command data, and data shown in FIG. 14 represents the corresponding electromagnet actual status data. In FIG. 13 and FIG. 14, as described above, the control command data prepared by the CPU 101 contains the addresses assigned to all of the electromagnets for communication as control data, but those electromagnets, which do not directly take part in forming the beam path corresponding to the treatment room number as the irradiation target, are not positively controlled (namely the addresses are assigned to those electromagnets for communication as control data, but numerical values of the corresponding data are indefinite). On the other hand, the electromagnet actual status data always contains, as numerical value data, the actual status data (current values detected by the ammeters) regarding all of electromagnets (as denoted by a, b, c, d, e, etc. in FIG. 14) regardless of whether the corresponding electromagnets have been actually controlled. In consideration of the above-described actual background in the process of data generation, when comparing the control command data with the actual status data regarding the purpose of confirming the operation of the overall system, those data regarding the electromagnets not positively controlled are excluded from the comparison target in this embodiment. Specifically, the electromagnet actual status data regarding the electromagnets having been actually controlled (in the case of the treatment room 2A being selected, all the electromagnets arranged in the charged particle beam generator 1 and all the electromagnets arranged in the beam paths 61 and 62 upstream and downstream of the junction between both the beam paths) is extracted from among all the electromagnet actual status data. This extraction is executed by the determining unit 104 selecting, from among all the electromagnet actual status data, those data corresponding to the electromagnets having control information in their control command data (i.e., all the electromagnets corresponding to sections A and B of the reference configuration data prepared by the CPU 101 shown in FIG. 13). That reference configuration data is the control command data. As a result, the electromagnet actual status data shown in the sections A and B in FIG. 13 and FIG. 14 is selected from among all the electromagnet actual status data shown in FIG. 14. The determining unit 104 compares the selected electromagnet actual status data with the control command data prepared by the CPU 101, i.e., those of the control command data in the sections A and B in FIG. 13 and FIG. 14, and checks whether the former electromagnet actual status data is matched with the latter control command data, thereby confirming the status of the control instructed by the CPU 101 for the overall system. When the determining unit 104 confirms that all the electromagnet actual status data is normal, it outputs an authorization signal for the overall system to the AND circuit 122 of the central interlock system 120 (see FIG. 4). Eventually, the determining unit 104 in this embodiment extracts only the electromagnet actual status data regarding the treatment room selected to carry out the irradiation treatment therein, and compares the selected data with the control command data corresponding to the selected treatment room. Therefore, even when, by way of example, a trouble occurs in any one of the plural treatment rooms and the electromagnet actual status data regarding the relevant treatment room contains data other than an ordinary value, selection of the electromagnet actual status data to exclude the relevant treatment room from actual use for the treatment enables the means for extracting and determining data to reliably fulfill the intended role, i.e., the comparison between a command value and an actual value, without being affected by a detected signal having such an unordinary value. As a result, even in the case of a trouble occurring in one of the treatment rooms, the treatment operation can be continued by using the remaining normal treatment rooms. It is hence possible to prevent or minimize reduction of the treatment capability and to smoothly continue the treatment. In other words, a durable therapy system can be realized which undergoes less reduction of the treatment capability in the event of a trouble. Still another major feature of this embodiment resides in opening/closing control of the above-mentioned shutters 7A, 7B, 7C, 7D and 8. This feature will be described in more detail. The opening/closing control of the above-mentioned shutters 7A, 7B, 7C, 7D and 8 is performed by the central interlock system 120. FIG. 15 is a block diagram showing the function of the central interlock system 120 in relation to the opening/closing control of those shutters. As shown in FIG. 15, in addition to the AND circuits 121A-121C, 122 and 123 mentioned above, the central interlock system 120 further comprises five AND circuits 124A, 124B, 124C, 124D and 124E, NOT circuits 125A, 125B, 125C, 125D and 125E connected respectively to those AND circuits, and four signal output units 126A, 126B, 126C and 126D connected respectively to the four AND circuits 124A to 124D among the five AND circuits 124A to 124E. The AND circuit 124A serves to output a driving control signal to the shutter driver 190A for opening and closing the shutter 7A provided in the second beam transport system 5A (the shutter is opened when the signal is “1”, i.e., “ON”), and it is connected to the NOT circuit 125A and the signal output unit 126A. In other words, the AND circuit 124A, the NOT circuit 125A, and the signal output unit 126A constitute one group corresponding to the treatment room 2A. Similarly, the AND circuit 124B, the NOT circuit 125B, and the signal output unit 126B are associated with the treatment room 2B and cooperatively output a driving control signal to the shutter driver 190B for opening and closing the shutter 7B provided in the second beam transport system 5B. The AND circuit 124C, the NOT circuit 125C, and the signal output unit 126C are associated with the treatment room 2C and cooperatively output a driving control signal to the shutter driver 190C for opening and closing the shutter 7C provided in the second beam transport system 5C. The AND circuit 124D, the NOT circuit 125D, and the signal output unit 126D are associated with the treatment room 3 and cooperatively output a driving control signal to the shutter driver 210 for opening and closing the shutter 7D provided in the second beam transport system 5D. The AND circuit 124E is connected to the NOT circuit 125E and outputs a driving control signal to the shutter driver 200 for opening and closing the shutter 8 provided in the first beam transport system 4. As described above, when the determining unit 104 in the central control system 100 compares the control data included in the control command data with the corresponding electromagnet actual status data and confirms that the operation is normal, it outputs the authorization signal for the overall system. This authorization signal is first inputted, as an ON signal “1”, to each of the AND circuits 124A to 124D. At this time, respective signals from the signal output units 126A to 126D are also inputted to the AND circuits 124A to 124D. Further, a signal representing the treatment room number and outputted from the First Come First Serve 102 is inputted to the signal output units 126A to 126D. Then, each of the signal output units 126A to 126D outputs the ON signal “1” only when the treatment room number, which is the same as the treatment room number related to the relevant signal output unit, is inputted from the First Come First Serve 102 as described above, and it outputs an OFF signal “0” if otherwise. As a result, if the treatment room number inputted from the First Come First Serve 102 is 1 (which means selection of the treatment room 2A), only an output from the signal output unit 126A becomes an ON signal “1” and outputs of the other signal output units 126B to 126D become each an OFF signal “0”. At this time, a signal from a separately provided dose detection controller 220 is also inputted to the AND circuits 124A to 124D through the corresponding NOT circuits 125A to 125D. This signal is usually, as described later, an ON signal “1” with the presence of the NOT circuits 125A to 125D. Accordingly, an ON signal “1” is outputted from the AND circuit 124A corresponding to the signal output unit 126A, whereby only the shutter 7A provided in the second beam transport system 5A extended into the treatment room 2A is controlled to be open while the other shutters 7B, 7C and 7D are held closed. Stated another way, the other second beam transport systems 5B, 5C and 5D are shut off by the shutters 7B, 7C and 7D, while only the beam path communicating with the treatment room 2A is opened. Likewise, if the treatment room number inputted from the First Come First Serve 102 is 2, 3 or 4, only an output from the signal output unit 126B, 126C or 126D becomes an ON signal “1” and the corresponding shutter 7B, 7C or 7D is controlled to be open and only the beam path communicating with the corresponding treatment room 2B, 2C or 3 is opened. In this respect, the shutters 7A, 7B, 7C and 7D are provided with not-shown open/close detectors (e.g., known limit switches), and respective detected signals are inputted to the central interlock system 120 for comparison with the corresponding command signals. FIG. 16 is an explanatory view showing the interlock functions of the electromagnet power supply controller and the switch yard controller, and FIG. 17 is a block diagram showing another function (lock function in the event of error detection) of the central interlock system, including the shutter opening/closing comparison function. Note that the components already described above are denoted by the same symbols and a description of those components is omitted here. As shown in FIG. 17, the central interlock system 120 includes a main AND circuit 127 taking part in the lock function in the event of error (abnormality) detection. One of signals inputted to the AND circuit 127 is an output signal from a comparator 128 taking part in the shutter opening/closing operation. The comparator 128 receives the shutter open/close detection signals (actual shutter operation information, i.e., respective statuses of the switches) from the above-described limit switches, for example, and the command signals outputted, as described above with reference to FIG. 15, from the AND circuits 124A to 124D of the central interlock system 120 to the shutter drivers 190A to 190C and 210 for driving the shutters 7A to 7D. At this time, however, among the command signals, only the shutter opening command signal supplied to the relevant one of the shutters 7A to 7D, which is driven to be open, is extracted by not-shown extracting means and inputted to the comparator 128, whereas the command signals supplied to the other shutters held in the closed state are not inputted to the comparator 128 (see a table 129 in FIG. 17). When the shutter supplied with the opening command signal has operated to normally open, the comparison (determination) made in the comparator 128 is satisfied, and an ON signal “1” is inputted to the AND circuit 127. In addition the above-mentioned signal regarding the shutter operation, the AND circuit 127 receives other four signals regarding an “electromagnet power supply error”, “current error”, “switching error”, and “switch yard error”. These four signals will be described below one by one. (1) Electromagnet Power Supply Error Signal The accelerator power supply 140, the beam path power supply 150, and the switching power supply 160 are provided with various error (abnormality) detecting means (not shown) for each of the above-mentioned units (each unit comprising the constant current controller, the power source, and the ammeter). In the event of error detection, a resulting detected signal is outputted to corresponding one of the input/output conversion controllers 132, 133 and 134 in the electromagnet power supply controller 130. Examples of errors to be detected include an overcurrent in the power supply, a power supply trip in the constant current controller, high temperature (overheating) of the electromagnet at the current supply designation, a low flow of a cooling fluid (air or another coolant) supplied to the electromagnet, high temperature (overheating) of a power cubicle, stop of a fan for cooling the power cubicle, and a door open state of the power cubicle. In addition, a signal generated upon manual operation of an emergency stop switch (not shown) provided for each unit is also inputted to corresponding one of the input/output conversion controllers 132, 133 and 134. The error signals (including the emergency switch input signal; this is similarly applied to the following description) from the relevant units in the power supplies 140, 150 and 160 are collected into the CPU 131 (see FIG. 4) through the input/output conversion controllers 132, 133 and 134 in the electromagnet power supply controller 130. The CPU 131 has the function equivalent to the construction comprising sets of an OR circuit 135, an AND circuit 136 and another OR circuit 137, which are provided in the same number as the total number of the above-mentioned units (FIG. 16 shows that function in the form of a circuit and the CPU 131 may have such a circuit arrangement as hardware). The above-mentioned eight error signals from the relevant units are converted into one output signal through the OR circuit 135. In other words, if any one error is detected, the output signal from the OR circuit 135 becomes an ON signal “1”. This output signal is inputted to one input terminal of the corresponding AND circuit 136. At the same time, the other input terminal of the AND circuit 136 receives an ON signal “1” when the corresponding unit is in the effective. (positive) control state in accordance with the command. Accordingly, when the respective above-mentioned units in the power supplies 140, 150 and 160 are in the effective (positive) control state in accordance with the control command data, which is generated by the central control system 100, corresponding to the formation of the beam transport path upon selection of one of the treatment rooms 2A, 2B, 2C and 3, the error signal from the OR circuit 135 is outputted, as it is, to the OR circuit 137 in the final stage. On the other hand, when the unit is not in the effective (positive) control state (corresponding to “No Care” in the tables described above), an OFF signal “0” is outputted to the OR circuit 137 because even if the error signal is an ON signal “1”, it is made invalid (ignored). In such a way, when any error occurs in any of the units in the power supplies 140, 150 and 160 under the effective control, an ON signal “1” representing an “electromagnet power supply error” is inputted to the central interlock system 120 from the OR circuit 137. In the central interlock system 120, the inputted ON signal “1” is applied to the AND circuit 127 through the NOT circuit 221A. Thus, in the absence of an error, an ON signal “1” is inputted to the AND circuit 127, while in the event of an error, an OFF signal “0” is inputted to it and an output signal from the AND circuit 127 also becomes an OFF signal “0” with certainty. (2) Current Error Signal As described above, the accelerator power supply 140, the beam path power supply 150, and the switching power supply 160 include the determining units 141b, 151b and 161b, respectively, for each of the above-mentioned units (each unit comprising the constant current controller, the power source, and the ammeter). The determining units 141b, 151b and 161b determine whether the corresponding power sources 142, 152 and 162 and ACR's 141a, 151a and 161a function normally without errors (for example, whether the confirmation result is within a predetermined range). In the event of error determination, a resulting signal (NG signal) is inputted, as an ON signal “1” representing a “current error”, to the central interlock system 120. The central interlock system 120 includes sets of an AND circuit 222 and one OR circuit 223, which are provided in the same number as the total number of the above-mentioned units. The signal representing the current error is inputted to one input terminal of the corresponding AND circuit 222. At the same time, similarly to the case of above (1), the other input terminal of the AND circuit 222 receives an ON signal “1” when the corresponding unit is under the effective (positive) control in accordance with the command. Accordingly, when the relevant unit is in the effective (positive) control state corresponding to selection of one of the treatment rooms 2A, 2B, 2C and 3, the current error signal is outputted, as it is, to the OR circuit 223 in the final stage. On the other hand, when the unit is not in the effective (positive) control state, an OFF signal “0” is outputted to the OR circuit 223. The thus-outputted signal is applied to the AND circuit 127 through a NOT circuit 221B. Hence, in the absence of a current error, an ON signal “1” is inputted to the AND circuit 127, while in the event of a current error, an OFF signal “0” is inputted to it and an output signal from the AND circuit 127 also becomes an OFF signal “0” with certainty. (3) Switching Error Signal As described above, the switch yard controller 170 includes the determining unit 173. The determining unit 173 makes comparison to determine whether the switches 1 to 8 and the switching controller 171 function normally without errors. In the event of error determination, a resulting signal (NG signal) is inputted, as an ON signal “1” representing a “switching error”, to the central interlock system 120. In the central interlock system 120, the inputted signal is applied to the AND circuit 127 through a NOT circuit 221C. Hence, in the absence of a switching error, an ON signal “1” is inputted to the AND circuit 127, while in the event of a switching error, an OFF signal “0” is inputted to it and an output signal from the AND circuit 127 also becomes an OFF signal “0” with certainty. (4) Switch Yard Error The switch yard controller 170 includes, in addition to the determining unit 173, various error (abnormality) detecting means (not shown) regarding the switch yard 180 and the switch yard controller 170 itself. In the event of error detection, a resulting detected signal is outputted to a separately provided OR circuit 174. Examples of errors to be detected include a power supply trip in the switching controller 171, high temperature (overheating) of a power cubicle, stop of a fan for cooling the power cubicle, and a door open state of the power cubicle. In addition, a signal generated upon manual operation of an emergency stop switch (not shown) provided the switch yard controller 170 is also inputted to the OR circuit 174. The above-mentioned five error signals are converted into one output signal through the OR circuit 174. In other words, if any one error is detected, the output signal from the OR circuit 174 becomes an ON signal “1”. In the central interlock system 120, the inputted ON signal “1” is applied to the AND circuit 127 through a NOT circuit 221D. Hence, in the absence of an error, an ON signal “1” is inputted to the AND circuit 127, while in the event of an error, an OFF signal “0” is inputted to it and an output signal from the AND circuit 127 also becomes an OFF signal “0” with certainty. In such a way, when any error is not detected regarding “shutter operation”, “electromagnetic force supply”, “current”, “switching”, and “switch yard”, an ON signal “1” is outputted, as an irradiation enable signal, from the AND circuit 127. This irradiation enable signal is inputted to the AND circuit 122 along with the above-described authorization signal from the determining unit 104 in the central control system 100. If the irradiation enable signal is inputted with no error detection in all the components under monitoring and the authorization signal is also inputted upon the substantial match of the control command data with the electromagnet actual status data as described above, the AND circuit 122 outputs an ON signal “1”, as a signal (display signal) representing that the machine has been brought into a completely ready state, to the display 39 on the treatment console 37, and also outputs a similar signal to the AND circuit 123. In response to the display signal, the display 39 indicates that the machine is in the completely ready state (namely, displays a screen for finally confirming whether the irradiation is to be started). When the irradiation instruction switch (or button) 42 is operated, for example, by a doctor (or an operator in some foreign countries; in Japan, this person must be a doctor in conformity with legislative regulations from the standpoints of safety and humanity), a resulting irradiation start signal is inputted, as an ON signal “1”, to one input. terminal of the AND circuit 123 in the central interlock system 120. At this time, since an ON signal “1” serving as the machine ready signal is inputted to the other input terminal of the AND circuit 123 as described above, the AND circuit 123 outputs an ON signal “1” as a signal for actuating control to open the second shutter 8 provided in the first beam transport system 4. Returning to FIG. 13, the second shutter open signal is inputted to one input terminal of the AND circuit 124E in the central interlock system 120, which is related to the second shutter 8. At this time, as described above, the signal inputted to the other input terminal of the AND circuit 124E from the dose detection controller 220 through the NOT circuit 125E is usually an ON signal “1”. As a result, the AND circuit 124E outputs an ON signal “1”, whereby the second shutter 8 provided in the first beam transport system 4 is controlled to be open. Similarly to the first group of shutters 7A to 7D described above, the second shutter 8 is provided with a not-shown open/close detecting means (e.g., a known limit switch). Then, upon the second shutter 8 being opened, a resulting detected signal (second shutter open detection signal) is inputted to one input terminal of an AND circuit 224 separately disposed in the central interlock system 120. At this time, since an ON signal “1” serving as the second shutter open signal is inputted to the other input terminal of the AND circuit 224, the AND circuit 224 outputs an ON signal “1” as an irradiation (emission) signal and an acceleration signal, which are supplied respectively to the linac 11 and the high-frequency acceleration cavity in the synchrotron 12. Thus, the ion beam emitted from the charged particle beam generator 1 is accelerated by the synchrotron 12, and the ion beam exiting from the synchrotron 12 is transported through the first beam transport system 4 while passing the second shutter 8 in the open state. Then, the ion beam is introduced to one of the second beam transport systems 5A to 5D corresponding to one of the treatment rooms 2A to 2C and 3, in each of which the patient as the irradiation target is present, while passing one of the first shutters 7A to 7D in the open state. Thereafter, the ion beam is irradiated to the tumor in the body of the patient 30 in an optimum condition in accordance with the treatment plan through one of the irradiation units 15A to 15C and 16 in the treatment rooms 2A to 2C and 3. In this respect, as shown in FIG. 13, known dosimeters (dose detecting means or accumulated dose detecting means) 225 are provided in respective nozzles of the irradiation units 15A to 15C and 16, and resulting detected signals are inputted to the dose detection controller 220. The dose detection controller 220 usually outputs an OFF signal “0”. Then, when the accumulated dose detected by the dosimeters 225 reaches a predetermined value (that may be a stored preset value or may be given by reading the value in the treatment plan per patient (see. the column “dose” in the patient data shown in FIG.7) through the CPU 101 in the central control system 100 each time the irradiation is started), the dose detection controller 220 outputs an ON signal “1”. Accordingly, OFF signals “0” are inputted to all the AND circuits 124A to 124E through the respective NOT circuits 125A to 125E. As a result, the first shutters 7A to 7D, which have been so far opened, are controlled to be closed through the shutter drivers 190A to 190C and 210. Likewise, the second shutter 8, which has been so far opened, is automatically closed through the shutter driver 200. An output of the AND circuit 127 is outputted from the OR circuit 69 through a NOT circuit. This output serves as the beam stop signal. One or more of the shutters 7A to 7D, which are still open, are closed by the beam stop signal that is applied from an OR circuit 52, shown in FIG. 13, to relevant one or more of the AND circuits 124A, 124B, 124C, 124D and 124E through a terminal 51 and relevant one or more of the NOT circuits 125A, 125B, 125C, 125D and 125E. This ensures that, when any error (abnormality) occurs in the proton beam therapy system and the beam stop signal is outputted from the central interlock system 120, i.e., from the OR circuit 69, any shutter being still open is reliably closed. Thus, safety in the proton beam therapy system can be remarkably improved. FIG. 18 shows a flow of the above-mentioned process with time. Note that, because the second shutter 8 is lighter than each of the first shutters 7A to 7D, it is constructed as one capable of being quickly moved in a shorter time for the opening/closing operation (particularly for the opening operation). The particle beam therapy system of this embodiment, having the construction described above, can provide the following advantages. In this embodiment, the first shutters 7A to 7D for shutting off the beam path are provided respectively in the second beam transport systems 5A to 5D. Stated another way, to prevent the beam from being erroneously transported to the treatment room that is not the irradiation target, the shutters 7A to 7D for physically blocking the beam itself are disposed in the respective beam paths. Therefore, safety can be improved in comparison with the related art resorting to only reliability of software used in an electromagnet switching controller. In this embodiment, the CPU 101 in the central control system 100 forms the control command data per patient by employing the patient identification information (ID No.), the treatment room information, and the treatment plan information of each patient. Therefore, the doctor side is just required to prepare only the treatment plan information for each patient, and the operator side is just required to input only the patient identification information and the treatment room information, both representing who is present as the patient in which one of the treatment rooms, to the CPU 101 from the patient ID input device 43. Based on the treatment plan information, the patient identification information, and the treatment room information, the CPU 101 automatically forms the control command data per patient. As a result, when forming the final control command data per patient, it is no longer required to prepare a large amount of data covering all of the treatment plan information for each patient set from the medical point of view and the information necessary for operating the therapy system. Thus, since work for preparing data can be separately allocated to the doctor side and the operator side, the system construction can be simplified and the treatment can be smoothly conducted at higher efficiency. In this embodiment, the beam transport path is controlled by the First Come First Serve 102 such that the ion beam is transported with higher priority to the treatment room in which the patient has been brought into an irradiation ready state at earlier timing. It is therefore possible to freely start preparations for irradiation to the patients in the plural treatment rooms 2A to 2C and 3 as appropriate, and to carry out the irradiation of the ion beam in sequence from the treatment room in which the preparations for irradiation have been completed. In other words, unlike the case of, for example, presetting the irradiation sequence for the respective treatment rooms and transporting the ion beam in accordance with the preset sequence, the treatment room in which the preparations for irradiation are lasting for a longer time or the patient's feeling has worsened, for example, can be automatically put off after the treatment room in which the patient has already been brought into an irradiation ready state at that time. With such flexibility, a wasteful waiting time can be reduced and the therapy system can be utilized at maximum efficiency. Hence, treatment can be smoothly conducted on a larger number of patients at higher efficiency. Other advantages reside in that presetting of the irradiation sequence and schedule is not always required, and the schedule can be flexibly changed with ease. This means that the time and labor required for the operator during the treatment can be reduced to a large extent. In this embodiment, when the CPU 101 forms the control command data per treatment room depending on selection of one of the treatment rooms 2A to 2C and 3 and the electromagnets are operated in accordance with the formed control command data, the detected signals from the ammeters 143, 153 and 163, etc. associated with the electromagnets are outputted regardless of which one of the treatment rooms has been selected. Then, the electromagnet actual status data is obtained from the detected signals, and the determining unit 104 extracts and compares those of the electromagnet actual status data regarding the selected treatment room with the control command data per treatment room provided from the CPU 101, thereby determining a match between them. Stated another way, the determining unit 104 finally extracts only the data regarding one of the treatment rooms 2A to 2C and 3, which has been selected to carry out the irradiation treatment therein, and compares the selected data with the corresponding control command data per treatment room. Therefore, even when, by way of example, a trouble occurs in any one of the treatment rooms 2A to 2C and 3 and data other than an ordinary value is detected as the electromagnet actual status data regarding the relevant treatment room, selection of the electromagnet actual status data to exclude the relevant treatment room from actual use for the treatment enables the determining unit 104 to reliably fulfill the intended role, i.e., the comparison between a command value and an actual value, without being affected by a detected signal having such an unordinary value. As a result, even in the case of a trouble occurring in one of the treatment rooms, the treatment operation can be continued by using the remaining normal treatment rooms. It is hence possible to prevent or minimize reduction of the treatment capability and to smoothly continue the treatment. In other words, a durable therapy system can be realized which undergoes less reduction of the treatment capability in the event of a trouble. In this embodiment, the switches 1 to 8 of the switch yard 180 are connected such that, when electric power from the above-mentioned four power sources 162-1 to 162-4 is supplied to two or more of three systems, i.e., a system (including the bending electromagnets 6A, 21A, 23A, 25A and 26A) related to the second beam transport system 5A, a system (including the bending electromagnets 6B, 21B, 23B, 25B and 26B) related to the second beam transport system 5B, and a system (including the bending electromagnets 6C, 21C, 23C, 25C and 26C) related to the second beam transport system 5C, any beam transport path is not formed in the second beam transport systems 5A to 5C (namely, when any one beam transport path is established, electric power is always supplied to only the group of electromagnets in one system corresponding to the established path). With such an arrangement, in a normal condition, electric power is supplied to only one electromagnets group system to establish one beam transport path so that the beam is introduced to only the treatment room in which the irradiation is to be carried out. On the other hand, if electric power is supplied to the plural electromagnet group systems at the same time because of any error, no beam transport paths are formed and the beam is not introduced to all of the treatment rooms 2A to 2C and 3. Thus, it is possible to reliably prevent the beam from being erroneously introduced to the treatment room in which the irradiation is not scheduled at that time, and hence to improve safety. Further, in this embodiment, when the patient ready switch 38 is operated to input a signal indicating the patient in the irradiation ready state, the display 39 displays that the preparations for the irradiation in the charged particle beam generator 1 and the beam transport systems 4 and 5A to 5D have been completed. Responsively, an instruction for the start of the irradiation is inputted through the irradiation instruction switch 42. Accordingly, whether to start the irradiation or not can be decided on in one of the treatment rooms 2A to 2D and 3 (or in the irradiation control room 33 near the relevant treatment room) until a point in time immediately before the irradiation is actually started subsequent to the completion of the preparations on the machine side after the completion of the preparations for irradiation on the patient side. As a result, the irradiation can be canceled in a flexible way at any point in time until just before the start of the irradiation, taking into account, for example, that the patient's condition and feeling are in a state sufficiently allowable to receive the irradiation treatment, that the patient's feeling is not worsened, or that the patient does not want to go to the toilet. Hence, the irradiation treatment can be performed on each patient in a safe and prudent manner without problems. Additionally, in the embodiment described above, when the determining unit 173 in the switch yard controller 170 determines based on the detected signals from the switches 1 to 8 which one of the treatment rooms 2A to 2C and 3 corresponds to the actual changeover status of the switches 1 to 8, the actual treatment room information is obtained by accessing the memory 172 and referring to the table stored in it. However, the present invention is not limited to that embodiment. The equivalent function may be provided, instead of such software processing, by using a hardware configuration (e.g., a combination of many logical circuits). Thus, according to the present invention, the beam can be surely prevented from being erroneously transported to the treatment room that is not the irradiation target, and safety can be improved.
	description	This U.S. patent application claims priority under the Paris Convention of Japanese Patent Application No. 2013-38774 filed on Feb. 28, 2013, the entirety of which is incorporated herein by reference. 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to deposition substrates and to scintillator panels used in the formation of radiographic images of subjects. 2. Description of the Related Art Radiographic images such as X-ray images have been widely used in medical diagnosis of disease conditions. In particular, radiographic images based on intensifying screen-film combinations have undergone enhancements in terms of sensitivity and image quality during a long history and consequently remain in use in the medical field worldwide as the imaging system with high reliability and excellent cost performance. However, this image information is analogue and thus cannot be processed freely or transmitted instantaneously in contrast to digital image information which has been developed currently. Recently, digital radiographic image detectors such as computed radiography (CR) systems and flat panel detectors (FPDs) have come in use. These radiographic image detectors directly give digital radiographic images and allow the images to be directly displayed on displays such as cathode ray tube panels and liquid crystal panels. Thus, there is no need for the images to be created on photographic films. Consequently, the digital X-ray image detectors have decreased a need for the image formation by silver halide photography and have significantly enhanced diagnostic convenience at hospitals and clinics. The computed radiography (CR) is one of the digital X-ray image techniques currently used in medical practice. However, CR X-ray images are less sharp and are insufficient in spatial resolution as compared to screen film system images such as by silver halide photography, and the level of their image quality compares unfavorably to the quality level of screen film system images. Thus, new digital X-ray image techniques, for example, flat panel detectors (FPDs) involving a thin film transistor (TFT) have been developed (see, for example, Non Patent Literatures 1 and 2). In principle, a FPD converts X-rays into visible light. For this purpose, a scintillator panel is used which has a scintillator layer made of an X-ray phosphor that, when illuminated with X-rays, convert the radiations into visible light that is emitted. In X-ray photography using a low-dose X-ray source, it is necessary to use a scintillator panel with high luminous efficiency (X-ray to visible light conversion) in order to enhance the ratio (the SN ratio) of signal to noise detected from the scintillator panel. In general, the luminous efficiency of scintillator panels is determined by the thickness of the scintillator layer (the phosphor layer) and the X-ray absorption coefficient of the phosphor. The light produced in the phosphor layer upon illumination with X-rays is scattered more markedly in the scintillator layer with increasing thickness of the phosphor layer, and consequently the sharpness of X-ray images obtained via the scintillator panel is lowered. Thus, setting of the sharpness required for the quality of X-ray images automatically determines the critical thickness of the phosphor layer in the scintillator panel. On the other hand, some kinds of phosphors permit the critical thickness of phosphor layers in scintillator panels to be increased. Cesium iodide (CsI) is a phosphor that has a relatively high X-rays to visible light conversion ratio and is easily deposited to form a columnar phosphor crystal layer which can suppress the scattering of light in the phosphor crystals (namely, in the scintillator layer) by light guide effects. Thus, the thickness of the phosphor layer can be increased corresponding to the amount of suppressed scattering. Because the luminous efficiency obtained with CsI alone is low, however, an approach to increasing the visible light conversion efficiency of the scintillator layers is generally adopted. For example, (1) CsI crystals and a sodium compound activator, (2) CsI crystals and a thallium compound activator, or (3) CsI crystals and an indium compound activator are deposited onto substrates to form scintillator layers, and the scintillator layers are annealed in the subsequent step. Other approaches which have been proposed to increase the optical output of scintillator panels include a method in which scintillator layers are formed on reflective substrates (see, for example, Patent Literature 1), a method in which reflective layers are provided on substrates by depositing metal films (see, for example, Patent Literature 2), and a method in which reflective thin metal films are provided on substrates and coated with transparent organic films, and scintillator layers are formed on the transparent organic films (see, for example, Patent Literature 3). Although scintillator panels obtained by these methods achieve an increase in optical output, the light produced in the scintillator layer is scattered at the interface between the reflective layer and the scintillator layer, with the result that the X-ray image data obtained via the scintillator panels are disturbed and the sharpness of the obtainable X-ray images is markedly deteriorated. Meanwhile, methods are proposed in which X-ray image detectors are manufactured by arranging scintillator panels on the surface of planar light-receiving elements (see, for example, Patent Literatures 4 and 5). However, the productivity of such detectors is low because of the need that the scintillator panels have to be produced in different sizes in accordance with various sizes of the planar light-receiving elements. Further, such an approach does not solve the aforementioned problem that the sharpness of X-ray images is deteriorated by the scattering of light at the interface between the reflective layer and the scintillator layer. In the conventional production of scintillator panels by a gas-phase method, it is a general practice to form a scintillator layer on a rigid substrate made of such a material as aluminum or amorphous carbon, and cover the entire surface of the scintillator with a protective film (see, for example, Patent Literature 6). However, such scintillator panels having a scintillator layer on an inflexible and rigid substrate cause a difficulty in obtaining a uniform contact between the scintillator panel and a planar light-receiving element when they are bonded to each other. In detail, such a scintillator panel has irregularities ascribed to the unevenness of the substrate itself as well as to different heights of the columnar phosphor crystals in the scintillator layer, and the inflexible substrate significantly reflects the influence of such irregularities (a flexible substrate may cancel the irregularities by deformation) to make it difficult for the scintillator panel to be tightly and uniformly attached to a planar light-receiving element. To solve this problem, methods are proposed in which a spacer is used at the plane of contact between the scintillator panel and a planar light-receiving element (see, for example, Patent Literatures 4 and 5). However, this approach, which prioritizes the solution of problematic attachment between the scintillator panel and a planar light-receiving element over productivity, has a problem in that because the scintillator panel and the planar light-receiving element are spaced apart by a gap, the light produced in the scintillator layer of the scintillator panel is scattered in the gap to inevitably deteriorate the sharpness of the obtainable X-ray images. This problem has become more serious with the recent enlargement of flat panel detectors. In order to solve the problems of loose attachment between scintillator panels and planar light-receiving elements as well as the problems associated with the use of spacers, methods have been generally adopted in which a scintillator layer is directly formed on an imaging element by deposition or in which a less sharp but flexible material such as a medical intensifying screen is used instead of a scintillator panel. Further, a method has been adopted in which a flexible protective layer made of such a material as a polyparaxylylene is used to protect layers such as scintillator layers in scintillator panels (see, for example, Patent Literature 7). However, the substrates used in the above method are rigid materials such as aluminum and amorphous carbon. Even if the protective layer is formed with a thickness of about 10 μm on the scintillator layer or the substrate, the surface of the protective layer will show irregularities ascribed to the unevenness of the substrate itself as well as to different heights of the columnar phosphor crystals in the scintillator layer. Thus, even the adoption of such protective layers with the above thickness does not eliminate the influences of the irregularities on the substrates or the scintillator layers, and it remains difficult to achieve a uniform and close contact between the surface of the scintillator panel and the surface of a planar light-receiving element. On the other hand, increasing the thickness of the flexible protective layer increases the gap between the scintillator panel and a planar light-receiving element, resulting in a deterioration of the sharpness of the obtainable X-ray images. Under such circumstances, there has been a demand for the development of radiographic flat panel detectors that have excellent luminous efficiency of scintillator panels and have small deteriorations in the sharpness of X-ray images due to factors such as the size of the gap between the scintillator panel and a planar light-receiving element. Patent Literature 8 discloses a scintillator panel which includes a reflective layer on a substrate and a scintillator layer formed on the top by deposition, the reflective layer including a white pigment and a binder resin. Patent Literature 8 also discloses that because the reflective layer is formed of a white pigment and a binder resin, the scintillator panel exhibits high light-emitting efficiency and consequently sharp X-ray images are obtained. This scintillator panel can solve the aforementioned problem. That is, even when this scintillator panel is used in combination with a planar light-receiving element, the sharpness of X-ray images is negligibly decreased by factors such as the scattering of the emitted light at the interface between the scintillator panel and the planar light-receiving element. However, the scintillator panels disclosed in Patent Literature 8 are still rife with possibilities for improvements such as in terms of the prevention of the separation of the scintillator layers during the cutting of the scintillator panels. [Patent Literature 1] JP-B-H07-21560 [Patent Literature 2] JP-A-H01-240887 [Patent Literature 3] JP-A-2000-356679 [Patent Literature 4] JP-A-H05-312961 [Patent Literature 5] JP-A-H06-331749 [Patent Literature 6] Japanese Patent No. 3566926 [Patent Literature 7] JP-A-2002-116258 [Patent Literature 8] JP-A-2008-209124 [Non Patent Literature 1] John Rowlands, “Amorphous Semiconductor Usher in Digital X-ray Imaging”, Physics Today, November issue, 24 (1997) [Non Patent Literature 2] L. E. Antonuk, “Development of a High-Resolution Active-Matrix Flat-Panel Imager with Enhanced Fill Factor”, SPIE, 32, 2 (1997) The present invention is aimed at solving the above problems. In more detail, an object of the invention is to provide a scintillator panel which exhibits excellent cuttability and can be cut without the occurrence of problems such as the separation of a scintillator layer, and which can give radiographic images such as X-ray images with excellent sensitivity and sharpness. Another object of the invention is to provide a deposition substrate that allows for the manufacturing of such scintillator panels, exhibits excellent cuttability and is free from problems such as the separation of a reflective layer even when subjected to a cutting treatment. The present inventors carried out extensive studies in order to achieve the above objects. As a result, the present inventors have found that a deposition substrate which includes a support and a reflective layer disposed on the support wherein the reflective layer includes light-scattering particles and a binder resin with a specific glass transition temperature (Tg) and has a specific film thickness exhibits excellent cuttability and realizes a scintillator panel capable of giving radiographic images such as X-ray images with excellent sensitivity and sharpness as well as capable of excellent cuttability. In more detail, the present inventors have found the following. It has been found that the binder resin having a specific Tg in the deposition substrate exhibits excellent adhesion with respect to the support and excellently follows deformation experienced during cutting. As a result, the deposition substrate and a scintillator panel including the deposition substrate do not suffer problems such as the separation of the reflective layer even when subjected to cutting, and the scintillator panel is free from problems such as the separation of a scintillator layer even when subjected to cutting. It has been further found that the specific thickness of the reflective layer in the deposition substrate ensures that the reflective layer will not become separated from the support because of the thickness being so small that the reflective layer cannot withstand the impact applied during cutting as well as ensures that cracks will not be generated during film production because of the thickness being so large and accordingly there will occur no abnormal growth of phosphor crystals during deposition, thus resulting in the realization of excellent sharpness of radiographic images obtained via a scintillator panel including the deposition substrate. Furthermore, it has been found that the sharpness of radiographic images obtained via a scintillator panel including the deposition substrate is further improved when the volatile content in the reflective layer in the deposition substrate is in a specific range. With respect to a scintillator panel in which a scintillator layer is disposed on the surface of the reflective layer (the surface of the reflective layer opposite to the support side) of the deposition substrate, the present inventors have also found that the heights of crystals forming the scintillator layer can be aligned without any deteriorations in the characteristics of the crystals by the application of a specific pressure to the scintillator panel at a temperature not less than the Tg of the binder resin, thus further enhancing the sharpness of radiographic images obtained via the scintillator panel. To solve the aforementioned problems, a deposition substrate according to the present invention includes a support and a reflective layer disposed on the support, the reflective layer including light-scattering particles and a binder resin with a glass transition temperature of −100° C. to 60° C., the thickness of the reflective layer being 5 to 300 μm. In the deposition substrate of the invention, it is preferable that the light-scattering particles include at least one selected from alumina, yttrium oxide, zirconium oxide, titanium dioxide, barium sulfate, silica, zinc oxide, calcium carbonate, glasses and resins. In the deposition substrate of the invention, it is preferable that the light-scattering particles include at least one type of particles selected from hollow particles having a hollow portion within the particle, multi-hollow particles having a number of hollow portions within the particle, and porous particles. In the deposition substrate of the invention, it is preferable that the light-scattering particles include at least titanium dioxide. In the deposition substrate of the invention, it is preferable that the volatile content in the reflective layer be not more than 0.5 mg/m2. In the deposition substrate of the invention, it is preferable that the support include a resin as a main component and the reflective layer be disposed on the support. In the deposition substrate of the invention, it is preferable that the resin be polyimide. Preferably, the deposition substrate of the invention further includes a light-absorbing layer on the side opposite to the deposition surface (hereinafter, also referred to as the “scintillator layer formation scheduled surface”) of the reflective layer. To solve the aforementioned problems, a deposition substrate production method according to the present invention includes forming a reflective layer including a binder resin on a support, and cutting the deposition substrate after the formation of the reflective layer. In the deposition substrate production method of the invention, it is preferable that the glass transition temperature of the binder resin be −100 to 60° C. and the thickness of the reflective layer be 5 to 300 μm. To solve the aforementioned problems, a scintillator panel according to the present invention includes a support, a reflective layer disposed on the support, and a scintillator layer formed on the reflective layer by deposition, the reflective layer including light-scattering particles and a binder resin with a glass transition temperature of −100° C. to 60° C., the thickness of the reflective layer being 5 to 300 μm. The scintillator panel of the invention is preferably obtained by forming a scintillator layer by deposition on a scintillator layer formation scheduled surface of the deposition substrate. In the scintillator panel of the invention, it is preferable that the light-scattering particles include at least one selected from alumina, yttrium oxide, zirconium oxide, titanium dioxide, barium sulfate, silica, zinc oxide, calcium carbonate, glasses and resins. In the scintillator panel of the invention, it is preferable that the light-scattering particles include at least one type of particles selected from hollow particles having a hollow portion within the particle, multi-hollow particles having a number of hollow portions within the particle, and porous particles. In the scintillator panel of the invention, it is preferable that the light-scattering particles include at least titanium dioxide. In the scintillator panel of the invention, it is preferable that the support include a resin as a main component and the reflective layer be disposed on the support. In the scintillator panel of the invention, it is preferable that the resin be polyimide. Preferably, the scintillator panel of the invention further includes a light-absorbing layer on the side opposite to the surface of the reflective layer on which the scintillator layer is disposed. In the scintillator panel of the invention, it is preferable that the scintillator layer have a columnar crystal structure formed by depositing raw materials including cesium iodide and one or more activators including at least thallium. In the scintillator panel of the invention, it is preferable that the surface of the scintillator layer be covered with a protective film. In the scintillator panel of the invention, it is preferable that the protective film be a polyparaxylylene film. In the scintillator panel of the invention, it is preferable that the scintillator layer include columnar crystals grown from an interface between the reflective layer and the scintillator layer. The scintillator panel of the invention is preferably supported on a support plate having higher rigidity than the deposition substrate. To solve the aforementioned problems, a scintillator panel manufacturing method according to the present invention includes forming a reflective layer including a binder resin on a support, and forming a scintillator layer on the reflective layer by deposition, wherein the heights of columnar crystals forming the scintillator layer are aligned by applying a pressure of 1,000 to 10,000,000 Pa to the surface of the scintillator panel at a temperature not less than the glass transition temperature of the binder resin. In the scintillator panel manufacturing method of the invention, it is preferable that the glass transition temperature of the binder resin be −100 to 60° C. and the thickness of the reflective layer be 5 to 300 μm. The deposition substrates according to the present invention have excellent cuttability and may be out without the separation of the reflective layer. Further, the inventive deposition substrates realize scintillator panels which exhibit excellent cuttability and are free from the separation of the scintillator layer during cutting and which can give radiographic images such as X-ray images with excellent sensitivity and sharpness. The scintillator panels according to the present invention are suppressed from the separation of the scintillator layer during cutting and can give radiographic images such as X-ray images with excellent sensitivity and sharpness. According to the scintillator panel manufacturing method of the invention, the heights of columnar crystals are aligned under specific conditions so as to allow for the manufacturing of scintillator panels realizing further enhanced sharpness of the obtainable radiographic images. Hereinbelow, deposition substrates and scintillator panels according to the present invention will be described in detail. The scope of the invention is not limited to the embodiments described below, and various modifications are possible without departing from the scope of the invention. The deposition substrates of the invention include a support and a specific reflective layer disposed on the support. The scintillator panels of the invention include the support, the reflective layer, and a scintillator layer formed by deposition. Hereinbelow, configurations of the invention will be described. The term “phosphors (scintillators)” in the invention refers to fluorescent materials that absorb energy of incident invisible radiations (the wavelengths are usually 10 nm or less) such as X-rays and γ-rays and emit electromagnetic waves having wavelengths of 300 nm to 800 nm, namely, electromagnetic waves (lights) mainly in the visible light region from ultraviolet light to infrared light. 1. Deposition Substrates A deposition substrate of the invention includes a support and a reflective layer disposed on the support. The reflective layer includes light-scattering particles and a binder resin with a glass transition temperature of −100° C. to 60° C. The thickness of the reflective layer is 5 to 300 μm. The glass transition temperature of the binder resin and the thickness of the reflective layer which are in the above ranges ensure that the deposition substrate exhibits excellent cuttability and the reflective layer is not separated during cutting. From the viewpoints of handling properties and cuttability, the thickness of the entirety of the deposition substrate is preferably 10 to 1,000 μm. 1-1. Reflective Layers In the deposition substrates of the invention, a reflective layer is disposed on a support and includes light-scattering particles and a specific binder resin. In the deposition substrates of the invention, the support and the reflective layer may be each comprised of a single layer, or two or more layers. In order for the deposition substrates and scintillator panels produced therewith to achieve excellent cuttability as well as from the viewpoint of the adhesion with respect to the surface of a light-receiving element used for radiography in combination with the scintillator panel, the thickness of the reflective layer is usually 5 to 300 μm, preferably 15 to 150 μm, and more preferably 30 to 100 μm. If the thickness of the reflective layer is less than 5 μm, separation tends to occur at the interface between the support and the reflective layer because of the failure of the reflective layer to follow deformation experienced during cutting. In a scintillator panel in which a scintillator layer is disposed on the scintillator layer formation scheduled surface of such an excessively thin reflective layer in the deposition substrate, the reflective layer similarly fails to follow deformation during cutting and tends to be separated at the interface between the support and the reflective layer or at the interface between the scintillator layer and the reflective layer. If the thickness of the reflective layer exceeds 300 μm, the deposition substrate tends to exhibit large warpage due to the residual stress after film production. Depositing a scintillator layer onto such a deposition substrate tends to result in the occurrence of cracks in the scintillator layer and consequent deteriozations in image quality (in particular, sharpness) of the obtainable radiographic images. In order to ensure that a phosphor having excellent crystallinity (crystalline order) will be formed on the surface of the reflective layer in the deposition substrate (the surface of the reflective layer opposite to the surface in contact with the support), the volatile content in the reflective layer is preferably not more than 0.7 mg/m2, and more preferably not more than 0.5 mg/m2. (The measurement method will be described later.) Examples of the volatile components include residual solvents and water. The reflective layer is preferably disposed on a support including a resin as a main component. According to this configuration, the deposition substrate advantageously exhibits excellent cuttability. The resin will be described in detail later. From the viewpoint of cuttability of the deposition substrate and a scintillator panel including the deposition substrate, it is particularly preferable that the reflective layer be disposed on a support including polyimide as a main component. As used herein, the term “main component” indicates that the component represents 50 to 100 wt % of the total of component(s) constituting the support taken as 100 wt %. In the deposition substrates of the invention, the surface of the reflective layer opposite to the surface in contact with the support is defined as the “scintillator layer formation scheduled surface. In the deposition substrate of the invention, the reflective layer disposed on the support includes a binder resin with a specific Tg and has a specific thickness. With this configuration, the deposition substrate can realize a device such as a scintillator panel exhibiting excellent cuttability and capable of giving excellently sharp radiographic images. The reflective layer may contain additives described later such as fluorescent whitening agents, coloring materials for controlling the reflectance (such as carbon black and titanium black), and UV absorbers. From the viewpoint of transmission of radiations such as X-rays, the reflective layer in the deposition substrate of the invention may have voids, such as those formed by a method described later. In this case, the void volume in the reflective layer (the proportion of the volume of the voids to the volume of the reflective layer) is preferably 54 to 30% from the above viewpoint. The void volume may be easily calculated based on the difference between the theoretical density (without voids) and the actual density of the reflective layer. From viewpoints such as the brightness and the sharpness of the obtainable radiographic images, the reflectance of the reflective layer in the deposition substrate of the invention is preferably 5% to 98%. Herein, the reflectance of the reflective layer is calculated from the spectral reflectivity in the 400 to 700 nm wavelength band with spectrocolorimeter SE-2000 (manufactured by NIPPON DENSHOKU INDUSTRIES CO., LTD.) in accordance with JIS Z-8722. The reflectance is a value at 550 nm wavelength in the absence of any indication of reflection wavelength. 1-1-1. Light-Scattering Particles The light-scattering particles present in the reflective layer in the inventive deposition substrate serve to prevent the light produced in the scintillator layer from being diffused in the reflective layer as well as to effectively return the light which has reached the reflective layer into the columnar crystals of the scintillator layer. Such light-scattering particles may be commercial products or may be produced by known methods as will be described later. The light-scattering particles are not particularly limited as long as the particle material has a different refractive index from the binder resin which in combination therewith constitutes the reflective layer. Examples of such materials include alumina, yttrium oxide, zirconium oxide, titanium dioxide, barium sulfate, silica, zinc oxide, calcium carbonate, glasses and resins. These materials may be used singly, or two or more may be used as a mixture. (The mixture may include two or more materials belonging to different categories such as a glass and a resin; two or more materials belonging to the same category such as an acrylic resin and a polyester resin; or one or more materials belonging to a category and one or more materials belonging to another category such as a glass, an acrylic resin and a polyester resin.) Of the above materials, for example, glass beads and resin beads, in particular, glass beads are preferable because the refractive index can be set to a desired value more freely and thus optical diffusion characteristics can be controlled more easily than metal oxides. Glass beads having a higher refractive index are more preferable. Examples thereof include BK7 (n (relative refractive index, the same applies hereinafter)=about 1.5); LaSFN9 (n=about 1.9); SF11 (n=about 1.8); F2 (n=about 1.6); BaK1 (n=about 1.6); barium titanate (n=about 1.9); high refractive index blue glass (n=about 1.6 to 1.7); TiO2—BaO (n=about 1.9 to 2.2); borosilicate (n=about 1.6); and chalcogenide glass (n=about 2 or more). Examples of the resin beads include acrylic particles, polyester resin particles, polyolefin particles and silicone particles, with specific suitable examples including CHEMISNOW (registered trademark) (manufactured by Soken Chemical & Engineering Co., Ltd.), Silicone Resins KR Series (manufactured by Shin-Etsu Chemical Co., Ltd.), and TECHPOLYMER (registered trademark) (manufactured by SEKISUI PLASTICS CO., LTD.). White pigments such as titanium dioxide (TiO2) have high opacifying properties and a high refractive index, and can easily scatter the light emitted from the scintillator by reflecting and refracting the light. Thus, the use of such pigments allows for marked improvements in the sensitivity of devices such as radiographic image conversion panels including scintillator panels in which scintillator layers are disposed on the inventive deposition substrates. The light-scattering particles are particularly preferably titanium dioxide (TiO2) in view of the facts that this material is easily available and has a high refractive index. When titanium dioxide is used as the light-scattering particles, the titanium dioxide may be one which has been surface treated with inorganic compounds or organic compounds in order to improve dispersibility and workability. For example, the surface-treated titanium dioxide and the surface treatment methods are disclosed in JP-A-S52-35625, JP-A-S55-10865, JP-A-S57-35855, JP-A-S62-25753, JP-A-S62-103635 and JP-A-H09-050093. For the surface treatments, inorganic compounds such as aluminum oxide hydrate, hydrous zinc oxide and silicon dioxide, and organic compounds such as dihydric to tetrahydric alcohols, trimethylolamine, titanate coupling agents and silane coupling agents may be preferably used as surface-treatment agents. The amounts of the surface-treatment agents may be determined appropriately in accordance with the purposes as described in the above patent literatures. The crystal structure of the titanium dioxide may be any of rutile, brookite and anatase forms. However, the rutile form is particularly preferable because its refractive index has a high ratio to that of resins to realize high brightness as well as from the viewpoint of the reflectance with respect to visible light. Specific examples of titanium oxides include those produced by a hydrochloric acid process such as CR-50, CR-50-2, CR-57, CR-80, CR-90, CR-93, CR-95, CR-97, CR-60-2, CR-63, CR-67, CR-58, CR-58-2 and CP-85; and those produced by a sulfuric acid process such as R-820, R-830, R-930, R-550, R-630, R-680, R-670, R-580, R-780, R-780-2, R-850, R-855, A-100, A-220 and W-10 (product names, manufactured by ISHIHARA SANGYO KAISHA, LTD.). From the viewpoint of reflectance, the area average particle diameter of the titanium oxide is preferably 0.1 to 10.0 μm, more preferably 0.1 to 5.0 μm, still more preferably 0.2 to 3.0 μm, and particularly preferably 0.2 to 0.3 μm. In order to improve the affinity and dispersibility for polymers as well as to suppress a degradation of polymers, the titanium oxide is particularly preferably one which has been surface treated with oxides of metals such as Al, Si, Zr and Zn. The use of titanium oxide as the light-scattering particles tends to cause a decrease in the reflectance to light with wavelengths of 400 nm or less and also a degradation of the binder due to the photocatalytic action of titanium oxide. In view of these facts, it is preferable to use the titanium oxide in combination with at least one kind of light-scattering particles selected from barium sulfate, alumina, yttrium oxide and zirconium oxide which have a high reflectance even to light with wavelengths of at least 400 nm or less. Barium sulfate is more preferable because its reflectance in the wavelengths of 400 nm or less is particularly high. For the same reason, the mass ratio of barium sulfate to titanium dioxide is preferably 95:5 to 5:95, more preferably 20:80 to 5:95, and particularly preferably 20:80 to 80:20. Further, it is preferable that the light-scattering particles include at least one selected from solid particles and void particles. The void particles are not particularly limited as long as the particles have voids. Examples thereof include single-hollow particles having one hollow portion within the particle, multi-hollow particles having a number of hollow portions within the particle, and porous particles. These particles may be selected appropriately in accordance with the purpose. Of the void particles, single-hollow particles and multi-hollow particles are preferable because they are free from the risk that the voids will be filled with the binder resin. Here, the term “void particles” refers to particles having voids such as hollow portions and pores. The term “hollow portions” refers to holes (air layers) in the inside of particles. Due to the difference in refractive index between the holes (the air layers) and the shells (such as resin layers), the hollow particles can add optical reflection and diffusion characteristics to the reflective layer which cannot be obtained with solid particles. The term “multi-hollow particles” refers to particles having a plurality of such holes in the inside of particles. The term “porous particles” refers to particles having pores in the particle. The term “pores” refers to portions that are inwardly curved or recessed from the surface toward the inside of the particle. Examples of the shapes of the pores include cavities, and needle-like shapes or curved shapes which are tapered or choked toward the inside or the core of the particles. The pores may be present across the particles. The sizes and the volumes of the pores may be variable and are not particularly limited. The materials of the void particles are not particularly limited and may be selected appropriately in accordance with the purpose. Examples thereof include the aforementioned materials. In particular, suitable examples include thermoplastic resins such as styrene/acryl copolymers. The void particles may be appropriately produced or are available in the market. Examples of the commercially available products include ROPAQUE HP1055 and ROPAQUE HP433J (manufactured by ZEON CORPORATION), and SX866 (manufactured by JSR Corporation). Suitable examples of the multi-hollow particles include Sylosphere (registered trademark) and Sylophobic (registered trademark) manufactured by FUJI SILYSIA CHEMICAL LTD. Of the void particles, single-hollow particles are particularly preferable in terms of void content. When the void particles are used as the light-scattering particles, the light-scattering particles may be a collection of a single form of the above particles or may include two or more kinds of void particles. The void particles may be used in combination with solid particles. The void particles may be advantageously used in combination with white pigments such as titanium dioxide, alumina, yttrium oxide, zirconium oxide and barium sulfate. This combined use prevents deteriorations in scintillator characteristics due to the white pigments adsorbing water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2) to their surface and releasing them when exposed to heat or X-ray energy. That is, the combined use of the void particles and the white pigments suppresses the release of impurity gases such as water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2) from the white pigments and thus prevents deteriorations in scintillator characteristics. Alternatively, deteriorations in scintillator characteristics due to the detachment of water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2) from the surface of white pigments may be effectively prevented by forming a large number of bubbles in the reflective layer including a white pigment and a binder resin. According to this method, the white pigment and the bubbles having a large difference in refractive index are placed in contact with each other in the reflective layer, and the reflectance of the reflective layer is improved by this increased difference in refractive index between the materials constituting the reflective layer. Details are described in the section of “Deposition substrate production methods”. From viewpoints such as the reflectance of the reflective layer, the occurrence of cracks on the surface of the reflective layer, and the stability of a coating liquid prepared for the formation of the reflective layer (hereinafter, also referred to as “reflective coating liquid”, the same applies to coating liquids for other purposes), the area average particle diameter of the light-scattering particles is preferably 0.1 μm to 10.0 μm, and more preferably 0.1 μm to 5.0 μm. This area average particle diameter of the light-scattering particles ensures that optical scattering occurs efficiently in the reflective layer to lower the transparency and increase the reflectance, as well as that the reflective coating liquid exhibits improved stability over time and the occurrence of cracks in the dry reflective layer is avoided. From the viewpoint of the dispersibility of the light-scattering particles in the reflective layer, the grain size distribution of the light-scattering particles is preferably in the range of 0.05 μm to 10.0 μm. The volume fraction of the light-scattering particles is preferably 3 to 70 vol %, and more preferably 10 to 50 vol % in 100 vol % of the total volume of the components constituting the reflective layer. This fraction of the light-scattering particles in the reflective layer ensures not only that the reflectance of the reflective layer as well as the sensitivity of a scintillator panel having a scintillator layer on the deposition substrate are improved, but also that the adhesion with respect to the support or the phosphor layer is enhanced to suppress the separation of the reflective layer during cutting. When the content of the light-scattering particles in the reflective layer is not more than 70 vol %, the reflective layer can follow deformation experienced during cutting and is thus not separated at the interface between the support and the reflective layer. Further, the above volume fraction is also advantageous in that the reflective layer can similarly follow deformation experienced during cutting of a scintillator panel in which a scintillator layer is disposed on the scintillator layer formation scheduled surface of the reflective layer in the deposition substrate, and consequently no separation occurs at the interface between the support and the reflective layer or at the interface between the scintillator layer and the reflective layer. Further, it is preferable that the reflective layer in the inventive deposition substrate contain voids in a proportion of 5 to 30 vol %. 1-1-2. Binder Resins The binder resins are not particularly limited as long as the objects of the invention are not deteriorated. The binder resins may be appropriately purchased or produced. From the viewpoint of the cuttability of the deposition substrate, the glass transition temperature (Tg) of the binder resin measured by the method specified in JIS K 7121-1987 is −100° C. to 60° C., preferably −50° C. to 50° C., and more preferably −20° C. to 40° C. If the glass transition temperature (Tg) of the binder resin is below −100° C., it tends to be that the surface of the reflective layer comes to exhibit high tackiness and easily collects foreign substances during production, thus increasing the occurrence of image defects in radiographic images obtained via a scintillator panel in which a scintillator layer is disposed on the scintillator layer formation scheduled surface of the deposition substrate. Further, such a reflective layer tends to fail to withstand the heat (usually 150° C. or more) applied thereto during the deposition of a scintillator layer on the scintillator layer formation scheduled surface of the reflective layer; as a result, cracks are produced in the reflective layer to let phosphor crystals grow abnormally and thereby to deteriorate the image quality (in particular, sharpness) of radiographic images obtained via the scintillator panel in which the scintillator layer is disposed on the scintillator layer formation scheduled surface of the deposition substrate. If the glass transition temperature (Tg) of the binder resin is above 60° C., it tends to be that the reflective layer fails to follow deformation experienced during cutting and is separated at the interface between the support and the reflective layer. Further, such an excessively high glass transition temperature is also disadvantageous in that the reflective layer similarly tends to fail to follow deformation experienced during cutting of a scintillator panel in which a scintillator layer is disposed on the scintillator layer formation scheduled surface of the reflective layer in the deposition substrate, and consequently the reflective layer is separated at the interface between the support and the reflective layer or at the interface between the scintillator layer and the reflective layer. Examples of the binder resins include polyurethane resins, vinyl chloride copolymers, vinyl chloride vinyl acetate copolymers, vinyl chloride vinylidene chloride copolymers, vinyl chloride acrylonitrile copolymers, butadiene acrylonitrile copolymers, polyamide resins, polyvinylbutyrals, polyester resins, cellulose derivatives (such as nitrocellulose), styrene butadiene copolymers, various synthetic rubber resins, phenolic resins, epoxy resins, urea resins, melamine resins, phenoxy resins, silicone resins, acrylic resins and urea formamide resins. Of these, hydrophobic resins such as polyester resins, polyurethane resins and acrylic resins are preferable, and polyester resins and polyurethane resins are more preferable because of excellent interlayer adherability with respect to columnar phosphor crystals formed by deposition and to the support. From the viewpoint of the cuttability of the deposition substrate, polyester resins having the aforementioned glass transition temperature are particularly preferable. In the invention, the binder resin having a glass transition temperature (Tg) of −100° C. to 60° C. represents 5 to 100 wt %, preferably 30 to 100 wt %, more preferably 50 to 100 wt %, and particularly preferably 100 wt % relative to the total of the binder resin(s) present in the reflective layer. The binder resins contained in the refractive layer preferably contain at least two binder resins showing different glass-transition temperatures of not less than 5° C., and more preferably 10 to 100° C., from the viewpoint that the film properties of the refractive layer may be easily controlled. Here, the plurality of binder resins may belong to an identical category or different categories as long as their glass transition temperatures are different. 1-2. Supports Exemplary materials of the supports include various glasses, ceramic materials, semiconductor materials, polymer materials and metals which are transmissive to radiations such as X-rays. Specific examples include plate glasses such as quartz, borosilicate glass and chemically reinforced glass; ceramics such as amorphous carbon, sapphire, silicon nitride and silicon carbide; semiconductors such as silicon, germanium, gallium arsenide, gallium phosphide and gallium nitride; polymer films (plastic films) such as cellulose acetate films, polyester resin films, polyethylene terephthalate films, polyamide films, polyimide films, triacetate films, polycarbonate films and carbon fiber-reinforced resin sheets; metal sheets such as aluminum sheets, iron sheets and copper sheets, as well as metal sheets having layers of oxides of the metals; and bio-nanofiber films. These materials may be used singly or in the form of a stack of materials. From the viewpoint of processability, the materials for the supports in the invention are preferably flexible. Here, the term “flexible” indicates that the materials can be processed from roll to roll. Such materials preferably have a film thickness of 1 to 1,000 μm and an elastic modulus of 0.1 to 100 GPa, and more preferably a film thickness of 50 to 500 μm and an elastic modulus of 1 to 30 GPa. In the invention, the “elastic modulus” is a value obtained by testing a JIS-C2318 sample with a tensile tester in accordance with JIS K 7161, and calculating the ratio of the stress over the strain indicated by the gauge marks on the sample, in the range in which the strain stress curve shows a straight relationship. This ratio is called the Young's modulus. In the specification, this Young's modulus is defined as the elastic modulus. The support materials in the invention are preferably flexible polymer films. Examples of the flexible polymer films include polymer films formed of polyethylene naphthalate (7 GPa), polyethylene terephthalate (4 GPa), polycarbonate (2 GPa), polyimide (7 GPa), polyetherimide (3 GPa), aramid (12 GPa), polysulfone (2 GPa) and polyether sulfone (2 GPa). (The values in parenthesis are elastic moduli). From the viewpoint of heat resistance during deposition, polyimide is particularly preferable. The values of elastic moduli are variable even in polymer films of the same material, and the values in parenthesis are not absolutely correct and should be considered as a guide. The flexible polymer film may be a single polymer film, a film of a mixture of the above polymers, or a stack of two or more identical or different polymer layers. In particular, polymer films including polyimide or polyethylene naphthalate are suitable in the case where columnar crystals of a phosphor (scintillator) are formed on the reflective layer by a gas-phase method using cesium iodide as the raw material. The use of a bio-nanofiber film as the support provides benefits in terms of support characteristics and environmental friendliness because the bio-nanofiber films have characteristics which are not possessed by existing glasses or plastics such as (i) low weight, (ii) strength five times or more greater than iron (high strength), (iii) resistance to swelling by heat (low thermal expansion properties), (iv) being flexible (excellent flexibility), (v) feasibility of various treatments such as mixing, coating and film production, and (vi) combustibility of plant fiber materials. The support of the deposition substrate is advantageously a polymer film having a thickness of 50 μm to 500 μm. Such a support allows a scintillator panel including the deposition substrate to be bonded to a planar light-receiving element in such a manner that the scintillator panel changes its shape in accordance with the shape of the surface of the planar light-receiving element. Thus, the scintillator panel can be uniformly bonded tightly to the planar light-receiving element even in the presence of deformation or warpage of the deposition substrate caused by deposition. The resultant flat panel detectors can achieve uniform sharpness of radiographic images in the entirety of the light-receiving plane. (Because the bonding between the scintillator panel and the planar light-receiving element is tight and uniform, the entire light-receiving plane of the flat panel detector provides uniform sharpness in the obtainable radiographic images.) In order to, for example, adjust the reflectance of the support, the support may include a light-shielding layer and/or a light-absorbing layer in addition to the layer of the aforementioned material. Further, the support itself may have light-shielding properties or light-absorbing properties, or may be a colored support. Examples of the supports having light-shielding properties include various metal plates. Examples of the supports having light-absorbing properties include amorphous carbon plates and films of polymers such as polyimide, polyether imide and aramid. From the viewpoint of adjusting the reflectance of the deposition substrates, preferred colored supports are resin films containing coloring materials such as pigments and dyes (pigments are more preferable). Examples of such resins include general thermoplastic resins. Examples of the pigments include common organic and inorganic coloring pigments such as hardly soluble (usually less than 1 g is dissolved in 100 g of water at 20° C.) azo pigments, phthalocyanine blue and titanium black. Specific examples include insoluble azo pigments such as First Yellow, Disazo Yellow, Pyrazolone Orange, Lake Red 4R and Naphthol Red; condensed azo pigments such as Cromophtal Yellow and Cromophtal Red; azo lake pigments such as Lithol Red, Lake Red C, Watching Red, Brilliant Carmine 6B and Bordeaux 10B; nitroso pigments such as Naphthol Green B; nitro pigments such as Naphthol Yellow S; phthalocyanine pigments such as Phthalocyanine Blue, First Sky Blue and Phthalocyanine Green; threne pigments such as Anthrapyrimidine Yellow, Perinone Orange, Perylene Red, Thioindigo Red and Indanthrone Blue; quinacridone pigments such as Quinacridone Red and Quinacridone Violet; dioxadine pigments such as Dioxadine Violet; isoindolinone pigments such as Isoindolinone Yellow; acidic dye lakes such as Peacock Blue Lake and Alkali Blue Lake; and basic dye lakes such as Rhodamine Lake, Methyl Violet Lake and Malachite Green Lake. The pigments are preferably used in amounts of 0.01 to 10 parts by weight with respect to 100 parts by weight of the binder resin. This amount of the pigments ensures sufficient coloring of the films and prevents deteriorations in mechanical properties such as elongation and strength of the support resin due to excessive addition of the pigments over the saturated coloration. 1-3. Additional Layers Where necessary, the deposition substrates may include additional layers in addition to the reflective layer and the support. In a scintillator panel obtained by forming a scintillator layer on the deposition substrate, it is generally preferable that the luminous efficiency of the scintillator and the sharpness of the obtainable radiographic images be adjusted to desired levels in accordance with the purpose of use of the radiographic image detector. In oral radiography as an example, radiographic images with high sharpness are required because the imaging subjects include dental nerves having fine and complicated structures. Further, the scintillators are required to have high luminous efficiency in pediatric radiography in order to minimally reduce radiation exposure on children susceptible to radiation effects. According to the invention, the reflectance of the deposition substrates is adjusted as required in the following manner, whereby the scintillator luminous efficiency of scintillator panels obtained by forming scintillator layers on the deposition substrates and the sharpness of the obtainable radiographic images can be adjusted to desired levels. For example, the reflectance of the deposition substrate may be adjusted by providing at least one of light-shielding layers and light-absorbing layers containing light-absorbing pigments or the like, in addition to the reflective layer and the support. Alternatively, the reflectance of the deposition substrate may be adjusted by coloring the reflective layer or the support layer in the deposition substrate so as to obtain an appropriate reflectance. In a configuration in which a light-shielding layer or a light-absorbing layer is provided in the deposition substrate, the light-shielding layer or the light-absorbing layer is disposed on the side of the reflective layer opposite to the deposition surface (hereinafter, also referred to as the “scintillator layer formation scheduled surface”). The light-shielding layer or the light-absorbing layer may be provided by stacking a film including a light-shielding layer or a light-absorbing layer. The reflectance of the deposition substrates may also be adjusted by adopting a support which itself has light-shielding properties or light-absorbing properties. Alternatively, as mentioned earlier, the reflectance of the deposition substrates may be adjusted by coloring the reflective layer or the support with a coloring material. Details in these cases of reflectance adjustment are as described in the sections of “Supports” and “Reflective layers”. In particular, the reflectance is more preferably adjusted by coloring the reflective layer itself with a coloring material because this adjustment may be performed by a simple method in which the coloring material is added to the dispersion of the white pigment and the binder resin, and the resultant coating liquid is applied onto the support. The above techniques for adjusting the reflectance of the deposition substrates may be adopted singly. However, at least two techniques are preferably adopted in combination for reasons such as that the reflectance of the deposition substrates may be accurately adjusted to a desired value more easily. When both the light-shielding layer and the pigment layer are used, they are preferably disposed in the order of the light-shielding layer and the pigment layer from the support side for the same reason as above. Hereinbelow, the light-shielding layers and the light-absorbing layers will be described. The light-absorbing layers are not particularly limited as long as the layers have light-absorbing properties and are colored. For example, layers including a pigment and a binder resin may be used. The pigments in the light-absorbing layers may be any known pigments. Suitable pigments are those capable of absorbing long-wavelength red light which is more prone to scatter, and blue pigments are preferred, with preferred examples including ultramarine blue and Prussian blue (iron ferrocyanide). Further, organic blue pigments such as phthalocyanine, anthraquinone, indigoid and carbonium may also be used. Of these, phthalocyanine is preferable from viewpoints such as radiation durability and UV durability of the light-absorbing layers. Furthermore, titanium black that is a titanium-containing black pigment may be suitably used. Titanium black is a black substance resulting from partial removal of oxygen from titanium dioxide. Because its specific gravity is the same as titanium dioxide, a reflective coating liquid including titanium dioxide as the light-scattering particles and titanium black exhibits high stability. The reflectance of the deposition substrate can be advantageously adjusted easily by regulating the mixing ratio of titanium dioxide and titanium black. Examples of the binder resins in the light-absorbing layers include those described in the section of “Reflective layers”. The pigments are preferably used in amounts of 0.01 to 30 parts by weight, and more preferably 0.01 to 10 parts by weight with respect to 100 parts by weight of the binder resin from the viewpoint of the light-absorbing properties of the light-absorbing layer. From the viewpoint of light-absorbing properties, the thickness of the light-absorbing layer is preferably 1 to 500 μm. The light-shielding layers include materials having light-shielding properties. Preferred light-shielding materials for the light-shielding layers are stainless steel and metal materials including one, or two or more elements of aluminum, silver, platinum, palladium, gold, copper, iron, nickel, chromium and cobalt from the viewpoint of the adjustment of the reflectance of the deposition substrates. In particular, aluminum- or silver-based metal materials are particularly preferable because such light-shielding layers exhibit excellent light-shielding properties and corrosion resistance. The light-shielding layer may be comprised of a single film of the metal material, or may include two or more films of the metal materials. In order to increase the adhesion between the support and the light-shielding layer, an intermediate layer is preferably disposed between the support and the light-shielding layer. Examples of the materials of the intermediate layer include general adhesive polymers (such as polyester resins, polyurethane resins and acrylic resins), as well as metals different from the metals in the light-shielding layers (dissimilar metals). Examples of the dissimilar metals include nickel, cobalt, chromium, palladium, titanium, zirconium, molybdenum and tungsten. The intermediate layer may include one, or two or more kinds of these dissimilar metals. In particular, it is preferable that nickel or chromium, or both of these metals be contained from the viewpoint of the light-shielding properties of the light-shielding layer. From the viewpoint of light-shielding properties, the thickness of the light-shielding layer is preferably 1 to 500 μm. The light-shielding layer made of such a metal material also serves as an antistatic layer and thus may be suitably used for antistatic purposes. Such an antistatic layer may be formed instead of or in combination with the addition of an antistatic agent to the reflective layer. In this case, from the viewpoint of antistatic properties of the deposition substrates, the surface resistivity measured with respect to the surface of the reflective layer opposite to the surface in contact with the support is preferably not more than 1.0×1012Ω/□, more preferably not more than 1.0×1011Ω/□, and most preferably not more than 1.0×1010Ω/□ (□ in the unit Ω/□ means square and has no dimension. The same applies hereinafter.) As discussed above, the deposition substrates of the invention include the support and the reflective layer disposed on the support, and the reflective layer includes the light-scattering particles and the binder resin with a specific glass transition temperature (Tg) and has a specific thickness. With this configuration, the deposition substrates of the invention exhibit excellent cuttability and realize scintillator panels exhibiting excellent cuttability and giving radiographic images such as X-ray images with excellent sensitivity and sharpness. In the inventive deposition substrate, the binder resin which has a specific Tg exhibits excellent adhesion with respect to the support and excellently follows deformation experienced during cutting. As a result, the deposition substrate and a scintillator panel including the deposition substrate achieve excellent cuttability, and the deposition substrate does not suffer problems such as the separation of the reflective layer even when subjected to cutting, and the scintillator panel is free from problems such as the separation of a scintillator layer even when subjected to cutting. Further, the reflective layer in the inventive deposition substrate has a specific thickness to ensure that the reflective layer will not become separated from the support because of the thickness being so small that the reflective layer cannot withstand the impact applied during cutting as well as to ensure that cracks will not be generated during film production because of the thickness being so large and accordingly there will occur no abnormal growth of phosphor crystals during deposition, thus resulting in the realization of excellent sharpness of radiographic images obtained via a scintillator panel including the deposition substrate. Furthermore, the sharpness of radiographic images obtained via a scintillator panel including the deposition substrate is further improved when the volatile content in the reflective layer in the deposition substrate is in the specific range. Furthermore, the deposition substrates and scintillator panels including the substrates may be manufactured in a specific size without the need for fabricating individual deposition substrates with the specific size separately, and may be manufactured in such a manner that the deposition substrates and scintillator panels are manufactured with a larger size than the desired size and are thereafter cut into individual deposition substrates or scintillator panels having the desired size. Thus, the deposition substrates and scintillator panels including the substrates ensure uniform quality within the lot or between the lots. After the formation of a scintillator layer on the inventive deposition substrate, the layer configuration is in the order of the support, the reflective layer and the scintillator layer. This layer configuration permits the scintillator panel to be freely attached to and removed (detached) from a planar light-receiving element. Thus, in the event of any problems in the planar light-receiving element or the scintillator panel, the loss caused by such problems can be minimized. 2. Scintillator Panels A scintillator panel according to the present invention includes a support, a reflective layer disposed on the support, and a scintillator layer formed on the reflective layer by deposition. The reflective layer includes light-scattering particles and a binder resin with a glass transition temperature of −100° C. to 60° C. The thickness of the reflective layer is 5 to 300 μm. In the scintillator panel of the invention, it is preferable that a protective layer described later be provided in addition to the reflective layer and the scintillator layer. In the inventive scintillator panel, a light-absorbing layer may be disposed on the side of the reflective layer opposite to the surface on which the scintillator layer is disposed. Further, the scintillator panel of the invention may be supported on a support plate having higher rigidity than the deposition substrate. Hereinbelow, constituents such as layers and elements in the inventive scintillator panels will be described. 2-1. Supports and Reflective Layers In contrast to the case described in the deposition substrate above, the order of the arrangement of the support and the reflective layer may be changed appropriately in accordance with the purpose. The supports and the reflective layers are similar to those in the deposition substrates, and thus will not be described anew. In the scintillator panel of the invention, it is preferable that the reflective layer be located between the support and the scintillator layer and include the light-scattering particles and the binder resin. With this configuration, the luminous efficiency of the scintillator panel is advantageously increased. 2-2. Scintillator Layers In the scintillator panel of the invention, the scintillator layer is preferably formed by the growth of columnar crystals from the surface of the reflective layer. Examples of the materials for the scintillator layers include known phosphors such as NaF, NaCl, NaBr, NaI, KF, KCl, KBr, KI, RbF, RbCl, RbBr, RbI, CsF, CsCl, CsBr and CsI. Of these, cesium iodide (CsI) is preferable from the viewpoints that the X-rays to visible light conversion ratio is relatively high, that columnar crystals can be formed easily by deposition, and that the scattering of light in the crystals is suppressed by the light guide effects ascribed to the crystal structure and consequently the thickness of the phosphor layer can be increased corresponding to the amount of suppressed scattering. However, because the luminous efficiency obtained with CsI alone is low, the scintillator layer preferably includes CsI in combination with any of various activators. Examples of such scintillator layers include a scintillator layer disclosed in JP-B-S54-35060 which contains CsI and sodium iodide (NaI) in an appropriate molar ratio. Further, an example of preferred scintillator layers is one disclosed in JP-A-2001-59899 which contains CsI and activators such as thallium (Tl), europium (Eu), indium (In), lithium (Li), potassium (K), rubidium (Rb) and sodium (Na) in an appropriate molar ratio. In the scintillator panel of the invention, a particularly preferred scintillator layer includes cesium iodide and an activator(s) including one or more thallium compounds. In particular, thallium-activated cesium iodide (CsI:Tl) is preferable because this material has a wide emission wavelength range from 300 nm to 750 nm. Various thallium compounds (thallium (I) compounds and thallium (III) compounds) may be used, with examples including thallium iodide (TlI), thallium bromide (TlBr), thallium chloride (TlCl) and thallium fluoride (TlF and TlF3). In particular, thallium iodide (TlI) is preferable because CsI is activated to a higher degree. The thallium compounds preferably have a melting point in the range of 400 to 700° C. This melting point of the thallium compounds ensures that the activator is uniformly distributed in the columnar crystals in the scintillator layer formed by deposition, resulting in an improvement in luminous efficiency. Herein, the melting point is measured at normal pressure (usually about 0.101 MPa). In the scintillator panel of the invention, the relative content of the activators in the scintillator layer is preferably 0.1 to 5 mol %. Herein, the relative content of the activators is the molar percentage of the activators relative to 1 mole of the phosphor matrix compound taken as 100 mol %. The term “phosphor matrix compound” refers to the phosphor itself such as CsI that is not activated with activators. The raw materials for the scintillator layers such as the phosphor matrix compounds and the activators are collectively referred to as phosphor raw materials. The scintillator layer may be comprised of a single layer or may include a scintillator main layer and a scintillator underlayer which has a higher void content than the scintillator main layer. (The scintillator underlayer is disposed between the scintillator main layer and the reflective layer.) Herein, the term “void content” refers to the ratio of the total cross sectional area of voids to the total cross sectional area of the columnar phosphor crystals plus the voids with respect to a cross section of the scintillator layer that has been cut parallel to the plane of the support at an arbitrary position in the columnar phosphor crystals including the scintillator underlayer. The void content may be determined by cutting the phosphor layer of the scintillator panel parallel to the plane of the support, and analyzing a scanning electron micrograph of the cross section with use of an image processing software to obtain the cross sectional areas of the phosphor portions and the voids. In the scintillator underlayer, the relative content of the activator is preferably 0.01 to 1 mol %, and more preferably 0.1 to 0.7 mol %. In particular, the relative content of the activator in the underlayer is highly preferably not less than 0.01 mol % in terms of the enhancement of emission brightness as well as the storage properties of the scintillator panels. In the invention, it is highly preferable that the relative content of the activator in the scintillator underlayer be lower than the relative content of the activator in the scintillator main layer. The ratio of the relative content of the activator in the scintillator underlayer to the relative content of the activator in the scintillator main layer ((relative content of activator in scintillator underlayer)/(relative content of activator in scintillator main layer)) is preferably 0.1 to 0.7. From viewpoints such as the luminous efficiency of the scintillator layer, the degree of orientation based on an X-ray diffraction spectrum with respect to a plane of the phosphor in the scintillator layer having a certain plane index is preferably in the range of 80 to 100% at any position in the direction of layer thickness. For example, the plane index in the columnar crystals of thallium-activated cesium iodide (CsI:Tl) may be any of indices including (100), (110), (111), (200), (211), (220) and (311), and is preferably (200). (For the plane indices, refer to X-Sen Kaiseki Nyuumon (Introduction to X-ray analysis) (Tokyo Kagaku Dojin), pp. 42-46.) Herein, the “degree of orientation based on an X-ray diffraction spectrum with respect to a plane having a certain plane index” indicates the proportion of the intensity Ix of the certain plane index relative to the total intensity I of the total including planes with other plane indices. For example, the degree of orientation of the intensity I200 of the (200) plane in an X-ray diffraction spectrum is obtained by: “Degree of orientation=I200/I”. For example, the plane indices for the determination of the orientation degree may be measured by X-ray diffractometry (XRD) (crystal X-ray diffractometry or powder X-ray diffractometry). The X-ray diffractometry is a versatile analytical technique capable of identifying substances or giving information about structures such as crystal phase structures by utilizing a phenomenon in which a characteristic X-ray having a specific wavelength is diffracted by crystalline substances according to the Bragg's equation. The illumination targets may be Cu, Fe and Co, and the illumination outputs are generally about 0 to 50 mA and about 0 to 50 kV in accordance with the performance of the apparatus. The columnar phosphor crystals may be formed by a gas-phase method. Examples of the gas-phase methods include deposition and sputtering. Several gas-phase methods may be performed in combination. For example, the phosphor matrix (CsI) may be vaporized and deposited by deposition and the activator raw material by sputtering. Even activator raw materials having a high melting point (compounds having a melting point of 1000° C. or above and are hardly vaporized by deposition) may be used by adopting sputtering for the vaporization of the activator raw materials. The thickness of the scintillator layer is preferably 100 to 800 μm, and more preferably 120 to 700 μm because this thickness ensures that a good balance is obtained between the brightness of the scintillator panel and the sharpness of the obtainable radiographic images. The thickness of the scintillator underlayer is preferably 0.1 μm to 50 μm, and more preferably 5 μm to 40 μm from the viewpoints of high brightness of the scintillator panel and ensuring the sharpness of the obtainable radiographic images. 2-2. Protective Layers Where necessary, the scintillator panels of the invention may have a protective layer which physically or chemically protects the phosphor layer. From viewpoints such as the prevention of deliquescence of the scintillator in the scintillator layer described later, it is preferable that the entire surface of the phosphor layer opposite to the support side be covered with a continuous protective layer, and it is more preferable that the entire surface of the scintillator layer and a portion of the reflective layer of the scintillator panel be covered with a continuous protective layer. Here, the “entire surface of the phosphor (scintillator) layer” refers to all the regions of the columnar phosphor crystal scintillator layer including the surface opposite to the surface in contact with the substrate as well as the lateral sides (in other words, all the surfaces which are not in contact with the substrate). Further, the “portion of the reflective layer” refers to all the regions of the reflective layer which are not in contact with the scintillator layer or the support and are exposed to the atmosphere (in other words, the lateral sides of the reflective layer). The term “continuous protective layer” means that the protective layer covers the region completely without any exposure or whatsoever. The protective layer may be formed of a single material, a mixed material, or a plurality of films or the like including different materials. As mentioned above, the main purpose of the protective layer in the invention is to protect the scintillator layer. In detail, cesium iodide (CsI) as an example of the phosphors is highly hygroscopic and deliquesces when left in the air by absorbing vapor in the air. To prevent this, the protective layer is disposed in the scintillator panel. The protective layer also functions to block substances (such as halogen ions) released from the phosphor in the scintillator panel and to prevent the corrosion of a light-receiving element placed in contact with the scintillator layer. In a configuration in which the columnar phosphor crystal scintillator layer of the scintillator panel and a photoelectric light-receiving element are coupled together through a medium such as an adhesive or an optical oil, the protective layer also serves as an anti-penetration layer preventing the penetration of the adhesive or the optical oil between the columnar phosphor crystals. As will be described below, the protective layer may be directly formed on the scintillator layer by a CVD method or a coating method, or may be provided by stacking a preliminarily prepared polymer film (or protective film) onto the scintillator layer. When the protective layer is directly formed on the scintillator layer by a CVD method or a coating method, preferred materials for forming the protective layer include polyolefin resins, polyacetal resins, epoxy resins, polyimide resins, silicone resins and polyparazylylene resins. The polyparaxylylene resins may be applied by a CVD method, and the other materials may be applied by a coating method. Examples of the polyparaxylylene resins include polyparaxylylene, polymonochloroparaxylylene, polydichloroparaxylylene, polytetrachloroparaxylylene, polyfluoroparaxylylene, polydimethylparaxylylene and polydiethylparaxylylene. From the viewpoints of appropriate protection of the scintillator layer as well as the strength and the flexibility of the scintillator panel, the thickness of the protective layer is preferably 0.1 μm to 2000 μm. In the case where the protective layer is a film including a polyparaxylylene resin, the film thickness is preferably 2 μm to 15 μm from the viewpoints of the sharpness of radiographic images and the moisture proofness of the protective layer. In the case where the protective layer is bonded to a light-receiving element, the thickness of the adhesive layer is preferably not less than 5 μm, and more preferably not less than 10 μm in order to ensure adhesion, and the total thickness of the protective layer and the adhesive layer is preferably not more than 20 μm. When the total thickness of the polyparaxylylene layer and the adhesive layer is not more than 20 μm, the protective layer and a light-receiving element may be bonded while the scattering of light in the gap between the planar light-receiving element and the scintillator panel is suppressed and thus a decrease in sharpness can be advantageously prevented. Examples of the polymer films which may be disposed on the scintillator layer include polyester films, polymethacrylate films, nitrocellulose films, cellulose acetate films, polypropylene films, polyethylene terephthalate films and polyethylene naphthalate films. These polymer films are easily available in the market. In terms of transparency and strength, these polymer films may be suitably used as the protective layers in the inventive scintillator panels. The polymer film may be preferably applied onto the scintillator layer (onto all the surfaces of the scintillator layer which are not in contact with other surfaces such as the reflective layer and are exposed to the atmosphere, or further onto the exposed portion of the reflective layer) by a method in which the polymer film is bonded to the scintillator surface through the adhesive layer, or a method in which the polymer films larger than the scintillator panel are arranged to vertically interpose the scintillator panel therebetween, and the regions of the upper and lower polymer films outside of the periphery of the scintillator panel are bonded together by fusion or with an adhesive in a vacuum environment. The thickness of the polymer film is preferably 12 μm to 120 μm, and more preferably 20 μm to 80 μm from viewpoints such as the protection and moisture proofness for the scintillator layer, the sharpness of the obtainable radiographic images, and the workability during the production of scintillator panels. In another embodiment, a hot melt resin layer may be formed on the phosphor layer so as to serve as a protective layer. In this case, the hot melt resin also functions to bond the surface of the scintillator layer of the scintillator panel to the surface of a light-receiving element, in addition to the function as a protective layer. Herein, the term “hot melt resin” refers to an adhesive resin which is free from water or solvents and is solid at room temperature (usually about 25° C.) and which includes a nonvolatile thermoplastic material. The hot melt resins become molten when the resin temperature is raised to or above the melting onset temperature by heating or the like, and become solid when the resin temperature falls to or below the solidification temperature. Further, the hot melt resins exhibit tackiness in the thermally molten state and have no tackiness (become non-tacky) in the solid state when the resin temperature is decreased to or below the solidification temperature (for example, to normal temperature). Suitable hot melt resins are those based on polyolefin resins, polyester resins or polyamide resins, but are not limited thereto. Of these, polyolefin resins are more preferable in view of light transmission properties. From viewpoints such as continuous use characteristics and the prevention of adhesive separation in planar light-receiving elements such as thin film transistors (TFTs), the melting onset temperature of the hot melt resins is preferably 60° C. to 150° C. The melting onset temperature of the hot melt resins may be adjusted by the addition of plasticizers. The thickness of the hot melt resin is preferably not more than 50 μm, and more preferably not more than 30 μm. Preferably, the entirety of the top and lateral sides of the scintillator layer as well as the peripheral surface of the reflective layer in the deposition substrate is covered with polyparaxylylene. According to this configuration, high moisture proofness is obtained. The haze of the protective layer is preferably 3% to 40%, and more preferably 3% to 10% in view of factors such as the sharpness and uniformity in the obtainable radiographic images, as well as the production stability and workability in the production of scintillator panels. (The haze is a value measured with NDH5000W manufactured by NIPPON DENSHOKU INDUSTRIES CO., LTD.) Materials having a haze in the above range may be easily selected from such polymer films in the market, or may be fabricated in accordance with appropriate manufacturing methods. The optical transmittance of the protective layer is preferably not less than 70% with respect to 550 nm light in view of factors such as the photoelectric conversion efficiency of the scintillator panels and the emission wavelengths of the phosphors (scintillators). Because materials (such as films) having an optical transmittance of 99% or more are difficult to obtain in the industry, however, a practical preferred range of the optical transmittance is from 99% to 70%. The moisture permeability of the protective layer measured at 40° C. and 90% RH in accordance with JIS Z 0208 is preferably not more than 50 g/m2 day, and more preferably not more than 10 g/m2·day from viewpoints such as the protection of the scintillator layer and the prevention of deliquescence. Because films having a moisture permeability of 0.01 g/m2·day or less are difficult to obtain in the industry, however, a practical preferred range of the moisture permeability is from 0.01 g/m2·day to 50 g/m2·day, and more preferably from 0.1 g/m2·day to 10 g/m2·day. 2-3. Support Plates When it is desired that the scintillator panel of the invention do not exhibit flexibility in accordance with the purpose of use or the like, the scintillator panel may be held on a support plate having higher rigidity than the deposition substrate. Here, the term “rigidity” refers to the degree of resistance to dimensional changes (deformation) when materials are subjected to a bending or torsional force. Higher (greater) rigidity permits a smaller deformation by such a force, and lower (smaller) rigidity causes a larger deformation. In terms of the selection of materials, the rigidity may be increased by using materials having a high elastic modulus. The elastic modulus is defined as described hereinabove. In order to make sure that the scintillator panel will not exhibit flexibility (in other words, the scintillator panel will exhibit high rigidity), the elastic modulus of the support plate on which the scintillator panel is held is preferably not less than 10 GPa, and more preferably not less than 30 GPa. Specifically, any materials such as metals, glasses, carbons and composite materials may be suitably used without limitation. From the viewpoint of transmission of radiations such as X-rays, the thickness of the support plate is preferably adjusted such that the X-ray transmittance will be 80% or more when the scintillator panel is illuminated with X-rays at a tube voltage of 80 kV. In detail, the thickness is preferably about 0.3 mm to 2.0 mm for amorphous carbon plates, and about 0.3 mm to 1.0 mm for glass plates. As discussed above, the scintillator panels of the invention do not suffer the separation of the scintillator layer during cutting and can give radiographic images such as X-ray images with excellent sharpness and sensitivity. In the inventive scintillator panel, the binder resin which has a specific Tg exhibits excellent adhesion with respect to the support and the scintillator layer, and excellently follows deformation experienced during cutting. As a result, the scintillator panel does not suffer problems such as the separation of the scintillator layer even when subjected to cutting. Further, the reflective layer in the inventive scintillator panel has a specific thickness to ensure that the reflective layer will not become separated from the support because of the thickness being so small that the reflective layer cannot withstand the impact applied during cutting as well as to ensure that cracks will not be generated during film production because of the thickness being so large and accordingly there will occur no abnormal growth of crystals during deposition, thus resulting in the realization of excellent sharpness of the obtainable radiographic images. Furthermore, the sharpness of radiographic images obtained via the scintillator panel is further improved when the volatile content in the reflective layer is in the specific range. Furthermore, the scintillator panels of the invention may be manufactured in a specific size without the need for fabricating individual scintillator panels with the specific size separately, and may be manufactured in such a manner that the scintillator panels are manufactured with a larger size than the desired size and are thereafter cut into individual scintillator panels having the desired size. Thus, the scintillator panels ensure uniform quality within the lot or between the lots. In the scintillator panel of the invention, the layer configuration may be in the order of the support, the reflective layer and the scintillator layer. This layer configuration permits the scintillator panel to be freely attached to and removed (detached) from a planar light-receiving element. Thus, in the event of any problems in the planar light-receiving element or the scintillator panel, the loss caused by such problems can be minimized. 3. Deposition Substrate Production Methods 3-1. Procedures in Deposition Substrate Production Methods Next, methods for producing the deposition substrates of the invention will be described. The deposition substrates of the invention may be produced by adopting an appropriate known method in accordance with the purpose. Here, a typical example will be described with reference to FIG. 7. FIG. 7 is a schematic view illustrating a typical example of the methods for producing the deposition substrates of the invention. In the typical example of the deposition substrate production methods, a deposition substrate production apparatus 109 schematically illustrated in FIG. 7 is used. The deposition substrate production method involving the production apparatus 109 preferably includes a workpiece (support) feed step 29, an application step 39, drying steps 49 and 79, a heat treatment step 59, and a recovery step 69. In the feed step 29, a feeder (not shown) is used. In the feed step 29, a roll 202 of a support 201 wound around a core is dispensed by the feeder and the support is fed to the subsequent application step 39. In the application step 39, an applicator 304 is used which includes a backup roll 301, an application head 302, and a vacuum chamber 303 disposed upstream the application head 302. In the application step 39, the support 201 continuously fed by the feeder in the feed step 29 is held by the backup roll 301, and the application head 302 applies a reflective coating liquid to the support 201, the reflective coating liquid including light-scattering particles, a binder resin, additives and a solvent. The reflective coating liquid is applied to the support 201 in such a manner that the vacuum chamber 303 disposed upstream the application head 302 generates a vacuum to stabilize the bead (a pool of the coating liquid) formed during the application between the support 201 and the coating liquid supplied from the application head 302. The vacuum chamber 303 is configured such that the degree of vacuum can be adjusted. The vacuum chamber 303 is connected to a vacuum blower (not shown), which evacuates the inside of the vacuum chamber. The vacuum chamber 303 is airtight, is located adjacent to the backup roll 301 with a small gap, and is evacuated to an appropriate degree of vacuum to suction the upstream of the bead (on the feeder side relative to the application head), thus allowing the coating liquid to form a stable bead. The flow rate of the coating liquid ejected from the application head 302 is adjusted as required via a pump (not shown). Although extrusion coating is illustrated above as an example of the application methods, any of other known application methods may also be used, with examples including gravure coating, roll coating, spin coating, reverse coating, bar coating, screen coating, blade coating, air knife coating and dipping. In the drying step 49, a dryer 401 is used. In the drying step 49, the reflective coating film layer formed by the application of the reflective coating liquid onto the support 201 in the application step 39 is dried by the dryer 401. The drying step 49 is usually performed such that the surface temperature of the reflective coating film layer is raised to 80 to 200° C. In the drying step 49, the reflective coating film layer is dried with a drying gas. The drying gas is introduced through a drying gas inlet 402 and is discharged through an outlet 403. The dryer 401 is configured such that the temperature and the flow rate of the drying air including the drying gas can be determined appropriately. The drying step 79 has the same configuration as in the drying step 49, and thus detailed description thereof will be omitted. The drying step 79, in combination with the drying step 49, allows for the adjustment of the speed of drying of the reflective coating film layer. In the heat treatment step 59, the support 201 having the reflective coating film layer is heat treated with a heat treatment apparatus 501 to remove volatile components in the reflective coating film layer. The heat treatment is usually performed such that the surface temperature of the reflective coating film layer reaches 150° C. to 250° C. In the heat treatment step, the reflective coating film layer is heat treated with a heat treatment gas. The heat treatment gas is introduced through an inlet 502 and is discharged through an outlet 503. The heat treatment apparatus 501 is configured such that the temperature and the flow rate of the heat treatment gas can be determined appropriately. Although not illustrated in FIG. 7, the heat treatment step 59 may be followed by a cooling step in which the support having the reflective layer (the deposition substrate) is cooled. In the recovery step 69, the support 201 on which the reflective coating film layer has been formed is wound with a winding machine (not shown). The reference sign 601 in FIG. 7 indicates a recovered roll of the support wound on a core. In the above steps, the support 201 having the coating film is conveyed on conveyor rolls a to d. In the case where the reflective layer is produced in a multilayer structure or additional layers other than those described above are formed by application, the support on which a first reflective layer has been formed may be wound into a roll in the recovery step 69, and the wound support 601 may be again set as a support 201 in the feed step 29 and be subjected to the steps in which a reflective coating liquid is applied onto the reflective layer, dried and heat treated to form the reflective layer including two or more layers. Where necessary, the obtained deposition substrate may be heat treated to increase the adhesion of the interface between the two or more layers in the reflective layer. In the method for producing the deposition substrates of the invention, the surface temperature of the reflective coating film layer is raised to 80° C. to 200° C. in the drying steps 49 and 79, and is elevated to 150° C. to 250° C. in the heat treatment step 59. In this manner, the amount of volatile components (the volatile content) in the deposition substrate (the support having the reflective layer) may be reduced to less than 5%. One of the characteristics of the inventive deposition substrate production methods is that the heat treatment step is carried out after the drying steps to remove volatile components. The surface temperature of the reflective coating film layer formed on the support 201 may be measured with a known non-contact thermometer such as a laser thermometer or an infrared thermometer. The temperature and the flow rate of the gases in the drying steps 49 and 79 and in the heat treatment step 59 are not particularly limited and may be appropriately adjusted based on the results of measurement with a non-contact thermometer such that the surface temperature of the coating film will fall in the above prescribed temperature range. In the drying steps 49 and 79, it is preferable that the gas flow at a relative speed of 1 to 3 m/sec with respect to the support 201 in a direction parallel to the plane of the support, as measured at a position 5 mm above the surface of the coating film on the support 201. When the relative speed of the gas to the support 201 at a position 5 nm above the coating film surface is in the above range, the reflective layer can be dried without suffering problems such as roughening of the dried surface. In the heat treatment step 59, the surface of the coating film may be heated with the heat treatment gas in combination with an infrared heater. Such a combined heat treatment advantageously increases the effects of the heat treatment on the reflective layer on the support. By the inventive deposition substrate production methods described above, deposition substrates having small amounts of residual solvents and small amounts of gases adsorbed to the light-scattering particles may be obtained. 3-2. Materials Used in Deposition Substrate Production Methods Hereinbelow, the supports and the reflective coating liquids used in the methods for producing the inventive deposition substrates will be described. 3-2-1. Supports The materials of the supports used in the inventive deposition substrates are as described hereinabove. In particular, polymer films are preferable from viewpoints such as that the production apparatus 109 illustrated in FIG. 7 may be suitably used, that the polymer films can be easily processed from roll to roll, and that the flexibility of the polymer films allows the scintillator panels to be intimately coupled to planar light-receiving elements. In order to prevent the deformation of the supports by heat applied during the deposition of phosphors onto the polymer films, the glass transition temperature of the polymer films is preferably not less than 100° C. In detail, suitable such polymer films are polyimide films. Where necessary, additional layers such as the aforementioned light-shielding layers and light-absorbing layers may be appropriately disposed on the support. Further, the support itself may have light-shielding properties or light-absorbing properties as required. The light-shielding layer may be provided on the support by any methods without limitation such as deposition, sputtering and metal foil lamination. From the viewpoint of the adhesion of the light-shielding layer with the support, sputtering is most preferable. For example, the light-absorbing layer may be provided on the support by applying a coating liquid containing components such as a light-absorbing pigment onto the support and drying the coating. 3-2-2. Reflective Coating Liquids The reflective coating liquid may be prepared by dispersing or dissolving in a solvent individual components or a mixture of the components including light-scattering particles, a binder resin and optional additives such as coloring materials including pigments, UV absorbers, fluorescent whitening agents, antistatic agents and dispersants. The procedures such as the sequence of the addition of the components are not particularly limited as long as the objects of the invention are not deteriorated. The light-scattering particles, the binder resin and the additives may be dispersed or dissolved by any known dispersion or dissolution methods. Exemplary dispersing machines which may be suitably used include sand mills, Attritor, Pearl Mill, Super Mill, ball mills, impellers, dispersers, KD mills, colloid mills, Dynatron mills, three roll mills and pressure kneaders. The details of the light-scattering particles, the binder resin, the coloring materials such as pigments, the UV absorbers and the fluorescent whitening agents are as described hereinabove. The dispersants are added in order to help the light-scattering particles be dispersed in the binder resin. Various dispersants may be used in accordance with the binder resin and the light-scattering particles used. Examples thereof include polyhydric alcohols, amines, silicones, phthalic acid, stearic acid, caproic acid, and lipophilic surfactants. The dispersants may remain in or may be removed from the reflective layer that has been formed. The dispersants are preferably used in amounts of 0.05 to 10 parts by weight, and more preferably 1 to 5 parts by weight with respect to 100 parts by weight of the binder resin. The light-scattering particles, the binder resin and the additives may be dispersed or dissolved in any solvents without limitation. Examples of the solvents include lower alcohols (preferably alcohols having 1 to 6 carbon atoms) such as methanol, ethanol, n-propanol and n-butanol; chlorinated hydrocarbons such as methylene chloride and ethylene chloride; ketones such as acetone, methyl ethyl ketone and methyl isobutyl ketone; aromatic compounds such as toluene, benzene, cyclohexane, cyclohexanone and xylene; esters of lower fatty acids with lower alcohols such as methyl acetate, ethyl acetate and butyl acetate; ethers such as dioxane, ethylene glycol monoethyl ether, ethylene glycol monomethyl ether and propylene glycol monomethyl ether acetate; and mixtures of these solvents. The light-scattering particles, the binder resin and the additives may exhibit insufficient dispersibility in a single solvent. Further, the use of a single solvent may cause difficulties in controlling the solvent evaporation rate in the drying steps and tends to result in a reflective layer having a roughened surface. To prevent such problems, it is preferable to use a mixed solvent including a plurality of compatible solvents having different amounts of evaporation heat. In particular, a mixed solvent including toluene, methyl ethyl ketone (MEK) and cyclohexanone is preferable. When voids are introduced into the reflective layer in the inventive deposition substrate, the methods for forming such voids are not particularly limited and may be selected appropriately in accordance with the purpose. Examples of the methods include (I) void particles are added to the reflective layer, and (II) a reflective coating liquid containing bubbles or a foaming agent is applied onto the support to form a reflective layer having a porous structure. In particular, the method (I) of adding void particles is preferable from the viewpoint of the easiness in the formation of the coating film. From the viewpoint of the void volume, the method (II) utilizing bubbles is preferable. In the method (II) utilizing bubbles, the foaming agents may be appropriately selected from known foaming agents in accordance with the purpose. Suitable examples include carbon dioxide-generating compounds, nitrogen gas-generating compounds, oxygen gas-generating compounds, and microcapsule foaming agents. Examples of the carbon dioxide-generating compounds include bicarbonates such as sodium hydrogencarbonate. Examples of the nitrogen gas-generating compounds include a mixture of NaNO2 and NH4Cl; azo compounds such as azobisisobutylonitrile and diazoaminobenzene; and diazonium salts such as p-diazodimethylaniline chloride zinc chloride, morpholinobenzenediazonium chloride zinc chloride, morpholinobenzenediazonium chloride fluoroborate, p-diazoethylaniline chloride zinc chloride, 4-(p-methylbenzoylamino)-2,5-diethoxybenzenediazonium zinc chloride, and sodium 1,2-diazonaphthol-5-sulfonate. Examples of the oxygen gas-generating compounds include peroxides. Examples of the microcapsule foaming agents include microcapsule particulate foaming agents encapsulating low-boiling substances vaporized at low temperatures (which may be liquid or solid at normal temperature). Specific examples of the microcapsule foaming agents include microcapsules 10 to 20 μm in diameter in which low-boiling vaporizable substances such as propane, butane, neopentane, neohexane, isopentane and isobutylene are encapsulated in microcapsules made of polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride, polyvinylidene chloride, polyvinyl acetate, polyacrylate ester, polyacrylonitrile, polybutadiene or any copolymer of these polymers. The content of the foaming agents in the binder resin cannot be specified because it is variable in accordance with the types of the foaming agents. However, it is generally preferable that the content be 1 to 50 wt %. In the method (I) in which void particles are added, the void volume in the reflective layer may be adjusted by adding the void particles to, for example, the reflective coating liquid in such an amount that the void particles will represent 5 to 30 vol % relative to the entirety of the reflective layer taken as 100 vol %. In the method (II) utilizing bubbles, the void volume in the reflective layer may be adjusted by adding the foaming agent to, for example, the reflective coating liquid in such an amount that 1 to 50 wt % of the foaming agent is added to the reflective layer relative to the binder resin taken as 100 wt %. Voids may be introduced into the reflective layer with the aforementioned volume fraction relative to the volume of the reflective layer by any of these methods. From the viewpoint of X-ray transmission properties of the deposition substrates, part of or all the voids are preferably formed of hollow particles. The reflectance of the deposition substrates may be adjusted by, for example, the following methods. (1) On the support, a light-shielding layer is provided which is formed of stainless steel or a material including one, or two or more elements of aluminum, silver, platinum, palladium, gold, copper, iron, nickel, chromium and cobalt. (2) A light-absorbing layer is provided on the support. (3) A light-shielding layer, a light-absorbing layer, or a film including at least one of these layers is stacked onto the support. (4) Light-absorbing properties are imparted to the support. (5) Light-reflecting properties are imparted to the support. (6) The reflective layer is colored. (7) The content of light-scattering particles in the reflective layer, or the thickness of the reflective layer is controlled. (8) At least two of the methods (1) to (7) are combined. By combining the methods (1) to (7), the reflectance and the absorptance of the inventive deposition substrates with respect to the light (produced in the scintillator layer) may be adjusted freely. Further, the sensitivity of radiographic image detectors may be enhanced by increasing the optical reflectance of the deposition substrates. By increasing the optical absorptance of the deposition substrates, radiographic image detectors that include scintillator panels obtained by forming scintillator layers on the inventive deposition substrates may provide radiographic images with improved sharpness. When a metallic light-shielding layer is provided as the aforementioned light-shielding layer and the obtained deposition substrate is used in a scintillator panel, advantages are obtained in that because the deposition substrate has a lowered optical transmittance, it becomes possible to prevent the entry of external light or electromagnetic waves through the surface of the support opposite to the surface in contact with the reflective layer as well as to prevent the leakage of the light produced in the scintillator layer to the outside of the scintillator panel. In particular, the use of a highly reflective metal such as aluminum or silver as the aforementioned light-shielding layer is advantageous in that the reflectance of the reflective layer including the light-scattering particles and the binder resin can be further increased. A light-shielding layer including the aforementioned metal material may be formed on surfaces such as the support by any methods without limitation such as deposition, sputtering and metal foil lamination. From the viewpoint of adhesion, sputtering is most preferable. The reflective layer itself may be colored with a coloring material by any methods without limitation. From viewpoints such as simplicity, a colored reflective layer is more preferably formed on the support by adding the aforementioned coloring material to the reflective coating liquid and applying the resultant reflective coating liquid to the support. Preferred pigments which may be added to the reflective coating liquid include titanium black that is a titanium-containing black pigment. Examples of the titanium blacks suitably used in the invention include Titanium Black S type, M type and M-C type manufactured by Mitsubishi Materials Corporation. A light-absorbing layer may be provided on the support or a film to be stacked on the support in a similar manner as above. That is, a light-absorbing layer may be formed easily by dispersing or dissolving the aforementioned coloring material and other components such as a binder resin in a solvent, and applying the resultant coating liquid onto the support or the film followed by drying. At the start of the deposition for the formation of the scintillator layer on the inventive deposition substrate, the volatile content in the reflective layer is preferably less than 7.5%, more preferably less than 5%, still more preferably less than 2.5%, and further preferably less than 1% relative to the total mass of the reflective layer. This volatile content ensures that the abnormal growth of columnar phosphor crystals can be prevented. Herein, the volatile content is defined by the following equation.Volatile content (mass %)=[(M−N)/N]×100 M is the total mass of the reflective layer before heat treatment, and N is the total mass of the reflective layer after being heat treated at 200° C. for 3 minutes. When the volatile content is in the aforementioned range, the release of gas by volatilization from the reflective layer is reduced during the process in which columnar phosphor crystals are grown by deposition under high temperature and high vacuum conditions. Thus, it becomes possible to suppress the abnormal growth of columnar phosphor crystals in portions from which the volatile components have flown out. Consequently, deteriorations in the sharpness and the uniformity of sharpness in the obtainable radiographic images can be prevented. When the volatile content in the reflective layer of the deposition substrate is outside the aforementioned range, the deposition substrate may be subjected to a volatile component removal step to reduce the volatile content in the reflective layer to the above range. The volatile component removal step is a step in which the volatile components in the reflective layer of the deposition substrate are removed in vacuum and/or at a high temperature. In the step, any known methods may be used as long as the volatile components can be removed. Due to easy operations, a more preferred method is performed in such a manner that the inventive deposition substrate is set to a substrate holder of a deposition apparatus, thereafter the substrate holder is heated to 100° C. or above and at the same time the deposition apparatus is evacuated to a vacuum of 100 Pa or less, and the reflective layer of the deposition substrate is heat treated for several minutes to several hours. The volatile components are mainly residual solvents in the reflective layer formed by the application and drying of the reflective coating liquid, and also gases that have been adsorbed to the white pigment used as a raw material. In particular, gases such as vapor (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2) are easily adsorbed to the white pigment even in a low humidity environment. Thus, the volatile component removal step is more preferably performed immediately before the scintillator layer is formed by deposition. 3-3. Cutting of Deposition Substrates The inventive deposition substrate, after being cut as required to the size of a substrate holder of a deposition apparatus, is set to the substrate holder and is subjected to deposition to form a scintillator layer on the reflective layer. The deposition substrate may be cut by any known cutting methods without limitation. From viewpoints such as workability and cutting accuracy, a cutting method using a force-cutting blade, a decorative cutting machine, a punching machine, a laser or the like is preferable. Because of its excellent cuttability, the inventive deposition substrate can be cut without the occurrence of problems such as the separation of the reflective layer under conditions where the cutting environment temperature is around room temperature (usually 25° C.). Thus, the deposition substrate production method involving the step of cutting the inventive deposition substrate entails less thermal energy for the implementation of cutting and is thus advantageous in terms of aspects such as production cost, production efficiency, work safety and work efficiency. From the above viewpoint, the cutting temperature is preferably 20° C. to 40° C. Because the above cutting method can perform cutting of the inventive deposition substrates while avoiding defects, if any, present in the deposition substrates, the deposition substrate production method utilizing the deposition substrate cutting method achieves excellent productivity. 4. Scintillator Panel Manufacturing Methods The scintillator panels of the invention may be manufactured by any methods without limitation as long as the objects of the invention are not deteriorated. Preferably, the scintillator panels are manufactured by a deposition method which utilizes a deposition apparatus having a deposition source and a support rotating mechanism in a vacuum container and which includes a step in which the deposition substrate is set to the support rotating mechanism such that the support side of the deposition substrate is in contact with the mounting surface of the support rotating mechanism, and a phosphor raw material is deposited onto the scintillator layer formation scheduled surface of the deposition substrate while rotating the deposition substrate having the support. A typical example of the methods for manufacturing the inventive scintillator panels will be described with reference to FIGS. 1 to 3. FIG. 1 is a schematic sectional view illustrating a configuration of a scintillator panel 10 as an example of the inventive scintillator panels. FIG. 2 is an enlarged sectional view of the scintillator panel 10 in FIG. 1. FIG. 3 is a schematic view illustrating a configuration of a deposition apparatus 81 as an example of the deposition apparatuses. The scintillator panels of the invention may be preferably manufactured by a method utilizing the deposition apparatus 81 described in detail below. Hereinafter, a method for manufacturing radiographic scintillator panels 10 using the deposition apparatus 81 will be described. 4-1. Deposition Apparatuses As illustrated in FIG. 3, the deposition apparatus 81 has a box-shaped vacuum container 82. Near the bottom of the inside of the vacuum container 82, deposition sources 88a and 88b for vacuum deposition are arranged opposite to each other on the circumference of a circle about the central line perpendicular to a deposition substrate 84. The deposition sources 88a and 88b are members into which a deposition material is packed. Electrodes are connected to the deposition sources 88a and 88b. In this case, the gap between the deposition substrate 84 and the deposition sources 88a and 88b is preferably 100 to 1500 mm, and more preferably 200 to 1000 mm. The gap between the central line perpendicular to the deposition substrate 84 and the deposition sources 88a and 88b is preferably 100 to 1500 mm, and more preferably 200 to 1000 mm. The deposition apparatus 81 is configured such that the deposition sources 88a and 88b generate heat by Joule heating by the passage of an electric current through the deposition sources 88a and 88b via the electrodes. In the manufacturing of the radiographic scintillator panels 10, a mixture including cesium iodide and an activator compound is packed in the deposition sources 88a and 88b, and the mixture is heated and vaporized by the passage of an electric current through the deposition sources 88a and 88b. Three or more (for example, eight, sixteen or twenty four) deposition sources 88 may be provided. The deposition sources 88 may be arranged at regular or irregular intervals. The radius of the circle about the central line perpendicular to the deposition substrate 84 may be selected freely. In order to heat the phosphor contained therein by resistance heating, the deposition sources 88a and 88b may be comprised of alumina crucibles wrapped with a heater, or may be comprised of boats or heaters including high-melting metals or similar materials. The phosphor heating method is not limited to resistance heating and may be any of other methods such as electron beam heating and high frequency induced heating. However, a resistance heating method by the direct application of an electric current, or an indirect resistance heating method by indirect heating of the crucibles with a surrounding heater is preferable because of advantages such as that the method has a relatively simple configuration and is easy to operate, inexpensive and applicable to a very wide range of substances. The deposition sources 88a and 88b may be configured utilizing molecular beam sources according to molecular beam epitaxy. In the inside of the vacuum container 82, a holder 85 configured to hold the deposition substrate 84 is arranged above the deposition sources 88a and 88b. The holder 85 is provided with a heater (not shown) and is configured to heat the deposition substrate 84 attached to the holder 85 by the operation of the heater. The deposition apparatus 81 is configured, by performing heating of the deposition substrate 84, to detach or remove substances adsorbed to the surface of the deposition substrate 84, to prevent an impurity layer from occurring between the deposition substrate 84 and a scintillator layer (a phosphor layer) formed on the substrate surface, to increase the adhesion between the deposition substrate 84 and the scintillator layer formed on the substrate surface, and to control the quality of the scintillator layer formed on the surface of the deposition substrate 84. The holder 85 is configured to hold the deposition substrate 84 such that the scintillator layer formation scheduled surface of the deposition substrate 84 is opposed to the bottom of the vacuum container 82 and in parallel to the bottom of the vacuum container 82. The holder 85 is provided with a rotating mechanism 86 capable of rotating the deposition substrate 84 together with the holder 85 in a horizontal direction. The rotating mechanism 86 is comprised of a rotating shaft 87 which supports the holder 85 and rotates the deposition substrate 84, and a motor (not shown) which is arranged outside the vacuum container 82 and serves as a power supply driving the rotating shaft 87. The deposition apparatus 81 is configured such that driving of the motor causes the rotation of the rotating shaft 87 and consequently the rotation of the holder 85 while keeping the holder 85 opposed to the deposition sources 88a and 88b. Preferably, the holder 85 is fitted with a heater (not shown) for heating the deposition substrate 84. By heating the deposition substrate 84 with the heater, the adhesion of the support of the deposition substrate 84 with respect to the holder 85 can be increased, and the quality of the phosphor layer can be controlled. Such heating also detaches or removes substances which have been adsorbed to the surface of the deposition substrate 84, and prevents an impurity layer from occurring between the surface of the deposition substrate 84 and the phosphor layer. Further, the holder 85 may have a warm or hot medium circulating mechanism (not shown) as a unit for heating the deposition substrate 84. This heating unit is suitable when the temperature of the deposition substrate 84 is maintained at a relatively low temperature such as 50 to 150° C. during the deposition of the phosphor. Furthermore, the holder 85 may have a halogen lamp (not shown) as a unit for heating the deposition substrate 84. This heating element is suited when the temperature of the deposition substrate 84 is maintained at a relatively high temperature such as 150° C. or above during the deposition of the phosphor. In addition to the above configuration, the deposition apparatus 81 includes a vacuum pump 83 connected to the vacuum container 82. The vacuum pump 83 evacuates the vacuum container 82 and introduces a gas to the inside of the vacuum container 82. The inside of the vacuum container 82 can be maintained in a constant pressure gas atmosphere by the operation of the vacuum pump 83. In order to evacuate the vacuum container 82 to a high vacuum, two or more types of vacuum pumps having different operating pressure ranges may be arranged. Examples of the vacuum pumps include rotary pumps, turbo-molecular pumps, cryogenic pumps, diffusion pumps and mechanical boosters. The deposition apparatus 81 includes a mechanism configured to introduce a gas into the vacuum container 82 in order to adjust the pressure in the chamber. The gas introduced here is generally an inert gas such as Ne, Ar or Kr. The pressure in the vacuum container 82 may be adjusted by introducing the gas to the desired pressure while evacuating the vacuum container 82 with the vacuum pump 83, or may be adjusted in such a manner that the vacuum container 82 is evacuated to a vacuum lower than the desired pressure, the evacuation is then terminated, and the gas is introduced to the desired pressure. The pressure in the vacuum container 82 may be adjusted by another approach, for example, by providing a pressure control valve between the vacuum container 82 and the vacuum pump 83 so as to adjust the amount of gas evacuated by the pump. Between the deposition substrate 84 and the deposition sources 88a and 88b, a shutter 89 is provided which can be opened and closed in a horizontal direction to block the space extending from the deposition sources 88a and 88b to the deposition substrate 84. The shutter 89 is closed at the initial stage of deposition, whereby even in the event that impurities, if any, which have become attached to the surface of the phosphor contained in the deposition sources 88a and 88b are vaporized at the initial stage of deposition, the attachment of such impurities to the deposition substrate 84 can be prevented. The shutter 89 is opened after the above purpose is fulfilled, and the phosphor raw material is successfully deposited to form a scintillator layer without allowing any impurities to be deposited to the deposition substrate 84. 4-2. Formation of Scintillator Layers The deposition substrate 84 having the reflective layer 3 on the support 1 is set to the holder 85, whilst the deposition sources 88a and 88b are arranged near the bottom of the vacuum container 82 on the circumference of a circle about the central line perpendicular to the deposition substrate 84. Next, the same number of containers such as crucibles or boats as the deposition sources (two in this case) are filled with a phosphor raw material such as a powdery mixture including a phosphor matrix compound such as cesium iodide and an activator such as thallium iodide, and the filled containers are packed into the deposition sources 88a and 88b (preparation step). In the case where a scintillator underlayer and a scintillator main layer are sequentially formed on the reflective layer, the phosphor matrix compound such as cesium iodide and the activator such as thallium iodide may be separately packed into the deposition sources. In any of these cases, it is preferable that the gap between the surface of the reflective layer of the deposition substrate 84 and the deposition sources 88a and 88b be set to 100 to 1500 mm and the deposition step described later be performed while keeping the gap in the range that has been set. Where necessary, preliminary heating may be performed prior to the deposition in order to remove impurities in the packed phosphor matrix and activator. The preliminary heating temperature is desirably not more than the melting point of the materials used. For example, the preliminary heating temperature is preferably 50 to 550° C., and more preferably 100 to 500° C. in the case of CsI, and is preferably 50 to 500° C., and more preferably 100 to 500° C. in the case of TlI. To prevent the impurities from being deposited to the deposition substrate 84, the preliminary heating is preferably performed with the shutter 89 closed. After the preparation step, the vacuum pump 83 is activated to evacuate the vacuum container 82 and the inside of the vacuum container 82 is brought to a vacuum atmosphere of 0.5 Pa or less, and preferably 0.1 Pa or less (vacuum atmosphere creating step). Here, the term “vacuum atmosphere” refers to an atmosphere in a pressure of not more than 100 Pa, and the vacuum container 82 is preferably evacuated to a vacuum atmosphere in a pressure of not more than 0.1 Pa. Thereafter, the inert gas such as Ar is introduced into the vacuum container 82, and the inside of the vacuum container 82 is maintained in a vacuum atmosphere at 0.1 Pa or less. Next, the heater of the holder 85 as well as the motor of the rotating mechanism are driven, and thereby the deposition substrate 84 mounted to the holder 85 is rotated and heated while being opposed to the deposition sources 88a and 88b. (The rotational speed (rpm) is variable depending on the size of the apparatus, but is preferably 2 to 15 rpm, and more preferably 4 to 10 rpm.) Next, the phosphor is deposited. For example, the phosphor such as CsI may be activated by a method in which the phosphor such as CsI and the activator such as a sodium compound, a thallium compound, an indium compound or a europium compound are vaporized simultaneously in the deposition apparatus and are deposited onto the deposition substrate. Particularly, in this method of deposition through the simultaneous vaporization of the phosphor and the activator, the phosphor is preferably CsI from viewpoints such as that the columnar crystal structure provides light guide effects, and the activator compound is preferably an iodide such as sodium iodide (NaI), thallium iodide (TlI) or indium iodide (InI) from viewpoints such as that these iodides do not inhibit the growth of columnar CsI crystals. Alternatively, the phosphor may be activated by a method in which an activator-free scintillator layer comprised of columnar crystals of the phosphor such as CsI is formed first by deposition on the deposition substrate, thereafter the substrate having the scintillator layer is placed in a closed space such as in a deposition apparatus together with the activator compound such as a sodium compound, a thallium compound, an indium compound or a europium compound, and the activator compound is heated to or above its sublimation temperature to activate the phosphor such as CsI, namely, to activate the scintillator layer. In this method in which the substrate having the scintillator layer is heat treated together with the activator, it is preferable that the substrate placed in the closed space, specifically, the scintillator layer formed of the phosphor such as CsI have been heated to a temperature of 100 to 350° C. The phosphor is preferably CsI from viewpoints such as that the columnar crystal structure provides light guide effects, and the activator compound is, although not particularly limited, preferably one having a low sublimation temperature for easy handling. In an embodiment, the phosphor that is deposited first may be CsI which has been activated with a specific compound (for example, thallium iodide (TlI)). According to such an embodiment, the resultant scintillator layer contains different kinds of activators between the inside and the surface of the CsI columnar crystals. In particular, the decay time of the radiation emitted from the scintillator layer may be shortened by using a europium compound as the activator. When any scintillator underlayer is not formed on the reflective layer, an electric current is passed through the deposition sources 88a and 88b via the electrodes while the deposition substrate 84 is being heated and rotated, and thereby the phosphor raw material such as a mixture including cesium iodide and thallium iodide is vaporized by being heated at about 700° C. to 800° C. for a prescribed time. As a result, a great number of columnar phosphor crystals 2a are gradually grown on the surface of the deposition substrate 84, thus forming a scintillator layer 2 with a desired thickness (deposition step). The thickness of the scintillator layer may be variable in accordance with the purpose, but is preferably 120 to 700 μm. When a scintillator underlayer is formed on the reflective layer, a crucible containing the phosphor matrix compound (such as CsI without activators (pure)) may be heated to allow the phosphor to be deposited into a scintillator underlayer (a first phosphor layer). In this process, the temperature of the deposition substrate 84 is preferably 5 to 200° C., more preferably 5 to 100° C., and particularly preferably 15 to 50° C. The thickness of the scintillator underlayer may be variable depending on the crystal diameters or the thickness of the phosphor layers, but is preferably 0.1 to 50 μm. Subsequently, heating of the deposition substrate 84 is initiated to raise the temperature of the deposition substrate 84 to 150 to 250° C., and operations are started to vaporize a phosphor raw material including the remaining portion of the phosphor matrix compound (such as CsI without activators (pure)) and the activator (such as TlI), thus forming a scintillator main layer (a second phosphor layer). During this process, the activator is migrated by heat from the scintillator main layer to the scintillator underlayer, and consequently the relative content of the activator in the scintillator underlayer is adjusted to 0.01 to 1 mol %. In this process, it is preferable from the viewpoint of productivity that the phosphor matrix compound be deposited at a higher deposition rate than that in the formation of the underlayer. Although variable depending on the thicknesses of the scintillator underlayer and the scintillator main layer, the rate of this deposition is preferably 5 to 100 times higher, and more preferably 10 to 50 times higher than the rate of deposition of the scintillator underlayer. The activator may be vaporized in such a manner that the activator alone is vaporized or that a deposition source including a mixture of CsI and TlI is prepared and heated to a temperature (for example, 500° C.) at which CsI is not vaporized but TlI is vaporized. Because the deposition substrate 84 heated during the deposition is hot, its temperature needs to be cooled for the substrate to be removed. In the cooling step, the deposition substrate 84 may be cooled to 80° C. at an average cooling rate in the range of 0.5° C. to 10° C./min. This cooling rate advantageously ensures that the cooling can be performed without causing damages to the deposition substrate 84 due to the thermal shrinkage of the support by quenching. The cooling of the deposition substrate 84 under this condition is particularly effective when, for example, the support in the deposition substrate 84 is a relatively thin film such as a polymer film having a thickness of 50 μm to 500 μm. In order to avoid any discoloration of the scintillator layer, this cooling step is particularly preferably performed in an atmosphere having a vacuum degree of 1×10−5 Pa to 0.1 Pa. During the cooling step, an inert gas such as Ar or He may be introduced into the vacuum container of the deposition apparatus. Here, the average cooling rate is determined by continuously measuring the time and the temperature from the start of the cooling (the completion of the deposition) to when the temperature is cooled to 80° C., and calculating the cooling rate per 1 minute. In the deposition method, reactive deposition may be carried out by introducing a gas such as O2 or H2 as required. Of the aforementioned columnar phosphor crystal formation methods, the manufacturing method preferably includes a step in which a scintillator underlayer having a higher void content than a phosphor main layer is formed on the surface of the substrate, and a step in which the phosphor is deposited by a gas-phase deposition method on the surface of the scintillator underlayer to form the scintillator main layer. This configuration is preferable in order to satisfy the aforementioned requirement regarding the plane index. The scintillator panels of the invention may be manufactured in the manner described above. The formation of the scintillator layer on the reflective layer under the aforementioned deposition conditions is advantageous in that the scintillator layer is formed by the growth of columnar phosphor crystals at the interface thereof with the reflective layer. According to the scintillator panel manufacturing method using the deposition apparatus 81, the arrangement of a plurality of deposition sources 88a and 88b allows the vapors from the deposition sources 88a and 88b to be corrected or put in order at their confluence with the result that the crystallinity of the phosphor deposited on the surface of the deposition substrate 84 becomes uniform. Increasing the number of deposition sources increases the number of confluences at which correction occurs, thus resulting in uniform crystallinity of the phosphor over a wider range. By the arrangement of the deposition sources 88a and 88b on the circumference of a circle about the central line perpendicular to the deposition substrate 84, the effects of the correction of vapors providing uniform crystallinity can be obtained isotropically on the surface of the deposition substrate 84. From the viewpoints described later, the obtained scintillator panels are preferably subjected to post treatments such as the heat treatment and the pressure treatment described below. 4-3. Heat Treatment for Scintillator Layers Preferably, the scintillator layer formed on the reflective layer of the deposition substrate is placed in a closed space evacuated to 1.0 Pa or below together with one or more activators selected from sodium compounds, thallium compounds, europium compounds and indium compounds, and is subjected to additional activation by heating the activator compound(s) to or above the sublimation temperature to vaporize the compound(s). By this heat treatment, the emission characteristics of the scintillator layer may be adjusted. In this case, the phosphor such as CsI deposited on the deposition substrate is preliminarily heated to a temperature of 250° C. After the additional activation is performed for 1 hour, the deposition substrate having the additionally activated scintillator layer is cooled to 50° C. or below (preferably at an average cooling rate of 0.5° C. to 10° C./min) and the scintillator panel is removed from the closed space in the deposition apparatus. In this manner, scintillator panels having an additionally activated scintillator layer may be obtained. Without the use of any activator compounds, the heat treatment may be performed singly for 1 hour according to the similar procedures. In this case, the activator that has been added during the deposition is activated, and a scintillator panel having high emission intensity may be obtained. 4-4. Pressure Treatment for Scintillator Layers When a scintillator layer is deposited on the reflective layer of the inventive deposition substrate, the layer formed is usually a collection of columnar phosphor crystals having a uniform height from the interface thereof with the reflective layer. However, problems such as the abnormal growth of phosphor crystals may take place locally and consequently the scintillator layer may have less uniform heights of the columnar phosphor crystals (but the objects of the invention are still achieved). For example, such abnormal growth of columnar phosphor crystals may be caused by factors such as dusts suspended in the deposition apparatus, splash during deposition, and substrate defects such as scratches or attachment of foreign substances. Here, the term “splash” during deposition indicates a phenomenon in which molecules of solid CsI are emitted before vaporization and become attached to the deposition substrate (see, for example, JP-A-2006-335887). The abnormally grown columnar phosphor crystals can be a factor deteriorating the properties such as sharpness of radiographic images obtained through the scintillator panels (but the objects of the invention are still achieved). Thus, it is desirable to perform the following pressure treatment so that the abnormally grown columnar phosphor crystals will not be left as such. It is needless to mention that even when there are no abnormally grown columnar phosphor crystals, the implementation of the following pressure treatment is more preferable in order to obtain scintillator panels having a more uniform height of columnar crystals from the interface between the crystals and the reflective layer. The surface of the scintillator layer of the scintillator panel obtained as described above is subjected to a pressure treatment to align the heights of the columnar phosphor crystals in the scintillator layer from the interface with the reflective layer. By the treatment, it becomes possible to obtain scintillator panels which have a scintillator layer comprised of a collection of more uniform columnar phosphor crystals. Here, the term “heights from the interface with the reflective layer” indicates the heights from a middle line (JIS B 0601-2001) at half the height of roughness on the surface of the reflective layer. Here, the term “aligned” indicates that the differences in height of the columnar crystals forming the scintillator layer as measured from the interface with the reflective layer are 20 μm or less. Although the heights of the columnar crystals forming the scintillator layer are defined as extending from the interface with the reflective layer, portions of the columnar crystals other than the portions above the interface with the reflective layer may be present in the inside of the reflective layer (portions of the columnar crystals may be buried in the binder resin in the reflective layer). When the scintillator layer of the scintillator panel is brought into close contact with (or is bonded to) a light-receiving element, the reflective layer in the scintillator panel exhibits flexibility so as to absorb irregularities on the surface of the scintillator layer (the irregularities on the scintillator layer are smoothed by the force applied when the light-receiving element is closely contacted with the scintillator panel, and the reflective layer is deformed in accordance with the smoothing), with the result that the uniformity in resolution in the entire light-receiving plane is improved. In order to further enhance the uniformity in close contact between the scintillator and the light-receiving element, it is advantageous to align the heights of the columnar crystals by pressing the scintillator surface with a flat surface such as a roller or a flat glass before the inventive scintillator is brought into close contact with (or is bonded to) the light-receiving element. From the viewpoints described above, the pressure treatment is preferably carried out such that the maximum difference in the heights of the columnar crystals forming the scintillator layer will be about 20 μm. In detail, the pressure treatment may be performed by a method in which the surface of the scintillator layer of the scintillator panel is pressed with a roller or a flat surface such as glass so as to crush the abnormal protrusions and thereby to align the heights of the columnar phosphor crystals, or may be performed by a method utilizing atmospheric pressure. However, the methods are not particularly limited thereto as long as uniform pressurization is feasible. (The magnitude of the pressure may be adjusted appropriately so that the purpose of this treatment can be achieved.) Particularly in the case where the heights of the columnar phosphor crystals are aligned by pressing the scintillator surface with a roller or a flat plate such as glass, the treatment is more preferably performed while giving a constant pressure force to the roller or the glass plate due to reasons which will be described later. The roller or the glass plate may be preliminarily heated to 80° C. to 200° C. Further, the treatment may involve a flat glass plate which is given quick oscillations by a device such as an ultrasonic vibrator. In this manner, the heights of the ends of the columnar phosphor crystals may be aligned with a less force. In a more specific example of the methods for aligning the heights of the columnar phosphor crystals, a flat glass plate is placed in close contact with the surface of the scintillator layer of the scintillator panel, then resin films are arranged on and under the scintillator panel-glass assembly and the peripheries of the resin films are fusion bonded together in vacuum to seal the assembly; after the scintillator panel-glass assembly is sealed in the resin films, the scintillator panel in that state is heat treated at 50° C. to 200° C. for about 0.5 to 100 hours. This method is preferable from the viewpoint of the easiness of the pressure treatment. Through the pressure treatment for the scintillator layer at a temperature not less than the glass transition temperature of the binder resin, the abnormally grown columnar phosphor crystals are pushed into the reflective layer and consequently the scintillator layer attains uniform aligned heights of the columnar phosphor crystals (the differences in height are within 20 μm). That is, the reflective layer in the invention contains the binder resin with the specific glass transition temperature and has the specific thickness so as to be easily plastically deformed by pressure and absorb the abnormally grown columnar phosphor crystals. The pressure treatment for aligning the heights of the columnar phosphor crystals surpasses other methods such as adjusting the heights by grinding the abnormally grown portions of columnar phosphor crystals, in terms of the facts that high productivity is obtained because there is no generation of wastes such as dusts by the destruction of the columnar phosphor crystals and thus there are no needs for the removal of such wastes, as well as that the quality can be controlled in an advantageous manner. According to the scintillator panel manufacturing methods of the invention, scintillator panels can be provided which exhibit excellent cuttability and do not suffer problems such as the separation of the reflective layer or the scintillator layer even when subjected to a cutting operation and which have uniform crystallinity of the phosphor in the scintillator layer. Such scintillator panels may provide devices such as flat panel detectors which show uniform image quality in the light-receiving plane and can give radiographic images excellent in sharpness and uniformity of sharpness as well as in sensitivity. Further, because the inventive scintillator panel manufacturing methods can produce scintillator panels that do not suffer problems such as the separation of the reflective layer or the scintillator layer even when subjected to a cutting operation, advantages such as excellent productivity can be obtained by performing the deposition in any scale possible in the deposition apparatus (preferably in the largest scale possible in view of the merits described later) and thereafter cutting the produced scintillator panels into desired sizes as required. According to the inventive scintillator panel manufacturing methods, the scintillator panel may be freely attached to and removed (detached) from a planar light-receiving element. Thus, in the event of any problems in the planar light-receiving element or the scintillator panel, the loss caused by such problems can be minimized. 4-5. Scintillator Panel Cutting Methods In the case where the area of the scintillator panel of the invention is larger than the area of the surface of a photoelectric element such as a light-receiving element, the scintillator panel is cut to a size corresponding to the area of the surface of the light-receiving element as required. Because the cutting takes place after the scintillator layer is formed on the reflective layer of the deposition substrate, there are no complicated procedures involved such as those encountered when a plurality of deposition substrates having different sizes are provided in conformity to the sizes of light-receiving elements in radiographic image detectors and these deposition substrates with respective sizes are separately subjected to the phosphor deposition. That is, the deposition may be performed in any scale possible in the deposition apparatus (preferably in the largest scale possible in view of the merits described below) and thereafter the produced scintillator panels may be cut into desired sizes as required. This provides merits in, for example, productivity, adherence to delivery deadlines, and uniformity in quality between the lots or within the lot. Because of its excellent cuttability, the inventive scintillator panel can be cut without the occurrence of problems such as the separation of the reflective layer in the deposition substrate or the separation of the scintillator layer from the deposition substrate under conditions where the cutting environment temperature is around room temperature (usually 25° C.). Thus, the scintillator panel manufacturing method involving the step of cutting the inventive scintillator panel entails less thermal energy for the implementation of cutting and is thus advantageous in terms of aspects such as production cost, production efficiency, work safety and work efficiency. Further, the heights of columnar crystals are aligned under specific conditions during the manufacturing of scintillator panels and consequently the sharpness of the obtainable radiographic images can be further improved. From the above viewpoint, the cutting temperature is preferably 20° C. to 40° C. A typical example of the methods used in the cutting step for cutting the inventive scintillator panels will be described. (Methods using a force-cutting blade will be described in EXAMPLES later, and thus the description thereof is omitted here.) FIGS. 8A and 8B illustrate an example of cutting of a scintillator panel 10 by blade dicing. The scintillator panel 10 is arranged on a dicing table 322 of a dicing apparatus 32 such that a scintillator layer 2 comes downward in contact with the dicing table 322. The scintillator panel 10 is cut with a blade 321 inserted from the support 1 side (the side opposite to the scintillator layer 2 side). The blade 321 cuts the scintillator panel 10 by rotating about a rotational shaft 321a. The dicing table 322 has a groove 221 for receiving the blade 321 which has penetrated the scintillator panel 10. On both sides of the blade 321, support members 324 are provided in order to fix the blade 321. To cool the frictional heat generated during the cutting of the scintillator panel 10 with the blade 321, cooling air is blown to the cut from nozzles 323 disposed on both sides of the blade 321. The temperature of the cooling air is usually not more than 4° C. To prevent condensation, the indoor humidity is usually controlled to not more than 20%. Blade dicing may be suitably adopted when the supports in the scintillator panels are based on carbon, aluminum and glass. FIG. 9 illustrates an example of laser cutting in which a scintillator panel 10 is cut with a laser. A laser cutting apparatus 33 includes a box-shaped purge chamber 333. The purge chamber 333 defines a substantially airtight space protected from the entry of dusts or whatsoever suspended in the outside space. The inside of the purge chamber 333 is preferably a low-humidity environment. The top face of the purge chamber 333 has a translucent window 335 through which a laser beam is transmitted. Further, the purge chamber 333 is fitted with a discharge pipe 334 through which suspended substances such as dusts are introduced to the outside of the purge chamber 333. The scintillator panel 10 is mounted on a support table 332 of the laser cutting apparatus 33. In this case, the scintillator panel 10 may be mounted with the scintillator layer 2 upside or downside. The scintillator panel 10 is held on the support table 332 by suction. The scintillator panel 10 mounted on the support table 332 is guided by a support table moving unit (not shown) to a position immediately below a laser of a laser beam generator 331. The scintillator panel 10 is cut by the application of a laser beam from the laser beam generator 331. Usual laser beam application conditions are YAG-UV (yttrium aluminum garnet crystal, wavelength 266 nm) pulse laser beam, oscillation frequency 5000 Hz, beam diameter 20 μm, and output 300 mW. When the portion of the scintillator panel 10 illuminated with the laser beam has been cut, the scintillator panel 10 is moved by the support table moving unit (not shown) to slide the laser beam illumination position and another portion of the scintillator panel 10 is cut. These operations are repeated to cut the entire scintillator panel to desired shapes. The laser beam used in the cutting of the inventive scintillator panels is desirably an ultraviolet laser beam having a wavelength of about 266 nm such as one described above. A laser beam having a wavelength of about 266 nm is capable of machining the workpiece by the heating action as well as dissociating molecular bonds in organic materials such as C—H bonds and C—C bonds. That is, when the support is, for example, a resin film such as a polyimide film, cutting of such a scintillator panel takes place in such a manner that the scintillator layer is cut by the heating action while the support comprised of a resin film such as a polyimide film is cut by the dissociation of molecular bonds. Thus, the resin film as the support is not thermally deformed. Consequently, no stress will be applied to the joint between the deposition substrate and the scintillator layer, and the occurrence of crystal breakage at the cut can be prevented. Laser cutting may be suitably adopted particularly when the support of the scintillator panel is a resin film. 4-6. Methods for Forming Protective Layers in Scintillator Panels A protective layer may be provided in the scintillator panel. The protective layer may be formed by directly coating the surface of the scintillator layer with a protective coating liquid including the aforementioned materials for the protective layer, or may be provided by stacking or bonding via an adhesive a separately prepared protective layer onto the phosphor layer. Alternatively, the materials for the protective layer may be deposited onto the scintillator panel to form the protective layer. Compact detectors such as dental detectors used for oral radiography require washing or alcohol disinfection as a whole including the housings due to their use in the mouth. Thus, the housings themselves have high moisture proofness. The protective layers in the scintillator panels are not necessarily required in such cases. When the protective layer is provided in the inventive scintillator panel, it is preferable to form the protective layer such that the entire surface of the scintillator layer and a portion of the reflective layer are covered with the continuous protective layer. From viewpoints such as easy production and easy processing of the film, it is particularly preferable that polyparaxylylene be deposited by a chemical vapor deposition (CVD) method to form a polyparaxylylene film as the protective layer on the scintillator panel. Further, a polyparaxylylene film as the protective layer may be advantageously formed on the scintillator panel such that the surface roughness (Ra) will be 0.5 μm to 5.0 μm. In an embodiment in which the scintillator panel is coupled to a light-receiving element, this configuration makes it possible to effectively prevent the optical diffusion of light due to regular reflection and total reflection by the plane of the scintillator and the plane of the light-receiving element. FIG. 10 illustrates an example of the formation of a polyparazylylene film as the protective layer on the surface of a phosphor layer 2 of a scintillator panel 10. A CVD apparatus 50 includes a vaporization chamber 551 into which diparaxylylene that is the raw material for the polyparazylylene is fed and vaporized, a pyrolysis chamber 552 in which the vaporized diparaxylylene is heated and converted into radicals, a deposition chamber 553 in which the radicals of diparaxylylene are deposited onto the scintillator panel 10 having a scintillator, a cooling chamber 554 for performing deodorization and cooling, and an evacuation system 555 having a vacuum pump. Here, as illustrated in FIG. 10, the deposition chamber 553 has an inlet 553a through which the radicals of diparaxylylene from the pyrolysis chamber 552 are introduced, an outlet 553b through which excess polyparaxylylene is discharged, and a turntable (a deposition table) 553c configured to support the workpiece during the deposition of the polyparaxylylene film. The scintillator panel 10 is placed on the turntable 553c in the deposition chamber 553 such that the scintillator layer 2 comes upward. Next, the radicals of diparaxylylene generated by vaporization at 175° C. in the vaporization chamber 551 and heating at 690° C. in the pyrolysis chamber 552 are introduced through the inlet 553a into the deposition chamber 553 and are deposited in a thickness of 2 to 15 μm to form a protective layer (a polyparaxylylene film) for the scintillator layer 2. Here, the inside of the deposition chamber 553 is maintained at a vacuum degree of, for example, 1 to 100 Pa, (preferably 13 Pa). The turntable 553c is rotated at a speed of, for example, 0.5 to rpm (preferably 4 rpm). The excess polyparaxylylene is discharged through the outlet 553b to the cooling chamber 554 for performing deodorization and cooling, and the evacuation system 555 having a vacuum pump. In another embodiment, a hot melt resin may be used as the material for the protective layer. The hot melt resin may also serve as an adhesive for bonding the scintillator panel to the surface of a planar light-receiving element. The protective layer of a hot melt resin may be formed by any of the following methods which are described as examples. A release sheet coated with a releasing agent is provided, and a hot melt resin is applied onto the release sheet. The side coated with the hot melt resin is arranged on the surface of the phosphor layer of the scintillator panel, and the layers are bonded to each other under the application of a pressure with a hot roller. After cooling, the release sheet is removed. In another method, the sheet coated with a hot melt resin is arranged on the surface of the scintillator layer, and resin films are arranged on respective other surfaces (meaning not in contact with each other) of the hot melt resin-coated sheet and the scintillator layer. After the peripheral portions of the resin films are sealed (tightly closed) under a reduced pressure, the assembly is heat treated at atmospheric pressure. In the latter method, the resin films are suitably sealant films or polyethylene terephthalate (PET) dry laminate films. Such films are more advantageous in that uniform bond pressure by atmospheric pressure is obtained in the entire plane of contact between the hot melt resin and the scintillator layer. When the protective layer is disposed on the scintillator panel, a layer including an inorganic substance such as SiC, SiO2, SiN or Al2O3 may be stacked on the protective layer by a method such as deposition or sputtering. Since the performances of the scintillator panels are evaluated with respect to radiographic image detectors in which units of the scintillator panels and light-receiving elements described later have been incorporated, the evaluation of such performances will be discussed in detail after the radiographic image detectors are described. 5. Evaluation and Use Application of Deposition Substrates and Scintillator Panels In the deposition substrates of the invention, the reflective layer includes the binder resin with a specific Tg and has a specific thickness, and the deposition substrates thus exhibit excellent cuttability. Further, the deposition substrates realize scintillator panels which can give radiographic images with excellent sensitivity and sharpness and which exhibit excellent cuttability. With these characteristics, the deposition substrates are suitably used in applications such as scintillator panels (for radiographic detectors). The scintillator panels of the invention can give radiographic images such as X-ray images with excellent sensitivity and sharpness, and exhibit excellent cuttability. With these characteristics, for example, the scintillator panels may be suitably coupled to light-receiving elements for use in applications such as radiographic image detectors. As mentioned above, the deposition substrates of the invention may be used in scintillator panel applications. Further, as will be described below, the scintillator panels of the invention may be coupled to light-receiving elements for use in radiographic image detector applications. Furthermore, the methods for evaluating the performances of the scintillator panels with respect to radiographic image detectors will be described below. 5-1. Radiographic Image Detectors 5-1-1. Coupling of Scintillator Panels to Light-Receiving Elements The scintillator panel of the invention may be coupled to a light-receiving element which has a plurality of two-dimensionally arranged light-receiving pixels and is configured to convert light produced in the scintillator panel into electricity. The light-receiving element may have a film which separates the light-receiving element from the scintillator panel. Hereinafter, light-receiving elements having such films and light-receiving elements having no such films will be collectively referred to as “light-receiving elements”. The scintillator panel of the invention is preferably coupled to a planar light-receiving element by a coupling method which can suppress deteriorations in the sharpness of the obtainable radiographic images due to optical diffusion at the plane of contact. A general method for coupling the scintillator panel to the planar light-receiving element is to bring the scintillator surface of the scintillator panel and the surface of the light-receiving element into intimate contact together by any pressing technique, or to couple the two components with a jointing agent, for example, an adhesive or an optical oil, which has an intermediate refractive index between the refractive index of the scintillator of the scintillator panel and the refractive index of the light-receiving section of the planar light-receiving element. (In the case where a protective layer is disposed on the scintillator layer of the scintillator panel, the “scintillator surface” will be appropriately interpreted as the “surface of the protective layer” unless otherwise mentioned. The same applies hereinafter.) Examples of the adhesives for coupling the scintillator surface of the scintillator panel to the surface of the light-receiving element include room-temperature vulcanizing (RTV) adhesives such as acrylic adhesives, epoxy adhesives and silicone adhesives. In particular, examples of elastic adhesive resins include rubber adhesives. Exemplary resins of the rubber adhesives include block copolymers such as styrene isoprene styrene, synthetic rubbers such as polybutadiene and polybutylene, and natural rubbers. Suitable examples of commercially available rubber adhesives include one-pert RTV rubber KE420 (manufactured by Shin-Etsu Chemical Co., Ltd.). Examples of the silicone adhesives include silicone adhesives of peroxide-crosslinking type or addition condensation type. These adhesives may be used singly or as a mixture. Further, the adhesives may be mixed together with acrylic or rubber-based pressure-sensitive adhesives. Furthermore, adhesives may be used in which silicone components have been introduced as pendant groups to the polymer main chain or side chains of acrylic adhesives. Optical greases are also usable. Further, other materials such as optical oils which exhibit tackiness with respect to the scintillator panels and the light-receiving elements are also usable. Any known optical oils having tackiness and high transparency may be used. Suitable examples of commercially available optical oils include KF96H (1000000 CS, manufactured by Shin-Etsu Chemical Co., Ltd.) and Cargille Immersion Oil Type 37 (manufactured by Cargille Laboratories, Inc., refractive index fluid). Any known optical greases having tackiness and high transparency may be used. Suitable examples of commercially available optical greases include silicone oil KF96H (1000000 CS, manufactured by Shin-Etsu Chemical Co., Ltd.). When the scintillator panel is coupled to the light-receiving element via an adhesive, a pressure of 10 to 10,000 gf/cm2, and more preferably 10 to 500 gf/cm2 is applied until the adhesive solidifies. By the application of pressure, air bubbles are removed from the adhesive layer. In the case where a hot melt resin has been used as the protective layer, the scintillator panel and the light-receiving element are placed in contact with each other, and, under a pressure of 10 to 10,000 gf/cm2, are heated to a temperature that is 10° C. or more higher than the melting onset temperature of the hot melt resin, then allowed to stand for 1 to 2 hours, and gradually cooled. Quenching tends to result in damages to the light-receiving element due to the stress of shrinkage of the hot melt resin. Preferably, the temperature is cooled to 50° C. or below at a rate of not more than 20° C./hour. Of the above methods, however, the method of bringing the surfaces into intimate contact together by any pressing technique has an inconvenience in that the light emitted from the scintillator panel inevitably causes unfavorable effects by being scattered in the gap (the air layer) at the joint between the scintillator surface of the scintillator panel and the surface of the light-receiving element. Even when the other method is adopted by coupling the scintillator panel and the light-receiving element via a jointing agent having an intermediate refractive index between the scintillator of the scintillator panel and the light-receiving element, it is difficult to equate all the refractive indexes of the scintillator of the scintillator panel, the jointing agent and the light-receiving element, with the result that light is scattered at the interface between the scintillator and the jointing agent and at the interface between the jointing agent and the light-receiving element. The scattering of light emitted from the scintillator panel deteriorates the sharpness of the obtainable radiographic images (but the objects of the invention are still achieved). These problematic deteriorations in the sharpness of radiographic images may be remedied by subjecting the scintillator surface of the scintillator panel and the surface of the light-receiving element to an anti-scattering treatment, for example, by providing an anti-optical diffusion layer on the scintillator surface of the scintillator panel, by providing an antireflection layer on at least one of the scintillator surface of the scintillator panel and the surface of the light-receiving element, or by controlling the surface roughness (Ra) of either or both of the opposed surfaces, namely, the scintillator surface and the surface of the light-receiving element to 0.5 μm to 5.0 μm. The implementation of the above known coupling method in combination with any of these anti-scattering treatments makes it possible to effectively prevent the scattering of light and to obtain radiographic images with excellent sharpness and excellent uniformity of sharpness. Here, the anti-optical diffusion layer is a layer which has an optical transmittance of 60% to 99% with respect to 550 nm wavelength light and is disposed on the scintillator panel to serve also as a protective layer. This layer has a function to attenuate the intensity of light propagating through the protective layer (the anti-optical diffusion layer). While the intensity of the light emitted from the scintillator toward the light-receiving element is not substantially decreased because the optical path of such light in the anti-optical diffusion layer is sufficiently short, the anti-optical diffusion layer effectively removes scattered light traveling a long optical path within the anti-optical diffusion layer at an angle nearly parallel to the surface of the light-receiving element. The antireflection layer prevents a phenomenon in which the light emitted from the scintillator of the scintillator panel is repeatedly reflected and propagated between the scintillator surface of the scintillator panel and the surface of the light-receiving element, and consequently prevents a failure of the light to be detected by the light-receiving element. The antireflection layer is a resin layer having a lower refractive index than the scintillator when it is disposed on the scintillator surface, and is a resin layer having a lower refractive index than the light-receiving element when it is disposed on the surface of the light-receiving element. By providing such an antireflection layer on at least one of the scintillator surface of the scintillator panel and the surface of the light-receiving element, the emitted light is allowed to be propagated in the antireflection layer at an angle smaller than the angle of incident from the scintillator side and to be propagated to the light-receiving element at an angle larger than the above angle, thereby preventing repeated reflection of the emitted light between the scintillator surface and the surface of the light-receiving element. More preferably, the antireflection layer is designed such that its optical transmittance with respect to 550 nm wavelength light will be 60% to 99% in order to add effects similar to those obtained with the aforementioned protective layer serving also as the anti-optical diffusion layer. Further, controlling the surface roughness (Pa) of either or both of the opposed surfaces of the scintillator and of the light-receiving element to 0.5 μm to 5.0 μm suppresses the occurrence of regular reflection and total reflection by irregularities in the light incidence plane. As a result, it becomes possible to effectively prevent the optical diffusion of the light emitted from the scintillator between the scintillator surface and the surface of the light-receiving element. In order to obtain combined effects in the prevention of optical diffusion, it is more preferable that the anti-optical diffusion layer and the antireflection layer disposed on the scintillator surface and the surface of the light-receiving element be treated such that the arithmetic average surface roughness of their planes (surfaces) placed in contact with the surface of the scintillator panel or the light-receiving element will be 0.5 μm to 5.0 μm. Examples of the anti-optical diffusion layers and the antireflection layers include layers containing materials such as polyparaxylylenes, polyurethanes, vinyl chloride copolymers, vinyl chloride vinyl acetate copolymers, vinyl chloride vinylidene chloride copolymers, vinyl chloride acrylonitrile copolymers, butadiene acrylonitrile copolymers, polyamide resins, polyvinyl butyrals, polyester resins, cellulose derivatives (such as nitrocellulose), styrene butadiene copolymers, various synthetic rubber resins, phenolic resins, epoxy resins, urea resins, melamine resins, phenoxy resins, silicone resins, acrylic resins and urea formamide resins. These materials may be used singly, or two or more may be mixed together. The anti-optical diffusion layer and the antireflection layer are preferably polyparaxylylene films formed by, in particular, a chemical vapor deposition (CVD) method from viewpoints such as that such layers may be easily formed on the scintillator surface of the scintillator panel or the surface of the light-receiving element, and that such layers also have a function as protective layers for the scintillator. (In this case, a separate protective layer is not necessarily provided because the polyparaxylylene film serves as a protective layer, an anti-optical diffusion layer and an antireflection layer.) When the optical transmittance of the anti-optical diffusion layer is adjusted by the addition of a coloring material, a blue coloring material is preferably used from the viewpoint that the blue coloring materials absorb long-wavelength red light which is more prone to scatter than other wavelength light. Examples of the blue coloring materials include ultramarine blue, Prussian blue (iron ferrocyanide), phthalocyanine, anthraquinone, indigoid and carbonium. 5-1-2. Radiographic Image Detectors Including Imaging Panels Incorporating Scintillator Panels Coupled with Light-Receiving Elements Hereinbelow, an example of the applications of the inventive scintillator panels will be described with reference to FIGS. 4 and 5 illustrating a radiographic image detector 100 including a radiographic scintillator panel 10. In the radiographic image detector 100, the scintillator panel coupled with a light-receiving element is incorporated in an imaging panel. FIG. 4 is a partially broken schematic perspective view illustrating a configuration of the radiographic image detector 100. FIG. 5 is an enlarged sectional view of the imaging panel 51. As illustrated in FIG. 4, the radiographic image detector 100 includes the imaging panel 51, a control section 52 configured to control the operations of the radiographic image detector 100, a memory section 53 configured to store image signals output from the imaging panel 51 in a medium such as a rewritable special memory (for example, a flash memory), and a power supply section 54 that supplies electrical power required to drive the imaging panel 51 and to acquire image signals. These and other components are accommodated in a housing 55. The housing 55 is provided with a communication connector 56 for establishing a communication between the radiographic image detector 100 and an external device as required, an operation section 57 for switching the operations of the radiographic image detector 100, and a display section 58 configured to display messages such as that the radiographic image detector is ready for imaging, or that the memory section 53 has stored a predetermined volume of image signals. The radiographic image detector 100 including the power supply section 54 and the memory section 53 capable of storing radiographic image signals may be detachably connected via the connector 56 to a computer to which the images will be forwarded. According to this configuration, the radiographic image detector 100 does not have to be located at a fixed position with the computer and may be transported from one place to another. As illustrated in FIG. 5, the imaging panel 51 includes the radiographic scintillator panel 10, and an output substrate 20 that absorbs electromagnetic waves from the radiographic scintillator panel 10 and outputs the image signals. In the imaging panel 51, the radiographic scintillator panel 10 is arranged such that the scintillator layer is in contact with the light-receiving element, and is configured to emit electromagnetic waves corresponding to the intensities of the incident radiations. The output substrate 20 is disposed opposite to the radiation-illuminated side of the radiographic scintillator panel 10, and includes a separator film 20a, the light-receiving element 20b, an image signal output layer 20c, and a base 20d sequentially in the order of increasing distance from the radiographic scintillator panel 10. The separator film 20a separates the radiographic scintillator panel 10 and the adjacent layers (in the imaging panel 51, the output substrate 20). The light-receiving element 20b includes a transparent electrode 21, a charge generation layer 22 that generates electric charges by being excited by the electromagnetic waves incident thereon through the transparent electrode 21, and a counter electrode 23 that makes a pair with the transparent electrode 21. These are disposed in the order of the transparent electrode 21, the charge generation layer 22 and the counter electrode 23 as viewed from the separator film 20a side. The transparent electrode 21 is capable of transmitting electromagnetic waves which are to be photoelectric converted and is made of, for example, a conductive transparent material such as indium tin oxide (ITO), SnO2 or ZnO. The charge generation layer 22 is disposed in the form of a thin film on the surface of the transparent electrode 21 opposite to the surface in contact with the separator film 20a. The charge generation layer 22 includes photoelectric conversion compounds, namely, organic compounds that undergo charge separation when illuminated with light. The organic compounds which produce charge separation are a conductive compound serving as an electron donor by donating electric charges, and another conductive compound serving as an electron acceptor. When electromagnetic waves such as radiations are incident on the charge generation layer 22, the electron donor is excited to release electrons, and the released electrons are transferred to the electron acceptor. In this manner, charges, namely, hole and electron carriers are generated in the charge generation layer 22. Examples of the conductive compounds as the electron donors include p-type conductive polymer compounds. Preferred p-type conductive polymer compounds are those compounds having a basic skeleton of polyphenylene vinylene, polythiophene, poly(thiophene vinylene), polyacetylene, polypyrrole, polyfluorene, poly(p-phenylene) or polyaniline. Examples of the conductive compounds as the electron acceptors include n-type conductive polymer compounds. Preferred n-type conductive polymer compounds are those compounds having a basic skeleton of polypyridine, and particularly preferred compounds are those having a basic skeleton of poly(p-pyridyl vinylene). The thickness of the charge generation layer 22 is preferably not less than 10 nm (particularly not less than 100 nm) in order to ensure a sufficient amount of optical absorption, and is preferably not more than 1 μm (particularly not more than 300 nm) in order to avoid an excessively high electric resistance. The counter electrode 23 is disposed on the surface of the charge generation layer 22 opposite to the surface on which the electromagnetic waves (the light emitted from the scintillator layer 2 of the radiographic scintillator panel 10) are incident. For example, the counter electrode 23 may be selected from general metal electrodes such as gold, silver, aluminum and chromium as well as from transparent electrodes similar to the transparent electrode 21. In order to achieve good characteristics, the electrode is preferably formed from a material with a low work function (not more than 4.5 eV) selected from metals, alloys, electrical conductive compounds and mixtures of these substances. Between the charge generation layer 22 and each of the electrodes (the transparent electrode 21 and the counter electrode 23), a buffer layer may be disposed which serves as a buffer zone preventing the reaction between the charge generation layer 22 and the electrodes. For example, the buffer layers may be formed using such materials as lithium fluoride, and poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(4-styrene sulfonate) or 2,9-dimethyl-4,7-diphenyl[1,10]phenanthroline. The image signal output layer 20c stores the charges generated in the light-receiving element 20b, and outputs signals based on the stored charges. This layer is comprised of capacitors 24 that are charge storage elements for storing the charges generated in the light-receiving element 20b with respect to each pixel, and transistors 25 that are image signal output elements outputting the stored charges as signals. Examples of the transistors 25 include thin film transistors (TFTs). The TFTs may be inorganic semiconductor TFTs utilized in devices such as liquid crystal displays or may be organic semiconductor TFTs. TFTs formed on plastic films are preferable. Examples of the TFTs formed on plastic films include amorphous silicon semiconductor TFTs on plastic films, and TFTs obtained utilizing the fluidic self assembly (FSA) technology developed by Alien Technology Corp., USA, specifically, TFTs on flexible plastic films obtained by arranging fine single crystal silicon CMOS (Nanoblocks) on embossed plastic films. Further, TFTs including organic semiconductors described in literature such as Science, 283, 822 (1999), Appl. Phys. Lett., 771488 (1998), and Nature, 403, 521 (2000) may be utilized. The transistors 25 used in the invention are preferably TFTs fabricated by the FSA technology or organic semiconductor TFTs, and are particularly preferably organic semiconductor TFTs. The fabrication of organic semiconductor TFTs does not entail large facilities such as vacuum deposition apparatuses in contrast to silicon TFTs, and may be accomplished at low costs by utilizing a printing technology or an inkjet technology. Further, organic semiconductor TFTs allow the processing temperature to be decreased, and thus may be formed on heat-labile plastic substrates. To the transistor 25 are electrically connected the capacitor 24 for storing the charges generated in the light-receiving element 20b, and a collector electrode (not shown) serving as one of the electrodes of the capacitor 24. The capacitor 24 stores the charges generated in the light-receiving element 20b, and the stored charges are read out by the driving of the transistor 25. That is, the signals of the respective pixels for the radiographic image may be output by the driving of the transistors 25. The base 20d serves as a support of the imaging panel 51, and may be comprised of a material similar to the support 1. Next, there will be described the mechanism in which the radiographic image detector 100 detects a radiographic image. First, the radiographic image detector 100 is illuminated with radiations such as X-rays incident from the radiographic scintillator panel 10 side toward the base 20d side of the imaging panel 51. The radiations incident on the radiographic image detector 100 are absorbed as radiation energy by the scintillator layer 2 of the radiographic scintillator panel 10 in the radiographic image detector 100. The radiations are then converted into visible light in the scintillator layer 2, and the visible light (electromagnetic waves) corresponding to the intensities of the radiations is emitted from the scintillator layer 2. A portion of the emitted visible light (electromagnetic waves) enters the output substrate 20 and reaches the charge generation layer 22 through the separator film 20a and the transparent electrode 21 of the output substrate 20. The visible light (electromagnetic waves) is absorbed in the charge generation layer 22, and hole-electron pairs (charge separation) are formed in accordance with the intensities of the absorbed visible light (electromagnetic waves). The holes and the electrons generated in the charge generation layer 22 are transported to the respective electrodes (the transparent electrode 21 and the counter electrode 23) by the action of an internal electric field produced by the application of bias voltage from the power supply section 54, resulting in the passage of photocurrent. The holes transported to the counter electrode 23 side are stored in the capacitors 24 of the image signal output layer 20c. When the transistors 25 connected to the capacitors 24 are driven, the stored holes are output as image signals, which are then stored in the memory section 53. Because of the incorporation of the radiographic scintillator panel 10, the radiographic image detector 100 achieves a high photoelectric conversion efficiency and an improved S/N ratio during low-dose imaging of radiographic images, and can eliminate (or reduce) image unevenness and linear noise. 5-3. Methods for Evaluating Performances of Deposition Substrates and Scintillator Panels 5-3-1. Method for Evaluating Cuttability of Deposition Substrate The cuttability of the deposition substrate is evaluated in accordance with the evaluation method described later in EXAMPLES. First, the deposition substrate is cut with a force-cutting blade, and the length of separation of the reflective layer from the support is measured with an optical microscope. The cuttability of the deposition substrate is evaluated based on the following criteria. The cuttability is evaluated to be acceptable for product performance when the length of separation of the reflective layer is 100 μm or less. TABLE 1⊙Not more than 10 μm◯More than 10 μm to not more than 50 μmΔMore than 50 μm to not more than 100 μmXMore than100 μm5-3-2. Method for Evaluating Cuttability of Scintillator Panel The cuttability of the scintillator panel is evaluated in accordance with the evaluation method described later in EXAMPLES. First, the scintillator panel is cut with a force-cutting blade, and the length of separation of the scintillator layer from the reflective layer is measured with an optical microscope. The cuttability of the scintillator panel is evaluated based on the following criteria. The cuttability is evaluated to be acceptable for product performance when the length of separation of the scintillator layer is 100 μm or less. TABLE 2⊙ Not more than 10 μm◯More than 10 μm to not more than 50 μmΔMore than 50 μm to not more than 100 μmXMore than 100 μm5-4-3. Method for Evaluating Sensitivity (Brightness) of Scintillator Panel The sensitivity (brightness) of the scintillator panel is evaluated in accordance with the evaluation method described later in EXAMPLES. With an X-ray illuminator having a tube voltage of 80 kVp, X-rays are applied to the light-receiving plane of a FPD including the radiographic image detector. The obtained X-ray image data is analyzed to determine the average signal value of the entirety of the X-ray image, thereby evaluating the sensitivity of the scintillator panel. The average signal value of the radiographic image detector including the scintillator panel No. 1 is taken as 100. 5-3-4. Method for Evaluating Sharpness of Scintillator Panel With an X-ray illuminator having a tube voltage of 80 kVp, X-rays are applied to the backside (the surface without the scintillator layer) of the scintillator panel through a lead MTF chart, and the image data detected at a CMOS flat panel is recorded on a hard disk. Thereafter, the image data recorded on the hard disk is analyzed with a computer to determine the MTF value (at a spatial frequency of 1 cycle/mm) of the X-ray image recorded on the hard disk, as the indicator of sharpness. A larger value of MTF, which is an abbreviation for modulation transfer function, indicates higher sharpness of the X-ray image. The present invention will be described in detail based on examples hereinbelow without limiting the scope of the invention. Hereinafter, the term “average particle diameter” indicates “area average particle diameter”. 40 Parts by mass in total of rutile-form titanium dioxide (CR93 manufactured by ISHIHARA SANGYO KAISHA, LTD., average particle diameter 0.28 μm) as light-scattering particles and a polyester resin (VYLON 550 manufactured by TOYOBO CO., LTD., Tg: −15° C.) as a binder resin, and 30 parts by mass of cyclohexanone and 30 parts by mass of methyl ethyl ketone (MEK) as solvents were mixed together. The mixture was dispersed with a sand mill to give a first resin coating liquid (a reflective coating liquid 1). The light-scattering particles and the binder resin were used in a solid content ratio (vol %) of 20/80. The first resin coating liquid was applied onto a 500 mm wide polyimide film support (UPILEX S manufactured by UBE INDUSTRIES, LTD., 125 μm thick) with a comma coater. The first resin coating liquid was then dried at 180° C. for 3 minutes to form a resin layer on the support. Thus, a deposition substrate No. 1 was fabricated which included the support and the reflective layer described in Table 5. Deposition substrates Nos. 2 to 5 with the thicknesses described in Table 5 were fabricated in the same manner as in EXAMPLE 1, except that the binder in EXAMPLE 1 was changed as described in Table 5. Deposition substrates Nos. 6 to 9 with the thicknesses described in Table 5 were fabricated in the same manner as in EXAMPLE 2, except that the thickness of the reflective layer in EXAMPLE 2 was changed as described in Table 5. A deposition substrate No. 10 with the thickness described in Table 5 was fabricated in the same manner as in EXAMPLE 2, except that the type of light-scattering particles in EXAMPLE 2 was changed to hollow particles (SX866 manufactured by JSR Corporation, average particle diameter 0.3 μm). A deposition substrate No. 11 with the thickness described in Table 5 was fabricated in the same manner as in EXAMPLE 2, except that the light-scattering particles/binder resin ratio in EXAMPLE 2 was changed as described in Table 5. A deposition substrate No. 12 with the thickness described in Table 5 was fabricated in the same manner as in EXAMPLE 2, except that the light-scattering particles/binder resin ratio in EXAMPLE 2 was changed as described in Table 5. A deposition substrate No. 13 with the thickness described in Table 5 was fabricated in the same manner as in EXAMPLE 2, except that the time of drying after the application in EXAMPLE 2 was reduced to 2 minutes. A deposition substrate No. 14 with the thickness described in Table 5 was fabricated in the same manner as in EXAMPLE 2, except that the reflective coating liquid in EXAMPLE 2 was applied onto a 500 mm square aluminum support with a spin coater and the coating was dried at 180° C. for 5 minutes. Deposition substrates Nos. 15 and 16 with the thicknesses described in Table 5 were fabricated in the same manner as in EXAMPLE 10, except that the material of the support in EXAMPLE 10 was changed as described in Table 5. Deposition substrates Nos. 17 and 18 with the thicknesses described in Table 5 were fabricated in the same manner as in EXAMPLE 1, except that the resin of the reflective layer in EXAMPLE 1 was changed as described in Table 5. The deposition substrates Nos. 1 to 4, 7, 8, 10, 11 and 13 to 18 represent examples, and the deposition substrates Nos. 5, 6, 9 and 12 represent comparative examples. The deposition substrates Nos. 1 to 13, 17 and 18 were cut with a force-cutting blade, and the deposition substrates Nos. 14 to 16 were cut with a dicing blade. The length of separation of the reflective layer from the support was measured with an optical microscope, and the cuttability of the deposition substrate was evaluated based on the following criteria. The cuttability was evaluated to be acceptable for product performance when the length of separation of the reflective layer was 100 μm or less. TABLE 3⊙Not more than 10 μm◯More than 10 μm to not more than 50 μmΔMore than 50 μm to not more than 100 μmXMore than 100 μm (Formation of Scintillator Layer) The deposition substrates Nos. 1 to 18 were each cut to a 400 mm square piece with a force-cutting blade or a dicing blade. Each piece was set to a substrate holder 85 of a deposition apparatus illustrated in FIG. 3, and a phosphor was deposited onto the scintillator layer formation scheduled surface of the reflective layer sample as described below. Thus, scintillator panels Nos. 1 to 18 were fabricated in which a scintillator (phosphor) layer was disposed on the reflective layer sample. (The scintillator panels Nos. 1 to 4, 7, 8, 10, 11 and 13 to 18 represent examples, and the scintillator panels Nos. 5, 6, 9 and 12 represent comparative examples.) A phosphor raw material (CsI) was packed as a deposition material into resistance-heating crucibles, thus preparing deposition sources 88. The reflective layer sample (the deposition substrate) was placed onto the rotatable holder 85 such that the surface of the support of the reflective layer sample was in contact with the holder 85. The gap between the reflective layer sample (the deposition substrate) and the deposition sources 88 was adjusted to 400 mm. Next, the deposition apparatus was evacuated, and the degree of vacuum in the deposition apparatus was adjusted to 0.5 Pa by introducing Ar gas. While rotating the reflective layer sample (the deposition substrate) together with the holder 85 at 10 rpm, the holder 85 was heated to maintain the temperature of the reflective layer sample (the deposition substrate) at 200° C. Next, the resistance-heating crucibles (the deposition sources 88) were heated to allow the phosphor to be deposited on the scintillator layer formation scheduled surface of the reflective layer sample (the deposition substrate), thereby forming a scintillator layer. The deposition was terminated when the thickness of the scintillator layer became 500 μm. Thus, a scintillator panel was obtained in which the scintillator layer was formed in the prescribed thickness on the scintillator layer formation scheduled surface of the reflective layer sample (the deposition substrate). Next, the scintillator panel was cut into four 130 mm square pieces with a force-cutting blade or a dicing blade. Next, the scintillator panel which had been cut was placed into a deposition chamber of a CVD apparatus and was exposed to a vapor formed by the sublimation of a raw material for polyparazylylene. In this manner, scintillator panels Nos. 1 to 18 were obtained in which the surface of the phosphor layer was covered with a polyparaxylylene resin film with a thickness of 10 μm. The scintillator panel No. 4 was subjected to the following pressure treatment. A flat glass plate was placed in close contact with the surface of the scintillator layer of the scintillator panel, then resin films were arranged on and under the scintillator panel-glass assembly and the peripheries of the resin films were fusion bonded together in vacuum to seal the assembly; after the scintillator panel-glass assembly was sealed in the resin films, the scintillator panel in that state was heat treated at 100° C. for 1 hour. The obtained samples were each set to a CMOS flat panel (X-ray CMOS camera system Shad-o-Box 4KEV manufactured by Teledyne Rad-icon Imaging Corporation). With the obtained 12 bit output data, the sharpness of the X-ray image obtained via the scintillator flat panel was measured by the following method. The measured sharpness was evaluated by the method described below. Sponge sheets were applied to the carbon plate of the radiation incident window of the CMOS flat panel as well as to the radiation incident side (the side without the scintillator layer) of the scintillator panel, and the surface of the scintillator panel and the surface of the planar light-receiving element disposed in the CMOS flat panel were lightly pressed against each other to fix the scintillator panel to the planar light-receiving element. (Method for Evaluating Sensitivity of Scintillator Panel) With an X-ray illuminator having a tube voltage of 80 kVp, X-rays were applied to the light-receiving plane of a FPD including the radiographic image detector. The obtained X-ray image data was analyzed to determine the average signal value of the entirety of the X-ray image, thereby evaluating the sensitivity of the scintillator panel. The average signal value of the radiographic image detector including the scintillator panel No. 1 was taken as 100. (Method for Evaluating Sharpness of Scintillator Panel) With an X-ray illuminator having a tube voltage of 80 kVp, X-rays were applied to the backside (the surface without the scintillator layer) of the scintillator panel through a lead HTF chart, and the image data detected at the CMOS flat panel was recorded on a hard disk. Thereafter, the image data recorded on the hard disk was analyzed with a computer to determine the MTF value (at a spatial frequency of 1 cycle/mm) of the X-ray image recorded on the hard disk, as the indicator of sharpness. A larger value of MTF, which is an abbreviation for modulation transfer function, indicates higher sharpness of the X-ray image. (Evaluation of Cuttability of Scintillator Panel) The scintillator panels Nos. 1 to 18 were cut with a force-cutting blade or a dicing blade. The length of separation of the scintillator layer from the reflective layer was measured with an optical microscope, and the cuttability of the scintillator panel was evaluated based on the following criteria. The cuttability was evaluated to be acceptable for product performance when the length of separation of the scintillator layer was 100 μm or less. TABLE 4⊙Not more than 10 μm◯More than 10 μm to not more than 50 μmΔMore than 50 μm to not more than 100 μmXMore than 100 μm The evaluation results are described in Table 5. TABLE 5-1Configurations of deposition substrates used for fabrication of scintillator panelsLight-DepositionReflective layersabsorbingsubstratesScintillatorSupportsResins5layersVolatilepanelsMaterialsThicknessLSP3TgRatio4ThicknessPresencecontentPressureNos.1TypesμmTypesTypes° C.vol %/vol %μmor absencemg/m2treatment1Polyimide125TiO2VYLON 550−1540/6050Present (PI)0.2Not performed2Polyimide125TiO2VYLON GK1402040/6050Present (PI)0.2Not performed3Polyimide125TiO2VYLON GK6004740/6050Present (PI)0.2Not performed4Polyimide125TiO2VYLON GK1402040/6050Present (PI)0.2performed5Polyimide125TiO2VYLON 20SS6740/6050Present (PI)0.2Not performed6Polyimide125TiO2VYLON GK1402040/603Present (PI)0.1Not performed7Polyimide125TiO2VYLON GK1402040/6010Present (PI)0.1Not performed8Polyimide125TiO2VYLON GK1402040/60250Present (PI)0.5Not performed9Polyimide125TiO2VYLON GK1402040/60350Present (PI)0.9Not performed10Polyimide125HollowVYLON GK1402040/6050Present (PI)0.2Not performedparticles11Polyimide125TiO2VYLON GK1402015/8550Present (PI)0.2Not performed12Polyimide125—VYLON GK140200/10050Present (PI)0.2Not performed13Polyimide125TiO2VYLON GK1402040/6050Present (PI)0.7Not performed14Aluminum500TiO2VYLON GK1402015/8550Absent0.2Not performed15Glass500TiO2VYLON GK1402015/8550Absent0.2Not performed16a-C2500TiO2VYLON GK1402015/8550Present (a-C)0.2Not performed17Polyimide125TiO2VYLON−2240/6050Present (PI)0.2Not performedDR870018Polyimide125TiO2N-3022−3840/6050Present (PI)0.2Not performed TABLE 5-2Evaluations of deposition substrates and scintillator panelsEvaluationsCuttabilityDeposition Scintillator Sensi-Sharp-Nos.substratespanelstivitynessRemarks1⊙⊙1000.63EXAMPLES 1 and 152⊙⊙1020.64EXAMPLES 2 and 163◯◯1010.63EXAMPLES 3 and 174⊙⊙1020.67EXAMPLES 4 and 185XX1000.63COMPARATIVE EXAMPLES 1 and 56XX760.68COMPARATIVE EXAMPLES 2 and 67◯◯850.67EXAMPLES 5 and 198⊙⊙1060.55EXAMPLES 6 and 209⊙⊙1080.43COMPARATIVE EXAMPLES 3 and 710⊙⊙820.61EXAMPLES 7 and 2111⊙⊙960.68EXAMPLES 8 and 2212⊙⊙530.71COMPARATIVE EXAMPLES 4 and 813⊙⊙1010.60EXAMPLES 9 and 2314ΔΔ970.57EXAMPLES 10 and 2415ΔΔ970.59EXAMPLES 11 and 2516ΔΔ950.67EXAMPLES 12 and 2617⊙⊙990.61EXAMPLES 13 and 2718⊙⊙1000.59EXAMPLES 14 and 281: The numbers of the deposition substrates and the numbers of the scintillator panels (The numbers are common.)2: a-C = amorphous carbon3: LSP = light-scattering particles4: light-scattering particles/binder resin ratio5: VYLON 550, VYLON GK140, VYLON GK600 and VYLON 20SS: amorphous polyester resins manufactured by TOYOBO CO., LTD., VYLON UR8700: polyurethane resin manufactured by TOYOBO CO., LTD., N-3022: polyurethane resin manufactured by NIPPON POLYURETHAN INDUSTRY CO., LTD.Notes:The support made of polyimide (PI) or amorphous carbon also serves as a light-absorbing layer because PI or amorphous carbon is colored. As clear from the results illustrated in Table 5, EXAMPLES in accordance with the invention achieved excellent cuttability without deteriorations in sharpness or sensitivity compared to COMPARATIVE EXAMPLES. 10: SCINTILLATOR PANEL 1: SUPPORT 2: SCINTILLATOR LAYER 2a: COLUMNAR PHOSPHOR CRYSTAL 3: REFLECTIVE LAYER 61: MIDDLE LINE 62: LIGHT-SCATTERING PARTICLE 63: BINDER RESIN 81: DEPOSITION APPARATUS 82: VACUUM CONTAINER 83: VACUUM PUMP 84: DEPOSITION SUBSTRATE 85: HOLDER 86: ROTATING MECHANISM 87: ROTATING SHAFT 88 (88a and 88b): DEPOSITION SOURCES 89: SHUTTER 29: FEED STEP 39: APPLICATION STEP 49: DRYING STEP 59: HEAT TREATMENT STEP 69: RECOVERY STEP 79: DRYING STEP 109: PRODUCTION APPARATUS 201: SUPPORT 202: ROLL OF SUPPORT WOUND AROUND CORE 301: BACKUP ROLL 302: APPLICATION HEAD 303: VACUUM CHAMBER 304: APPLICATOR 401: DRYER 402: INLET 403: OUTLET 801: DRYER 802: INLET 803: OUTLET 501: HEAT TREATMENT APPARATUS 502: HEAT TREATMENT GAS INLET 503: OUTLET 601: RECOVERED ROLL OF SUPPORT WOUND AROUND CORE a: CONVEYOR ROLL b: CONVEYOR ROLL c: CONVEYOR ROLL d: CONVEYOR ROLL 32: DICING APPARATUS 221: GROOVE 321: BLADE 321a: ROTATIONAL SHAFT 322: DICING TABLE 323: NOZZLE 324: SUPPORT MEMBER 33: LASER CUTTING APPARATUS 331: LASER BEAM GENERATOR 332: SUPPORT TABLE 333: PURGE CHAMBER 334: DISCHARGE PIPE 335: TRANSLUCENT WINDOW 50: DEPOSITION APPARATUS 551: VAPORIZATION CHAMBER 552: PYROLYSIS CHAMBER 553: DEPOSITION CHAMBER 553a: INLET 553b: OUTLET 553c: TURNTABLE (DEPOSITION TABLE) 554: COOLING CHAMBER 555: EVACUATION SYSTEM 512: DEPOSITION OF PROTECTIVE LAYER (POLYPARAXYLYLENE FILM) 100: RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE DETECTOR 51: IMAGING PANEL 52: CONTROL SECTION 53: MEMORY SECTION 54: POWER SUPPLY SECTION 55: HOUSING 56: CONNECTOR 57: OPERATION SECTION 58: DISPLAY SECTION 20: OUTPUT SUBSTRATE 20a: SEPARATOR FILM 20b: LIGHT-RECEIVING ELEMENT 20c: IMAGE SIGNAL OUTPUT LAYER 20d: BASE 21: TRANSPARENT ELECTRODE 22: CHARGE GENERATION LAYER 23: COUNTER ELECTRODE 24: CAPACITOR 25: TRANSISTOR
	claims	1. A method comprising:constructing a core former by stacking a plurality of single piece annular rings wherein each single piece annular ring comprises neutron-reflecting material; andloading a nuclear reactor core inside the core former by disposing fuel assemblies comprising fissile material inside the core former,wherein the stack of single-piece annular rings does not include welds or fasteners that axially restrain adjacent single-piece annular rings together. 2. The method of claim 1 further comprising:after the constructing and loading, operating a nuclear reactor comprising primary coolant disposed in a pressure vessel also containing the constructed core former and loaded nuclear reactor core to heat the primary coolant. 3. The method of claim 1 further comprising:forging each single piece annular ring. 4. The method of claim 1 further comprising:casting each single piece annular ring. 5. The method of claim 1 further comprising:rolling a plate and welding the edges of the plate together to form each single-piece annual ring.
043307086	summary	BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to an electron lens, such as is used for example in an electron microscope. It has long been recognized that electron lenses of the prior art have an undesirable degree of spherical aberration. The book "The World of the Electron Microscope" by Ralph W. G. Wyckoff (Yale University Press, 1958) says on page 27 "The defect which is at present the most important factor in limiting the attainable resolving power is spherical aberration." And later on the same page, "The only way to reduce this aberration is by keeping the opening of the lens small, but with too much aperturing diffraction effects would become damaging." Fleming U.S. Pat. No. 2,740,919, granted Apr. 3, 1956, attempted to overcome the problem of spherical aberration in electron lenses, but was apparently not successful. Spherical aberration is considered at some length and some mathematical equations are given on pages 69-74 of the book "The Scanning Electron Microscope, Part I, The Instrument" by C. W. Oatley, published by the Cambridge University Press in 1972. In view of the attention that has been given to the problem of spherical aberration in electron lenses, it can been seen that this is an important problem and that a satisfactory solution is much to be desired. An object of the present invention is to provide an electron lens in which spherical aberration is eliminated or reduced to an acceptable degree. Another object of the invention is to provide a practical method or process for making such an electron lens.
	summary
043138454	description	DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT This invention provides an improved system for performing the process described in U.S. Pat. No. 3,957,676. In accordance with this invention a high-rate acid digester is provided which reacts the combustible waste with sulfuric acid in a well mixed reactor where the acid and waste are intimately mixed through the whole volume of the chemical reaction vessel without establishing critical concentrations of radioactive material. This contrasts with previous systems employed to carry out the patented process wherein the waste was either batch wise or incrementally added to a stagnant pool of acid. Furthermore, the system of this invention has the capability of providing a continuous throughout. The apparatus of this invention basically includes a deep annular vessel 10, for example approximately 39 inches (1 meter) deep, having an outside diameter 14 of approximately 30 inches (0.76 meters) and an inside diameter 12 of approximately 24 inches (0.61 meters). The vessel includes a number of airlift circulators and gas bubblers 16 which extend from the top cover of the vessel 18 into and substantially through the annular cavity 17 to a depth well below the surface level of sulfuric acid, which substantially fills the cavity. An inlet conduit 20 is provided for permitting the introduction of solid waste material. The waste to be digested is funneled through inlet port 22 and is transported by a ram 24 to the inlet conduit 20 where it is distributed into the annular cavity of concentrated sulfuric acid. The waste enters the top of the annular digester where the recirculators spray the acid solution over the waste at high flow rates. The action of the gas bubblers and the recirculators are designed to cause the waste to be swept under the surface of the hot sulfuric acid. Reaction of the waste with the acid produces a carbon slurry residue and an off gas mixture. The gas bubblers supply the air used to oxidize the off gases. Nitric acid or nitrogen dioxide is added to the reaction to oxidize the carbon slurry residue. The nitric acid or nitrogen dioxide can be introduced into the reaction through the recirculators or through a separate inlet 28 and can be added either incrementally or continuously at the rate required to fully oxidize the carbon slurry residue. The rate of addition can be established in advance of the reaction from the nature and volume of waste to be digested. The intimate contact of the sulfuric acid with the reaction products facilitates a more complete and efficient reaction. It has been observed that significantly less energy input is needed to drive the waste/acid reaction of this invention than had previously been required by the prior art process. Desirably, the reaction vessel is surrounded by a heating jacket 26 which includes auxiliary heating coils to maintain the reaction temperature within the permissible range of between 220.degree. to 330.degree. C. The rate of the reaction drops off significantly below 230.degree. C., and much below 220.degree. there is a possibility of the formation of nitrated compounds, which is undesirable. 200.degree. C. therefore has proved to be a practical lower limit for carrying out the process. The upper limit of 330.degree. C. is set to maintain the process below the boiling point of sulfuric acid. Preferably, the temperature is maintained at a value up to 260.degree. C. The heating jacket, which functions in part as an insulator, retains the exothermic heat produced during the reaction to reduce the amount of energy that must be added to the process. During the process the off gases are routed through a deentrainment unit 30 to recover any captured acid that might have been entrained, which can then be returned to the reaction cavity. Also, while the process is taking place, the product slurry 32 is drained on a regular basis so that the reaction may be carried on continuously. The slurry is routed to a recovery or residue ash disposal system. Thus, the improved system of this invention increase the efficiency of the acid digestion process and provides a continuous through-put capability.
	summary
042636540	description	DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS FIG. 1 shows the fundamental construction of a normal value determining system according to the present invention. In FIG. 1, numeral 1 indicates a plant status deciding unit, numeral 2 indicates a normal value deciding unit, numeral 11 designates the present value signal of at least one type of plant data (digital or analog data), numeral 12 designates a signal corresponding to the present operation status and numeral 13 designates the normal value signal of at least one type of plant data. When one or more types of plant data represented by a signal or signals 11 are supplied to the plant status deciding unit 1, the present operation status of the plant is determined by comparing predetermined data values representing various operation steps with the plant data signal 11, and the signal 12 corresponding to the present operation step is supplied to the normal value deciding unit 2. One or more normal values are determined by the deciding unit 2 in response to the signal 12 from the deciding unit 1 and one or more signals 13 corresponding to the normal values are derived from the deciding unit 2. Two exemplary embodiments of a specific construction of the normal value determining system shown in FIG. 1 will be explained for a system adapted for use in a nuclear power plant using a boiling water reactor (BWR). The first embodiment relates to the situation in which a normal value of one type of plant data is determined on the basis of present values of a plurality of types of plant data. FIG. 2 illustrates the characteristic change of reactor pressure in the pressurization mode of operation during the start-up of the nuclear power plant. In this figure, the abscissa represents the different operation steps of the plant and the ordinate represents the reactor pressure. As seen from the drawing, the reactor pressure increases with the increase of step number, as shown by the solid line P. The steps of various operations to be executed in the pressurization mode are predetermined on the basis of the reactor pressure in the pressurizaton mode. Therefore, the present normal value of the reactor pressure can be determined on the basis of the progress of the operation step. That is, the normal value such as shown along dotted line Q is obtained by detecting the change of data corresponding to the operation step. Although this value changes stepwise, it is a satisfying value to give to the operator. FIG. 3 shows a schematic block diagram of the first embodiment of the present invention. In FIG. 3 numerals 11a to 11h indicate the present value signals of digital data, as shown in Table 1, numerals 3a to 3h data decision circuits for determining the status of the digital data 11a to 11h, respectively, numerals 14a to 14h signals representing the status of digital data, numeral 4 a code converter for producing a signal 12 corresponding to the operation status of the plant, numeral 5 a memory for storing a plurality of normal values of the reactor pressure, and numeral 6 a selector for selecting one normal value corresponding to the signal 12 from the memory 5 and for producing a normal value signal 13. TABLE 1 ______________________________________ signal classification of digital data status ______________________________________ 11a reactor pressure vessel vent valve closed 11b steam packing exhauster blower ON 11c mechanical vacuum pump OFF 11d clean-up auxiliary pump OFF 11e feedwater pump ON 11f clean-up recirculation pump ON 11g direction by supervisor OK 11h turbine turning motor stopped ______________________________________ The values of the digital data shown in the Table 1 change in response to the steps of the operation in the pressurization mode. These values of digital data are supplied to the data decision circuits 3a to 3h, which may be provided as simple comparator circuits, as signals 11a to 11h. It is determined by the data decision circuits 3a to 3h whether or not the present status represented by the digital data signals 11a to 11h coincide with the predetermined status shown in Table 1. In response to the presence or absence of such coincidence, a binary "1" or "0" signal, respectively, is produced as each of the signals 14a to 14h. For example, when the reactor pressure vessel vent valve is closed, a binary "1" signal is produced as the signal 14a. In the code converter 4, which may be a simple digital summing circuit, a singal 12 corresponding to the present operation status of the plant is produced according to Table 2. TABLE 2 ______________________________________ Signal 14 a b c d e f g h Signal 12 ______________________________________ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 3 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 4 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 6 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 7 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 8 ______________________________________ For example, when only signal 14a is "1" and other signals 14b to 14h are all "0", signal "1" is produced as the signal 12. This signal 12 is supplied to the selector 6 of the normal value deciding unit 2. The normal values of the reactor pressure corresponding to respective operation steps of the plant have been stored at the respective addresses of the memory 5 corresponding to the values of signal 12, as shown in FIG. 4. The normal value of the reactor pressure is read out by the selector 6 from the address corresponding to the value of signal 12 and is outputted as a signal 13. Although signals 11a to 11h are provided in digital form in the above-mentioned embodiment, analog data can be used for the signals 11a to 11h. In FIG. 3, each of the data decision circuits 3a to 3h may be comprised of a register for storing the predetermined status of the corresponding plant data and a comparator for comparing the present status represented by each of the signals 11a to 11h with the predetermined status. The code converter is comprised of a converter for converting the combination of signals 14a to 14h to the corresponding signal 12. A general memory selecting circuit for reading out the information at the address corresponding to signal 12 can be used as the selector 6. A read only memory (ROM) can be used as the memory 5. A second embodiment of the present invention relates to the situation in which the normal values of a plurality of types of plant data are determined on the basis of the present value of one type of plant data. FIG. 5 shows the relationship between the reactor power and the feedwater flow. As seen from FIG. 5, the feedwater flow changes in proportion to the reactor power during the power-up mode at the start-up of the nuclear power plant of the BWR type. In like manner, such plant data as the main steam flow and the generator power change in the same proportion to the rector power in the power-up mode. Therefore, if a ratio of the present value of the reactor power to the rated value thereof is obtained, the present normal value of the feedwater flow, the main steam flow and the generator power, can be obtained by multiplying the rated value of the plant data by the appropriate ratio. FIG. 6 shows a specific example of a system in accordance with this second embodiment of the invention. In the drawing numeral 7 indicates a normalization circuit for calculating the ratio of the present value of the signal 11A representing the reactor power to the rated value thereof and for outputting a signal 12 corresponding to the ratio of the values, and numerals 8a, 8b, 8c identify multipliers for multiplying the rated value of the main steam flow, the feedwater flow, and the generator power by the ratio corresponding to the signal 12. In such construction, the present value of the reactor power is supplied as an analog signal 11A to the normalization device 7. A ratio of the present value 11A of the reactor power to the rated value thereof is calculated by the normalization device 7 and a signal 12 corresponding to the ratio is supplied to the multipliers 8a, 8b, and 8c. The rated values of the main steam flow, the feedwater flow and the generator power are multiplied by the ratio represented by signal 12. The normal values corresponding to the present operation step are thus obtained as signals 13a, 13b, and 13c. Although the normal values of three types of plant data are obtained in the above-mentioned embodiment, the number of types of plant data is not limited thereto and may be one or more than one. In FIG. 6, the normalization device 7 can be comprised of a register for storing the rated value of the reactor power and a divider for calculating the ratio of the present value of the reactor power, represented by the signal 11A, to the rated value stored in the register. Depending on the normal value determining system according to the present invention, the normal value of plant data which continuously changes in the transient operational mode can be determined by a system of simple construction and with high accuracy. By adding a display device, it is also possible to display the normal value of plant data. While we have shown and described several embodiments in accordance with the present invention, it is understood that the same is not limited thereto but is susceptible of numerous changes and modifications as known to a person skilled in the art, and we therefore do not wish to be limited to the details shown and described herein but intend to cover all such changes and modifications as are obvious to one of ordinary skill in the art.
	description	This invention was made with Government support under contract numbers DE-FC07-05ID14635 and DE-FC07-05ID14636 awarded by the Department of Energy. The Government has certain rights in the invention. The invention relates generally to an apparatus for determining fluid level and flow velocity in a single-phase and/or two-phase fluid system, and in particular to an apparatus for determining fluid level and flow velocity in a downcomer of a natural recirculation boiling water reactor (BWR) using a combination of electrical conductivity (EC) probes, thermal conductivity (TC) probes and one or more time-domain reflectometry (TDR) probes. Boiling water nuclear reactors generally comprise steam-generating plants in which reactor water coolant is circulated through a core of heat-producing fissionable nuclear fuel to transfer thermal energy from the fuel to the coolant, thereby generating a two-phase steam-water mixture emerging from the fuel core. Using steam-water separators and steam dryers positioned downstream from and above the core, the upward-flowing mixture from the heating core becomes partitioned into its respective phases, whereupon the steam is piped from the reactor vessel for use in steam-driven turbines or other equipment while the liquid water phase is recycled as coolant water. In typical boiling water reactors used for power generation, reactor coolant water is circulated continuously around a flow path as follows: up through a heat-producing fuel core; then up through an upper outlet plenum superimposed above the fuel core which serves to collect and channel all the coolant passing up through the fuel core. Then, the coolant water passes through an assembly of steam separators positioned above the core outlet plenum; and then travels finally back downward outside of the core, along an annular region, known as the “downcomer,” to recycle the liquid coolant and return it to the fuel core. It has previously been known that the level of a liquid can be determined using electrical conductivity (EC) probes. In such a conductivity probe, several waveforms can be used for interrogation. In one example, a constant voltage (AC) is imposed across a gap between two electrodes. The magnitude of the resulting current is determined by the ability of the medium to conduct the current, where admittance is the reciprocal of impedance. In another example, a constant voltage (DC) is imposed across a gap between two electrodes. The magnitude of the resulting current is determined by the ability of the medium to conduct the current, where conductance is the reciprocal of resistance. In a TDR-based level measurement device, one or a series of low-energy electromagnetic impulses generated by the sensor's circuitry is propagated along a thin wave guide (also referred to as a probe)—usually consists of one single long electromagnetic wave conductor or an array of long conductors, such as a metal rod, a steel cable, or a metal thin tube with a coaxially fixed metal rode in the middle. When these impulses hits the surface of the medium to be measured, an impedance mismatch (due to the different dielectric constants of the two phases) causes part of the impulse energy to be reflected back up the probe to the circuitry (due to the mismatch of the dielectric property) which then calculates the fluid level from the time duration between the impulse sent and the impulse reflected (in nanoseconds). In the operation of such natural circulation nuclear reactors, the maximum power per fuel assembly unit critically depends upon this recirculation coolant flow through the fuel core. In addition, significant bundle natural circulation flow, which is nearly compatible to that of forced circulation BWR designs, is achieved in an Economic Simplified Boiling Water Reactor (ESBWR) design. Thus, it is desirable to accurately measure the flow rate of this recirculation flow through the downcomer of the nuclear reactor, particularly in a natural circulation BWR. It would therefore be desirable to provide a system and method for measuring in-core fluid level and flow velocity in a multiple phase fluid system, such as in a boiling water nuclear reactor. Briefly, one aspect of the invention, a boiling water reactor comprises a reactor pressure vessel; a core shroud arranged concentrically inside the reactor pressure vessel to provide an annular downcomer forming a coolant flow path between a wall of the reactor pressure vessel and the core shroud; and a probe system for determining one of a water level and a flow velocity of fluid within the reactor. Another aspect of the invention, a probe system for detecting a water level and flow velocity of coolant in a nuclear reactor comprises, in combination, a conductivity probe; and a time-domain reflectometer, wherein the probe system is at least partially arranged in a downcomer of the nuclear reactor. In another aspect of the invention, a method for measuring a level and flow velocity of coolant in a downcomer of a boiling water reactor comprises the steps of: measuring one of a conductivity and resistivity of the coolant within the downcomer of the reactor; and measuring a reflection time of an electromagnetic pulse to determine a level of the coolant within the downcomer of the reactor. Referring to FIG. 1, a boiling water reactor 10 comprises a reactor pressure vessel 12 having a feedwater inlet 14 for the introduction of recycled steam condensate and/or makeup coolant into the vessel 12, and a steam outlet 16 for the discharge of produced steam for appropriate work, such as driving electricity-generating turbines. A core of heat-producing fissionable fuel 18 is located within a lower area of the pressure vessel 12. The fuel core 18 is surrounded by a core shroud 20 spaced inward from the wall of the pressure vessel 12 to provide an annular downcomer 22 forming a coolant flow path between the vessel wall and the core shroud 20. Superimposed above the fuel core 18 and the fuel core shroud 20 is an open area comprising the core outlet plenum 24 defined by either an open steam space 26 that extends upward from the fuel core shroud 20 to an upper portion of the reactor vessel 12. In some designs, the open steam space 26 may include a chimney 36. The chimney 36 (if present) and the fuel core shroud 20 are spaced radially inward from the wall of the reactor pressure vessel 12 to provide for the annular downcomer 22, which forms a coolant flow path between the vessel wall and the shroud 20 and the chimney 36 (if present) defining the fuel core 18 and the core outlet plenum 24, respectively. Extending from the top portion of the open steam space 26 (or chimney 36, if present) or is a plurality of steam separators 28. Spaced a distance above the core outlet plenum 24 is an area comprising the wet steam plenum 30 defined by a peripheral shroud 32 with a top plate. Steam dryers 34 are mounted on the top plate for supplying separated and dried steam to steam outlet pipe 16. Feedwater coolant enters the pressure vessel 12 through inlet 14 and mixes with cycling liquid water coolant separated from steam by the steam separators 28. The combined coolant water flows downward in the annular downcomer 22 between the side wall of vessel 12 and the shroud 20 and chimney 36 (if present) to the bottom portion of the vessel 12. The circulating coolant water then reverses its direction around the bottom of the core shroud 20 and flows upward through the lower core plenum and into and through the heat-producing core 18 of nuclear fuel, whereupon it emerges as a mixture of steam and liquid water into the core outlet plenum 24. This recycling circuit of coolant is maintained continuously during operation of the reactor to remove heat from the fuel core 18. The circulating coolant, comprising a mixture of steam and water from the fuel core, passes up through the core outlet plenum 24 and into the steam separators 28, where separated steam phase is directed on upward to the dryers 34 and the liquid water phase is shunted laterally to rejoin the circulating coolant water flowing downward through the annular downcomer 22 to again repeat the cycle. As mentioned above, significant bundle natural circulation flow, which is nearly compatible to that of forced circulation BWR designs, can be achieved in some natural circulation boiling reactor designs, such as the Economic Simplified Boiling Water Reactor (ESBWR) design. One aspect of the invention is to provide an accurate measurement of the flow velocity or flow rate and the coolant level 38 of the circulating coolant water flowing downward through the annular downcomer 22, indicated by the arrows in FIG. 1. This is accomplished by providing a probe system, shown generally at 40, that is at least partially located within the downcomer 22 of the reactor 10. In an embodiment, the probe system 40 comprises a combination of a plurality of electrical conductive (EC) probes 42 and/or a plurality of thermal conductivity (TC) probes 44 (also known as heated junction thermocouples (HJT), and one or more time-domain reflectometer (TDR) probes 46. The EC probes 42 with a fixed cell constant are used to measure the electrical conductivity or impedance of the surrounding medium. As the electrical properties of steam and water are dramatically different (steam is less conductive than water), and the location of each EC probe 42 is known, the composition of the coolant flowing downward through the annular downcomer 22 can be determined. By using a plurality of EC probes 42 vertically arranged at various known locations within the downcomer 22, the coolant level 38 over a larger region of the annular downcomer 22 can be determined at discrete points where the EC probes 42 are located. Thus, the electrical conductivity probes 42 provide an indication of the coolant level 38 above and below two adjacent discrete EC probe elevations, except in rare cases in which the coolant level 38 is discernibly located exactly at a probe location. An example of an EC probe 42 is a type commercially available from Solartron Mobrey Limited, Model No. TB/hyd009. The TC (or HJT) probes 44 contain a plurality of resistance temperature devices that are employed to measure the thermal conductivity of the surrounding medium. As the thermal properties of steam and water are dramatically different (steam is less conductive than water), and the location of the probe 44 is known, the composition of the coolant flowing downward through the annular downcomer 22 can be inferred. By using a plurality of probes 44 vertically arranged at various known locations within the downcomer 22, the coolant level 38 over a larger region of the annular downcomer 22 can be determined at discrete points where the TC (or HJT) probes 44 are located. Thus, the TC probes 44 provide an indication of the coolant level 38 above and below two adjacent discrete TC probe elevations, except in rare cases in which the coolant level 38 is discernibly located exactly at a probe location. In addition, a flowing material, such as water or steam, strips more thermal energy from the probe 44. As such, the flow velocity of the coolant water flowing downward through the downcomer 22 can be determined. An example of a TC probe 44 is a type commercially available from Magnetrol International, Inc., Thermatel® Model No. TD1/TD2. The TDR probe 46 emits one or more electromagnetic pulses down a cable or rod and measures the time delay of the pulse reflection that occurs due to dielectric differences between steam and water. As such, the TDR probe 46 is used to measure the liquid level of the coolant water flowing downward through the downcomer 22. Examples of TDR probes 44 are types commercially available from Magnetrol International, Inc., Eclipse® Enhanced Model No. 705, and Endress+Hauser, Inc., Model No. Levelflex M FMP41C and FMP45. In operation, the probe system 40 comprises either a combination of EC probes 42 and TDR probes 46, or a combination of TC probes 44 and TDR probes 46, or a combination of EC probes 42, TC probes 44 and TDR probes 46. That is, the probe system 40 comprises a plurality of conductivity/resistivity probes (EC probes 42 and/or TC (or HJT) probes 44) and one or more TDR probes 46, thereby minimizing the number of penetrations needed in the reactor vessel 12. The EC probes 42 or TC (or HJT) probes 44 are placed at desired locations for point water level measurement in conjunction with the TDR probes 46. Both discontinuous measurements from the conductivity probes 42, 44 and continuous measurements from the one or more TDR probes 46 are used to calibrate and correct the measurement for the coolant level within the downcomer 22 of the reactor 10. By combining the attributes of the technologies for each type of probe 42, 44, 46 into a unified probe system 40 for water level measurement and fluid velocity in the downcomer, the strengths of each type of probe are combined to provide a synergistic effect that optimizes response time, accuracy, fault determination and operation in a volatile (two phase) environment. Specifically, due to the relationship between dielectric constant and conductivity, the EC probes 42 can be used in concert with the one or more TDR probes 46 to correct for deviations in water conductivity that may alter the accuracy of the TDR probe 46. In addition, for a multi-phase environment, for example, a steam and water environment, the changes in the dielectric constant influences the amplitude of the reflected impulse signal from the TDR probe 46, so the compensation from change in the conductivity change measured by the probes 42, 44 can be used to adjust the receiver sensitivity (and accuracy) of the TDR probe 46. Furthermore, in the case of a multi-phase environment where a foam layer exists between the steam and water layers, the combined information of the discrete conductivity probes 42, 44 and the continuous TDR probes 46 can be much more reliable and informative than measurements from conductivity probes and TDR probes alone. For example, the TDR probes 46 can measure the multiple reflections from the steam/foam interface and the foam/water interface, while the conductivity probes 42, 44 can confirm the measured information from the TDR probes 46 with different conductivity measurements from the steam layer, the foam layer and the water layer. As mentioned above, the probe system 40 comprises a combination of a plurality of electrical conductive (EC) probes 42 and/or a plurality of thermal conductivity (TC) probes 44 (also known as heated junction thermocouples (HJT), and one or more time-domain reflectometer (TDR) probes 46. Referring now to FIGS. 2-5, the various combinations of the probe system 40 will now be described. One combination is shown in FIG. 2 in which the probe system 40 includes a plurality of TC probes 44 at desired locations that provide both discrete sensing of the coolant level and continuous sensing of coolant flow velocity within the downcomer 22 of the reactor 10. Another combination is shown in FIG. 3 in which the probe system 40 includes a plurality of EC probes 42 placed at desired locations that provide discrete sensing of the coolant level, and a plurality of TC probes 44 at desired locations that provide both discrete sensing of the coolant level and continuous sensing of coolant flow velocity within the downcomer 22 of the reactor 10. Yet another combination is shown in FIG. 4 in which the probe system 40 includes a plurality of EC probes 42 placed at desired locations that provide discrete sensing of the coolant level, and a TDR probe 46 that extends from substantially the length of the probe system 40 for providing continuous sensing of the coolant level within the downcomer 22 of the reactor 10. In yet another combination shown in FIG. 5, the probe system 40 includes a plurality of EC probes 42 placed at desired locations that provide discrete sensing of the coolant level, and a plurality of TC probes 44 placed at desired locations that provide both discrete sensing of the coolant level 38 and continuous sensing of coolant flow within the downcomer 22. The probe system 40 also includes a TDR probe 46 that extends from substantially the length of the probe system 40 for providing continuous sensing of the coolant level within the downcomer 22 of the reactor 10. As described above, the probe system 40 determines the coolant level in the downcomer 22 of the reactor 10. Additionally the TC probes 44 allow the determination of flow velocity. By doing so, the probe system 40 eliminates the need for a differential pressure system that is required in conventional reactor designs, thereby reducing cost and complexity of the reactor design. It will be appreciated that the invention is not limited by the location of the probe system 40, and that the invention can be used at other locations to determine the coolant level 38 and flow velocity for a two-phase coolant or a single-phase coolant. For example, the probe system 40 can be used to measure the water level and flow velocity in a steam generator of a pressurized water reactor (PWR). This written description uses examples to disclose the invention, including the best mode, and also to enable any person skilled in the art to make and use the invention. The patentable scope of the invention is defined by the claims, and may include other examples that occur to those skilled in the art. Such other examples are intended to be within the scope of the claims if they have structural elements that do not differ from the literal language of the claims, or if they include equivalent structural elements with insubstantial differences from the literal languages of the claims.
048308145	summary	In the refueling of a nuclear reactor, the primary time consuming procedure is the removal of the upper structure or head package of the reactor. In conventional reactors, the head package includes the pressure vessel head which seals the reactor vessel, control rod drive mechanisms which are used to raise and lower control rods in the core of the reactor, a seismic platform adjacent the upper ends of the control rod drive mechanisms, which laterally restrains the same, and various cables for operation of the control rod drive mechanisms. A missile shield, in the form of a concrete slab, is positionable above the head package to protect the containment housing and associated equipment from penetration by any of the control rod drive mechanisms in the event of a major break. The problems associated with such conventional head packages are further described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,678,623, and assigned to the assignee of the present invention, which patent is incorporated by reference herein. In such conventional plants, the large concrete slabs installed above the reactor vessel to act as a missile shield must be removed and stored prior to head disassembly and refueling of the reactor, and then must be replaced after the refueling and head reassembly. Such operations effect overall refueling time and radiation exposure and require space in the containment area for placement of the missile shield slabs when removed from the position above the reactor vessel. In order to reduce refueling time, personnel exposure and space requirements, an improved system, designated as an integral head package plant has been developed which incorporates an integral missile shield and head lift rig. The missile shield is in the form of a perforated circular plate which is directly attached to a head lift rig. Such an integral head package (IHP) system is described in British Pat. No. 2100496 issued to the assignee of the present invention, and published Dec. 22, 1982, which application is incorporated by reference herein. As described therein, and illustrated in FIG. 1 of the present drawings, an integral head package 1 includes a three-legged head lifting rig 3 that is pin connected at 5, by lift lugs 7, to a missile shield assembly 9. The perforated circular plate 11 that forms the missile shield acts as a spreader for the head lift load, and as a seismic support for the tops of the control rod drive mechanisms 13, with rod travel housings extensions 15 of the mechanisms protruding through apertures 17 in the circular plate 11. The missile shield 11 interfaces with the tops of the rod travel housings 15 which limits the overall vertical travel (and impact force) of a missile before it impacts the shield. The impact load of a missile against the underside of the perforated plate 11 is transmitted to head lift rods 19, through vessel head lift lugs 21 secured to the vessel head 23, and closure studs 25 to the vessel head 23, and ultimately to the vessel supports. A cooling shroud 27 surrounds the drive rod mechanisms 13, while electric cabling 29 is routed from the top of the control rod drive mechanisms 13 to a connector plate 31 and thence along a cable tray 33 to respective cable terminations. Cooling fans 35 circulate air within the shroud 27 to transfer waste heat from the control rod drive mechanism 13. Hoist supports 37, and trolleys 39 on hoist assemblies 40 are used to position stud tensioner tools and stud removal tools during refueling operations. While the integrated head package is a marked improvement over the conventional head package designs, and adaptable for retrofitting existing reactors or incorporation into new reactor designs, additional problems arise in connection with advanced pressurized water reactor (APWR) systems. In advanced pressurized water reactor systems, displacer rods are interspersed throughout the control rods in the reactor core and displacer rod drive mechanisms, as well as the control rod drive mechanisms, are required above the reactor vessel head. As an example, an advanced pressurized water reactor plant would use a moderator control core which requires the use of 185 drive mechanisms (97 control rod drive mechanisms and 88 displacer rod drive mechanisms). This results in a much more congested upper head area (the area above the pressure vessel head), whereas conventional and integrated head package earlier designs used approximately 50 to 60 control rod drive mechanisms only. Increased seismic requirements, along with the design of the displacer rod drive mechanisms which is not compatible with current seismic sleeve designs, would require a much stronger (i.e. larger size and/or higher strength material) seismic sleeve design. This, coupled with the increased number of drive mechanisms would only tend to increase the space limitations which already exist. In addition, the vertical missile travel distance (before impact) for an advanced pressurized water reactor is much larger (35 to 37 inches) whereas other integral head package designs have a much shorter missile travel distance (about 5 inches). This increased missile travel distance results in an increased missile load, which, if transferred directly to the lift rods, to which a missile shield is attached, would require a substantial increase in the lift rod diameter. It is an object of the present invention to provide an improved integrated head package for a nuclear reactor that does not transfer an impact load from a missile, striking the underside of a missile shield plate, to the lift rods and ultimately to the head lugs, closure studs and vessel supports of the reactor system. It is another object of the present invention to provide an improved integrated head package for a nuclear reactor that can be used as a retrofit on existing reactors or incorporated into new reactors such as advanced pressurized water reactors. It is a further object of the present invention to provide a nuclear reactor having an integrated head package that eliminates the need to increase the size of lift rods to absorb the impact of missiles and eliminate the need for seismic sleeves about drive rod mechanisms of a reactor system. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION An integrated head package for a nuclear reactor has a missile shield plate that is vertically slidably retained on lift rods that are secured to the reactor pressure vessel head. The package includes a pressure vessel closure head that seals the reactor vessel, and control rod drive mechanisms, and displacer rod drive mechanisms for advanced pressurized water reactors, that are enclosed in a shroud, with the lift rods extending vertically from the pressure vessel closure head and having spaced stop members adjacent the upper ends of the lift rods The missile shield plate extends between the lift rods, above the drive rod mechanisms, and is vertically slidably retained between the spaced stop members, and has a lift rig secured thereto. The stop members on the lift rods preferably comprise a lower flanged member that is fixedly secured to the lift rod and an upper nut that is threadedly secured to the upper portion of the lift rod. A recess may be provided in the underside of the missile shield plate for seating therein of the lower stop member. The missile shield plate has thereon support blocks to which a support system, such as a tripod support system having a lift ring at the upper end thereof is secured by a clevis and pin securement. A collar, formed as a plate, is provided on each of the control rod drive mechanisms and displacer rod drive mechanisms, the collars adjacent the upper ends thereof and lying in a common horizontal plane so as to provide a seismic plate for the drive rod mechanisms.
	abstract	A method of seismic retrofitting a concrete structure includes removing material from a portion of the concrete structure by irradiating the portion with a laser beam having a laser energy density. The method further includes positioning a stabilization structure in proximity to the portion of the concrete structure. The method further includes attaching the stabilization structure to the portion of the concrete structure, whereby the stabilization structure provides structural support to the concrete structure.
	abstract	A fuel ball detecting method and system with a self-diagnosis function are provided. The method includes: exciting a first detecting coil and a second detecting coil of a fuel ball sensor disposed outside a pipeline; obtaining a first voltage signal U1 from the first detecting coil and a second voltage signal U2 from the second detecting coil; processing U1 and U2 by differential amplification, band pass filtering, phase sensitive detection and low pass filtering by a signal processor to obtain a fuel ball waveform signal U0; determining whether the fuel ball passes the pipeline according to U0 by a single chip microcomputer; determining whether the first and the second detecting coils, the signal processor and the single chip microcomputer work normally; outputting a result showing whether the fuel ball passes the pipeline, when the first and the second detecting coils, the signal processor and the single chip microcomputer work normally.
	claims	1. A control room for monitoring and controlling a nuclear power plant including a first nuclear reactor unit and a second nuclear reactor unit, the control room comprising:a central workstation providing monitoring capability for both the first nuclear reactor unit and the second nuclear reactor unit;a first operator at the controls (OATC) workstation in front of and to one side of the central workstation providing monitoring and control capabilities for the first nuclear reactor unit but not for the second nuclear reactor unit;a second OATC workstation in front of and to the other side of the central workstation providing monitoring and control capabilities for the second nuclear reactor unit but not for the first nuclear reactor unit;a first manual safety panel (MSP) located to the one side of the central workstation providing safety-related monitoring information and manual controls for the first nuclear reactor unit; anda second MSP located to the other side of the central workstation providing safety-related monitoring information and manual controls for the second nuclear reactor unit,wherein the central workstation, the first OATC workstation, the second OATC workstation, the first MSP and the second MSP are disposed in the control room. 2. The control room of claim 1 wherein the central workstation does not provide control capabilities for the first nuclear reactor unit and does not provide control capabilities for the second nuclear reactor unit. 3. The control room of claim 1 further comprising:a common control workstation directly in front of the central workstation providing monitoring and control capabilities for systems serving both the first nuclear reactor unit and the second nuclear reactor unit;wherein the common control workstation is disposed in the control room with the central workstation, the first OATC workstation, and the second OATC workstation. 4. The control room of claim 3 wherein the common control workstation does not include any control capabilities that must be performed by a licensed operator. 5. The control room of claim 1 further comprising:a common control workstation directly in front of the central workstation providing monitoring and control capabilities for common control systems defined as systems a failure of which does not require manual intervention of an OATC for at least a minimum time interval greater than or equal to one hour. 6. The control room of claim 1 further comprising an office associated with the central workstation, the office being disposed in the control room with the central workstation, the first OATC workstation, and the second OATC workstation. 7. The control room of claim 6 further comprising a conference room, the conference room being disposed in the control room with the office, the central workstation, the first OATC workstation, and the second OATC workstation. 8. The control room of claim 1 further comprising vertical panels including monitoring displays but not control inputs, the vertical panels being disposed in the control room with the central workstation, the first OATC workstation, and the second OATC workstation. 9. A nuclear power plant comprising:a first nuclear reactor unit including a nuclear reactor core comprising fissile material disposed in a pressure vessel;a second nuclear reactor unit including a nuclear reactor core comprising fissile material disposed in a pressure vessel; anda control room as set forth in claim 1. 10. The nuclear power plant as set forth in claim 9, wherein there is a single control room and a single central workstation disposed in the control room. 11. A nuclear power plant comprising:a first nuclear reactor unit including a nuclear reactor core comprising fissile material disposed in a pressure vessel;a second nuclear reactor unit including a nuclear reactor core comprising fissile material disposed in a pressure vessel;a third nuclear reactor unit including a nuclear reactor core comprising fissile material disposed in a pressure vessel;a fourth nuclear reactor unit including a nuclear reactor core comprising fissile material disposed in a pressure vessel; anda control room as set forth in claim 1, wherein the control room further includes:a third OATC workstation in front of and to the one side of the central workstation providing monitoring and control capabilities for the third nuclear reactor unit but not for the first, second, or fourth nuclear reactor units; anda fourth OATC workstation in front of and to the other side of the central workstation providing monitoring and control capabilities for the fourth nuclear reactor unit but not for the first, second, or third nuclear reactor units;wherein the central workstation, the first OATC workstation, the second OATC workstation, the third OATC workstation, and the fourth OATC workstation are disposed in the control room.
	claims	1. A preventive maintenance apparatus of a structural member in a reactor pressure vessel for reducing a tensile residual stress on a surface thereof, comprising: a nozzle for discharging a water jet into core water in a reactor pressure vessel; a deflector having a plane surface which is impinged by said water jet to change direction of flow of said water jet discharged from the nozzle and impinge the water jet after being deflected onto the surface of the structural member to be treated; and a support maintaining a predetermined distance between the nozzle and the plane surface of the deflector. 2. A preventive maintenance apparatus of a structural member in a reactor pressure vessel according to claim 1 , wherein said support maintains the distance between the nozzle and the plane surface of the deflector at most 100 times as large as a hole diameter of the nozzle. claim 1 3. A preventive maintenance apparatus of a structural member in a reactor pressure vessel according to claim 1 , wherein said support maintains an angle, formed between a central axis passing through an opening of the nozzle and said plane surface of the deflector, in a range of 40xc2x0 to 90xc2x0. claim 1 4. A preventive maintenance apparatus of a structural member in a reactor pressure vessel according to claim 1 , wherein said support has one opening for discharging the direction-changed flow of the water jet near the plane surface of the deflector. claim 1 5. A preventive maintenance apparatus of a structural member in a reactor pressure vessel according to claim 1 , wherein said support has openings for discharging the direction-changed flow of the water jet near the plane surface of the deflector, said openings being arranged in a peripheral direction with respect to a central axis passing through an opening of the nozzle. claim 1 6. A preventive maintenance apparatus of a structural member in a reactor pressure vessel according to claim 1 , further comprising a pressurized water supply for supplying pressurized water to the nozzle. claim 1 7. A preventive maintenance apparatus of a structural member in a reactor pressure vessel for reducing a tensile residual stress on a surface thereof, comprising: a nozzle for discharging a water jet into core water in a reactor pressure vessel; a deflector having a recess which is impinged by the water jet to change direction of flow of the water jet discharged from the nozzle and impinge the water jet after being deflected onto the surface of the structural member to be treated; and a support maintaining a predetermined distance between the nozzle and the recess of the deflector. 8. A preventive maintenance apparatus of a structural member in a reactor pressure vessel according to claim 7 , wherein said recess is in a shape of a cone with an apex angle of at least 120xc2x0 in a longitudinal cross section thereof. claim 7 9. A preventive maintenance apparatus of a structural member in a reactor pressure vessel according to claim 8 , wherein said support has openings for discharging the direction-changed flow of the water jet near the recess of the deflector, said openings being arranged in a peripheral direction with respect to a central axis passing through an opening of the nozzle. claim 8 10. A preventive maintenance apparatus of a structural member in a reactor pressure vessel according to claim 8 , wherein said recess of the deflector has spiral grooves or spiral projections for causing the direction-changed flow of the water jet to revolve with respect to the central axis passing through the opening of the nozzle. claim 8 11. A preventive maintenance apparatus of a structural member in a reactor pressure vessel according to claim 7 , further comprising a pressurized water supply for supplying pressurized water to the nozzle. claim 7
047633999	abstract	A method of strengthening a bolt hole in a fibrous composite laminate when a hole is drilled in a laminate sheet. The method allows for increased thickness strength, bearing strength and the use of low cost high strength fasteners which may or may not be galvanically compatible through the use of plating the edges of the holes with a metal spray.
	description	The present subject matter described herein, in general, relates to the field of emergency cooling arrangements and more specifically relates to a design of a system, device and method for the shutdown system of a nuclear reactor for cooling the core by passive transport of decay heat through diverse molten metal coolant. At present, light water reactor designs depend on the cooling capabilities of water at high pressures and temperatures. However, designs using water as coolant at high pressures have to account for the loss of coolant in the nuclear reactor, by breach in structural integrity. This is due to the increase in operating temperature of the coolant which results in increased boiling of the pressurized coolant, affecting the heat transfer, reactivity parameters and leads to instability issues in the reactor. In order to maintain the coolant state, the pressure needs to be increased which affects the structural integrity and leads to loss of coolant in the reactor. Thus, the management of the reactor core beyond a certain temperature depends on depressurizing and cooling, which currently involves external components and their availability. Various systems of light water reactor designs are known in the prior art and a few of them are discussed below: Pre-Pressurized Core Flooding Accumulators: In this decay heat transport system are connected to primary heat transport system through check valves at pressures lesser than accumulator pressure in case of LOCA (Loss Of Coolant Accident) and inventory is sufficient for 15 minutes (Effective from 6% decay power depending on primary heat transport system pressure). It has a design capacity of 15 minutes. To achieve the said effect, it uses a significant number of other components such as high pressure accumulators, piping, isolation valves, instrumentation, which results in high density of components in the containment. Core make-up tanks are available that are connected to primary heat transport system through valves to initiate natural circulation based on the design sequence and are effective for 6% decay power; having a design capacity of 3 days. It also uses numerable components such as tank inside the containment, piping, valves, instrumentation, resulting in high density of components in the containment. Gravity drain tanks: system is connected to reactor primary coolant system through valves, only at low reactor pressure (Effective for 1% decay power depending on the primary heat transport system pressure). It has a design capacity of 3 days and uses components such as tank above the core elevation, piping, valves, instrumentation etc. Passively Cooled Steam Generator Natural Circulation: In this system is connected to steam generator by valves, actively or passively based on pressure (Effective for 6% decay power depending on primary heat transport system operation) and has low design capacity of one day, depending on the tank design capacity. It uses high number of components such as heat exchangers, water pool immersing the heat exchangers, piping, instrumentation etc. Passively cooled Core Isolation condenser system connect to primary heat transport system through valves actively or passively. They are effective for 6% decay heat depending on the primary heat transport system pressure. The design capacity is more than 3 days and has components such as isolation condenser, water pool, piping, instrumentation etc, which leads to high density of the components in the containment. Prior-art U.S. Pat. No. 4,608,224 A provides nuclear reactor cooled by a liquid metal. It teaches a shut-down heat exchanger means operable during reactor shut-down conditions and for establishing a thermal siphon effect. Further, it teaches a difference in level between reactor core (hot source) and exchangers (cold source), which aids the formation of a thermal siphon within the main reactor vessel, when the external circuits have been emptied into the latter. This feature, facilitates the cooling of the core by the thermal siphon effect. In view of the above, a number of designs are known which are based on different concepts. Thermo-siphon cooling, heat transport by fins to air and liquid metal coolants are known in different nuclear reactor designs and industrial applications other than water cooled reactors. However, Fast reactors operate at temperatures above 500° C. and use liquid metal coolant compatible at high temperatures while water cooled reactors operate in thermal region of neutron spectrum by the moderating properties of water and operate at temperatures around 300° C., and at its saturation pressures. All the above, decay heat removal systems existing in different reactor systems remove heat from the primary coolant only and not directly from the core. Decay heat removal in these system designs depend on the availability of primary coolant and integrity of the system to deliver intended functionality. Also, these systems require a large number of components, which increases the density of components in the containment. Recent accidents in the Fukushima boiling water reactors (BWRs), Japan, established that there is a need for decay heat transport directly from the core in addition to the heat transport from the primary coolant. The severe accidents in water cooled reactors clearly indicate the necessity of core decay heat transport at high temperatures beyond water cooling, for ultimate safety of the core. Present water cooled reactor designs incorporate saturated water in single or two-phase as their primary heat transport medium and the heat transfer to the main heat sink, is mainly achieved due to fluid to fluid conduction and convection modes of heat transfer away from the core. In the accident scenarios, such as that of Fukushima, the core suffers the absence of intended heat sink and poor heat transfer at high temperatures in addition to other influence vectors. Hence to contain the accident conditions beyond the high pressure water based heat transport, a diverse passive decay heat transport mechanism is needed. Hence, it is desirable to have a system, device and method for water cooled reactors that transports decay heat directly from the fuel to ultimate heat sink. The following presents a simplified summary of the invention in order to provide a basic understanding of some aspects of the invention. This summary is not an extensive overview of the present invention. It is not intended to identify the key/critical elements of the invention or to delineate the scope of the invention. Its sole purpose is to present some concept of the invention in a simplified form as a prelude to a more detailed description of the invention presented later. An object of the present invention is to provide a design of system, device and method for transport of decay heat directly from the fuel to ultimate heat sink. Another object of the present invention is to provide a system, device and method for improved passive shutdown cooling system for a nuclear reactor without short term reliance on electrical supplies, service water and operator action by utilizing natural convection circulation of coolant. Yet another object of the present invention to provide a system, device and method for transport decay heat directly from the fuel to ultimate heat sink, the atmospheric air, using diverse liquid metal coolant in multiple closed thermo-siphons and heat dissipating fins. Yet another object of the present invention is to provide a system, device and method which is capable to limit the core temperatures well below the exothermic Zr (Zirconium)-Water reactions. Yet another object of the present invention is to design a system for decay heat removal, by direct transport of heat from the fuel to atmospheric air, the ultimate heat sink, passively, independent of reactor systems, without any active external input or power. Still another object of the present invention to provide a device that transports 1% decay heat to atmospheric air and will be effective from seconds after shut down. Accordingly, in one implementation, a passive core decay heat transport system comprising of a device in the reactor core and an assembly of heat dissipating fins is disclosed. The device comprises at least one coolant channel containing the fuel assembly; at least one collet joint connecting the fuel in the assembly to shield plug; at least one liquid metal thermo-siphon for transporting of decay heat from fuel; at least one other liquid metal thermo-siphon for transport of heat from thermo-siphon; and at least an assembly of heat dissipating fins for transport of heat from thermo-siphon to ultimate sink. The thermal expansion of the liquid metal by melting establishes the conductive and convective heat transfer paths and transfers the heat from the fuel assembly to the thermo-siphon, which transports the heat to other thermo-siphon and then to the assembly of fin, which dissipates the heat by natural circulation of air to atmospheric air. In one implementation, a passive core decay heat transport device is disclosed. The device comprises at least one lower end fitting means coupled to a fuel assembly producing heat; at least one coolant channel containing the fuel assembly surrounded by primary water coolant to cool the fuel; at least one collet joint connecting the fuel in the assembly to shield plug; at least one liquid metal thermo-siphon for transport of heat; at least one shield plug for radiation shielding and flow guide in the coolant channel; at least one other liquid metal thermo-siphon for transport of heat; at least one seal plug for pressure sealing the coolant channel; and coupled to at least an assembly of heat dissipating fins. The seal plug comprises at least one collet joint coupled to the other liquid metal thermo-siphon. The fuel assembly conducts the decay heat to thermo-siphon 5 using conductive and convective heat transfer modes, which transports the heat to other thermo-siphon and then to the assembly of fin, which results in cooling by natural circulation of air in closed circuit through the heat transport path to atmospheric air. Other aspects, advantages, and salient features of the invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art from the following detailed description, which, taken in conjunction with the annexed drawings, discloses exemplary embodiments of the invention. Persons skilled in the art will appreciate that elements in the figures are illustrated for simplicity and clarity and may have not been drawn to scale. For example, the dimensions of some of the elements in the figure may be exaggerated relative to other elements to help to improve understanding of various exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure. Throughout the drawings, it should be noted that like reference numbers are used to depict the same or similar elements, features, and structures. The following description with reference to the accompanying drawings is provided to assist in a comprehensive understanding of exemplary embodiments of the invention. It includes various specific details to assist in that understanding but these are to be regarded as merely exemplary. Accordingly, those of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that various changes and modifications of the embodiments described herein can be made without departing from the scope of the invention. In addition, descriptions of well-known functions and constructions are omitted for clarity and conciseness. The terms and words used in the following description and claims are not limited to the bibliographical meanings, but, are merely used by the inventor to enable a clear and consistent understanding of the invention. Accordingly, it should be apparent to those skilled in the art that the following description of exemplary embodiments of the present invention are provided for illustration purpose only and not for the purpose of limiting the invention as defined by the appended claims and their equivalents. It is to be understood that the singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” include plural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. By the term “substantially” it is meant that the recited characteristic, parameter, or value need not be achieved exactly, but that deviations or variations, including for example, tolerances, measurement error, measurement accuracy limitations and other factors known to those of skill in the art, may occur in amounts that do not preclude the effect the characteristic was intended to provide. Features that are described and/or illustrated with respect to one embodiment may be used in the same way or in a similar way in one or more other embodiments and/or in combination with or instead of the features of the other embodiments. It should be emphasized that the term “comprises/comprising” when used in this specification is taken to specify the presence of stated features, integers, steps or components but does not preclude the presence or addition of one or more other features, integers, steps, components or groups thereof. In one implementation, the present invention provides a design of system, device and method for transport decay heat directly from the fuel to ultimate heat sink. In one implementation, the present invention provides a design of system, device and method for transport decay heat directly from the fuel to ultimate heat sink, the atmospheric air, using diverse liquid metal coolant in multiple closed thermo-siphons and heat dissipating fins. In one implementation, the present invention provides a design of system and device for passive decay heat transport during failure of the cooling function of primary water coolant by providing a diverse coolant in multiple closed thermo-siphon devices and decay heat transport to the ultimate heat sink, the atmospheric air. In one implementation, the present invention provides a design of system and device for decay heat removal, by direct transport of heat from the fuel to atmospheric air, the ultimate heat sink, passively, independent of reactor systems, without any active external input or power. In one implementation, the present invention provides a device to transport decay heat directly from the fuel passively to atmospheric air, instead of heat transport from primary coolant. In one implementation, the present invention provides a system, device and method that uses diverse core cooling and limits core temperatures below the exothermic Zr-water reactions. In one implementation, the present invention provides a system, device and method capable of transporting 1% decay heat to atmospheric air and will be effective from 5000 seconds after shut down. In one implementation, the present invention provides a passive core decay heat transport system transporting heat directly from the reactor core itself, using diverse liquid metal coolant such as lead in multiple closed thermo-siphons, dissipating decay heat directly to ultimate heat sink, the atmospheric air and provides ultimate safety to the core. In one implementation, a design of a passive core decay heat transport system comprising of a device in the reactor core and an assembly of heat dissipating fins is disclosed. The device comprises at least one coolant channel 2 containing the fuel assembly 3; at least one collet joint 4 connecting the fuel in the assembly to shield plug 6; at least one liquid metal thermo-siphon 5 for transporting of decay heat from fuel; at least one other liquid metal thermo-siphon 7 for transport of heat from thermo-siphon 5; and at least an assembly of heat dissipating fins 10 for transport of heat from thermo-siphon 7 to ultimate sink. The thermal expansion of the liquid metal by melting establishes the conductive and convective heat transfer paths and transfers the heat from the fuel assembly 3 to the thermo-siphon 5, which transports the heat to other thermo-siphon 7 and then to the assembly of fin 10, which dissipates the heat by natural circulation of air to atmospheric air. The collet joint 4 has expandable fingers, which slide outwards to receive the component and snap tight around the contour of the component to be held. In one implementation, the present invention provides a system design which limits the core temperatures below the exothermic Zr-Water reactions capable of releasing hydrogen. This design employs self-managed passive system design which do not need any external inputs for its functioning. In one implementation, the present invention provides a device that uses diverse liquid metal coolant to transport decay heat directly from the fuel to the ultimate heat sink, the atmospheric air. This happens passively for long durations and safely, irrespective of other heat transport systems and availability of external power supply. In one implementation, a passive core decay heat transport device is disclosed. The device comprises at least one lower end fitting means 1 coupled to a fuel assembly 3 producing heat; at least one coolant channel 2 containing the fuel assembly 3 surrounded by primary water coolant to cool the fuel; at least one collet joint 4 connecting the fuel in the assembly to shield plug 6; at least one liquid metal thermo-siphon 5 for transport of heat; at least one shield plug 6 for radiation shielding and flow guide in the coolant channel 2; at least one other liquid metal thermo-siphon 7 for transport of heat; at least one seal plug 9 for pressure sealing the coolant channel 2; and coupled to at least an assembly of heat dissipating fins 10. The seal plug 9 comprises at least one collet joint coupled to the other liquid metal thermo-siphon 7. The fuel assembly 3 conducts the decay heat to thermo-siphon 5 using conductive and convective heat transfer modes, which transports the heat to other thermo-siphon 7 and then to the assembly of fin 10, which results in cooling by natural circulation of air in closed circuit through the heat transport path 14, 15, 16, 17 and 18 to atmospheric air. In one implementation, the present system, device provides for tapping of decay heat as a power source for handling Station Black Out (SBO) conditions in nuclear reactors using Sterling engines and thermos-electric modules. In addition, the present invention provides for a radical change in treating the decay heat, as source of power to handle extended Station Black Out situations, instead of viewing decay heat as a safety challenge In one implementation, the present invention provides a system, device that transports 1% decay heat to atmospheric air and may be effective from seconds after shut down. The device is capable of transporting 1% decay heat to atmospheric air and will be effective from 5000 seconds after shut down. Referring now to FIG. 1 illustrating the schematic representation of the passive decay heat transport system and device. Part-1 indicates the lower end fitting of a typical fuel assembly transitioning to the coolant channel in the core. Part 2 indicates the coolant channel in the core containing the fuel assembly surrounding which the primary water coolant flows to cool the fuel. Part 3 indicates the fuel assembly inside the coolant channel. Part 4 is the collet joint connecting the fuel to the shield plugs. Part 5 is the liquid metal thermo-siphon. Part 6 is the shield plug which serves the purpose of radiation shielding and as a flow guide inside the coolant channel. Part 7 is the second transition liquid metal thermo-siphon. Part 8 is the top end fitting. Part 9 indicates the seal plug which acts as a pressure seal to the coolant channel and has a collet joint for part 7. Part 10 is the assembly of heat dissipating fins. Referring now to FIG. 5 illustrates the hot air from the fins being cooled in ducts exposed to atmospheric air outside the reactor building. This arrangement ensures the heat transport path without any mass transport from within the reactor. Part 11 represents the isolation enclosure of the fins above the seal plugs in reactor closure deck. Part 12 facilitates communication to external air for cleaning and initiating the system. Part 13 indicates facility for fuelling access in the top cover plate. Part 14 is the flow guide for cool air to the fins. Part 15 is the inlet duct to the fins. Part 16 is the inlet and outlet ducts. Part 17 is the embedded projections in the containment. Part 18 is the air cooling duct structure surrounding the containment for cooling the hot air from the fins. This duct is connected to part 16 for closed circulation of air by natural circulation. In one implementation, a diverse passive decay heat transport mechanism is provided using lead thermos-siphons in the core, as a diverse molten metal coolant to take over as a heat sink in a diverse mechanism of multiple closed thermo-siphons. In one implementation, a passive core decay heat transport method is disclosed. The method for passive core decay heat transport comprising of: melting of the molten metal due to rise in temperature of the fuel above the melting point of the metal; activation of heat transport path due to the melting the metal; transfer of heat by conduction and convective heat transfer path between fuel assembly 3, collet joint 4, liquid metal thermo-siphon 5 and other liquid metal thermo-siphon 7; transfer of heat from the other liquid metal thermo-siphon 7 to the assembly of heal dissipating fins 10; transfer of heat from hot air from the fins to the ultimate sink, atmospheric air. Referring now to FIGS. 3 and 4, which illustrate the thermos-siphon 5 and 7 respectively, in accordance to the present invention. The thermo-siphons 5 and 7 are pipe in pipe annular devices connected at the top and bottom for fluid circulation. Core decay heat acts as heat source and atmospheric air acts as heat sink for the thermo-siphons. The fluid in the outer annulus gets heated by the decay heat from the fuel, and becomes relatively lighter compared to the liquid metal in the inner annulus. This establishes a density gradient and establishes a flow and heat transport inside the thermo-siphon. The hot and lighter fluid raises in the outer annulus and gets cooled at the top cooler end. The cooled fluid being heavy flows down through the inner annulus, gets heated and raises in the outer annulus. The flow of fluid thus is established between the heat source and the heat sink by thermal gradients. Thermo-siphon functionality is influenced by the requirements of passive cooling, driving heads and thermal gradients. During a severe accident scenario of loss of cooling of the fuel by the primary coolant, part 3 conducts the decay heat to part 5 using conductive and convective heat transfer modes. Part 5 transports the heat to part 7. Part 6 is intended to be solid material and as an alternative filled with liquid metal. Part 7 transports the heat to part 10. Part 10 is cooled by natural circulation of air in closed circuit through the heat transport path by parts 14, 15, 16, 17 and 18 to atmospheric air. The heat transport path is activated when the fuel temperature exceeds the melting point of the molten metal. The thermal expansion of the liquid metal by melting establishes the conduction and convective heat transfer path between part 3, part 4, part 5 and part 7. During normal operation this heat transport route is not active and the fin temperatures are as that of the seal plug. The heat transport path is activated during accidents leading to increased fuel temperatures, such as loss of primary cooling and core melt conditions. All the parts of the system are sequential and operate passively and are self-managed by the temperature differential across them. In one preferred implementation, the molten metal coolant is lead. Lead is a core compatible metal and has a melting point above the normal operating temperatures of the reactor coolant. It provides a smooth transition in heat transfer from water to molten metal. The absorption and scattering cross sections of Lead are close to that of Zirconium (Zr) and hence may not affect the fuel design significantly. Since lead has a very good operating range up to 1600° C., the Zr-water explosion and clad damage in the core and related core accidents may be minimized. In one implementation, the present system and device has heat dissipating fins. These fins may be detachable heat dissipating fin with variants such as rectangular, circular or spiral fins attached to the liquid metal thermo-siphons from the core. In one implementation, the heat dissipating fins may be compact, staggered fins for multiple thermo-siphons for addressing the space constraints. The nuclear reactor core by its nature can traverse from operating temperature to accident temperatures even at its lowest power shut-down condition and hence defines the boundary of cooling requirements to be met for safety, even for the lowest probable beyond design basis events. The present system, device and method addresses both the issues of loss of heat transport by primary coolant, cooling beyond 300° C. and self-contained passive core management at higher temperatures. The loss of heat transport by primary coolant is addressed by a diverse molten metal coolant in the fuel itself and by passive heat transport from the core to the ultimate heat sink, the atmospheric air. The present invention is effective from 1% decay power to long term. It is independent of primary heat transport system, coolant pressure, and coolant level etc., no external components and no external flow is to be connected to the reactor. Further, the capacity can be extended to 6% decay power by the design of suitable heat sinks and power generation from decay heat. Also, the design capacity is more than 3 days, as long as the core temperature is above the heat sink temperature. Furthermore, the components required are compact hermitically sealed thermo-siphons and fin assemblies, which results in a low density of components in the containment. An analytical model of the said system was used and calculations were done to establish the efficiency of the said system and device. The decay heat and the heat transport by the devices for a 1000 MWth reactor with 450 individual vertical coolant channels is calculated using lumped parameter method and the results are plotted for duration of 100000 seconds after shutdown for the above said configuration. Fuel is assumed to be UO2, clad as Zirconium and shield plug as SS (Stainless Steel), for thermal calculations. The device is effective from 5000 seconds and may be used for decay heat transport of 1% as illustrated in FIG. 7. The maximum fuel temperature observed for this calculated case is nearly 500° C. and is illustrated in FIG. 8. The device is observed to be effective from 5000 seconds after shut down, for a decay heat transport of 1% and the maximum fuel temperature is observed to be 500° C. Thus, the system provides for decay heat removal, by direct transport of heat from the fuel to the ultimate heat sink (atmospheric air), passively, independent of reactor systems, without any active external input or power. The major advancement of the system is to provide transport decay heat directly from the fuel passively to atmospheric air, instead of decay heat transport from primary coolant. In addition, the radical change in treating the decay heat, as source of power to handle extended Station Black Out situations. Apart from what is disclosed above, the present invention also include some addition benefits and advantages. Few of the additional benefits are mentioned below: Passive decay heat transport from the fuel to ultimate heat sink, the atmospheric air without any operator interference or external input. Capable of un-attended safe operation for prolonged duration. Independent functionality, irrespective of the availability of primary coolant and other auxiliary systems. Self-managed passive systems adaptable to existing reactors. Limits the core temperatures, well below the exothermic Zr-Water reactions leading to hydrogen release and hence eliminating the secondary accidents crippling the access to reactor systems. Addresses the failure of heat transport by high pressure primary water coolant and the decay heat removal systems attached to the said system, by introducing a diverse low pressure & high temperature liquid metal coolant directly in the fuel. Redundant thermo-siphons from the core enhance the availability of cooling in the core even in the case of severe accident situations. Passive accident tolerant spent fuel without dependence on external coolant pool and with no special cooling constraint during handling. It may be understood by the person skilled in that art that, the method such as transport or transfer of heat by conduction, convection and the like method may be achieved by the existing mechanism/components/elements which may not be considered as the essential part of the present invention, and hence is not explained in detail about the same in the present invention. The illustrations of arrangements described herein are intended to provide a general understanding of the structure of various embodiments, and they are not intended to serve as a complete description of all the elements and features of device and systems that might make use of the structures described herein. Many other arrangements will be apparent to those of skilled in the art upon reviewing the above description. Other arrangements may be utilized and derived therefrom, such that structural and logical substitutions and changes may be made without departing from the scope of this disclosure. Figures are also merely representational and may not be drawn to scale. Certain proportions thereof may be exaggerated, while others may be minimized. Accordingly, the specification and drawings are to be regarded in an illustrative rather than a restrictive sense. Thus, although specific arrangements have been illustrated and described herein, it should be appreciated that any arrangement calculated to achieve the same purpose may be substituted for the specific arrangement shown. This disclosure is intended to cover any and all adaptations or variations of various embodiments and arrangements of the invention. Combinations of the above arrangements, and other arrangements not specifically described herein, will be apparent to those of skill in the art upon reviewing the above description
	description	The present disclosure relates to intelligent stationary power equipment and diagnostics thereof, and more specifically, to stationary power equipment that collects and stores data associated with the operations of the equipment. The term “power equipment” is used throughout this disclosure in a generic sense to encompass any equipment that converts a first type of energy or power to a second type of energy or power. For instance, one type of power equipment generates mechanical power by using at least one of electrical energy, kinetic energy, fuel energy, hydropower, nuclear energy, solar energy, pneumatic energy and mechanical power, etc. Examples of this type of power equipment include electric motors, diesel motors, hybrid engines, pumps, windmills, and so on. Another type of power equipment generates electrical power by using at least one of petroleum energy, chemical reactions, mechanical power, kinetic energy, hydropower, pneumatic energy, nuclear energy and so on. Examples of this type of power equipment include power generators, alternators, etc. The term “stationary power equipment” refers to all types of power equipment excluding power equipment that is installed onboard of vehicles and used to provide power to move, drive or propel the vehicles, such as automobiles, trains, airplanes, yachts, rockets, trucks, etc. Some types of stationary power equipment, such as pumps or electrical power generators, are installed in remote locations or distributed over a large area, without technicians or operators on site. Although regular visits and scheduled checks may help uncover malfunctions or errors in the equipment, the visits and checks are costly and time-consuming. Once an error is suspected, a technician usually needs to spend a long time performing various tests on the equipment to determine the symptoms and operation status of the equipment, in order to identify the type of, and causes to the error, and needed steps to fix the error. Some fixes may need replacement parts. In some cases, the technician may also need to consult specifications or technical manuals to perform needed procedures to repair the equipment. However, the replacement parts and the technical manuals usually are unavailable at the site. Consequently, a second visit to the defunct equipment is necessary to bring the needed parts and/or technical manuals in order to perform the needed diagnostics and fixes. Furthermore, certain errors or malfunctions may cause serious damages if they are not uncovered, or if certain remedies are not performed soon. However, malfunctions or errors may occur between scheduled visits or checks without being known, which may cause seriously consequences. Therefore, there is a need for an easy way to obtain data related to the operation of stationary power equipment, to assist technicians performing maintenance works without the need of performing excessive tests. There is also a need to notify technicians about errors or malfunctions of stationary power equipment as soon as they occur. There is also a need for stationary power equipment with self-diagnostic capacities, such that information related to possible causes to malfunctions could be isolated by the equipment. Various embodiments are disclosed relating to stationary power equipment that collects operation data related to the operation of the equipment, and provides information derived from the operation data. Examples of the collected data include temperature, voltage, ampere, wave phase, torque, engine rpm, pressure, switch status, resistance, impedance, signal frequency, etc. The collected data is stored in a data storage device, such as nonvolatile memories, hard disks, etc. The information derived from the collected data may be sent to a device connected to the stationary power equipment or a remote system via a data transmission network, such as the internet or a telephone network, in a wired or wireless manner. For instance, the operation data is sent to a diagnostic system at a remote site via a data transmission network for performing a remote diagnosis on the stationary power equipment. The power equipment receives data sent from a remote system via the data transmission network. The data is selected based on information derived from the transmitted signals. The power equipment modifies an operation based on the data received from the remote system. The stationary power equipment is powered by fossil fuel. The fossil fuel may be in different form, such as gasoline, natural gas, diesel, coal, etc. In one embodiment, the information derived from the operation system is caused to be sent to a remote diagnostic system in response to a specific command received from the data transmission network, or in response to the occurrence of an error. In another embodiment, the information derived from the operation data is caused to be sent to a remote site regularly or on a periodic basis, such as after the elapse of a predetermined period of time or whenever the usage of the data storage device exceeds a predetermined threshold. According to another embodiment, the data processing device in the stationary power equipment performs a self diagnosis based on the collected operation data. In response to the diagnosis indicating that an error exists, the stationary power equipment may take certain actions. For instance, the data processing device may execute machine-executable instructions to perform a fix procedure corresponding to the detected error. The machine-executable instructions may be pre-stored in the stationary power equipment, or obtained dynamically from a remote site by sending a request identifying the type of the error. In one embodiment, after an error is identified, the data processing system sends a notification signal to a diagnostic system via the data transmission network, to signal the occurrence of the error. The notification signal may include information identifying the type of the error, occurrence time of the error, historical operation data of the stationary power equipment, etc. According to another embodiment, information needed to fix the identified error, such as technical manuals, specifications, maintenance guidance, etc., is obtained from another machine via the data transmission network coupled to the stationary power equipment. The obtained information may be used, by the stationary power equipment and/or a technician, in determining the cause of the error and/or identifying the part or parts to which the error is associated. A diagnostic system at a remote site may couple to the intelligent stationary power equipment via a data transmission network. A request may be sent to the stationary power equipment via the data transmission network to cause the stationary power equipment to send information derived from the collected operation data via the data transmission network. The diagnostic system may determine an operation condition of the stationary power equipment based on the received information. In one embodiment, responsive to the operation condition indicating that an error has occurred, the diagnostic system may take one or more types of actions, including sending machine-executable instructions for curing the error to the stationary power equipment; collecting information related to the error, such as technical manuals, specifications, maintenance guidelines, needed parts, etc.; and/or generating work orders, parts orders and/or diagnostic reports, and so on. Additional advantages and novel features of the present disclosure will be set forth in part in the description which follows, and in part will become apparent to those skilled in the art upon examination of the following, or may be learned by practice of the present disclosure. The embodiments shown and described provide an illustration of the best mode contemplated for carrying out the present disclosure. The disclosure is capable of modifications in various obvious respects, all without departing from the spirit and scope thereof. Accordingly, the drawings and description are to be regarded as illustrative in nature, and not as restrictive. The advantages of the present disclosure may be realized and attained by means of the instrumentalities and combinations particularly pointed out in the appended claims. In the following description, for the purposes of explanation, numerous specific details are set forth in order to provide a thorough understanding of the present disclosure. It will be apparent, however, to one skilled in the art that concepts of the disclosure may be practiced or implemented without these specific details. In other instances, well-known structures and devices are shown in block diagram form in order to avoid unnecessarily obscuring the present disclosure. FIG. 1 shows a generalized block diagram of exemplary intelligent electrical generator system 100. The intelligent electrical generator system 100 includes a diagnostic controller 102, a data storage device 106 and a communication device 104, all coupled to a data bus 154. The data storage device 106 includes at least one or a combination of dynamic storage devices, such as random access memory (RAM), and static storage devices, such as read only memory (ROM), magnetic disks, optical disks, etc., for storing information, instructions, temporary variables and/or other intermediate information during execution of instructions. The communication device 104 includes needed hardware and/or software for establishing data communications via a data transmission network in a wired or wireless manner. Examples of the data transmission network include a local area network (LAN), WiFi network, a landline or wireless telephone network, a satellite communication link, the internet, etc., or a combination thereof. In one embodiment, an exemplary intelligent electrical generator system is capable of performing wireless communications with a remote system beyond a five-mile range. A diesel motor 150 is provided to power an electrical generator 152. A motor controller 108 and a generator controller 110 are provided to control the operations of the diesel motor 150 and the generator 152, respectively. Sensors are disposed at different locations of the system 100 to collect and updates data related to the operation of the system 100. In one embodiment, sensors 120, 122, 124, as shown in FIG. 1, are coupled to a data bus 154. If needed, sensors 120, 122, 124 are provided with sufficient intelligence to convert raw signals collected by the sensors to a format complying with a protocol used by the data bus 154. In another embodiment, sensors are couple to the data bus 154 via a controller that processes raw signals to comport to the data format used on the data bus 154. According to still other embodiment, sensors are coupled to one or more controllers directly to prove raw or processed data, without connecting to the data bus 154. As shown in FIG. 1, the controllers 108, 110 may couple to the sensors 120, 122, 124, and/or other sub-systems that further include controllers and/or sensors. The numbers and the interconnections of the controllers and sensors are for illustration purpose only. It is understood to people skilled in the art that different numbers and arrangements of the sensors and controllers may be used to implement the concepts of this disclosure. The exact number of controllers and sensors varies depending upon the desired application and/or design preference. For instance, stationary power equipment may use a single controller in place of the diagnostic controller 102, the motor controller 108 and the generator controller 110. The sensors 120, 122, 124 and controllers 108, 110 collectively provide various types of operation data associated with the operation of the system 100. The operation data includes raw signals, processed and/or unprocessed operation parameters, data related to an environment to which the system 100 is exposed, information related to any systems and/or devices that are coupled to the system 100, etc. Examples of data collected by the sensors 120, 122, 124 and the controllers 108, 110 include voltage, temperatures, ampere, wave phase, torque, motor rpm, pressure, switch status, resistance, impedance, signal frequency, fuel level, fuel pressure, types of communication protocols, etc. The collected operation data is stored in the data storage device 106 via the data bus 154. In one embodiment, the diagnostic controller 102 performs an analysis on the collected operation data and determines whether an error has occurred to any of the parts or subsystems in the system 100. In response to an error occurring in the system 100, the diagnostic controller 102 causes certain processes to be performed to avoid damages caused by the error. FIG. 2 shows an exemplary process performed by the system 100 for determining whether an output voltage of the generator 152 is normal. In Step 201, the diagnostic controller 102 obtains an output voltage of the generator 152. The obtained output voltage of the generator 152 is compared with a reference value, such as an acceptable voltage range (Step 203). The reference value may be presorted in the data storage device 106 or generated dynamically based on the operation of the system 100. If the diagnostic controller 102 determines that the output voltage is too high (Step 205), the diagnostic controller 102 issues a stop command to controllers 108 and 110 to shut down the diesel motor 150 and the generator 152 (Step 207). At Step 209, an error log or error record indicating a higher than normal output voltage is created and stored in the data storage device 106. The error log includes information related to types of errors, the time of errors, the parts that the errors associated to, historical operation data, steps performed by the system 100, etc. If, at Step 205, it is determined that the output voltage of the generator 152 falls in an acceptable range, a new output voltage of the generator 152 is obtained, and the evaluation process (Steps 203 and 205) is repeated. According to another embodiment, the diagnostic controller 102 checks the health of controllers 108, 110 by polling. If any of the controllers 108, 110 is defective or is not functioning normally, the defective controller would not respond to a polling request sent by the diagnostic controller 102 in an appropriate manner. In response, an error log related to the defective controller is created and saved. According to still another embodiment, the motor controller 108 and the generator controller 110 periodically or constantly write operation data associated with the motor and the generator to a specified area in the data storage device 106. The operation data includes information and/or parameters related to the subsystem by which the controllers 108 and 110 control, such as error codes, self-diagnostic results, voltage, temperatures, ampere, wave phase, torque, motor rpm, pressure, switch status, resistance, impedance, signal frequency, fuel level, fuel pressure, etc. If any of the controllers 108 and 110 or their respective subsystems fails, the diagnostic controller 102 can access the storage area to which the failed controller writes operation data, to retrieve the operation data associated with the failed subsystem. According to one embodiment, the diagnostic controller 102 identifies the cause of an error, and initiates a corresponding diagnostic process to cure the error or lessen the symptom. Instructions for controlling the diagnostic controller 102 to perform a diagnostic process corresponding to a specific type of error are pre-stored in the data storage device 106 and/or dynamically downloaded from a remote server or machine via the data transmission network. FIG. 3 is a flow chart showing an exemplary process for resolving an unusually high temperature in the motor 150. In Step 301, data related to the motor temperature is collected by temperature sensors. In Step 303, the diagnostic controller 102 determines whether the motor temperature exceeds an acceptable threshold. If the temperature is normal, another temperature sample is obtained and Steps 301 and 303 are repeated. On the other hand, if it is determined that the motor temperature exceeds an acceptable level, the diagnostic controller 102 obtains operation data related to a cooling subsystem that is used to cool the diesel motor 150, and determines whether the cooling subsystem is working properly. For instance, in Steps 305 and 307, the diagnostic controller 102 obtains the rpm of a cooling fan used to cool the diesel motor 150, and determines if the cooling fan rpm is within a normal range. If the cooling fan rpm is too low, the diagnostic controller 102 determines that the cooling subsystem is not working properly and hence is the cause of the high motor temperature. An error log indicating an error in the cooling fan or the cooling subsystem is created and saved (Step 309). Appropriate time stamps and historical operation data may be compiled and stored in the error log. In Step 311, the diagnostic controller 102 issues a reduce output command to the motor controller 108. In response to the reduce power command, the diesel motor 150 reduces power output. Consequently, the operation temperature drops despite that the cooling subsystem is not working normally. On the other hand, if Step 307 determines that the cooling fan rpm is normal, the diagnostic controller 102 directly performs Step 311 to reduce output of the diesel motor without creating an error log associated with the cooling subsystem. Steps 305 through 311 as shown in FIG. 3 may be implemented as a set of software instructions that is executed by the diagnostic controller 102 in response to an event of a high motor temperature. The diagnostic controller 102 obtains the instructions from the data storage device 106, or dynamically accesses the instructions from a remote server via the data transmission network. In one embodiment, the system 100 sends information related to the error log to the remote server. The remote server analyzes the error log and determines an operation status of the system 100. In response, the remote server compiles and sends data corresponding to the determined operation status. In one embodiment, the data is used by the system 100 to modify an operation of the system 100 to fix or repair a problem or error encountered by the system 100, or to provide an alternative operation scheme. For instance, the data provided by the remote system instructs the system 100 to reduce the level of voltage output when a cooling subsystem is not working properly, as described earlier. The intelligent electrical generator system 100 generates and provides various types of diagnostic information derived from the operation data of the system 100. The diagnostic information includes at least one of the operation data, health reports, errors logs, error codes, descriptions of errors, historical operation data, communication records, actions taken by the system 100, needed actions or parts, diagnostic results, etc. According to one embodiment, the system 100 generates the diagnostic information based on the operation data and information stored in the data storage device 106 or retrieved from other systems via the data transmission network. For instance, the system 100 dynamically retrieves a diagnostic algorithm from a remote server via the data transmission network, and generates a self-diagnostic report based on the diagnostic algorithm and the operation data. The diagnostic information is accessible from proper connector or connectors of the system 100, from a data transmission network coupled to the system 100, or from a display coupled to the system 100. In another embodiment, in response to the occurrence of an error, the system 100 sends the information derived from the operation data to a remote diagnostic system via the data transmission network. In still another embodiment, the system 100 sends the information derived from the operation data only when a specific type of request is received from a diagnostic system via the data transmission network. In a further embodiment, the system 100 sends the information derived from the operation data to a diagnostic system via the data transmission network on a periodic basis or according to a predetermined schedule, such as every other day, twice an hour or three times a week. FIG. 4 depicts an exemplary diagnostic system 400 that communicates with the intelligent electrical generator system 100 depicted in FIG. 1. The diagnostic system 400 includes a controller 401 for processing data, a data storage system 403, a display/printer 402 and a communication device 404, all of which are coupled to a bus 405. The communication device 404 enables communications between the diagnostic system 400 and the intelligent electrical generator 100 via a data transmission network, such as the internet, telephone network, local area network, etc. In one embodiment, the information derived from the operation data of the intelligent electrical generator system 100 is sent to the diagnostic system 400, either in response to a request initiated by the controller 401 or as a result of a delivery initiated by the intelligent electrical generator system 100. The controller 401 performs an analysis on the received information. If the analysis reveals that a fault has occurred in the intelligent electrical generator system 100 and is caused by a defective part, the diagnostic system 400 automatically generates a fault report. The fault report is output to the display/printer 402, stored in the data storage system 403 and/or sent to another system coupled to the diagnostic system. In one embodiment, the diagnostic system 400 compiles and retrieves information related to the identified fault from the data storage system 403 and/or one or more databases coupled to the diagnostic system 400. The retrieved information includes at least one of descriptions of the fault, specification of the part that caused the fault, technical manuals of the intelligent power generator system 100, descriptions of needed replacement parts, and instructions to fix the fault, etc. The retrieved information is provided to a technician to assist repair of the intelligent power generator system 100. According to one embodiment, the diagnostic system 400 automatically generates a work order and/or parts order corresponding to the fault. According to another embodiment, the controller 401 retrieves a set of machine-executable instructions from the data storage system 403 and/or a database coupled to the diagnostic system 400, for curing the identified fault. Based on the control of the instructions, the diagnostic controller 102 causes the system 100 to perform appropriate steps to fix the identified fault. According to another embodiment, the intelligent stationary power equipment of this disclosure includes an input device and a display allowing a technician to access data residing on other systems via the data transmission network. For instance, a web browser is provided for a technician to download needed technical instructions or manuals to the equipment for performing maintenance work. According to another example, the stationary power equipment is a pumping system including four pump units powered by fossil fuel. If one or more pump units fail, an error log is created indicating the condition encountered by the pumping system. The error log is sent to a remote diagnostic center. Based on information extracted from the error log, data related to appropriate measures is collected and compiled, either manually or automatically, and is sent to the pumping system. Based on the information or instructions embedded in the data received from the remote diagnostic center, the pumping system is caused to shut down the failed pump unit or units, and increase the pumping output level of other pump units such that the same total amount of fluid is transferred by the pumping system, despite the existence of the failed pumping unit or units. In the previous descriptions, numerous specific details are set forth, such as specific materials, structures, processes, etc., in order to provide a thorough understanding of the present disclosure. However, as one having ordinary skill in the art would recognize, the present disclosure can be practiced without resorting to the details specifically set forth. In other instances, well known processing structures have not been described in detail in order not to unnecessarily obscure the present disclosure. Only the illustrative embodiments of the disclosure and examples of their versatility are shown and described in the present disclosure. It is to be understood that the disclosure is capable of use in various other combinations and environments and is capable of changes or modifications within the scope of the inventive concept as expressed herein.
	description	This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/369,368 filed on Feb. 9, 2012, which is hereby incorporated by reference for all purposes as if fully set forth herein. Various exemplary embodiments disclosed herein relate generally to low-dose-rate radiation for medical and veterinary therapies with three-dimensionally shaped profiles. Such application is especially useful in treating various cancers and other tumors. Cancer continues to be one of the foremost health problems. Conventional treatments such as surgery and chemotherapy have been extremely successful in certain cases; in other instances, much less so. Radiation therapy has also exhibited favorable results in many cases, while failing to be completely satisfactory and effective in all instances. It has been proposed that an alternative form of radiation therapy, known as microbeam radiation therapy (MRT) or microbeam radiosurgery (MBRS) may be used to treat certain tumors for which the conventional methods have been ineffective. MRT or BMRS, hereafter designated MBRS, differs from conventional radiation therapy by employing multiple parallel fan beams of radiation with a narrow dimension or thickness that may be on the order of 10 to 200 micrometers. The thickness of the microbeams is dependent upon the capacity of tissue surrounding a beam path to support the recovery of the tissue injured by the beam. It has been found in experimental rodents that certain types of cells, notably endothelial cells lining blood vessels, but also oligodendroglial and other supporting cells, have the capacity to migrate over microscopic distances, infiltrating tissue damaged by radiation and reducing tissue necrosis in the beam path. In MBRS, sufficient unirradiated or minimally irradiated microscopic zones remain in the normal tissue but not in neoplastic tissue through which the microbeams pass to allow efficient repair of irradiation-damaged normal tissue. As a result, unidirectional MBRS is, fundamentally, greatly different from other forms of radiation therapy, while multidirectional, stereotactic MBRS is substantially different from other forms of stereotactic radiotherapy. In conventional clinical forms of radiation therapy, including the radiosurgical techniques employing, steeotactically, multiple, slender, convergent beams of X-ray or gamma radiation, each beam is usually at least five hundred micrometers wide, so that the otherwise potential biological advantage of rapid repair by migrating or proliferating endothelial cells is minimal or nonexistent. Observations of the regeneration of blood vessels following MBRS indicate that endothelial cells cannot efficiently regenerate damaged blood vessels over distances on the order of more than 100 micrometers (μm). Thus, in view of this knowledge concerning radiation pathology of normal blood vessels, the skilled artisan may select a microbeam thickness as small as 20 μm but not more than 100 μm. Further, the microbeams may include substantially parallel, non-overlapping, planar beams with center-to-center spacing of from about 50 μm to about 500 μm. Also, the microbeam energies should be confined to the range from about 30 to several hundred keV, lest tissue penetration from lower energies be inadequate on one hand and lateral scattering of radiation from the high-dose in-beam path excessively increase the dose between microbeams, thereby obviating the microbeam normal-tissue-protective effect on the other hand. These microbeams result in a dosage profile with microscopically narrow (generally less than 100 μm wide) peaks and submillimeter-wide (generally less than a half-millimeter wide) valleys between them. The region between the peaks is called the valley region. The radiation dosage is large enough to render all cells in the targeted malignancy within the peak-zone slice non-clonogenic, but renders normal cells within the peak-zone slice proximal and distal to a targeted malignancy similarly non-clonogenic. The critical and novel therapeutic aspect of MBRS is that such damage proximal and distal to the malignancy is largely repaired by the influx of surviving progenitor cells from adjacent zones of low-dose normal tissue in the valleys. However, such damage to the targeted malignancy is therapeutically largely not repaired, putatively because the valley regions in the malignancy do not communicate well biologically with zones of cell loss in the nearby peak-dose regions of the same malignancy. Presumably, such lack of communication, especially among supporting cells of the malignancy, therapeutically impairs the viability and growth potential of the malignancy. The minimum radiation dosage in the valleys (i.e., the “nadir” valley dosage) must be just small enough to prevent clonogenically lethal damage to some necessary fraction of potentially reparative cells in the valley dosage areas . . . but not smaller than necessary for optimal peak-dose damage to the malignancy, since a nadir valley dose is roughly arithmetically proportional to the arithmetic average of the pair of doses in the adjacent peaks. A division of a radiation beam into microbeams and the use of a patient-exposure plan that provides non-overlapping beams in the tissue surrounding the target tumor allows the non-target tissue to recover from the radiation injury, in particular by migration of regenerating endothelial and other reparative cells of the small blood vessels to the areas in which the endothelial cells have been injured beyond recovery. Therefore, the probability of radiation-induced coagulative necrosis in normal, non-targeted tissue is lowered, which may improve the effectiveness of clinical radiation therapy for deep-seated and/or superficially situated tumors. Various studies have shown the microbeam tissue-sparing effect for X-ray microbeams. Although other methods and processes are known for radiation therapy, none provides a method for performing radiation therapy while avoiding significant radiation-induced damage to tissues proximal to, distal to, and interspersed with the targeted lesion. Present radiation therapies often take many days and weeks of treatment to provide enough radiation to a target tumor. On the other hand, MBRS can provide an effectual treatment in single visit. Very high (or lesser but sufficiently high-) energy radiation may be used with MBRS that results in the destruction of tumor tissue while allowing for the regeneration of healthy tissue adversely affected by the microbeams. Further, MBRS provides a method for treating cancerous tumors by using extremely narrow, quasi-parallel X-ray microbeams increasing the precision and accuracy of radiation therapy. MBRS also provides a method of using extremely small microbeams of radiation to unexpectedly produce effective radiation therapy while avoiding significant radiation-induced damage to non-targeted tissues. A major benefit of MBRS is that the microbeams are so narrow that the vasculature of the tissue and other components of the tissue through which the microbeams pass can repair themselves by the infiltration of endothelial cells and other cells from surrounding unirradiated tissue. Present knowledge indicates that such infiltration can take place only over distances on the order of less than 500 μm, that specific distance depending on the specific kind of tissue being irradiated. The dimensions of the microbeams and the configuration of the microbeam array are therefore determinable with reference to the susceptibility to irradiation of the target tissue and the surrounding tissue to irradiation and the capacities of the various involved tissues to regenerate. U.S. Pat. No. 5,339,247 to Slatkin et al. titled Method for Microbeam Radiation Therapy provides background related to MBRS, and is hereby incorporated by reference for all purposes as if fully set forth herein. Accordingly, there is a need for improved radiation therapies that can quickly yet safely treat patients. Further there is a need to focus radiation doses in desired peak dosage regions while minimizing radiation doses in desired valley dosage regions. Further, there remain a need to three-dimensionally shape the MBRS radiation profile to fit the treatment area and to thereby reduce damage to adjacent healthy tissue. A brief summary of various exemplary embodiments is presented. Some simplifications and omissions may be made in the following summary, which is intended to highlight and introduce some aspects of the various exemplary embodiments, but not to limit the scope of the invention. Detailed descriptions of a preferred exemplary embodiment adequate to allow those of ordinary skill in the art to make and use the inventive concepts will follow in the later sections. Various embodiments may also relate to a method of performing microbeam radiation therapy for a subject, including: producing a high-energy radiation beam; shaping, attenuating, and increasing the penetration of the high-energy radiation beam using a low-atomic-weight (i.e., a low-Z) filter; passing the shaped and attenuated beam through a collimator to produce high-dose regions transversely alternating with low-dose regions; and irradiating the tumor-bearing part of the subject with the shaped, attenuated, and collimated beam. Various embodiments may also relate to a method of performing microbeam radiation therapy for a subject, including: producing a high-energy radiation fan beam, wherein the width of the fan beam in a first direction is greater than the width of the fan beam in a second direction; and shaping the fan beam; producing a relative movement between the subject and the fan beam to irradiate the subject through a collimator to produce high-dose regions alternating with low-dose regions in the targeted zone of the patient, but not lateral to that intended targeted zone. Various embodiments may also relate to a microbeam radiation therapy system, including: a high-energy radiation beam; a collimator with slits, wherein the collimator only passes the high-energy radiation fan beam through the slits; and a beam shaper configured to spatially limit and filter the high-energy radiation beam. Referring now to the drawings, in which like numerals refer to like components or steps, there are disclosed broad aspects of various exemplary embodiments of our invention. FIG. 1 illustrates a method for producing microbeams using a collimator. The collimator 105 may include a plurality of parallel slits 115 in a vertical direction. A high-energy radiation fan beam 100 that may be very narrow in the vertical direction and wide in the horizontal direction may pass through the collimator 105. Because the collimator 105 is made of a high Z material, it blocks portions of the of the high-energy radiation fan beam 100. The portion of the high-energy radiation fan beam 100 that passes through the slits 115 of the collimator 105 forms the microbeams 110. The microbeams 110 may be used to treat a subject. Depending upon the vertical height of the fan beam 100 relative to the size of the treatment region, the subject may have to be moved relative to the microbeams 110 in order to irradiate the whole treatment region. It is not possible to move the high-energy radiation fan beam 100 because of the massive size of the facility necessary to produce the high-energy radiation fan beam 100. Further, the collimator 105 has been fixed relative to the high-energy fan beam 100. MBRS may apply very high-energy radiation beams for a very short period of time. One problem with MBRS may occur when the subject moves relative to the beam during treatment. This may result in smearing of the peak and valley doses applied to the subject. Effective and safe MBRS relies upon valley dose regions where the radiation dose is low enough to prevent any damage to the healthy cells in the valley dose regions. If the subject moves relative to the microbeams 110 during treatment, then the high-energy radiation of the microbeams 110 may smear into the valley-dose regions resulting in many if not all of the healthy cells along the path of the microbeams 110 being injured beyond recovery. Accordingly there is a need to stabilize and fix the microbeams 110 relative to the subject. The microbeams 110 may be fixed relative to the subject by affixing a collimator to the subject that splits a high-energy fan beam 100 into microbeams 110. In this embodiment, even though the subject may move relative to the high-energy fan beam 100, the collimator moves with the subject, hence the microbeams 115 emanating from the collimator move with the subject as well. This embodiment may prevent the problem described above. Moreover, it permits use of dose rates that are lower than those thought and recorded as feasible to date, thereby allowing use of radiation-generating facilities less costly than those conceived possible to date, which renders this invention distinctly and obviously different in a clinically advantageous manner over previously disclosed treatments. FIG. 2 illustrates an embodiment of a MBRS system. The MBRS system 200 may include a source 205 that produces a high-energy fan beam 100, a beam filtering and limiting system 210, jaws 215, a collimator 220, and a movable platform 225. A subject 230 may be treated by the MBRS system 200, but not necessarily so. The source 200 may produce a high-energy electromagnetic radiation beam such as a X-ray or gamma radiation beam. High-energy X-ray radiation may be especially beneficial. In any generated photon beam, the photons are produced having a characteristic spectrum of energies. The photon energy of the beams may optimally range from about 30 keV to about 300 keV, but unlikely optimally outside that range. A synchrotron may be used to generate an X-ray beam having practically no divergence and a very high fluence rate. These synchrotron generated X-rays have the potential for projecting sharply defined beam edges deep in the body. This source may be useful for generating X-ray microbeams for radiobiology, radiotherapy, and radiosurgery. A high fluence rate may be required to implement MBRS because exposure times must be short enough (e.g., less than about 1 second) to avoid the blurring of margins of the irradiated zones of tissue due to body or organ movements, but not necessarily so if the collimator is affixed to the patient. Even absent such affixation, sharply defined microbeam margins are enabled despite patient movement not only by a high fluence rate and the minimal divergence of the synchrotron beam, but also by the microscopically short ranges in tissue of secondary electrons generated especially by 50-150 keV synchrotron X-rays. Absorbed doses to nontargeted tissues situated between microbeams may be kept below the threshold for radiation damage in tissues both proximal and distal to the isocentric target, i.e., where the microbeams do not overlap. These factors make it possible to effectively irradiate a target using a field of many well-defined, closely spaced microbeams. The radiation beam for producing the microbeam array may be obtained from industrial X-ray generators or from synchrotron beamlines at electron storage rings. The radiation beam may be obtained from a wiggler beam line at an electron storage ring. A conventional “planar” wiggler uses periodic transverse magnetic fields to produce a beam with a rectangular cross-section, typically having a horizontal-to-vertical beam opening angle ratio on the order of 50:1. In an alternative embodiment, the radiation beam is obtained from a “helical” wiggler, a configuration capable of producing a substantially less anisotropic beam. While a fan beam is discussed in the embodiment below, it is also possible to place the subject to be treated a large distance (e.g., 100 m) from the source 200, which may allow the X-ray beam from the source to expand enough in both the horizontal and vertical directions so that the beam covers the whole treatment region, and hence, it may not be necessary to move the subject relative to the high-energy beam. Further, such beam-spreading could be accomplished by two orthogonal wigglers that would spread the beam first in one direction and then in a second orthogonal direction. Such embodiments would not require movement of the subject, but the collimator would still be affixed to the subject as with the previously described embodiments. The beam-filtering and beam-limiting system 210 (which may also be designated a beam shaper) filters and limits the high-energy beam 100 for treating the subject 230. As mentioned above the source may produce a high-energy beam with a range of energies. Often only a certain range of energies may be used to treat the subject. Accordingly, various filters made of various materials may be placed in the path of the high-energy beam to filter out the undesired energy bands in the high-energy beam. Further, spatial limiting may be used to limit the beam to the desired beam size and geometry. This may help to prevent unwanted and unsafe stray radiation from the source 200. Such spatial limiting may be accomplished, for example, with plates having slits. The plates may be of sufficient thickness and high-Z material to block portions of the high-energy beam from the source 200. Jaws 215 further spatially limit the high-energy beam 100 that has passed though the filtering and limiting system 210. The jaws 215 include two jaws that may be made of a material that completely blocks the high-energy beam 100. Because the width of the high-energy fan beam typically may be wider than that of the target region, it may be necessary to limit the width of the fan beam to the width of the target region. Thus, as the subject 230 moves relative to the high-energy fan beam 100, the width of the target region varies. Accordingly, the jaws 215 move to adjust the width of the high-energy fan beam 100 to correspond to the width of the target region being irradiated by the high-energy fan beam 100. Prior to the subject being treated using MBRS, the target region is very accurately measured, so that during treatment with the high-energy fan beam 100, the width of the beam can be adjusted to correspond the precise desired treatment region. This may prevent the unnecessary irradiation of normal healthy tissue adjacent to the treatment region. With modern diagnostic technology, the boundaries and composition of tumors and other tissues to be treated using MBRS may be very accurately measured. The further discussion below discusses treating tumors, but such description is also intended to include the treatment of any desired tissue. With such an accurate three-dimensional (“3-D”) view of the desired treatment area, the shape of the MBRS radiation profile may be modified in three dimensions in order to more accurately treat just the desired treatment area corresponding to the tumor. Such shaping can be done first in a two-dimensional plane perpendicular to the direction of the high-energy radiation. The two-dimensional boundary of the treatment region may be determined based upon the measurement of the tumor. Accordingly, the two-dimensional profile of the treatment region and hence the portion of the high-energy beam that reaches the subject may be varied using various methods and apparatus as described below. Second, the MBRS radiation profile may be varied in a direction parallel to the high-energy beam using various methods and apparatus as describe below. As a result, a three-dimensional radiation profile may be achieved that matches the tumor in order to provide a more accurate treatment of the tumor and less damage to tissue adjacent to the tumor. FIGS. 9-11 may be used to demonstrate the three-dimensional shaping of the high-energy beam. FIG. 9 illustrates a three-dimensional radiation profile that may result using just the collimator 220. The two-dimensional profile of the beam is square and the radiation profile in the direction of the radiation is uniform across the two-dimensional profile. FIG. 10 illustrates a three-dimensional radiation profile that may result using a beam-filtering and beam-limiting system 210. The two-dimensional profile of the beam is shaped to match the shape of the tumor and the radiation profile in the direction of the radiation is uniform across the two-dimensional profile. FIG. 11 illustrates a three-dimensional radiation profile that may result using a beam filtering and limiting system 210. The two-dimensional profile of the beam is shaped to match the shape of the tumor and the radiation profile in the direction of the radiation intensity or spectrum varies across the two-dimensional profile to match the shape of the tumor. Once the tumor is measured, spatial information regarding the location of the tumor may be provided to a radiation profile analysis system. The measurement data may also include spatial information relating to the specific composition of the tumor at various points in space. For example, the density of the tumor or specific composition of the tumor may be determined at various points in space. Alternatively, it may be assumed that the tumor has a uniform composition. The radiation profile analysis system may use the spatial information and, if available, the composition information, to determine radiation profile to treat the tumor. Such analysis may account for the specific interaction between the radiation source and the tumor. For example, the overall power profile of the high-energy beam may be varied. In addition, the high-energy beam may have an energy spectrum profile. This energy spectrum of the high-energy beam may be varied as well based upon the composition of the tumor to be treated based upon the effectiveness of certain portions of the high-energy spectrum in treating the tumor. The energy spectrum can be set by properties of the wiggler or low-Z filter in the beam. The radiation profile analysis system may produce a three-dimensional high-energy beam profile to treat the tumor. The profile may include two components. A first component would be the two-dimensional profile in a plane perpendicular to the high-energy beam. This two-dimensional profile may be used as described below. A second component may be a depth profile that varies across the two-dimensional profile of the first component. Another factor that may affect the treatment of the tumor is the composition of the intermediate tissue between the skin and the tumor that is in the path of the high-energy beam. While measuring the tumor the intermediate tissue may be measured including the composition of the intermediate tissue. As this intermediate tissue may not be uniform it may have an effect on the high-energy beam as it impinges on the tumor. Such affects may be taken into account in determining the radiation profile used to treat the tumor. Such effects would affect the second component or depth profile of the radiation profile. A first method to produce the two-dimensional profile in a plane perpendicular to the high-energy beam is now described. The two jaws 215 may be independently controlled so as to adjust the location of edges of the high-energy fan beam 100 so that the edges coincide with the edges of the treatment region. This may be based upon the two-dimensional component of the radiation profile. Further, actuators that move the jaws 215 may be able to move the jaws 215 quickly enough to adjust the width of the high-energy fan beam 100. The movement of the jaws may be actuated by a controller that receives information relating to the shape and location of the treatment region. Further, the controller may include a processor for actuating the movement of the jaws 215. Further, while the jaws 215 are shown as spatially independent from the collimator 220, it is also possible that the jaws 215 may be connected to the collimator or the patient so that it moves with the patient as well. Jaws that provide for a varying width of the high-energy fan beam may also be used in systems where the collimator is not fixed to the patient. For example the collimator may be fixed and stationary and the high-energy fan beam is moved relative to the collimator. Also, in another embodiment, the collimator may be attached to a collimator control apparatus that may move the collimator in any direction relative to the high-energy fan beam. In this embodiment, the collimator may be in unison with the subject or may move relative to the subject. In any of these embodiments, the jaws 225 may be placed anywhere along the path of the high-energy fan beam in order to conform the width of the high-energy fan beam to the desired treatment area of the subject. Other methods may be used to produce the two-dimensional component of the radiation profile. For example, FIG. 12 illustrates a filter plate 1200 with an opening 1210 in the shape of the two-dimensional component of the radiation profile. Such a filter plate may be made of a material that blocks the high-energy beam. Alternatively, as shown in FIG. 13, the filter plate 1300 may include a plurality of slidable leafs 1320 that may be stacked and adjusted to form any opening corresponding to the desired two-dimensional profile. These filter plates 1200, 1300 may also be placed at various places along the path of the high-energy beam in order to provide two-dimensional shaping of the high-energy beam. The depth profile for the radiation profile may be implemented in various ways. First as the high-energy beam scans across the subject, the intensity of the high-energy beam may be varied. This may be done by rapidly varying components of the device that emits the high-energy beam. Alternatively, a rapidly variable beam attenuator may be placed along the path of the high-energy beam and controlled according to the depth profile. In this embodiment, the high-energy beam fans out in first direction while the high-energy beam scans (or is scanned) in a second direction perpendicular to the first direction. Accordingly the intensity of the radiation applied along the first direction is constant, while the intensity of the radiation applied along the second direction (i.e., the scanning direction) may vary. The variation of the intensity of the high-energy beam may be controlled based upon the depth profile. At a given point along the scanning direction of the high-energy beam, the depth profile along the first direction at the given point is determined, and the highest intensity required may be used for the high-energy beam at that point. This provides the needed radiation along the region radiated by the high-energy beam at the given point. While this method does not provide a complete two-dimensional variation of the depth profile, this method does reduce the overall radiation applied to the subject and thus reduces the potential damage to tissue adjacent to the tumor. Also, a two-dimensional beam profile may be implemented by using filters that alter the high-energy beam intensity profile. Such filters may be made of radiation-opaque materials of varying thicknesses in order to achieve the desired high-energy beam intensity profile that corresponds to the desired depth profile. Such filters may be plates that are machined from high Z materials to shape the high-energy beam intensity profile. Such filters may also be formed using three-dimensional printing techniques or various metal deposition techniques. Such filters may also include layers of different materials with different Z values. For example, a plate made of a laminate of multiple different materials may be machined to achieve the desired shape and profile. Such filters may be machined on two sides to allow for greater control of the final filter intensity profile. Alternatively, different materials may be used in the three-dimensional printing or deposition methods. The use of various materials with different Z values allows for fine-tuning of the filter intensity profile. For example, a low-Z material may be used in order to achieve a more precise over all Z value, thus leading to a more accurate filter intensity profile within the mechanical tolerances of the methods used to form the filter. Further, the materials selected may be used to filter the frequency spectrum of the radiation. Such narrowing of the frequency spectrum or the selection of specific portions of the frequency spectrum may be done according to the tumor being treated as well as to the sensitivity to various types of radiation of adjacent tissue. Further, the filtering may be done using the collimator. The collimator may be formed having slits that have varying lengths across the treatment region that conform to the shape of the tumor. Further, the slits may be filled with materials that attenuate the high-energy beam passing through the slits. Such attenuations may create a radiation profile matching the shape of the tumor to be treated. The shaped high-energy fan beam 100 may irradiate the collimator 220. As described above with respect to the FIG. 1, the collimator 220 may include a plurality of vertical slits. The vertical slits split the high-energy fan beam 100 into a plurality of microbeams 110 (as shown in FIG. 1). The collimator 220 may be affixed securely to the subject. Preferably, the collimator 220 is very near the subject 230 or even in contact with the skin of the subject 230. As a result, the microbeams formed by the collimator 220 are fixed relative to the subject, even if the subject moves. The collimator 220 may be fixed to the skeleton of the subject 220 as shown in FIG. 3. The collimator 220 may be attached to the subject 230 using screws 300 or another fastener 300 that may be used to affix items to the skeleton. The collimator may be affixed to the skull as shown in FIG. 3, but may also be affixed, for example, to the skull, the hip, the spine, the clavicle, or to bones in the arm or the leg. The collimator 220 may also be affixed to the subject 230 using a facial mask 400 as shown in FIG. 4. A facial mask 400 may be placed over the face of the subject 230 and held in place using straps or any other secure method. Then the collimator 220 may be attached to the mask 400. Further, the collimator 220 may be affixed to the subject 230 by clamping the collimator 220 or a related fixture between the upper and lower jaws of the subject. The subject's jaws may then be held in place using straps or some other method. Also, a fixture may be used to help affix the collimator 220 to the subject 230. The fixture may be attached to the face, skeleton, jaw or other stable part of the subject. Then the collimator 220 may be attached to the fixture. It is important to precisely and accurately affix the collimator 220 relative to the target region in the subject 230 that is to be treated. This may be accomplished by affixing the collimator or the fixture to the subject 230 in the desired location. Then a diagnostic test may be performed to verify the alignment of the collimator 230 or fixture with the treatment region. Then the location of the collimator 230 or the fixture may be adjusted, and the diagnostic test repeated. This process may be repeated as many times as needed to achieve the desired alignment accuracy between the collimator 220 and the target region of the subject 230. The movable platform 225 may hold the subject in a fixed position and then move the subject relative to the high-energy fan beam 100. The movable platform 225 may be any known platform that secures the patient and then allows for precise and accurate movement of the patient relative to the high-energy fan beam 100. Further, the MBRS may be conducted in order to accommodate tissue movement in the subject due to the cardiac or respiratory cycle. The exposure interval of the high-energy beam 100 may be synchronized with either the cardiac or the respiratory cycle or both. Each exposure interval may be limited to a small time interval during the appropriate cycle to avoid the smearing of the extraordinarily precise microbeam effect by movement of the tissue generated by cardiogenic and respiratory pulsation. For example, the exposure interval of the high-energy beam 100 may be limited to the end phase of diastole or the end phase of an exhalation cycle. Other predicable points of these cycles may be used as well. In yet another embodiment, the diagnostic tests performed to characterize the target region or to align the collimator with the target region may be carried out at specific predetermined portion of the cardiac or respiratory cycle. Then the exposure interval of the high-energy beam 100 may be during the same specific predetermined portion of the cardiac or respiratory cycle, and may include one or more exposure interval periods. The use of compensation for the cardiac and respiratory cycle may depend on the target regions susceptibility to movement due to these cycles. Because such high-energy radiation may be used in MBRS it is very important to precisely control the dose of radiation applied to the subject 230, prior to treatment, a medical physicist may use sophisticated computer tools and modeling to determine the dosage parameters to use during the MBRS. In order to evaluate the MBRS dosage radiobiologically in addition to physically, a two-dimensional array of microscopic cell-culture chambers may be used. The array may be placed downstream from the collimator 220 in close proximity to or in contact with the subject's skin. Those cells behind the radiolucent slits and their similar but minimally irradiated cells in the same two-dimensional array behind the radio-opaque bars of the collimator between its radiolucent slits would indicate, with nearly cell-by-cell spatial resolution, the biologically effective dose received by the skin cells, which are important reference doses for computation by the medical physicist of valley doses in radiosensitive vital normal tissues deep to the skin, proximal and distal to the target region, outlined in diagnostic tests. Such a two-dimensional array may also be placed near the collimator 220 without a subject and irradiated to determine the radiobiological effects of a proposed treatment dosage. While the application of a single MBRS dose may be effective to treat a subject, it may also be beneficial to provide multiple treatments from different directions, i.e., stereotactically. The treatment directions and doses would be selected to allow the two different sets of microbeams to intersect in the target region. These multiple doses of high-energy radiation to the treatment region may increase the effectiveness of the MBRS for a lesion. While the high radiation beam 100 is described as being spread in the horizontal direction, it may be beneficial to spread the beam in the vertical direction or any other direction. Using other beam spreading directions may provide benefits in accurately delivering a dose. Also, if multiple MBRS treatments are used, then the ability to spread the high-energy beam 100 in various directions may be beneficial. For example, when producing high-energy X-rays using a synchrotron, a wiggler may be used to spread the beam in a desired direction. Such a wiggler may be mounted so that it can be rotated around an axis parallel to the high-energy beam. As a result the beam may be spread in any desired direction. The rotation of the wiggler may be precisely and accurately controlled to allow the beam to spread as needed to apply the desired radiation dose. Prior research, has shown that “blanching” (i.e., temporarily restricting blood flow to) the subject's skin during exposure to photonic ionizing radiation reduces the damage done to the skin. Accordingly, this benefit may be combined with the treatment method and system according the present embodiments. Blanching of the skin may be accomplished by applying pressure to the skin irradiated by the microbeams 110. Such pressure may be applied by a tightly applied bandage or band. Further, pressure may be applied to the skin by using a gas-filled elastic bladder placed between the skin of the subject and the collimator 220. Another method of blanching the skin includes injecting adrenaline into an area near the skin to be blanched. Any other method to blanch the skin, hitherto known or hitherto unknown, may be used, alternatively or concomitantly. Because the collimator 220 may be heavy because of its size and the use of dense materials needed to block the high-energy radiation beam 200, it may be uncomfortable to the subject to support the weight of the collimator 220. Accordingly, this weight may be offset using a pulley or lever arm system. FIG. 5 illustrates a pulley system 500 that may help to counter the weight of the collimator 230. The pulley system 500 may include a pulley 510, a counter-weight 520, and a cable 530. The cable 530 may attach to the collimator 220 and then extend through and over pulley 510 and then attach to the counter-weight 520. The counter-weight 520 is approximately the same weight as the collimator 220, so that the effective weight of the collimator 220 on the subject is nearly zero. Further, the pulley may be subject to a small frictional force to minimize the movement of the pulley except when a sufficient force is applied to the cable 530. FIG. 6 illustrates another embodiment of a system 600 to counter the weight of the collimator 230. The lever system 600 may include a base 610, a lever arm 620, a counter-weight 630, and a gimbal 640. The base 610 supports the lever arm 620 and allows the lever arm 620 to pivot about a connection point between the base 610 and the lever arm 620. A counter-weight 630 is attached to one end of the lever arm 630 to counterbalance weight at the gimbal end of the lever arm 630. The weight of the counter-weight 630 may be selected in order to counter the weight of the collimator 220. The collimator 220 may be attached to a gimbal 640 at the end of the lever arm 620 opposite the counter-weight 630. The gimbal allows the collimator 220 be oriented in any needed direction. Other mechanical systems may be used as well to offset the weight of the collimator 220 in order to prevent or alleviate transient discomfort to the subject. As described above with respect to FIG. 1, the collimator 105 may include alternating radiation-translucent regions and radiation-opaque regions. The radiation-translucent regions may be slits 115 formed in a radiation-opaque material. Also, the radiation-translucent region may be made of a radiation-translucent material that allows the high-energy beam 100 to pass through the collimator 105 to form the microbeams 110. FIG. 7 illustrates one embodiment of a collimator. The collimator 705 may include an enclosure 710, radiation-translucent foils 720, and radiation-opaque liquid 725. The enclosure 710 may have two substantially parallel opposite sides with grooves 715. The radiation-translucent foils 720 may be mounted in opposite pairs of grooves 715. All of the radiation-translucent foils 720 may be substantially parallel to each other. The radiation-translucent foils 720 may be made of aluminum or of any other material that is sufficiently radiation-translucent. Next a liquid radiation-opaque material such as mercury maybe added to the regions in between the radiation-translucent foils 720. Such a collimator 705 would allow for the easy construction of various collimators 705 with various parameters, such as foil height, width, and thickness and the spacing between the foils. FIG. 8 illustrates another embodiment of a collimator. The collimator 805 may include a body 810 and layers 815. The body may be made of a radiation-translucent material such as for example plastic. Plastic has the advantage that it may be easily machined to create slits. The slits may be formed using micromachining techniques. Further, the body 810 may include a machinable side 820. This machinable side may be machined to conform to specific portion of the subject's body. This would allow for accurate, stable, and comfortable placement of the collimator 805 in contact with the subject. Although the various exemplary embodiments have been described in detail with particular reference to certain exemplary aspects thereof, it should be understood that the invention is capable of other embodiments and its details are capable of modifications in various obvious respects. As is readily apparent to those skilled in the art, variations and modifications can be affected while remaining within the spirit and scope of the invention. Accordingly, the foregoing disclosure, description, and figures are for illustrative purposes only and do not in any way limit the invention, which is defined only by the claims.
	claims	1. A method for sealing a seam in a wall of a pool of a nuclear facility, making use of a mobile robot carrying a dispenser for an adhesive tape, the method comprising:controlling a plurality of suction systems, comprising a first suction system and at least a second suction system, the second suction system being part of a frame carrying a crosspiece movably mounted in the frame, the crosspiece being movable at least in translation relatively to the frame, said translation being along at least one direction in a plane parallel to said wall, the crosspiece supporting the first suction system via an arm and a rotation shaft perpendicular to said plane, the crosspiece supporting the arm, said arm supporting the dispenser, the arm supporting the shaft for adjusting the height of the dispenser relatively to the frame to apply the adhesive tape of the dispenser against the seam, the motion in translation of the crosspiece relatively to the frame making the first suction system being movable in translation relatively to the second suction system in order to adjust the position of the dispenser, the shaft being able to move in rotation to orient furthermore the first suction system angularly relative to the second suction system, andcontrolling the movement of the first suction system relative to the second suction system of said plurality of suction systems. 2. The method according to claim 1, wherein, to move the dispenser relative to a wall of the pool, alternating steps are ordered which comprise at least the following:activating the plurality of suction systems while deactivating the first suction system,moving the first suction system relative to the second suction system in a given direction,activating the first suction system while deactivating the second suction system,moving the first suction system relative to the second suction system in a direction opposite the given direction. 3. The method according to claim 1, wherein the seam to be sealed is a weld between sheets covering an inner wall of the pool. 4. The method according to claim 3, wherein said weld contains a crack. 5. A mobile robot for sealing a seam in a wall of a pool of a nuclear facility, the mobile robot carrying a dispenser of an adhesive tape, and comprising:a plurality of suction systems, comprising a first suction system and at least a second suction system, the second suction system being part of a frame comprising a crosspiece movably mounted in the frame, the crosspiece being moveable at least in translation relatively in the frame, said translation being along at least one direction in a plane parallel to said wall, the crosspiece supporting the first suction system via an arm and a rotation shaft perpendicular to said plane, the crosspiece supporting the arm, said arm supporting the dispenser, the arm supporting the shaft for adjusting the height of the dispenser relatively to the frame to apply the adhesive tape of the dispenser against the seam, the motion in translation of the crosspiece relatively to the frame making the first suction system being movable in translation relatively to the second suction system in order to adjust the position of the dispenser, the shaft being able to move in rotation to orient furthermore the first suction system angularly relative to the second suction system, andmovement means for moving the first suction system relative to the second suction system of said plurality of suction systems. 6. The mobile robot according to claim 1, wherein the arm is mounted to move in translation relative to the crosspiece in at least a second direction that is different from the first direction. 7. The mobile robot according to claim 1, wherein the dispenser is mounted relative to the frame so that the dispenser is placed outside the frame. 8. The mobile robot according to claim 5, wherein the plurality of suction systems comprises suction cups with backflow of fluid. 9. The mobile robot according to claim 5, wherein the dispenser comprises a head that presses the tape against the wall and wherein said head includes a servomotor. 10. The mobile robot according to claim 5, wherein the adhesive tape is covered with a protective film. 11. The mobile robot according to claim 10, wherein the protective film is made of stainless steel. 12. A facility comprising a mobile robot for sealing a seam in a wall of a pool of a nuclear facility, the mobile robot carrying a dispenser of an adhesive tape, and comprising:a plurality of suction systems, comprising a first suction system and at least a second suction system, the second suction system being part of a frame comprising a crosspiece movably mounted in the frame, the crosspiece being moveable at least in translation relatively in the frame, said translation being along at least one direction in a plane parallel to said wall, the crosspiece supporting the first suction system via an arm and a rotation shaft perpendicular to said plane, the crosspiece supporting the arm, said arm supporting the dispenser, the arm supporting the shaft for adjusting the height of the dispenser relatively to the frame to apply the adhesive tape of the dispenser against the seam, the motion in translation of the crosspiece relatively to the frame making the first suction system being movable in translation relatively to the second suction system in order to adjust the position of the dispenser, the shaft being able to move in rotation to orient furthermore the first suction system angularly relative to the second suction system, andmovement means for moving the first suction system relative to the second suction system of said plurality of suction systems, and means for remotely controlling the suction systems and movement means comprised in the mobile robot.
	claims	1. A method of repairing a fuel assembly to accomplish a load lift comprising: machining a hole through a grillage of a top nozzle of the fuel assembly to access an instrument tube; inserting a fuel assembly structural reinforcement into the hole to a bottom nozzle of the fuel assembly; and actuating the reinforcement to provide a secondary load path, wherein the actuating is by rotating the actuator at the top of the reinforcement. 2. The method of repairing a fuel assembly of claim 1 , wherein the machining, the inserting and the actuating are performed remotely. claim 1 3. The method of repairing a fuel assembly of claim 1 , wherein the actuating prevents the reinforcement from being removed from the hole. claim 1
	abstract	The material composition of a thin film formed on a substrate or covered by a cap layer that shares one or more elements with the thin film can be determined by combining characteristic material data, such as characteristic x-ray data, from a material composition analysis tool, such as an electron probe-based x-ray metrology (EPMA) operation, with thickness data and (optionally) possible material phases for the thin film. The thickness data and/or the material phase options can be used to determine, for example, the penetration depth of a probe e-beam of the EPMA tool. Based on the penetration depth and the thin film thickness, the characteristic x-ray data from the EPMA operation can be analyzed to determine the composition (e.g., phase or elemental composition) of the thin film. An EPMA tool can include ellipsometry capabilities for all-in-one thickness and composition determination.
039740285	description	Referring to the drawings, the invention will be described as embodied in a water cooled, graphite moderated uranium reactor in which the uranium is in the form of aluminum jacketed short rods, sometimes called slugs, positioned end-to-end in horizontal coolant carrying passages in the graphite moderator. Such a reactor embodying liquid cooling for high power outputs, up to 500,000 kilowatts, for example, is shown in FIGS. 1 and 2. Specific features of this reactor are more fully described, and claimed in the application of Edward Creutz et al., Ser. No. 574,153, filed Jan. 23, 1945, now Pat. No. 2,910,418 dated Oct. 27, 1959. The reactor proper comprises a cylindrically shaped structure built of graphite blocks 1. The reactor is surrounded with a graphite reflector 2 forming an extension of the moderator and is enclosed by a fluid tight steel casing 3, supported in I beams 4 within a concrete tank 5, erected on foundation 6. Tank 5 is preferably filled with water 7 to act as a shield for neutrons and gamma radiation. The encased reactor is surrounded on all sides except one by the water 7, and the side not surrounded, which is to be the charging face 8 of the reactor is provided with a shield tank 9 filled, for example, with lead shot and water. Coolant tubes 10, preferably of aluminum extend through the adjacent concrete wall 11, through shield tank 9, through the graphite moderator blocks 1 to an outlet face 12 of casing 3 to empty into water 7 in tank 5. Only a few tubes 10 are shown in FIG. 1 for sake of clarity of illustration. On the outside of tank 5 where the coolant tubes 10 enter the reactor, the ends of the coolant tubes are removably capped, and are supplied with coolant under pressure from conveniently positioned manifolds. Thus water can be passed through tubes 10 to be discharged at outlet face 12 into tank 5. Water, after having passed through the reactor is removed through outlet pipe 13. The coolant tubes 10 may then be charged with short aluminum jacketed uranium slugs by uncapping the tube to be loaded and pushing slugs into the tubes in end to end relationship by a loading mechanism 14. The reactor can be loaded with sufficient uranium to make the reactor operative to produce high neutron densities, the heat being dissipated by the coolant circulation. This coolant may be water, for example, from a source such as a river, passed once through the reactor, and then discarded, or, the water may be cooled and recirculated in a closed system. Some of the dimensions of one reactor which has been successfully operated are as follows: overall dimensions of the moderator EQU 36 ft. wide .times. 36 ft. high .times. 28 ft. deep reflector -- 2 feet thick PA1 cooling tubes -- 2004 in number PA1 cooling tubes inside diameter 1.611 inches PA1 annular water space -- 0.086 inches. With 1500 central water tubes 10 filled to capacity with uranium slugs, two hundred short tons of uranium are contained in the reactor. This loading of 1500 tubes will make the reactor considerably above critical size and provide an excess reproduction ratio. (Critical size is the size at which a reactor is just chain-reacting and the reproduction ratio is 1). As has been explained, if all of the 1500 tubes are loaded full length with uranium the power in the form of heat generated in the central tube becomes the limiting factor in operation. The power developed will follow a curve similar to curve Y in FIG. 4. However, in accordance with the present invention, the reactor may be loaded with less fissionable material in the transversely central passages than at the edges, in which case the power curve may be similar to curve X of FIG. 4. It will be noted in FIG. 4 that the ratio of heat in a tube disposed L feet from the center of the reactor to heat in the average tube is plotted on the ordinate and the ratio of the distance of a tube L feet from the axis to the total radius of metal is plotted along the abscissa. The amount of excess reproduction ratio that is available when the 1500 tubes of the reactor are fully loaded with 200 tons of uranium will determine the amount of metal that may be removed from the central tubes without making the reactor smaller than critical size. The curves shown in FIG. 3 depict the lengths of uranium metal from the shortest loaded tube at the axis of the reactor to the longest loaded tube 10 near the periphery of the active zone. The dotted line represents the greatest effective length of uranium which the reactor will hold. Curve A shows a loading design for a reactor, as described, which if it contained 200 tons of metal with 1500 tubes fully loaded would have a reproduction ratio of 1.005 or an excess reproduction ratio of 0.5%. This excess reproduction ratio may be used by loading the 1500 tubes with 188 tons of metal in accordance with curve A where the shortest central tube will be loaded with uranium to an effective length of 540 cms. The remainder of the tube may be loaded with spacers of an inactive material such as carbon or aluminum. Starting with the axial tube, the tubes are loaded with increasing lengths of uranium, as shown in curve A, until the tubes located about 250 cms. from the axis are fully loaded to approximately 760 cms. effective length. The remaining tubes located outside the 250 cms. radius to the outside radius are fully loaded to 760 cms. effective length. The effective length from a point at a distance from each end of the uranium where the neutron density extrapolates to zero. It is slightly longer than the actual length; the difference between actual and effective length depending on the efficiency of the reflector 2. A reactor loaded in accordance with curve A under optimum conditions will yield 318 megawatts. Curve B depicts a proper loading for a reactor which when 1500 tubes are loaded with 200 tons of uranium would have a reproduction ratio of 1.0106 or an excess of 1.06%. With only 177 tons of uranium loaded in accordance with curve B, the reactor will be chain reacting and capable, under optimum conditions, of delivering 348 megawatts. Thus, it will be noted in comparing curves A and B that with proper loading the power output may be increased although the amount of fissionable material is decreased. This, of course, is due to the flattening of the neutron reproduction curve so that a larger number of the tubes are brought up to or near maximum power. A reactor has been described in which the amount of fissionable material in the central tubes has been shortened in one direction. This will flatten the neutron activity curve along one axis. Provided sufficient excess reproduction ratio is available, it would be possible to change the loading in accordance with the present invention in two dimensions of the reactor, thus flattening the neutron activity curve on two axes. It will be understood that the method and apparatus described are illustrative only. The invention is limited only by the appended claims.
	summary
	abstract	An emergency core cooling system is provided with at least four active safety divisions each equipped with a motor-driven active safety system, and at least one passive safety division equipped with passive system that does not require to be electrically driven. The number of active safety divisions is grater than the number of active safety divisions needed during a design basis accident by two or more, and each active safety division is provided with one motor-driven active safety system. The passive safety system can cool the reactor core without being re-supplied with cooling water from the outside during the time period needed for the active safety system subjected to online maintenance to recover if an accident occurred during online maintenance of one active safety system. In an emergency core cooling system for a boiling water nuclear power plant, it is possible to reduce the size of an emergency power source and the number of systems that lose the function caused by an auxiliary cooling system losing the function.
	abstract	A nuclear reactor chamber comprises an inlet portion. The chamber is a part of a nuclear power plant. At least one container contains liquid nitrogen and cold nitrogen vapor and includes an outlet portion. At least one thermally activated release mechanism is respectively connected between one of the at least one container and the inlet portion. Each thermally activated release mechanism is configured to release the liquid nitrogen from a connected container into the inlet portion when a predetermined safety threshold temperature is reached, so that the released liquid nitrogen produces an expanding volume of cold nitrogen vapor within the nuclear reactor chamber.
	summary
	claims	1. An apparatus for extracting radioactive solid particles, comprisinga suction pump with a suction pipe to extract gas;a separator comprising a body and a chamber surrounded by said body; said body has a suction channel and a gas outlet; said suction channel is located in said chamber and connected with said body; said gas outlet is located on top of said body and adjacent to said suction channel and is connected with said suction pipe of said suction pump; said suction channel has a suction inlet located at an upper section of said suction channel to be protruded out from a top of said body; and said suction channel has a falling inlet located at a lower section of said suction channel to be protruded out from a bottom of said body;an extracting nozzle with an extracting pipe connected to said suction inlet of the suction channel to extract radioactive solid particles to said separator;a storage barrel installed with and connected to said extracting nozzle to store said radioactive solid particles;a radiation-protection device installed and connected to said separator; and wherein a confined space is in said radiation-protection device as a shield to block out radiation;a removable storing container located in said confined space of said radiation-protection device; and in communication with said suction channel of said separator; anda program controller is electrically connected with said suction pump and said extracting nozzle to control starting and stopping of said suction pump and said extracting nozzle in accordance with operating signals. 2. The apparatus according to claim 1, wherein said suction pump provides required vacuum suction and is installed with a high-efficiency particle filter at a rear end to deal with particulate matters in gas. 3. The apparatus according to claim 1, wherein said separator is a centrifugal filter. 4. The apparatus according to claim 1, wherein said separator further comprises a gasket circumferentially located on a periphery of said falling inlet. 5. The apparatus according to claim 1, wherein said falling inlet has a height different from said gas outlet to prevent said radioactive solid particles from discharging to said suction pump by following air flow. 6. The apparatus according to claim 1, wherein an amount of said radioactive solid particles being extracted is controlled by a height of said falling inlet; and wherein, when a height of said radioactive solid particles stored in said storing container reaches said height of said falling inlet, said suction channel is directly blocked to stop extracting said radioactive solid particles. 7. The apparatus according to claim 1, wherein said separator uses a method selected from a group consist of gravity and a grille design to store said extracted radioactive solid particles in said storing container while particulate matters in gas are discharged to said suction pump. 8. The apparatus according to claim 1, wherein, after entering into said suction inlet of said suction channel, said radioactive solid particles enter into said storing container through said falling inlet due to gravity.
053596390	abstract	A predetermined number of sectional planes are successively scanned, starting with a sectional plane in an initial position, by shifting a direction of X-ray emission from an X-ray emitting device. A reset operation is effected, after scanning the predetermined number of sectional planes, to switch the direction of X-ray emission to scan a sectional plane in the initial position. An examinee is moved synchronously with the reset operation to set a new sectional plane adjacent the predetermined number of sectional planes to the initial position. A predetermined number of sectional planes are successively scanned, starting with the new sectional plane in the initial position, by shifting the direction of X-ray emission from the X-ray emitting device. After scanning the predetermined number of sectional planes, a reset operation is effected and the examinee is moved to set a new sectional plane adjacent the predetermined number of sectional planes to the initial position. These operations are repeated until all sectional planes are scanned.
048329037	summary	BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention This invention relates to storage arrangements for irradiated fuel following its removal from nuclear reactors. The invention can also relate to the storage of pre-irradiated fuel and also vitrified waste after spent fuel reprocessing. 2. Description of the Related Art It is a common practice to store spent fuel under water, in what are generally known as pond stores, for periods that are long enough to allow the decay heat and radiation levels to reduce sufficiently to allow the fuel to be transported with safety. However, the use of a pond store is not entirely satisfactory where the fuel needs to be stored for any considerable length of time. Thus, the ability to store the fuel safely for protracted periods in a water environment is very dependent upon the materials of the cladding in which the fuel is accommodated, the irradiation history of the fuel and/or the cladding, the integrity of the cladding, and the quality of the water in which the fuel is stored. Thus, cooling and shielding functions can be carried out completely satisfactorily while the fuel cladding remains intact, and while the water is present. However, if the fuel cladding is perforated by corrosion or handling, then fission products can escape, and both fission products and corrosion products that are radioactively contaminated are then able to float and permeate to the surface of the water, which could result in high dose rates to operators. In addition, it is possible for these fission products and corrosion/contamination products to adhere to the walls of the pond. Variations in the pond water level, due to evaporation or leakage, could allow these products to dry out, when they could then become airborne, causing possible ingestion hazards to operators and the risk of atmospheric pollution. Moreover, in order to maintain adequate cooling and shielding, the pond integrity must be assured to very high limits. Small leaks could give rise to minor contamination problems, and larger leaks, resulting in loss of cooling water, may result in a serious district hazard. As safety requirements for nuclear installations become more rigorous, and the allowable dose rates to operators continue to decrease, the need to design storage systems and other nuclear installations to even higher orders of integrity becomes essential, particularly as for various reasons it is now becoming necessary to store spent nuclear fuel for longer periods than was originally anticipated. In United Kingdom patent application No. 2061798, there is described and claimed an alternative form of storage arrangement which substantially avoids the above-mentioned disadvantages. Such a storage arrangement comprises an enclosure for the fuel that utilizes air as its storage medium; an exhaust system for exhausting this air from the enclosure through filters so as to maintain the interior of the enclosure at subatmospheric pressure; and a transfer mechanism for transferring fuel into and from the enclosure. Maintaining a depression or underpressure within the enclosure could eliminate the need for a high integrity envelope for the enclosure, as any leakage that might occur will be into the enclosure and, accordingly, the invention provides an inherently safer store than the usual water filled pond. In addition, as the fuel is stored in air rather than water, the risk of corrosion is reduced, and consequently the need for an operator to maintain the water chemistry at precise levels in order to prevent the generation of corrosion products, and the possibility of atmospheric pollution is thereby avoided. Another form of dry storage arrangement for irradiated nuclear fuel is described in United Kingdom Patent Specification No. 1583303, such an arrangement comprising a grid having a plurality of openings for supporting respective fuel cans so that they extend downwards therefrom, the space above the grid forming an-air filled enclosure associated with an exhaust system for exhausting air from the space through filters to maintain the interior of this space at subatmospheric pressure, and the arrangement including means for producing a flow of cooling air over the exterior of the cans. In use of such an arrangement, the fuel is first enclosed in cans, and the cans placed in openings in the grid, the unused openings being sealed with lids. However, the lids need to be removed for accommodating further cans, which is inconvenient, and failure of a can could give rise to contamination of the cooling air, with the risk of polluting the atmosphere. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION An object of the invention is to provide an alternative form of dry storage arrangement which avoids these disadvantages and has other benefits as will be apparent from the following description. According to the invention, a storage arrangement for nuclear fuel comprises a plurality of storage tubes each of which is closed at one end and is closeable at the other end by a removable plug, a pipe connecting the interior of each tube to manifolds serving a plurality of tubes, venting or flow control means connected to a manifold for maintaining the interiors of the respective tubes, when the plugs are fitted thereto, at a positive pressure above atmosphere, or atmospheric pressure, or at a subatmospheric pressure, and means for producing a flow of cooling fluid over the exterior surfaces of the tubes. The storage system allows the nuclear fuel to be stored in air or in an alternative non-oxidizing gas. The alternative gas will allow fuel to be stored at a higher temperature without damage to the fuel. This may be necessary for limited periods when fuel heat output is too great to give acceptable temperatures for storage in air. The venting system allows selection of the interior pressure of the tubes depending upon the choice of gas within the storage tube. This invention allows for the use of an alternative gas in the tubes held at a controlled positive pressure greater than atmospheric pressure or the use of air in the tube at atmospheric pressure. An exhauster connected to the venting system also allows the tube pressure to be reduced to below atmospheric pressure for routine leak checking procedures or in the event of tube leakages developing. The depression maintained within the tubes by the exhauster effectively forms a secondary containment system by causing air to flow inwards through leakage paths in the tubes. The use of a venting system connected to individual tubes by a manifold and pipe arrangment has the advantage of limiting the spread of radioactive particles throughout the storage system compared with an arrangement in which the tubes communicate with a common chamber. In addition, it enables fault conditions that might arise to be more rapidly detected; the use of a plurality of manifolds each serving a respective series of storage tubes also enables faults to be quickly traced by isolating different sections of the manifold system. Monitors for detecting any rise in radiation levels can be situated in any convenient part of the venting system. Monitors for detecting the flow of gas to or from the storage tubes can be situated in any convenient part of the venting system to allow leakage flows to be measured. When air is used in the tubes and the venting system is arranged to maintain atmospheric pressure, all pressure loads on the tube are removed, thereby reducing pressure stress in the tube walls and reducing the significance of any leakage paths. The natural atmospheric temperature and pressure fluctuations causes gas within the tubes to flow inwards or outwards via the venting system to the atmosphere via filters. It will be understood that the filters associated therewith must, of course, be of the kind suitable for preventing the escape of radioactive particles from the storage tubes. In that the fuel to be stored may have been previously stored in water, the invention deals with the unintentional retention of small quantities of this water in cavities within the fuel assembly. Such water may have a deleterious effect on the fuel during long periods of storage if not removed from the storage tubes. The venting system allows water vapor that may be generated within the tube, from the fuel, to pass to atmosphere. Air that flows back into the tubes during natural pressure and temperature fluctuations is caused to pass through an air drying system. This natural self sumping feature of the invention, whereby moist air will flow outward and dry air allowed to flow inward, is used to reduce the quantity of water vapor that may exist in the tubes, thereby removing the potential for fuel degradation caused by corrosion. The storage of fuel in storage tubes forming a part of the storage structure means that the fuel does not first have to be placed into sealed cans, which is an advantage as canning involves an additional process and moreover removes the ability to check the fuel easily. Furthermore, canning gives rise to additional contaminated waste which must ultimately be disposed of. The storage tubes can be reused after removal of the fuel. Each storage tube forms a single walled containment boundary. The tubes are conveniently supported vertically with their closeable ends fitting closely within respective openings in the base of the charging hall used for the transfer of fuel into and from the tubes, so that the tubes extend downwards into the cooling chamber through which air is caused to pass. Preferably, the chamber has a vertical air inlet volume on one side of the plurality of storage tubes and a vertical outlet volume on the opposite side so that air is caused to flow across the chamber, and over the tube surfaces, by a natural thermosyphon process that is enhanced by a chimney connected to the outlet volume. It will be seen that for a given store geometry the amount of air flow is governed by the heat generated within the store, so that the cooling is self-regulatory. Preferably, the air-flow conditions are arranged to be sufficient for the fuel within the tubes to be maintained at a temperature of not more than 180.degree. C. under all normal storage conditions when air is used within the tubes. The tubes preferably have shoulders adjacent their upper ends which, combined with ledges within the respective openings, provide a barrier to radiation from the fuel passing to the charge hall. The tubes, being supported from the floor of the cooling chamber, are free to thermally expand upwards. This method of support enables tubes to be readily withdrawn upwards from the cooling chamber into the charge hall for replacement should this prove to be necessary. Seals are preferably provided between the plugs and the walls of the tubes so that the plugged tubes effectively form gas-tight enclosures. When the plugs are in their operating position, they are preferably surmounted by removable tiles which together provide a floor to the charging hall. It will be understood that both the charging hall and cooling chamber should be surrounded by adequate radiation shielding, preferably of reinforced concrete. A storage structure can be built up in modular fashion utilizing a plurality of independently operable storage arrangements in accordance with the invention.
	summary
	claims	1. A method for manufacturing an anti-scatter grid comprising:arranging a plurality of elongated metal ribbons of radio-opaque material so that each ribbon is substantially straight and lies in a plane that passes through a focal point of the grid;placing the elongated ribbons under tension;securing a first sheet of radioluscent material to top edges of the ribbons;securing a second sheet of radioluscent material to bottom edges of the ribbons, wherein the ribbons are arranged such that the first and second radioluscent sheets are parallel; andremoving the tension from the ribbons. 2. A method according to claim 1, further comprising trimming ends of the ribbons so that the ends of the ribbons do not extend beyond ends of the first and second radioluscent sheets. 3. A method according to claim 1, further comprising potting ends of the ribbons and ends of the first and second radioluscent sheets. 4. A method according to claim 1, wherein the metal ribbons are made of tungsten. 5. A method according to claim 1, wherein the metal ribbons are made of tantalum. 6. A method according to claim 1, wherein the plurality of ribbons comprises about 1,000 ribbons. 7. A method according to claim 1, wherein the ribbons are each about 24 cm long. 8. A method according to claim 1, wherein the ribbons are each about 1.5 mm to about 3 mm wide. 9. A method according to claim 1, wherein the ribbons are each about 15 to 18 microns thick. 10. A method according to claim 1, wherein the ribbons are spaced about 0.3 mm apart. 11. A method according to claim 1, wherein the ribbons are each placed under tension equal to about one once. 12. A method according to claim 1, wherein the first and second radioluscent sheets are secured to the ribbons with layers of adhesive. 13. A method according to claim 1, wherein the first and second radioluscent sheets are secured to the ribbons by pressing the uncured sheets against the ribbons and allowing the sheets to cure. 14. A method according to claim 1, wherein the first and second radioluscent sheets comprise carbon fiber. 15. A method according to claim 1, wherein the first and second radioluscent sheets comprise epoxy impregnated carbon fiber cloth. 16. A method according to claim 1, wherein the first and second radioluscent sheets each have a thickness of about between 0.25 mm and 0.5 mm. 17. A method according to claim 1, further comprising providing holes in at least one of the first and second radioluscent sheets to allow pressure equalization within spaces between the ribbons. 18. A method according to claim 1, wherein the plurality of elongated metal ribbons comprises a first set and the method further comprises:arranging a second set of a plurality of elongated metal ribbons of radio-opaque material so that each ribbon is substantially straight and lies in a plane that passes through a focal point of the grid;placing the second set of ribbons under tension;securing bottom edges of the second set of ribbons to the second sheet of radioluscent material;securing a third sheet of radioluscent material to top edges of the second set of ribbons, wherein the second set of ribbons are arranged such that the second and the third radioluscent sheets are parallel; andremoving the tension from the second set of ribbons. 19. A method according to claim 18, wherein the first and the second set of ribbons are arranged so that the first set of ribbons extends perpendicular to the second set of ribbons.
	abstract	A method for producing 99mTc may include: providing a solution comprising 100Mo-molybdate-ions; providing a proton beam having an energy suitable for inducing a 100Mo(p,2n)99mTc-nuclear reaction when exposing 100Mo-molybdate-ions; exposing the solution to the proton beams and inducing a 100Mo(p,2n)99mTc-nuclear reaction; and applying an extraction method for extracting the 99mTc from the solution. Further, a device for producing 99mTc may include: a solution with 100Mo-molybdate-ions; an accelerator for providing a proton beam with energy which is suitable for inducing a 100Mo(p,2n)99mTc-nuclear reaction when exposing 100Mo-molybdate-ions, for exposing the solution and for inducing a 100Mo(p,2n)99mTc-nuclear reaction; and an extraction step for extracting 99mTc from the solution.
	claims	1. A laser-plasma-based acceleration system comprising:a focusing element;a laser pulse emission source configured and disposed to direct a laser beam to the focusing element to enable emission of a laser beam such that the laser pulses transform into a focused beam defining a longitudinal center line axis; and a chamber defining a nozzle having a throat and an exit orifice, the nozzle configured and disposed to enable emission of a critical density range gas jet from the exit orifice of the nozzle, for laser wavelengths ranging from ultraviolet to the mid-infrared, the critical density range gas jet exiting the exit orifice of the nozzle and defining a longitudinal center line axis that intersects the longitudinal center line axis of the focused beam at an angle,wherein the focused beam intersects the critical density range gas jet in proximity to the exit orifice of the nozzle to define a point of intersection between the focused beam and the critical density range gas jet,wherein, in intersection with the critical density range gas jet, the pulsed focused beam drives a laser plasma wakefield relativistic electron beam, andwherein the plasma wakefield relativistic electron beam energy is at least 0.5 MeV with charge electron bunches greater than 10 femto coulombs wherein the focused laser energy is less than or equal to 10 mJ. 2. The laser-plasma-based acceleration system according to claim 1, wherein the critical density range is an electron density Ne that is defined to be 0.1 Ncr <Ne<3Ncr, where the critical density is Ncr=1.12×1021 λ−2 (cm−3), where λ is the laser wavelength in microns (μm). 3. The laser-plasma-based acceleration system according to claim 1, wherein the critical density range gas jet generates electron densities Ne, upon laser interaction, in the approximate range 0.1 Ncr to 3Ncr. 4. The laser-plasma-based acceleration system according to claim 1, wherein for a laser wavelength of λ=0.8 μm of the focused beam, the critical density range includes 2×1020 cm−3 to 5×1021 cm−3. 5. The laser-plasma-based acceleration system according to claim 1, wherein the critical density range of the critical density range gas jet is formed by cryogenic cooling of a gas source in fluid communication with the chamber defining the nozzle. 6. The laser-plasma-based acceleration system according to claim 1, wherein the laser wavelengths ranging from ultraviolet to mid-infrared include wavelengths ranging from 0.3 μm to 2 μm. 7. The laser-plasma-based acceleration system according to claim 1, wherein the laser pulses are at an energy level up to and including 20 mJ. 8. A method of laser-plasma-based acceleration comprising:directing a laser beam to a focusing element to enable emission of a laser beam such that the laser pulses transform into a focused beam defining a longitudinal center line axis;emitting a critical density range gas jet from an exit orifice of a nozzle for laser wavelengths ranging from ultraviolet to mid-infrared;causing the focused beam to intersect the critical density range gas jet in proximity to the exit orifice of the nozzle to define a point of intersection between the focused beam and the critical density range gas jet,wherein, in intersection with the critical density range gas jet, the pulsed focused beam drives a laser plasma wakefield relativistic electron beam, andwherein the plasma wakefield relativistic electron beam energy is at least 0.5 MeV with charge electron bunches greater than 10 femto coulombs wherein the focused laser energy is less than or equal to 10 mJ. 9. The method of laser-plasma-based acceleration according to claim 8, wherein the emitting a critical density range gas is emitting a critical density range gas at a critical electron density that is an electron density Ne that is defined to be 0.1 Ncr <Ne<3Ncr, where the critical density is Ncr=1.12×1021λ−2 (cm−3), where λ is the laser wavelength in microns (μm). 10. The method of laser-plasma-based acceleration according to claim 8, wherein the critical density range gas jet generates electron densities Ne, upon laser interaction, in the approximate range 0.1 Ncr to 3Ncr. 11. The method of laser-plasma-based acceleration according to claim 8, wherein for a laser wavelength of λ=0.8 μm of the focused beam, the critical density range includes 2×1020 cm−3 to 5×1021 cm−3. 12. The method of laser-plasma-based acceleration according to claim 8, wherein the critical density range of the critical density range gas jet is formed by cryogenic cooling of a gas source in fluid communication with the chamber defining the nozzle. 13. The method of laser-plasma-based acceleration according to claim 8, wherein the laser wavelengths ranging from ultraviolet to mid-infrared include wavelengths ranging from 0.3 μm to 2 μm. 14. The method of laser-plasma-based acceleration according to claim 8, wherein the laser pulses are at an energy level up to and including 20 mJ. 15. The laser-plasma-based acceleration system according to claim 1, wherein the laser pulse repetition rate is 1 kHz. 16. The method of laser-based acceleration according to claim 8, wherein the laser pulses transform into a focused beam defining a longitudinal center line axis at a repetition rate of 1 kHz. 17. A laser-plasma-based acceleration system comprising:a focusing element;a laser pulse emission source configured and disposed to direct a laser beam to the focusing element to enable emission of a laser beam such that the laser pulses transform into a focused beam defining a longitudinal center line axis; and a chamber defining a nozzle having a throat and an exit orifice, the nozzle configured and disposed to enable emission of a critical density range gas jet from the exit orifice of the nozzle, for laser wavelengths ranging from ultraviolet to the mid-infrared, the critical density range gas jet exiting the exit orifice of the nozzle and defining a longitudinal center line axis that intersects the longitudinal center line axis of the focused beam at an angle,wherein the focused beam intersects the critical density range gas jet in proximity to the exit orifice of the nozzle to define a point of intersection between the focused beam and the critical density range gas jet,wherein, in intersection with the critical density range gas jet, the pulsed focused beam drives a laser plasma wakefield relativistic electron beam, andwherein the plasma wakefield relativistic electron bunch energy is at least 0.5 MeV with charge greater than 10 femto coulombs wherein the focused laser energy is less than or equal to 10 mJ. 18. The laser-plasma-based acceleration system according to claim 17, wherein the laser pulse repetition rate is 1 kHz. 19. A method of laser-plasma-based acceleration comprising:directing a laser beam to a focusing element to enable emission of a laser beam such that the laser pulses transform into a focused beam defining a longitudinal center line axis;emitting a critical density range gas jet from an exit orifice of a nozzle for laser wavelengths ranging from ultraviolet to mid-infrared;causing the focused beam to intersect the critical density range gas jet in proximity to the exit orifice of the nozzle to define a point of intersection between the focused beam and the critical density range gas jet,wherein, in intersection with the critical density range gas jet, the pulsed focused beam drives a laser plasma wakefield relativistic electron beam, andwherein the plasma wakefield relativistic electron bunch energy is at least 0.5 MeV with charge greater than 10 femto coulombs wherein the focused laser energy is less than or equal to 10 mJ. 20. The method of laser-based acceleration according to claim 19, wherein the laser pulses transform into a focused beam defining a longitudinal center line axis at a repetition rate of 1 kHz.
	abstract	A zirconium-based alloy, suitable for use in a corrosive environment, where it is subjected to increased radiation and comprises 0.5-1.6 percentage by weight Nb and 0.3-0.6 percentage by weight Fe. The alloy is characterised in that it comprises 0.5-0.85 percentage by weight Sn.
041566580	claims	1. A method for fixing radioactive ions in soil comprising: injecting a chemical grout into the soil which contains said radioactive ions, said chemical grout containing sodium acrylate, acrylamide and N,N' methylene bisacrylamide which will polymerize to form gel structures with ion exchange sites; and injecting an initiator and a catalyst for the polymerization into said soil to cause polymerization and the formation of an ion exchange gel in said soil whereby the soil and ions are physically fixed in place by the gel structure and in addition the ions are chemically fixed by the ion exchange properties of the gel. 2. The method of claim 1 wherein said catalyst for the polymerization is .beta.-dimethylaminopropionitrile and said initiator is ammonium persulfate.
	abstract	A basket assembly for receiving a plurality of fuel assemblies includes a basket having a grid defining spacing between fuel assembly compartments, the grid defining a first compartment for receiving a first fuel assembly and a second compartment for receiving a second fuel assembly, wherein the cross-sectional area of the second compartment is larger than the cross-sectional area of the first compartment. The basket assembly is configured to receive in the first compartment a first fuel assembly, the first fuel assembly being a regular fuel assembly, and the basket assembly configured to receive in the second compartment a second fuel assembly, the second fuel assembly being an irregular fuel assembly, wherein the irregular fuel assembly includes at least one irregular fuel rod.
051851245	claims	1. Apparatus for gauging the dimensional characteristics of cells incorporated in spacers utilized in nuclear fuel bundles to establish critical spacings between fuel rods, said apparatus comprising, in combination: A. a fixture having a base and a pair of sidewalls separated by a distance equal to a nominal width dimension of the cells, whereby said sidewalls provide a width dimension gauge when a cell is placed in a gauging position resting on said base between said sidewalls; B. a pin for insertion through a cell in said gauging position to rest on a pair of stops formed in the cell, said pin having a diameter equal to the nominal diameter of a fuel rod; and C. at least one feeler gauge for insertion through gaps between said pin and each of said base and at least one of said sidewalls to determine whether the dimensional characteristics of the cell will establish the critical fuel rod spacing when incorporated in a spacer. 2. The apparatus defined in claim 1, which further includes first and second said feeler gauges, said first feeler gauge having a width slightly greater than a maximum allowable gap dimension, and said second feeler gauge having a width equal to a minimum allowable gap dimension. 3. The apparatus defined in claim 2, wherein the height of said sidewalls, measured from said base, is equal to the nominal width dimension of the cells, said apparatus further including a plate resting on said sidewalls in overlying relation with a cell in said gauging position. 4. The apparatus defined in claim 2, which further includes steps positioned on said base in spaced relation to gauge the length of a cell in said gauging position. 5. The apparatus defined in claim 2, wherein the cells include springs positioned in diametrically opposed relation to the stops, and said pin is of a semicylindrical configuration having a cylindrical surface portion resting on the stops and a flat surface portion disposed in non-contacting relation with the springs. 6. The apparatus defined in claim 5, wherein the height of said sidewalls, measured from said base, is equal to the nominal width dimension of the cells, said apparatus further including a plate resting on said sidewalls in overlying relation with a cell in said gauging position, a second cylindrical pin for insertion through the cell to rest on the stops, said second pin having a diameter such that the springs, in their relaxed positions, should contact said second pin. 7. The apparatus defined in claim 6, which further includes steps positioned on said base in spaced relation to gauge the length of a cell in said gauging position.
048658006	summary	CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION Reference is hereby made to the following copending application dealing with related subject matter and assigned to the assignee of the present invention: "Apparatus for Integrated Fuel Assembly Inspection System" by Hassan J. Ahmed et al, assigned U.S. Ser. No. 855,266 and filed Apr. 24, 1986, now U.S. Pat. No. 4,728,483. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates generally to fuel assemblies for nuclear reactors and, more particularly, is concerned with an apparatus and method for inspecting the dimensional characteristics of fuel assembly grids. 2. Description of the Prior Art In most nuclear reactors, the reactor core is comprised of a large number of elongated fuel assemblies. Conventional designs of these fuel assemblies include a multiplicity of fuel rods held in an organized array by a plurality of grids spaced axially along the fuel assembly length and attached to a plurality of control rod guide thimbles of the fuel assembly. Top and bottom nozzles on opposite ends of the fuel assembly are secured to the guide thimbles which extend slightly above and below the opposite ends of the fuel rods. The grids as well known in the art are used to precisely maintain the spacing between the fuel rods in the reactor core, prevent rod vibration, provide lateral support for the fuel rods, and, to some extent, frictionally retain the rods against longitudinal movement. Conventional designs of grids include a multiplicity of interleaved inner straps having an egg-crate configuration designed to form cells which individually accept the fuel rods and control rod guide thimbles. The cells of each grid which accept and support the fuel rods at a given axial location therealong typically use relatively resilient springs and relatively rigid protrusions (called dimples) formed into the metal of the interleaved straps. The springs and dimples of each grid cell frictionally engage or contact the respective fuel rod extending through the cell. Additionally, outer straps are attached together and peripherally enclose the inner straps to impart strength and rigidity to the grid. The outer straps conventionally have springs integrally formed into the metal thereof which project into respective ones of the cells disposed along the perimeter of the grid. The manufacture of a fuel assembly grid is an intricate operation, requiring not only the assembling of the straps in interleaved fashion to form the grid but also their retention together in precise positions relative to one another during subsequent welding thereof. The newly-manufactured grid must meet high standards in terms of its cell size (that is, the distance between opposite springs and dimples within each cell), envelope, squareness and dimple perpendicularity for it to be able to properly perform its function in the fuel assembly. Thus, the grid must be meticulously inspected to ensure that such standards are met. Heretofore, grid inspection has required the performance of a series of time-consuming, essentially manual, procedures. Grid inspection, as practiced heretofore, has constituted an impedient to improvement of overall productivity of fuel assembly manufacture. Consequently, a need has emerged to improve and automate the way in which fuel assembly grid inspection is performed. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides a fuel assembly grid inspection apparatus and method designed to satisfy the aforementioned needs. In contrast to the previous manual procedures, the apparatus and method of the present invention employ a precision measurement device in conjunction with an automated universal grid fixture. The measurement device measures the grid by viewing it, rather than by contacting or touching it as in the case of one prior art measurement machine disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,007,544 to Kirby et al, being assigned to the assignee of the present invention. The measurement device and the automated universal grid fixture of the present invention together, under software control, can accomplish inspection of the dimensional characteristics of a wide variety of fuel assembly grid designs in terms of dimple perpendicularity in X-Y directions, cell size in X-Y directions, vane position, squareness and envelope. Specialized application software is utilized wherein there is an individual program for each different grid design inspected. Accordingly, the present invention is directed to a fuel assembly grid inspection apparatus, comprising the combination of: (a) a precision noncontact measurement device having illuminating means and viewing means defining an inspection field of view, the viewing means being adapted to view and record an image of the fuel assembly grid located in the field of view to provide information about the grid from which measurements can be calculated, and (b) a fixture adapted to support the grid within the inspection field of view such that portions of the fixture which project into the field of view to support the grid are substantially transparent to the viewing means of the measurement device. More particularly, the measurement device of the apparatus includes a stationary base and an inspection platform movable in the Y direction with respect to the stationary base. The viewing means of the device is disposed in spaced relation above the inspection platform and movable in X and Z directions with respect to the stationary base. The fixture of the apparatus includes a mounting base having first and second pairs of opposing portions bounding the perimeter of the inspection field of view. The mounting base is supported by the inspection platform of the measurement device and movable therewith. Also, the fixture includes first and second pairs of upright grid supports, and guide means mounted along the opposing mounting base portions of the first pair thereof. Each of the pairs of grid supports is mounted to the guide means in spaced relation to one another for adjustable slidable movement therealong. Each of the grid supports has thereon one of the substantially transparent grid engaging portions which project into the field of view to support the grid. Still further, the fixture includes a pair of extendable and retractable actuators. One actuator is mounted on one of the opposing mounting base portions of the first pair thereof and the other is mounted on one of the opposing mounting base portions of the second pair thereof. The actuators are actuatable to locate the grid in a desired position with respect to the inspection field of view by causing movement of the grid in X and Y directions. Also, a plurality of sensors are provided on the fixture. One sensor is mounted on the other of the opposing mounting base portions of the first pair thereof and the other being mounted on the other of the opposing mounting base portions of the second pair thereof. The sensors are responsive to contact by the grid when the latter has been moved to its desired position with respect to the inspection field of view. Also, the present invention is directed to a fuel assembly grid inspection method, comprising the steps of: (a) defining an illuminated inspection field of view; (b) supporting in unobstructed relationship within the field of view a fuel assembly grid of a design having known standard measurements by using a fixture whose portions which project into the field of view to support the grid therein are substantially transparent to the field of view; (c) viewing the grid within the field of view; and (d) recording an image thereof to provide information about the grid from which actual measurements can be calculated and compared to the known standard measurements for the particular grid design. More particularly, the supporting step includes providing a fixture universally adapted for supporting within the inspection field of view any one of a plurality of fuel assembly grids of different designs having different known standard measurements. Additionally, the viewing step includes maintaining a video camera and lens system pointed toward the field of view and the grid supported therein, and moving at least one of the grid and the video camera and lens system relative to the other for viewing the grid. Still further, the present invention is directed to a fuel assembly grid inspection method, comprising in combination the steps of: (a) defining an illuminated inspection field of view; (b) supporting within the field of view a fuel assembly grid having at least a pair of fuel rod contacting dimples disposed in each cell of a plurality thereof defined in the grid which are adapted to receive fuel rods therethrough; (c) inspecting the pair of dimples for perpendicularity with respect to one another by viewing the dimples at separate instances from the same location within the field of view; and (d) recording a separate image of each dimple to provide information from which actual measurements of any offset in X and Y directions of one dimple with the other can be calculated. Yet further, the present invention is directed to a fuel assembly grid inspection method, comprising in combination the steps of: (a) defining an illuminated inspection field of view; (b) positioning a fuel assembly grid support fixture about the perimeter of the field of view such that portions of the fixture which project into the field of view to support a grid therein are substantially transparent to the field of view; (c) supporting on the fixture within the field of view a fuel assembly grid of a design having known standard measurements; (d) sensing the position of the fixture for providing information to determine the correctness thereof before proceeding with inspection of the grid; and (e) inspecting the grid within the field of view. These and other advantages and attainments of the present invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art upon a reading of the following detailed description when taken in conjunction with the drawings wherein there is shown and described an illustrative embodiment of the invention.
054065984	summary	BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a system for monitoring power of a nuclear reactor and a power distribution in a nuclear reactor core especially for monitoring the stability of the state of the reactor core in accordance with a neutron flux distribution in the reactor core. Description of the Related Arts A boiling water reactor (hereinafter called a "BWR") is equipped with a nuclear instrumentation system provided with a plurality of neutron flux detection devices which are arranged in the core to monitor the power distribution of an operating power level. The nuclear instrumentation is called a "local power regional monitor (LPRM)", which has four neutron flux detectors disposed along the vertical direction in the core. For example, a 1100 MEe class BWR has, in the reactor core thereof, 43.times.4=172 (channels) neutron detectors. Signals (LPRM signals) from each neutron flux detector are, in each group of about 20 signals, averaged into an average power range monitor (APRM). For example, a 1100 MWe class BWR has 8 channels of the average power range monitors, and therefore, APRM signals from 8 channels are monitored. All of the APRM signals and the LPRM signals are analog signals. In the current BWR, the APRM signals are monitored to cause the operation of the nuclear reactor to be performed stably and safely. A nuclear reactor core condition is extremely stable at a rated operational point. However, in the case of flow down to a natural circulation state due to a trip of the recirculation pump, the reactor power decreases along with the flow down. However, since the reactor power is reduced to only about 50% as contrasted with the fact that the reactor flow decreases to about 30% of the normal rated flow, the core condition becomes unstable. In the unstable condition, there is a possibility that the reactor power oscillates with a cycle of about 2 to 3 seconds. Although the oscillations of the reactor power dumps quickly in the stable condition, the oscillations of the reactor power can be sustained in the unstable condition. In order to maintain the fuel integrity during the reactor power oscillation, the following counter-measures have been taken at present. One of the countermeasures is arranged in such a manner that APRM signals, each of which has been obtained by averaging the LPRM signal supplied from the neutron flux detectors, are monitored if oscillations have been generated in the reactor power and all control rods are inserted (made scram) if the value of the APRM signal is larger than a predetermined limit value so that the operation of the nuclear reactor is shut down. Although the insertion of the control rod is a very effective means in terms of the safety operation of the nuclear reactor, it has been considered that the foregoing method is not the best method in terms of efficiently operating the nuclear reactor. Another method is a method in which the nuclear reactor is stabilized while preventing the oscillation of the reactor power even if the unstable reactor state has been realized. The foregoing method is arranged in such a manner that an upper limit of the stable nuclear reactor power in a low flow state has been evaluated, and that a portion of the control rods is selectively inserted as to make the reactor power smaller than the upper limit. The method in which a portion of the control rods is selectively inserted is called "selected rod insertion" (hereinafter called an "SRI"), the foregoing method being a safety and efficient operation method because the operation of the nuclear reactor can be stabilized while preventing the operation shutdown of the nuclear reactor. Since the SRI is arranged so that the control rods mounted on the reactor core are selectively used, it is necessary that the control rods for use must be previously determined. The selection of the control rod is so performed that the control rods are selected so as to exclude the unstable region and the reactor power distribution is sufficiently flattened. Since the radial directional power distribution in the nuclear reactor is high in the center of the reactor core and low in its periphery, control rods adjacent to the central portion are employed and inserted as the selected control rods in order to reduce the reactor power sufficiently. The positions of the control rods for use at the time of the execution of the SRI are previously registered in a process control computer disposed in a site. The SRI realizes a flat reactor power distribution in the reactor core of the nuclear reactor. Although the uniform or flattered reactor power distribution avoids the core-wide power oscillations, it undesirably generates oscillations of the power in a partial region of the core or enhances the oscillations. The power oscillations in the partial region of the core are called "regional oscillations". The reason why the regional oscillations are generated will now be described. It has been generally known that the neutron flux distribution in the core of the nuclear reactor meets the following equation: [Numerical Formula 1] EQU (L+A).phi.0=1/.lambda..multidot.F.multidot..phi.0 (1) where .phi.0: neutron flux L: neutron leakage cross section PA0 A: neutron absorption cross section PA0 F: neutron fission cross section PA0 .lambda.0: critical eigenvalue PA0 .phi.n: n-th harmonics PA0 .lambda.n: eigenvalue of n-th harmonics As indicated below, these neutron fluxes are in the following orthogonal relationship with each other. PA0 An: magnitude of n-th harmonics Usually, the neutron flux .phi.0 meeting Equation (1) is called a neutron flux in the fundamental mode, while critical eigenvalue .lambda.0 is called an "eigenvalue" in the fundamental mode. Actually, neutron special harmonics exist which satisfy the relationship expressed by Equation (1) are present as expressed by the following formula: [Numerical Formula 2] EQU (L+A).phi.n=1/.lambda.0.multidot.F.multidot..phi.n(n=0,1,2 . . . )(2) where n: harmonics order [Numerical Formula 2'] ##EQU1## Here, it is assumed that the integration is done over the entire reactor core and the harmonics are normalized. Among the neutron fluxes .PHI.n expressed by Equation (2) only the neutron flux in the fundamental mode (corresponding to n=0) is always present in the core, while the residual modes (corresponding to n=1, 2, 3, . . . , usually called "higher modes") dump instantaneously, although they are present temporarily if a certain disturbance, such as insertion of a control rod, takes place in the reactor core. The degree of the "short life" can be known from the subcriticality of the neutron higher harmonics. The subcriticality can be expressed by the difference .DELTA.n between the critical eigenvalue .lambda.0 (.lambda.0 is necessarily 1.0) in the fundamental mode and the harmonics eigenvalue .lambda.n in the higher mode. [Numerical Formula 3] EQU .DELTA.n=.lambda.0-.lambda.n(n=0, 1, 2, . . .) (3) Since the order of the mode is given in proportion to the harmonics eigenvalue, the relationship expressed by Equation (4) is held. [Numerical Formula 4] EQU 0.0=.DELTA.0<.DELTA.1<.DELTA.2<. . . (4) Further, the neutron flux .PHI. is expressed by the following equation if the core of the nuclear reactor is in a transient state: [Numerical Formula 5] EQU .phi.=Sum An.multidot..phi.n(n=0,1,2, . . .) (5) where .phi.: neutron flux at the time of transient The harmonics magnitude can be obtained in the following equation (5') using the inter-mode orthogonal condition given by the equation (2'). [Numerical Formula 5'] ##EQU2## In Equation (5), magnitude An of the n-th harmonics shows the degree of contribution of each harmonics mode to the neutron flux, the magnitude An being a function of the subcriticality and time. That is, the neutron flux in the reactor core in the transient state is expressed by the superposition of the respective modes while using the magnitude An of the mode as a weight at this time. Therefore, even if the distribution form of the higher mode locally takes a negative value, the neutron flux distribution in the reactor core does not actually take a negative value. If the subcriticality of the higher mode is large, the magnitude of the mode decreases as time passes, resulting in Equation (5) to be as follows as described above in a stationary state after the transient state has been realized: [Numerical Formula 6] EQU .PHI.=.PHI.0 (6) However, if the subcriticality in the higher mode is small for some reason, the dumping of the first mode, the subcriticality of which is the smallest among the higher modes is particularly slow, resulting in that the neutron flux .PHI. in the reactor core is temporarily expressed by the sum of the fundamental mode and the first mode. [Numerical Formula 7] EQU .PHI.=A0 .phi.0+A1 .PHI.1 (7) If a certain disturbance exciting the first mode of the neutron flux takes place in the foregoing core state of the nuclear reactor, the first mode is changed in accordance with the fundamental mode, and therefore, a possibility arises that oscillations are excited if the core is unstable. Even if the oscillation has been excited, the reactor power does not oscillate in the whole core region because the fundamental mode is not changed. However, the power distribution is oscillated in the form of the distribution of the first mode. Although the subcriticality is changed depending upon, for example, the size of the reactor core or the fuel instrumentation pattern, it considerably depends upon the power distribution of the reactor core. FIGS. 17A, 17B, FIGS. 18A and 18B respectively show the radial neutron flux distribution in the fundamental mode and the first mode in two different states of a 1,100,000 kwe class nuclear reactor. The axis of ordinate of each of FIGS. 17 and 18 indicates the neutron flux distribution (unit is arbitrary), while two axes of abscissa indicate the positions of the fuel assembly. The states of the reactor core shown in FIGS. 17A and 17B are characterized in that the fundamental mode of the neutron flux distribution is sufficiently flattened but the subcriticality of the first mode of the neutron flux is small as compared with the states shown in FIGS. 18A and 18B. As can be understood from the foregoing examples, the subcriticality of the first mode of the neutron flux distribution in the state of the reactor core in which the power distribution is flat. Therefore, it will be said that regional oscillations can easily be excited. As described above, the regional oscillations can easily be excited if the subcriticality of the first harmonics is small. Therefore, by monitoring the subcriticality, the possibility of the onset of the regional oscillations can be estimated. Further, a certain countermeasure for preventing the onset of the regional oscillations must be taken. However, in the operation of the reactor, a method for evaluating the subcriticality of the first mode by solving the Equations (2) and (3) to the direct first mode involves difficulty, thus being not practical. Since the subcriticality of the first mode considerably depends upon the core condition even if the nuclear reactor and the operational cycle are specified, it must always be reevaluated to be adaptable to the change of the state of the reactor core. However, solving Equation (2) for the first mode encounters a problem that the calculations take a long time because the reactor power is converged slowly as contrasted with the fundamental mode. The nuclear reactor is operated in such a manner that the APRM signal obtained by averaging the LPRM signals is used to monitor the distribution of the neutron fluxes to avoid the operation in an unstable core condition. Although the APRM signal can detect the core-wide power change because the APRM signal is obtained by equally averaging the LPRM signals, in the use of the APRM signal, there is a possibility of making difficult the detection of the reactor power distribution, if the core of the nuclear reactor is locally changed or if the same is changed while spatially having a phase difference because the quantity of the change is set off due to averaging of the LPRM signals. As an example of the local change in the reactor core, a so-called "channel oscillations" can be considered in which a thermal-hydraulically severe fuel assembly generates an oscillation phenomenon called "density wave oscillations". Although the oscillation phenomenon can be diffused by the oscillations of the neutron fluxes, there is a possibility that the change is limited in only a relatively narrow range. As an example of the change taking place while having the spatial phase difference, there is an oscillation phenomenon called a regional oscillation occurring at symmetrical positions in the core while having a phase difference of 180.degree.. The foregoing oscillation phenomenon has been observed in some overseas plants. For example, a regional oscillation observed in CAORSO plant in Italy showed the maximum oscillation of APRM of 10% or less. On the other hand, oscillations reaching to 60% were observed in the LPRM that shows the largest oscillation. The reason for this is considered that the fact, that oscillations symmetrically are generated at a phase difference of 180.degree. in the core, causes the maximum value and the minimum value of the LPRM to be simultaneously averaged, and therefore, cancelling takes place during this. When the stability of the reactor core is monitored, the decay ratio, the period of the oscillation and the amplitude denoting the stability are calculated from the APRM signal to estimate usually the stability of the state of the core. However, there is a possibility that the stability of the reactor core cannot accurately be detected by simply monitoring the APRM signal. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention has been directed to overcome the foregoing problems encountered in the prior art, and therefore, an object of the present invention is to provide a system for monitoring a nuclear reactor which detects the change of the power of the reactor core by using a conventional LPRM signal or the like and which is capable of improving the safety of the reactor core and the availability of a nuclear reactor. Another object of the present invention is to provide a system for monitoring a nuclear reactor which provides a filter for peculiarly extracting the oscillation mode of the neutron flux distribution and which is able to monitor and discriminate the stability of the reactor core in accordance with a signal processed by the filter. Another object of the present invention is to provide a system for monitoring a nuclear reactor capable of quickly discriminating a possibility of generation of the regional oscillations and enabling the nuclear reactor to be operated safely and efficiently. Another object of the present invention is to provide a system for monitoring a nuclear reactor which quickly discriminates the possibility of the regional oscillations occurring at the time of selected rod insertion and that enables the nuclear reactor to be operated safely and efficiently. These and other objects can be achieved according to the present invention by providing, in one aspect, a system for monitoring power of a nuclear reactor comprising: a plurality of neutron flux measuring means disposed in a core of the nuclear reactor for measuring neutron flux in the core and generating neutron flux signals; PA1 means for calculating a neutron flux distribution in the core in response to the neutron flux detection signals from said neutron flux measuring means; PA1 means for calculating a higher mode of the neutron flux distribution in accordance with results of calculations performed by the neutron flux distribution calculating means; PA1 a filter calculating means for obtaining a filter for extracting characteristics of change of the neutron flux detection signal in response to the neutron flux detection signal; and PA1 an input/output means for transmitting the neutron flux detection signal filtered by the filter obtained by the filter calculating means. PA1 a plurality of neutron flux measuring means disposed in a core of the nuclear reactor for measuring neutron flux in the core and generating neutron flux signals; PA1 means for calculating the fundamental mode distribution of the neutron flux in response to the neutron flux detection signal measured by the neutron flux measuring means; PA1 a subcriticality evaluating means for estimating a subcriticality of a state of the core in accordance with the neutron flux distribution in the calculated fundamental mode; and PA1 an input/output means for transmitting a result of an evaluation made by the subcriticality evaluation means. PA1 a core present state data measuring means for measuring an operational state of a core of the nuclear reactor and generating a core operational state signal; PA1 means for calculating a neutron flux distribution in a basic mode in response to the core operational state signal from the core present state data measuring means; PA1 means for calculating a higher mode of the neutron flux in a state of the core realized when insertion of a selected rod is executed in accordance with the calculated neutron flux distribution and discriminating whether or not a subcriticality of the higher mode is smaller than a predetermined limit value; and PA1 an input/output means for transmitting results of calculations performed by the higher mode calculating means. PA1 a plurality of neutron flux measuring means disposed in a core of the reactor for measuring neutron flux in the core and generating a signal representing a local power range monitor enumerated data from the neutron flux measuring means; PA1 means for calculating neutron flux distribution in response to the signal from the neutron flux measuring means; PA1 a higher mode calculating means for calculating neutron higher modes in accordance with the calculation results of the neutron flux distribution calculating means; and PA1 an input/output means for outputting calculation results from the neutron flux distribution calculating means and the higher mode calculating means. In a preferred mode, the filter calculating means is operatively connected at one side to the neutron flux measuring means through a data sampler and at another side to the higher mode calculating means. Then, the filter calculating means obtains a filter reflecting a state of the core realized due to change of an operational state in accordance with the higher mode of the neutron flux distribution calculated by the higher mode calculating means. Thus, a filter is obtained in accordance with differences in amplitudes and phases between signals occurring due to change of the neutron flux detection signal measured actually. The system further comprises a stability monitoring means connected to an output side of the filter calculating means and the stability monitoring means has a structure for evaluating a core stability index in response to a power signal filtered by the filter calculating means to monitor the stability of the state of the core. The neutron flux distribution calculating means is constituted by a process control computing means which is provided in association with the higher mode calculating means. The process control computing means includes the higher mode calculating means. A power distribution monitoring means connected at input side to the process control computing means and at output side to a display means. In another aspect, there is also provided a system for monitoring power of a nuclear reactor comprising: In a preferred mode, the apparatus further comprises a higher mode calculating means for calculating a higher mode of the neutron flux distribution in accordance with results of calculations performed by the neutron flux distribution calculating means and a filter calculating means for obtaining a filter for extracting characteristics of change of the neutron flux detection signal in accordance with the neutron flux detection signal and the results of calculations performed by the filter calculating means is transmitted to the input/output means. The neutron flux distribution calculating means is constructed by a process control computing means connected at input side to the neutron flux measuring means through a data sampler and at output side to the subcriticality evaluation means. The process control computing means is further connected at output side to the high mode calculating means. The system further comprises a filter calculating means operatively connected to the neutron flux measuring means for obtaining a filter for extracting characteristics of change of the neutron flux detection signal in response to the neutron flux detection signal and a stability monitoring means connected to an output side of said filter calculating means and the stability monitoring means has a structure for evaluating a core stability index in response to a power signal filtered by the filter calculating means to monitor the stability of the state of the core. In a further aspect, there is also provided a system for monitoring power of a nuclear reactor comprising: In a still further aspect, there is also provided a system for monitoring power of a nuclear reactor comprising: In a preferred mode, the higher mode calculating means is provided with a magnitude variation calculating means for calculating a variation in magnitude in each mode on the basis of the higher mode modes and the local power range monitor enumerated data. The neutron flux distribution calculating means is constructed by a process control computing means operatively connected at input side to the neutron flux measuring means through a data sampler and at output side to the higher mode calculating means. The system for monitoring power of a nuclear reactor according to one aspect of the present invention comprises the filter calculating means in addition to the conventional APRM signal obtained by averaging the analog signals to monitor the reactor power and the reactor power distribution by using each neutron flux detection signal. The filter calculating means obtains the filter corresponding to the state of the reactor core or obtains the same corresponding to the change characteristics of the signal in response to each neutron flux detection signal, the filter for extracting the characteristics of the signal change being used to fill each neutron flux detection signal so that the decay ratio, the period of the oscillations and the amplitude showing the stability of the state of the reactor core and the like are obtained at the time of monitoring the stability of the reactor core. The calculation of the filter performed by a filter calculating means by a calculating step for periodically calculating the filter in accordance with the change of the spatial distribution characteristics of the reactor power whenever the operational state is changed and by a sequential calculating step for calculating the same in accordance with the amplitude difference or the phase difference between the signals. The former is calculated in accordance with information from the neutron flux distribution calculating means, which is a process control computer, i.e. process computer, and that from a higher mode calculating means, while the latter is calculated in response to the neutron flux detection signal, which is an actually measured signal that is sequentially detected. The power signal filtered by the filter calculated by the filter calculating means is received by the stability monitoring means to obtain sequentially the decay ratio and the oscillation period showing the stability of the core and the amplitude showing the power change. The obtained values are used to monitor the stability of the reactor core to be evaluated in an on-line manner. The system for monitoring power of a nuclear reactor is able to accurately detect the power change phenomenon, and, in particular, the power oscillation phenomenon due to the regional oscillations, which has been difficult to be detected by using the conventional APRM signal. Therefore, the apparatus is able to contribute to improve the stability of the core and the availability of the nuclear reactor. The system for monitoring power of a nuclear reactor according to another aspect of the present invention is able to discriminate the possibility of the generation of the regional oscillations from the subcriticality of the state of the core obtained by the subcriticality evaluation means, to estimate the easiness of occurring the regional oscillations, to monitor the stability of the state of the core, to control the core while preventing the generation of the regional oscillations and to operate the nuclear reactor safely and efficiently. The system for monitoring power of a nuclear reactor according to a further aspect of the present invention calculates the higher mode of the neutron flux in a state of the reactor core when the selected rod insertion (SRI) is executed, and discriminates whether or not its subcriticality is smaller than a predetermined limit value. Therefore, the possibility of the generation of the regional oscillations at the time of the execution of the SRI can quickly be discriminated. Therefore, the nuclear reactor can safely and efficiently be operated. In a still further aspect, a neutron flux distribution is calculated in accordance with the local power range monitor (LPRM) enumerated data and the higher modes of the neutron flux are calculated in accordance with the calculation results. The variation in strength of each mode is calculated on the basis of the higher modes and the LPRM enumerated data. The calculation results are outputted and reported to the operator. Thus, unlike the conventional method using the APRM value, the method of the present invention makes it possible to quickly detect any regional oscillation. The nature and further features of the present invention will be made further clear from the following descriptions made with reference to the accompanying drawings.
058964304	summary	TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention relates to a method and a device for handling fuel assemblies in a light-water nuclear power reactor comprising a reactor vessel with a reactor core. More particularly, the invention relates to such handling of fuel assemblies which occurs when fuel assemblies are to be replaced or transferred to a new position when the reactor vessel or parts connected thereto are to be serviced and therefore have to be emptied of fuel assemblies. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION A light-water nuclear power plant comprises a reactor vessel which encloses a reactor core. The reactor core comprises a large number of fuel assemblies. More particularly, the core comprises normally between 400 and 1000 fuel assemblies. A fuel assembly comprises a bundle of fuel rods. The fuel rods in turn comprise pellets of a nuclear fuel. A coolant in the form of water is arranged to flow from below and up through the core to cool the fuel rods while nuclear fission is in progress. The heated coolant is evaporated whereupon it is passed to a turbine for conversion into electric energy. After a certain burnup time of the fuel assemblies, it is normal either to reject them or to transfer them within the fuel core in order to burn them out further. Such refuelling or transfer of fuel takes place upon shutdown of the nuclear power plant. During the shutdown, work is normally carried out also in the reactor vessel and in other systems which are connected to the reactor vessel. Such a shutdown is very costly and takes approximately three to eight weeks. Therefore, it is desirable to do whatever is possible to limit this shutdown time to the shortest possible time. The refuelling in a nuclear power plant thus comprises (a) replacing burnt-up fuel assemblies with new ones, and (b) transferring a large number of fuel assemblies in the core to obtain optimum burnup. During such refuelling, the fuel assemblies are normally handled one by one. When the reactor vessel is opened to make the fuel assemblies accessible, a handling tool is moved down into the core and is brought to grip a fuel assembly which is to be temporarily placed in a fuel pool. Normally, control rods arranged between the fuel assemblies are left in the reactor vessel. Further fuel assemblies are lifted out of the core and placed at an arbitrary location in the pool. Thereafter, new fuel assemblies are lifted from the pool into the reactor vessel to the new empty positions. The fuel assemblies are thus lifted one by one. The fuel assemblies which are to be transferred within the core are normally moved directly from their old to their new positions. In the event that work has to be carried out in the reactor vessel or in adjacently located systems, such as pumps directly connected to the reactor vessel, a suitable number of fuel assemblies have to be lifted out therefrom and be temporarily placed at an arbitrary location in the fuel pool. In certain cases, the whole reactor vessel may have to be emptied of fuel assemblies. The lifting of the fuel assemblies one by one out of and into the reactor vessel, respectively, is one of the independent work operations during the shutdown which takes a relatively large proportion of the total shutdown time. The purpose of the present invention is to provide a method of reducing the time of the fuel handling and hence the total shutdown time. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a method and a device which considerably reduce the time of shutdown when fuel assemblies are to be lifted out of or into a reactor vessel. According to one aspect of the method according to the invention, the whole, or parts of, the reactor core is/are transported simultaneously from the reactor vessel to the fuel pool located adjacent thereto. The transport takes place in a forced manner by moving groups containing a plurality of fuel assemblies and/or control rods simultaneously between the reactor vessel and the fuel pool. The groups may contain fuel assemblies with an arbitrary order or with a mutual order corresponding to the order of the fuel assemblies in the reactor vessel. To bring about the forced transport, a fuel cassette is provided which accommodates the number of fuel assemblies which are to be simultaneously transported between the reactor vessel and the fuel pool. Such a fuel cassette preferably comprises four, eight or twelve fuel assembly positions. The fuel cassette may be designed so that each fuel assembly position is surrounded by four vertical walls of a neutron-absorbing material forming a sleeve-formed space. The respective sleeve-formed spaces have a length which substantially corresponds to the length of a fuel assembly so that a fuel assembly arranged in the fuel cassette is substantially surrounded by these walls. A fuel cassette comprising, for example, eight fuel assembly positions may be designed with two rows with sleeve-formed spaces in which four sleeve-formed spaces are arranged in each row. The sleeve-formed spaces in a fuel cassette with four or twelve fuel assembly positions are arranged in the same way with two rows of sleeve-formed spaces in which, respectively, two and six sleeve-formed spaces are arranged in each row. Alternatively, the sleeve-formed spaces may be arranged in a single row. The sleeve-formed spaces are provided with a bottom part against which the fuel assembly arranged therein may rest. In one embodiment of the invention, the sleeve-formed spaces are arranged with an opening facing upwardly for inserting and extracting the fuel assemblies. In another embodiment of the invention, a vertical opening in the sleeve wall is provided for loading and unloading the fuel assemblies, respectively, in the lateral direction. In a further embodiment of the invention, this opening is provided with a closable port. When lifting fuel assemblies from a reactor vessel, a fuel cassette of any of the above-mentioned types is arranged at a location in the reactor vessel above the core grid. A handling member is adapted to lift the fuel assemblies one, by one or in groups, and arranging them in the fuel cassette. One example of lifting in groups is the lifting of a core module comprising four orthogonally arranged fuel assemblies and possibly the control rod arranged therebetween. The fuel assemblies are arranged either one or more, preferably four, each in one sleeve-formed space in the fuel cassette. When the fuel cassette is filled with the desired number of fuel assemblies, this is transported to a position in the fuel pool where it is lowered and left in its entirety for temporary storage. A new fuel cassette is arranged in the reactor vessel and is filled with fuel assemblies until the required number of fuel assemblies are moved out of the core for the action to be taken. The advantage of the invention is that a considerable gain in time can be made by lifting a plurality of fuel assemblies simultaneously out of/into the reactor vessel and by transporting a plurality of fuel assemblies simultaneously to and from the reactor vessel, respectively. The time for shutdown of the nuclear power plant can be further reduced in those cases where laterally loaded fuel cassettes are used since the height that the respective fuel assembly has to be lifted for loading and unloading, respectively, can be reduced by approximately four meters. The shutdown time reduction results in a considerable cost saving.
	claims	1. A plasma radiation source comprising:an anode and a cathode defining a region in which to produce a plasma current, wherein the anode has a first surface and a first periphery and the cathode has a second surface with a second periphery which faces the first surface of the anode such that the anode and the cathode do not overlap each other; anda magnet that is a physically separate structure from the anode and cathode, the magnet disposed substantially around the anode and the cathode to externally induce a magnetic field in a discharge gap between the anode and the cathode, the magnet having a third periphery that does not overlap the first periphery of the first surface of the anode and/or the second periphery of the second surface of the cathode and the magnetic field in the region having an axial component directed along a direction of the plasma current. 2. The plasma radiation source of claim 1, further comprising a beam forming system configured to form a radiation beam from radiation emitted from the region. 3. The plasma radiation source of claim 1, wherein the magnet is configured to apply the magnetic field with a strength in a range of 10 milli-Tesla to 100 milli-Tesla in the region and wherein the anode and cathode are a solid disc or a solid ring. 4. The plasma radiation source of claim 1, wherein the direction of the plasma current is from the anode to the cathode and the magnetic field is of a sufficient strength to limit the collapse of a Z-pinch region of the plasma. 5. The plasma radiation source of claim 1, wherein the magnet is a permanent magnet and wherein the first surface of the anode is a first major annular surface and the second surface of the cathode is a second major annular surface. 6. The plasma radiation source of claim 1, wherein a plane of the magnet, the plane defined at least in part by the third periphery, does not overlap the first surface of the anode and/or the second surface of the cathode. 7. The plasma radiation source of claim 1, wherein the first surface of the anode, the second surface of the cathode and the magnet are disposed such that the first, second and third peripheries are located adjacent to each other with the third periphery between the first and second peripheries. 8. An apparatus to project a pattern from a patterning device onto a substrate, the apparatus comprising:a plasma radiation source comprising:an anode and a cathode defining a region in which to produce a plasma current, wherein the anode has a first major annular surface with a first periphery and the cathode has a second major annular surface with a second periphery which second major annular surface is facing the first major annular surface of the anode such that the anode and the cathode do not overlap each other, anda magnet that is a physically separate structure from the anode and cathode, the magnet disposed substantially around the anode and the cathode to externally induce a magnetic field in a discharge gap between the anode and the cathode, the magnet having a third periphery that does not overlap the first periphery of the first major annular surface of the anode and/or the second periphery of the second major annular surface of the cathode and the magnetic field in the region having an axial component directed along a direction of the plasma current; andan illumination system configured to form a radiation beam from radiation emitted from the region. 9. The apparatus of claim 8, wherein the magnet is configured to apply the magnetic field with a strength in a range of 10 milli-Tesla to 100 milli-Tesla in the region and wherein the anode and cathode are a solid disc or a solid ring. 10. The apparatus of claim 8, wherein the direction of the plasma current is from the anode to the cathode and the magnetic field is of a sufficient strength to limit the collapse of a Z-pinch region of the plasma. 11. The apparatus of claim 8, wherein the magnet is a permanent magnet. 12. The apparatus of claim 8, further comprising:a support constructed to support a patterning device, the patterning device being capable of imparting the radiation beam with a pattern in its cross-section to form a patterned radiation beam;a substrate table constructed to hold a substrate; anda projection system configured to project the patterned radiation beam onto a target portion of the substrate. 13. The apparatus of claim 8, wherein a plane of the magnet, the plane defined at least in part by the third periphery, does not overlap the first major annular surface of the anode and/or the second major annular surface of the cathode. 14. The apparatus of claim 8, wherein the first major annular surface of the anode, the second major annular surface of the cathode and the magnet are disposed such that the first, second and third peripheries are located adjacent to each other with the third periphery between the first and second peripheries. 15. A method of producing radiation, comprising:generating a plasma current in a plasma region in a direction between an anode and a cathode;applying a magnetic field in the plasma region with an axial component directed along the direction of the plasma current; andemitting radiation from the plasma region,wherein the anode has a first major annular surface with a first periphery, the cathode has a second major annular surface with a second periphery which second major annular surface faces the first major annular surface of the anode such that the anode and the cathode do not overlap each other, and a magnet, that is a physically separate structure from the anode and cathode, is disposed substantially around the anode and the cathode to externally induce the magnetic field in a discharge gap between the anode and the cathode, the magnet having a third periphery that does not overlap the first periphery of the first major annular surface of the anode and/or the second periphery of the second major annular surface of the cathode. 16. The method of claim 15, wherein the magnetic field is externally applied with a strength in a range of 10 milli-Tesla to 100 milli-Tesla in the plasma region and wherein the anode and cathode are a solid disc or a solid ring. 17. The method of claim 15, wherein the magnetic field is of a sufficient strength to limit the collapse of a Z-pinch region of the plasma, wherein the direction of the plasma current is from the anode to the cathode and wherein the magnet is a permanent magnet. 18. The method of claim 15, further comprising imparting the radiation beam with a pattern in its cross-section to form a patterned radiation beam and projecting the patterned radiation beam onto a target portion of a substrate. 19. The method of claim 15, further comprising forming a radiation beam from emitted radiation from the plasma region. 20. The method of claim 15, wherein a plane of the magnet, the plane defined at least in part by the third periphery, does not overlap the first major annular surface of the anode and/or the second major annular surface of the cathode. 21. The method of claim 15, wherein the first major annular surface of the anode, the second major annular surface of the cathode and the magnet are disposed such that the first, second and third peripheries are located adjacent to each other with the third periphery between the first and second peripheries. 22. A device manufacturing method comprising:applying a magnetic field in a plasma region with an axial component directed along the direction of a plasma current;following applying the magnetic field, generating the plasma current in the plasma region in a direction between an anode and a cathode; andusing a reflective optical element to form a radiation beam from radiation emitted from the plasma region,wherein the anode has a first major annular surface, the cathode has a second major annular surface which faces the first major annular surface of the anode such that the anode and the cathode do not overlap each other, and a magnet is disposed substantially around the anode and the cathode to externally induce the magnetic field in a discharge gap between the anode and the cathode. 23. The method of claim 22, wherein the magnetic field is externally applied with a strength in a range of 10 milli-Tesla to 100 milli-Tesla in the plasma region and wherein the anode and cathode are a solid disc or a solid ring. 24. The method of claim 22, wherein the initial magnetic field is of a sufficient strength to limit the collapse of a Z-pinch region of the plasma and the magnet is a permanent magnet. 25. The method of claim 22, further comprising imparting the radiation beam with a pattern in its cross-section to form a patterned radiation beam and projecting the patterned radiation beam onto a target portion of a substrate. 26. A plasma radiation source comprising:an anode and a cathode defining a region in which to produce a plasma current, wherein the anode is an annular anode having a first major annular surface and the cathode is an annular cathode having a second major annular surface which faces the first major annular surface of the annular anode such that the annular anode and the annular cathode do not overlap each other; anda permanent magnet or an electromagnet magnet not directly electrically connected to the anode or cathode, configured to induce an initial magnetic field of a sufficient strength in a discharge gap between the annular anode and the annular cathode such as to limit the collapse of a Z-pinch region of the plasma, wherein the magnetic field in the region has an axial component directed along a direction of the plasma current.
	description	1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates generally to an improved data processing system and in particular to a method and apparatus for processing data. Still more particularly, the present invention relates to a computer implemented method, apparatus, and computer usable program code for analyzing performance of a data processing system. 2. Description of the Related Art In writing code, runtime analysis of the code is often performed as part of an optimization process. Runtime analysis is used to understand the behavior of components or modules within the code using data collected during the execution of the code. The analysis of the data collected may provide insight to various potential misbehaviors in the code. For example, an understanding of execution paths, code coverage, memory utilization, memory errors and memory leaks in native applications, performance bottlenecks, and threading problems are examples of aspects that may be identified through analyzing the code during execution. The performance characteristics of code may be identified using a software performance analysis tool. The identification of the different characteristics may be based on a trace facility of a trace system. A trace tool may be used using various techniques to provide information, such as execution flows as well as other aspects of an executing program. A trace may contain data about the execution of code. For example, a trace may contain trace records about events generated during the execution of the code. A trace also may include information, such as, a process identifier, a thread identifier, and a program counter. Information in the trace may vary depending on the particular profile or analysis that is to be performed. A record is a unit of information relating to an event that is detected during the execution of the code. One part of analyzing the performance of a system involves identifying the reasons that a processor is busy or idle. In a symmetric multi-processor system, an inability to adjust a workload to keep all of the processors busy limits the scalability of the system. Complex applications, such as Web servers and other E-Commerce applications require an understanding as to why these applications are not fully utilizing the available processor cycles. Therefore, it would be advantageous to have a computer implemented method, apparatus, and computer usable program for generating data regarding processor utilization. The present inventions provide a computer implemented method, apparatus, and computer usable program code to collect system or processor information for a system or processor having a transition between an idle state and a non-idle state. The collected system or processor information is provided for analysis by an application. With reference now to the figures and in particular with reference to FIG. 1, a pictorial representation of a data processing system in which the aspects of the present invention may be implemented. A computer 100 is depicted which includes system unit 102, video display terminal 104, keyboard 106, storage devices 108, which may include floppy drives and other types of permanent and removable storage media, and mouse 110. Additional input devices may be included with personal computer 100, such as, for example, a joystick, touchpad, touch screen, trackball, microphone, and the like. Computer 100 can be implemented using any suitable computer, such as an IBM eServer computer or IntelliStation computer, which are products of International Business Machines Corporation, located in Armonk, N.Y. Although the depicted representation shows a computer, other embodiments of the present invention may be implemented in other types of data processing systems, such as a network computer. Computer 100 also preferably includes a graphical user interface (GUI) that may be implemented by means of systems software residing in computer readable media in operation within computer 100. With reference now to FIG. 2, a block diagram of a data processing system is shown in which aspects of the present invention may be implemented. Data processing system 200 is an example of a computer, such as computer 100 in FIG. 1, in which code or instructions implementing the processes of the present invention may be located. In the depicted example, data processing system 200 employs a hub architecture including a north bridge and memory controller hub (MCH) 202 and a south bridge and input/output (I/O) controller hub (ICH) 204. Processor 206, main memory 208, and graphics processor 210 are connected to north bridge and memory controller hub 202. Graphics processor 210 may be connected to the MCH through an accelerated graphics port (AGP), for example. In the depicted example, local area network (LAN) adapter 212 connects to south bridge and I/O controller hub 204 and audio adapter 216, keyboard and mouse adapter 220, modem 222, read only memory (ROM) 224, hard disk drive (HDD) 226, CD-ROM drive 230, universal serial bus (USB) ports and other communications ports 232, and PCI/PCIe devices 234 connect to south bridge and I/O controller hub 204 through bus 238 and bus 240. PCI/PCIe devices may include, for example, Ethernet adapters, add-in cards, and PC cards for notebook computers. PCI uses a card bus controller, while PCIe does not. ROM 224 may be, for example, a flash binary input/output system (BIOS). Hard disk drive 226 and CD-ROM drive 230 may use, for example, an integrated drive electronics (IDE) or serial advanced technology attachment (SATA) interface. A super I/O (SIO) device 236 may be connected to south bridge and I/O controller hub 204. An operating system runs on processor 206 and coordinates and provides control of various components within data processing system 200 in FIG. 2. The operating system may be a commercially available operating system such as Microsoft® Windows® XP (Microsoft and Windows are trademarks of Microsoft Corporation in the United States, other countries, or both). An object oriented programming system, such as the Java™ programming system, may run in conjunction with the operating system and provides calls to the operating system from Java programs or applications executing on data processing system 200 (Java is a trademark of Sun Microsystems, Inc. in the United States, other countries, or both). Program code/instructions for the operating system, the object-oriented programming system, and applications or programs are located on storage devices, such as hard disk drive 226, and may be loaded into main memory 208 for execution by processor 206. The processes of the present invention are performed by processor 206 using computer implemented instructions, which may be located in a memory such as, for example, main memory 208, read only memory 224, or in one or more peripheral devices. Those of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that the hardware in FIGS. 1-2 may vary depending on the implementation. Other internal hardware or peripheral devices, such as flash memory, equivalent non-volatile memory, or optical disk drives and the like, may be used in addition to or in place of the hardware depicted in FIGS. 1-2. Also, the processes of the present invention may be applied to a multiprocessor data processing system. In some illustrative examples, data processing system 200 may be a personal digital assistant (PDA), which is configured with flash memory to provide non-volatile memory for storing operating system files and/or user-generated data. A bus system may be comprised of one or more buses, such as a system bus, an I/O bus and a PCI bus. Of course the bus system may be implemented using any type of communications fabric or architecture that provides for a transfer of data between different components or devices attached to the fabric or architecture. A communications unit may include one or more devices used to transmit and receive data, such as a modem or a network adapter. A memory may be, for example, main memory 208 or a cache such as found in north bridge and memory controller hub 202. A processing unit may include one or more processors or CPUs. The depicted examples in FIGS. 1-2 and above-described examples are not meant to imply architectural limitations. For example, data processing system 200 also may be a tablet computer, laptop computer, or telephone device in addition to taking the form of a PDA. The aspects of the present invention provide a computer implemented method, apparatus, and computer usable program product for collecting data on idle states occurring during execution of code in a data processing system. In these examples, the aspects of the present invention analyze the transition and process states and collect idle counts during the execution of the code to form collected idle counts. This collecting of idle counts includes collecting information for a system having a transition between an idle state and a non-idle state. This system information may be information about a thread. The aspects of the present invention identify on a per-processor and per-thread basis the number of idle states intervals occurring for individual processors and all processors. Additionally, the per-thread information identifies a number of dispatches from running to idle state and from idle state to running. Additionally, the total number of dispatches for the current processor and total number of idle dispatches for all processors are identified. The aspects of the present invention allow for the association of idle information with entry/exit trees used to track execution of threads. On any entry or exit event, idle information may be applied to a node in these examples. Additionally, when nodes in a tree are constructed, a unique node address is added for each node to allow correlation of the context with the trace records. Alternatively, any unique node identifier may be used to provide a correlation between nodes and trace records. This unique node address is also written to a shared thread work area as entries and exits are processed. This node address may also be written into a trace record by a device driver. In this manner, reports may be generated for various idle related events. Turning now to FIG. 3, a diagram illustrating components used to identify idle states during processing is depicted in accordance with an illustrative embodiment of the present invention. In this depicted example, the components are examples of hardware and software components found in a data processing system, such as data processing system 200 in FIG. 2. Processor 300 generates interrupt 302 and operating system 304 generates call 306. Call 306 is identified and processed by device driver 308. In these examples, the call is generated by a presently used operating system dispatcher located in operating system 304. This dispatcher is hooked or modified to generate a call or a branch to device driver 308 when an event of interest occurs. When call 306 is received from operating system 304, device driver 308 determines whether the dispatch is directed towards an idle processor thread or to a processor thread that is not idle in threads 312. Device driver 308 updates state information for processor 300, performs operations such as accumulating counts and writing trace records 320. Device driver 308 saves state information 310 in data area 314 and returns control back to the dispatch routine within operating system 304. Device driver 308 receives call 306 through hooks in these examples. A hook is a break point or callout that is used to call or transfer control to a routine or function for additional processing, such as determining idleness occurring during execution in these examples. In these illustrative examples, device driver 308 increments counters for processors in which idle states occur to indicate the number of times a processor is idle during execution in state information 310. Device driver 308 writes counts or state information 310, which is accessible by application 316. Device driver 308 writes or increments a counter each time the idle thread is dispatched (at either the entry from the dispatch to the idle thread or the exit from the idle thread to the dispatch) and copies or accumulates this information for a thread into an area 310 accessible by the thread. At each entry or exit, application 316 records the current count for the number of idle states and compares this to a last count for the number of idle states for a particular thread. The difference between the two counts is accumulated into the current node in tree 318. In these illustrative examples, the state information includes a count of the number of times that the operating system has dispatched to or from the idle thread. The counts are made on a per-processor basis. Additionally, an overall count for all the processors also may be maintained. These counts are maintained by device driver 308 in these examples. This information may be collected by application 316 to generate report 322 regarding idle states of processor 300. Application 316 may access data area 314 to process information and record information in tree 318. Application 316 is an application that is event based, for example, the application receives a call out on any entry or exit to a routine. For Java, it may use the Java Virtual Machine Profiling Interface (JVMPI) requesting entry/exit notification. For C programs, it may request hooking by the compiler at function entry and exits. In this application any reference to method may also be applicable to a function. Tree 318 is constructed as entries and exits are processed. The aspects of the present invention store the number of idle states that have occurred in nodes within tree 318. A count of the number of times that the thread for a processor has gone into an idle state is accumulated in a current node. The current node is the node for the method that has been entered into in executing the thread. When a method is entered, the current idle count is identified. When the method is exited or another method is entered, the new idle count is identified. The difference between the base of current idle counts and the new idle count is accumulated into the current node in tree 318. When the node is created, a unique identifier is also placed in the node. When entries or exits are processed, the node identifier for the current node being processed may be written by the application to a shared work area that is also accessible by a device driver. This unique identifier may be associated with, or used to identify this node for correlation with other trace information in these illustrative examples. In an alternative embodiment, each time a dispatch occurs in which a thread with a unique identifier is dispatched with a change from its idle count, device driver 308 also generates a trace record for placement into trace 320. This particular trace record contains an identification of the current node address at the time of the interrupt. This node address is the unique identifier in these examples. This current node address is placed into trace 320 along with idle counts. As a result, application 316 may access nodes within tree 318 and trace 320 to generate report 322. The combination of the information from trace 320 and tree 318 provide idle information needed to analyze and determine why processors become idle during execution of code. In these illustrative examples, report 322 contains information as to when processors are idle with respect to execution of threads 312. In this illustrative example, only a single processor is illustrated. The aspects of the present invention may be applied to multi-processor systems in which two or more processors are present. In these types of systems, a counter may be assigned to each processor as well as a counter for the overall number of times that idle states have occurred in all of the processors within the data processing system. Turning to FIG. 4, a diagram illustrating state information is depicted in accordance with an illustrative embodiment of the present invention. In this example, state information 400 is an example of state information 310 in FIG. 3. State information 400 contains processor area 402 and thread communication area 404. In this example, process area 402 contains the number of idle dispatches for each processor. As depicted, process area 402 contains idle dispatch information for processors 406, 408, and 410. Thread communication area 404 contains information for individual threads. The information in thread communication area 404 may be accessed by the application and by the device driver. This area could be, for example, shared memory or specific requests to read or write to the area. In this example, thread communication area 404 contains state information for threads 412, 414, 416, and 418. Each of these sections in thread communication area 404 contains information that may include any or all of the following: an identification of the processor last dispatched, the number of idle dispatches on that processor at the time that the thread was last dispatched, the total number of idle dispatches on all processors at the time the thread was dispatched, the total number of dispatches while on any specific processor and an identification of the node, pNode. This identification may be the address of the node or any other unique identifier with the application's context. pNode may be written by the application as it processes entries and exits. A call tree is constructed to identify all the functions or methods being called by any function or method. Each node in the call tree uniquely identifies a thread's call stack. For example in FIG. 5, the node C 506 identifies the call stack A−>B−>C The call tree is constructed by monitoring method/functions entries and exits. This can be done in several different ways, in “C” programs most modern compilers provide a “function begin” and “function end” label that can be utilized by an application program. This feature is usually provided by the compiler as a compiler option flag. In dynamic programs, such as Java, the architecture usually provides the ability to “hook” into code execution Java virtual machine profiler interface (JVMPI) or its replacement the Java virtual machine tools interface (JVMTI), sending an event on method entry and exit to monitor code. Using either of these methods, as well as others, it is possible to create the program's call tree as code execution is processed. For more information about constructing call trees and applying base time or metric such as idle counts, refer to IBM Systems Journal, Vol. 39, Nov. 1, 2000, pgs. 118-134, “A unifying approach to performance analysis in the Java environment.” This call tree can be stored in trace records 320 in FIG. 3, or as a separate file that can be merged in by application 316 in FIG. 3. Application 316 in FIG. 3 can use this call tree to provide the application's path as it goes into an idle state. Turning to FIG. 5, a diagram of a tree is depicted in accordance with an illustrative embodiment of the present invention. Tree 500 is an example of tree 318 in FIG. 3. Tree 500 is accessed and modified by an application, such as application 316 in FIG. 3. In this example, tree 500 contains nodes 502, 504, 506, and 508. Node 502 represents an entry into method A, node 504 represents an entry into method B, and nodes 506 and 508 represent entries into method C and D respectively. These nodes are created during entries and exits into various methods by threads. In the illustrative examples, each of these nodes is associated with a unique node identifier, which is then written into a trace, such as trace 320 in FIG. 3. The unique node identifier in these examples is the address of the node in memory. The information in these nodes also allow for retrieval of call stack information. The tree's node identifies the path to the node. For example, node 508 is labeled “D”. This node's call stack is A−>B−>D Turning now to FIG. 6, a diagram illustrating information in a node is depicted in accordance with an illustrative embodiment of the present invention. Entry 600 is an example of information in a node, such as node 502 in FIG. 5. In this example, entry 600 contains method/function identifier 602, tree level (LV) 604, calls 606, callees (CEE) 608, base 610, maximum amount of BASE time for any one event (M0MAX) 612, allocated objects (AO) 614, allocated bytes (AB) 616, Dispatches to idle (DIP) 618,Idle counts for all processors 624, and node identifier (pNode) 622. Entry 600 also contains (stores) idle counts for all processors 624 and idle counts on a processor 618. The information within entry 600 is information that may be generated for a node within a tree. For example, method/function identifier 602 contains the name of the method or function. Tree level (LV) 604 identifies the tree level of the particular node within the tree. For example, with reference back to FIG. 5, if entry 600 is for node 502 in FIG. 5, tree level 604 would indicate that this node is a root node. Calls 606 indicates the number of calls made to the particular method. Base 610 identifies the accumulated time on the method. The accumulated time is often stored in terms of numbers of instructions or cycles. Maximum time (M0MAX) for any one event 612 identifies the maximum time that occurs for a particular event. Allocated objects (AO) 614 identifies the number of objects allocated to the method and allocated bytes (AB) 616 identifies the number of bytes allocated by the method. A unique identifier for the node, in this case the address or pointer to the node pNode 622 may be written in the Node at the time the node is created. In addition, pNode 622 may be provided to the device driver in a preferred embodiment by writing the currently active pNode at entries and exits to a data area shared between the device driver and the application. In addition, the aspects of the present invention include other information used to determine why a particular processor is idle during certain periods of time when executing code. For example, node identifier 622 is employed such that trace records may be merged with information in the different nodes of a tree. This node identifier is an address of the node within memory in these examples. Idle count 624 identifies the total number of times that any processor was idle while the method was executing. Dispatches to idle (DIP) 618 consists of the number of dispatches to idle on the same processor as the method was last running. Other counts and approaches could be used, for example, count only dispatches from the thread to idle, or count only dispatches from idle to the thread. Turning to FIG. 7, a diagram illustrating a trace record is depicted in accordance with an illustrative embodiment of the present invention. In this example, trace record 700 is an example of a trace record within trace 320 in FIG. 3. Trace record 700 contains time stamp 702, current node address 704, and idle counts 706. Trace record 700 is generated when there is a dispatch to or a dispatch from a thread that contains a pNode and there is also a change of idle counts from those in the thread work area and those maintained by the device driver. This record may be correlated to a call tree, such as tree 500 in FIG. 5. The correlation of this information with information within a tree showing entries into and exits from methods provides an ability to recover both the thread and the complete call stacks with the address of the current tree node found in current tree node address 704. Time stamp 702 indicated when the particular event occurred. Additionally, idle counts 706 indicates changes or count relating to dispatches to or from idle for the processor on which the thread had last been dispatched or the total number of idle counts for all processors or the number of dispatches to idle from the thread or the number of dispatches from idle to the thread. The information may be compressed by providing indications of what has changed and including only the change information. Current tree node address 704 corresponds to the information stored in node identifier 622 in FIG. 6. Turning to FIG. 8, a flowchart of a processor for incrementing counters for threads in an idle state is depicted in accordance with an illustrative embodiment of the present invention. The process illustrated in FIG. 8 may be implemented in a device driver, such as device driver 308 in FIG. 3. The process begins by monitoring threads (step 800). A determination is made as to whether a thread is switching from an idle state (step 802). This determination may be made by a device driver in response to dispatches occurring during execution of code by a processor. Next, the processor associated with the thread is identified (step 804). The process then increments the counter for the identified processor (step 806). The process then proceeds to update the thread data area with idle counts (step 808). These idle counts may include the specific processor idle counts or idle counts for all processors or any other idle count as described in this application. Then, the process proceeds to step 800 as described above. Step 808 is described in more detail in the description of FIG. 11 below. With reference again to step 802, if the thread is not switching from an idle state the process proceeds to step 808 as described above. Turning now to FIG. 9, a flowchart of a process for monitoring an active thread is depicted in accordance with an illustrative embodiment of the present invention. The process illustrated in FIG. 9 may be implemented in an application, such as application 316 in FIG. 3. The application monitors a thread that is active using this process to update counts in a node when a thread enters or exits a method. The process begins by identifying last idle counts (step 900) which could be kept in its thread node. Thereafter, the process monitors the thread for entries and exits into methods (step 902). A determination is made as to whether an entry or exit has been detected (step 904). If an entry or exit into a method is not detected, the process returns to step 902 to continue to monitor the thread. Otherwise, the process identifies the current idle count (step 906). The current idle counts are identified from counters present in a work area, such as data area 314 in FIG. 3. These counts may be any of the counts being maintained in the thread work area by the device driver, for example it could be the dispatch to idle count for a particular processor on which the thread had been executing or it could be the counts of all dispatches to idle for all processors. A determination is made as to whether a difference is present between the base count and the current idle count (step 908). If a difference is present, the process updates the current node with the difference between the two counts (step 910) with the process then returning to step 900. With reference again to step 908, if a difference is not present, the process also returns to step 900 without updating any of the nodes or it could add the difference of zero. Turning now to FIG. 10, a flowchart of a process for combining trace records with nodes in a tree is depicted in accordance with an illustrative embodiment of the present invention. The process illustrated in FIG. 10 may be implemented in an application, such as application 316 in FIG. 3. This process is used to combine trace records with trees. The correlating or associating of information in a tree may involve, for example, writing the information into the node or creating a new node depending on the particular implementation. The combining of trace records as described in FIG. 10 may occur on different data processing systems. For example, the data may be captured from an embedded device or remote data processing system. This information may be collected and combined at another data processing system for analysis. The process begins by selecting a trace record for processing (step 1000). A determination is made as to whether the trace record has an address to a node (step 1002). If the trace record has an address to a node, the node is located in the tree using the node address (step 1004). The process then associates the trace record with the tree node (step 1006). Step 1006 may be implemented by placing the information from the trace record into the tree node. Alternatively, a new node may be created. Thereafter, a determination is made as to whether additional unprocessed trace records are present (step 1008). If additional unprocessed trace records are present, the process returns to step 1000. Otherwise, the process terminates. With reference again to step 1002, if the trace record does not have an address to a node, the process proceeds to step 1008 as described above. In this manner, information may be combined from trace records identifying idle counts with a tree constructed by processing entries and exits. By correlating the idle count or event information with this tree, an analysis may be made as to why a processor is idle during certain points of execution. With reference now to FIG. 11, a flowchart of a process for handling dispatching from an idle thread is depicted in accordance with an illustrative embodiment of the present invention. The process illustrated in FIG. 11 may be implemented in a device driver, such as device driver 308 in FIG. 3. In particular, FIG. 11 is a more detailed description of step 808 in FIG. 8. This figure describes a single dispatch in these examples. The process begins when a thread is dispatched and a determination is made if the dispatch is from idle (step 1100) If the dispatch is from idle then the process continues by incrementing the number of idle dispatches for the processor (step 1101). In any case the process continues by making a determination as to whether the dispatch is to a thread of interest (step 1102). The thread of interest may be any thread or a particular thread that has been identified for monitoring. If the dispatch is not to a thread of interest, the process terminates by returning to monitoring threads (step 800). Otherwise, a determination is made as to whether the thread of interest was last dispatched to the current processor (step 1104). If the thread of interest was last dispatched to the current processor, the dispatch processor's idle delta is set equal to the new number of idle dispatches on that processor at the time the thread was dispatched minus the last number of idle dispatches for the processor (step 1106). The last processor dispatched and the last number of idle dispatches for the processor are available in the thread work area. The new number of idle dispatches on that processor are in the per processor work area. The change of values are placed or accumulated in the thread work area. If the last processor dispatched is not the current processor as specified in the thread work area, then in a preferred embodiment, the difference between the current value of the number of idle dispatches on the previous processor available in the per processor work area and the previous number of idle dispatches on the thread available in the thread work area may be added to the total number of dispatches on processor in the thread work area. In this embodiment, the total number of dispatches on the last dispatched processor is also kept in the thread work area. Then or later, the thread work area is updated with the new processor and the new number of dispatches for that processor in the thread work area (step 1112). Thereafter, the total dispatch delta is set equal to the sum of the number of idle dispatches for all processors minus the total number of idle dispatches on all processors at the time thread was dispatched (step 1108). In alternative embodiment, the process proceeds directly to this step from step 1104, if the processor last dispatched is not the current processor. Next, the process updates the processor last dispatched in the thread work area with the current processor (step 1110). Then, the number of idle dispatches on the processor at the time the thread was dispatched is updated with the number of idle dispatches for the processor (step 1112). Next, the process updates the total number of idle dispatches on all processors at the time the thread was dispatched with the sum of the number of idle dispatches for all processors (step 1114). A determination is made as to whether the pNode is null (step 1116). The pNode is the address for a node on a tree used to trace entries into and exits from methods. This determination is made to see whether a node is present. If the pNode is null, the process terminates. Otherwise, a determination is made as to whether the dispatched idle delta or the total dispatched delta is not equal to zero (step 1118). If both are equal to zero, the process terminates. Otherwise, a trace record is written with the pNode and either the dispatch processor delta, total dispatch delta, or both values (step 1120) with the process terminating thereafter. Thus, the aspects of the present invention provide a computer implemented method, apparatus, and computer usable program product for generating data for use in determining why a processor may be idle during execution of code. The aspects of the present invention allow for the occurrence of idle states in a processor to be correlated to other execution information, such as methods being entered or exited and call stack information. With this combined information, reports may be generated to analyze why a processor enters an idle state during execution and whether those idle states may be reduced by code optimization or changes. The invention can take the form of an entirely hardware embodiment, an entirely software embodiment or an embodiment containing both hardware and software elements. In a preferred embodiment, the invention is implemented in software, which includes but is not limited to firmware, resident software, microcode, etc. Furthermore, the invention can take the form of a computer program product accessible from a computer-useable or computer-readable medium providing program code for use by or in connection with a computer or any instruction execution system. For the purposes of this description, a computer-usable or computer readable medium can be any tangible apparatus that can contain, store, communicate, propagate, or transport the program for use by or in connection with the instruction execution system, apparatus, or device. The medium can be an electronic, magnetic, optical, electromagnetic, infrared, or semiconductor system (or apparatus or device) or a propagation medium. Examples of a computer-readable medium include a semiconductor or solid state memory, magnetic tape, a removable computer diskette, a random access memory (RAM), a read-only memory (ROM), a rigid magnetic disk and an optical disk. Current examples of optical disks include compact disk—read only memory (CD-ROM), compact disk—read/write (CD-R/W) and DVD. A data processing system suitable for storing and/or executing program code will include at least one processor coupled directly or indirectly to memory elements through a system bus. The memory elements can include local memory employed during actual execution of the program code, bulk storage, and cache memories which provide temporary storage of at least some program code in order to reduce the number of times code must be retrieved from bulk storage during execution. Input/output or I/O devices (including but not limited to keyboards, displays, pointing devices, etc.) can be coupled to the system either directly or through intervening I/O controllers. Network adapters may also be coupled to the system to enable the data processing system to become coupled to other data processing systems or remote printers or storage devices through intervening private or public networks. Modems, cable modem and Ethernet cards are just a few of the currently available types of network adapters. The description of the present invention has been presented for purposes of illustration and description, and is not intended to be exhaustive or limited to the invention in the form disclosed. Many modifications and variations will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art. The embodiment was chosen and described in order to best explain the principles of the invention, the practical application, and to enable others of ordinary skill in the art to understand the invention for various embodiments with various modifications as are suited to the particular use contemplated.
	claims	1. A remotely operated vehicle (ROV) for inspecting a core shroud having an outer surface, the ROV comprising:a first arm, the first arm being configured to at least partially vertically extend into an annulus between the core shroud and a reactor pressure vessel;a tether that travels through, and is at least partially suspended from, the first arm;a second arm with a first end and a second end, the first end being connected to a lower portion of the first arm, the second arm being an actuated arm that is configured to pivot between a vertical position and a horizontal position, the tether traveling through and being at least partially suspended from the second end of the second arm;a body configured to be operatively connected to the tether; anda sensor, configured to be operatively connected to the body, and configured to provide inspection information of the core shroud;wherein the tether is configured to provide vertical position information for the ROV relative to the outer surface of the core shroud. 2. The ROV of claim 1, wherein the tether is further configured to support a weight of the ROV. 3. The ROV of claim 1, wherein the tether is further configured to support a submerged weight of the ROV. 4. The ROV of claim 1, wherein the body comprises one or more devices configured to provide thrust to move the ROV relative to a medium in which the ROV is submerged. 5. The ROV of claim 1, wherein the body comprises one or more devices configured to create a vacuum between a portion of the ROV and the outer surface of the core shroud. 6. The ROV of claim 1, wherein the body comprises one or more devices configured to maintain a vacuum between a portion of the ROV and the outer surface of the core shroud. 7. The ROV of claim 1, wherein the sensor comprises an ultrasonic probe. 8. The ROV of claim 1, wherein the sensor is configured to move relative to the body to allow inspection of the core shroud in a horizontal orientation of the sensor, a vertical orientation of the sensor, or at orientations of the sensor between the horizontal orientation and the vertical orientation. 9. The ROV of claim 1, wherein the sensor is configured to move relative to the body to allow inspection of horizontal welds of the core shroud, vertical welds of the core shroud, or horizontal and vertical welds of the core shroud. 10. A system for inspecting a core shroud having an outer surface, the system comprising:a trolley;a first arm, the first arm being configured to at least partially vertically extend into an annulus between the core shroud and a reactor pressure vessel;a tether, the tether traveling through, and being at least partially suspended from, the first arm;a second arm with a first end and a second end, the first end being connected to a lower portion of the first arm, the second arm being an actuated arm that is configured to pivot between a vertical position and a horizontal position, the tether traveling through and being at least partially suspended from the second end of the second arm; anda remotely operated vehicle (ROV) for inspecting the core shroud;wherein the ROV comprises:a body configured to be operatively connected to the tether; anda sensor, configured to be operatively connected to the body, and configured to provide inspection information of the core shroud;wherein the first arm is configured to be operatively connected to the trolley,wherein the ROV is configured to be operatively connected to the first arm via the tether, andwherein the tether is configured to provide vertical position information for the ROV relative to the outer surface of the core shroud. 11. The system of claim 10, wherein the ROV is configured to be operatively connected to the first arm and the trolley via the tether. 12. The system of claim 10, wherein the trolley is configured to drive horizontally around the core shroud. 13. The system of claim 12, wherein the ROV is configured to move horizontally around the core shroud as the trolley is driven horizontally around the core shroud. 14. The system of claim 12, wherein the ROV is configured to move horizontally around the core shroud independent of the trolley driving horizontally around the core shroud. 15. The system of claim 12, wherein the ROV is configured to move horizontally, vertically, or horizontally and vertically relative to the core shroud independent of the trolley driving horizontally around the core shroud. 16. The system of claim 10, wherein the trolley is configured to drive around the core shroud on a steam dam of the core shroud. 17. The system of claim 10, wherein the core shroud comprises an upper portion having a first radius from an axis of the core shroud and a lower portion having a second radius from the axis of the core shroud,wherein the second radius is smaller than the first radius, andwherein the first arm is further configured to move the ROV closer to the axis of the core shroud than the first radius.
	description	This invention was made with government support under Contract No. DE-AC02-06CH11357 awarded by the United States Department of Energy to UChicago Argonne, LLC, operator of Argonne National Laboratory. The government has certain rights in the invention. The present disclosure relates to methods and systems for a radiation monochromator, and specifically, for a tunable monochromator having a fixed exit angle for radiation at different energies. A monochromator is an optical device that selectively transmits a narrow band of wavelengths of radiation from a broader band of wavelengths. Monochromators are useful across a broad range of research and industries including emission spectrometry, absorption spectrometry, circular dichroism spectrometry, radiation absorption detection, fluorescence intensity measurements, and in radiation beamlines. Monochromators typically rely on optical dispersion or diffraction to spatially separate the wavelengths of radiation which can then be further spatially filtered using an exit slit to select a wavelength, or band of wavelengths. Side-bounce monochromators are often implemented in x-ray beamlines to select x-ray energies for optical setups and experiments. Typical monochromators on side-bounce beamlines have fixed output angles which are often required for efficient operation of a monochromator in a beamline. Fixed-angle side-bounce beamlines utilize a single crystal which only allows access to a fixed, narrow-band of radiation energies. Some implementations of fixed-angle monochromators employ multiple diffraction elements having different diffraction grating periods to provide access to multiple radiation energies, although, the various energies available are discrete bands and are not tunable across a broad range of radiation energies. Attempts to fabricate tunable side-bounce monochromators have resulted in a variable output angle which requires reconfiguration of radiation sources and targets of the radiation (e.g., a chemical sample, optical setup, etc.), which is not practical in many research settings and for radiation sources that supply radiation to multiple labs or setups (e.g., in a beamline). Additionally, tunable monochromators often exhibit high polarization dependent losses. Therefore, many areas of research and industries would benefit from a fixed-angle, tunable monochromator for use in beamlines and other devices and setups. A beam steering system and method for a fixed-exit angle tunable monochromator includes a first diffraction element configured to reflect an input beam incident on a surface of the first diffraction element. The input beam has an input beam vector and the first diffraction element is rotatable about the input beam vector. The reflected beam is directed to a second diffraction element. The second diffraction element is configured to reflect the beam as an output beam having a beam exit angle. The reflected beam is incident on a surface of the second diffraction element and the reflected beam has a reflected beam vector. The second diffraction element is rotatable about both the input beam vector and the reflected beam vector. Monochromators rely on chromatic dispersion (e.g., by a prism or other dispersion optical element or material) or diffraction (e.g., by a grating, crystal, multilayer, or other diffractive element). Chromatic dispersion based monochromators are typically wavelength dependent in operation and may spatially disperse some energies of radiation more than others. In diffraction-based monochromators, the spatial separation of different radiation energies depends on the grating spacing and geometry of the optical elements. Additionally, diffraction based monochromators are typically less temperature dependent, and a higher polarization dependent loss due to the required diffraction angles. Disclosed herein is a system and method for a tunable side-bounce monochromator that has a fixed exit angle. The monochromator described utilizes two diffraction gratings that are reoriented and repositioned to tune the energy of the output radiation across a broad band from 3 keV to 30 keV while maintaining a fixed exit angle. Additionally, the system and method disclosed reduce the polarization dependent loss of the monochromator as compared to typical monochromators. The system and method described herein are useful across a number of industries and applications including for tuning the output radiation energy of an x-ray beamline. For example, side-bounce beamlines with a fixed beam exit angle, also referred to herein as a fixed exit angle, are typically limited to operating with one selected energy or a fixed narrow range of output energies. A fixed exit angle tunable monochromator would be beneficial for side-bounce beamlines to allow for more robust operation of the beamline. For example, a fixed exit angle tunable monochromator allows for more compact arrangement of a beamline requiring less space that other monochromator technologies. The more compact arrangement allows for flexibility in the requirements of the beamline housing and physical space, and increases productivity by allowing for tuning of the energy of an output beam without the need for rearranging large components of the monochromator or other hardware. Additionally, multiple labs or instruments that utilize the same beamline as a radiation source may each have their own monochromator, and it may therefore be useful for each instrument to have a tunable monochromator that maintains a fixed exit angle, independent of the other setups and monochromators. As such, a single beamline may be able to independently provide individual instruments with radiation having ranges of desired energies. In electromagnetics, it is common to distinguish a frequency, wavelength, energy, and color of electromagnetic radiation. Each of these four characteristics is related to the other three. For example, the wavelength, in nanometers (nm), and frequency, in hertz (Hz), for a specified electromagnetic radiation are inversely proportional to each other. Similarly, the energy, in electron-volts (eV) or joules (J), of electromagnetic radiation is proportional to the frequency of that radiation. Therefore, for a given radiation at a given frequency, there is a single corresponding wavelength and energy. The fourth of the aforementioned characteristics, color, typically represents a group or band of frequencies or wavelengths. For example, the color blue is commonly defined as electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength from 450 nm to 495 nm. This wavelength band also corresponds to frequencies from 606 THz to 668 THz, and energies of 2.5 to 2.75 eV. The color blue, then, is any radiation with one of those wavelengths, or radiation with multiple wavelengths in that band. Therefore, the term color may refer to one specific wavelength, or a band of wavelengths. Some areas of trade in electromagnetics prefer the use of one of the four terms over the others (e.g., color and wavelength are preferred when discussing optical filters, whereas frequency and energy are preferred when optical excitation processes). Therefore, the four terms may be understood to be freely interchangeable in the following discussion of electromagnetic radiation and monochromator devices. Although all four terms, color, frequency, wavelength, and energy are related, the terms wavelength and energy will be commonly used herein and should be understood to be interchangeable given their respective definitions as is commonly known in the field. FIG. 1A illustrates an example single side-bounce monochromator 100 having a radiation source 102, filters 104, and beam optics 107 for forming the input beam 110. The input beam 110 is incident on a diffraction element 112, which simultaneously reflects and spatially disperses the energies of the radiation of the input beam 110 to form multiple output beams 111. A spatial filter 118 may then be used to transmit a narrow band of energies of radiation of the output beams 111 to generate the tuned output beam 116, with the output beam 116 having a subset of radiation energies of the input beam 110. While described in instances herein as a crystal monochromator, any diffraction element of the described monochromators may be a crystal, multilayer material, diffraction grating, or another element capable of diffracting radiation. Further, any lists provided herein are for exemplary purposes and are not intended to be limiting. Typically, for beamlines, a crystal is employed as the diffraction element 112. Due to the periodic structure of a crystal, the crystal diffracts the input beam 110 according to Bragg's Law. FIG. 1B is a diagram that illustrates the concept of Bragg's Law as utilized in a crystal based monochromator. An input beam 150 having a wavelength or band of wavelengths, A, is incident on a surface 153 of a crystal 152. A first portion of radiation of the input beam 150 reflects off of a first atom 154a at the surface 153 of the crystal 152 to form a first reflected beam 150a. The first reflected beam 150a is reflected off of the atom at an angle θ. A second portion of radiation reflects off of a second atom 154b that is within the crystal 152, below the surface 153 of the crystal 152, to form a second reflected beam 150b. The second reflected beam 150b is also reflected at the angle θ. The first and second reflected beams 150a and 150b are then out of phase with the phase difference determined by a distance of the atomic crystal lattice, d. The first and second reflected beams 150a and 150b interfere constructively and destructively, and the spatial dispersion of the constructive interference of the wavelengths of the first and second reflected beams 150a and 150b can be determined by Bragg's Equation:2dsin θ=nλ EQ. 1where the left side of the equation, 2dsin(θ), represents the total phase difference between the first and second reflected beams 150a and 150b, and n is a positive integer representing the “order of reflection.” Due to the periodic nature of an electromagnetic wave, constructive interference occurs maximally when the difference of the distance traversed by the first and second reflected beams 150a and 150b (i.e., the left side of the Bragg Equation) is equal to a multiple of the wavelength (i.e., the right side of the Bragg equation). Therefore, the Bragg Equation defines the crystal lattice distance, angle of reflection, and wavelength combinations for a given system that allow for constructive interference of wavelengths, or bands of wavelengths, of a monochromator. An energy band of constructively interfering radiation may then be provided by a diffraction based monochromator. The angle θ may be tuned to change the individual output beams' 111 wavelengths that result in constructive interference. Although, any change in the angle θ inherently causes a change in the exit angle of the output radiation. Additionally, the lattice distance d limits the range of tunable radiation energies, and typically, monochromators are very lossy at large reflectance angles due to polarization effects. Lower energy output beams 111 require greater diffraction angles, which results in greater polarization dependent loss as lower energies. As such, single crystal monochromators are not viable for generating a wide-range of tunable energies having a fixed output angle. Described herein is a system and method for a side-bounce x-ray monochromator that utilizes two diffraction elements configured to rotate about a plurality of axes to (i) allow for tunability of the output radiation energy of the monochromator, and (ii) maintain a fixed exit angle for the different output radiation energies. The two-diffraction element system described allows for tunability of the radiation over a wide range of photon energies. Whereas some monochromators employ different types of crystals to output discrete energies or energy bands, the disclosed monochromator is continuously tunable over a wide energy band. Additionally, the disclosed two-diffraction element monochromator reduces the polarization dependent losses by reducing the required angles of reflection of the diffraction elements. The disclosed system and method enables a wide range of x-ray energies to be available from side-bounce beamlines, and enables resonant experiments to be conducted using beamline setups, which increases the utility of side-bounce beamlines and could potentially lead to more widespread use of side-bounce beamlines. Additionally, a side-bounce monochromator typically allows for a more compact arrangement of a beamline than other monochromators. Therefore a tunable side-bounce monochromator, as described herein, may further save time, money, and floor space as compared to other monochromator technologies. A monochromator that includes two diffracting elements is commonly referred to as a double-crystal monochromator, although any suitable diffracting elements may be used. FIG. 2 illustrates an example embodiment of a system for a tunable dual-diffraction element monochromator referred to as a double-crystal monochromator (DCM) 200 as described herein. The DCM 200 includes a radiation source 202, a first diffraction element 205, and a second diffraction element 208. While described as a DCM for convenience, the first and second diffraction elements 205 and 208 of the monochromator 200 may each independently be a crystal substrate, multilayer material, grating, or other diffractive element. The radiation source 202 provides radiation in the form of an input beam 210 to the first diffraction element 205. The first diffraction element 205 is configured to reflect the input beam 210 as a reflected beam 214. The input beam 210 has an input beam vector characterized by an angle of incidence of the input beam 210 on the first diffraction element 205, discussed further herein. The reflected beam 214 is then provided to the second diffraction element 208, and the second diffraction element 208 is configured to reflect the reflected beam 214 as an output beam 218. The reflected beam 214 has a reflected beam vector characterized by an angle of incidence of the reflected beam 214 on the second diffraction element 208, discussed further herein. In embodiments, the radiation source 202 may include a bend magnet, an undulator, a wiggler, a cyclotron, a synchrotron, a free electron laser (FEL), a laboratory x-ray source, a gamma ray source, a linear accelerator (LINAC), a higher order harmonic generation source, or another radiation source. By way of example and not limitation, the radiation source 202 may be configured to provide an input beam 210 having energies of 1 to 10 keV, 3 to 30 keV, 5 to 20 keV, 5 to 50 keV, or energies, or ranges of energies, including energies greater than 50 keV. Specifically, the radiation source 202 may be configured to provide radiation having an energy, or range of energies, in the x-ray regime. In embodiments, the radiation source 202 may also include optics for forming the input beam 210. Such optics may include a collimator, frequency content filter, spatial filter, lens, mirror, grating, dispersive element, aperture, or other optical element for forming the input beam 210. The first and second diffraction elements 205 and 208 may independently be diamond, silicon, quartz, germanium, or any crystal, multilayer material, grating, or other material that can diffract radiation. Further, the first and second diffraction elements 205 and 208 may be perfect crystals, mosaic crystals, or crystals under strain. Still further, the first and second diffraction elements 205 and 208 may be a same material, or the first and second diffraction elements 205 and 208 may be different materials. In embodiments, the first and second diffraction elements 205 and 208 may be in Bragg or Laue geometry. The first and second diffraction elements 205 and 208 may include a ruled grating, a holographic grating, a reflective grating, a transmissive grating, a polarization grating, an echelle grating, or another grating capable of diffracting radiation. Also by way of example and without limitation, the output beam 218 may have a peak energy of 5 keV, 10 keV, 15 keV, 25 keV, between 5 and 25 keV, between 20 and 30 keV, between 3 and 50 keV, or greater than 50 keV. In general, the output beam 218 may have an energy according to Bragg's Law capable of being diffracted by a crystal having a crystal lattice distance Band the radiation having an incident angle on the crystal lattice. In a simulated example, as discussed further herein in reference to FIGS. 6 through 8, the output beam 218 may have an energy between 3 and 50 keV. In embodiments, the output beam 218 may have an energy that is a harmonic of an energy of the input beam 210. The output beam 218 may have a peak energy in the X-ray regime that the radiation source 202 is configured to provide and that satisfies the Bragg equation EQ. 1 for a chosen crystal lattice d-spacing. In embodiments, the output beam may have any bandwidth that is within the energy range that the radiation source 202 is configured to provide. In the simulated example of FIGS. 6-8, the output beam 218 has a peak energy of 5 keV with a 0.24 eV bandwidth, or a peak energy of 10 keV with a 0.94 eV bandwidth for first and second diffraction elements 205 and 208 of diamond (111) crystal. In embodiments, the DCM 200 may further include a first mount 225 physically coupled to the first diffraction element 205, with the first mount 225 configured to rotate the first diffraction element 205. Further described below, the first mount 225 may be configured to rotate the first diffraction element 205 about the input beam vector. Further, the DCM 200 may include a second mount 227 physically coupled to the second diffraction element 208, with the second mount 227 configured to rotate the second diffraction element 208. Further described below, the second mount 227 may be configured to rotate the second diffraction element 208 about the reflected beam 214 (i.e., the reflected beam vector) and the input beam 210 (i.e., the input beam vector). Further, the second mount 227 may include a translation stage for translating the second diffraction element 208 in three-dimensional Cartesian space. The first and second mounts 225 and 227 may each independently include a mirror mount, a grating mount, a kinematic mount, a diffraction grating mount, a rotary mount, a kinematic grating mount adapter, a crystal mount, a servomotor, a linear actuator, a voice coil motor, a rotary actuator, a manual actuator, an electric actuator, or another mount and/or motor capable of changing the physical position and/or orientation of the first and second diffraction elements 205 and 208 respectively. The monochromator 200 may further include a processor 230 and a controller 233. The controller 233 may be in communication with the first and second mounts 225 and 227 with the controller 233 configured to control the first and second mounts 225 and 227 to change the positions and/or orientations of the first and second substrates 205 and 208. The processor 230 may include a memory that stores machine-readable instructions. The processor 230 may execute the machine-readable instructions to perform the methods described herein. The processor 230 may determine physical parameters of the first and/or second diffraction element 205 and 208 and the processor 230 may provide the parameters to the controller 233. The physical parameters may include a position in three-dimensional Cartesian or polar space, a rotational coordinates of the first diffraction element 205, rotational coordinates of the second diffraction element 208, another physical orientation parameter, another physical translational parameter, or another spatial parameter. The controller 233 may control the first and second mounts 225 and 227 to change the physical position and/or orientations of the first and/or second diffraction elements 205 and 208 according to the physical parameters provided by the processor 230. The controller 233 may control the first and second mounts 225 and 227 to change the energy and/or exit angle of the output beam 218. In embodiments, the processor 230 may provide the controller 233 with a current status of the first and/or second diffraction elements 205 and 208. For example, the processor 230 may store in memory a previous set of parameters that the processor 230 provided to the controller 233, with the previous set of parameters representing a current physical state of the first and/or second diffraction elements 205 and 208. Alternatively, the controller 233 may store, in a memory, parameters of the current state of the first and/or second diffraction elements 205 and 208 and the controller 205 and 208 may provide the current state parameters to the processor 230. The parameters of the current state of the first and/or second diffraction element 205 and 208 may include current rotational coordinates, current position coordinates, current translational coordinates, three-dimensional Cartesian coordinates, three-dimensional polar coordinates, or another current physical parameter. In embodiments, the first and/or second mount 225 and 227 may each provide feedback to the controller 233, with the feedback being indicative of the current state of the first and second diffraction element 205 and 208 respectively. For example, the controller 233 may control the first crystal mount 225 to rotate or move the first diffraction element 205 to a desired physical orientation. Over time, the first crystal mount 225 may physically drift due to temperature changes, environmental changes, movement of a the DCM 200, new installation of the DCM 200, powering down of the DCM 200, physical shock to the first mount 225, physical shock to the DCM 200, or drift over time due to another factor. The controller may then retrieve from the first mount information pertaining to the current physical state of the first crystal mount 225 and first diffraction element 205 to correct for any shift or drift of the first crystal mount 225. The controller 233 may provide the current state parameters to the processor 230, and the processor 230 may use the current state parameters to determine target parameters for a desired future state of the first and second diffraction elements 205 and 208. The processor 230 may provide the determined target parameters to the controller 233 and the controller 233 may control the first and/or second crystal mounts 225 and 227 to change the physical orientation of the first and second diffraction elements 205 and 208 according to the provided parameters. The target parameters may include target rotational coordinates, target position coordinates, target translational coordinates, three-dimensional Cartesian coordinates, three-dimensional polar coordinates, or another spatial coordinate. FIG. 3 is a flow diagram of a method 300 for tuning the energy of an output beam of a monochromator, while maintaining a fixed output beam exit angle. The method of FIG. 3 may be performed by the monochromator 200 of FIG. 2. FIGS. 4A-4C respectively illustrate optical configurations 400A, 400B, and 400C of the first and second diffraction elements 205 and 208 of the monochromator 200 of FIG. 2 for performing the energy tuning method 300 of FIG. 3. Referring simultaneously to FIG. 3 and FIGS. 4A-4C, the method 300 includes, providing radiation to the first diffraction element 210, the provided radiation being the input beam 210 (block 302). The first diffraction element 210 is configured to reflect the radiation as the reflected beam 214. The reflected beam 214 is incident on the second diffraction element 208, and the second diffraction element 208 is configured to reflect the reflected beam 214 as the output beam 218. The method 300, further includes rotating the first diffraction element 205 around the input beam vector (block 304). The input beam vector is defined by the propagation axis of the input beam 210, and more specifically, by the vector defined by the incidence point, and angle of incidence of the input beam 210 on the first diffraction element 205. The first diffraction element 302 is rotated around the input beam vector by a first angular value α. The resultant angle of the first diffraction element 205, after rotating the first diffraction element 205, reflects the input beam 210 as a tuned reflected beam 214′. The second diffraction element 208 is rotated about the input beam vector (block 306) by the first angular value α. In embodiments, rotating the second diffraction element 208 around the input beam vector may include rotating the second diffraction element 208 on one or more rotational axes in Cartesian coordinate space, polar coordinate space, or another three-dimensional coordinate space. Additionally, in embodiments, rotating the second diffraction element 208 around the input beam vector may include translating the second diffraction element 208 in one or more spatial dimensions. In any embodiments, the second diffraction element 208 is physically manipulated and spatially configured to rotate around the input beam vector. The resultant angle of the second diffraction element 208, after rotating the second diffraction element 208 around the input beam vector, reflects the tuned reflected beam 214′ as an intermediate output beam 218′. The method further includes, rotating the second diffraction element 208 about a reflected beam vector of the tuned reflected beam 214′ (block 308). The second diffraction element 208 is rotated about the tuned reflected beam 214′ that is incident on the second diffraction element 208 after the first and second diffraction elements 205 and 208 have been rotated about the input beam vector. The reflected beam vector of the tuned reflected beam 214′ is defined by the propagation axis of the tuned reflected beam 214′, and more specifically, by the vector defined by the incidence point, and angle of incidence of the tuned reflected beam 214′ on the second diffraction element 208. The second diffraction element 208 is rotated about the reflected beam vector by a second angular value A. After the rotation of the second diffraction element 208 about the reflected beam vector, the second diffraction element 208 reflects the tuned reflected beam 214′ as a tuned output beam 218″. In embodiments, the second diffraction element 208 may be moved closer to, or further from, the first diffraction element 205 to change the point of incidence of the tuned reflected beam 214′ on the second diffraction element 208, which changes the output location of the tuned output beam 218″. The distance between the second diffraction element 208 and the first diffraction element 205 may be determined by a desired energy of the tuned output beam 218″. As illustrated in FIG. 2, the first and second diffraction elements 205 and 208 may be physically coupled to first and second mounts 225 and 227 which respectively control the physical position and orientation of each of the first and second diffraction element 205 and 208. The first and second mounts 225 and 227 may be controlled by the controller 233 to perform steps of the method 300 of FIG. 3. Additionally, the processor 230 may provide the controller 233 with identified or otherwise calculated physical parameters (e.g., physical coordinates, rotation angles, Cartesian coordinates, polar coordinates, etc.) for the controller 223 to control the first and second mounts 225 and 227. Without limitation, the first and second mounts 225 and 227 may be configured to rotate the first and/or second diffraction element 205 and 208 by an angle of 0.01 degrees, 0.02 degrees, 0.05 degrees, 1 degree, between 0.01 and 1 degree, between 1 and 5 degrees, or greater than 5 degrees. The first and second mounts 225 and 227 may be configured to operate with an angular resolution of 0.0001°, a position resolution of 0.05 mm, an angular range to tune the output beam from 5 to 25 keV, an angular range to tune the incidence angle of the input beam between 7° and 37°, an angular range of rotation about the input beam vector of the input beam 210 of between 3° and 56°, an angular range of rotation about the reflected beam 214 of between 24° and 114°, a translation range of 50 mm along an axis defined by the input beam vector, and a translation range of 10 mm in directions orthogonal to the input beam vector. Tuning of the input beam 210 propagating through the monochromator must be performed while preserving the Bragg condition for diffraction. That is, the radiation is scattered in a specular manner by the first and second diffraction elements 205 and 208 that satisfies the condition described by the Bragg Equation, EQ. 1. Rotating the first diffraction element 205 about the input beam vector preserves the Bragg condition, and rotating the second diffraction element 208 about the tuned reflected beam 214′ (i.e., the reflected beam vector) also preserves the Bragg condition. Additionally, rotation of an entire optical system about the input beam vector preserves the Bragg condition. The described rotations are examples of rotations that preserve the Bragg condition, in embodiments, other rotations and physical configurations may also be implemented that preserve the Bragg condition. The first and second angular values α and β may be determined by a desired or required energy of the tuned output beam 218″ and/or a desired beam exit angle. The input beam has an angle of incidence of e on the first diffraction element 205, and the reflected beam has an angle of incidence of e on the second diffraction element 208. As an example, the first and second diffraction elements 205 and 208 may be crystal substrates with a crystal lattice spacing distance of d. The output energy of the tuned output beam 218″ of the crystal monochromator is then determined by the crystal lattice spacing d and the angle of incidence e of the input beam. Therefore, for a given crystal substrate, the angle of incidence e may be determined by the desired energy, or energies, of the output beam. As would be understood by a person of ordinary skill in the art, the output energy and corresponding calculations for other diffraction elements (i.e., multilayer materials, gratings, etc) may be similarly derived as described herein. In an example, an output beam may already be tuned to have a desired energy, but a different exit angle may be required. The following is an example of how to steer an output beam of a desired energy to a new exit angle by determining the angular values α and β and performing the method 300 of FIG. 3 using the determined angular values α and β. Using three-dimensional Cartesian space with vector notation (X, Y, Z), the input beam vector is taken as a reference with the input beam 210 traveling entirely in the Z direction. Therefore, the input beam vector, V1, is:V1=(0,0,1). EQ. 2 The reflected beam 214 has a photon energy, which is reflected from the first diffraction element 205 by a 2θ angle relative to the incident beam 210, the reflected beam 214 has a reflected beam vector of:V2=(0, sin 2θ, cos 2θ). EQ. 3 The rotation of the first diffraction element 205 about the input beam vector by the first angular value α, as performed in the method 300 of FIG. 3, is described by the rotation operation R, which results in the tuned reflected beam 214′, V2′, as described by:V2′=R(α,(0,0,1))V2, EQ. 4V2′=(sin 2θ·sin α, sin 2θ·cos α, cos 2θ). EQ. 5 FIG. 5 is a vector diagram illustrating a beam trajectory having an exit angle γ for calculating the rotational angular values α and β for tuning the output energy of a monochromator while maintaining a fixed exit angle. The determination of angular values α and β for tuning the output energy of a monochromator while maintaining a fixed exit angle as described herein. The circle shown in FIG. 5 is a representation of the rotation of the intermediate output beam 218′ to the tuned output beam 218″. FIG. 5 includes the tuned reflected beam 214′ after the rotation of the first substrate 205. The angle μ is defined as the angle from the tuned reflected beam 214′ to the YZ-plane (∠AOM in FIG. 5) which defines the relationship between the photon energy and the angular value α as:tan μ=tan 2θ·sin α EQ. 6with the angle μ also being equal to half of the exit angle γ of the tuned output beam 218″, with the angle γ being ∠AOB in FIG. 5. The angle ∠OCA is 90°, and therefore, the angular values α and β can be determined by the equations: sin ⁡ ( β 2 ) = sin ⁡ ( γ 2 ) / sin ⁢ ⁢ 2 ⁢ θ , EQ . ⁢ 7 sin ⁢ ⁢ α = tan ⁡ ( γ 2 ) tan ⁢ ⁢ 2 ⁢ θ . EQ . ⁢ 8 As shown by EQs. 7 and 8, the angular values α and A used in the method 300 of FIG. 3 are dependent on the output beam energy, and the desired exit angle γ. In embodiments, a further condition to consider is that it may be desirable for the tuned output beam 218″ to propagate collinearly in the horizontal plane (XZ) plane with input beam. Collinear propagation in the XY plane prevents any requirement of tilting down beam components to match a beam exit angle which is often difficult due to heavy equipment and bulky setups. In an example of the DCM 200 as described herein, the first and second diffraction elements 205 and 208 may be diamond (111) crystal substrates. FIG. 6 is a table of the angular a and A values for a monochromator configuration with various output beam energies with a fixed exit angle of 23.13 degrees. The values presented in FIG. 6 are for a diamond (111) crystal substrate. The energies reported by the table of FIG. 6 demonstrate that the output beam energy of a monochromator, as described herein, can be continuously tunable from 5 to 25 keV while maintaining a constant exit angle. In embodiments, the first and second diffraction elements 205 and 208 may be materials other than diamond (111) and the resultant monochromators may exhibit output beam energy ranges from 8 to keV. FIGS. 7A and 7C are simulated beam profile plots for a DCM having the parameter values from the table of FIG. 6 with diamond (111) as the first and second diffraction elements 205 and 208. The simulations for generating the plots of FIGS. 7A and 7C were performed using ray tracing. The source of radiation for the simulations was an undulator having a period of 18.5 millimeters and 70 periods, and the source of radiation was a distance of 28.3 meters from the monochromator. The simulated radiation source, and any physically implementable radiation source, may provide energies from 5 keV to 100 keV with bandwidths on the order of 1 to 8 percent of the peak energy. FIGS. 7C and 7D are the energy spectrums of the simulated output beams of the DCM configurations of FIGS. 7A and 7B respectively. FIGS. 7A and 7B present the results for a DCM output beam having a peak energy of 5 keV, while the FIGS. 7C and 7D present the results for a DCM output beam having a peak energy of 15 keV. FIG. 7E is a table of parameters including the flux, intensity, and spatial distribution parameters of the results of the simulations of FIGS. 7A-7F with additional parameters for a 10 keV beam. The output beam of FIGS. 7C and 7D has an energy three times greater than the output beam of FIGS. 7A and 7B, which is the third harmonic of the output beam of FIGS. 7A and 7B showing that the DCM described herein may be useful for performing harmonic measurements and procedures in industry and experimental setups. The results of the simulation verify that the disclosed methods for fixed exit-angle tuning of a monochromator operate as proposed herein. FIGS. 7A and 7C show that the output beams exhibit first order spatial modes having a peak at the same horizontal and vertical location (i.e., the beams have a fixed output angle), while FIGS. 7B and 7D show the different energies of the tuned output beams. The reduction in radiant flux shown by FIG. 7D is due to the angular bandwidth of the diamond crystals and the dispersive geometry of the simulated dual-crystal monochromator. The higher energy output beam of FIGS. 7C and 7D requires greater incidence angles, which may also result in loss of flux through polarization effects. The disclosed dual crystal monochromator exhibits improved polarization distortion as compared to typical monochromators. The polarization rotation of the input beam to the output beam can be calculated as:Pr=β−β′−α EQ. 9where Pr is the polarization rotation, α and β are the rotation angular values described previously, and β′ is the angular value between the resulting output beam polarization and a surface plane of the second diffraction element 208. FIG. 8 is a table of polarization factor values for the disclosed DCM, Pr, and polarization factor values for a typical single crystal monochromator, PSCM, at a variety of photon energies. The values presented by FIG. 8 show that the polarization factor of the disclosed dual crystal monochromator is less than the polarization factor due to a typical single crystal monochromator for output beam energy values from 5 keV to nearly 25 keV. The polarization factor is a ratio of the difference of the output intensity to the input intensity due to polarization. In embodiments, the polarization factor of a monochromator, as described herein, may have a polarization factor of 0.9 or greater, 0.8 or greater, or greater than 0.5, which corresponds to maximum intensity losses, due to polarization, of 10%, 20%, and 50% respectively. The disclosed monochromator may have a polarization factor that is greater than the polarization factor of a single bounce monochromator having the same beam exit angle. The following list of aspects reflects a variety of the embodiments explicitly contemplated by the present disclosure. Those of ordinary skill in the art will readily appreciate that the aspects below are neither limiting of the embodiments disclosed herein, nor exhaustive of all of the embodiments conceivable from the disclosure above, but are instead meant to be exemplary in nature. 1. A beam steering system for a tunable monochromator, the system comprising: a first diffraction element configured to reflect, as a reflected beam, an input beam incident on a surface of the first diffraction element, the input beam having an input beam vector, the first diffraction element rotatable about the input beam vector, and the reflected beam having a reflected beam vector; and a second diffraction element configured to reflect, as an output beam having a beam exit angle, the reflected beam incident on a surface of the second diffraction element, and the second diffraction element rotatable about both the input beam vector and the reflected beam vector. 2. The beam steering system of aspect 1, wherein the first diffraction element and the second diffraction element each comprise crystal. 3. The beam steering system of either aspect 1 or 2, wherein the first diffraction element and the second diffraction element each comprise diamond (111) crystal. 4. The beam steering system of aspect 1, wherein the first diffraction element and the second diffraction element each comprise a multilayer. 5. The beam steering system of aspect 1, wherein the first diffraction element and the second diffraction element each comprise a grating. 6. The beam steering system of any of aspects 1 to 5, wherein the first diffraction element and the second diffraction element comprise a same material. 7. The beam steering system of aspect 2, wherein the first diffraction element comprises one of silicon, quartz, lithium fluoride, indium antimonide, germanium, graphite, or sapphire. 8. The beam steering system of aspect 2, wherein the second diffraction element comprises one of silicon, quartz, lithium fluoride, indium antimonide, germanium, graphite, or sapphire. 9. The beam steering system of any of aspects 1 to 8, wherein the input beam has an energy between 3 keV and 30 keV. 10. The beam steering system of any of aspects 1 to 8, wherein the output beam has an energy of 5 keV, 10 k eV, 15 keV, 25 keV, between 5 and 25 keV, or between 20 and 30 keV. 11. The beam steering system of any of aspects 1 to 8, wherein the output beam has an energy in the x-ray radiation range. 12. The beam steering system of any of aspects 1 to 11, wherein the output beam has an energy that is a harmonic of an energy band of the input beam. 13. The beam steering system of any of aspects 1 to 12, wherein the beam exit angle is a fixed angle. 14. The beam steering system of any of aspects 1 to 13, wherein the polarization-dependent intensity loss of the beam steering system is less than 10%. 15. The beam steering system of any of aspects 1 to 14, further comprising: a first mount physically coupled to the first diffraction element, the first mount configured to rotate the first diffraction element about the input beam vector; and a second mount physically coupled to the second diffraction element, the second mount configured to rotate the second diffraction element about the input beam vector and the reflected beam vector. 16. The beam steering system of aspect 15, further comprising a three-axis translation stage physically coupled to the second diffraction element, the three-axis translation stage configured to translate the second diffraction element in three orthogonal directions. 17. The beam steering system of aspect 16, further comprising: a controller communicatively coupled to (i) the first mount, the controller configured to control the rotation of the first diffraction element, (ii) the second mount, the controller configured to control the rotation of the second diffraction element, and (iii) the three-axis translation stage, the controller configured to control the position of the second diffraction element; and a processor communicatively coupled to the controller, the processor configured to provide the controller with (i) rotational coordinates of the first diffraction element, (ii) rotational coordinates of the second diffraction element, and (iii) translational coordinates of the second diffraction element. 18. The beam steering system of aspect 17, wherein the rotational coordinates of the first diffraction element comprise a current rotational coordinate of the first diffraction element, the rotational coordinates of the second diffraction element comprise a current rotational coordinate of the second diffraction element, and the translational coordinates of the second diffraction element comprise a current translational coordinate of the second diffraction element. 19. The beam steering system of either aspect 17 or 18, wherein the rotational coordinates of the first diffraction element comprise a target rotational coordinate of the first diffraction element, the rotational coordinates of the second diffraction element comprise a target rotational coordinate of the second diffraction element, and the translational coordinates of the second diffraction element comprise a target translational coordinate of the second diffraction element. 20. The beam steering system of any of aspects 1 to 19, wherein the first diffraction element is physically configured such that the input beam has an angle of incidence on the first diffraction element, with the angle of incidence being determined by a desired energy of the output beam. 21. A method for tuning output beam energy of a tunable monochromator, the method comprising: rotating a first diffraction element around an input beam vector by a first angle value, the first diffraction element configured to reflect, as a reflected beam having a reflected beam vector, an input beam having the input beam vector; rotating a second diffraction element around the input beam vector by the first angle value; rotating the second diffraction element around the reflected beam vector by a second angle value, the second diffraction element configured to reflect, as an output beam, the reflected beam. 22. The method of aspect 21, wherein the first diffraction element and the second diffraction element each comprise crystal. 23. The method of either aspect 21 or 22, wherein the first diffraction element and the second diffraction element each comprise diamond (111) crystal. 24. The method of aspect 21, wherein the first diffraction element and the second diffraction element each comprise a multilayer. 25. The method of aspect 21, wherein the first diffraction element and the second diffraction element each comprise a grating. 26. The method of any of aspects 21 to 25, wherein the first diffraction element and the second diffraction element comprise a same material. 27. The method of aspect 22, wherein the first diffraction element comprises one of silicon, quartz, lithium fluoride, indium antimonide, germanium, graphite, or sapphire. 28. The method of aspect 22, wherein the second diffraction element comprises one of silicon, quartz, lithium fluoride, indium antimonide, germanium, graphite, or sapphire. 29. The method of any of aspects 21 to 28, wherein the input beam has an energy between 3 keV and 30 keV. 30. The method of any of aspects 21 to 28, wherein the output beam has an energy of approximately 5 keV, 10 k eV, 15 keV, 25 keV, between 5 and 25 keV, or between 20 and 30 keV. 31. The method of any of aspects 21 to 28, wherein the output beam has an energy in the x-ray radiation range. 32. The method of any of aspects 21 to 31, wherein the output beam has an energy that is a harmonic of an energy band of the input beam. 33. The method of any of aspects 21 to 32, wherein the output beam has a fixed beam exit angle. 34. The method of any of aspects 21 to 33, wherein the polarization-dependent loss between the input and output beams is less than 10%. 35. The method of any of aspects 21 to 34, further comprising: rotating, by a first mount physically coupled to the first diffraction element, the first diffraction element about the input beam vector; and rotating, by a second mount physically coupled to the second diffraction element, the second diffraction element about the input beam vector and the reflected beam vector. 36. The method of aspect 35, further comprising translating, by a three-axis translation stage physically coupled to the second diffraction element, the second diffraction element. 37. The method of aspect 36, further comprising: a controller communicatively coupled to (i) the first mount, (ii) the second mount, and (iii) the three-axis translation stage, the controller configured to: control the rotation of the first diffraction element; control the rotation of the second diffraction element; and control the position of the second diffraction element; and; provide, by a processor communicatively coupled to the controller, the controller with (i) rotational coordinates of the first diffraction element, (ii) rotational coordinates of the second diffraction element, and (iii) translational coordinates of the second diffraction element. 38. The method of aspect 37, wherein the rotational coordinates of the first diffraction element comprise a current rotational coordinate of the first diffraction element, the rotational coordinates of the second diffraction element comprise a current rotational coordinate of the second diffraction element, and the translational coordinates of the second diffraction element comprise a current translational coordinate of the second diffraction element. 39. The method of either aspect 37 or 38, wherein the rotational coordinates of the first diffraction element comprise a target rotational coordinate of the first diffraction element, the rotational coordinates of the second diffraction element comprise a target rotational coordinate of the second diffraction element, and the translational coordinates of the second diffraction element comprise a target translational coordinate of the second diffraction element. 40. The method of any of aspects 21 to 39, further comprising: positioning the first diffraction element such that the input beam has an angle of incidence on the first diffraction element, with the angle of incidence being determined by a desired energy of the output beam. 41. The method of any of aspects 21 to 40, further comprising: positioning the second diffraction element such that the reflected beam has an angle of incidence on the second diffraction element, with the angle of incidence being determined by a desired energy of the output beam.
	description	This is a Continuation of International Application PCT/EP2015/053471, which has an international filing date of Feb. 19, 2015, and the disclosure of which is incorporated in its entirety into the present Continuation by reference. The following disclosure is also based on and claims the benefit of and priority under 35 U.S.C. § 119(a) to German Patent Application No. DE 10 2014 204 660.2, filed Mar. 13, 2014, which is also incorporated in its entirety into the present Continuation by reference. The invention relates to a mirror, in particular for a microlithographic projection exposure apparatus. Microlithography is used for producing microstructured components, for example integrated circuits or LCDs. The microlithographic process is carried out in a projection exposure apparatus which has an illumination device and a projection lens. The image of a mask (=reticle) illuminated by the illumination device is projected here by the projection lens onto a substrate (e.g. a silicon wafer) which is coated with a light-sensitive layer (photoresist) and is arranged in the image plane of the projection lens in order to transfer the mask structure onto the light-sensitive coating of the substrate. In projection lenses designed for the EUV range, i.e. at wavelengths of, for example, about 13 nm or about 7 nm, mirrors are used as optical components for the imaging process because of the lack of availability of suitable transparent refractive materials. The operation of, inter alia, mirrors under grazing incidence is known. Here and in the following, mirrors which are operated under grazing incidence and whose use is fundamentally desirable because of the comparatively high reflectivities which can be achieved (for example 80% and more) are mirrors for which the reflection angles based on the respective surface normal which are obtained in the reflection of EUV radiation are at least 65°. Such mirrors are sometimes also referred to as GI mirrors (“grazing incidence”). To optimize the performance of a projection exposure apparatus, it is not only necessary to make a suitable choice of the respective mirrors or layer materials with a view to desirable optical properties, but also to take account of the fact that impairment of these optical properties (in particular in the form of reflection losses or undesirable changes in the reflection behavior as a function of the angle of incidence) can occur as a result of contamination during operation of the projection exposure apparatus. With regard to the prior art, reference will be made, merely by way of example, to US 2005/0279951 A1. In the light of the above background, it is an object of the present invention to provide a mirror, in particular for a microlithographic projection exposure apparatus, which during operation of the optical system concerned or the projection exposure apparatus makes it possible to achieve high reflectivities or low light losses together with low susceptibility to contamination. This object is achieved by the features of the independent claims. According to one aspect of the invention, a mirror, in particular for a microlithographic projection exposure apparatus, has an optically effective surface, wherein the mirror has a reflectivity of at least 0.5 for electromagnetic radiation which has a prescribed working wavelength and impinges on the optically effective surface at an angle of incidence based on the respective surface normal of at least 65°; wherein the mirror has at least one layer which comprises a compound of an element of the second period and an element of the 4d transition group; wherein the mirror has a protective layer arranged on top in the direction of the optically effective surface; wherein the material of the layer arranged in each case underneath the protective layer in the direction of the optically effective surface has a lower absorption than the material of the protective layer. The invention is based, in particular, on the concept of achieving the combination of a protective action or attainment of at least substantial chemical resistance to the contamination occurring during operation of the optical system with advantageous optical properties of the mirror by an element of the second period, e.g. beryllium (Be), boron (B), carbon (C), nitrogen (N) or oxygen (O), being combined with an element of the 4d transition group, e.g. molybdenum (Mo), niobium (Nb) or zirconium (Zr), in a layer of the mirror. The invention proceeds, in particular, from the idea that molybdenum (Mo), for example, appears, in terms of the desirable advantageous optical properties in respect of comparatively low absorption and also the relatively low refractive index, which, particularly in the case of grazing incidence of electromagnetic EUV radiation, lead to a higher reflectivity compared to all other elements, fundamentally to be a particularly preferred material from the point of view of optical properties but, owing to the susceptibility to oxidation, has an unacceptably high susceptibility to contamination when used as such (i.e. in elemental form). Proceeding from this idea, the present invention combines molybdenum (Mo) or another suitable element of the 4d transition group with an element of the second period (in particular boron (B), carbon (C) or nitrogen (N)) with the consequence that the risk of oxidation is avoided and as a result a layer which is at the same time chemically resistant and has optical properties which are, for example, equal or even superior to those of the pure elements molybdenum (Mo) or ruthenium (Ru) is achieved. According to one embodiment, the mirror has exclusively this (combining an element of the second period and an element of the 4d transition group) layer and a substrate (on which the layer is formed or arranged). In further embodiments, the layer combining an element of the second period and an element of the 4d transition group can be arranged as second layer on a first layer composed of ruthenium (Ru). According to a further aspect, the invention also provides a mirror, in particular for a microlithographic projection exposure apparatus, having an optically effective surface, wherein the mirror has a reflectivity of at least 0.5 for electromagnetic radiation which has a prescribed working wavelength and impinges on the optically effective surface at an angle of incidence based on the respective surface normal of at least 65°, and wherein the mirror has a first layer composed of a first material comprising ruthenium (Ru), rhodium (Rh) or palladium (Pd) and a second layer which is arranged on top of this first layer in the direction of the optically effective surface and consists of a second material which has a lower absorption compared to the first material. According to this further aspect, in the construction of a mirror according to the invention, there is a “task division” between the layers present in the mirror insofar as the (ruthenium-, rhodium- or palladium-comprising) first layer serves as “base layer” having comparatively advantageous optical constants and serves to set the limiting angle of the total reflection (at which the reflectivity curve has its first inflection), while the second layer (which has a lower absorption than the material of the first layer) serves as “amplifier layer” which increases the reflectivity in the case of grazing incidence. This configuration makes it possible to achieve a targeted increase in the reflectivity in the angle range relevant in the present case (i.e. under grazing incidence) or at an angle of incidence based on the respective surface normal of at least 65°, with a “premature kinking” of the reflectivity curve (which describes the reflectivity as a function of the angle of incidence) being able to be avoided at the same time. In an embodiment, the material of the second layer comprises molybdenum (Mo) or a compound of an element of the second period and an element of the 4d transition group. In an embodiment, the element of the 4d transition group is selected from the group consisting of molybdenum (Mo), niobium (Nb) and zirconium (Zr). In an embodiment, the element of the second period is selected from the group consisting of beryllium (Be), boron (B), carbon (C), nitrogen (N) and oxygen (O). In an embodiment, the mirror additionally has a protective layer arranged on top in the direction of the optically effective surface. As a result of the mirror having such an additional protective layer, a further “task division” or functional separation in respect of the individual layers present can be achieved in the layer structure of the mirror of the invention. In particular, the protective layer concerned can be composed of a material which is very “chemically stable” or has the desired chemical resistance against contamination occurring during operation of the optical system but has comparatively poorer optical properties, with the latter circumstance being able to be allowed for by only a very low thickness (for example 2-3 nm) of the protective layer. In other words, the protective layer is preferably configured in such a way that it is just sufficiently thick to provide the desired chemical resistance, with the optimization of the optical properties or the increase in the reflectivity of the mirror being able to be achieved by the first and/or second layer located, based on the optically effective surface, below the protective layer (i.e. the above-described base layer and/or amplifier layer). At the same time, the thickness of the base layer and/or amplifier layer concerned can in each case be selected with a view to the desired optimization of the optical properties without account having to be taken of the chemical resistance (which is ensured by the abovementioned protective layer). Owing to the protective action against contamination occurring during operation of the optical system which is provided by the protective layer, significantly greater freedom with regard to the selection of material in the layer underneath (base layer and/or amplifier layer) is also achieved since the latter layers can also be made of comparatively reactive materials because of the protective layer on top of them. In an embodiment, the material of the layer which in each case is located underneath the protective layer in the direction of the optically effective surface has a lower absorption than the material of the protective layer. In an embodiment, the protective layer comprises silicon nitride (Si3N4), silicon carbide (SiC) or a compound with an element of the 3d transition group (Sc, Ti, V, . . . ), 4d transition group (Y, Zr, Nb, . . . ) or the lanthanides (La, Ce, Pr, Nd, . . . ). In an embodiment, the protective layer has a thickness of not more than 5 nm. In an embodiment, the second layer and the protective layer each have such a thickness profile that the mirror differs in respect of the dependence of the reflectivity on the angle of incidence by not more than 2%, in particular not more than 1%, more particularly not more than 0.5%, from a mirror which has only the identically configured first layer but not the second layer and the protective layer. Here, the thickness profile of the layer concerned can be a constant thickness or a thickness which varies locally. According to this further aspect of the invention, the respective thickness profiles of the second layer and the protective layer in the above-described layer structure made up of first layer, second layer and protective layer can be selected so that there is no change (or only a comparatively small or negligible change) in the reflectivity profile (i.e. in the dependence of the reflectivity on the angle of incidence) compared to a mirror which has only the first layer (“base layer”). In other words, the layer thicknesses in the layer structure according to the invention made up of first layer, second layer and protective layer are selected so that a particular profile of the dependence of the reflectivity on the angle of incidence is exactly achieved. In particular, the layer structure can, for example, be configured in respect of the respective thicknesses of first layer, second layer and protective layer in such a way that the maximum reflectivity of the mirror is not achieved but instead, accepting some decreases in the reflectivity, a particular desired reflectivity profile (e.g. the reflectivity profile of a “pure ruthenium mirror” without the second layer and without the protective layer) is set. As a consequence, for example, the necessity of adapting the optical design to the use of a mirror having the layer structure according to the invention can be avoided. In particular, a decrease in the reflectivity brought about by the protective layer can be at least partly compensated for by the second layer. In an embodiment, the mirror has at least one barrier layer. For example, such a barrier layer can be arranged between the first layer and the second layer and/or directly underneath any protective layer present. Such a barrier layer can, for example, serve as diffusion barrier to avoid undesirable diffusion between the first layer and the second layer or to prevent diffusion of, for example, any oxygen present in the protective layer into the underlying layer or the underlying layers. Such a barrier layer can, merely by way of example, have a thickness in the region of a few nanometers (nm) or less. According to a further aspect, the invention relates to a mirror, in particular for a microlithographic projection exposure apparatus, having an optically effective surface, wherein the mirror has a reflectivity of at least 0.5 for electromagnetic radiation which has a prescribed working wavelength and impinges on the optically effective surface at an angle of incidence based on the respective surface normal of at least 65°, wherein the mirror has at least one layer which comprises a compound of an element of the second period and an element of the 4d transition group, and wherein the mirror has either exclusively this layer or exclusively this layer and a substrate. In an embodiment, the element of the 4d transition group is selected from the group consisting of molybdenum (Mo), niobium (Nb) and zirconium (Zr). In an embodiment, the element of the second period is selected from the group consisting of beryllium (Be), boron (B), carbon (C), nitrogen (N) and oxygen (O). In an embodiment, the working wavelength is less than 30 nm, in particular can lie in the range from 10 nm to 15 nm. The invention further provides a microlithographic projection exposure apparatus having an illumination device and a projection lens, wherein the illumination device illuminates a mask present in an object plane of the projection lens during operation of the projection exposure apparatus and the projection lens projects structures on this mask onto a light-sensitive layer present in an image plane of the projection lens, and the projection exposure apparatus has an optical system having the above-described features. Further embodiments of the invention may be derived from the description and the dependent claims. The invention is illustrated below with the aid of examples shown in the accompanying figures. FIG. 1A schematically shows an illustrative projection exposure apparatus which is designed for operation in the EUV and in which the present invention can be implemented. According to FIG. 1A, an illumination device in a projection exposure apparatus 100 designed for EUV has a field facet mirror 103 and a pupil facet mirror 104. The light of a light source unit comprising a plasma light source 101 and a collector mirror 102 is directed onto the field facet mirror 103. A first telescope mirror 105 and a second telescope mirror 106 are arranged in the light path after the pupil facet mirror 104. In the further light path, there is a deflection mirror 107 which is operated under grazing incidence and directs the radiation impinging on it onto an object field into the object plane of a projection lens which is merely indicated in FIG. 1A. A reflective structured mask 121 is arranged on a mask table 120 at the position of the object field and this mask is projected by the projection lens onto an image plane in which a substrate 161 coated with a light-sensitive layer (photoresist) is located on a wafer table 160. Merely by way of example, the deflection mirror 107 operated under grazing incidence can have the structure according to the invention, hereinafter described with reference to FIG. 1B, FIG. 1C or FIG. 2A et seq. The projection lens 150 can, for example, have a structure as is described in DE 10 2012 202 675 A1 (where this structure likewise has mirrors which are operated under grazing incidence and can be configured according to the invention) or a different structure. In the following, possible embodiments of a mirror as per the present invention which is operated under grazing incidence are described with reference to the schematic depictions of FIGS. 1B-1C and FIGS. 2A-7. According to FIG. 1B, a mirror according to the invention has a layer 160 which in the specific example consists of molybdenum boride (MoB) and in the example has an illustrative thickness of 30 nm on a substrate 150 (made of any suitable material). In further embodiments, the layer 160 can comprise a different chemical compound of an element of the second period (e.g. one of the elements lithium (Li), beryllium (Be), boron (B), carbon (C), nitrogen (N), oxygen (O) or fluorine (F)) with an element of the 4d transition group (e.g. one of the elements yttrium (Y), zirconium (Zr), niobium (Nb), molybdenum (Mo), technetium (Tc), ruthenium (Ru), rhodium (Rh) and palladium (Pd)). If the optically effective material concerned is available as bulk material, has suitable thermal properties and also can be shaped and polished in optical quality, it is possible to omit a further layer, in which case the mirror can, as schematically shown in FIG. 1C, also be made exclusively of a layer 170 comprising a material analogous to the layer 160 of FIG. 1a. In the latter case, the layer 170 which alone forms the mirror preferably has a thickness of at least 50 nm. In the following, further embodiments of a mirror according to the invention, which have not only the layer described above with the aid of FIGS. 1B, 1C (optionally with an additional substrate) but in which a functional separation or task division is achieved by provision of a structure composed of a plurality of layers, are described with reference to the schematic depictions of FIGS. 2A-6. In the example of FIG. 2A, a mirror according to the invention has a first layer 210 of ruthenium (Ru) and a second layer 220 of molybdenum (Mo) on a substrate 205 (which is once again made of any suitable material). Here, merely by way of example (and without the invention being restricted thereto), the first layer 210 has a thickness of 30 nm and the second layer 220 has a thickness of 9 nm. The abovementioned task division in the case of the structure depicted in FIG. 2A is effected by the first layer 210 (as “base layer”) providing a very advantageous limiting angle of the total reflection (in order to avoid premature “kinking” of the reflectivity curve in the reflectivity profile), while an amplification of the reflection in the relevant angle range (i.e. particularly for grazing incidence or at angles of incidence based on the respective surface normal of at least 65°) is achieved through the second layer 220 (which serves as “amplifier layer”). While the first layer 210 consists of pure ruthenium (Ru), the material of the second layer 220 can be, as alternatives, molybdenum (Mo) as per FIG. 2A or one of the materials mentioned above with reference to FIGS. 1B and 1C (i.e. a compound of an element of the second period and an element of the 4d transition group). Here, the material of the second layer should in each case have an absorption which is lower than that of ruthenium (Ru). Even though ruthenium (Ru) has in each case been selected as material of the first layer in the following examples, in further embodiments the first layer can also comprise rhodium (Rh) or palladium (Pd) or a combination of ruthenium (Ru), rhodium (Rh) or palladium (Pd). In an analogous manner, the material of the second layer should in each case have an absorption which is lower than that of the material of the first layer. To illustrate the above-described effect, FIG. 2B shows the reflectivity profile as a function of the angle of the incident ray or the reflected ray relative to the reflecting surface both for the case of only one layer (composed of ruthenium (Ru) or molybdenum (Mo)) and for various layer sequences of molybdenum (Mo) and ruthenium (Ru) (where the material mentioned first in the legend is that of the base layer or first layer and the material mentioned last is that of the amplifier layer or second layer). As can be seen from FIG. 2B, a significant increase in the reflectivity in the relevant angle range combined with a significantly later “kinking” of the reflectivity curve can be achieved by selecting material according to the invention as per FIG. 2A. FIG. 3B serves to illustrate the reflectivity increase achieved with the structure according to the invention as per FIG. 3A; in FIG. 3B, the difference between the reflectivity achieved in each case and the reflectivity achieved in the case of a pure ruthenium (Ru) layer is plotted as a function of the angle of the incident ray or the reflected ray relative to the reflecting surface. In FIG. 3B, the respective layer thicknesses are 30 nm for ruthenium (Ru), 5 nm for molybdenum carbide (Mo2C), 9 nm for molybdenum boride (MoB) and 5 nm for niobium carbide (NbC). In addition, the comparison of a single layer of molybdenum (Mo) having a thickness of 30 nm with the pure Ru layer having a thickness of 30 nm is shown as reference; likewise in the subsequent FIG. 4B and FIG. 5B. FIG. 4A serves to illustrate the structure of a mirror according to a further embodiment of the invention, with analogous components or components having essentially the same function compared to FIG. 3A being denoted by reference numerals increased by “100”. The mirror shown in FIG. 4A differs from the embodiment of FIG. 3A in that it has an additional protective layer 430 which is made of a material having a very high chemical stability; owing to the comparatively low thickness (for example 2-3 nm), relatively unfavourable optical properties can be accepted. Thus, the protective layer 430 can, merely by way of example, consist of silicon nitride (Si3N4). In further possible embodiments, a material having comparatively more advantageous optical properties, in particular a material analogous to the embodiments of FIGS. 1B, 1C (i.e. a compound of an element of the second period and an element of the 4d transition group), can also be selected as material for the protective layer 430. As regards the material of the second layer 420 (once again referred to as “amplifier layer” or layer serving to increase the reflectivity in the relevant angle range under grazing incidence in a manner analogous to FIG. 3A), comparatively more chemically reactive materials (e.g. pure niobium (Nb) or pure molybdenum (Mo)) can also be selected here in view of the protective action against contamination occurring during operation of the optical system provided by the protective layer 430. FIG. 4B serves to illustrate the increase in reflectivity achieved with the structure according to the invention as per FIG. 4A; in FIG. 4B, the difference between the reflectivity achieved in each case and the reflectivity achieved in the case of a pure ruthenium (Ru) layer is again plotted as a function of the angle of the incident ray or the reflected ray relative to the reflecting surface. In FIG. 4B, the respective layer thicknesses are 30 nm for ruthenium (Ru), 5 nm for molybdenum (Mo), 2 nm for silicon nitride (Si3N4), 2 nm for zirconium nitride (ZrN), 3 nm for molybdenum nitride (MoN) and 3 nm for molybdenum boride (MoB). Here, the 5 nm thick Mo layer is arranged between the first layer of Ru (alternatively Mo or Nb) having a thickness of 30 nm and the respective covering layer. FIG. 5A serves to illustrate a further possible embodiment of a mirror according to the invention. This differs from the embodiment of FIG. 4A in that, in particular, the “amplifier layer” (second layer 420 in FIG. 4A) is omitted, so that the protective layer 530 is arranged directly on the first layer 510 (which serves as “base layer”). The embodiment of FIG. 5A is useful particularly when an additional amplifier layer can be dispensed with because of comparatively small values for the maximum angle of incidence or relatively undemanding requirements in respect of the reflectivity to be provided. A plot analogous to the above reflectivity curves of FIGS. 3B and 4B of the reflection change achieved relative to the reflectivity of pure ruthenium (Ru) is depicted in FIG. 5B for the layer structure shown in FIG. 5A. Here, the respective thicknesses of the relevant layers are 30 nm for ruthenium (Ru), 2 nm for silicon nitride (Si3N4), 2 nm for zirconium nitride (ZrN), 30 nm for molybdenum (Mo), 3 nm for molybdenum nitride (MoN) and 1 nm for niobium oxide (NbO2). FIG. 6 shows a schematic depiction to illustrate a further possible embodiment of a mirror according to the invention; as a difference from the structure of FIG. 4A, the base layer (i.e. the first layer 410 in the mirror of FIG. 4A) has been omitted. According to FIG. 6, the layer 620 serving as “amplifier layer” is therefore arranged directly on the substrate 605, with the protective layer 630 again being arranged directly on the layer 620 serving as amplifier layer. Here, the substrate 605 itself serves as “base layer” in the abovementioned sense (i.e. to set a suitable limiting angle for the total reflection) and in the example is made of ruthenium (Ru). FIG. 7 shows a schematic depiction to illustrate a further possible structure of a mirror; here, a protective layer 730 is arranged directly on a substrate 705 (which once again serves as “base layer” in a manner analogous to FIG. 6). As material for the protective layer 730, it is possible to use, in particular, the materials mentioned with reference to FIGS. 1b and 1c (i.e. a compound of an element of the second period and an element of the 4d transition group). The thickness of the protective layer 730 is selected so that, firstly, the desired protective action or chemical resistance to contamination occurring during operation of the optical system is achieved and, secondly, the reflectivity in the relevant angle range for grazing incidence is very high, with the thickness of the protective layer 730 being able to be, merely by way of example, 2-3 nm. As material for the substrate 705 it is also possible to use relatively more chemically reactive elements such as molybdenum (Mo) or niobium (Nb) because of the protective action provided by the protective layer 730. Here, the reflectivity profiles are identical to those examples in which ruthenium (Ru) has been applied as base layer to a substrate composed of any material (cf. FIG. 4B and FIG. 5B). Even though the invention has been described with the aid of specific embodiments, a person skilled in the art will be able to make use of numerous variations and alternative embodiments, e.g. by combining and/or exchanging features of individual embodiments. Accordingly, such variations and alternative embodiments are encompassed by the present invention and the scope of the invention is restricted only by the accompanying claims and equivalents thereof.
	claims	1. A chemical decontamination method of chemically decontaminating radioactive nuclides from a metallic material surface contaminated by the radioactive nuclides, the method comprising the steps of: reductively decontaminating said radioactive nuclides using a reductive decontaminating agent containing at least two kinds of components; and then decomposing said reductive decontaminating agent using a decomposing apparatus for decomposing at least two kinds of chemical substances in said reductive decontaminating agent; wherein a catalyst decomposition column is used as the decomposing apparatus for decomposing at least two kinds of chemical substances in the reductive decontaminating agent. 2. A chemical decontamination method according to claim 1 , wherein at least one element selected from the group consisting of platinum, ruthenium, vanadium, palladium, iridium and rhodium is used as a catalyst filled in said catalyst decomposition column, and an oxidizing agent is supplied in an inlet side of said catalyst decomposition column. claim 1 3. A chemical decontamination method according to claim 2 , wherein a quantity of hydrogen peroxide is added in said decomposing step in an amount less than an equivalent weight of components trapped in a cation resin column after being decomposed in said decomposing step, when components trapped in the cation resin column are selectively decomposed, and the quantity of hydrogen peroxide added is more than an equivalent weight of the components trapped in the cation resin column when the components trapped in the cation resin column and components trapped in an anion resin column after being decomposed in said decomposing step at the same time. claim 2 4. A chemical decontamination method according to claim 1 , wherein a quantity of hydrogen peroxide is added in said decomposing step in an amount less than an equivalent weight of components trapped in a cation resin column after being decomposed in said decomposing step, when components trapped in the cation resin column are selectively decomposed, and the quantity of hydrogen peroxide added is more than an equivalent weight of the components trapped in the cation resin column when the components trapped in the cation resin column and components trapped in an anion resin column after being decomposed in said decomposing step at the same time. claim 1 5. A chemical decontamination method of chemically decontaminating radioactive nuclides from a metallic material surface contaminated by the radioactive nuclides, the method comprising the steps of: reductively decontaminating said radioactive nuclides using a reductive decontaminating agent; and then decomposing said reductive decontaminating agent using a decomposing catalyst for decomposing at least oxalic acid and hydrazine in said reductive decontaminating agent. 6. A chemical decontamination method according to claim 5 , wherein said reductive decontaminating agent is a reductive acid solution of which a concentration of oxalic acid is 0.05 to 0.3 wt %. claim 5 7. A chemical decontamination method according to claim 6 , wherein a quantity of hydrogen peroxide is added in said decomposing step in an amount less than an equivalent weight of components trapped in a cation resin column after being decomposed in said decomposing step, when components trapped in the cation resin column are selectively decomposed, and the quantity of hydrogen peroxide added is more than an equivalent weight of the components trapped in the cation resin column when the components trapped in the cation resin column and components trapped in an anion resin column after being decomposed in said decomposing step at the same time. claim 6 8. A chemical decontamination method according to claim 5 , which further comprises an oxidative dissolving step for oxidatively dissolving chromium in a metal oxide on the metallic material surface contaminated by the radioactive nuclides into hexadic chromium using permanganate, for dissolving and removing the metal oxide. claim 5 9. A chemical decontamination method according to claim 8 , wherein said reductive decontaminating step, said decomposing step, and said oxidative dissolving step are cyclically performed, and said reductive decontaminating step and said decomposing step are performed at least twice. claim 8 10. A chemical decontamination method according to claim 9 , wherein a quantity of hydrogen peroxide is added in said decomposing step in an amount less than an equivalent weight of components trapped in a cation resin column after being decomposed in said decomposing step, when components trapped in the cation resin column are selectively decomposed, and the quantity of hydrogen peroxide added is more than an equivalent weight of the components trapped in the cation resin column when the components trapped in the cation resin column and components trapped in an anion resin column after being decomposed in said decomposing step at the same time. claim 9 11. A chemical decontamination method according to claim 8 , wherein a quantity of hydrogen peroxide is added in said decomposing step in an amount less than an equivalent weight of components trapped in a cation resin column after being decomposed in said decomposing step, when components trapped in the cation resin column are selectively decomposed, and the quantity of hydrogen peroxide added is more than an equivalent weight of the components trapped in the cation resin column when the components trapped in the cation resin column and components trapped in an anion resin column after being decomposed in said decomposing step at the same time. claim 8 12. A chemical decontamination method according to claim 8 , wherein a catalyst decomposition column is used in the decomposing step. claim 8 13. A chemical decontamination method according to claim 12 , wherein at least one element selected from the group consisting of platinum, ruthenium, vanadium, palladium, iridium, and rhodium is used as a catalyst filled in said catalyst decomposition column, and an oxidizing agent is supplied in an inlet side of said catalyst decomposition column. claim 12 14. A chemical decontamination method according to claim 8 , wherein said reductive decontaminating agent is a reductive acid solution of which a concentration of oxalic acid is 0.05 to 0.3 wt %. claim 8 15. A chemical decontamination method according to claim 8 , wherein said reductive decontaminating agent is a reductive acid solution having a pH of 2 to 3. claim 8 16. A chemical decontamination method according to claim 5 , wherein a catalyst decomposition column is used in the decomposing step. claim 5 17. A chemical decontamination method according to claim 16 , wherein at least one element selected from the group consisting of platinum, ruthenium, vanadium, palladium, iridium, and rhodium is used as a catalyst filled in said catalyst decomposition column, and an oxidizing agent is supplied in an inlet side of said catalyst decomposition column. claim 16 18. A chemical decontamination method according to claim 5 , wherein a quantity of hydrogen peroxide is added in said decomposing step in an amount less than an equivalent weight of components trapped in a cation resin column after being decomposed in said decomposing step, when components trapped in the cation resin column are selectively decomposed, and the quantity of hydrogen peroxide added is more than an equivalent weight of the components trapped in the cation resin column when the components trapped in the cation resin column and components trapped in an anion resin column after being decomposed in said decomposing step at the same time. claim 5 19. A chemical decontamination method according to claim 5 , wherein said reductive decontaminating agent contains oxalic acid and hydrazine, and is a reductive acid solution having a pH of 2 to 3. claim 5 20. A chemical decontamination method according to claim 5 , further comprising a cleanup step for cleaning system water using a mixed-bed resin, after the decomposing step. claim 5
	claims	1. A method of classifying specimens based on X-ray data obtained from such specimens, the method comprising:providing a plurality of differing X-ray data from a plurality of known specimens having differing known characteristics, wherein the differing known characteristics correspond to all of the specimens having the same known defect surrounded by differing known background structures;setting up a pattern recognition process to automatically classify the differing known characteristics of the known specimens into a same first class based on the differing X-ray data from the known specimens;providing X-ray data from an unknown specimen having an unknown characteristic of an unknown class; andutilizing the pattern recognition process to automatically classify the unknown characteristic of the unknown specimen as belonging to the first class based on the X-ray data from the unknown specimen. 2. A method as recited in claim 1, wherein providing the X-ray data from the known specimens comprises:directing a charged particle beam toward each known specimen; anddetecting X-rays emitted from the each known specimen in response to the charged particle beam, wherein the detected X-rays form X-ray data having one or more intensity values at one or more energy levels. 3. A method as recited in claim 2, wherein providing the X-ray data from the unknown specimen comprises:directing a charged particle beam toward the unknown specimen; anddetecting X-rays emitted from the unknown specimen in response to the charged particle beam, wherein the detected X-rays form X-ray data having one or more intensity values at one or more energy levels. 4. A method as recited in claim 1, wherein the unknown specimens and the known specimen are each a semiconductor device or test structure. 5. A method as recited in claim 1, wherein the first class is a known defect classes. 6. A method as recited in claim 5, wherein the known defect class includes a specified defect compositions. 7. A method as recited in claim 5, wherein the known defect class includes one or more characteristics selected from a group consisting of a particular defect composition, a defect location, an electrical type defect, and an open type defect. 8. A method as recited in claim 5, wherein the known defect class includes a particular film thickness. 9. A method as recited in claim 1, wherein setting up the pattern recognition process comprises:training a pattern recognition process to recognize particular types of X-ray data as belonging to the known class. 10. A method as recited in claim 9, wherein the pattern recognition process is selected from a group consisting of a neural net algorithm, a natural grouping algorithm, and a wavelet algorithm. 11. A method as recited in claim 1, wherein setting up the pattern recognition process comprises:associating a feature vector having a plurality of parameters with each known specimen based on the each known specimen's X-ray data;selecting a set of weight values for each variable in a class code equation;inputting the selected weight values and the parameters of each feature vector into the class code equation to determine a plurality of class codes for the known specimens;adjusting the weight values until the class codes for the known specimens class result in a same class code value; andstoring the weight values and the class code value for the known specimens. 12. A method as recited in claim 11, wherein utilizing the pattern recognition process to automatically classify the unknown characteristic of the unknown specimen based on the X-ray data from the unknown specimen comprises:associating a feature vector having a plurality of parameters with the unknown specimen;inputting the stored weight values and the parameters of the feature vector of the unknown specimen into the class code equation to determine a class codes for the unknown specimen;comparing the class code for the unknown specimen to the stored class code for the known specimens; andwhen the class code for the unknown specimen matches a one of the stored class codes, classifying the unknown specimen based on the matching class code. 13. A method as recited in claim 12, wherein utilizing the pattern recognition process to automatically classify the unknown characteristic of the unknown specimen based on the X-ray data from the unknown specimen further comprises:when the class code for the unknown specimen does not match a one of the stored class codes, defining a new class code based on the X-ray data from the unknown specimen. 14. A method as recited in claim 12, wherein the parameters of each feature vector of the known specimens and the unknown specimen include intensity values for each X-ray peak and its associated energy level and/or one or more ratios of X-ray intensity values. 15. A method as recited in claim 14, wherein the parameters of each feature vector of the known specimens and the unknown specimen further include a defect size. 16. An apparatus for classifying specimens based on X-ray data obtained from such specimens, comprising:a beam generator operable to direct a charged particle beam towards a specimen;a detector positioned to detect X-rays from the specimen in response to the charged particle beam; anda processor operable to:provide a plurality of differing X-ray data from a plurality of known specimens having differing known characteristics, wherein the known characteristics correspond to all of the specimens having the same known defect surrounded by differing known background structures;set up a pattern recognition process to automatically classify the differing known characteristics of the known specimens into a same first class based on the differing X-ray data from the known specimens;provide X-ray data from an unknown specimen having an unknown characteristic of an unknown class; andutilize the pattern recognition process to automatically classify the unknown characteristic of the unknown specimen as belonging to the first class based on the X-ray data from the unknown specimen. 17. An apparatus as recited in claim 16, wherein providing the X-ray data from the known specimens comprises:directing a charged particle beam toward each known specimen; anddetecting X-rays emitted from the each known specimen in response to the charged particle beam, wherein the detected X-rays form X-ray data having one or more intensity values at one or more energy levels. 18. An apparatus as recited in claim 17, wherein providing the X-ray data from the unknown specimen comprises:directing a charged particle beam toward the unknown specimen; anddetecting X-rays emitted from the unknown specimen in response to the charged particle beam, wherein the detected X-rays form X-ray data having one or more intensity values at one or more energy levels. 19. An apparatus as recited in claim 16, wherein the unknown specimens and the known specimen are each a semiconductor device or test structure. 20. An apparatus as recited in claim 16, wherein the first class is a known defect classes. 21. An apparatus as recited in claim 20, wherein the known defect class includes defect compositions. 22. An apparatus as recited in claim 16, wherein setting up the pattern recognition process comprises:training a pattern recognition process to recognize particular types of X-ray data as belonging to the known class. 23. An apparatus as recited in claim 22, wherein the pattern recognition process is selected from a group consisting of a neural net algorithm, a natural grouping algorithm, and a wavelet algorithm. 24. An apparatus as recited in claim 16, wherein setting up the pattern recognition process comprises:associating a feature vector having a plurality of parameters with each known specimen based on the each known specimen's X-ray data;selecting a set of weight values for each variable in a class code equation;inputting the selected weight values and the parameters of each feature vector into the class code equation to determine a plurality of class codes for the known specimens;adjusting the weight values until the class codes for the known specimens class result in a same class code value; andstoring the weight values and the class code value for the known specimens. 25. An apparatus as recited in claim 24, wherein utilizing the pattern recognition process to automatically classify the unknown characteristic of the unknown specimen based on the X-ray data from the unknown specimen comprises:associating a feature vector having a plurality of parameters with the unknown specimen;inputting the stored weight values and the parameters of the feature vector of the unknown specimen into the class code equation to determine a class codes for the unknown specimen;comparing the class code for the unknown specimen to the stored class codes for the known specimens; andwhen the class code for the unknown specimen matches a one of the stored class code, classifying the unknown specimen based on the matching class code. 26. An apparatus as recited in claim 25, wherein utilizing the pattern recognition process to automatically classify the unknown characteristic of the unknown specimen based on the X-ray data from the unknown specimen further comprises:when the class code for the unknown specimen does not match a one of the stored class codes, defining a new class code based on the X-ray data from the unknown specimen. 27. An apparatus as recited in claim 25, wherein the parameters of each feature vector of the known specimens and the unknown specimen include intensity values for each X-ray peak and its associated energy level and/or one or more ratios of X-ray intensity values.
	summary
046817328	claims	1. In a method of reducing the reactivity of and shutting down a gas-cooled graphite-moderated nuclear reactor having a reactor core containing fuel elements of nuclear fuel embedded in graphite and having graphitic surfaces along which a cooling gas can flow, the improvement which comprises the steps of: (a) forming quenching-element particles by enclosing and sealing in a sheath stable at temperatures below a predetermined shutdown temperature for said core, a neutron-absorbing substance which is in a gas phase above said predetermined shutdown temperature, the sealing of said particles by said sheath ceasing upon heating of said particles to a temperature above said predetermined shutdown temperature; (b) incorporating a plurality of said particles in a graphite body permeable to said neutron-absorbing substance in said gas phase to form a quenching element, said graphite body having an outer surface permeable to said neutron-absorbing substance in said gas phase; and (c) introducing at least one of said graphite bodies into said core of said nuclear reactor so that said body is present during normal operation but, upon an elevation of the temperature of said core above said predetermined shutdown temperature, said substance is liberated from said particles, penetrates through said body in the form of a gas and deposits on free graphite surfaces of said core, said particles each having a size sufficient to render them self-shielding againt neutron flux in said core. quenching-element particles each having sealed sheaths stable at temperatures below a predetermined shutdown temperature for said core, and a neutron-absorbing substance sealed in said sheaths and which is in a gas phase above said predetermined shutdown temperature, the sealing of said sheaths ceasing upon heating of said particles to a temperature above said predetermined shutdown temperature; and a graphite body permeable to said neutron-absorbing substance in said gas phase and in which a plurality of said particles are incorporated so that said particles are present during normal operation but, upon an elevation of the temperature of said core above said predetermined shutdown temperature, said substance is liberated from said particles, penetrates through said body in the form of a gas and deposits on free graphite surfaces of said core, said particles each having a size sufficient to render them self-shielding against neutron flux in said core, said graphite body having an outer surface permeable to said neutron-absorbing substance in said gas phase. 2. The method defined in claim 1 wherein said body is formed with outer configuration and dimensions corresponding to that of one of said fuel elements of said core. 3. The method defined in claim 1 wherein said particles are introduced into said core in said quenching elements in an amount such that said core contains a mass of said substance sufficient to survive burn-out of said nuclear fuel with a neutron absorption effectiveness diminishing with such burn-out of the fuel. 4. The method defined in claim 1 wherein said sheath is composed of a material selected from the group which consists of pyrolytic carbon, rare earth metals and rare-earth-metal alloys, and said substance is a halogen compound of gadolinium, samarium or europium. 5. In a gas-cooled graphite-moderated nuclear reactor having nuclear fuel elements in a core containing at least one quenching element, the improvement in which said quenching element comprises: 6. The improvement defined in claim 5 wherein said body has outer configuration and dimensions corresponding to that of one of said fuel elements of said core. 7. The improvement defined in claim 5 wherein said particles are present in said core in said quenching elements in an amount such that said core contains a mass of said substance sufficient to survive burn-out of said nuclear fuel with a neutron absorption effectiveness diminishing with such burn-out of the fuel. 8. The improvement defined in claim 5 wherein said sheath is composed of a material selected from the group which consists of pyrolytic carbon, rare earth metals and rare-earth-metal alloys, and said substance is a halogen compound of gadolinium, samarium or europium. 9. The improvement defined in claim 5 wherein said body contains a fissionable nuclear reactor fuel.
	abstract	A method of stabilizing a fuel containing a reactive sodium metal may include puncturing a cladding of a fuel pin enclosing the fuel containing the reactive sodium metal to form an injection passage and an extraction passage. A reaction gas may be injected into the fuel pin through the injection passage to react with the reactive sodium metal to form a stable sodium compound. A ratio of a product gas and a remaining quantity of the reaction gas exiting the fuel pin through the extraction passage is subsequently measured, wherein the product gas is a reaction product of the reaction gas and the reactive sodium metal within the fuel pin. Once the measured ratio indicates that a reaction between the reaction gas and the reactive sodium metal is complete, the injection passage and the extraction passage are sealed so as to confine the stable sodium compound within the fuel pin.
	abstract	The invention relates to nuclear engineering and more particularly to controlled reactor start-up. The invention addresses a secondary startup neutron source by creating additional safety barriers between the coolant and the source active part materials. The secondary startup neutron source is designed as a steel enclosure housing an ampule containing antimony in the central enclosure made of a niobium-based alloy unreactive with antimony, with a beryllium powder bed located between the antimony enclosure and the ampule enclosure. An upper gas collector, located above the ampule serves as a compensation volume collecting gaseous fission products. The ampule is supported by a reflector and a bottom gas collector. The gas collectors, reflector, ampule enclosure and washers are made of martensite-ferrite grade steel.
042467837	claims	1. Handheld device for measuring the spring-force of resilient spacer projections set into spacer grids of nuclear reactor fuel assemblies to push fuel rods surrounded by spacer meshes against at least two oppositely disposed rigid spacer projections, comprising a force measuring plug having a diameter equal to the diameter of a fuel rod to be fixed in the spacer grid, and a flexible beam integral with said force measuring plug, said flexible beam having a free end in contact with a first resilient spacer projection to be measured, and another end firmly connected to said force measuring plug and having at least one wire strain gage disposed thereon, said flexible beam being formed by a stress-free slot formed in said force measuring plug. 2. Device according to claim 1, wherein a second resilient spacer projection is disposed at a 90.degree. shift from the first resilient spacer projection in the spacer grid, said slot forming said flexible beam being formed step-like whereby said second resilient spacer projection contacts said force measuring plug exclusively. 3. Hand-held device for measuring the spring-force of resilient spacer projections set into spacer grids of nuclear reactor fuel assemblies to push fuel rods surrounded by spacer meshes against at least two oppositely disposed rigid spacer projections, comprising a force measuring plug having a diameter equal to the diameter of a fuel rod to be fixed in the spacer grid, and a flexible beam integral with said force measuring plug, said flexible beam having a free end in contact with a first resilient spacer projection to be measured, and another end firmly connected to said force measuring plug and having at least one wire strain gage disposed thereon, said force measuring plug being hollow and having a lateral hole formed therein, said other end of said flexible beam being centered within said hollow force measuring plug, and including a pin disposed on said free end of said flexible beam extending radially through said lateral hole, said pin having a rounded end contactable with said first resilient spacer projection.
	abstract	The invention related to a radiation protection arrangement for screening radiation emitted from a radiation source, especially an x-ray source. Said arrangement is provided with a screening element consisting of, or comprising, a radiation protection material, and a cover, which fully surrounds the screening element. Said cover can be pulled over the screening element and completely separated from the same. As the cover can be changed, the radiation protection arrangement can be kept clean and sterile in a simple manner.
	abstract	A scanning illuminating device includes an emission center from which radiation is emitted in an illuminating sector. A cylindrical ring is centered on the source and is rotatably movable about a first axis. The ring includes a plurality of slits regularly distributed about its axis of rotation and having the same angular amplitude α. A cylinder portion is centered on the source and is rotatably movable about a second axis crossing the first axis at the center and forming a nonzero angle therewith. The cylinder portion includes a slit having an angular amplitude β. A first device control of the rotation of the ring, defining an elementary angular step as such that an integer N1 other than 1 meets the condition α=N1·αα. A second device controls the rotation of the ring portion defining an angular step ββ such that an integer N2 other than 1 meets the condition β=N2·ββ.
	abstract	An X-ray diffractometer for obtaining X-ray diffraction angles of diffracted X-rays by detecting with an X-ray detector diffracted X-rays diffracted at a sample when X-rays are emitted at the sample at each angle of the angles about a center point of goniometer circles, the X-ray diffractometer having a pinhole member provided with a pinhole, the pinhole allowing X-rays diffracted from the sample to pass so that the diffracted X-rays pass through the center point of the goniometer circle, and other diffracted X-rays are shielded by the pinhole member.
042004918	claims	1. A device for detecting the residual gamma radiation indicative of the recent power distribution of a used nuclear reactor fuel element comprising the combination of: a radiation detector of the type for decoding information available as to activated isotope emission along a filament wire; and a wand, said wand being of sufficiently small diameter to be removably juxtaposed along said nuclear reactor fuel element and to be analyzed by said radiation detector, said wand comprising: (a) a filament wire longitudinally disposed within a tubular housing of said wand composed of an activant medium, said activant medium being operative to register incident neutron flux as a long half life activated isotope along the length of said filament wire; and (b) a sheath of converter material encasing said filament wire, said sheath being operative to produce neutron flux proportional only to incident gamma radiation in excess of a predetermined energy threshold emitted by said fuel element defined by the gamma emission of La-140 for registering said neutron flux in said filament wire as a spatial distribution of a long half life activated isotope which spatial distribution is directly proportional to the spatial distribution of fission products of said nuclear reactor fuel element. providing a sheathing of a converting medium about a filament wire of an activant medium to form a wand, said converting medium being operative to selectively produce neutron flux proportional only to incident gamma radiation above a preselected energy threshold, said activant medium being operative to register incident neutron flux as a long half life activated isotope; after a cooling period following shutdown of a nuclear reactor, juxtaposing said wand along a nuclear reactor fuel element within said nuclear reactor fixed in relation to said fuel element for a sufficient period to allow gamma fission products of La-140 to cause neutron flux generation within said converter medium and further to allow said neutron flux so generated incident upon said filament wire to register in said filament as a spatial distribution of a long half life activated isotope, which spatial distribution is directly proportional to said fission products spatial distribution; thereafter removing said wand from said nuclear reactor; and thereafter detecting radiation of said long half life activated isotope to identify the location and intensity of said activated isotope for mapping the power distribution history of the nuclear reactor fuel element. 2. A detecting device according to claim 1 wherein said filament is about 2 mm in diameter and said casing is about 10 mm in diameter. 3. A power distribution detecting device according to claim 1 wherein said converter medium is beryllium oxide. 4. A power distribution detecting device according to claim 1 wherein said neutron flux activant medium is a material having a neutron activation cross section of greater than about ten barns and whose activated isotope emits gamma or beta radiation with an energy greater than about 50,000 electron volts with a half life of greater than about one hour. 5. A power distribution detecting device according to claim 4 wherein said neutron flux activant medium comprises a member of the group consisting of gold, silver, manganese and lutetium. 6. A method for analyzing the recent power distribution of a used nuclear reactor fuel element comprising the steps of:
	summary
	description	The disclosed concept pertains generally to nuclear reactor systems. The disclosed concept also pertains to transmitter devices for nuclear reactor systems. The disclosed concept further pertains to methods of measuring environmental conditions with a transmitter device. In many state-of-the-art nuclear reactor systems in-core sensors are employed for measuring the radioactivity within the core at a number of axial elevations. These sensors are used to measure the radial and axial distribution of the power inside the reactor core. This power distribution measurement information is used to determine whether the reactor is operating within nuclear power distribution limits. The typical in-core sensor used to perform this function is a self-powered detector that produces an electric current that is proportional to the amount of fission occurring around it. This type of sensor does not require an outside source of electrical power to produce the current and is commonly referred to as a self-powered detector and is more fully described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,745,538, issued Apr. 28, 1998, and assigned to the Assignee of this invention. FIG. 1 provides a diagram of the mechanisms that produce the current I(t) in a self-powered detector element 10. A neutron sensitive material such a vanadium is employed for the emitter element 12 and emits electrons in response to neutron irradiation. Typically, the self-powered detectors are grouped within instrumentation thimble assemblies. A representative in-core instrumentation thimble assembly 16 is shown in FIG. 2. The signal level generated by the essentially non-depleting neutron sensitive emitter 12 shown in FIG. 1 is low, however, a single, full core length neutron sensitive emitter element provides an adequate signal without complex and expensive signal processors. The proportions of the full length signal generated by the single neutron sensitive emitter element attributable to various axial regions of the core are determined from apportioning the signal generated by different lengths of gamma sensitive elements 14 which define the axial regions of the core and are shown in FIG. 2. The apportioning signals are ratioed which eliminates much of the effects of the delayed gamma radiation due to fission products. The in-core instrumentation thimble assemblies also include a thermocouple 18 for measuring the temperature of the coolant exiting the fuel assemblies. The electrical signal output from the self-powered detector elements and the thermocouple in each in-core instrumentation thimble assembly in the reactor core are collected at the electrical connector 20 and sent to a location well away from the reactor for final processing and use in producing the measured core power distribution. FIG. 3 shows an example of a core monitoring system presently offered for sale by Westinghouse Electric Company LLC, Cranberry, Pa., with a product name WINCISE™ that employs fixed in-core instrumentation thimble assemblies 16 within the instrument thimbles of the fuel assemblies within the core to measure the core's power distribution. Cabling 22 extends from the instrument thimble assemblies 16 through the containment seal table 24 to a single processing cabinet 26 where the outputs are conditioned, digitized and multiplexed and transmitted through the containment walls 28 to a computer workstation 30 where they can be further processed and displayed. The thermocouple signals from the in-core instrumentation thimble assemblies are also sent to a reference junction unit 32 which transmits the signals to an inadequate core cooling monitor 34 which communicates with the plant computer 36 which is also connected to the workstation 30. Because of the hostile environment within the containment walls 28, the signal processing cabinet 26 has to be located a significant distance away from the core and the signal has to be sent from the detectors 16 to the signal processing cabinet 26 through specially constructed cables that are extremely expensive and the long runs reduce the signal to noise ratio. Unfortunately, these long runs of cable have proved necessary because the electronics for signal processing has to be shielded from the highly radioactive environment surrounding the core region. In previous nuclear plant designs, the in-core detectors entered the reactor vessel from the lower hemispherical end and entered the fuel assemblies' instrument thimble from the bottom fuel assembly nozzle. In at least some of the current generation of nuclear plant designs, such as the AP1000 nuclear plant, the in-core monitoring access is located at the top of the reactor vessel, which means that during refueling all in-core monitoring cabling will need to be removed before accessing the fuel. A wireless in-core monitor that is self-contained within the fuel assemblies and wirelessly transmits the monitored signals to a signal receiver positioned inside the reactor vessel but away from the fuel would allow immediate access to the fuel without the time-consuming and expensive process of disconnecting, withdrawing and storing the in-core monitoring cables before the fuel assemblies could be accessed, and restoring those connections after the refueling process is complete. A wireless alternative would thus save days in the critical path of a refueling outage. A wireless system also allows every fuel assembly to be monitored, which significantly increases the amount of core power distribution information that is available. However, a wireless system requires that electronic components be located at or near the reactor core where gamma and neutron radiation and high temperatures would render semi-conductor electronics inoperable within a very short time. Vacuum tubes are known to be radiation insensitive, but their size and electric current demands have made their use impractical until recently. Recent developments in micro-electromechanical devices have allowed vacuum tubes to shrink to integrated circuit component sizes and significantly reduce power draw demands. Such a system is described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/986,242, entitled “Wireless In-core Neutron Monitor,” filed Jan. 7, 2011. The primary electrical power source for the signal transmitting electrical hardware for the embodiment disclosed in the afore-noted patent application is a rechargeable battery shown as part of an exemplary power supply. The charge on the battery is maintained by the use of the electrical power produced by a dedicated power supply self-powered detector element that is contained within the power supply, so that the nuclear radiation in the reactor is the ultimate power source for the device and will continue so long as the dedicated power supply self-powered detector element is exposed to an intensity of radiation experienced within the core. Accordingly, one object of this disclosed concept is to provide a mechanism to transmit data of environmental conditions within an instrument thimble of a fuel assembly to a remote location. These needs and others are met by the disclosed concept, which are directed to an improved nuclear reactor system, transmitter device therefor, and associated method of measuring a number of environmental conditions. As one aspect of the disclosed concept, a transmitter device includes a neutron detector structured to detect neutron flux, a capacitor electrically connected in parallel with the neutron detector, a gas discharge tube having an input end and an output end, and an antenna electrically connected to the output end. The input end is electrically connected with the capacitor. The antenna is structured to emit a signal corresponding to the neutron flux. As another aspect of the disclosed concept, a nuclear reactor system including a fuel assembly having an instrument thimble, and the aforementioned transmitter device is provided. As another aspect of the disclosed concept, a method of measuring a number of environmental conditions with the aforementioned transmitter device is provided. The method includes the steps of detecting neutron flux with the neutron detector; storing energy in the capacitor until a breakdown voltage of the gas discharge tube is reached; and emitting a signal with the antenna corresponding to the neutron flux. The primary side of nuclear power generating systems which are cooled with water under pressure comprises a closed circuit which is isolated from and in heat exchange relationship with a secondary side for the production of useful energy. The primary side comprises the reactor vessel enclosing a core internal structure that supports a plurality of fuel assemblies containing fissile material, the primary circuit within heat exchange steam generators, the inner volume of a pressurizer, pumps and pipes for circulating pressurized water; the pipes connecting each of the steam generators and pumps to the reactor vessel independently. Each of the parts of the primary side comprising a steam generator, a pump and a system of pipes which are connected to the reactor vessel form a loop of the primary side. For the purpose of illustration, FIG. 4 shows a simplified nuclear reactor system, including a generally cylindrical pressure vessel 40, having a closure head 42 enclosing a nuclear core 44. A liquid reactor coolant, such as water, is pumped into the vessel 40 by pump 46 through the core 44 where heat energy is absorbed and is discharged to a heat exchanger 48, typically referred to as a steam generator, in which heat is transferred to a utilization circuit (not shown), such as a steam driven turbine generator. The reactor coolant is then returned to the pump 46 completing the primary loop. Typically, a plurality of the above-described loops are connected to a single reactor vessel 40 by reactor coolant piping 50. An exemplary reactor design to which this invention can be applied is illustrated in FIG. 5. In addition to the core 44 comprised of a plurality of parallel, vertical, co-extending fuel assemblies 80, for purpose of this description, the other vessel internal structures can be divided into the lower internals 52 and the upper internals 54. In conventional designs, the lower internals' function is to support, align and guide core components and instrumentation as well direct flow within the vessel. The upper internals 54 restrain or provide a secondary restraint for the fuel assemblies 80 (only two of which are shown for simplicity in this figure), and support and guide instrumentation and components, such as control rods 56. In the exemplary reactor shown in FIG. 5, coolant enters the reactor vessel 40 through one or more inlet nozzles 58, flows down through an annulus between the reactor vessel 40 and the core barrel 60, is turned 180° in a lower reactor vessel plenum 61, passes upwardly through a lower support plate and a lower core plate 64 upon which the fuel assemblies 80 are seated, and through and about the assemblies. In some designs, the lower support plate 62 and the lower core plate 64 are replaced by a single structure, the lower core support plate that has the same elevation as 62. Coolant exiting the core 44 flows along the underside of the upper core plate 66 and upwardly and through a plurality of perforations 68 in the upper core plate 66. The coolant then flows upwardly and radially to one or more outlet nozzles 70. The upper internals 54 can be supported from the vessel or the vessel head 42 and includes an upper support assembly 72. Loads are transmitted between the upper support assembly 72 and the upper core plate 66 primarily by a plurality of support columns 74. Each support column is aligned above a selected fuel assembly 80 and perforations 68 in the upper core plate 66. The rectilinearly movable control rods 56 typically include a drive shaft 76 and a spider assembly 78 of neutron poison rods that are guided through the upper internals 54 and into aligned fuel assemblies 80 by control rod guide tubes 79. FIG. 6 is an elevational view represented in vertically shortened form, of a fuel assembly being generally designated by reference character 80. The fuel assembly 80 is the type used in a pressurized water reactor, such as the reactor of FIG. 5, and has a structural skeleton which at its lower end includes a bottom nozzle 82. The bottom nozzle 82 supports the fuel assembly on the lower core support plate 64 in the core region of the nuclear reactor. In addition to the bottom nozzle 82, the structural skeleton of the fuel assembly 80 also includes a top nozzle 84 at its upper end and a number of guide tubes or thimbles 86 which extend longitudinally between the bottom and top nozzles 82 and 84 and at opposite ends are rigidly attached thereto. The fuel assembly 80 further includes a plurality of transverse grids 88 axially spaced along and mounted to the guide thimbles 86 (also referred to as guide tubes) and an organized array of elongated fuel rods 90 transversely spaced and supported by the grids 88. Although it cannot be seen in FIG. 6, the grids 88 are conventionally formed from orthogonal straps that are interleaved in an egg-crate pattern with the adjacent interface of four straps defining approximately square support cells through which the fuel rods 90 are supported in transversely spaced relationship with each other. In many conventional designs, springs and dimples are stamped into the opposing walls of the straps that form the support cells. The springs and dimples extend radially into the support cells and capture the fuel rods therebetween; inserting pressure on the fuel rod cladding to hold the rods in position. Also, the assembly 80 has an instrumentation tube 92 located in the center thereof that extends between and is mounted to the bottom and top nozzles 82 and 84. With such an arrangement of parts, the fuel assembly 80 forms an integral unit capable of being conveniently handled without damaging the assembly of parts. As mentioned above, the fuel rods 90 in the array thereof in the assembly 80 are held in spaced relationship with one another by the grids 88 spaced along the fuel assembly length. Each fuel rod 90 includes a plurality of nuclear fuel pellets 94 and is closed at its opposite ends by upper and lower end plugs 96 and 98. The fuel pellets 94 are maintained in a stack by a plenum spring 100 disposed between the upper end plug 96 in the top of the pellet stack. The fuel pellets 94, composed of fissile material, are responsible for creating the reactive power of the reactor. The cladding, which surrounds the pellets, functions as a barrier to prevent fission byproducts from entering the coolant and further contaminating the reactor system. To control the fission process, a number of control rods 56 are reciprocally movable in the guide thimbles 86 located at predetermined positions in the fuel assembly 80. Specifically, a rod cluster control mechanism (also referred to as a spider assembly) 78 positioned above the top nozzle 84 supports the control rods 56. The rod cluster control mechanism has an internally threaded cylindrical hub member 102 with a plurality of radially extending flukes or arms 104 that with the control rods 56 form the spider assembly 78 that was previously mentioned with respect to FIG. 5. Each arm 104 is interconnected to the control rods 56 such that the control mechanism 78 is operable to move the control rods vertically in the guide thimbles to thereby control the fission process in the fuel assembly 80, under the motor power of control rod drive shafts 76 (shown in FIG. 5) which are coupled to the control rod hubs 102, all in a well known manner. FIG. 7 shows a schematic circuitry diagram of a transmitter device 200, in accordance with one non-limiting embodiment of the disclosed concept. The example transmitter device 200 is preferably located within one of the instrument thimbles 86 of the fuel assembly of FIG. 6. As will be discussed in greater detail hereinbelow, the transmitter device 200 allows an environmental condition (e.g., without limitation, neutron flux) within the instrument thimble 86 (FIG. 6) to be monitored wirelessly. The example transmitter device 200 includes a self-powered neutron detector 210, a first capacitor 212 electrically connected in parallel with the neutron detector 210, a gas discharge tube 214, an antenna 220, and an oscillator circuit 222. One example of a suitable gas discharge tube that may be employed in the disclosed concept is presently offered for sale by Littlefuse, Inc., of Chicago, Ill., and has a product name Gas Discharge Tube. The gas discharge tube 214 has an input end 216 and an output end 218. In one example embodiment, the gas discharge tube 214 is designed as a spark gap device wherein an arc, or spark, occurs when the input end 216 is electrically connected with the output end 218. In another example embodiment, the gas discharge tube 214 is designed to operate with a relatively less intense glow discharge occurring when the input end 216 electrically connects with the output end 218. The input end 216 is electrically connected with the first capacitor 212, and the output end 218 is electrically connected with the antenna 220. As shown, the oscillator circuit 222 includes a second capacitor 224 and an inductor 226 electrically connected in parallel with the second capacitor 224. The second capacitor 224 and the inductor 226 are each electrically connected with the output end 218 and the antenna 220. In operation, when the transmitter device 200 is located within one of the instrument thimbles 86 (FIG. 6), the neutron detector 210 absorbs neutrons, causing electrons to migrate outwardly and thus create a current. Accordingly, the neutron detector 210, and thus the transmitter device 200, is advantageously self-powered (i.e., devoid of a separate powering mechanism). As the neutron detector 210 generates a current, it charges the first capacitor 212. FIG. 8 shows a graph of voltage V1 versus time measured at the first capacitor 212. As shown, the voltage V1 increases until a voltage Vb is reached. The voltage Vb is the breakdown voltage of the gas discharge tube 214. Once the breakdown voltage Vb is reached, the gas discharge tube 214 becomes conductive such that the input end 216 and the output end 218 electrically connect the first capacitor 212 to the antenna 220 and the oscillator circuit 222. The oscillator circuit 222 is an inherently unstable circuit. As such, when the breakdown voltage Vb is reached, an intense oscillation is triggered in the oscillator circuit 222 for a short period of time. FIG. 9 shows a graph of voltage V2 versus time measured in the oscillator circuit 222. As shown, the voltage V2 generally begins at zero volts, oscillates for a relatively short period of time, and thereafter returns to zero volts before repeating the cycle. The dampening of the oscillations is due to energy being dissipated by electromagnetic emissions from the antenna 220 and resistive losses. Accordingly, the oscillator circuit 222 pulses the antenna 220, which emits a wireless signal. It will be appreciated that the period between the pulsed signals emitted by the antenna 220 corresponds inversely to the neutron flux detected by the neutron detector 210. More specifically, the current generated by the neutron detector 210 is directly proportional to the neutron flux within the instrument thimble 86 (FIG. 6), and the breakdown voltage Vb is relatively constant. As such, the period between pulses (see, for example, t1 in FIG. 9) is also inversely proportional to the neutron flux within the instrument thimble 86 (FIG. 6). Therefore, a suitable wireless receiver receiving the signal emitted by the antenna 220 can readily be calibrated to determine the neutron flux within the instrument thimble 86 (FIG. 6). Additionally, the energy of the pulsed transmissions of the antenna 220 remains essentially the same even if the reactor core power is very low. The pulses simply occur less often. Furthermore, because the frequency of the transmitter device 200 is independent of pulse operation, a device designer is able to select the frequency of the transmitter device 200. This advantageously facilitates the use of many different transmitter devices at different locations in the fuel assembly 80, and in other fuel assemblies in the core. An operator would be able to identify each individual transmitter device by its associated frequency, which is dependent on the values of the capacitance of the second capacitor 224 and the inductance of the inductor 226. Accordingly, environmental conditions such as neutron flux are advantageously able to be monitored wirelessly at many different locations within the fuel assembly 80. FIG. 10 shows a schematic circuitry diagram of another transmitter device 300, in accordance with another non-limiting embodiment of the disclosed concept. As shown, the transmitter device 300 is structured similar to the transmitter device 200 (FIG. 7), and like components are labeled with like reference numbers. For ease of illustration and economy of disclosure, only the antenna 320 and the oscillator circuit 322 are indicated with reference numbers. However, as shown, the oscillator circuit 322 of the transmitter device 300 further includes a resistance temperature detector 328 electrically connected in series with the inductor 326 and electrically connected to the second capacitor 324. The resistance temperature detector 328 increases its electrical resistance as the temperature of the environment in which it is located increases. In accordance with one aspect of the disclosed concept, the resistance temperature detector 328 alters the signal emitted by the antenna 320 in a detectable way. More specifically, the amplitude decay rate of the voltage of the oscillator circuit 322 will be altered with the inclusion of the resistance temperature detector 322. Accordingly, the change in the amplitude decay rate measured by a suitable wireless receiver will allow an operator to readily determine a given temperature at a location within the instrument thimble 86 (FIG. 6). It follows that the transmitter device 300 is advantageously able to provide an indication to an operator of neutron flux (i.e., in the same manner as the transmitter device 200 shown in FIG. 7) and also temperature within the instrument thimble 86 (FIG. 6). FIGS. 11 and 12 show schematic circuitry diagrams of two other transmitter devices 400,500, respectively, in accordance with other non-limiting embodiments of the disclosed concept. As shown, the transmitter devices 400,500 are structured similar to the transmitter devices 200,300 (FIGS. 7 and 10), and like components are labeled with like reference numbers. For ease of illustration and economy of disclosure, only the antennas 420 and the oscillator circuits 422,522 are identified with reference numbers. As shown in FIG. 11, the oscillator circuit 422 further includes a second inductor (e.g., without limitation, variable inductor 430) electrically connected in series with the first inductor 426 and the resistance temperature detector 428. Furthermore, the variable inductor 430 is electrically connected to with the second capacitor 424. As shown in FIG. 12, the oscillator circuit 522 further includes a variable capacitor 532 electrically connected in parallel with the second capacitor 524. The variable capacitor 532 is also electrically connected to the inductor 526 and the resistance temperature detector 528. Advantageously, environmentally induced changes in the electrical values of either the variable inductor 430 or the variable capacitor 532 will produce a detectable shift in the pulse transmission frequency. It will be appreciated that the transmitter devices 400,500 are advantageously able to provide an indication to an operator of up to three environmental conditions within the instrument thimble 86 (FIG. 6). For example, the transmitter devices 400,500 each, via the emitted signals of the respective antennas 420,520, are each able to communicate to a wireless receiver data corresponding to the neutron flux and the temperature within the instrument thimble 86 (FIG. 6) in the same manner as the transmitter device 300, discussed above. Additionally, the variable inductor 430 (FIG. 11) and the variable capacitor 532 (FIG. 12) are each structured to alter the frequency of the emitted signal of the respective antennas 420,520 in a detectable way. The altered frequency provides a mechanism by which a third environmental condition (e.g., without limitation, pressure, total neutron dose of a fuel rod over time, water flow rate) can be measured by the transmitter devices 400,500 and reported wirelessly to a suitable receiver. For example, the pressure within a fuel rod may create a deformation that causes a movement near a coil of the variable inductor 430 to cause a detectable frequency shift in the emitted signal of the antenna 420, thus allowing the pressure to be monitored wirelessly. FIG. 13 shows a schematic circuitry diagram of another transmitter device 600, in accordance with another non-limiting embodiment of the disclosed concept. As shown, the transmitter device 600 is structured similar to the transmitter devices 200,300,400,500 (FIGS. 7 and 10-12), and like components are labeled with like reference numbers. More specifically, the transmitter device 600 includes a neutron detector 610, a capacitor 612, a gas discharge tube 614, an antenna 620, and an oscillator circuit 622 that each perform the same functions as the respective components of the transmitter devices 200,300,400,500 (FIGS. 7 and 10-12). As shown, the transmitter device 600 further includes a number of Marx bank stages (e.g., two Marx bank stages 642,644 are shown) electrically connected between the neutron detector 610 and the gas discharge tube 614. It will be appreciated that any suitable alternative number of Marx bank stages may be employed ahead of a gas discharge tube (i.e., and after a neutron detector) in order to perform the desired function of enhancing circuit performance. The Marx bank stages 642,644 each include a respective capacitor 646,648, a respective first resistor 650,652, a respective second resistor 654,656, and a respective gas discharge tube 658,660. It will be appreciated that a method of measuring a number of environmental conditions with a transmitter device 200,300,400,500,600 includes the steps of detecting neutron flux with a neutron detector 210,610 storing energy in a capacitor 212,612 until a breakdown voltage Vb of a gas discharge tube 214,614 is reached, and emitting a signal with an antenna 220,320,420,520,620 corresponding to the neutron flux. The method may further include the steps of pulsing the antenna 220,320,420,520,620 with an oscillator circuit 222,322,422,522,622 altering the signal emitted by the antenna 220,320,420,520,620 with a resistance temperature detector 328,428,528, and/or altering the signal emitted by the antenna 220,320,420,520,620 with a variable inductor 430 or a variable capacitor 532. The novel transmitter devices 200,300,400,500,600 are able to measure the disclosed environmental conditions within the instrument thimble 86 (FIG. 6) and withstand the relatively harsh operating conditions for at least two reasons. First, the transmitter devices 200,300,400,500,600 are each advantageously devoid of semiconductors. Second, the transmitter devices 200,300,400,500,600 generally include only one single powering mechanism (e.g., the respective neutron detectors (only the neutron detectors 210,610 are indicated)). Known attempts at providing a wireless mechanism to communicate data on environmental conditions typically require more power than is available from a neutron detector, and/or are not able to withstand the relatively harsh radiation environment due to the inclusion of semiconductors. Additionally, known devices (not shown) exhibit relatively low transmitter power, and as such shutdown completely when the reactor power is decreased below a critical threshold. The transmitter devices 200,300,400,500,600 are novel in their combination of a self-powered neutron detector 210,610 and energy storage capacitor 212,612 to achieve reasonable transmission power over a wide reactor power range. Furthermore, as discussed, the transmitter devices 400,500 are advantageously able to transmit readings on up to three different environmental parameters concurrently from a given sensing location within the instrument thimble 86. Moreover, because all of the monitoring is being done wirelessly, the need for major reactor vessel penetrations and cabling to monitor environmental conditions is reduced and/or eliminated. Accordingly, the disclosed concept provides for an improved (e.g., without limitation, better able to monitor environmental conditions within an instrument thimble 86) nuclear reactor system, transmitter device 200,300,400,500,600 therefor, and associated method of measuring environmental conditions. While specific embodiments of the disclosed concept have been described in detail, it will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that various modifications and alternatives to those details could be developed in light of the overall teachings of the disclosure. Accordingly, the particular arrangements disclosed are meant to be illustrative only and not limiting as to the scope of the disclosed concept which is to be given the full breadth of the claims appended and any and all equivalents thereof.
	abstract	An electron beam sterilization unit for processing food packaging material, the unit having a frame; at least one electron beam emitter fitted to the frame, along the path of the material for processing, and having a flange for connection to the frame; and a locking device, which is fitted to the frame, and has thrust devices for exerting a lock force on the flange in a given first direction, and for locking the emitter, with respect to the frame, in a given work position, and actuating devices for activating the thrust devices and which are defined by toggle devices.
047537728	description	DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT As shown in FIGS. 1 and 2, the support member 1 according to the invention includes a plurality of, in this case three, successively longer metal straps 3, 5 and 7. Opposite ends 9 of all of these straps are secured in grooves 11 in a pair of end members 13 by a series of nuts and bolts 15. The integral ends 9 are thickened to accommodate holes 17 through which the bolts pass. The end members 13 each include an integral boss 19 with an eye 21 by which the end members 13 can be engaged to apply tensile loads to the support member 1. As seen in FIG. 2 the width w'" of the longest strap 7 is wider than the width w" of the second longest strap 5 which in turn is wider than the width w' of the shortest strap. In order to fill the gaps created by the narrower straps, inserts 23 and 25 are provided so that the ends of the straps 5 and 7 can be clamped tightly as is the end of strap 3. With this arrangement, most of the tensile load is transmitted to the straps through friction forces. In this embodiment of the invention, even the shortest metal strap 3 is bowed in the unloaded state shown in FIGS. 1 and 2. A typical load-deflection (P vs. .delta.) diagram for such a device is shown in FIG. 3 in which curves 27, 29 and 31 represent the characteristics of the straps 3, 5 and 7 respectively. As a tensile load P is applied to the end member 13, the strap 3 straightens out. This requires relatively little tension as indicated by the small slope to the initial portion 33 of curve 27. As the tensile load is increased, the slope of curve 27 increases and becomes constant at 35 as the strap 3 stretches but remains elastic. The straps 5 and 7 are still bowed at this point and hence they assume very little of the load. Thus, all three straps remain elastic. As the tensile load increases further, the strap 3 reaches the yield point and plastic deformation begins as indicated by the rapid decrease in the slope of curve 27 at about 37. The normal operating domain for the support member 1 is the area A to the left of the vertical line 39 which provides a comfortable margin below the yield point of strap 3. In this region, where all the straps remain elastic, the curve 27 is retraced to the origin as the tensile load is removed. Since the area under the curves on this load versus deflection plot remains energy input to the device, it can be appreciated that in this elastic domain, the energy is stored in elastic strain and is recovered when the tensile load is removed. However, after the strap 3 begins to yield, the curve 27 is not retraced when the load is relieved. Instead, a path such as that represented by the dotted line 41 is followed down to zero load. In this instance, the energy under the curve 27 to the left of the dotted line 41 is dissipated as heat, and only the area under the curve 27 to the right of line 41 is returned to the system. Thus a significant amount of energy is dissipated under circumstances such as would accompany a severe seismic event where the shock loads reach a magnitude which causes plastic deformation of strap 3. If the tensile load is great enough, the strap 3 will rupture at point 43 and all the load will be transferred to straps 5 and 7. In the particular instance illustrated in FIG. 3, where the strap 5 is just about straightened out when strap 3 ruptures, it rapidly stretches as shown by curve 29 to the extent dictated by the load, and then, with increased load, it too reaches its yield point at about the point 45 and plastically deforms thereby dissipating more energy as heat. When strap 5 ruptures, the load is transferred to the strap 7 represented by curve 31 in FIG. 3. Strap 7 is designed so that it will remain elastic for any anticipated shock load to maintain support for the component being held by the support member. While the discussion has proceeded as though the force progressively increases, in the case of a seismic shock peak force is experienced virtually instantaneously with straps 3 and 5 rapidly plastically deforming if the peak load is sustained long enough. Another embodiment of the invention is shown schematically in FIG. 4. This support member 1' also includes three successively longer metal straps 3', 5' and 7' secured at their ends to a pair of end members 13'. However, in this arrangement, the shortest strap 3' is fully extended and not bowed in the unloaded condition. Thus, as shown in the load-deflection plot for this device illustrated in FIG. 5, the curve 47 representing the characteristics of strap 3' slopes steeply upward from the origin as the elastic domain is entered immediately. As can be appreciated from the load-deflection plot of FIG. 5, the intermediate strap 5' represented by the curve 49 has a lower yield point than the strap 3'. This can be achieved by using a different material for the two straps and/or by making the cross-section of the strap 5' less than that of the strap 3'. Despite the lower yield point, the strap 5' will not plastically deform before the strap 3' because it is bowed and does not straighten out until the strap 3' has plastically deformed a sufficient amount to take up the slack. With strap 5' having a lower yieldpoint and rupture point 51 than strap 3', when strap 3' ruptures at point 53, strap 5' will rapidly rupture, dissipating a substantial amount of energy in the process, and shifting the entire load to strap 7' represented by curve 55 which has been designed to remain elastic with the peak load anticipated. From the discussion of these two specific embodiments of the invention, it can be appreciated that a designer has a great deal of flexibility in tailoring the characteristics of the support member for the particular circumstances of a given application. A specific example of the invention is a support member with three straps each made of 1/4 inch thick stainless steel with a yield strength of 20,000 psi and a Young's modulus equal to 28.times.10.sup.6 psi. The shortest strap is 1 inch wide, the middle strap 1.1 inches wide and the third strap 5 inches wide. With all of the straps bent into a sinusoidal shape and the ends 36 inches apart, the unbent lengths are 36.360, 38.292 and 38.710 inches, respectively. The loads required to straighten them out are 239.15, 249.53 and 1,122.33 pounds, respectively and the associated displacements are 0.36, 2.292 and 2.710 inches. The corresponding displacement between the point where a strap straightens out and the yield point is reached is 0.027, 0.02736 and 0.02765 inches for a maximum elastic displacement of 0.3857, 2.320 and 2.738 inches at a maximum load of 5,000, 5,500 and 25,000 pounds respectively. FIG. 6 is a load (P) versus deflection (.delta.) diagram for the individual straps of the exemplary support member. As can be seen, the 1 inch strap straightens out with a load of 239 pounds, yields at 5,000 pounds and after 5% elongation ruptures at point 57. The 1.1 inch strap straightens out at about 250 pounds and yields at 5,500 pounds while the 5 inch strap straightens out at 1,122 pounds and remains elastic for the loads indicated. As represented by the areas under the curves to the right of the near vertical elastic portions, the shortest strap dissipates about 658 foot pounds of energy, and the middle strap dissipates about 180 foot pounds for a total of over 800 foot pounds. One particular application of the invention is providing support for the piping in a nuclear power plant. All parts of the plant, including the piping, must be capable of withstanding seismic shocks. FIG. 8 illustrates in simplified form, a nuclear steam supply system 59 for a pressurized water reactor (PWR) nuclear power plant to demonstrate this application of the invention. The nuclear steam supply system 59 comprises a primary loop 61 and a secondary loop 63. The primary loop 61 includes a nuclear reactor 65 in which controlled fission reactions generate heat which is absorbed by a reactor coolant. The reactor coolant, which is light water, is circulated through hot leg piping 67 to a steam generator 69 where the heat is utilized to generate steam. The reactor coolant is returned to the reactor 65 by a reactor coolant pump 71 through cold leg piping 73. The steam generated in the steam generator 69 is circulated through a steam header 75 to a turbine-generator 77 which generates electricity. Steam exhausted by the turbine-generator 77 is condensed in condenser 79 and returned to the steam generator 69 by a condensate pump 81 through return piping 83. The piping in the nuclear steam supply system 59 is supported by supports 85 which include, as best seen in FIG. 9, three tension loaded support members 1 angularly spaced 120.degree. apart around, and extending radially outwardly from, each pipe. Each support member 1 is secured to the pipe by a clevis 87 and pin 89 which passes through the aperture 21 in one end member 13. The other end member 13 is secured to a fixed support 91 by a similar clevis 87 and pin 89 arrangement. Three support members 1 are equiangularly spaced around the piping since the seismic loads can come from any direction. Thus, the supports are used on vertical sections of the piping as well as horizontal sections. In the latter case, they also support the dead load. The piping arrangement of FIG. 8 is not meant to be representative of the actual piping layout in a plant, but is intended to show the use of the invention in supporting both horizontal and vertical sections of piping. The invention is not only useful in supporting the main piping in the nuclear steam supply system, but can also be used to support the piping of auxiliary systems, and in fact, any of the piping in the plant. While the specific embodiments of the invention have been described in detail, it will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that various modifications and alternatives to those details could be developed in light of the overall teachings of the disclosure. For instance, while the invention has been described as applied to tension loaded supports, the broad principles can be applied to devices for dissipating energy, particularly seismic energy, other than tension loaded supports and even to devices that only perform an energy absorbing function and not support Accordingly, the particular arrangements disclosed are meant to be illustrative only and not limiting as to the scope of the invention which is to be given the full breadth of the appended claims and any and all equivalents thereof.
047939613	claims	1. A positive ion source for producing a beam of high concentration positively charged molecular ions when supplied witn hydrogen or deuterium, said ion source comprising: a plasma chamber constructed so as to minimize the path length of positive ions in the chamber before such ions are extracted therefrom, electron emitting means positioned in said chamber, means for metering hydrogen or deuterium into said chamber, a plasma grid forming a wall of said plasma chamber and spaced form said electron emitting means and having an extraction opening therein through which a beam of high concentration positive ions is extracted, said extraction opening having a small cross-section reactive to an adjacent cross-section of said chamber, extractor electrode means located outside said chamber adjacent to an in alignment with said extraction opening of said plasma grid for extracting a beam of positive ions from said chamber through said extraction opening, said electron emitting means being located closely adjacent with respect to said plasma grid and closely adjacent to said extraction opening in said plasma grid so that the path length of positive ions from the neighborhood of said electron emitting means to said extraction opening is short in relation it the mean free path of the hydrogen or deuterium molecules in said chamber to achieve a high concentration of hydrogen or neuterium ions and to minimize the production of other ions species by collisions of the positive hydrogen or dueterium ions with hydrogen or deuterium molecules. in which said chamber has walls other than said plasma grid, said source having magnetic means for producing a multi-cusp magnetic field between said walls and said emitting means to reflect electrons away from said walls for largely confining the plasma in said chamber to the space between said emitting means and said plasma grid. said magnetic means including an array of magnets of alternating polarity adjacent said walls. said magnetic means including rows of permanent magnets adjacent said walls and of alternating polarity. said electron emitting means being at a short distance from said plasma grid, said chamber having a length which is substantially greater than said short distance. said chamber having an end wall on the opposite end of said chamber from said plasma grid, said chamber having side wall means extending between said end wall and said plasma grid, said chamber having a length between said end wall and said plasma grid which is substantially shorter than the distance between opposite portions of said side wall means. including magnetic means forming a multi-cusp magnetic field adjacent said end wall and said side wall means for reflecting electrons to largely confine the plasma in said chamber to the space between said emitting means and said plasma grid. said mageetic means including arrays of permanent magnets of alternating polarity adjacent said end wall and said side wall means. emitting electrons from a cathode located in said space, forming an anode electrode form certain of the walls defining said space and from a plasma grid having an aperture therein of a cross-section substantially smaller than the cross-section of said space, accelerating said electrons by a positive voltage between said anode electrode and said cathode and thereby producing a plasma containing a high concentration of positive molecular ions, and extracting a beam of said high concentration positive ions through said aperture in said anode electrode while providing a short path length for said extracted beam of ions relative to the mean free path of the gas molecules to achieve a high concentration of positive ions and to minimize the production of other ion species due to collisions between the positive molecular ions and the gas molecules. 2. A positive ion source according to claim 1, 3. A positive ion source according to claim 2, 4. A positive ion source according to claim 2, 5. A positive ion source according to claim 1, 6. A positive ion source according to claim 1, 7. A positive ion source according to claim 6, 8. A positive ion source according to claim 7, 9. A method of producing a beam of high concentration positive molecular ions and extracting the beam from a space containing a molecular gas at a sub-atmospheric pressure, said method comprising the steps of: 10. A method according to claim 9, including a the step of using hydrogen as the molecular gas. 11. A method according to claim 9, including the step of using deuterium as the gas 12. A method according to claim 9, in which a multi-cusp magnetic field is produced in portions of said space remote from said anode for largely confining the plasma to the portion of said space between said anode and said cathode.
051679086	description	DESCRIPTION OF THE ILLUSTRATED EMBODIMENTS In the diagram shown in FIG. 1, for the sake of improved clarity, the catalyst and filter systems have been omitted. Housing 1 is composed of three sections 2, 3, and 4, with the smaller sections 2 and 3 being located on either side of the larger, central section 4. Each of these housing sections contains a frame of welded angle iron and the frames of the three housing sections are welded together in turn to form a complete frame. With the exception of the bottom of middle housing section 4, panels are welded into the frames at every outer face of each frame. In FIG. 1, panels 2a, 2b, 2e, 4a, 4b, 4c, 3a, and 3b are shown. A door with two flaps 5a and 5b is provided at the bottom of middle housing section 4, said flaps being pivotably articulated to opposite long sides of the frame of the middle housing section. The walls between the two outer housing sections 2 and 3 on the one hand and the middle housing section 4 on the other hand are formed by coarse-mesh nets 6, of which only the one between housing sections 3 and 4 can be seen in FIG. 1 because of the cut-away presentation of panel 4b. These nets 6 divide the total interior of housing 1 into two outer filter chambers F corresponding to the two housing sections 2 and 3 and middle catalyst chamber K corresponding to middle housing section 4. The nets ensure free convection between filter chambers F and catalyst chamber K. Each of filter chambers F contains a filter system, not shown in FIG. 1, while catalyst chamber K contains a catalyst system, likewise not shown in FIG. 1. The angle iron and panels forming housing 1 are preferably made of stainless steel. The two outer housing sections 2 and 3, with the exception of their walls which are directed upward as shown in FIG. 1, are provided with one opening (11 in FIG. 2) in each wall. Each of these openings is covered on the outside of the corresponding wall with a cover plate 7. Middle housing section 4 has a similar opening, likewise covered externally by a cover plate, in its wall which is at the top in FIG. 1. The cover plates 7, in a manner described in greater detail below, have first seals which open as a function of temperature. Flaps 5a and 5b form a second seal which opens as a function of temperature and are shown in FIG. 1 as dotted lines in their open position. Cover panels 7 and flaps 5a, 5b are also preferably made of stainless steel. To explain one preferred embodiment of the first seals which open as a function of temperature, reference is made to the enlarged sectional view in FIG. 2. In FIG. 2, 3b represents one of the walls in housing 1 which has a seal of this kind. At the points indicated by dots 8 in FIG. 1, a spring cup 9 is inserted in a hole in the housing wall, said cup abutting the outside of the housing wall with a flange 9a and containing a compressed coil spring 10. Cover plate 7 covers the corresponding opening 11 in the housing wall as well as the abutting edge of the housing wall and rests on flanges 9a of spring cups 9 and if necessary with a spacer 12. Along its entire circumferential edge, cover panel 7 is soldered to the housing wall as indicated by 13 in FIG. 2. The melting point of the solder used for this purpose determines the response temperature of these first seals. As soon as this response temperature is reached and the solder begins to melt, the pretensioned springs 10 force cover plate 7 off the housing wall so that opening 11 is exposed. Cover plates 7 provided in the vicinity of outer housing sections 2 and 3 then fall off the housing by gravity. Cover plate 7 of the seal provided on the top of middle housing section 4 is raised by pretensioned springs 10 from the housing wall to a distance such that unimpeded flow is guaranteed through the corresponding opening. Flaps 5a and 5b, which form the bottom of middle housing section 4, containing catalyst chamber K, in the readiness state and in the preliminary operating state of the device, are articulated, as described above, to opposite long sides of the frame. The narrow sides of flaps 5a and 5b are fastened in a gas-tight manner to the housing frame in the same way as shown for cover panels 7 in FIG. 2. At the points marked 15 in FIG. 1, a spring cup of the type shown in FIG. 2 is located, with a pretensioned coil spring in the angle iron of the housing, so that a pressure is exerted by the coil spring on the narrow sides of flaps 5a and 5b. Flaps 5a and 5b are soldered along their narrow sides to the angle irons of the housing frame. The solder used for this purpose, not shown in the figures, has a higher melting point than the solder used to solder cover panels 7. In a preferred application of the device, the melting point of the higher-melting solder is approximately 160.degree. C. The flaps are likewise soldered, to achieve a permanent gas-tight seal, along gap 14 between the two flaps 5a and 5b in their closed position and along the long sides of the flaps at which the latter are articulated to the housing frame. Preferably, the solder used at these points is one that melts at a lower temperature than the solder used to solder the narrow sides of the flaps. This ensures that the hinges by means of which flaps 5a and 5b are articulated to the housing frame, are essentially free of interfering solder when the higher temperature is reached and the solder on the narrow sides of flaps 5a and 5b melts. In an alternative embodiment (not shown), the bottom of the middle housing section 4 can be covered by a seals which comprises a plate applied externally to the opening, and soldered all the way around with a solder whose melting point determines the second response temperature, with the preferred melting point of the solder being approximately 160.degree. C. This plate can be pushed away from the housing, upon melting of the solder, by tensioned springs arranged for instance, like those spring cups 15 shown in FIG. 1. When, following the occurrence of an accident, the temperature in the vicinity of housing 1 rises to the point where the solder by means of which cover panels 7 are soldered to the housing, melts and the cover panels fall off or are lifted off the housing, a convection flow begins through the housing. The gas mixture surrounding the housing can enter through openings 11 provided in the vicinity of filter chamber F as inlet openings, into the housing and, after filtration by the filter systems inside the filter chambers, passes into the catalyst system in catalyst chamber K. The opening provided in the top of middle housing section 4 forms an outlet opening for this gas flow. The inlet openings and the outlet openings, depending on their position and size, are dimensioned so that a flow is created in the initial phase of the accident which carries sufficient hydrogen and oxygen to the catalyst system inside catalyst chamber K, but results in only a relatively slight cooling of the catalyst surface. The fact that the gas mixture surrounding housing 1 in this initial phase has access to the catalyst chamber only through the filter systems ensures that no grease or aerosol particles can settle on the catalyst surface. At the same time, the relatively limited heat loss results in rapid heating of the catalyst system. When the temperature has risen sufficiently that aerosol particles and grease particles can no longer settle on the catalyst surface, the second seal in the form of flaps 5a and 5b opens so that the catalyst system is then exposed directly, in other words without interposition of the filter systems, to the ambient gas mixture. As shown in FIGS. 4 and 5, the catalyst system, shown in this particular embodiment as catalyst coated plates 34, can be designed such that it falls out of catalyst chamber K at this point and assumes a position inside the room beneath housing 1. The catalyst system can be suspended from the housing by means such as cables or chains or other flexible support elements 36. As shown in FIG. 1, the housing is provided on the end wall shown at the right in FIG. 1, in the vicinity of the bottom and on the end wall shown at the left, in the vicinity of the top, with one pipe stub 20 each, containing valves 21. Following installation of the filter systems and the catalyst system and subsequent soldering of the housing, the air contained in the housing must be replaced by an inert gas. This is the purpose of pipe stubs 20 with valves 21 that can be closed airtight. Initially, with the valves open, an inert gas is conducted into the pipe stubs shown at the right until it has expelled the air contained in the housing. Then valve 21 in pipe stub 20 shown at the left is closed and more inert gas is introduced through the other pipe stub until a desired pressure is reached in the housing. Then the second valve is closed as well and the device is in its ready state. The panels fastened to the housing frame as walls, especially the panels of middle section housing 1 (4a, 4b, 4c) as well as flaps 5a and 5b can be coated on the inside with catalyst material and thus themselves contribute to the recombination of hydrogen and oxygen. This results in an increase in catalyst surface and also in a more rapid temperature rise within catalyst chamber K during the preliminary operating state FIG. 3 shows a section through housing section 2 with one of filter chambers F and the filter system located therein. Preferably, the filter system has, in front of each of openings 11 which are initially sealed by a cover panel 7, a coarse and therefore highly gas-permeable filter film or filter disk 17, while the remainder of the filter chamber is filled by corrugated, fine filter films 18 nested in one another. Coarse filter disks 17 have a separation efficiency for grease and aerosol particles on the order of 80%, while that of the fine filter films is on the order of 90-99%. Fine filter films 18 can be provided with holes 19 arranged so that the holes of adjacent filter films are staggered with respect to one another. Both the coarse and the fine filter films are HEPA filters. It should be pointed out that filter chamber F in housing section 3 contains a similar filter system. The catalyst system can be of an essentially very different design. As shown in FIGS. 4 and 5, it can comprise one or more catalyst plates 34, each of which consists of a carrier panel, preferably of stainless steel, coated with catalyst material. In alternative embodiments, granulates or sponges made of catalyst material, in a plate or other form, enclosed in nets, preferably made of stainless steel, can be used, to provide only one additional possible example. As far as the special design of the catalyst system is concerned, the only important thing is that it have sufficient catalyst surface available during the initial preliminary operating state to ensure a rapid rise to operating temperature. Panel-shaped catalyst elements in particular can be suspended by chains or the like in catalyst chamber K and fall out of the catalyst chamber after flaps 5a and 5b are opened, in order then to hang freely in space at various heights below housing 1 which are determined by the respective chain lengths. In this manner, as described in EP-A-0416143, in addition to the recombination proper, other effects, such as the breakdown of barrier layers, can be achieved. The catalyst system described in EP-A-0416140 can also be used in conjunction with the present application. Independently of the filter systems located in filter chambers F, the catalyst surfaces of the catalyst system can be covered in turn by a filter layer which remains even in the final operating state on the catalyst elements and produces a certain degree of protection for the catalyst surfaces without adversely affecting the catalytic action. Housing 50 can be mounted or suspended by means which include chains or cables which attach to mounting eyelets 32. Alternatively, housing 50 can be secured by way of brackets attached to the frame or side panels of housing 50. In the embodiment of the invention described above, and shown in FIGS. 1-5, the catalyst elements are directly exposed to the atmosphere in the final operating state, either by redirecting gases through the provision of alternative openings in the housing, or by disposing the catalyst elements outside the housing and thereby no longer shielded from the gases by the filters. In another embodiment of the invention shown in FIG. 6, in the final operating state it is the filter that is removed from the path of gas flow to the catalyst elements and thereby exposes the catalyst elements directly to the atmospheric gases. In the illustrated embodiment of the readiness state, FIG. 6, catalyst housing 50 has a frusto conical shape with an innerward projecting lip 76 at the top and an outward projecting lip 74 at the bottom. The inner surface 82 is coated with a catalyst material. Disposed within the catalyst housing 50 is a filter 52. In the illustrated embodiment, the filter 52 is essentially similar in shape to catalyst housing 50 and has an outer diameter smaller than the inner diameter of the catalyst housing 50. The filter 52 is attached at each end to bottom disc 60 and to top disc 62. The method of attachment of the filter to discs 60 and 62 includes such means as adhesive bonding and clamping. In the readiness state, the bottom disc 60 is soldered to the bottom lip 74. The melting point of the solder 64 determines the response temperature of the first seals. The top disc 62 is soldered to the top lip 76 by solder 70 whose melting point determines the response temperature of the second seal. Burst disc 54 and 56 are provided at each end and seal catalyst housing 50 to normally be gas-tight. In the illustrated embodiment, bottom burst disc 54 is soldered to bottom disc 60 by solder 66 which melts at the first response temperature. Likewise, top burst disc 56 is soldered to top disc 62 by solder 68 which melts at the first response temperature. Alternatively, burst discs 54 and 56 can be made of plastic or a bimetallic sheet which melts at the first response temperature. In a preferred embodiment, the solder used for the first seals melts at a temperature of approximately 100.degree. C. and the solder used for the second seal melts at a temperature of approximately 160.degree. C. In the readiness state, catalyst housing 50 is sealed gas-tight by burst discs 54 and 56, by discs 60 and 62 and by solder joints 64, 66, 68 and 70, and can be suspended from a ceiling or wall by chains, cables or the likes utilizing mounting eyelets 72. Alternatively, catalyst housing 50 can be suspended by way of brackets which attach to the top or side of catalyst housing 50. Upon reaching the first response temperature, solder joints 64, 66 and 68 melt. Top burst disc 56 and bottom burst disc 54 are released from the structure and fall by the force of gravity away from the catalyst housing 50. If needed, spring cups like those illustrated in FIG. 2 and described above can be utilized to push burst discs 56 and 54 away from discs 60 and 62. Breaching of the gas-tight seal of the catalyst housing 50 moves the device into the preliminary operating state. Gases entering catalyst housing 50 cannot directly contact the catalyst without first passing through filter 52. Filter 52 prevents deposition of aerosoled particulate matter, including structural material, grease or steam, onto the catalyst. The heat generated from the exothermic catalytic reaction results in a rapid rise in temperature within the catalyst housing 50. Upon reaching the second response temperature, solder joint 70 melts. The resultant rupture of solder joint 70 allows the device to shift to the final operating state. No longer held by solder joint 70, top disc 62, filter 52 and bottom disc 60 fall from catalyst housing 50 by the force of gravity. To aid in expulsion of the filter assembly, spring cups like those described above may be utilized. In the illustrated embodiment, spring cups 58 are located along the interface of top lip 76 and top disc 62. Alternatively, spring cups may be located along the interface of bottom disc 60 and bottom lip 74. The spring cups are positioned such that they push the discs and filter downwards. In the final operating state, illustrated by FIG. 7, the catalyst elements are directly exposed to the atmosphere gases without interposition of filter 52. The convection flow created by the hot gases and the steam at the catalyst surface is further enhanced by the chimney-like effect that the vertically extending catalyst housing 50 provides between the vertically spaced openings. The frusto conical shape of catalyst housing 50, illustrated in FIGS. 6 and 7, aids in the expulsion of filter assembly from housing 50 as the sliding frictional coefficient is reduced between filter 52 and the inside wall of housing 50. However, catalyst housing 50 is not limited to this shape. For instance, housing 50, comprising essentially elongated tubes with vertically spaced top and bottom openings, can have a cross-sectional face, normal to the axis of the tube, that is essentially polygonal rather than circular or elliptical. The overall shape need not be frusto, as there can also be a gap between filter 52 and the inside wall of housing 50 to reduce friction between the two. A gap of this nature can provide a space through which gases heated by the catalytic reaction can rise to aid in melting solder joint 70. As shown in FIG. 6, the housing is provided with a pipe stub 80 and a valve 78. As detailed for the embodiment illustrated by FIG. 1, the pipe stub 80 and the valve 78 allow for the replacement of the air contained within the housing in the readiness state with inert gases. Those skilled in the art will recognize, or be able to ascertain using no more than routine experimentation, numerous equivalents to the apparatus described herein. Such equivalents are considered to be within the scope of this invention.
039883973	abstract	Block fuel elements for high temperature power reactors that can be reprocessed simply are prepared in which the feed and breed zones are connected with the graphite matrix directly and without transition. They are disposed separately from each other in such a manner that the feed zones and the breed zones can be separately removed one after the other from the structural graphite. In the reprocessing operation there are recovered uranium 233 from the breed particles, uranium 235 and fission products from the feed particles.
	claims	1. A beam diffuser selector apparatus for a particle accelerator, comprising:a movable member having a plurality of beam diffusers mounted thereon, each of the plurality of beam diffusers having a different predetermined thickness; anda driving device coupled to the movable member, the driving device configured to selectively move the movable member such that a selected one of the plurality of beam diffusers is positioned in a test position which is adjacent to an output of the particle accelerator and between the output of the particle accelerator and a device under test. 2. The beam diffuser selector apparatus of claim 1, wherein the movable member has at least one diagnostic tool mounted thereon; and wherein the driving device is configured to selectively move the movable member such that a selected one of the plurality of beam diffusers or a selected one of the at least one diagnostic tool is positioned in the test position. 3. The beam diffuser selector apparatus of claim 2, wherein the at least one diagnostic tool is one or more of a laser apparatus, a phosphor screen, and a radiochromatic film. 4. The beam diffuser selector apparatus of claim 1, wherein the movable member has a partial ring member coupled to a hub member via a plurality of spoke members. 5. The beam diffuser selector apparatus of claim 4, wherein the movable member has a counterweight coupled to the hub member via an additional spoke member, the counterweight positioned opposite the partial ring member. 6. The beam diffuser selector apparatus of claim 1, wherein the driving device has a motor that drives a shaft that is connected to the movable member. 7. The beam diffuser selector apparatus of claim 6, wherein the motor is a stepper motor; and wherein the driving device has a resolver coupled to the shaft to provide feedback about a position of the movable member. 8. The beam diffuser selector apparatus of claim 7, further comprising a controller coupled to the stepper motor and the resolver, the controller configured to cause the stepper motor to rotate to position a selected one of the plurality of beam diffusers in the test position. 9. The beam diffuser selector apparatus of claim 1, wherein the driving device is mounted on a moveable platform and further comprising a retraction device that has a pneumatic cylinder coupled to the moveable platform that selectively retracts the movable member away from the output of the particle accelerator. 10. A beam diffuser selector system for a particle accelerator, comprising:a movable member having a plurality of beam diffusers mounted thereon, each of the plurality of beam diffusers having a different predetermined thickness;a driving device coupled to the movable member, the driving device configured to selectively move the movable member such that a selected one of the plurality of beam diffusers is positioned in a test position which is adjacent to an output of the particle accelerator and between the output of the particle accelerator and a device under test; anda controller coupled to the driving device, the controller having a user interface for receiving commands selecting a particular one of the plurality of beam diffusers and configured to provide control signals to the driving device to cause the driving device to selectively move the movable member such that the selected one of the plurality of beam diffusers is positioned in the test position. 11. The beam diffuser selector system of claim 10, wherein the movable member has at least one diagnostic tool mounted thereon; wherein the driving device is configured to selectively move the movable member such that a selected one of the plurality of beam diffusers or a selected one of the at least one diagnostic tool is positioned in the test position; wherein the user interface is for receiving commands selecting a particular one of the plurality of beam diffusers or of the at least one diagnostic tool; and wherein the controller is configured to provide control signals to the driving device to cause the driving device to selectively move the movable member such that the selected particular one of the plurality of beam diffusers or of the at least one diagnostic tool is positioned in the test position. 12. The beam diffuser selector system of claim 11, wherein the at least one diagnostic tool is one or more of a laser apparatus, a phosphor screen, and a radiochromatic film. 13. The beam diffuser selector system of claim 10, wherein the movable member has a partial ring member coupled to a hub member via a plurality of spoke members. 14. The beam diffuser selector system of claim 13, wherein the movable member has a counterweight coupled to the hub member via an additional spoke member, the counterweight positioned opposite the partial ring member. 15. The beam diffuser selector system of claim 10, wherein the driving device has a motor that drives a shaft that is connected to the movable member. 16. The beam diffuser selector system of claim 15, wherein the motor is a stepper motor; and wherein the driving device has a resolver coupled to the shaft to provide feedback about a position of the movable member. 17. The beam diffuser selector system of claim 16, wherein the controller is coupled to the stepper motor and the resolver and is configured to cause the stepper motor to rotate to position a selected one of the plurality of beam diffusers in the test position. 18. The beam diffuser selector system of claim 10, wherein the movable member and the driving device are positioned adjacent to the particle accelerator within a test chamber and wherein the controller is mounted outside the test chamber. 19. A method of operating a beam diffuser selector apparatus for a particle accelerator, the beam diffuser selector apparatus including a movable member having a plurality of beam diffusers mounted thereon, each of the plurality of beam diffusers having a different predetermined thickness, and a driving device coupled to the movable member, comprising the steps of:selecting one of the plurality of beam diffusers for use in a test; andcausing the driving device to move the movable member such that the selected one of the plurality of beam diffusers is positioned in a test position which is adjacent to an output of the particle accelerator and between the output of the particle accelerator and a device under test. 20. The method of claim 19, further comprising the step of retracting the movable member away from the output of the particle accelerator once the test is complete.
055679528	claims	1. In a container for transport and storage of highly radioactive material, the container being made of thick metal and comprising (i) a tube having an internal wall, and (ii) a base having a lateral wall, said base being non-removably sealed to one end of the tube, and said internal wall and lateral wall forming a right cylinder with a circular cross section in contact with each other, a means for fixing the base of the container, said means comprising: a) a thick metal tube having first and second ends and an internal wall; b) a thick metal base permanently sealing the first end of the tube, said base including an external surface, an internal surface and a lateral wall forming together with said internal wall a right cylinder of circular cross section in contact with each other, said lateral wall being disposed entirely inside the tube; c) a shoulder portion on said internal wall at said first end; d) a corresponding shoulder portion on said lateral wall, constructed and arranged for engaging the shoulder portion on said internal wall; e) a first weld seam between said external surface and the tube; and f) a second weld seam between said internal surface and the tube, said tube and said base being in shrink-fit relationship at said first end. a) forming a shoulder on the internal wall at the first end of the tube; b) forming a corresponding shoulder on the lateral wall of the base, constructed and arranged for engaging the shoulder on the internal wall; c) shrink fitting the base and the tube with the corresponding shoulders engaged and with the lateral wall entirely inside the tube; d) forming a first continuous weld seam between the external surface and the internal wall; and e) forming a second continuous weld seam between the internal surface and the internal wall. 2. A means according to claim 1, wherein the external surface is flush with an end face of the tube. 3. A means according to claim 1, wherein the external surface is recessed in an end face of the tube. 4. A means according to claim 1, wherein the internal wall includes a countersink to hold the base in place. 5. A means according to claim 1, wherein the metal is selected from the group consisting of steels, copper, copper alloys, and bronzes. 6. A means according to claim 1, wherein handling lugs are fixed to a solid external wall of the tube near the base. 7. A container for transport and storage of highly radioactive material comprising: 8. A container according to claim 7, wherein said external surface is flush with said first end of the tube. 9. A container according to claim 7, wherein said external surface is recessed in said first end of the tube. 10. A container according to claim 7, which is helium tight. 11. A method for permanently joining a thick metal tube having an internal wall and first and second ends to a base having a lateral wall and external and internal surfaces, to form a container for transport and storage of highly radioactive materials, comprising the steps of:
	claims	1. A particle beam irradiation apparatus in which an incident particle beam is scanned so as to irradiate the particle beam on a target comprising:a particle beam shielding member configured to shield a part of a scanned particle beam;a prompt signal detector configured to detect a prompt signal, said prompt signal being generated when the scanned particle beam collides with the shielding member; anda signal comparison device configured to (1) predict a pattern of generation of a prompt signal having been generated by a pre-determined scanning pattern and (2) obtain the predicted pattern to store thereof as a signal time pattern for comparison,wherein the signal comparison device compares the detected signal time pattern, which is the time pattern of the signal detected by the prompt signal detector when the particle beam is scanned according to the pre-determined scanning pattern and the particle beam is irradiated upon a target, to the stored predicted signal time pattern for comparison, so as to detect an anomaly of the particle beam scanning or that of the particle beam shielding member. 2. The particle beam irradiation apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the particle beam shielding member is a collimator for forming a lateral irradiation field of the particle beam in the target. 3. The particle beam irradiation apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the particle beam is scanned and a lateral irradiation field is formed on the target by the particle beam itself, and the particle beam shielding member is provided in at least one part in the boundary of a scanning region of the particle beam. 4. The particle beam irradiation apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the particle beam shielding member is a prompt radiation signal to be generated. 5. The particle beam irradiation apparatus according to claim 4, wherein the prompt signal detector is provided at the downstream of the particle beam than the particle beam shielding member. 6. The particle beam irradiation apparatus according to claim 5, wherein a rotating gantry mechanism having a counter weight is included, and the prompt signal detector is provided so as to move integrally with the counter weight. 7. The particle beam irradiation apparatus according to claim 1, wherein a display for displaying both of the detected signal time pattern and the signal time pattern for comparison or a display for displaying the difference between the detected signal time pattern and the signal time pattern for comparison is provided. 8. A particle beam therapy system in which the particle beam irradiation apparatus according to claim 1 is provided.
	abstract	Use of a single line for switching multiple monitoring elements on/off, and a single line for sending signals to, or receiving signals from, those elements that are switched on. Monitoring elements each have an associated switching element, and each switching element is connected to a common switching line, or control line. A signal from the control line turns each switch on or off. Each monitoring element is also connected to a single signal line, and only those monitoring elements that are turned on can transmit/receive data signals along this signal line.
	description	(1) Field of the Invention This invention relates to a radiographic apparatus for picking up fluoroscopic images of a subject, and more particularly to a radiographic apparatus having a radiation grid for removing scattered radiation occurring when radiation passes through the subject. (2) Description of the Related Art Conventionally, in order to prevent scattered X-rays (hereinafter called simply “scattered rays”) transmitted through a subject or patient from entering an X-ray detector, a medical X-ray fluoroscopic apparatus or X-ray CT (computed tomography) uses a grid (scattered radiation removing device) for removing the scattered rays. However, even if the grid is used, a false image is produced by the scattered rays passing through the grid, and a false image by absorbing foil strips constituting the grid. Particularly where a flat panel (two-dimensional) X-ray detector (FPD: Flat Panel Detector) with detecting elements arranged in a matrix form (two-dimensional matrix form) is used as the X-ray detector, a false image such as a moire pattern is produced due to a difference between the spacing of the absorbing foil strips of the grid and the pixel spacing of the FPD, besides the false image by the scattered rays. In order to reduce such false images, a false image correction is needed. In order not to produce such a moire pattern, a synchronous grid has been proposed recently, which grid has absorbing foil strips arranged parallel to either the rows or the columns of the detecting elements, and in number corresponding to an integral multiple of the pixel spacing of the FPD, and a correction method for use of this grid is also needed (see Japanese Unexamined Patent Publication No. 2002-257939, for example). By way of correcting moire patterns, a method of image processing which includes smoothing, for example, is carried out nowadays. When false image correction is done to excess, the resolution of direct X-rays (hereinafter called simply “direct rays”) also tends to lower. Therefore, an attempt to reduce false images reliably through image processing will lower the resolution of direct rays, resulting in less clear patient images. Conversely, when greater importance is placed on the resolution of direct rays to obtain clear patient images, the false images will not be reduced through image processing, which constitutes what is called a trade-off between image processing and clearness. Thus, a perfect false image processing is difficult. Regarding the correction of the scattered rays remaining despite use of a grid, various methods have been proposed but these have disadvantages such as involving a time-consuming correcting arithmetic operation. In connection with the correction method for use of a synchronous grid, Applicant herein has already proposed a method in which correction is carried out with respect to pixels shielded from direct rays by the absorbing foil strips, a distribution of scattered rays having passed through the grid is derived from the columns or rows of the shielded pixels, and signals of the other pixels are corrected based on the distribution. It has been proposed in the above method to set the distance between the grid and X-ray detector to an integral multiple of the height of the absorbing foil strips, and to set the position of the grid and the shape of the absorbing foil strips such that shadows of the absorbing foil strips fall only on certain pixel columns or pixel rows despite changes in the positions of a radiation emitting device such as an X-ray tube, the grid and the X-ray detector. However, such conventional constructions have the following drawbacks. When passing through the grid, most of the scattered rays are absorbed but parts thereof leave the grid without being absorbed. The manner of this passage is varied in different portions of the detecting plane of the X-ray detector, under the influence of a distortion in the arrangement of the absorbing foil strips. Specifically, the manner of passage of the scattered rays will be reflected on the X-ray detector. Thus, the influence of the scattered rays spreads over the entire X-ray detector. In order to eliminate this influence, a pattern (striped pattern of the scattered rays) that appears in a patient image due to the manner of passage of the scattered rays being varied in different portions the X-ray detector may be stored beforehand as a rate of change map. This striped pattern of the scattered rays may be removed through the above image processing. However, noise (statistical noise) not influenced by the scattered rays is superimposed on the above rate of change map. The striped pattern of the scattered rays is greatly changeable with the manner of distortion of the absorbing foil strips, and therefore its prediction is difficult. Thus, the rate of change map is acquired by actually applying X-rays to the X-ray detector with the grid attached thereto. At this time, there is no guarantee that the dose of X-rays reaching the detecting elements is the same for all the detecting elements, but certain variations will take place. These variations are superimposed on the rate of change map, causing the statistical noise. These variations occur also when the grid is not attached to the X-ray detector, and are independent of the above striped pattern of scattered rays. To put it simply, the image processing for removing the striped pattern of scattered rays is carried out by placing the rate of change map on a fluoroscopic image. The statistical noise is superimposed on the rate of change map, apart from the striped pattern of scattered rays. When the rate of change map is applied to the image, pixel values of the image will be changed excessively by an amount corresponding to the statistical noise superimposed on the rate of change map. This causes granular noise to appear on the image. This invention has been made having regard to the state of the art noted above, and its object is to provide a radiographic apparatus which does not superimpose the influence of statistical noise on images. The above object is fulfilled, according to this invention, by a radiographic apparatus for obtaining a radiographic image, comprising a radiation source for emitting radiation; a radiation detecting device having a plurality of detecting elements arranged two-dimensionally in rows and columns for detecting the radiation; a radiation grid with absorbing foil strips extending in a direction of the rows and arranged in a direction of the columns for removing scattered radiation; a physical quantity acquiring device for calculating predetermined physical quantities to determine pixel values of pixels arranged two-dimensionally; a physical quantity map generating device for generating a physical quantity map by mapping the predetermined physical quantities; and a physical quantity map smoothing device for smoothing the physical quantities arranged on the physical quantity map in the direction of extension of the absorbing foil strips, thereby to generate an average value map. According to this invention, the physical quantity map generating device is provided for generating a physical quantity map. This physical quantity map shows a pattern (striped pattern of scattered radiation) to appear on a fluoroscopic image. The striped pattern of scattered radiation will be removed by correcting the fluoroscopic image using this map. The above construction includes the physical quantity map smoothing device for smoothing this physical quantity map to generate an average value map. The physical quantity map has, superimposed thereon, statistical noise besides the striped pattern of scattered radiation. However, the physical quantity map is smoothed to become the average value map. On the average value map, the statistical noise is averaged and blurred. Even if the statistical noise tends to be reflected as granular coarse false images on the fluoroscopic image, its granularity is blurred on the average value map. Consequently, the statistical noise on the physical quantity map is never superimposed on the fluoroscopic image. The smoothing is carried out for the physical quantities arranged in a line along the direction of extension of the absorbing foil strips of the radiation grid. Desirably, the striped pattern of scattered radiation is not blurred by the smoothing. The striped pattern of scattered radiation extends along the direction of extension of the absorbing foil strips of the radiation grid (in other words, the striped pattern of scattered radiation is arranged along the direction of arrangement of the absorbing foil strips of the radiation grid). Since the smoothing is carried out along the direction of extension of the absorbing foil strips of the radiation grid, components of the statistical noise included in the physical quantities are smoothed, but components of the striped pattern of scattered radiation are not. Consequently, the striped pattern of scattered radiation appearing on the physical quantity map is not blurred by the smoothing, and the pattern can be removed without appearing on the fluoroscopic image. Preferably, the above radiographic apparatus further comprises a pixel specifying device for specifying certain pixels among pixels forming the radiographic image; and an intensity estimating device for estimating at least one of scattered radiation intensity at the certain pixels specified by the pixel specifying device, and direct radiation intensity at the certain pixels; wherein (A) a rate of change calculating device is provided as a component corresponding to the physical quantity acquiring device, for determining a rate of change for each pixel relative to an average value or a value of each pixel obtained by smoothing and interpolating calculations as a reference intensity for all the pixels relating to the radiation intensity, using the radiation intensity estimated by the intensity estimating device based on actual measurement carried out in the presence of a subject; (B) a rate of change map generating device is provided as a component corresponding to the physical quantity map generating device, for generating a rate of change map by mapping the rate of change for each pixel; and (C) a rate of change map smoothing device is provided as a component corresponding to the physical quantity map smoothing device, for smoothing rates of changes arranged on the rate of change map in the direction of extension of the absorbing foil strips, thereby to generate the average value map. The above construction represents a specific embodiment of the radiographic apparatus according to this invention. That is, the above construction includes the rate of change map generating device for generating a rate of change map. This rate of change map shows a pattern (striped pattern of scattered radiation) appearing on a fluoroscopic image. The striped pattern of scattered radiation will be removed by correcting the fluoroscopic image using this map. The above construction includes the rate of change map smoothing device for smoothing this rate of change map to generate an average value map. The rate of change map has, superimposed thereon, statistical noise besides the striped pattern of scattered radiation. However, the rate of change map is smoothed to become the average value map. On the average value map, the statistical noise is averaged and blurred. Even if the statistical noise tends to be reflected as granular coarse false images on the fluoroscopic image, its granularity is blurred on the average value map. Consequently, the statistical noise on the rate of change map is never superimposed on the fluoroscopic image. The smoothing is carried out for the rates of change arranged in a line along the direction of extension of the absorbing foil strips of the radiation grid. Desirably, the striped pattern of scattered radiation is not blurred by the smoothing. The striped pattern of scattered radiation extends along the direction of extension of the absorbing foil strips of the radiation grid (in other words, the striped pattern of scattered radiation is arranged along the direction of arrangement of the absorbing foil strips of the radiation grid). Since the smoothing is carried out along the direction of extension of the absorbing foil strips of the radiation grid, components of the statistical noise included in the rates of change are smoothed, but components of the striped pattern of scattered radiation are not. Consequently, the striped pattern of scattered radiation appearing on the rate of change map is not blurred by the smoothing, and the pattern can be removed without appearing on the fluoroscopic image. In the above radiographic apparatus, it is preferred that the intensity estimating device is arranged to estimate radiation intensity at the certain pixels specified by the pixel specifying device, based on the average value map, direct radiation transmittance calculated by the transmittance calculating device, and actual measurement intensity which is a radiation intensity after transmission through the scattered radiation removing device in actual measurement carried out in the presence of a different subject. A specific construction for reflecting this is as follows. The radiation source emits radiation in the presence of a different subject (i.e. a subject used in actual radiography here) to be incident on the radiation detecting device through the radiation removing device, thereby to obtain actual measurement intensity which is radiation intensity after transmission through the radiation removing device in actual measurement in the presence of the subject. Based on the rates of change calculated by the rate of change calculating device, the direct radiation transmittances calculated by the transmittance calculating device, and the actual measurement intensity in the actual measurement in the presence of the different subject (i.e. the subject used in actual radiography), the intensity estimating device estimates radiation intensity at the certain pixels specified by the pixel specifying device. Thus, direct radiation transmittance is obtained based on the actual measurement data taken in the absence of a subject. Using the direct radiation transmittance, rates of change are obtained by, carrying out radiography in the presence of a subject (i.e. the phantom). Using the rates of change or the rates of change interpolated by the rate of change interpolating device, radiation intensity can be estimated based on the actual measurement intensity obtained from radiography carried out in the presence of the different subject (i.e. the subject used in actual radiography). In the above radiographic apparatus, it is preferred that the physical quantity map smoothing device is arranged to remove influences of statistical noise superimposed on the physical quantity map. The above construction makes clear the meaning of providing the physical quantity map smoothing device. If the statistical noise superimposed on the physical quantity map is removed, no false image will appear on the image depicting the subject. In the above radiographic apparatus, it is preferred that spacing between the absorbing foil strips of the radiation grid adjoining in the direction of the columns is synchronized with an integral multiple of spacing between the detecting elements of the radiation detecting device adjoining in the direction of the columns. The above shows a specific construction of the radiographic apparatus according to this invention. If spacing in the arrangement of the absorbing foil strips is set with reference to the arrangement of the detecting elements, when radiation is emitted from the radiation source, there will be no interference between an arrangement of shadows of the absorbing foil strips reflected on the radiation detection device and the arrangement of the detecting elements to produce a moire on the image. Preferably, the above radiographic apparatus further comprises a C-arm for supporting the radiation source and the radiation detecting device. The above shows a specific construction of the radiographic apparatus according to this invention. This invention is adaptable to a common radiographic apparatus having a C-arm. According to this invention, as described above, a radiographic image is obtained appropriately based on radiation intensity. A radiographic image of only direct radiation is obtained with shadows of the scattered radiation removing device eliminated and scattered radiation removed completely. A proper radiographic image can be obtained without depending on the scattered radiation removing device. According to this invention, the physical quantity map generating device is provided for generating the physical quantity map. And the physical quantity map smoothing device is provided for smoothing this physical quantity map to generate the average value map. The physical quantity map is smoothed to become the average value map. On the average value map, statistical noise is averaged and blurred. Consequently, the statistical noise on the physical quantity map is never superimposed on a fluoroscopic image. The smoothing is carried out for the rates of change arranged in a line along the direction of extension of the absorbing foil strips of the radiation grid. Then, components of the statistical noise included in the rates of change on the physical quantity map are smoothed, but components of the striped pattern are not. Consequently, the striped pattern of scattered radiation appearing on the physical quantity map is not blurred by the smoothing, thereby removing the pattern otherwise appearing on the fluoroscopic image. A preferred embodiment of this invention will be described hereinafter with reference to the drawings. Embodiment 1 FIG. 1 is a block diagram of an X-ray imaging apparatus according to Embodiment 1. FIG. 2 is a schematic view of a detecting plane of a flat panel X-ray detector (FPD). FIG. 3 is a schematic view of an X-ray grid. Embodiment 1 will be described taking X-rays as an example of radiation. As shown in FIG. 1, the X-ray apparatus according to Embodiment 1 includes a top board 1 for supporting a subject M, an X-ray tube 2 for emitting X-rays toward the subject M, a flat panel X-ray detector (hereinafter abbreviated as “FPD”) 3 for detecting the X-rays emitted from the X-ray tube 2 and transmitted through the subject M, an image processor 4 for carrying out image processes based on the X-rays detected by the FPD 3, and a display 5 for displaying X-ray images having undergone the image processes by the image processor 4. The display 5 is in the form of a display device such as a monitor, television or the like. A grid 6 is attached to the detecting plane of the FPD 3. The X-ray tube 2 corresponds to the radiation emitting device in this invention. The flat panel X-ray detector (FPD) 3 corresponds to the radiation detecting device in this invention. The grid 6 corresponds to the scattered radiation removing device in this invention. The image processor 4 includes a central processing unit (CPU) and others. The programs and the like for carrying out various image processes are written and stored in a storage medium represented by a ROM (Read-only Memory). The CPU of the image processor 4 reads from the storage medium and executes the programs and the like to carry out image processes corresponding to the programs. In particular, a pixel specifying unit 41, a transmittance calculating unit 42, a transmittance interpolating unit 43, an intensity estimating unit 44, a rate of change calculating unit 46 and a rate of change interpolating unit 47, described hereinafter, of the image processor 4 execute a program relating to specification of certain predetermined pixels, calculation and interpolation of direct ray transmittances, intensity estimation and interpolation, and calculation of rates of change, on the basis of detection signals outputted from the FPD 3. In this way, the above components carry out specification of the certain pixels, calculation and interpolation of the direct ray transmittances, intensity estimation and interpolation, and calculation of the rates of change, corresponding to the program, respectively. The image processor 4 includes the pixel specifying unit 41 for specifying certain predetermined pixels, the transmittance calculating unit 42 for calculating direct ray transmittances, the transmittance interpolating unit 43 for interpolating the direct ray transmittances, the intensity estimating unit 44 for estimating intensities, the rate of change calculating unit 46 for calculating rates of change, and the rate of change interpolating unit 47 for interpolating the rates of change. The image processor 4 further includes a rate of change map generating unit 48 and a smoothing unit 49, which will be described in detail hereinafter. The pixel specifying unit 41 corresponds to the pixel specifying device in this invention. The transmittance calculating unit 42 corresponds to the transmittance calculating device in this invention. The transmittance interpolating unit 43 corresponds to the transmittance interpolating device in this invention. The intensity estimating unit 44 corresponds to the intensity estimating device in this invention. The rate of change calculating unit 46 corresponds to the rate of change calculating device in this invention. The rate of change interpolating unit 47 corresponds to the rate of change interpolating device in this invention. The rate of change map generating unit 48 corresponds to the rate of change map generating device in this invention. The smoothing unit 49 corresponds to the rate of change map smoothing device in this invention. As shown in FIG. 2, the FPD 3 has a plurality of detecting elements d sensitive to X-rays arranged in a two-dimensional matrix form on the detecting plane thereof. The detecting elements d detect X-rays by converting the X-rays transmitted through the subject M into electric signals to be stored once, and reading the electric signals stored. The electric signal detected by each detecting element d is converted into a pixel value corresponding to the electric signal. An X-ray image is outputted by allotting the pixel values to pixels corresponding to positions of the detecting elements d. The X-ray image is fed to the pixel specifying unit 41, transmittance calculating unit 42 and intensity estimating unit 44 of the image processor 4 (see FIGS. 1 and 4). Thus, the FPD 3 has the plurality of detecting elements d arranged in a matrix form (two-dimensional matrix form) for detecting X-rays. The detecting elements d correspond to the detecting elements in this invention. As shown in FIG. 3, the grid 6 has, arranged alternately, absorbing foil strips 6a for absorbing scattered rays (scattered X-rays), and intermediate layers 6c for transmitting scattered rays through. The absorbing foil strips 6a and intermediate layers 6c are covered by grid covers 6d located on an X-ray incidence plane and on an opposite plane with the absorbing foil strips 6a and intermediate layers 6c in between. In order to clarify illustration of the absorbing foil strips 6a, the grid covers 6d are shown in two-dot chain lines, and other details of the grid 6 (e.g. a structure for supporting the absorbing foil strips 6a) are not shown. The absorbing foil strips 6a correspond to the absorbing layers in this invention. Next, the arrangement of absorbing foil strips 6a will be described. Specifically, the absorbing foil strips 6a and intermediate layers 6c extending along the X-direction in FIG. 3 are arranged alternately in order in the Y-direction in FIG. 3. The X-direction in FIG. 3 is parallel to the rows of detecting elements d of the FPD 3 (see FIG. 2), and the Y-direction in FIG. 3 is parallel to the columns of detecting elements d of the FPD 3 (see FIG. 2). Therefore, in Embodiment 1, the direction of arrangement of absorbing foil strips 6a is parallel to the rows of detecting elements d. Spacing Kgy between the absorbing foil strips 6a adjoining in the Y-direction is synchronized with an integral multiple (shown to be double in FIG. 3) of spacing Kfy between adjoining pixels (detecting elements d). Thus, the grid 6 is constructed such that the direction of arrangement of absorbing foil strips 6a is parallel to the rows of detecting elements d, and that the spacing Kgy between adjacent absorbing foil strips 6a is an integral multiple of spacing Kfy between adjacent pixels. In Embodiment 1, the intermediate layers 6c are void. Therefore, the grid 6 is also an air grid. The absorbing foil strips 6a are not limited to any particular material, as long as a material such as lead is used which absorbs radiation represented by X-rays. As the intermediate layers 6c, instead of being void as noted above, any intermediate material such as aluminum or organic substance may be used which transmits radiation represented by X-rays. An actual X-ray imaging and data flows according to Embodiment 1 will be described with reference to FIGS. 4 through 8. FIG. 4 is a block diagram showing a specific construction of the image processor 4 and data flows. FIG. 5 is a flow chart showing a sequence of X-ray imaging according to Embodiment 1. FIG. 6 is a schematic view of X-ray imaging without a subject. FIG. 7 is a graph schematically showing a relationship between SID, direct ray transmittance and rate of change. FIG. 8 is a view schematically showing X-ray imaging in the presence of a subject according to Embodiment 1, using a phantom in the form of an acrylic plate as the subject. As shown in FIG. 4, the pixel specifying unit 41 specifies certain pixels among the pixels forming an X-ray image. In Embodiment 1, the pixel specifying unit 41 specifies a combination of three pixels consisting of an (n−1)th pixel, an adjoining, nth pixel and a next adjoining, (n+1)th pixel (indicated “n−1”, “n” and “n+1” in FIG. 4), and feeds the combination to the intensity estimating unit 44. When the absolute value of the denominator included in the solution of simultaneous equations described hereinafter has a predetermined value or less (the denominator being “0” in Embodiment 1), the pixel specifying unit 41 does not select the pixels forming the combination for the simultaneous equations, but selects and specifies other pixels for the combination. Since the simultaneous equations are derived from the intensity estimating unit 44 as is clear from the description made hereinafter, data relating to the denominator (indicated “denominator” in FIG. 4) derived from the intensity estimating unit 44 is fed to the pixel specifying unit 41. The transmittance calculating unit 42 determines, in relation to discrete distances between the X-ray tube 2 and the grid 6/FPD 3, direct ray transmittances which reflect direct rays (direct X-rays) before transmission and after transmission through the grid 6 obtained from actual measurements taken in the absence of a subject. In Embodiment 1, the transmittance calculating unit 42 calculates the direct ray transmittances (indicated “Cp” in FIG. 4), and feeds the transmittances to the transmittance interpolating unit 43 and intensity estimating unit 44. The transmittance interpolating unit 43 interpolates the direct ray transmittances Cp calculated by the transmittance calculating unit 42 in distances around the above discrete distances. The interpolated direct ray transmittances Cp also are fed to the intensity estimating unit 44. The intensity estimating unit 44 estimates at least either of scattered ray intensities (scattered X-ray intensities) at the predetermined pixels specified by the pixel specifying unit 41, and direct ray intensities (direct X-ray intensities) at the predetermined pixels. In Embodiment 1, based on the direct ray transmittances Cp calculated by the transmittance calculating unit 42, or the direct ray transmittances Cp interpolated by the transmittance interpolating unit 43, and actual measurement intensities (indicated “G” in FIG. 4) which are intensities after transmission through the grid 6 in an actual measurement taken in the presence of a subject M, the intensity estimating unit 44 estimates transmission scattered ray intensities (indicated “Sc” in FIG. 4) and estimated direct ray intensities (indicated “P” in FIG. 4), and feeds the intensities to the rate of change calculating unit 46 and display 5. In Embodiment 1, the intensity estimating unit 44 estimates the transmission scattered ray intensities Sc and estimated direct ray intensities P by solving the simultaneous equations, and therefore data “denominator” relating to the denominator included in the solution is also obtained. The intensity estimating unit 44 feeds the data “denominator” to the pixel specifying unit 41. Using the intensities estimated by the intensity estimating unit 44 based on the actual measurement in the presence of a subject M, the rate of change calculating unit 46 calculates a value of each pixel from an average value or smoothing and interpolation calculations, as reference intensity about all the pixels relating to the intensities, and calculates a rate of change of each pixel relative to the calculated value. This is reflected in the X-raying of different subjects M, using the rates of change estimated by the intensity estimating unit 44, or the rates of change interpolated by the rate of change interpolating unit 47. In Embodiment 1, rates of change (indicated “Rcs” in FIG. 4) are calculated using the transmission scattered ray intensities Sc estimated by the intensity estimating unit 44, and are fed to the intensity estimating unit 44 again. The rates of change Rcs obtained in this way are fed to the rate of change map generating unit 48. A rate of change map M1 generated there is fed to the smoothing unit 49. In Embodiment 1, an actual X-raying follows a procedure as shown in FIG. 5. (Step S1) Actual Measurement Without Subject X-raying is carried out in the absence of a subject. As shown in FIG. 6, X-rays are emitted from the X-ray tube 2 toward the grid 6 and FPD 3 with no subject interposed between the X-ray tube 2 and grid 6, thereby to carry out X-raying for actual measurement without a subject. That is, the X-ray tube 2 emits X-rays in the absence of a subject, to be incident on the FPD 3 through the grid 6, thereby obtaining actual measurement data without a subject. Specifically, the detecting elements d of the FPD 3 (see FIG. 3) read the X-rays as converted to electric signals without a subject, and provide pixel values corresponding to the electric signals. (Step S2) Calculation and Interpolation of Direct Ray Transmittances The pixel values are equivalent to the intensities after transmission through the grid 6 which are obtained by actual measurement without a subject. On the other hand, the intensity before transmission through the grid 6 is known. The direct ray transmittances Cp, which are between direct rays before transmission through the grid 6 (pre-transmission) and those after transmission through the grid 6 (post-transmission), are expressed by ratios between the intensity before transmission through the grid 6 and the intensities after transmission through the grid 6 (that is, the pixel values detected by the FPD 3). Thus, the intensities after transmission through the grid 6 which are equivalent to the pixel values obtained from the FPD and the known intensity before transmission through the grid 6 are fed to the transmittance calculating unit 42. The transmittance calculating unit 42 calculates the direct ray transmittances Cp expressed by the ratios between the intensity before transmission and the intensities after transmission through the grid 6. The transmittance calculating unit 42 calculates such direct ray transmittances Cp with respect to the discrete distances between the X-ray tube 2 and the grid 6/FPD 3. Since the grid 6 and FPD 3 are arranged close to each other, the distance between the X-ray tube 2, grid 6 and FPD 3 is a distance (SID: Source Image Distance) from the focus of the X-ray tube 2 to the detecting plane (incidence plane) of the FPD 3. The distance SID from the focus of the X-ray tube 2 to the detecting plane of the FPD 3 varies in actual X-raying as shown in FIG. 6. Then, X-raying is carried out similarly without a subject, and the transmittance calculating unit 42 obtains a direct ray transmittance Cp for each of discrete distances Ls+1, Ls+2, Ls+3 and so on as shown in black dots in FIG. 7. The direct ray transmittances Cp for the discrete distances Ls+1, Ls+2, Ls+3 and so on are fed to the transmittance interpolating unit 43 and intensity estimating unit 44. The transmittance calculating unit 42 obtains a direct ray transmittance Cp for each pixel also, and feeds it to the transmittance interpolating unit 43 and intensity estimating unit 44. The transmittance interpolating unit 43 interpolates the direct ray transmittances Cp calculated by the transmittance calculating unit 42 in distances around the discrete distances Ls+1, Ls+2, Ls+3 and so on. The results of the interpolation are, for example, as shown in the solid line in FIG. 7. As a method of interpolation, a value acquired from an arithmetic average (additive average) or geometric average of two direct ray transmittances Cp with respect to adjoining discrete distances (e.g. Ls+1 and Ls+2) may be used as direct ray transmittance Cp for the distance between the above adjoining discrete distances. Lagrange interpolation may be used. Or the least square method may be used to obtain, as direct ray transmittance Cp, a value corresponding to a distance on the solid line, using an approximate expression of the solid line in FIG. 7. Thus, any commonly used method of interpolation may be employed. The direct ray transmittances Cp interpolated by the transmittance interpolating unit 43 are fed to the intensity estimating unit 44. (Step S3) Actual Measurement with Phantom Next, X-raying is carried out in the presence of a subject M. As shown in FIG. 8, acting as the subject M is a phantom Ph in the form of a flat acrylic plate regarded as providing a fixed thickness for direct ray transmission, or the same value of estimated direct ray intensity P for all the pixels. Returning to the description of Embodiment 1, X-rays are emitted from the X-ray tube 2 toward the grid 6 and FPD 3 with the acrylic plate phantom Ph interposed between the X-ray tube 2 and grid 6, thereby to carry out X-raying for actual measurement in the presence of the phantom Ph. That is, the X-ray tube 2 emits X-rays in the presence of the subject, to be incident on the FPD 3 through the grid 6, thereby obtaining actual measurement intensities G with the phantom Ph, which intensities G are intensities after transmission through the grid 6 in actual measurement. Specifically, the detecting elements d of the FPD 3 (see FIG. 3) read the X-rays as converted to electric signals in the presence of phantom Ph, and provide pixel values corresponding to the electric signals. (Step S4) Estimation of Intensities The pixel values are equivalent to the actual measurement intensities G after transmission through the grid 6 which are obtained by actual measurement with the phantom Ph. On the other hand, the pixel specifying unit 41 specifies the three adjoining pixels (n−1), n and (n+1) as a combination of three pixels as noted hereinbefore. Based on the direct ray transmittances Cp calculated by the transmittance calculating unit 42, the direct ray transmittances Cp interpolated by the transmittance interpolating unit 43, and the actual measurement intensities G equivalent to the pixel values from the FPD 3, the intensity estimating unit 44 estimates transmission scattered ray intensities Sc and estimated direct ray intensities P at the three adjoining pixels (n−1), n and (n+1) specified by the pixel specifying unit 41. The actual measurement intensities G are obtained from the actual measurement in step S3, and are known. The direct ray transmittances Cp are obtained from the actual measurement in step S1 and calculated and interpolated in step S2, and are known. On the other hand, the transmission scattered ray intensities Sc and estimated direct ray intensities P are values to be estimated by the intensity estimating unit 44, and are unknown at this point of time. Then, the intensity estimating unit 44 estimates transmission scattered ray intensity Sc and estimated direct ray intensity P by solving simultaneous equations for each of the three adjoining pixels (n−1), n and (n+1). For the three adjoining pixels (n−1), n and (n+1), the actual measurement intensities G are set to Gn−1, Gn and Gn+1, the direct ray transmittances Cp to Cpn−1, Cpn and Cpn+1, the transmission scattered ray intensities Sc to Scn−1, Scn and Scn+1, and the estimated direct ray intensities P to Pn−1, Pn and Pn+1. The transmission scattered ray intensity Sc varies among the three adjoining pixels due to nonuniformity of the grid 6 (scattered radiation removing device), for example. Taking this into consideration, transmission scattered ray intensities Sc at the adjoining pixels are obtained by interpolating calculation. In Embodiment 1, it is assumed that variations in the transmission scattered ray intensity Sc within the three adjoining pixels (n−1), n and (n+1) can be collinearly approximated as in the following the equation (1):Scn=(Scn+1+Scn−1)/2 (1) As a method of interpolating the transmission scattered ray intensities Sc, Lagrange interpolation, for example, may be used as noted in connection with the interpolation of the direct ray transmittances Cp. The method is not limited to equation (1) above, but any commonly used method of interpolation may be employed. The actual measurement intensities G are expressed by the following simultaneous equations (2)-(4) for the three adjoining pixels (n−1), n and (n+1), showing that each actual measurement intensity G is equal to a sum of the product of estimated direct ray intensity P and direct ray transmittance Cp, and transmission scattered ray intensity Sc:Gn+1=Pn+1·Cpn+1+Scn+1 (2)Gn=Pn·Cpn+Scn (3)Gn−1=Pn−1·Cpn−1+Scn−1 (4) Since the acrylic plate used as phantom Ph is formed to have a fixed thickness for direct ray transmission as noted hereinbefore, the estimated direct ray intensities P are equal among the three adjoining pixels as expressed by the following equation (5):Pn−1=Pn=Pn+1 (5) Thus, the pixel specifying unit 41 determines the number of certain pixels to be specified, according to the known number of known direct ray transmittances Cp and the known number of known actual measurement intensities G when estimating the unknown transmission scattered ray intensities Sc and direct ray intensities P at the three adjoining pixels (n−1), n and (n+1) specified by the pixel specifying unit 41. The intensity estimating unit 44 will estimate the transmission scattered ray intensities Sc and direct ray intensities P by solving the simultaneous equations relating to the actual measurement intensities G, direct ray transmittances Cp, transmission scattered ray intensities Sc and estimated direct ray intensities P for the certain pixels determined, respectively. In the above equation (1), the transmission scattered ray intensity Sc at each pixel is obtained by interpolating calculation of transmission scattered ray intensities Sc at the adjoining pixels, and therefore the number of unknowns can be reduced by one. On the other hand, since the above equation (5) shows that the estimated direct ray intensities P are equal among the three adjoining pixels, the number of unknowns is reduced to one. Therefore, apart from the above equations (1) and (5), it is sufficient to form simultaneous equations corresponding to the number of pixels specified. In this case, the simultaneous equations can be solved once the pixel specifying unit 41 specifies only an arbitrary number. In Embodiment 1, the number is set to three, and simultaneous equations are formed as the above equations (2)-(4). By solving simultaneous equations obtained from such equations (1)-(5) noted above, the estimated direct ray intensity Pn(=Pn+1=Pn−1), transmission scattered ray intensities Scn−1, Scn and Scn+1 are calculated as in the following equations (6)-(9):Pn=(Gn+1+Gn−1−2Gn)/(Cpn+1+Cpn−1−2Cpn) (6)Scn+1=Gn+1−Pn+1·Cpn+1 (7)Scn=Gn−Pn·Cpn (8)Scn−1=Gn−1−Pn−1·Cpn−1 (9) The estimated direct ray intensity P is first derived from the above equation (6) using the known actual measurement intensities Gn−1, Gn and Gn+1 and known direct ray transmittances Cpn−1, Cpn and Cpn+1. After making the estimated direct ray intensity P known, transmission scattered ray intensities Scn−1, Scn and Scn+1 are derived from the above equations (7)-(9) using also the estimated direct ray intensity Pn(=Pn+1=Pn−1) now known. When the combination of three adjoining pixels (n−1), n, and (n+1) is made one group in this way, one estimated direct ray intensity Pn can be found for each group. As described in relation with the above equation (5), the estimated direct ray intensities Pn should essentially have the same value for all the groups, each consisting of three pixels. In practice, however, variations occur under the influence of transmittance variations of scattered rays in peripheral portions of the grid 6, or due to statistical fluctuation errors. In order to reduce the influence of such installation state of the grid 6 or statistical fluctuation errors, an average value of estimated direct ray intensities Pn is obtained from central portions with little experimental errors. When, for example, minor variations occur in the above peripheral portions of the grid 6, the estimated direct ray intensities Pn are obtained, using the above equation (6), for a plurality of groups in central portions of the grid 6, each group consisting of a combination of three pixels (n−1), n and (n+1), and an average value P^ thereof is obtained. The average value P^ is substituted into each of the above equations (2)-(4) (that is, substituted into the following equations (10)-(12) transformed from the above equations (7)-(9)), and the transmission scattered ray intensities Scn−1, Scn and Scn+1 are calculated again for all the groups.Scn+1=Gn+1−P^·Cpn+1 (10)Scn=Gn+1−P^·Cpn (11)Scn−1=Gn−1−P^·Cpn−1 (12) Thus, the intensity estimating unit 44 makes estimations by deriving the transmission scattered ray intensities Scn−1, Scn and Scn+1 from the above equations (10)-(12). The transmission scattered ray intensities Scn−1, Scn and Scn+1 estimated by the intensity estimating unit 44 are fed to the rate of change calculating unit 46 and display 5. Directing attention to the denominator included in the solution of the above simultaneous equations (1)-(5), it is “Cpn+1+Cpn−1−2Cpn” in Embodiment 1 as seen from the above equation (6). The denominator is “Cpn+1+Cpn−1−2Cpn” even when the above equation (6) is substituted into the above equations (7)-(9). When the absolute value of the denominator “Cpn+1+Cpn−1−2Cpn” is a certain value or less, there is a possibility that these simultaneous equations cannot be solved. Particularly when the denominator “Cpn+1+Cpn−1−2Cpn” is “0”, the above simultaneous equations (1)-(5) cannot be solved. When the denominator “Cpn+1+Cpn−1−2Cpn” is “0”, that is when the direct ray transmittance Cpn at the middle pixel of the adjoining pixels is an arithmetical average of direct ray transmittances Cpn+1 and Cpn−1 of the other pixels (Cpn+1+Cpn−1−2Cpn=0, i.e. Cpn=(Cpn+1+Cpn−1)/2), the simultaneous equations cannot be solved if the pixel specifying unit 41 selects the three pixels (n−1), n, and (n+1) as the combination for the simultaneous equations at that time. When the denominator “Cpn+1+Cpn−1−2Cpn” is “0”, the pixel specifying unit 41, preferably, does not select the three pixels (n−1), n and (n+1) as the combination for the simultaneous equations, but selects three different pixels (n′−1), n′ and (n′+1) (e.g. pixels n, (n+1) and (n+2), or pixels (n−2), (n−1) and n) as the combination. Then, the above simultaneous equations (1)-(5) of the three different pixels (n′−1), n′ and (n′1) specified are solved. With the pixels specified as described above, the simultaneous equations can be solved, and using the estimated direct ray intensities Pn, an average value of the estimated direct ray intensities Pn is obtained by the above method. Once average value P^ of the estimated direct ray intensities Pn is obtained, transmission scattered ray intensities Scn−1, Scn and Scn+1 of the three pixels (n−1), n and (n+1) forming the combination when the denominator “Cpn+1+Cpn−1−2Cpn” is “0” can also be derived from the above equations (10)-(12). To summarize the description about solving the simultaneous equations, the estimated direct ray intensities Pn(=Pn+1=Pn−1) when the denominator “Cpn+1+Cpn−1−2Cpn” is not “0” are derived from the above equation (6), and average value P^ is obtained. The average value P^ is substituted into the above equations (10)-(12) to obtain the transmission scattered ray intensities Scn−1, Scn and Scn+1 when the denominator “Cpn+1+Cpn−1−2Cpn” is not “0”. The transmission scattered ray intensities Scn−1, Scn and Scn+1 when the denominator “Cpn+1+Cpn−1−2Cpn” is “0” can also be obtained by similar substitution into the above equations (10)-(12). In this way, the estimated direct ray intensities P when the denominator “Cpn+1+Cpn−1−2Cpn” is not “0” are first obtained to obtain average value P^. Then, the average value P^ is used to obtain the transmission scattered ray intensities Scn−1, Scn and Scn+1 when the denominator “Cpn+1+Cpn−1−2Cpn” is not “0”, and the transmission scattered ray intensities Scn−1, Scn and Scn+1 when the denominator “Cpn+1+Cpn−1−2Cpn” is “0” are obtained similarly. In this method, the subject is the phantom Ph in the form of an acrylic plate, and variations in the estimated direct ray intensity P are known and smooth. These facts are used to obtain the estimated direct ray intensity P (average value P^ in Embodiment 1) by smoothing and interpolating calculations of the estimated direct ray intensities P obtained about the pixels (specified pixels) first determined by the pixel specifying unit 41, or by calculating an average value of the estimated direct ray intensities P. The estimated direct ray intensity P obtained has a value close to a true value since variations of the estimated direct ray intensity P are smooth, and averaging or smoothing is effective in reducing variations due to statistical fluctuation errors. The transmission scattered ray intensities Sc are obtained directly by substituting the estimated direct ray intensity P close to the true value into the above equations (2)-(4). This provides a great advantage of causing no deterioration in the resolution of images of the transmission scattered ray intensities Sc since averaging or smoothing and interpolating calculations are not carried out. The resolution of the transmission scattered ray intensities Sc is maintained, and minute variations in the transmission scattered ray intensity Sc due to deformation of the grid foil strips can be determined accurately. As another method, for example, transmission scattered ray intensities Scn−1, Scn and Scn+1 when the denominator “Cpn+1+Cpn−1−2Cpn” is not “0” may be obtained before the estimated direct ray intensities P. By interpolating the transmission scattered ray intensities Scn−1, Scn and Scn+1, transmission scattered ray intensities Scn−1, Scn and Scn+1 when the denominator “Cpn+1+Cpn−1−2Cpn” is “0” are obtained. By substituting the obtained transmission scattered ray intensities Scn−1, Scn and Scn+1 into the above equations (7)-(9), estimated direct ray intensities P when the denominator “Cpn+1+Cpn−1−2Cpn” is not “0” and when the denominator “Cpn+1+Cpn−1−2Cpn” is “0” are obtained. An average value P^ of a plurality of estimated direct ray intensities Pn of the combination of three pixels (n−1), n and (n+1) in the central portion of the grid 6, including when the denominator “Cpn+1+Cpn−1−2Cpn” is “0”, is obtained. By substituting this average value P^ into the above equations (10)-(12), transmission scattered ray intensities Scn−1, Scn and Scn+1 may be obtained again. The transmission scattered ray intensities Scn−1, Scn and Scn+1 obtained again may be used to obtain rates of change Rcs in step S5 described hereinafter. (Step S5) Calculation and Interpolation of Rates of Change The rate of change calculating unit 46 calculates rates of change Rcs using the transmission scattered ray intensities Sc (Scn−1, Scn and Scn+1) estimated by the intensity estimating unit 44. Specifically, an average value Sc^ is obtained, or values Sc˜ of pixels are obtained by smoothing and interpolating calculations, in order to determine the rates of change Rcs of the pixels relative to the values of all the pixels as reference intensities of the transmission scattered ray intensities Sc. Assuming that a ratio between the transmission scattered ray intensity Scn of each pixel and the average value Sc^ or the value Sc˜ of each pixel is a rate of change Rcs, and that Rcsn represents the rate of change Rcs of each pixel, Rcsn is expressed by the following equation (13):Rcsn=Scn/Sc^or Rcsn=Scn/Sc˜ (13) A reference estimated scattering intensity used as the denominator when calculating the rates of change of transmission scattered rays corresponds to scattered ray intensity in the case of an ideal grid with no distortion of the foil strips or not dependent on installation conditions. As a method therefor may use: 1) an average value by simply approximating a scattered ray intensity distribution two-dimensionally fixed; or 2) a value acquired by two-dimensionally smoothing and interpolating the estimated scattered ray intensity of each pixel, by strictly taking into consideration scattered ray intensity variations due to installation conditions, such as the shape of the phantom and peripheral portions of the grid. The average value of 1) can be said the simplest method of smoothing and interpolating calculations. Thus, variations of transmission scattered ray intensity Sc, for which installation conditions of the grid 6 relating to deformation of the absorbing foil strips 6a, for example, are considered by using the ratio relative to the reference value, are expressed by the rates of change Rcsn. The rate of change calculating unit 46 calculates the rates of change Rcsn for all the pixels. The rate of change interpolating unit 47 interpolates, as necessary, the rates of change Rcsn−1, Rcsn and Rcsn+1 calculated by the rate of change calculating unit 46, and then feeds the rates of change to the intensity estimating unit 44 again. The rate of change Rcs, as does the direct ray transmittance Cp, varies for each of the discrete distances Ls+1, Ls+2 and Ls+3 as shown in black squares in FIG. 7. The rate of change interpolating unit 47 interpolates the rates of change Rcs calculated by the rate of change calculating unit 46 in distances around the discrete distances Ls+1, Ls+2, Ls+3 and so on. The results of the interpolation are, for example, as shown in the dotted line in FIG. 7. As a method of interpolation, a value acquired from an arithmetic average (additive average) or geometric average of two rates of change Rcs with respect to adjoining discrete distances (e.g. Ls+1 and Ls+2) may be used as rate of change Rcs for the distance between the above adjoining discrete distances. Lagrange interpolation may be used. Or the least square method may be used to obtain, as rate of change Cp, a value corresponding to a distance on the dotted line, using an approximate expression of the dotted line in FIG. 7. Thus, any commonly used method of interpolation may be employed. (Step S6) Generation of Average Value Map The rates of change Rcs obtained as described above correspond to the detecting elements d of the FPD 3, respectively. Thus, by mapping the rates of change Rcs with reference to the detecting elements d, the rate of change map M1 is generated which shows a striped pattern of scattered rays reflected in the FPD 3. This rate of change map M1 is generated by the rate of change map generating unit 48. The rate of change map M1 generated is stored in a rate of change map storage unit 48a. Characteristics of this rate of change map M1 will be described. The absorbing foil strips 6a of the grid 6 extend along one direction in the arrangement of the detecting elements d of FPD 3. The rates of change Rcs are alike when compared along this direction. However, the rates of change Rcs differ from one another when compared along the direction of arrangement of the absorbing foil strips 6a. FIG. 9 schematically represents such a situation. The rates of change Rcs constituting the rate of change map M1 will be described further. The rates of change Rcs include components of a pattern appearing on a fluoroscopic image due to differences in transmission condition of scattered rays for varied parts of the FPD 3. It is ideal if the rates of change Rcs include only components of the pattern, but in practice this is not the case. That is, the rates of change Rcs include also variations (statistical noise) due to the intensity of direct rays incident on the detecting elements d. The rate of change map M1 is outputted to the smoothing unit 49. There, the rate of change map M1 is smoothed to remove the influence of the above statistical noise from the rate of change map M1. This smoothing of the rates of change differs in character from the smoothing process in step S5 described hereinbefore. Specifically, the rate of change map M1 is smoothed using the rates of change located in a line in the direction along the X-ray grid. FIG. 10 shows a rate of change “a” belonging to the rate of change map M1 as the target of smoothing. First, a domain D is set to include rates of change located in a line with the rate of change “a” in the middle. Then, an average value Qa is obtained of the rates of change a, b1, b2, c1 and c2 belonging to the domain D. This operation is carried out for all the rates of change belonging to the rate of change map M1. That is, average value Qcs corresponding to each of the rates of change will be acquired. By arranging the average values Qcs with reference to positions of the rates of change in the rate of change map M1, an average value map M2 which is a new map will be acquired. Although the domain D includes five rates of change, the number can be varied freely. The average value map M2 is stored in an average value map storage unit 49a. The rate of change serving as the target of smoothing need not necessarily be located in the middle of domain D. That is, it is conceivable that the rates of change b1, b2, c1 and c2 in FIG. 10 do not exist for a rate of change located peripherally of the rate of change map M1. In that case, smoothing can be carried out without setting the rate of change as the target of smoothing to the middle of domain D. The effect of such smoothing will be described. FIGS. 11A and 11B are schematic views illustrating the effect of smoothing according to the construction in Embodiment 1. FIG. 11A shows the rates of change a, b1, b2, c1 and c2 belonging to the domain D which is the construction in Embodiment 1. That is, each rate of change has a component K1 due to the statistical noise, and a component K2 due to the striped pattern of scattered rays. The component K2 due to the striped pattern of scattered rays in each rate of change extending along the direction of extension (X-direction) of the absorbing foil strips of the X-ray grid is similar to those of the other rates of change belonging to domain D. Thus, the component K2 is maintained in the average value Qa. On the other hand, the component K1 is varied among the rates of change belonging to the domain D, and is therefore averaged. For comparison, results of a similar operation carried out for rates of change a, b3, b4, c3 and c4 located in a line extending in the direction perpendicular to the absorbing foil strips are shown. This situation is shown in FIG. 11B. It will be seen that the component K2 due to the striped pattern of scattered rays is not uniform among the rates of change a, b3, b4, c3 and c4, and that, upon comparison, the component K2 of the average value is different from that of the rate of change “a”. When the average value is calculated for the rates of change a, b3, b4, c3 and c4, the value of component K2 included in the average value A will differ from what is included in the rate of change “a”. Since the striped pattern of scattered rays is included in the components K2, the values of K2 changed by the smoothing will blur the striped pattern of scattered rays on the average value map M2. Such construction is not employed in Embodiment 1. (Step S7) Actual Measurement with Real Subject Next, X-raying is carried out in the presence of a subject M other than the subject M (phantom Ph) used in steps S3-S6. As shown in FIG. 1, a real subject M is used for actual X-raying. X-rays are emitted from the X-ray tube 2 toward the grid 6 and FPD 3 with the real subject M interposed between the X-ray tube 2 and grid 6, thereby to carry out X-raying for actual measurement with the real subject M. That is, the X-ray tube 2 emits X-rays in the presence of the real subject M (i.e. subject M for use in actual X-raying), to be incident on the FPD 3 through the grid 6. In this way, actual measurement intensities G which are intensities after transmission through the grid 6 in the actual measurement in the presence of the subject M are obtained as in step S3. Specifically, the detecting elements d of the FPD 3 (see FIG. 3) read the X-rays as converted to electric signals in the presence of the subject M, and provide pixel values corresponding to the electric signals. (Step S8) Estimation and Interpolation of Intensities As noted in step S4, the pixel values are equivalent to the actual measurement intensities G after transmission through the grid 6 which are obtained by actual measurement with the subject M. Similarly, the pixel specifying unit 41 specifies the three adjoining pixels (n−1), n and (n+1) as a combination of three pixels. Based on the average values Qcs stored in the average value map storage unit 49a, the direct ray transmittances Cp calculated by the transmittance calculating unit 42 or the direct ray transmittances Cp interpolated by the transmittance interpolating unit 43, and the actual measurement intensities G equivalent to the pixel values from the FPD 3, the intensity estimating unit 44 again estimates transmission scattered ray intensities Sc and estimated direct ray intensities P at the three adjoining pixels (n−1), n and (n+1) specified by the pixel specifying unit 41. As in step S4, the transmission scattered ray intensities Sc and estimated direct ray intensities P are estimated by solving simultaneous equations. Differences to step S4 lie in that a parameter consisting of the average values Qcs is taken into consideration, and that the equations concerning the transmission scattered ray intensities Sc and estimated direct ray intensities P are different. The aspects common to step S4 will not be described. In step S8, the transmission scattered ray intensities Sc are transmission scattered ray intensities where there is no foil nonuniformity such as deformation of the absorbing foil strips of the grid 6 and the installation condition is ideal. The transmission scattered ray intensities Sc vary smoothly where, apart from the rates of change due to nonuniformity of the grid 6, the subject is a water column (e.g. a water pillar) or a human body and the radiation is X-rays or gamma rays. Thus, the transmission scattered ray intensities Sc are considered equal among the three adjoining pixels, as expressed by the following equation (1)″.Scn−1=Scn=Scn+1 (1)″ The actual measurement intensities G are expressed by the following simultaneous equations (2)″-(4)″ for the three adjoining pixels (n−1), n and (n+1), showing that each actual measurement intensity G is equal to a sum of the product of estimated direct ray intensity P and direct ray transmittance Cp, and the product of transmission scattered ray intensity Sc and average value Qsc:Gn+1=Pn+1·Cpn+1+Scn+1·Qcsn+1 (2)″Gn=Pn·Cpn+Scn·Qcsn (3)″Gn−1=Pn−1·Cpn−1+Scn−1+Qcsn−1 (4)″ As distinct from the case of the phantom Ph in the form of an acrylic plate in step S3, the estimated direct ray intensity P at each pixel is variable due to the shape and material of the subject M. The variations can be expressed by interpolating calculations of the estimated direct ray intensities P at adjoining pixels. In Embodiment 1, it is assumed that the variations in the estimated direct ray intensities P within the three adjoining pixels (n−1), n and (n+1) can be collinearly approximated as in the following the equation (5)″:Pn=(Pn+1+Pn−1)/2 (5)″ As a method of interpolating the estimated direct ray intensities P, Lagrange interpolation, for example, may be used as noted in connection with the interpolation of the direct ray transmittances Cp and the interpolation of transmission scattered ray intensities Sc in step S4. The method is not limited to equation (5)″ above, but any commonly used method of interpolation may be employed. By solving simultaneous equations obtained from such equations (1)″-(5)″ noted above, the estimated direct ray intensities Pn−1, Pn and Pn+1, transmission scattered ray intensity Scn (=Scn+1=Scn−1) are calculated as in the following equations (6)″-(9)″:Scn=Gn+1/Qcsn+1−{(Cpn·Qcsn−1−2Cpn−1·Qcsn)·Gn+1+2Cpn−1·Qcsn+1·Gn−Cpn·Qcsn+1·Gn−1}/(Cpn+1·Cpn·Qcsn+1·Qcsn−1−2Cpn+1·Cpn−1·Qcsn+1·Qcsn+Cpn·Cpn−1·Qcsn+12) (6)″Pn−1={(Cpn·Qcsn−1−2Cpn−1·Qcsn)·Gn+1+2Cpn−1·Qcsn+1·Gn−Cpn·Qcsn+1·Gn−1}/(Cpn−1·Cpn·Qcsn−1−2Cpn+1·Cpn−1·Qcsn+Cpn·Cpn−1·Qcsn+1) (7)″Pn=Gn/Cpn−Qcsn·[Gn+1/Qcsn+1{(Cpn·Qcsn−1−2Cpn−1·Qcsn)·Gn+1+2Cpn−1·Qcsn+1·Gn−Cpn·Qcsn+1·Gn−1}/(Cpn+1·Cpn·Qcsn+1·Qcsn−1−2Cpn+1·Cpn1·Qcsn+1·Qcsn+Cpn·Cpn−1·Qcsn+12)] (8)″Pn+1=Gn+1/Cpn+1−Qcsn−1·[{(Cpn·Qcsn−1−2Cpn−1·Qcsn)·Gn+1+2Cpn−1·Qcsn+1·Gn−Cpn·Qcsn+1·Gn−1}/(Cpn+1·Cpn·Qcsn+1·Qcsn−1−2Cpn+1·Cpn−1·Qcsn+1·Qcsn+Cpn·Cpn−1·Qcsn+12)] (9)″ The estimated direct ray intensities Pn−1, Pn and Pn+1 and transmission scattered ray intensity Scn(=Scn+1=Scn−1) derived from the above equations (6)″-(9)″ are values calculated when the denominator included in the solution of the above simultaneous equations (1)″-(5)″ is not “0”. When the denominator included in the solution of the above simultaneous equations (1)″-(5)″ is “0”, the above simultaneous equations (1)″-(5)″ cannot be solved. Thus, with the three pixels (n−1), n and (n+1) forming the combination resulting in the denominator “0”, the estimated direct ray intensities Pn−1, Pn and Pn+1 or the transmission scattered ray intensities Scn−1, Scn and Scn+1 cannot be calculated, and thus cannot be estimated. The following method 1), for example, is one of the methods for estimating the estimated direct ray intensities Pn−1, Pn and Pn+1 and the transmission scattered ray intensities Scn−1, Scn and Scn+1. The method 1) determines the transmission scattered ray intensities Sc first. Since the transmission scattered ray intensities Sc assume that there is no deformation of the absorbing foil strips of the grid 6 and the installation condition is ideal, a plurality of transmission scattered ray intensities Scn acquired when the denominator is not “0” are first used in appropriate smoothing and interpolating calculations to obtain transmission scattered ray intensities Scn˜ for all the pixels, including those pixels for which the transmission scattered ray intensities Sc are not yet obtained because the denominator is “0”. As noted in connection with the above equation (1)″, variations are smooth where the subject is a water column (e.g. a water pillar) or a human body and the radiation is X-rays or gamma rays. And smoothing is effective in reducing variations due to statistical fluctuation errors. Thus, the values Scn˜ obtained are close to the true values of transmission scattered ray intensities Scn. The transmission scattered ray intensities Scn˜ obtained in this way are substituted into the above equation (3) for all the pixels, thereby obtaining the estimated direct ray intensities Pn directly. As noted above, this method provides a great advantage of causing no deterioration in the resolution of images of the estimated direct ray intensities Pn since smoothing and interpolating calculations are not carried out from the values of the pixels for which the denominator is not “0”. Thus, as in step S4, and as described above, the transmission scattered ray intensities Scn may be obtained first, or the estimated direct ray intensities Pn may be obtained first. Thus, X-ray images having reduced false images due to scattered rays and grid 6 are appropriately obtained through steps S1-S8, by using the estimated direct ray intensities Pn obtained in step S8 as pixel values. Such X-ray images may be outputted on the display 5 noted hereinbefore, may be written and stored in a storage medium represented by a RAM (Random-Access Memory) to be read therefrom as necessary, or may be printed out by a printing device. When the transmission scattered ray intensities Scn are obtained before the estimated direct ray intensities Pn by the method 1) in step S7, X-ray images may be outputted to the display 5, storage medium or printing device after obtaining the estimated direct ray intensities Pn. Since the direct ray transmittance Cp is calculated in step S2 for each distance SID from the focus of X-ray tube 2 to the detecting plane of FPD 3, the parameters obtained in steps S3-S8 are values appropriately acquired for the respective distances SID. Now, unless the distance between the subject M and FPD 3 change even if the distance SID changes, variations in the scattered ray distribution are small unlike the direct ray transmittance Cp, and variations of the average values Qcsn for the average value map can be disregarded almost altogether. In that case, an average value Qcsn may be obtained for a certain distance SID, and this value may be used for different distances SID, whereby steps S3-S5 can be omitted. Then, steps 6 et seq. may be executed to carry out actual measurement in the presence of the real subject M. When variations of average value Qcsn relative to variations of distance SID cannot be disregarded, an average value Qcsn may be obtained beforehand for each of the discrete distances Ls+1, Ls+2 and Ls+3, actual distances SID may be obtained by interpolating calculations thereof, which also can omit steps S3-S5. Then, steps 6 et seq. may be executed to carry out actual measurement in the presence of the real subject M. Thus, even when the distance SID varies in actual X-raying as shown in FIG. 6, use may be made of the direct ray transmittances Cp and the average value Qcs of the transmission scattered ray intensities Sc for which the varied distances SID are taken into consideration. This can be applied also to a circulatory organ radiographic apparatus, for example, where the distance between the X-ray tube 2 and the grid 6/FPD 3 is changed every now and then. According to the X-ray apparatus in Embodiment 1, the X-ray tube 2 emits X-rays to be incident on the FPD 3 through the grid 6. Part of scattered X-rays (scattered rays) are removed by the grid 6, and the FPD 3 detects the remaining X-rays to obtain an X-ray image. At this time, the pixel specifying unit 41 specifies certain of the pixels forming the X-ray image. The intensity estimating unit 44 estimates at least one of scattered X-ray intensity (scattered ray intensity) and direct X-ray intensity (direct ray intensity) at the certain pixels specified by the pixel specifying unit 41. Therefore, at least one of scattered X-ray intensity (scattered ray intensity) and direct X-ray intensity (direct ray intensity) at the certain pixels can be estimated appropriately in a way to take the installation condition of the grid 6 into consideration. Thus, according to the invention described in Embodiment 1, the X-ray tube 2 emits radiation to be incident on the FPD 3 through the grid 6. Part of scattered radiation is removed by the grid 6, and the FPD 3 detects the remaining radiation to obtain a radiographic image. At this time, the pixel specifying unit 41 specifies certain of the pixels forming the radiographic image. The intensity estimating unit 44 estimates at least one of scattered radiation intensity and direct radiation intensity at the certain pixels specified by the pixel specifying unit 41. Therefore, at least one of scattered radiation intensity and direct X-ray radiation at the certain pixels can be estimated appropriately in a way to take the installation condition of the grid 6 into consideration. Thus, radiation intensity is estimated by the radiation estimating unit 44 for the certain pixels, while radiation intensity is interpolated by the intensity interpolating device for the pixels not specified. Based on such radiation intensity, a radiographic image is obtained appropriately, which is free of shadows of the grid 6. The radiographic image is obtained only from the direct radiation with the scattered radiation removed completely. The radiographic image is obtained appropriately by the pixel specifying unit 41 and intensity estimating unit 44, with any grid 6. As a result, a general-purpose grid 6 can also be used, and a proper radiographic image can be obtained without being dependent on the installation condition of the grid 6. It is necessary to estimate radiation intensity for all the pixels. Radiation intensity may be estimated for only the certain specified pixels, and radiation intensity at the remaining pixels not specified may be determined by interpolation. This produces the effects of lightening arithmetic processes, and reducing the time consumed therefor. According to the construction in Embodiment 1, the rate of change map generating unit 41 is provided for generating the rate of change map M1. This rate of change map M1 shows a pattern (striped pattern of scattered rays) to appear on a fluoroscopic image. The striped pattern of scattered rays will be removed by correcting the fluoroscopic image using this map M1. The smoothing unit 49 is provided for smoothing this rate of change map M1 to generate the average value map M2. The rate of change map M1 has, superimposed thereon, statistical noise besides the striped pattern of scattered rays. However, the rate of change map M1 is smoothed to become the average value map M2. In the average value map M2, the statistical noise is averaged and blurred. Even if the statistical noise tends to be reflected as granular coarse noise on the fluoroscopic image, its granularity is blurred on the average value map M2. Consequently, the statistical noise on the rate of change map M1 is never superimposed on the fluoroscopic image. The smoothing is carried out for the rates of change Rcs arranged in a line along the direction of extension of the absorbing foil strips 6a of the grid 6. Desirably, the striped pattern of scattered rays is not blurred by the smoothing. The striped pattern of scattered rays extends along the direction of extension of the absorbing foil strips 6a of the grid 6 (in other words, the striped pattern of scattered rays is arranged along the direction of arrangement of the absorbing foil strips 6a of the grid 6). Since the smoothing is carried out along the direction of extension of the absorbing foil strips 6a of the grid 6, components of the statistical noise included in the rates of change Rcs are smoothed, but components of the striped pattern of scattered rays are not. Consequently, the striped pattern of scattered rays appearing on the rate of change map M1 is not blurred by the smoothing, and the pattern can be removed without appearing on the fluoroscopic image. The X-ray tube 2 emits radiation in the presence of a different subject (i.e. the subject used in actual radiography here) to be incident on the FPD 3 through the grid 6, thereby to obtain actual measurement intensity which is radiation intensity after transmission through the grid 6 in actual measurement in the presence of the subject. Based on the average values Qcs stored in the average value map storage unit 49a, the direct ray transmittances calculated by the transmittance calculating unit 42, and the actual measurement intensity in the actual measurement in the presence of the different subject (i.e. the subject used in actual radiography), the intensity estimating unit 44 estimates radiation intensity at the certain pixels specified by the pixel specifying unit 41. Thus, direct ray transmittance is obtained based on the actual measurement data taken in the absence of a subject. Using the direct ray transmittance, rates of change Rcs are obtained by carrying out radiography in the presence of a subject (i.e. the phantom). Using the rates of change Rcs or the rates of change Rcs interpolated by the rate of change interpolating device, radiation intensity can be estimated based on the actual measurement intensity obtained from radiography carried out in the presence of the different subject (i.e. the subject used in actual radiography). This invention is not limited to the foregoing embodiment, but may be modified as follows: (1) The foregoing embodiment has been described taking X-rays as an example of radiation. However, the invention is applicable to radiation other than X-rays (such as gamma rays). (2) In the foregoing embodiment, the radiographic apparatus is constructed for medical use to conduct radiography of a patient placed on the top board 1 as shown in FIG. 1. This is not limitative. For example, the apparatus may be constructed like a nondestructive testing apparatus for industrial use which conducts radiography of an object (in this case, a subject tested) conveyed on a belt, or may be constructed like an X-ray CT apparatus for medical use. (3) The rate of change map generating unit 48 described hereinbefore obtains the average value A by averaging the rates of change Rcs included in the domain D. This invention is not limited to such construction. The average value A may be obtained by weighting the rates of change belonging to the domain D according to distances to the rate of change which is the target of smoothing. That is, as shown in FIG. 12, when obtaining the average value A for the rate of change “a” which is the target of smoothing, the average value A is influenced to a greater extent by a rate of change, such as rate of change b1, closer to the rate of change “a” than a rate of change, such as rate of change e1, remote from the rate of change “a”. For example, the average value A may be obtained using each of the rates of change according to the following equation:A={1×(e1+e2)+2×(d1+d2)+3×(c1+c2)4×(b1+b2)5×a}/(1+1+2+2+3+3+4+4+5) (10)With such construction, the striped pattern of scattered rays held by the rate of change map M1 can reliably be unblurred. (4) In the foregoing embodiment, the method in step S5 has been described in which, using the transmission scattered ray intensities Sc estimated based on the actual measurement carried out in the presence of a subject, a rate of change for each pixel is determined with respect to an average value of all the pixels relating to the transmission scattered ray intensities Sc. However, there is another method of obtaining rates of change of transmission scattered rays, which obtains rates of change Rcs by actual measurement in the absence of a subject. As an artificial source of scattered rays (without direct rays), the radiation source is made to scan the grid two-dimensionally to cause direct rays to be incident on the scattered radiation removing device from a large range, so that the direct rays are equivalent to scattered rays. Rates of change Rcs are obtained from an integrated value thereof through determining a ratio with respect to an average value of all the pixels. Whichever method may be used. (5) In the foregoing embodiment, the number of certain pixels to be selected by the pixel specifying device (pixel specifying unit 41 in the embodiment) is three. But the number of such pixels is not limited to three. The number may be determined according to simultaneous equations. (6) In the foregoing embodiment, the pixel specifying device (pixel specifying unit 41 in the embodiment) does not select the certain pixels forming a combination for simultaneous equations when the absolute of the denominator included in the solution of the simultaneous equations has a predetermined value or less. The predetermined value is not limited to “0” noted hereinbefore. As the denominators included in the solutions of the simultaneous equations in the foregoing embodiment, there are the denominator included in the estimated direct ray intensity Pn in “(Step S2) Calculation and interpolation of direct ray transmittances”, and the denominator included in the transmission scattered ray intensity Sc in “(Step S8) Estimation and interpolation of intensities”. The relatively simple denominator (Cpn+1+Cpn−1−2Cpn) included in the estimated direct ray intensity Pn in “(Step S2) Calculation and interpolation of direct ray transmittances” will be described. For example, when a pixel shielded by the grid foil strips is n and non-shielded pixels are n+1 and n−1, and when there is no distortion of the foil strips, the value of direct ray transmittance Cp of each at that time can be calculated beforehand. When, for example, the width of the pixels is 150 μm, the thickness of the grid foil strips is 30 μm, and the intermediate substance is air, with absorption by the grid cover disregarded, Cpn+1=1, Cpn−1=1 and Cpn=0.7. Therefore, the denominator at this time is Cpn+1+Cpn−1−2Cpn=1+1−2×0.7=0.6. On the other hand, the numerator of Pn is (Gn+1+Gn−1−2Gn). Its statistical fluctuation error can be predicted from statistical fluctuation errors of Gn+1, Gn−1 and Gn, and the statistical fluctuation error of Pn finally obtained has a value resulting from a division by the value of the denominator. This is 0.6 in an ideal installation condition of the foil strips in the above example, and its value may become small when the foil strips are distorted, for example. When the statistical fluctuation error of the numerator is divided by this value, the statistical fluctuation error will becomes large, giving a large error to the average value of Pn to be calculated afterward. Therefore, when a tolerance is three times an ideal case, for example, the predetermined value of the denominator is 0.2, and only a reliable value of Pn can be calculated. In this way, a predetermined value may be set to specify the pixels. Similarly, in the case of (Step S8), a comparison is made with the value of the denominator in the normal case, and a predetermined value may be selected based on the tolerance of the statistical fluctuation error of Sn which can finally be obtained. In each of the above cases, the predetermined value is set with reference to a tolerance of the statistical fluctuation error of the value sought. The predetermined value may be set based on a different reference value. (7) In the foregoing embodiment, the transmission scattered ray intensity and estimated direct ray intensity are estimated. However, only one of these intensities may be estimated. (8) The term “pixel” as used in this specification includes not only each pixel not subjected to a bundling process (binning), but also a plurality of pixels bundled together (binned) to be regarded as one pixel. Therefore, when specifying pixels, or using specified pixels, such pixels may be considered binned or may be considered not binned. (9) In the foregoing embodiment, the rate of change calculating device is provided as a component corresponding to the physical quantity acquiring device. The rate of change map generating device is provided as a component corresponding to the physical quantity map generating device. The rate of change map smoothing device is provided as a component corresponding to the physical quantity map smoothing device. The rates of change Rcs are arranged to generate the rate of change map M1, and the latter is smoothed to generate the average value map M2. However, this invention is not limited to such construction. An average value map M2 may be generated by arranging the direct ray transmittances Cp, transmission scattered ray intensities Sc or estimated direct ray intensities P instead of the rates of change Rcs. Then, the image processor 4 can carry out the image processes after removing the statistical noise superimposed on the direct ray transmittances Cp, transmission scattered ray intensities Sc or estimated direct ray intensities P. It is therefore possible to acquire images free of both the striped pattern of scattered rays and the statistical noise. (10) The smoothing of the rates of change map M1 using the smoothing unit 49 need not always to be adapted to all the rates of change map M1, but may be optionally adapted to a part of the rates of change map M1 as necessary. (11) In the foregoing embodiment, the grid 6 has the absorbing foil strips 6a arranged in the single direction, which may be replaced with a cross grid. The cross grid has a lattice structure with elongated absorbing foil strips arranged in a crisscross pattern. In this case, the smoothing unit 49 selects one of the longitudinal and transverse directions (X-direction and Y-direction) of the rate of change map M1, and obtains average values of the rates of change Rcs arranged in a line in the selected direction. The average value map M2 may be generated by combining calculations of average values in the longitudinal direction, and calculations of average values in the transverse direction. (12) In the foregoing embodiment, the X-ray tube 2 and FPD 3 may be supported by a C-arm 7 as shown in FIG. 13. The C-arm 7 is arcuate, with the X-ray tube 2 mounted at one end thereof and the FPD 3 at the other end. The C-arm 7 is rotatable along an imaginary circle extending from the arc, and also rotatable about an axis perpendicular to both the central axis of the imaginary circle and a line extending between the X-ray tube 2 and FPD 3. A C-arm moving mechanism 7a causes such rotations, and a C-arm movement controller 7b controls the C-arm moving mechanism 7a. This invention may be embodied in other specific forms without departing from the spirit or essential attributes thereof and, accordingly, reference should be made to the appended claims, rather than to the foregoing specification, as indicating the scope of the invention.
	summary
062623281	claims	1. A method for absorbing hydrogen from an enclosed environment comprising: providing a vessel; providing a hydrogen storage composition in communication with said vessel, said hydrogen storage composition further comprising a matrix defining a pore size which permits the passage of hydrogen gas while blocking the passage of gaseous poisons; placing a material within said vessel, said material providing a source of hydrogen gas emissions; and absorbing said hydrogen gas emissions by said hydrogen storage composition. a vessel having an interior and adapted for receiving materials which release hydrogen gas; a hydrogen absorbing composition disposed within the vessel, the composition defining a matrix surrounding a hydrogen absorber, the matrix permitting the passage of hydrogen gas while excluding gaseous poisons; wherein, when the vessel is sealed, hydrogen gas, which is released into the vessel interior, is absorbed by the hydrogen absorbing composition. 2. The method according to claim 1 comprising the additional step of sealing said vessel. 3. A method for absorbing hydrogen according to claim 1 wherein the step of providing a hydrogen storage composition further comprises providing a vent structure comprising said storage composition, said vent structure allowing communication between an interior and an exterior of said vessel. 4. A method of absorbing hydrogen according to claim 3 wherein said vent is sealable. 5. A method for absorbing hydrogen according to claim 1 wherein said vessel is a waste drum. 6. A method for absorbing hydrogen according to claim 1 wherein said vessel is a housing for an automotive battery. 7. A method for absorbing hydrogen according to claim 1 wherein said vessel comprises a light fixture. 8. A method for absorbing hydrogen according to claim 1 wherein said vessel is a room. 9. A method for absorbing hydrogen according to claim 1 wherein said gaseous poisons include CO or H.sub.2 S. 10. A method for absorbing hydrogen according to claim 1 wherein said material within said vessel is a plurality of batteries. 11. A method for absorbing hydrogen according to claim 1 wherein said material within said vessel further houses a process which releases hydrogen gas. 12. A container for absorbing hydrogen gas comprising: 13. A container for absorbing evolved hydrogen gas according to claim 12 wherein the vessel further comprises a vent for releasing gaseous build-up after the hydrogen gas is removed by the hydrogen absorber. 14. A container for absorbing evolved hydrogen gas according to claim 13 wherein the vent is sealable. 15. A container for absorbing evolved hydrogen gas according to claim 12 wherein the vessel is a waste drum. 16. A container for absorbing evolved hydrogen gas according to claim 12 wherein the vessel is a housing for a battery. 17. A container for absorbing evolved hydrogen gas according to claim 12 wherein the vessel is a light fixture. 18. A container for absorbing evolved hydrogen gas according to claim 12 wherein the vessel is a battery room. 19. A container for absorbing evolved hydrogen gas according to claim 12 wherein the gaseous poisons include CO or H.sub.2 S. 20. A container for absorbing evolved hydrogen gas according to claim 12 wherein said material within the vessel is a plurality of batteries. 21. A container for absorbing evolved hydrogen gas according to claim 12 wherein the interior is used to carry out a process which emits hydrogen gas.
	description	The present application is a U.S. National Phase of International Patent Application No. PCT/EP2020/052376 which was filed on Jan. 31, 2020 and which claims priority to European Patent Application No. 19154831.2 filed on Jan. 31, 2019. The contents of the listed patent documents are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties. The present invention relates to molten salt reactors (MSR) for nuclear fission reactions. In particular, the present invention relates to structural materials that are useful in both fast reactors where no moderator is used and in thermal or epi-thermal reactors that employ a moderator. Nuclear fission produces energetic neutrons typically at an energy range from 100 keV to 2 MeV. The probability of a fission event occurring depends on the neutron energy. In a so-called fast reactor, the unmoderated neutrons produced from fission interact directly with other nuclei. Thermal and epi-thermal nuclear fission reactors rely on moderators to reduce the energy to increase fission probability. Nuclear fission reactors thus can be operated by two different principles, namely fast reactors and thermal and epi-thermal reactors. In a fast reactor, the energetic neutrons interact directly with fissile material to produce energy, fission products and energetic neutrons. In thermal and epi-thermal reactors, the energetic neutrons produced by fission exchange energy with a moderator and eventually interact with fissile material to produce energy, fission products and more energetic neutrons. Regardless of the design choices made related to the fuel in a thermal or epi-thermal reactor, a suitable moderator material should generally offer a number of characteristics for the interaction between neutrons and fissile atoms. The moderator should present high probability of interaction by scattering, which equates to a short mean free path of the neutrons between interactions, and influences the size of the moderator and reactor core. The moderator should further consist of light-weight moderator atoms; in a scattering event the neutrons transfer energy to the moderating material and are slowed down. The lighter the atom the more energy is transferred per interaction. The moderator should present low probability of neutron absorption. Absorption in the moderator decreases the neutron flux available for fission, and increases the severity of activation of materials. Thus, it is typically favourable to have low absorption in the moderator. Table 1 below summarises moderating properties of various moderator materials. ζ is the average number of scattering events necessary to reduce the energetic neutrons to thermal energy levels, MFP is the mean free path for elastic scattering measured in cm, and Σabs is a measure of the number of neutrons absorbed per meter. TABLE 1Moderating effect of various prior art moderator materials.ζmFPelaΣabsMaterial[#][cm][1/m] CommentH2O (liq)24.80.662.226Very compactD2O (liq)33.42.770.001Exceptional moderator, not compactC (graphite)110.92.500.030Exceptional moderator, not compactCH224.30.562.589Very compact(polyethylene)(Not suitable for hightemperature conditions)7Li67.222.150.207Unsuited due to moderator size2 7LiF:1 BeF225.92.970.201Very good but expensiveand difficult to enrich 7Li23Na207.111.861.346Not moderatingBe84.71.290.094Exceptional moderator,expensiveMgO ceramic174.72.530.339Not moderating Thus, water (H2O) is a very compact moderator, and deuterated water (D2O), beryllium (Be) and graphite (C) are formally exceptionally good moderators in terms of low neutron absorption. Neither are immediately appropriate in MSRs and more appropriate moderation for a MSR is disclosed in WO 2018/229265. Moderation in a MSR using graphite is disclosed in WO 2013/116942. The aim of WO 2013/116942 is the integration of the primary functional elements of graphite moderator and reactor vessel and/or primary heat exchangers and/or control rods into a single replaceable unit having a higher and more economic power density while retaining the advantages of a sealed unit. MSRs are based on a critical concentration of a fissile material dissolved in a molten salt. The molten salts may have a base of 7LiF with a content of fluoride salts of fissile elements and other components, e.g. for moderated reactors. This is commonly referred to as the fuel salt. MSRs were researched into at i.a. the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in the 1950's and 1960's but have never been successfully commercialised. MSRs have several advantages over other reactor types, including those being in commercial use nowadays. MSRs are capable of producing much lower levels of transuranic actinide waste than uranium/plutonium reactors, of operating at high temperatures, of avoiding accumulation of volatile radioactive fission products in solid fuel rods and of combusting greater amounts of fissile material than is possible in conventional reactors. Several disadvantages encountered in the 1950's and 1960's caused MSRs to not be commercialised. One disadvantage contributing to MSRs never having been commercialised lies in that insoluble fission products would foul pumps and heat exchangers of the MSR. Most exploited designs of molten salt reactors therefore require attached reprocessing plants to continually remove fission products from the fuel salt. This in turn renders the MSRs complex, expensive, and requiring extensive development work. For at least the above-mentioned reasons, research in molten salt reactors was generally abandoned in the late 1960's in favour of sodium fast reactors or traditional fission reactors of the type being in common use to this day. A heat pipe cooled molten salt fast reactor with a stagnant liquid core is disclosed in US 2018/075931. An important disadvantage is that molten salts are generally highly corrosive. This has caused extensive research into development of corrosion-resistant metal alloys. While some suitable metal alloys, such as Nickel based superalloys, have in fact been developed, these alloys are extremely expensive and corrosion would nevertheless typically still occur after long time periods. New composite materials based on carbon and/or carbides, e.g. silicon carbide have, in principle, the chemical resistance to withstand the molten salt, but building complex structures from such materials is both very challenging and very expensive. Structural materials (including cladding) play an essential role for keeping different reactor core components from contacting or mixing. One example is the zirconium alloy tubing containing fuel pellets or fuel rods. Such materials need to be able to withstand the hostile conditions inside the reactor core. Cladding materials must have a number of material performance characteristics including corrosion resistance, high melting temperature, chemical inertness at high temperatures, resistance to various mechanical stress scenarios, radiation damage (indicated using the unit DPA—Displacements per Atom), and thermal stresses under various scenarios—all this while not compromising the reactor neutron economy. Metals promising in regard to resistance to corrosion have been found often to perform poorly in terms of neutron economy (neutrons are absorbed in the structural material resulting in loss of neutrons and alteration in the structure). Metal tubing of the Nickel based Hastelloy type have been proposed for a suitable construction material but challenges with regards to, amongst other things, inter-granular cracking and corrosion, have remained an issue. The use of a molten phase for both the fissionable material and the moderator/coolant phase is a relatively new technique, see for example WO 2018/229265. While WO 2018/229265 suggests a solution to address problems with corrosion in MSRs, the solution is directed at an MSR using a moderator. There is an unmet need to provide further solutions to the problems relating to corrosion caused by the molten salts. The present invention aims to address this need. The present invention relates to a device adapted for producing energy by nuclear fission, the device comprising a core container of a core container material, which core container encloses an inner tubing of an inner tubing material, the inner tubing and/or the core container having an inlet and an outlet, the device further comprising a molten halide salt located in the core container or in the inner tubing, wherein the inner tubing comprises one or more sections consisting of single crystal corundum. The inner tubing material thus comprises single crystal corundum but may also comprise other materials. In the context of the invention a “structural material” is a material that will be in direct contact with a molten salt when a nuclear fission reaction takes place in the device. The device of the invention may also be referred to as a “molten salt reactor” (MSR). The molten halide salt may be a molten fuel salt. The molten halide salt can be located in the core container or in the inner tubing so that the molten halide salt will be in direct contact with the inner tubing material, i.e. at the “outer surface” of the inner tubing material when the molten halide salt is located in the core container or at the “inner surface” of the inner tubing when the molten halide salt is located in the inner tubing. The other surface of the inner tubing than the surface in contact with the molten halide salt may be in direct contact with another molten salt, e.g. a coolant salt, a molten moderator salt, or a breeder material. In an embodiment the inner tubing contains the molten fuel salt, but no molten salt is present at the outer surface of the inner tubing. The inner tubing material comprises corundum, e.g. as a structural material. Corundum is a crystalline form of aluminium oxide (Al2O3) but in the context of the invention, the corundum may also contain traces of other elements and still be considered corundum. In the context of the invention, corundum is to be understood as single crystal corundum, even when this is not explicitly mentioned. Thus, “corundum” and “single crystal corundum” may be used interchangeably. The corundum may also be doped (e.g. with a transition metal, such as chromium, iron, vanadium, beryllium, or titanium, or a combination of these). Undoped, the corundum is commonly known as sapphire. Doped with chromium, the corundum is commonly known as ruby. Other additions or impurities could be known as yellow sapphire. The corundum may be a single crystal. Crystalline ruby is generally harder than undoped corundum, which is advantageous for a structural material in an MSR. Corundum is available in the form of tubes or sheets, e.g. from Kyocera Corporation, Kyoto, Japan (see the brochure “Single Crystal Sapphire”, 2018 KYOCERA CORPORATION, 006/013/1804), or Saint-Gobain Ceramic Materials, Courbevoie, France, (see the brochure “EFG™ Sapphire Tubes”, Saint-Gobain Ceramics & Plastics, Inc., 2006-2016). Corundum is generally prepared from a molten aluminium oxide where the single crystal can be “pulled” from the melt using an initial, small single crystal to pull a larger crystal. The corundum may be produced using any available method, and the shape of the corundum material may be chosen freely. The device of the invention has a molten halide salt. The molten halide salt may be a fuel salt, for example a halide salt of a fissionable actinide, but the device may also comprise a molten moderator salt and further molten salts having different functions. The device may, for example, comprise a molten coolant salt. The fuel salts may have any appropriate composition but will generally contain halide ions, e.g. fluoride or chloride ions. The fuel salt will normally contain either fluoride or chloride ions, however the combinations of fluoride and chloride ions in a fuel salt is also contemplated. Further halides, e.g. bromide and iodide, may also occur in the fuel salt, typically as degradation products from the nuclear fission. The fuel salt used in the device may thus comprise a fluoride salt of a fissionable actinide. Alternatively, the fuel salt used in the device may thus comprise a chloride salt of a fissionable actinide. For example, the anionic component of the fuel salt, e.g. the fuel salt as added to the device, may be fluoride (F−), e.g. no other anionic components except for unavoidable impurities than fluoride are present in the fuel salt. A fuel salt containing F− as the anionic component is typically used when the MSR contains a moderator, e.g. a molten moderator salt or solid graphite. Likewise, the anionic component of the fuel salt, e.g. the fuel salt as added to the device, may be chloride (Cl−), e.g. no other anionic components except for unavoidable impurities than chloride are present in the fuel salt. A fuel salt containing Cl− as the anionic component is typically used when the MSR does not contain a moderator, e.g. when the MSR is a fast MSR. Any appropriate fuel salt composition may be used in the present invention. For example, the fuel salt may comprise a fluoride salt or chloride salt of a fissionable actinide. The molten fuel salt may comprise any fissionable element, e.g. a fissile actinide, or elements that may be converted to fissile elements, e.g. thorium. In an embodiment the fuel salt has a base of fluorides of alkali metals, e.g. lithium, thorium and a fissile element, e.g. 7LiF with a content of fluoride salts of fissile elements and thorium, and optionally other components. The fuel salt preferably has a eutectic composition, e.g. a base of 78 molar percent 7LiF and 22 molar percent ThF4 supplemented with actinide salts of the composition LiFAnFn where An is a fissile actinide, and n is 3 or 4. Other eutectic fluoride salt compositions are also relevant for the invention. For example, the salt known as FLiNaK (i.e. LiF—NaF—KF at 46.5-11.5-42 mol %, respectively) may be used as a coolant salt. Molten halide salts are generally considered to be extremely corrosive, and molten halides are thus used in various industrial processes that utilise the corrosive nature. For example, aluminium oxide (Al2O3) is used as a starting material in the manufacture of metallic aluminium where Al2O3 is dissolved in molten cryolite (Na3AlF6) and metallic aluminium is obtained by electrolysis of aluminium ions. Cryolite is considered to dissociate into i.a. NaF2 and NaAlF4 at high temperature where especially the formed fluoride ions are thought to aid in dissolution of Al2O3. Similar observations are considered relevant for other halides, e.g. chloride ions. The present inventors have now surprisingly found that single crystal corundum is stable in the molten fuel salt containing fluoride ions, even when fluoride is the only anion present. The stability of single crystal corundum in molten halide salt, especially molten fluoride salts, allows that the neutron transparency of single crystal corundum is utilised in nuclear fission reactions in an MSR. This in turn provides a more compact MSR for producing energy by nuclear fission is obtained, and also that a much improved process economy is achieved. Therefore, corundum, i.e. a form of Al2O3, can be used as a structural material for a device adapted for producing energy by nuclear fission. Specifically, a sample of single crystal corundum was added to a molten FLiNaK salt at 600° C. and kept in the molten salt for 25 hours. Upon removal and cleaning of the sample a weight gain of 0.001 g was observed. Thus, no degradation of the single crystal corundum sample was observed, which shows that corundum can be exposed to a molten fuel salt with fluoride ions for extended periods of time, e.g. for periods of time relevant to the operation of an MSR for a nuclear fission reaction. Moreover, the serial number engraved into the side of the sample was still clearly visible after 25 hours in the molten FLiNaK (see FIG. 1), which emphasises that no signs of corrosion or dissolved material were visible. In particular, the engraved serial number represented a complex structure of a relatively large surface area where degradation would be visible as blurring of the serial number. Due to the differences in neutron transparency of corundum compared to typical nickel based superalloys, using corundum as a structural material allows a much improved economy to be achieved in a device of the invention compared to a device of the prior art employing e.g. Hastelloy as a structural material. Table 2 shows the results for enrichment (E %) and conversion ratios (CR) for a MSR based on Hastelloy N compared to a device of the invention. In both cases the results are for an inner tubing with a thickness of 2 mm. TABLE 2Cost model for enrichment of 235U.EnrichmentConversion Estimated fuel cost(E %)ratio (CR)(Mio Euro)FNaKHastelloy N 6.0%0.4647.0Al2O3 3.5%0.5828.6Δ−2.5%0.12−18.4FLiBeHastelloy N 6%0.4334.6Al2O3 2.4%0.5816.9Δ−3.6%0.15−17.7 In Table 2, ΔE % is the change in enrichment going from Hastelloy N to Al2O3, and ΔCR is the change in conversion ratio going from Hastelloy N to Al2O3. An increase in CR equates a higher conversion and therefore more conversion of fissionable material into fissile material over the lifetime of the reactor. Evidently, the estimated fuel cost is a function of both the enrichment % needed and the conversion ratio, show that all three parameters favour the use of corundum to Hastelloy N. Data for E % and CR for the two reactor types as a function of inner tubing thickness are depicted in FIG. 2 and FIG. 3, respectively. Using corundum further allows that the inner tubing material can be made thicker without observing pronounced detrimental effects due to the thickness (e.g. both curves are “flat”), which is in contrast to the prior art device employing Hastealloy N, where there is a strong negative effect of increasing the inner tubing thickness. By increasing the inner tube thickness the lifetime of the MSR is increased, which is reflected directly in the economy. Thus, the corundum provides an economically improved MSR. In another aspect, the invention relates to the use of a single crystal corundum tube as a structural material in a device adapted for producing energy by nuclear fission wherein a molten halide salt, e.g. a fluoride salt, is in contact with the single crystal corundum tube. For example, the molten halide salt may be a molten fuel salt comprising a halide salt of a fissionable actinide. Any fuel salt described for the device aspect is appropriate for the use aspect. In particular, the fuel salt may comprise F− or Cl− as the only anionic component. Any advantage described for the device aspect will be equally relevant for the use aspect. In a particular embodiment, the molten fuel salt is contained in the corundum tube. In another embodiment, the molten fuel salt is in contact with an outer surface of the corundum tube. The fuel salt may be described in terms of a fuel content. In the context of the invention the “fuel content” is the cation molar fraction, expressed with the unit “cmol %”, of the fissile actinide fraction, i.e. the sum of the fissile actinides, e.g. 233U, 235U, 239Pu and 241Pu, divided by the sum of all the actinides of the fuel salt. Thus, the fuel salt may be represented with the equation:Fuel salt=a NaF+b AnF4 where Na represents any alkali metal and An represents one or more actinides; for a=22% and b=78% the mixture is eutectic. Specifically, An of AnF4 may comprise both thorium and fissile elements where the molar content of the fissile elements, in particular 233U, 235U, 239Pu and 241Pu, is the fuel content and preferably is in the range of 2 cmol % to 10 cmol % of the actinides, i.e. An. Earth alkali metals may also be contained in the fuel salt. An example of a specific fuel salt composition is LiF—BeF2—UF4 (FLiBe—U). The fuel salt may comprise thorium, so that neutrons produced during fission of fissile actinides, e.g. 233U, 235U and 239Pu, will convert non-fissile 232Th to fissile 233U. When the term “fuel content” is used this generally refers to the composition when the fission reaction is initiated. The improved corrosion resistance provided by the corundum allows a longer lifetime of the device so that a feasible thorium-based nuclear reactor is provided by the invention. Without the corrosion resistance, the molten salt is expected to degrade the device before operation based on generated 233U is possible. The fuel salt of the device comprises a fissionable material. In the context of the invention a “fissionable material” is a material that can undergo fission from neutrons. As such, fissionable materials include isotopes that can undergo fission from thermal-energy neutrons, i.e. “fissile material”, as well as isotopes that can only undergo fission from fast-energy neutrons. In the context of the invention, fissionable material also includes isotopes that can be converted, e.g. by absorption of a neutron, to a fissile material, i.e. “fertile material”. Thus for example, 235U and 239Pu are fissile materials, and 232Th and 238U are fertile materials, and 232Th, 233U, 235U, 239Pu, and 238U are fissionable materials. The inner tubing may have any shape desired. In general, the inner tubing has a circular cross-section, although the cross-section is not limited to circular and other cross-sectional shapes may be used. For example, the cross-section may be polygonal, rectangular, elliptical or of another shape. The internal tube may have a cross-sectional dimension, e.g. a diameter, in the range of 1 mm to 20 mm. The material thickness of the inner tubing material may be chosen freely, but it may for example be in the range of 1 mm to 10 mm, e.g. in the range of 1 mm to 3 mm, such about 2 mm. When the material thickness of the inner tubing material is in the range of 1 mm to 10 mm, especially 1 mm to 3 mm, the device can be made compact. In general, the inner tubing has an “active length”, which corresponds to the section of the inner tubing in which the fission reaction takes place. Any part of the inner tubing thus not contained in the core is typically not excluded from the active length. The inner tubing may contain sections of corundum tubes, or the inner tubing may contain sections prepared from sheets of corundum joined together. In an embodiment, the inner tubing comprises a section consisting of corundum. In the context of the invention, a “section” is a length of the inner tubing material so that a section of the inner tubing consisting of corundum is a single piece of corundum, in particular, the single piece may be a tube of corundum. When the inner tubing has a section, especially a single tube, the surface area of structural material other than the corundum can be minimised. In an embodiment, the single tube of corundum is as long as possible, e.g. with a length, e.g. the active length, up to 3 m, e.g. 2 m, and the diameter of the single tube may for example be in the range of 1 mm to 20 mm. In another embodiment, the single tube of corundum has a length, especially an active length, up to 1 m, and the diameter of the single tube may for example be in the range of 1 mm to 20 mm. The material thickness of the single tube may be in the range of 1 mm to 10 mm. Individual sections, e.g. single tubes, of corundum may be joined together using any approach as desired. Tubes joined together may be of the same material or tubes of different materials may be joined together. For example, two tubes of corundum may be joined together, or a tube of corundum may be joined with a tube of another material, e.g. a Hastelloy. For example, individual tubes may be joined together at the end, e.g. to form a so-called “butt joint”, or a first tube, e.g. an “internal tube”, having an outer diameter smaller than the inner diameter of a second tube e.g. an “outer tube”, may be inserted into the second tube, e.g. to form a so-called “lap joint”. In an embodiment the butt joining and the lap joining are combined. For example, a short section, i.e. an internal tube, e.g. of a corundum, having a small outer diameter may be inserted into the ends of two separate tubes, i.e. outer tubes, e.g. corundum tubes, having an inner diameter larger than the outer diameter of the internal tube. The outer tubes may be pushed together or there may be a distance between the ends of the outer tubes. In a lap joint the outer diameter of the internal tube may be substantially the same as the inner diameter of the outer tube in order to secure tight, e.g. fluid tight, coupling between the two tubes. In an embodiment, two tubes are lap joined or butt joined, and a metal is located at the junction to further ensure fluid tight connection between the two tubes. The metal at the junction, whether a lap joint or a butt joint, may take the form of a ferrule or fitting. A ferrule or fitting may comprise, e.g. be made of, a ductile, and preferably also corrosion resistant, metal. Relevant metals for a ferrule or fitting are nickel, nickel alloys, e.g. Hastelloy, and gold. For example, the ferrule or fitting can be made of nickel, nickel alloys and/or gold, or any of these metals may be included in the ferrule or fitting. A ferrule or fitting will have a first end with an inner diameter larger than the outer diameter of the internal tube and a second end with an outer diameter smaller than the inner diameter of the outer tube. The first and the second end of the ferrule or fitting may be the same, e.g. the ferrule or fitting is cylindrical, or the first and the second end of the ferrule or fitting may be different, e.g. the ferrule or fitting is frustoconical. The metal at the junction may also be applied in a molten state or be molten after application before joining the two tubes. Joining two tubes using a molten metal may also be referred to as “brazing”. Appropriate metals for brazing comprise Pt—Cu—Ti, Pd—Ni—Ti, and Co—Ti. The inner tubing of the device of the invention may also comprise metallic sections consisting of a metal selected from the list consisting of nickel based superalloys, e.g. Hastelloy N, or nickel etc. Metallic sections may be joined together or joined with sections of corundum using lap joining or butt joining as described above, and the joints may employ metallic ferrules or fittings or the tubes may be joined by brazing. Metallic sections advantageously allow a more flexible layout of the inner tubing. For example, the inner tubing may comprise corners, turns, reducers or the like of metallic sections. In a preferred embodiment, straight sections of the inner tubing, especially inner tubing located in the core container, consist of tubes of corundum, and corners and/or turns of the inner tubing consist of metallic sections. For example, corundum tubes, i.e. the section or sections of the inner tubing consisting of single crystal corundum, may constitute 70% to 90% of the total length of the inner tubing. In a particular embodiment, the corundum tubes constitute 100% of the active length of the inner tubing. Thereby, the neutron transparency of the corundum is used optimally allowing the design and operation of fast reactors and thermal/epithermal reactors alike. The inner tubing has an inner surface and an outer surface. Either surface or both surfaces of the inner tubing may be coated with nickel or a nickel alloy, e.g. Hastelloy. Coating with the nickel alloy or nickel provides an extra level of protection from corrosion caused by the molten salts. The nickel or nickel alloy is especially relevant on the outer surface of the inner tubing when the inner tubing contains the fuel salt and when a molten moderator salt, e.g. a molten moderator salt comprising at least one metal hydroxide, at least one metal deuteroxide or a combination thereof, is contained in the core container. The coating may have a thickness in the range of 1 μm to 100 μm. A coating thickness of 1 μm is considered sufficient for the coating to provide protection from corrosion. Thicknesses above 100 μm may, however, have a negative effect on neutron economy so that the thickness should not be above 100 μm. The device of the invention has a core container, and the volume, size and shape of the core container may be chosen freely. In general, the core container has an internal volume, which corresponds to the total volume of the core container minus the volume of the inner tubing. The core container may be upwards open although the core container typically comprises a lid or cover. In general, the total volume of the core container is sufficient to contain the inner tubing. However, the inner tubing need not be fully contained within the core container and sections of the inner tubing may extend outside the core container. In an embodiment, the inner tubing has a volume in the range of 10% to 90% of the total volume of the core container. When the volume of the inner tubing is in the range of 10% to 90% of the total volume of the core container, the inner tubing may be fully contained within the total core volume. The core container has an inner surface facing the inner tubing. Thus, when the core container contains molten salt, e.g. a fuel salt, a moderator salt, a coolant salt, etc. the molten salt will be in contact with the inner surface of the core container and the outer surface of the inner tubing. The core container is made of a core container material. Any appropriate material may be selected for the core container material. In an embodiment, the core container material is a nickel based alloy, e.g. a Hastelloy. In the context of the invention a nickel based alloy is an alloy having at least 50% nickel. In another embodiment, the core container material is of stainless steel or another metal or alloy, the inner surface of which is coated with a nickel or a nickel alloy, e.g. Hastelloy. For example, the inner surface may have a coating with a thickness in the range of 1 μm to 100 μm. In a further embodiment, the inner surface of the core container, e.g. with the core container material being nickel or a nickel alloy, is clad with corundum, e.g. in the form of sheets. The device of the invention may be a fast, i.e. unmoderated, or a thermal or epithermal, i.e. moderated, MSR. When the device of the invention comprises a moderator, any moderator may be used. In an embodiment the inner tubing has an inlet and an outlet and contains the fuel salt, and the moderator may be solid, e.g. graphite, or the moderator may be a liquid, e.g. a molten moderator salt. In other embodiments, the moderator is a molten moderator salt, and either the molten moderator salt or the fuel salt may be circulated. For example, the molten moderator salt may be in the core container having an inlet and an outlet, which inlet and outlet are part of a closed loop with a heat exchanger so that the molten moderator salt can be circulated to transfer heat in the heat exchanger and drive a turbine and at the same time cool the molten fuel salt in the inner tubing to retain criticality. Alternatively, the inner tubing has an inlet and an outlet, which inlet and outlet are part of a closed loop with a heat exchanger, and the molten moderator salt is in the inner tubing for circulating in the heat exchanger and retain criticality of the molten fuel salt in the core container. The device of the invention may be used with any number of heat exchangers as appropriate to the specific set-up. In yet a further embodiment, both the inner tubing and the core container have an inlet and an outlet and either, or both, may form closed loops with a heat exchanger, e.g. the system comprises two heat exchangers. In a specific embodiment, the inner tubing and the core container have an inlet and an outlet. The fuel salt may be contained in the inner tubing, and the core container contains a salt comprising at least a fissionable material, e.g. 232Th, 233U, 235U, 239Pu, and 238U, so that neutron radiation created in the critical fuel salt will convert fissile material into fissionable material. Any embodiment of the invention that employs a molten moderator salt may use any molten moderator salt disclosed in WO 2018/229265. For example, the moderator salt may comprise at least one metal hydroxide, at least one metal deuteroxide or a combination thereof and a redox-element selected from the group consisting of Sr, Ca, Li, Rb, K, Ba, Li2C2, Na, Mg, Th, U, Be, Al or Zr or combinations thereof. The metal hydroxide or metal deuteroxide may be anhydrous or may contain up to 10% (w/w) water, e.g. 5% (w/w) water. The addition of water, e.g. up to 5% (w/w), strengthens the effect obtained by addition of the redox-element and moreover, the presence of water in the salt may further increase the moderating effect. The presence of water in a salt will contribute to the “oxoacidity” of the molten salt. In molten salts containing hydroxides, the hydroxide ion is an amphoteric species, which can accept a proton to become H2O as well as donate a proton to become the superoxide ion O2−. Water present in the molten salt reacts by the following equations2H2O⇄H3O++OH−2OH−⇄H2O+O2− The oxoacidity is defined pH2O=−log10[H2O] and the oxobasicity is pO2−=−log10[O2], much like the well-known definition of pH=−log10[H+]. The oxoacidity may aid in predicting the stability of certain species in molten salts as it is described by B. L. Trémilion in Chemistry in Non-Aqueous Solvents, Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht, 1974. doi:10.1007/978-94-010-2123-4 and in Acid-Base Effects in Molten Electrolytes, in: Molten Salt Chemistry, 1987: pp. 279-303 (which are hereby incorporated by reference). For example, alumina is slightly soluble in acidic and neutral melts, and is very soluble in basic melts. In acidic melts it dissolves as AlO+, and in basic melts it dissolves as AlO2−. However, Trémillon notes that the combination of an oxidised species with a base stabilises the system, which explains why easily oxidised species are more stable in basic media. Conversely, oxidised species are generally much less stable in an acidic system where the base is easily combined with the acidic species, and as a result the reduced species is favoured. However, for Al2O3 there is a range of oxoacidities where Al2O3 can exist in stable equilibrium with a solution of either AlO+ or AlO2− at oxoacidic/oxobasic conditions. For example, the equilibrium curves for Al2O3 in a diagram indicating the presence of the ions AlO+ and AlO2− as a function of the pH2O will show that at pH2O=2.6 the equilibrium concentration [AlO+]=[AlO2−]=10−6.7 M equal to 0.2*10−6 M. This therefore represents the minimum concentration of aluminium species AlO+ and AlO2− present in equilibrium with Al2O3. In general, solute concentrations below 10−6 M are considered stable with respect to corrosion, and thus there exists a range of water concentrations in a molten hydroxide where Al2O3 is sufficiently stable to be used as a structural material. In a particular embodiment, the device of the invention is used with a molten moderator salt comprising a metal hydroxide and/or a metal deuteroxide, e.g. the metal may be sodium or potassium or a combination of sodium and potassium, and water at a concentration to provide a pH2O in the range of 2.2 to 3.0. When water is present in this range, there is no need to supplement the molten moderator salt with a redox-element as defined above. In an embodiment, the device is used with the molten moderator salt not comprising a redox-element, especially a redox-element selected from the group consisting of Sr, Ca, Li, Rb, K, Ba, Li2C2, Na, Mg, Th, U, Be, Al or Zr or combinations thereof. In certain embodiments, different types of moderators are not used together. For example, in an embodiment the moderator is a molten salt comprise a metal hydroxide and/or a metal deuteroxide as the moderator. In this embodiment, it is preferred that graphite is not used as a moderator. In another embodiment, graphite is used as a moderator, and a molten metal hydroxide/metal deuteroxide salt is not used as a moderator. In an embodiment the inner tubing has an inlet and an outlet. In particular, the inner tubing may contain angles or curved sections as appropriate for the inner tubing of the desired length to fit within the core container. For example, the inner tubing may contain a meander structure, e.g. a meander structure having a single inlet and a single outlet. A meander structure may be planar, or it may extend in three dimensions. In another embodiment the inlet of the inner tubing comprises a manifold dividing the flow from the inlet into a number of tubes, e.g. 2 to 1000 or more tubes, which may be spaced, e.g. regularly spaced, in the core container. In an embodiment, the core container comprises a single inner tubing having a meander structure so that the core container contains 2 to 1000 or more sections of the single inner tubing. The core container may also comprise more than one inner tubing having a meander structure so that the core container contains 2 to 1000 or more sections of the two meanders. Likewise, the inner tubing may have an outlet with a manifold collecting the flow from a plurality of tubes, e.g. 2 to 1000, into a single outlet tube. In an embodiment the inner tubing has a single inlet and a single outlet, and the inner tube forms a meander extending the three dimensions and providing a regular distance between the sections of the inner tubing. The core container may thus comprise a plurality of sections of inner tubing. Regardless of the design on the inner tubing, e.g. whether the inner tubing comprises a manifold or whether the inner tubing has a meander structure, or whether the inner tubing comprises a manifold and also has a meander structure, the distance between the tubes or the sections of the inner tubing will be in the range of 0.5 cm to 10 cm. For example, when the molten fuel salt has 2 cmol % fuel, the distance will be in the range of 1 cm to 3 cm. When the molten fuel salt has 4 cmol % fuel, the distance will be in the range of 0.5 cm to 6 cm. Correspondingly, the distance between the inner tubes may be in the range of 0.5 cm to 10 cm. In general, when the molten fuel salt is contained in the inner tubing, the diameter of the inner tubes is correlated with the distance between the inner tubes, which is also influenced by the specific choice of the moderator. The diameter of the inner tubes and the distance between them may be calculated by the skilled person. The containers, e.g. the inner tubing and the core container, may have any shape as desired. For example, the container for the fuel salt, whether the inner tubing or the core container, may have an inlet and an outlet allowing a flow of the fuel salt from the inlet to the outlet. Likewise, the core container may also have an inlet and an outlet. In another embodiment the core container with the moderator material has an opening serving both as an inlet and an outlet. In embodiments of the invention, the inner tubing contains the fuel salt and the inner tubing does not have an inlet nor an outlet. In this embodiment it is preferred that the inner tubing is made from corundum, e.g. the inner tubing consists of a corundum tube closed at a bottom, and the fuel salt, e.g. 72% 7LiF, 16% BeF2, 12% AnF4, or 60% NaCl, 40% AnCl3 with “An” corresponding to 24% U and 16% Pu, is introduced into the corundum tube, which is closed at its top to contain the fuel salt to provide a “fuel pin”. Any number, e.g. in the range of 1 to 1000, of such fuel pins may be introduced into the core container, which has an inlet and an outlet for a molten salt. The molten salt in the core container may be a moderator salt, i.e. the device is a thermal or epithermal MSR, or a coolant salt, i.e. the device is a fast MSR. Any molten moderator salt of WO 2018/229265 may be used. Any non-moderating coolant salt may be used in the fast reactor. In an embodiment the device is a fast reactor and the inner tubing, which has an inlet and an outlet, contains the molten fuel salt. The inner tubing is comprised in the core container, which comprises a gas, which may be a noble gas, in particular helium, or carbon dioxide, or a mixture of helium and carbon dioxide. The core container may have an inlet and an outlet, e.g. for circulating the gas, although it is preferred that the core container in this embodiment does not have an inlet or an outlet. It is to be understood that the core container will have the necessary openings for filling the core container with the noble gas. In this embodiment, corundum structures, e.g. tubes, will function as flow guides along which the molten fuel salt of the fast reactor core can flow. This eliminates concerns in alternative molten salt fast reactor designs where large and open volumes of fuel salt lead to complex and detrimental flow patterns, e.g. stagnant recirculation zones and turbulence-induced high-frequency power variation. Thus, the present invention provides a simplified and safer set-up for performing a molten salt fast reactor. In a further embodiment the device is a moderated reactor, and the inner tubing, which has an inlet and an outlet, contains the molten fuel salt. In this embodiment, the core container contains a solid moderator, e.g. graphite. The inner tubing will be connected, i.e. be in fluid communication with, a heat exchanger. In particular, the inner tubing and the heat exchanger provides a closed loop for circulating the molten fuel salt to transfer heat and drive a turbine and at the same time cool the molten fuel salt to retain criticality. The corundum of the inner tubing minimises corrosion of the system and by using the corundum together with a solid moderator the longevity of the system is increased. In a further aspect, the invention relates to a method of controlling a nuclear fission process, the method comprising the steps of providing a device according to any embodiment of the device aspect of the invention, the core container of the device having the inlet and the outlet; introducing a molten fuel salt into the inner tubing, which molten fuel salt comprises halides of an alkali metal and a fissile element; introducing into the core container a molten coolant salt; providing a heat exchanger in fluid communication with the inlet and the outlet of the core container so as to define a heat exchange loop for removing heat from the coolant salt circulating in the heat exchange loop; and circulating the coolant salt in the heat exchange loop so as to control the temperature of the fuel salt in the inner tubing. In a further aspect of the method of controlling a nuclear fission process, the method comprising the steps of providing a device according to any embodiment of the device aspect of the invention, the inner tubing of the device having the inlet and the outlet; introducing a molten fuel salt into the inner tubing, which molten fuel salt comprises halides of an alkali metal and a fissile element; providing a heat exchanger in fluid communication with the inlet and the outlet of the inner tubing so as to define a heat exchange loop for removing heat from the molten fuel salt circulating in the heat exchange loop; and circulating the molten fuel salt in the heat exchange loop so as to control the temperature of the fuel salt. In both method aspects, the halide may be a fluoride, e.g. for a moderated reactor, or a chloride salt, e.g. for a fast reactor. The coolant salt may thus comprise a moderator. In a specific embodiment, the core container contains a blanket of breeder material. The breeder material may have any composition allowing the material to be converted to be a nuclear fuel. For example, the breeder material may contain 238U that can be converted to 239Pu or 232Th that can be converted to 233U upon neutron irradiation. In particular, the blanket may be located outside the core or the blanket may be at the periphery of the core. In both cases the blanket will capture neutrons and thereby produce further fissile material. The fissile material is hereafter transferred to the critical core. Nuclear fission in the fuel salt will create heat and it is preferred that the device also comprises a heat exchange system for transporting the heat away from the fuel salt container, e.g. to a turbine or the like for generation of electricity. In particular, if heat is not removed from the molten fuel salt, the molten fuel salt will expand to a point where the nuclear fission reaction will stop. Thus, in the method aspects of the invention the nuclear fission processes are controlled by controlling the temperature of the fuel salt in the inner tubing or in the core container so as to maintain the temperature within the critical temperature range for the respective fuel salt. Any heat exchange system may be chosen for the device. In general, the temperature of the molten fuel salt is in the range of 700° C. to 900° C., e.g. for the nuclear reaction to take place, and the coolant is chosen to work at a temperature in the range of 500° C. to 1000° C. or more. In a specific embodiment the temperature at the inlet is in the range of 400° C. to 800° C., and wherein the temperature at the outlet is in the range of 600° C. to 1000° C. Evidently the temperature at the inlet is lower than the temperature at the outlet. In a preferred embodiment the fuel salt is circulated, e.g. from the inner tubing, to the heat exchange system to cool the fuel salts. In another embodiment, a molten moderator salt is located in the inner tubing and circulated to the heat exchanger so that the moderator salt in turn cools the molten fuel salt to maintain this within the critical temperature. In yet a further embodiment, the device comprises a separate coolant loop with a molten coolant salt. It is also contemplated that a molten metal, e.g. an alkali metal, may be used as a coolant. The heat exchange system may thus comprise a coolant loop in thermal contact with the molten fuel salt, allowing transfer of heat from the fuel salt to the coolant salt. Any salt may be chosen for the coolant salt. In a specific embodiment the coolant is a salt of the composition 46.5% LiF, 11.5% NaF and 42% KF (FLiNaK), although the composition may also be varied. The coolant loop has an inlet for low temperature coolant and an outlet for heated coolant. A nuclear fission reactor may be described in terms of its power density (P), which refers to the (average) amount of heat produced in the in-core fuel salt per unit volume-time due to nuclear fissions and radioactive decays. When the neutron population in the reactor remains steady from one generation to the next (creating as many new neutrons as are lost), the fission chain reaction is self-sustaining and the reactor's condition is referred to as “critical”. Since heat production in an MSR is chain-reaction driven and because no solid fuel is present in the reactor core, the upper theoretical limit on the power density is very high, this being much higher than would be desired during normal operation. Power density can therefore be considered to be a design choice rather than a design feature. The reactor core power density depends on the circulation time, residence fraction, physical properties of the fuel salt and finally on the inlet/outlet temperature difference. A figure of merit for the fuel salt power density in an MSR is given by: ℙ = c fuel ⁢ ρ fuel ⁢ Δ ⁢ ⁢ T fτ c where f is the fuel residence time fraction, τc is the circulation time, cfuel and ρfuel are the specific heat capacity and the density, respectively, of the molten fuel salt, and ΔT is the difference between in inlet temperature and the outlet temperature. As a general rule, higher power densities enable a smaller core volume. However, for a given power output and core volume, the power density should be kept as small as possible to reduce residual heat production from decay products, as well as radiation damage to the core, which reduces the life-time of the reactor. Settling on a specific fuel power density is therefore a trade-off between minimising the core volume and maximising reactor control and life-time. In a further embodiment the reactor core further comprises a coolant and/or a reflector that may be different from the moderator material, if present. A preferred reflector material is graphite or beryllium. Thereby, a device is provided in which the moderator material may easily, and with a simple reactor structure, be kept stationary, and the corrosive effects of a molten moderator salt may easily be controlled with a simple reactor structure. The device according to the invention is a molten salt reactor. The molten salt reactor according to the invention may be a molten salt reactor of the burner type or a molten salt reactor of the waste burner type. The molten salt reactor according to the invention may be a molten salt reactor of the breeder type, the breed-and-burn type or the MSR type. In an embodiment, the molten salt reactor may be for supplying energy for propulsion of means of transportation, e.g. the molten salt reactor may be carried on a ship. In another embodiment the molten salt reactor is part of a fixed installation. Any embodiment of the two method aspects may generally take place in any embodiment of the device of the invention. Likewise, any embodiment of the use aspect of the invention may be performed in any embodiment of the device of the invention. However, the use aspect is not limited to the device of the invention, and the use may be performed in any appropriate reactor as desired. It is noted that the invention relates to all possible combinations of features recited in the claims. In particular, any feature mentioned in the context of a specific aspect of the invention is equally relevant for any other aspect of the invention where it provides the same advantage as for the aspect where it is mentioned explicitly. As illustrated in the figures, the sizes of layers and regions are exaggerated for illustrative purposes and, thus, are provided to illustrate the general structures of embodiments of the present invention. Like reference numerals refer to like elements throughout. The present invention will now be described more fully hereinafter with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which currently preferred embodiments of the invention are shown. This invention may, however, be embodied in many different forms and should not be construed as limited to the embodiments set forth herein; rather, these embodiments are provided for thoroughness and completeness, and fully convey the scope of the invention to the skilled person. Fuel Salt Composition The fuel salt (abbreviated FS) in general consists of a non-actinide carrier part (chosen for its thermodynamic properties), and an actinide component ensuring reactor criticality. The actinide component Ani may further be split up in a fuel component and an added fertile component. The fuel salt vector Fi is described by a pre-defined fuel vector which contains an initial plutonium component (typically Spent Nuclear Fuel (SNF) i.e. nuclear waste) along with additional components (some added after chemical reprocessing). The added (fertile) part is defined by the vector Ai which is chosen from its role in the reactor burnup process and will typically consist of added thorium and uranium. The actinide composition is defined by the various fuel vectors and is captured by the following values of merit: FPu the fuel plutonium (cation mole) fraction; ΔTh the fuel thorium (cation mole) fraction of the added fertile vector; FA the added (fertile) (cation mole) fraction. Here the two first fractions refer to the cation mole fractions of the fuel vector and the added fertile vector, respectively. The fuel salt is defined by the various fuel vectors, a carrier salt vector CSi, along with the following values of merit for the fuel salt: FSPu the fuel salt plutonium (cation mole) fraction; FSTh the fuel salt thorium (cation mole) fraction; FSCS the carrier salt (cation mole) fraction. Here “fraction” refers to the cation mole fraction of the combined fuel salt. With these definitions, the fuel salt vector can be written: (FS)i=FSCS CSi+(1−FSCS) Ani. The actinide vector is split up according to: Ani=(1−FA) Fi+FAAi. Here FPu of Fi consists of plutonium isotopes and ΔTh of Ai consists of thorium. We note that the following relations exist between the salt parameters:FSPu=(1−FSCS)(1−FA)FPu;FSTh=(1−FSCS)FA·ATh An exemplary fuel salt contains the following fuel salt vectors: CSi ═NaF; Ai=ThF4. This fuel is summarised in Table 3. TABLE 3A preferred fuel salt compositionFractioncmol %MotivationFSCS78Eutectic pointFPu80Chemical reprocessingf238U 97.5Chemical reprocessingATh100 Waste burningFA≈90 Optimization studyf238Pu 0.5Industry waste standardf239Pu69Industry waste standardf240Pu25Industry waste standardf241Pu 2Industry waste standardf242Pu 1Industry waste standardf241Am 2.5Industry waste standardSPu≈2—STh≈20 — Preferred Device Of The Invention A preferred device 100 of the invention is illustrated in FIG. 4, where it is depicted from the side. Specifically, FIG. 4 shows the device 100, which has a core container 20, which core container 20 encloses an inner tubing 10 with a molten fuel salt 1. The core container 20 has a total volume, and the total volume of the core container minus the inner tubing 10 represents the internal volume 2. The internal volume 2 may contain a molten moderator salt, a molten coolant salt, a graphite moderator or a noble gas. The inner tubing has one or more, e.g. two as depicted in FIG. 4, inlets 6 in fluid communication with an inlet manifold 61, which in turn is in fluid communication with the inner tubing 10. The inner tubing 10 communicates with an outlet manifold 62, which collects the flow, in this case of molten fuel salt 1 in a single outlet 7. The direction of the flow is indicated with the symbol “>”. The device 100 may be connected to a heat exchanger 4 for eventually converting heat generated from the fission reaction into electricity as illustrated schematically as a “black box” model in FIG. 5. The inlets 6 and the outlet 7 are in fluid communication with an inlet 41 and an outlet 42, respectively, of a heat exchanger 4 to provide a heat exchange loop 40. The details of the heat exchanger 4 are not shown in FIG. 5. The core container material is a nickel based alloy, specifically a Hastealloy. The inner tubing 10 comprises sections 11 of tubes of corundum and sections 11 of tubes made from a nickel based alloy. Any straight section 11 of the inner tubing 10 may be a corundum tube and in the embodiment shown, the sections 11 with angles are made from tubes of Hastelloy. The tubes of the different sections 11 are lap joined together. The device 100 may further comprise an additional safety feature 8 comprising an overflow system in addition to the commonly used salt plug system of the prior art. This safety system prevents meltdowns, hinders accidents from human operator error, automatically shuts down in case of out of scope operation conditions, and may flush the fuel inventory to a passively cooled and sub-critical dump tank below the core vessel in case of a loss of operation power. The reactor size is determined from two conditions; circulation time and negative temperature feedback for both fuel and moderator. In practice the operating power density can be adjusted through physical feedback mechanisms in the reactor core. In particular, the negative temperature feedback of both the fuel salt and the moderator means that the power density can be controlled by adjusting the external energy in-flow. Since core circulation may carry delayed neutrons away from the chain reaction, the mass flow rate through the reactor core should be held constant for optimal reactor control and safety reasons. Rather than changing the internal core flow, it is more desirable to control the power production by varying the mass flow through the external heat exchanger 4. In order to attain maximal reactor control, the mass flow rate through the device 100 should be chosen so that the change in the reactor reactivity as compared to no circulation is as small as practically possible. In this way, in case of pump failure scenario, the concentration of decaying precursors in the reactor core will only be minimally larger than at normal operation. FIG. 6 shows a top view of a section of the device 100 shown in FIG. 4. Thus, the inner tubing 10 is distributed in a hexagonal pattern in the core container, which has a cylindrical cross-section with an external cladding 5. The external cladding may also be referred to as a blanket or shielding. A hexagonal pattern is superimposed on the cross-section of the device 100, but this pattern is not intended to represent any specific material. FIG. 7 and FIG. 8 illustrate and compare the packing of the inner tubing 10 of a preferred device of the invention (FIG. 7) and a MSR (FIG. 8) where graphite 3 is used as a moderator. The superimposed hexagonal patterns show how a metal hydroxide/deuteroxide moderator allows a much denser packing of the inner tubing 10 than available in the graphite moderated MSR thus providing a much smaller form factor F. In order to test the stability of corundum in an appropriate molten salt, a sample of corundum was added to a molten FLiNaK salt (4.4 g LiF, 1.8 g NaF and 8.9 g KF) at 600° C. and kept in the molten FLiNaK salt for 25 hours. Prior to exposure to the molten salt the dry mass of the sample was recorded. The sample was removed from the molten salt, washed with water and dried in an oven and cooled to ambient temperature until a constant weight was obtained. The comparison of the mass of the sample before and after treatment showed a weight gain of 0.001 g (corresponding to 0.082% w/w or 0.3 mg/cm3) was observed. Thus, no degradation of the corundum sample was observed. The corundum sample (in the form of a cylindrical slab of 12.1 mm diameter and 3 mm thickness) had a serial number engraved into the side of the sample, and after 25 hours in the molten FLiNaK that serial number was still clearly visible as is evident in FIG. 1. Model calculations for a device of the invention were made and compared to a device of the prior art based on Hastelloy N. The results are shown in FIG. 2 and FIG. 3. Specifically, the enrichment and the conversion ratios were calculated as functions of the inner tubing thicknesses for fuel salts of the composition 50.5% NaF 21.5% KF 28.0% UF4 at criticality, where the structural material is Hastelloy N (prior art, left panels) and corundum (invention, right panels). The calculations show that both enrichment and conversion ratios are improved for the device of the invention, and furthermore in the device of the invention there is very limited effect of increasing the inner tubing thickness, which is in contrast to the prior art device where there is a pronounced negative effect of increasing the inner tubing thickness.
	claims	1. A method for treating a tumor of a patient with positively charged particles, comprising the steps of:loading a synchrotron of a charged particle cancer therapy system with the positively charged particles using a loading system;using an accelerator of said synchrotron to accelerate the positively charged particles in a circulation beam path of said synchrotron;removing a first set of the positively charged particles, from said synchrotron, at a first energy using a beam extraction system;treating the tumor using the first set of positively charged particles;providing a beam energy adjustment system, comprising:a first gap axially crossing said circulation beam path; anda first radio-frequency controller;applying a potential difference across the first gap, using said first radio-frequency controller, at an applied radio-frequency using said beam energy adjustment system;timing the applied radio-frequency and the potential difference to alter a remaining grouped bunch of the positively charged particles in said circulation beam path from the first energy to a second energy;subsequent to said step of removing, extracting a portion of the remaining grouped bunch of the positively charged particles, from said synchrotron, at the second energy prior to reloading said synchrotron using said loading system; andtreating the tumor using the portion of the remaining grouped bunch of the positively charged particles. 2. The method of claim 1, said step of applying the potential difference further comprising the step of:using an increasing potential, relative to movement of the positively charge particles across the first gap, to decelerate the remaining bunch of the positively charged particles in said circulation beam path. 3. The method of claim 1, said step of applying the potential difference further comprising the step of:accelerating the remaining bunch of positively charged particles across the first gap using a first potential at an entrance side of the first gap and a relatively lower second potential at an exit side of the first gap. 4. The method of claim 3, said step of timing the radio-frequency further comprising the step of:phase shifting the radio-frequency to accelerate a trailing edge of the remaining bunch of positively charged particles circulating in said circulation beam path to increase a mean energy of the positively charged particles circulating in said circulation beam path. 5. The method of claim 3, further comprising the step of:using said accelerator to accelerate the remaining bunch of positively charged particles in said circulation beam path. 6. The method of claim 5, further comprising the step of:extracting at least two treatment beams from said synchrotron at a corresponding at least two energies without using said accelerator to change energy of the remaining bunch of the positively charged particles in said circulation beam path. 7. The method of claim 6, the at least two energies comprising different Bragg peak depths with a resolution of better than one-half. 8. The method of claim 3, further comprising the step of:repeating said steps of: (1) applying the potential difference, (2) timing the potential difference, and (3) extracting to extract n bunches of the positively charged particles at n energies prior to repeating said step of loading, where n is a positive integer of at least three, where the n energies differ from each other by at least one-half of one percent. 9. The method of claim 8, said step of treating, as controlled by said step of applying a potential difference, further comprising the step of:scanning a treatment beam along a depth of penetration axis into the tumor using the n bunches of the positively charged particles at the n energies. 10. The method of claim 9, said step of scanning further comprising the step of:overlapping treatment voxels, of less than two cubic millimeters, of adjacent bunches of the n bunches. 11. The method of claim 8, further comprising the step of:applying a radio-frequency controlled potential drop across a second gap axially crossing said circulation beam path. 12. The method of claim 11, further comprising the steps of:focusing the remaining bunch of the positively charged particles while crossing the first gap using, the first gap comprising a convex exit surface relative to motion of the positively charged particles; anddefocusing the remaining bunch of the positively charged particles while crossing the second gap, the second gap comprising a concave entrance surface relative to motion of the positively charged particles. 13. The method of claim 12, further comprising the steps of:imaging a position of a treatment beam from said accelerator relative to the tumor; andsaid step of imaging outputting a signal used to dynamically control said step of applying a potential difference across the first gap to correct an energy axis of the treatment beam to a targeted voxel of the tumor. 14. The method of claim 3, said step of loading said accelerator further comprising the step of:using a gating electrode between an ion source and an extraction electrode to pass the positively charged particles from said ion source to said accelerator. 15. An apparatus for treatment of a tumor of a patient with positively charged particles, comprising:a charged particle cancer therapy system, comprising:an accelerator comprising a circulation beam path;a loading system configured to load said accelerator with the positively charged particles, said accelerator configured to accelerate the positively charge particles;a beam energy adjustment system, comprising:a first gap axially crossing the circulation beam path; anda first radio-frequency controller configured to repeatedly apply at least one potential difference at at least one radio-frequency, the at least one potential difference and the at least one radio-frequency timed to alter a remaining grouped bunch of the positively charged particles from the first energy to a second energy; anda beam extraction system configured to: (1) remove from said accelerator a first set of the positively charged particles at the first energy for treatment of the tumor and (2) prior to reloading said accelerator using said loading system, subsequently extract from said accelerator a portion of the remaining grouped bunch of the positively charged particles at the second energy for treatment of the tumor. 16. The apparatus of claim 15, said beam energy adjustment system further comprising:a second gap axially crossing said circulation beam path; anda second radio-frequency controller electrically coupled to said second gap. 17. The apparatus of claim 16, said beam energy adjustment system further comprising:a third gap axially crossing said circulation beam path;a third radio-frequency controller electrically coupled to sides of said third gap;at least one entrance surface of any of said first gap, said second gap, and said third gap comprising a concave surface relative to movement of the positively charged particles; andat least one exit surface of any of said first gap, said second gap, and said third gap comprising a convex surface relative to movement of the positively charged particles.
	summary
	summary
	claims	1. A steam generator comprising:a vessel having an inlet and an outlet, wherein in use, a primary fluid flow enters the vessel through the inlet and exits the vessel through the outlet; anda plurality of modules connected in series and at least partially housed within the vessel, wherein each module comprises:a plurality of tubes, anda flange plate positioned at an axial end of the plurality of tubes,wherein the modules are arranged such that each of the plurality of tubes of one module is coaxial with one of the plurality of tubes of an adjacent module so as to form a conduit bundle comprising a plurality of conduits through which a secondary fluid can flow from one module to an adjacent module, and wherein adjacent modules of the plurality of modules are connected together via the flange plates of the adjacent modules, andwherein an intermediate plate is positioned between adjacent flange plates of the adjacent modules, the intermediate plate comprising a plurality of holes, each hole receiving one of the plurality of tubes of each of the adjacent modules, and the axial end of the plurality of tubes of the one module and the axial end of the plurality of tubes of the adjacent module are both located within the intermediate plate. 2. The steam generator according to claim 1, wherein each flange plate comprises a plurality of holes, each hole receiving one of the plurality of tubes. 3. The steam generator according to claim 1, wherein the intermediate plate and two flange plates are bolted together. 4. The steam generator according to claim 1, wherein the intermediate plate and the flange plates are welded together. 5. The steam generator according to claim 1, further comprising a seal between adjacent flange plates and the intermediate plate. 6. The steam generator according to claim 1, wherein the flange plates are formed as a separate component to the tubes. 7. The steam generator according to claim 6, wherein one or more of the plurality of flange plates are integrally formed with the vessel. 8. The steam generator according to claim 1, wherein the conduit is U-shaped. 9. The steam generator according to claim 1, wherein the conduit is helical. 10. The steam generator according to claim 9, wherein one tube defines one turn of the helical conduit and an adjacent tube defines an adjacent turn of the helical conduit. 11. A steam generator system comprising the steam generator according to claim 1; a primary fluid flow channel connecting to the inlet of the vessel and for connection to a heat source; and a secondary fluid flow channel connecting to the outlet of the vessel and for connection to a turbine. 12. A steam generator comprising one or more tube bundles, the steam generator being configured to receive a secondary flow through the tube bundles and a primary flow outside the tube bundles;wherein each tube bundle comprises a first sub-bundle connected in series to a second sub-bundle,wherein each of the first and second sub-bundles comprise a plate including a plurality of holes, each hole receiving one of a plurality of tubes of the respective first or second sub-bundle, andwherein the plate of the first sub-bundle connects to the plate of the second sub-bundle with an intermediate plate positioned between the plates of the first and second sub-bundles, the intermediate plate comprising a plurality of holes, each hole receiving one of the tubes of each of the first and the second sub-bundles, an axial end of the plurality of tubes of the first sub-bundle and an axial end of the plurality of tubes of the second sub-bundle are both located within the intermediate plate, and the first and second sub-bundles and the intermediate plate are arranged such that the tubes of the first sub-bundle are substantially coaxial to the tubes of the second sub-bundle, such that in use, fluid flows from the first sub-bundle to the second sub-bundle. 13. The steam generator according to claim 1, wherein each of the plurality of holes of the intermediate plate include a chamfered axial end. 14. The steam generator according to claim 1, wherein the vessel is configured to receive the primary fluid as a pressurized liquid. 15. The steam generator system according to claim 11, wherein the heat source is a nuclear reactor. 16. A nuclear power plant steam generator comprising:a vessel having an inlet and an outlet, wherein in use, a primary fluid flow from a nuclear reactor of the nuclear power plant enters the vessel through the inlet and exits the vessel through the outlet; anda plurality of modules connected in series and at least partially housed within the vessel, wherein each module comprises:a plurality of tubes, anda flange plate positioned at an axial end of the plurality of tubes,wherein the modules are arranged such that each of the plurality of tubes of one module is coaxial with one of the plurality of tubes of an adjacent module so as to form a conduit bundle comprising a plurality of conduits through which a secondary fluid can flow from one module to an adjacent module, and wherein adjacent modules of the plurality of modules are connected together via the flange plates of the adjacent modules, andwherein an intermediate plate is positioned between adjacent flange plates of the adjacent modules, the intermediate plate comprising a plurality of holes, each hole of the plurality of holes of the intermediate plate receiving one of the plurality of tubes of each of the adjacent modules, and the axial end of the plurality of tubes of the one module and the axial end of the plurality of tubes of the adjacent module are both located within the intermediate plate.
	description	This application is a Division of U.S. Patent Application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/517,096, titled, “Thorium Molten Salt Assembly for Energy Generation,” filed on Jul. 19, 2019. The disclosures of all referenced applications are hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties. Not applicable. Not applicable. The inventions disclosed and taught herein relate generally to a system for generating power using a Thorium-containing liquid molten salt fuel and, more specifically, an accelerator-driven Thorium molten salt system for generating process heat and/or electricity resulting from nuclear fission reactions. Attempts have been made to provide an accelerator-driven system for the generation of energy using fuel material containing Thorium. To date, such systems have primarily been focused on the use of a solid or molten lead (or other heavy metal) spallation target to generate neutrons used to initiate or sustain nuclear fission reaction and fuel initially comprising of mixtures of Plutonium and Thorium. Examples of such systems are discussed below. Ashley, Coats et. al, “The accelerator-driven Thorium reactor power station,” Energy, Vol. 164, Issue EN3 at 127-135 (August 2011 Issue) discusses an accelerator-driven Thorium reactor in which a particle accelerator injects high-energy particles into a molten lead target to release neutrons via the spallation process. The article indicates that a fissile starter, such as Plutonium from spent fuel, is required, and that the core of the system includes a series of fuel pins, each containing mixed-oxide pellets comprised of Plutonium and Thorium. A similar system is disclosed in Ludewig and Aronson, “Study of Multi-Beam Accelerator Driven Thorium Reactor” (March 2011). U.S. Patent Application Publication No. US2013/0051508, “Accelerator Driven Sub-Critical Core” purports to disclose “a fission power generator [that] includes a sub-critical core and a plurality of proton beam generators” where the generated proton beams “via spallation” generate neutrons for use in the system. The use of heavy metal spallation targets poses several challenges as does the use of fuel initially containing Plutonium or Uranium. The present inventions are directed to providing an enhanced system for energy generation providing benefits over, and overcoming shortcomings of, the systems and methods discussed in the materials referenced above, and other existing systems. A brief non-limiting summary of one of the many possible embodiments of the present invention is: A Thorium molten salt energy system that includes a proton beam source for producing a proton beam, where the energy level of the proton beam can vary between a first energy level and a second energy level, where the first energy level can interact with a Beryllium nucleus to produce a (p, n) reaction resulting in the generation of a neutron at an energy level sufficient to fission Thorium and the second energy level is such that the interaction of a proton at the second energy level can interact with a Lithium nucleus to produce a (p, n) reaction resulting in the generation of a neutron at an energy level sufficient to fission uranium; and a Thorium molten salt assembly that includes a main assembly body; a tubular member positioned within the main body, a top lid coupled to the main assembly body in the form of a circular disk defining a plurality of openings passing therethrough where the openings in the lid define a window through which protons from the proton source may pass; impeller shaft openings passing through the top lid, each defining an opening suitable for receipt of a rotating shaft; and at least two heat exchanger openings passing through the top and wherein the molten salt assembly includes a molten salt solution contained within the main assembly body containing Thorium and Lithium and a plurality of solid Thorium fuel rods positioned within the tubular member and arranged such that at least a portion of each Thorium fuel rod is below the first opening in the lid, each solid Thorium fuel rod including an inner member comprising Beryllium and an outer member formed from a solid that comprises at least some solid Thorium, wherein the outer member defines an opening passing through the solid Thorium fuel rod and the inner member is located within the opening; a plurality of immersion pumps, each immersion pumps including an impeller shaft having a first end extending through one impeller openings defined by the top lid and a second end extending into the molten salt assembly, wherein an impeller is coupled to the second end of each immersion pump, and wherein the length of the impeller shaft is such that the impeller of each impeller pump is located within the Thorium molten salt assembly body; and a primary heat exchange assembly. Additionally, or alternatively, the system of the present disclosure may take the form of energy system comprising including a proton beam source adapted to vary an energy level of the produced proton beam between at least a first energy level and a second energy level and wherein the proton beam source may be controlled to direct the proton beam generated by the proton beam source in at least two directions; a Thorium molten salt assembly including a main assembly body containing a molten salt solution, the molten salt solution comprising both Thorium and Lithium; a plurality of solid Thorium-fuel rods positioned within the main assembly body that each include an inner core comprising Beryllium and an outer member within which the inner core is positioned, where the outer member including solid Thorium; and where the proton beam source may be controlled to generate a proton beam having protons at a first energy level directed towards the inner Beryllium core of at least one within the plurality of Thorium-fuel rods to promote the generation of neutrons of a first general energy level through a (p, n) reaction involving a Beryllium within the Beryllium core and controlled to generate a proton beam having protons at a second energy level directed towards a molten salt region within the main assembly body to promote the generation of neutrons of a second general energy level through a (p, n) reaction involving a Lithium atom within the Thorium-containing molten salt. Additionally, or alternatively, the proton beam source may include a particle generator for generating negatively charged hydrogen atoms, a first set of vacuum particle accelerator segments, a second set of vacuum particle accelerator segments, a third set of vacuum particle accelerator segments, a fourth set of vacuum particle accelerator segments, and a nitrogen stripping chamber, wherein each particle accelerator segment is capable of being maintained at a relatively constant voltage level, wherein the first and second sets of a plurality of vacuum particle generators are adapted to create positive level voltage fields when energized, wherein the third and fourth sets of a plurality of vacuum particle generators are adapted to create negative level voltage fields when energized, and wherein the nitrogen stripping chamber is adapted to strip an electron off a negatively charged hydrogen atom passing through the chamber to produce a proton. Other potential aspects, variants and examples of the disclosed technology will be apparent from a review of the disclosure contained herein. None of these brief summaries of the inventions is intended to limit or otherwise affect the scope of the appended claims, and nothing stated in this Brief Summary of the Invention is intended as a definition of a claim term or phrase or as a disavowal or disclaimer of claim scope. FIGS. 1A and 1B illustrate, in block and rough schematic form a first embodiment of an exemplary accelerator-driven sub-critical Thorium molten salt system 1000 for generating useful energy (for example in the form of process heat and/or electricity) in accordance with certain teachings of this disclosure. As reflected in FIG. 1A-1B, the exemplary system 1000 includes a particle beam source 200 for producing a particle beam. In the example of FIG. 1A-1B, the particle beam source 200 is adapted to vary the energy level of the produced particle beam such that the energy of the particles comprising the proton beam can vary between at least a first energy level and a second energy level, where the first energy level is at least approximately 4.5 MeV (and potentially up to or above 6 MeV) and the second energy level is at least 2.4 MeV. As reflected in FIG. 1A the particle beam source 200 includes a power input 201 for receiving the power required to drive the particle source. FIG. 2A provides details of the exemplary particle beam source 200 of FIG. 1. As reflected in FIG. 2, the exemplary particle beam source 200 includes a particle generator 202 for generating charged particles. In the example, of FIG. 2, the charged particles may take the form of a negatively charged hydrogen nucleus (for example, a neutral hydrogen atom with an added electron). The use of a neutral hydrogen atom with an added electron is exemplary for purposes of the present discussion and other charged particles may be used without departing from the teachings of the present disclosure. It should also be noted that the use of negatively charged particles is exemplary as well. One could implement the teachings of the present disclosure using positively-charged particles, although the references to positive and negative voltages in the discussion relating to how the particles are accelerated should be considered reversed when dealing with positively-charged particles (i.e., references to negative voltage should be replaced with positive voltage and vice versa). In the example of FIG. 2A, the negatively charged generated particles from the particle generator 202 are applied to a vacuum accelerator assembly 204 that includes several individual vacuum voltage chambers. The vacuum accelerator assembly 204 receives the negatively charged particles from the particle generator 202 and accelerates the generated particles to provide a high energy particle beam at its output. The high energy output beam from the vacuum accelerator assembly 204 is provided to an electromagnetic forming and steering assembly 208 that converts the received particle beam into an output particle beam having desired shape and directional characteristics. FIG. 2B illustrates an exemplary vacuum accelerator assembly 204 that may be used to form the particle beam source 200 of FIG. 2A. In the example of FIG. 2B, the vacuum accelerator assembly 204 is formed from ten individual vacuum voltage chambers 206a-206j. Each of the vacuum voltage chambers is coupled to a vacuum source and to a source of electrical power such that the voltage chamber can be evacuated to provide a vacuum interior and such that a relatively uniform electrical potential (voltage) level within the chamber can be established. The vacuum voltage chambers may be arranged in four groups, a first group comprising chambers 206a-206b, a second group comprising chambers 206c-206d a third group comprising chambers 206g-206h and a fourth group comprising chambers 206i and 206j. Chambers 206e-206f may collectively be used to form a nitrogen stripping chamber as discussed in more detail below. FIG. 2C generally illustrates the way the exemplary particle beam source 200 may be operated to generate particles having a first energy level. Referring to the figure, in this mode, during operation of the assembly 204, the first and second groups of vacuum voltage chambers (i.e., each of the voltage chambers 206a-206d) is energized such that the voltage potential in these chambers is positive, with the magnitude of the electrical potential increasing from chamber 206a to 206d. Because the particles generated by the particle generator 202 will have a negative charge, the positive voltage potential within chambers 206a-206d, and the differential in the magnitude of the positive voltage between chambers 206a-206d will cause the generate particles to move into and accelerate through chamber 206a towards chamber 206b, with the particles accelerating as they move through the identified chambers as the result of the increasing voltage potential from chamber 206a to 206b. The particles will move into chamber 206b and be accelerated, in the same manner, towards and into chamber 206c. The process will be repeated with the particles continuing to accelerate, and gain energy, as they pass into and through chamber 206d. In the illustrated example of FIG. 2C, during this first mode of operation, vacuum voltage chambers 206e and 206f are configured such that they have no net voltage potential. As a result, the particle moving through these chambers will not be accelerated but will—in essence—“coast” through the chambers 206e and 206f as a result of the momentum created by the movement and acceleration provided by chambers 206a-206d. In the illustrated example, chambers 206e and 206f, while not maintained at a specific voltage level, are filled with charged nitrogen gas to form a nitrogen stripping chamber. This gas will tend to strip off electrons from the particles traveling through chambers 206e and 206f, thus causing the moving particles to transition from negatively charged particles to particles having a positive charge. In the specific example under discussion, the stripping chamber will strip off the two electrons associated with the negatively charged hydrogen generated by particle accelerator to provide a positively charged particle consisting of a single proton. In the illustrated example of FIG. 2C, in the operating mode, the vacuum voltage chambers in the third and fourth groups (i.e., chambers 206g-206j) are activated such that the voltage levels within the chambers are negative, with the magnitude of the voltage levels within the chambers increasing from chamber 206g-206j. As a result of these established voltage levels, the positively charged particles traveling through chamber 206f will be attracted into chamber 206g and accelerated through chamber 206g to chamber 206h where they will be further attracted toward, and accelerated through, chambers 206i and 206j. Because of the increasingly negative voltages created within chambers 206g-206j, the particles passing through the chamber will continue to accelerate as they pass through the identified chambers to and from a high energy particle beam at the exit of vacuum accelerator assembly 204. In the example of FIG. 2B, the voltage levels of the chambers 206a-206j are established such that the energy level of the particles exiting the particle beam source 200 are at least on the order of approximately 4.5 MeV. FIG. 2D illustrates a second mode of operating the particle beam source 200 of FIG. 2A may be operated to produce a proton beam of a second energy level, where the second energy level is less than the first energy level discussed above. The operation reflected by FIG. 2C is like that discussed above with respect to FIG. 2B except that, in the example of FIG. 2C, only the vacuum voltage chambers in the first and third groups are activated such that no voltage potential is established within chambers 206b, 206d, 206h or 206j. As such, the protons traveling through the illustrated assembly will not be accelerated through those chambers and the energy level of the traveling protons will not increase as they pass through the chamber. As a result, the energy level of the protons emitted by the particle beam source 200 will be at a reduced energy level which, in the example of FIG. 2C is an energy level of at least about approximately 2.5 MeV and below the first energy level. While a specific exemplary proton generator was described with respect to FIGS. 2A-2D, it should be accepted that other particle beam sources may be used in the exemplary system 1000 of FIG. 1 without departing from the teachings of this disclosure. Additionally, while the exemplary particle beam source of FIG. 2A was illustrated and described as using a vacuum accelerator assembly having only ten voltage chambers, it should be understood that particle beam sources having fewer or more chambers may be used to carry out the teachings of this disclosure. Still further, while the above example describes operation of a particle beam generator to generate beams comprising particles having either a first or a second energy level it will be appreciated that the teachings of this disclosure can be used to provide a particle beam source where the particles comprising the provided beam can have multiple energy levels in excess of the two discussed herein and/or where the energy levels of the particles comprising the provided beam are well above the first energy level discussed herein, and/or below the second discussed energy level. For example, embodiments are envisioned wherein the first energy level exceeds about 10 MeV. Referring to FIG. 2A, the particle beam generated by the vacuum accelerator assembly 204 is provided to an electromagnetic forming and steering assembly 208 that transforms the received particle beam into an output beam having desired projection pattern (i.e., a desired shape) and directional characteristics. In the example of FIG. 2A, the electromagnetic forming and steering assembly 208 may take the form of a beam focusing/defocusing instrument. Such an instrument may, in some embodiments, take the form of a quadrupole magnetic assembly that may be energized to provide output beams having at least first and second shaped characteristics and multiple directional characteristics. FIGS. 2E1, 2E2, 2E3 and 2E4 illustrate exemplary first, second, third, and fourth beam shapes that may be generated using the exemplary electromagnetic forming and steering assembly 208 of FIGS. 2A-2D As reflected in FIG. 2E1, the beam provided as an output of the forming and steering assembly 208 may take the form of a focused “spot” beam or a beam having a relatively small primary point of focus. Through proper energization of the beam forming and steering assembly 208, the spot beam may be directed to a single point, to various points at different times or, in some embodiments, to scan across a general area. As reflected in FIG. 2E2, the forming and steering assembly 208 can adjust the overall size of the spot beam such that the general diameter of the beam can be greater than the diameter of the narrower spot beam reflected in FIG. 2E1. In addition to providing spot beams of first and second diameters, as reflected in FIG. 2E2, the forming and steering assembly 208 can also be used to provide a spot beam that varies, smoothly or in steps, from a first, relatively narrow spot, to a second, larger-diameter spot. FIGS. 2E3 and 2E4 reflect operation of the forming and steering assembly 208 in an alternate matter to generate a beam that takes the general form of a ring, with FIG. 2E3 illustrating a ring having a first inner and first outer diameter, and FIG. 2E4 illustrating a ring having a second inner and second outer diameter, where the second inner diameter is greater than the first inner diameter and where the second outer diameter is greater than the first. Although not illustrated in FIGS. 2E1-2E4, embodiments are envisioned where rings of various inner and outer diameters can be produced by assembly 208 and/or where rings of variable sizes may be generated such that the beam can be varied from a spot to rings of increasing inner and outer diameters until a maximum outer diameter is reached, down again to a spot through rings of progressively decreasing inner/outer diameters, and then have the process repeated again in a cyclic fashion. This variation can be accomplished by smoothly changing beam shapes or through steps. During such cyclic operation, the amount of time the system is maintained at the various shape and directional points can be varied such that the system, for example, dwells at a spot point for a first period of time, and then cycles through rings of various sizes for a second period of time, where the first period of time is longer than—and potentially multiples of—the second period of time. In addition to providing particle beams of varying shapes and varying general energy levels, the particle beam source 200 of the present example can be controlled to provide particle beams of varying intensity (or current). This can be accomplished by controlling the operation of the particle generator 202 to generate fewer or more particles at any given time. Referring to FIGS. 1A and 1B, in the exemplary system, the particle beam generated by the particle beam source 200 is provided to a Thorium molten salt assembly 300. FIGS. 3A-3H2 and 3J1-3J3 illustrate aspects of exemplary Thorium molten salt assemblies 300 that may be used in connection with the exemplary system 1000 of FIG. 1. Turning first to FIGS. 3A-3D, a first exemplary Thorium molten salt assembly 300 is illustrated. As reflected in the figure, the illustrated Thorium molten salt assembly 300 includes a main body 302 in the form of a large, tub-like structure. The main body 302 forms a vessel which may contain molten salt including Thorium. In general, the main body 302 should be formed from a substance that can withstand the environment that will exist within and outside of the assembly 300. In particular, the main body 302 should be formed from a material that is generally resistant to the chemical characteristics of the molten salt fluid that will be contained within the assembly 300. While a variety of different materials may be suitably utilized, nickel-based steel alloys, such as Hastelloy-N, may be used to form the main body 302 and, indeed, all components in contact with molten salts comprising the various exemplary molten salt assemblies discussed herein. Other potentially suitable materials include stainless steels or Incolloy. Additionally, coatings can optionally be applied to the identified (and other) materials to enhance their resistance to corrosion. As reflected in FIGS. 3A-3D the bottom of the main body 302 is generally rounded. This rounded bottom shape is believed to be beneficial in promoting optional fluid circulation within the assembly 300. The round bottom can also be of benefit in properly locating the assembly 300 within a shielding structure, as discussed in more detail below. In the example of FIGS. 3A-3D the main body 302 is coupled by, for example welding to a lower flange element 304. The lower flange element 304 defines a lower flange surface that, in turn, defines a plurality of bolt openings (unlabeled in FIGS. 3A-3B). An upper lid assembly 306 is coupled to the lower flange element 304. The outer portions of the upper lid assembly 306 define an upper flange section (not separately labeled) that is arranged in general alignment with the lower flange element 304. The upper flange section of the lid assembly 306 defines a plurality of bolt holes where the bolt holes are preferably of the same number and sized to align with the bolt openings of the lower flange element 304. While the number of bolt openings can vary, in preferred embodiments at least eight bolt openings are provided. In the example of FIGS. 3A-3B both the lower flange element 304 and the upper flange section of lid 306 defines sixteen bolt openings. Bolts 308 (only one of which is labeled in FIGS. 3A-3D are used to couple the lid 306 to the lower flange element 304. The use of bolts to couple the lid 306 to the lower flange element 304 is exemplary and other forms of coupling may be used. For example, screws, clamps and other mechanical assemblies may be use. In embodiments where ready separation of the lid assembly from the lower flange element 304 is undesirable, welding may be used. The use of bolts in FIGS. 3A-3D permits ready attachment and separation of the lower flange element 304 and the upper flange section of lid 306, simplifying the assembly and disassembly of the exemplary molten salt assembly 300. As illustrated in FIGS. 3A-3D, the bolt openings in the lid assembly 306 and the lower flange element 304 are such that they open outside the interior of the main body 302 in which the molten salt will be located. As such, the bolt openings do not give rise to any penetrations into the interior of the main body 302. Referring to FIG. 3D, which shows a top-view of the lid assembly 306, it may be seen that in the illustrated exemplary embodiment (in addition to defining bolt openings 310, only four of which are labeled in FIG. 3D) the lid assembly defines four impeller openings 312a-312d that pass from the outside of the lid assembly 306 into the interior of the main body. The lid 306 further defines two heat exchanger openings 314a and 314b that provide openings that extend from the exterior of the main body 302 into the interior of the main body 302. As best reflected in FIG. 3D, the lid 306 is a two-piece assembly that includes a generally ring-shaped main section of a first thickness and an inner disc-element 316 of a second thickness, where the second thickness is less than the first thickness. The window element 316 is intended to provide a “window” into the interior of the main body 302 through which certain types of particles, specifically at least the particles provided by the particle beam source 200 (and, potentially, neutrons) can pass. In the example of FIGS. 3A-3D, the window 316 is formed from a disk of any suitable material and may take the form of titanium, or aluminum titanium, or any other suitable material that will pass the particles provided by the particle beam source 200. The window element 316 should have a thickness sufficient to pass particle beams of the type necessary for operation of the systems described in this disclosure. The window element 316 maybe coupled to the ring-shaped section of lid 306 in any suitable manner. In some embodiments, the window element may be bolted onto, screwed onto, screwed into or otherwise mechanically coupled to the ring-shaped section of lid 306. In other embodiments, the window element 316 may be welded to, brazed to, integrally formed within or otherwise attached to the ring-shaped section. While the window element 316 is illustrated as being circular in shape in FIG. 3D, it should be understood that the window element 316 may take the form of other shapes such as, for example, a square, oval, or pentagon. In still other alternative embodiments, instead of a single large window element 316, multiple window elements are provided where the collection of window elements collectively define multiple passages through which high energy protons can enter the main body 302. As best shown in FIGS. 3A-3C, in the example under discussion, a plurality of motor-driven impeller pumps 318a-318d are provided. The general construction of each of the impeller pumps is shown in FIGS. 3E1-3E2. As reflected in FIGS. 3E1-3E2, in the exemplary embodiment under discussion, each of the impeller pumps 318 includes a variable speed motor 320 that is coupled to a shaft 330. The variable speed motor may take the form of any suitable variable speed motor such as a variable frequency induction motor, a brushless permanent magnetic motor or a switched reluctance motor. In the example of FIGS. 3E1-3E3, the variable speed motor 320 takes the form of a variable frequency driven induction motor. Although not illustrated, it will be understood that such a motor will include a rotor and a stator with windings and the windings will be coupled to a variable frequency drive that can provide power to the motor 320 in such a manner that the rotational speed of the motor can be controlled. As shown in FIG. 3E3, the motor shaft 330 extends downward from the motor and is coupled to an impeller element 332. In the example under discussion, the pump further includes a bearing assembly 322 through which the shaft 330 passes. As described in more detail below, the bearing assembly 322 of each impeller pump 318 in the example under discussion is positioned within one of the impeller openings of the lid 306. Because the impeller shaft has to pass through the top lid, the penetration should include high temperature seals to prevent the leakage of materials and gases from the interior of the main body 302 to the exterior of the body. The illustrated impeller pump 318 also include a pump body 324 that defines an upper fluid opening 326 and a lower fluid opening 328. The impeller pump 318 is designed such that, during operation, activation of the motor 320 will result in rotation of the shaft 330 and, therefore, rotation of the impeller element 332. The rotation of impeller element 330 will create a pressure differential across the inner chamber defined by the pump body 324 such that fluid will tend to be drawn into the upper fluid opening 326, flow through the chamber defined by pump body 324, and out the lower fluid opening 328. The rotational speed of the motor can be controlled to vary the pressure drop through the pump body 324 and, thus, the extent of the fluid flow through the pump. Referring to FIG. 3C it may be seen that the molten salt assembly 300 also includes a tubular member 340 positioned within the main body 302. The tubular member 340 includes openings at both its top and bottom ends such that liquid, such as a Thorium-containing molten salt, can flow into the bottom of the tubular member 340, up through the tubular member, and out, over the top of the tubular member 340. As best reflected in FIG. 3C, the bottom of the tubular member 340 can define a lower ledge structure. In general, the tubular member 340 defines an interior space within the main body 302 within which, and among, various structures can be positioned and through which liquid can flow. Referring to FIGS. 3B, 3C and 3F, it may be seen that the tubular member 340 and the impeller pumps 318 are dimensioned such that the upper fluid opening 326 opening of the pump body 324 includes a portion that extends below the top of the tubular member 340 and the lower fluid opening 328 of the tubular member 340 is positioned above the bottom of the tubular member 340. As reflected in the figures, the length of the tubular member 340 and the impeller pump 318 are such that the bottom end of the tubular member and the lower fluid opening 328 of the impeller pumps 318 are within the lower portion of the main body 302 such that an adequate flow path (to the left in the figure) is provided. In the specific example in the referenced figures, the lower fluid openings of the impeller pumps are within the lower one-third of the main body 302. The result of such positioning is that operation of the impeller pumps 318 will tend to cause fluid to flow up and out of the tubular member 340, over the top of the tubular member 340 and down through the main body 302 (and partially through the pump body 324). Thus, operation of the impeller pumps 318a-318d will tend to cause fluid flow within the main body 302 along the path generally reflected by the arrows in FIG. 3F. As will be appreciated, the fluid flow path depicted in FIG. 3F will exist for each of the four impeller pumps 318a-318d illustrated in FIGS. 3A-3F. As such, operation of the impeller pumps will tend to result in a circulating flow of fluid where fluid flows through a circulation path whereby it initially circulates into the bottom of the tubular member 340, flows up through the tubular member 340, then out and over the top of the tubular member 340, and down the outside of the tubular member 340, where it circulates back up and into the bottom of the tubular member and the cycle is repeated. In the embodiment of the molten salt assembly 300 previously described, and in all embodiments of the assembly 300 discussed herein a Thorium containing molten salt will be held in the main body 302. While the exact composition of the molten salt within the main body 302 will vary, embodiments are envisioned where the molten salt will contain at least a Lithium salt, a Beryllium salt and a Thorium salt, such that Lithium, Beryllium and Thorium exist within the molten salt. One suitable salt is a FLiBe salt containing dissolved Thorium. Other embodiments are envisioned wherein the molten salt does not include Beryllium but does include Lithium. One such salt is FLiNaK. In general, the quantity of molten salt within the main body 302 should be such that the upper level of the molten salt is over the top of the tubular member 340. Still further embodiments are possible where the molten salt is a chloride salt that contains chlorine, as opposed to fluorine. FIG. 3G1 illustrates a cross-section of the main body 302 and includes a dashed line 342 reflecting the general level of molten salt in the exemplary assembly 300. As reflected in FIG. 3G1, the upper level of the molten salt is both above the upper surface of the tubular member 340 and below the lower surface of the lid assembly 306. As such, an open region 346, not including any molten salt, but capable of containing gases, exists between the level of the molten salt and the lower surface of the lid 306 (and the lower surface of window element 317 for the interior region of the illustrated assembly). This open region 346 is further illustrated by the dark gray areas of FIG. 3G2. This open region 346 may be used to store gases generated as a result of fission processes that can occur within the main body 302. In certain embodiments, the open region 346 can initially be filled with an inert gas, such as argon, prior to the operation of the system. In the embodiment of FIGS. 3A-3F, impeller pumps 318a-318d are used to circulate the fluid in the main body 302. Alternate embodiments are envisioned wherein natural circulation is used to provide a fluid flow, generally along the path described above with respect to FIG. 3F. Such an alternate embodiment is depicted in FIGS. 3J1, 3J2 and 3J3. Referring to FIGS. 3J1 and 3J2, it may be noted that the overall structure of the illustrated exemplary molten salt assembly 300′ is like that described above in connection with FIGS. 3A-3F, with the primary differences being that the main body 302′ of the embodiment of FIGS. 3J1 and 3J2 is taller and narrower than the main body 302 of the first-described embodiment, the tubular member 340′ is longer and narrower than the tubular member 340 in the first-described embodiment and the helical heat exchanger assembly 500 (discussed in more detail) below is positioned about the upper two-thirds of the tubular member 340′ and not about the lower one-third of the tubular member 340′. In general, this arrangement creates a situation whereby the removal of heat through use of the helical heat exchanger assembly 500 creates conditions where natural circulation causes the fluid within the main body to flow along the paths identified by the arrows in FIG. 3G2. Advantages of the embodiment reflected in FIGS. 3J1-3J2, include simplification of the design and construction of the assembly 1000 through the elimination of the impeller pumps and the need for equipment to control the pumps; elimination of the need for impeller openings in the lid coupled to the main body 302′, thus reducing the number of penetrations that must be made into the main body, and elimination of the need to provide energy for operation of the motors driving the impeller pumps. The minimal penetrations required for implementation of this embodiment is reflected in FIG. 3J3, where only two penetrations 314a′ and 314b′ into the main body are provided, one for the inflow of a heat exchange fluid for the outflow of heat exchange fluid. In certain embodiments of the molten salt assemblies 300 described previously one or more solid Thorium fuel rods will be positioned and located within the interior of the tubular member 340 (or 340′). References herein to a solid Thorium fuel rod are intended to indicate that the fuel rod contains solid Thorium (as opposed to Thorium dissolved in a molten salt). As such, a solid Thorium fuel rod, as that term is used herein, may define internal openings or chambers. In embodiments as described above, Thorium fuel will be available within the interior of the tubular member 340 (or 340′) both in the form of solid Thorium within the Thorium fuel rod, but also in the form of dissolved Thorium within the molten salt. FIGS. 4A-4E illustrate one example of a novel Thorium fuel rod 400 constructed in accordance with certain teachings of this disclosure. Referring to FIGS. 4A-4E a Thorium fuel rod 400, is illustrated that includes an interior Beryllium core element 402 and an outer, solid Thorium-containing fuel element 404. In the illustrated example, the Thorium containing fuel element 404 is formed from a solid Thorium-containing material, such as metallic Thorium. Alternative embodiments are envisioned where the element 404 is formed from a Thorium-containing solid material (such as Thorium Dioxide) and an outer cladding In the example of FIG. 4A-4E, the outer surface of the Thorium fuel element 404 defines a series of fins that may be twisted to form a generally spiral-like outer structure. Alternative embodiments are envisioned wherein the fins on the Thorium fuel element are straight or generally straight. In the example of FIGS. 4A-4E, the Beryllium core element 402 is formed from a generally tubular element of Beryllium-containing material, such as metallic Beryllium. The generally tubular element is formed from a structure that defines an interior cavity 412 that, at any given cross-sectional point, defines an open cross section roughly in the form of a four-leaf clover surrounding a central circular opening. In the illustrated example, the Beryllium core element 402 has a length that is greater than the length of the solid Thorium fuel element 404 such that the Beryllium core element 402 extends out from the top of the Thorium fuel element. In one embodiment, the length of the Beryllium core element 402 is such that the solid Thorium fuel element 404 can be completely submerged within the molten salt while the top of the Beryllium core element is above the level of the molten salt. In general, the length of the Beryllium core element 402 extends along a majority of the length of the solid Thorium element 404, and preferably along at least 75% of the length of the solid fuel element 404. Embodiments are envisioned wherein the Beryllium core element 404 extends along 100% of the length of the solid fuel element 404. The cross-section of the Beryllium core element 402 at a given exemplary point is roughly reflected in FIG. 4E. As reflected in FIG. 4E, at any given point along the Beryllium core element 402, four solid Beryllium projections (410a, 410b, 410c and 410d) project into the interior of the core and define four lobe-shaped openings 412a, 412b, 412c and 412d and a generally circular central opening 414. The construction of the Beryllium core element 402 is such that, from the top of the element 402 to the bottom, the relative position of the solid Beryllium projections 412a, 412b, 412c and 412d change such that they form a general spiral down the interior of the core element 402. The result of such a construction is that they define a central cavity 412 having a circular cross-section that extends from the top of the core element 402 to approximately the bottom of the element 402 and generally clover-leaf openings 412a-412d that have the characteristics described below. In the illustrated example, the clover-leaf openings are such that, for any particular cross-section, there is at least a portion of at least one of four of the solid projections from a lower cross section that extend into the openings. This means that particles passing through the openings 412a-412d at any given cross-sectional point will always have at least some solid Beryllium beneath the openings upon which the particles may impinge. In general, the specific pitch of the spiral and the size of the projections and lobe-shaped openings will depend on the amount of power to be generated, the energy of the incident protons, and other factors. As reflected in FIGS. 4A-4D, the length of the Beryllium core element 402 is greater than the length of the Thorium fuel element 404 such that the core element 402 extends from the top of the solid Thorium fuel element 404. In at least one embodiment of the present example, the exemplary embodiment of FIG. 4A-4E the interior void space within the Beryllium core will be subjected to a vacuum and the void space of the Beryllium core sealed to maintain a vacuum. The sealing can be done through any suitable end cap provided that the end cap is formed of a material through which the particles provided by the particle beam source 200 can pass. Alternate embodiments are envisioned wherein the top ends of each Beryllium inner core are left open and all the ends are coupled to a manifold assembly that is attached to a vacuum pump to maintain a vacuum within the interior void space of the Beryllium core. In general, each of the Thorium fuel rods 400 is capable of generating power through fission reaction that can be caused to occur by directing a beam of energetic particles, such as protons with an energy level on the order of above 4.2 MeV into the interior of the Beryllium core. Particles in such a beam may pass into the void space of the Beryllium core and travel until they contact a Beryllium nucleus on one of the surfaces extending into the core. The collision of the high-energy particle (in one exemplary embodiment a proton) with the Beryllium nucleus can result in a (p, n) reaction that produces a neutron having an incident energy level on the order of 1 MeV or greater. One or more of such generated “fast” neutrons can strike a Thorium nucleus within the Thorium element 404 and cause a fission reaction in which the Thorium nucleus undergoes nuclear fission and releases a significant amount of energy. Depending on the desired operating characteristics of the assembly 1000 one or more of the Thorium fuel rods 400 may be positioned within the tubular member 340. In certain embodiments, the Thorium fuel rods to be positioned within the tubular member 340 are positioned between two support elements and the support elements are configured to rest within the tubular element 340 in such a manner that the solid Thorium fuel elements 404 in the fuel rods 400 are submerged in the molten salt, and the top portions of the Beryllium cores 402 within the fuel rods extend above the level of the molten salt. In these embodiments, the top positions of the fuel rods 400 are all positioned such they are under the window element 316 such that particles from the particle beam provided by particle beam source 200 can pass through the window 316 and into the various Beryllium core elements. FIGS. 4F1 and 4F2 illustrate an exemplary embodiment in which a single Thorium fuel rod 400 is positioned within the tubular member 340. In the illustrated example, as in the other examples discussed below, the Thorium fuel rod (or rods) 400 are positioned between an upper support element 430 and a lower support element 432. FIG. 4F1 illustrates a top-down view, showing where the Thorium control rod 400 is positioned within the window element 316. FIG. 4F2 provides a generally isometric view indicating the positioning of the assembly containing the Thorium fuel rod 400 relative to the lid 406. In the isometric view of FIG. 4F2—and the isometric views of the other Thorium rod structures discussed in more detail below, the portion of the Beryllium core element 402 that extends out of and above the solid Thorium fuel element 404 is not illustrated but should be understood to be present. FIGS. 4G1 and 4G2, 4H1, 4H2 and 4H3 illustrate alternate fuel arrangements that include either five Thorium fuel rods (FIGS. 4G1 and 4G2), thirteen Thorium fuel rods (FIGS. 4H1 and 4H2) or seventeen Thorium fuel rods (FIG. 4H3). As reflected in FIGS. 4G1, 4G2, 4H1 and 4H2, in certain illustrated embodiments the Thorium fuel rods to be used in the system are combined in a single solid Modular Thorium fuel package that includes the solid Thorium fuel rods (or rod) positioned between two support elements. The use of such a solid Modular Thorium fuel package can permit efficient refurbishing of the system 1000 described herein for subsequent operations. In addition, the use of a Modular Thorium fuel package as disclosed herein also permits the construction of systems of different power levels through the use of one fuel package in place of another. As briefly discussed in the previously illustrated embodiments, the Beryllium core elements are used to provide solid targets upon which high energy protons can impinge to generate high energy (for example over 0.7 MeV) neutrons that can strike Thorium to induce a fission reaction within the Thorium nucleus, generating additional high energy neutrons and energy. FIGS. 4G1 and 4G2 illustrate an alternative solid Modular Thorium fuel package in which a different approach is used to generate high energy neutrons for the fast fission of Thorium. Referring to FIGS. 4J1 and 4J2, a solid Thorium fuel assembly is illustrated that includes four solid Thorium rods (FIGS. 460a-460d) surrounding a single, central solid Beryllium rod 462. In the illustrated embodiment, the central solid Beryllium rod 462 is used as a target in which the high energy particle beam from the particle beam source 200 is projected. When such high energy particles strike the Beryllium rod 462, high energy (fast) neutrons can be generated which can exit the Beryllium rod and impact upon Thorium in the solid Thorium rods (460a-460d) to cause fast Thorium fission reaction. In the embodiments of FIGS. 4J1 and 4J2 the central Beryllium rod 462 is solid. As such, the particles impinging on the rod from the particle beam source 200 may not penetrate the lower portions of the Beryllium rod 462. To promote such penetration and utilization of the entirety of the Beryllium rod to generate fast neutrons, a Beryllium rod in the general form of the one described above in connection with FIGS. 4D and 4E may be substituted for the solid rod 462. In the embodiments discussed above in connection with FIGS. 4A-4H3 and 4J1-4J2 the Beryllium within the Beryllium rods may be in the form of solid Beryllium. Alternative embodiments are envisioned wherein the Beryllium within the Beryllium rods takes alternative forms, such as a Beryllium-containing salt (e.g., FLiBe). In such embodiments, the Beryllium-containing rods would comprise a vessel capable of containing a molten Beryllium-containing salt. Referring to FIGS. 1A and 1B and 3H1 and 3H2 a primary heat exchange assembly 500 is shown as extending around the central tubular member 312. The illustrated exemplary primary heat exchanger includes an input pipe 502 and an output pipe 504. The input pipe 502 is coupled to an input manifold 506 (illustrated in FIGS. 3H1-3H2) and the output pipe 504 is coupled to an output manifold 508. Notably, the lengths of the input and output pipes are sufficiently long so as to pass through the top level of the Thorium-containing molten salt, into the gaseous head maintained above the molten salt and potentially through the top lid of the main body. As reflected in the exemplary figures, a plurality of helically formed coiled pipes 510, ten in the illustrated example, have one end coupled to the input manifold 506 and another end coupled to the output manifold 508. As reflected in the figures, each of the helical pipes 510 winds downwardly around and back up the tubular member 12 from the input manifold to the output manifold 508. The illustrated number of helically formed coiled pipes is exemplary only and a different number of pipes could be used without departing from the teachings of the present disclosure. In the embodiment of FIGS. 1A-1B the primary heat exchange assembly includes a non-Thorium containing molten salt within the pipes 510 and input and output manifolds 506 and 508. As described in more detail below, this non-Thorium containing molten salt is circulated through the primary heat exchanger to remove heat from the Thorium molten salt assembly 300. Pumps (not illustrated) may be used to circulate the non-Thorium containing molten salt. Select details of an exemplary primary heat exchange assembly 500 are shown in FIGS. 3H1 and 3H2. FIG. 3H2 reflects the construction of an exemplary manifold 506. The illustrated manifold construction may be used for both the input manifold and the output manifold. Referring to FIG. 3H1 in the illustrated example, the manifold includes a box-like main manifold base 560 that defines a single input (or output) opening 562 of a first diameter at the top of the base 560 and a plurality of output (or input) openings 564 of a second diameter at the bottom of the base, only two of which are labeled in the figure. In this embodiment, the second diameter is less than the first diameter. In the illustrated example, the input 562 is axially offset from each of the plurality of openings 564, such that there is no straight flow path through the first opening 562 and any of the second openings 564. In the illustrated example, there are twelve (12) openings 562. Each of the second openings is coupled to a heat exchange coiled pipe 566. Use of the exemplary manifold described above permits the use of a plurality of lesser-diameter heat exchange coils (twelve in the example) within the main body 502, while requiring only two penetrations through the main body 502. In the exemplary embodiment discussed herein, heat generated within the main body 502 will be transferred to the molten salt flowing through the primary heat exchange assembly 500. In the illustrated example, that heat is transferred from the primary heat assembly 500 to a secondary heat assembly 512. Details of the secondary heat exchanger assembly 512 are shown in FIG. 1B. As reflected in FIG. 1B a secondary heat exchange path 516 is provided and arranged to absorb heat from the primary heat exchange coil. In the example of FIG. 1B, a vapor-forming liquid—such as water or carbon dioxide—is contained within the secondary heat exchange path (or coil) 516 and the piping attached to the secondary heat exchanged coil. A condenser 518 is also provided in the illustrated system as is piping (not labeled) that can transport liquid from the condenser 518 to the input of the secondary heat exchange coil and steam from the output of the secondary heat exchange coil to the input of the condenser. Not illustrated in FIG. 1A or 1B are pumps that can be used to circulate non-Thorium containing molten salt through the primary heat exchange loop and vapor-producing liquid (such as water or carbon dioxide) through the secondary heat exchange loop. In the example of FIG. 1, the energy transfer assembly 500 is used to transfer energy from the Thorium molten salt assembly 300 to a power generator assembly 600. High level details of such a system may also be found in FIGS. 1A-1B which reflect the application of the vapor generated by the heat exchange tank 512 to a turbine assembly 602 which, in turn, is coupled to an electric generator 604. In accordance with the general operation of turbine-driven electrical generators, the vapor produced by the energy transfer that occurs within the heat exchange tank 512 is used to drive/turn turbine 602 which turns the rotor of the electrical generator 604, producing electrical power at the output 606 of the electrical generator 604. In the illustrated system the output 606 of the electrical generator 604 is provided to a distribution element which distributes the generated electric power such that the majority of the generated power is provided to a main power output 608 and a portion of the generated power is provided to the power input of the proton generator 201 to drive the particle beam source 200. Because the operating of the system 100 of FIGS. 1A and 1B can generate nuclear particles and radiation emission, appropriate shielding 700 is provided to block the transmission of undesired particles and waves. FIG. 5 illustrates one exemplary way this shielding may be provided. In the illustrated example of FIG. 5, many of the components of the system 1000 are placed in a containment system 700. In the exemplary embodiment, the containment system 700 comprises a first containment structure 702 in which the particle generator 202 and the vacuum accelerator assembly 204 are located. Vacuum tubes (unlabeled) are coupled to the output of the vacuum accelerator assembly 204 and couple the output of the vacuum accelerator 204 to the forming and steering assembly 208, which is positioned in second containment structure 704. The molten salt assembly 300 is partially placed within the ground under the second containment structure 704 such that the lid of the molten salt assembly is accessible above ground. A third containment structure 708 is provided below the molten salt assembly 300. The space 706 between the molten salt assembly 300 and the third containment structure 708 may be filled with any suitable material, such as soil, borated material, concrete, or any other suitable material or blend of materials. Depending on the particular application of the system 1000, and the extent to which safety requirements dictate, the containment units 702, and 704 may take the form of a simple metallic structure (if the earth, rock or ground structure is capable of providing the desired shielding) or a structure intended to block the transmission of radiation (e.g., lead-walls or a lead-brick structure). The structure 708 should be formed of a material sufficient to contain molten salt in the possibility that there is damage to the molten salt assembly. Alternate embodiments are envisioned wherein the containment unit 700 comprises a structure having an internal dry core area into which the components of system 1000 to be shielded are placed and an external structure capable of holding water (or a water/chemical mix (e.g., borated water) which acts as a shielding material. In any or all the various embodiments of the containment unit 700 a surface layer of shielding material 702 (e.g., a lead blanket) may be used. In operation, at a very high level, the system illustrated in FIGS. 1A and 1B operates by powering the particle beam source 200 to generate a proton beam that is applied to the Thorium molten salt assembly 300. One or more of the protons within the proton beam may impact upon one or more of the atoms within the Thorium molten salt assembly 300 to either: (a) produce neutrons or (b) result in a nuclear fission reaction, which will generate heat and further neutrons. These generated neutrons may, in turn, impact and interact with other atoms within the Thorium molten salt assembly 300 to generate additional heat. The generated heat may be removed through operation of the primary and secondary heat exchange systems, and the removed energy may be converted to electric energy through use of the electric generation system 600, described above. The exemplary system 1000 of FIGS. 1A and 1B may be arranged to permit operation of the system in one of several alternative operating modes. In one operating mode, the proton beam provided by the particle beam source 200 is shaped and aimed such that the proton beam provided by the generator is directed through the window element 316 primarily into the Thorium containing molten salt within the tubular member 302 without a substantial number of the protons (or any) impinging upon the Beryllium cores of the Thorium fuel rods 400 positioned within the tubular member 340. In this operating mode, one (or more) of the protons from the proton beam from generator 200 may impact one (or more) of the atoms within the Thorium containing molten salt. For example, one or more of the protons from the proton beam may impact with a Lithium nucleus forming part of the molten salt. This interaction of the proton with the Lithium nucleus can cause a (p, n) reaction under which the Lithium nucleus absorbs the incident proton and emits a neutron. The neutrons emitted by such proton-Lithium reactions may be of varying energy levels, the greatest number of neutrons resulting from several such reactions would be at an energy level of between 0.1 and 0.7 MeV. As another example, one or more of the protons from the proton beam may impact with a Beryllium nucleus forming part of the molten salt to cause a (p, n) reaction in which the Beryllium nucleus may absorb the incident proton and produce a neutron at a particular energy level. The neutrons emitted by such proton-Lithium reactions may be of varying energy levels, the greatest number of neutrons resulting from several such reactions would be at an energy level of between 0.7 MeV and just over 1.0 MeV. Notably, the peak energy level of the neutrons emitted by the described proton-Beryllium (p, n) reaction will be greater than those emitted as a result of the described proton-Lithium (p, n) reaction. In a second operating mode, the proton bean provided by the particle beam source 200 may be shaped and aimed such that all or a substantial portion of the proton beam is directed through the window assembly in such a manner that a substantial number of the protons forming the proton beam are directed to one or more of the Beryllium cores of the Thorium fuel rods within the tubular member 340. This may be accomplished by forming the proton beam into a generally narrow beam shape and directing the narrow beam to the Beryllium core of the central Thorium fuel rod. This may also be accomplished by forming the proton beam into a ring and directing the ring such that it covers either the first group of Thorium fuel rods or the second group of fuel rods. Alternatively, the beam may be formed such that it transitions from a beam directed to the central Thorium fuel rod, to a first ring directed to the first group of fuel rods to a second ring directed to the second group of fuel rods. In general, forming and aiming the proton beam as described in connection with the second operating mode will tend to cause protons within the proton beam to strike Beryllium, thus generating neutrons through the process described above. In the embodiment of FIGS. 1A and 1B the average energy levels of the protons within the proton beam generated by the particle beam source 200 may be varied, depending on the operating mode of the system to prefer proton-Lithium interactions, thus producing neutrons with average energies below 0.7 MeV or to prefer proton-Beryllium interactions, this producing neutrons with average energies above 0.7 MeV. For example, when the system is operated in accordance with the first operating mode, the energy level of the protons provided by the proton generator may be set to be on the order of at least approximately 2.4 MeV and about 3.0 MeV. The size and form of the proton beam, along with the energy level of the proton beam and the fact that it is directed into the Thorium containing molten salt, are such that operation of the system in the first operating mode will tend to result in proton production of neutrons of an energy level on the order of between 0.1 MeV and just over 1.0 MeV with the peak energy level of the produced neutrons being on the order of about 0.7 MeV. In the same example, using the system described above in connection with FIGS. 2A-2D, when the system is operated in accordance with the second operating mode, the particle beam source 200 may be operated to produce a beam of protons where the protons forming the beam have energy levels on the order of 4.5 MeV. The size and form of the proton beam, along with the energy level of the proton beam and the fact that it is directed into the Thorium containing molten salt, are such that operation of the system in the first operating mode will tend result in proton production of neutrons of an energy level on the order of 0.1 MeV-1.2 MeV, with the majority of the produced neutrons having energy levels on the order of between 1.0-1.1 MeV. The likelihood of the particles from the particle beam 200 interacting with one or more of the atoms within the main body 302 will vary depending on a large number of factors including, but not limited to: the energy level of the particle provided by the accelerator, the particular nucleus involved in the potential interaction, and the other atoms within the body 302. The system 1000 takes advantage of some of these variables, and of the different types of reactions that can occur within the main body 302 to provide a system that can be operated in various modes, to provide various output characteristics. To understand the various modes in which the exemplary system of the present disclosure may be operated, it is helpful to understand some of the operations that can occur within the body 302. As briefly discussed above, in the system of FIGS. 1A and 1B, once neutrons are created within the main body 302 (e.g., by a high energy proton provided by the proton beam colliding with a Lithium nucleus or a Beryllium nucleus within the molten salt or as a result of a fission reaction occurring within the main body and producing resultant neutrons) some of the neutrons within the main body 302 may collide with a Thorium nucleus in the molten salt solution and cause a nuclear reaction. In the illustrated system, the nuclear reaction caused by the described collision can be one of at least two different types of reactions. In one type of nuclear reaction, referred to as a “fission” reaction, the nucleus of the involved Thorium atom will split into, typically two, smaller nuclei. Such a fission reaction will release a very large amount of energy and one or more neutrons. The energy released by the fission reaction will tend to increase the amount of energy stored in the molten salt within assembly 300 as heat. One or more of the neutrons released by such fission reaction may interact a Thorium nucleus within the molten salt fuel to cause further Thorium fission reactions. In a second type of nuclear reaction, known as “neutron capture” (or “neutron absorption”) the nucleus of the involved Thorium nucleus will absorb the involved neutron to form an isotope of Thorium, namely Thorium-233 (233Th). Thorium-233 is an unstable isotope that will decay to Protactenium-233. The decay of Thorium-233 to Protactinium occurs relatively quickly as the half-life of Thorium-233 is about 22 minutes. Protactenium-233 is an unstable element that will tend to decay to Uranium-233, with the half-life of Protactinium-233 being approximately 27 days. Uranium-233 is fissile material. As such, whenever Uranium-233 exists within the molten salt and neutrons are available—either from the particle beam source 200 or from the fission of other atoms within the molten salt—there is the potential that a neutron can strike a Uranium-233 nucleus causing a fission reaction. The fission reaction will produce heat. As with fission of the Thorium nucleus, fission of a Uranium-233 will result in the release of substantial energy and several neutrons, those neutrons may, in turn, interact with a Uranium-233 nucleus within the molten salt to produce a secondary Uranium-233 fission reaction, with a Thorium-232 nucleus to produce a Thorium-233 nucleus, or with other materials within the molten salt assembly 300. Some of the neutrons may pass through and escape the molten salt assembly. Once started and put into operation, the illustrated embodiment of FIGS. 1A and 1B can be self-sustaining in the sense that it can operate to provide usable energy without the addition of any other external power or energy as long as the energy generated by the system is sufficient to provide the power needed to drive and operate the particle beam source 200. Once the embodiment of FIGS. 1A and 1B begins to operate, the constituent components comprising the molten salt solution will change over time. At a high level, in certain embodiments, the composition of the molten salt will initially include no, or negligible, Protactinium and no, or negligible, Uranium. For purposes of this disclosure a negligible amount of an element is intended to refer to a substantially non-detectable amount of an element that exists in the absence of any intentional inclusion or addition of the element to the material. Alternate embodiments are envisioned wherein the molten salt could initially contain at least some Uranium. FIG. 6 provides a very crude, approximated, generalized relative indication of the amount of Thorium-232 and Uranium-233 that can exist for the system of FIG. 1 over time if it assumed that the neutron source provides a relatively constant supply of neutrons. As reflected in FIG. 6, at a time To, before the application of any neutrons to the system, the quantity of Thorium in the molten salt will be at its maximum level. As neutrons begin to be applied to the system, some of the neutrons will interact with the Thorium-233 causing one or more of the nuclear reactions discussed above. These nuclear reactions will cause the quantity of Thorium in the molten salt to decrease over time, as reflected by the line 232Th. As also reflected in FIG. 6, by the time T1, some of the Thorium that were subjected to a nuclear capture reaction will have converted to Protactinium-233 and some of those Protactinium-233 would have decayed to Uranium-233. As such, the number of Uranium-233 in the molten salt will begin to increase over time starting at time T1. It should be appreciated that the representation in FIG. 6 is intended to be a very crude approximation of the relative number of Thorium-232 and Uranium-233 in the molten salt and that the actual shape of the represented curves will not necessarily be in line with the specific curve characteristics illustrated in FIG. 6 (and can potentially be controlled as described below). As those of ordinary skill will appreciate, the likelihood of a nuclear reaction occurring when a specific nucleus is bombarded with a beam of particles having a specific incident energy level, is sometimes described by a concept known as the nuclear cross-section. In general, a nuclear cross-section is a quantity that expresses the extent to which neutrons interact with particles of a given energy level. Nuclear cross-section information may be obtained through consultation of JANIS (the Java based Nuclear data Information System) provided by the Nuclear Energy Agency and accessible at https://www.oecd-nea.org/janis/ FIGS. 7A-7D provide JANIS-generated graph reflecting the cross-sections of various isotopes that may exist within the molten salt assembly 300 of FIGS. 1A-1B. Referring first to FIG. 7A, data reflecting the cross-section of Thorium-232 as a function of the incident energy is illustrated for both the absorption reaction, reflected by line 2, and for the fission reaction, reflected by line 4. Also illustrated in FIG. 7A are the fission 6 and absorption 8 cross-sections for Uranium-233 as a function of incident energy. As the graph indicates, for Thorium-232 and Uranium-233, the cross-sections for the absorption and fission reactions vary as a function of incident energy in such a manner that the cross-section values may be considered to lie, for any incident energy level, within one of four regions. FIG. 7B illustrates the cross-sectional information of FIG. 3A divided into four regions. In the first region, designated by Roman numeral I, the absorption cross-section of Thorium-232 is comparatively large relative to the negligible fission cross section and decreases in a relatively smooth manner with respect to changes in the incident energy level. In that same region, the fission and absorption cross-sections of Uranium-233 exceed the absorption cross-section of Thorium-232. In the example of FIG. 3A, Region I extends from neutron energy levels of roughly 1×10−11 to roughly 1×10−6 mega electron volts (MeV). Within the second region, designated by Roman numeral II, the absorption and fission cross-sections of Thorium-233 and Uranium-233 vary substantially in a resonate-like manner with changes in the incident energy level. Over this region there are specific energy levels where the absorption cross-section of Thorium-232 exceeds both the fission and absorption cross-sections of Uranium-233. It may be further noted that, over this region the absorption cross-section of Thorium-232 reaches its maximum value. In the example of FIG. 3A, Region II extends from neutron levels of roughly 1×10−6 to roughly 0.007 MeV. Within the third region, designated by Roman numeral III, the absorption cross-section of Thorium-232 continues to remain comparatively large relative to the negligible fission cross-section of Thorium-232. Over that same region, the fission cross-section of Uranium-233 exceeds both the absorption cross-section of Thorium-232 and the absorption cross-section of Uranium-233. In the example of FIG. 3A, Region III extends from neutron levels of roughly 0.07 MeV to roughly 0.8 MeV. Finally, within the fourth region, designated by Roman numeral IV, the fission cross-section of Thorium-233 is comparatively large relative to its absorption cross section, and both the fission and absorption cross-sections of Thorium-232 vary in a roughly smooth manner with variations in the incident energy level. Over this same region, the fission cross-section of Uranium-233 exceeds the fission cross-section of Thorium-233 and the absorption cross-section of Uranium-233. The system of FIGS. 1A and 1B takes advantage of the different cross-sections of the various atoms that will exist within the Thorium molten salt assembly 300 to implement a novel operational and control scheme wherein the incident energy level of the particles provided by the particle beam source 200 are varied over time to adjust the operating state of the molten salt system such that the energy provided by the system is predominantly generated by fission of Thorium-232 at certain times, predominantly by fission of Uranium-233 at other times, and—potentially—fission of both Thorium-232 and Uranium-233 at other times. Examples of how such a novel operating method may be implemented are generally reflected in FIGS. 7A-7E. At an initial time, the system of FIGS. 1A and 1B is operated such that the incident energy level of the neutrons provided by particle beam source causes operation of the system in Region IV. This operating region is highlighted in FIG. 7C. This will be accomplished by controlling the energy level of the particles provided by the particle beam source 200 such that they are at a sufficiently high level that interaction between such particles and the Beryllium within the molten salt can result in the generation of neutrons having energy levels within the level of the neutrons within Region IV (i.e., over about 0.7 MeV). During this period of operation, given the small quantity of Uranium-233 in the molten salt assembly 300, the energy generated by the system 1000 will be predominantly generated through fission of Thorium-232. However, as reflected in FIG. 7C, such operation will also result in a non-trivial number of absorption reactions involving Thorium-232, which will ultimately result in the formation and buildup of Uranium-233 in the system 300. As the number of Uranium-233 atoms in the system increases, a point will be reached where the level of Uranium-233 is such that fission of Uranium-233 would be enough to provide the desired output power. At that point, the system of FIGS. 1A and 1B 1 can transition to operate in Region II, by adjusting the incident energy level of the provided proton beam to a level where it will tend to cause interactions between the incident protons and the Lithium within the molten salt assembly such that neutrons having energy levels within Region III are generated by proton-Lithium (p, n) reactions (i.e., neutrons with energy levels between about 1×10−6 to 0.007 MeV). Operation in this region, provides neutrons wherein fission of Uranium-233 is possible, but the fission of Thorium-232 as the result of neutrons generated as a result of bombardment of particles from the particle beam source 200 is negligible. In that same region, the neutrons within the molten salt assembly 300 will—in addition to causing fission reactions of Uranium-233, also cause absorption reactions involving Thorium-232, thus providing a source of Uranium-233 for sustained operation. The system can then operate in Region III for a sustained period of time, providing the desired power output until the number of Uranium-233 atoms in the system is inadequate to support the desired power output, or until other conditions warrant a change in the operation of the system or system shut down. Operation in this Region is reflected by the highlighted portion on FIG. 7D. FIGS. 8A-8H illustrated examples of how the particle beam from the particle source 200 may be directed, shaped and controlled to operate the exemplary systems described herein within the various Regions discussed above in connection with FIGS. 7A-7D. As described above, in the exemplary systems under discussion particle beam source 200 may be used to generate particles (such as protons) having incident energy levels of above 4.5 MeV when the generation of neutrons having energy levels of above 0.7 MeV through a (p, n) reaction of the incident particles and Beryllium, and the direct fission of Thorium, is desired. FIG. 8A, illustrates an example of system 1000, from a top-down perspective, that uses five Thorium fuel rods where of the Thorium fuel rods includes a Beryllium core generally as described above in connection with FIGS. 4A-4D. In the example of FIG. 8A, the proton beam provided by the particle beam source 200 is a solid beam spot concentrated on the Beryllium core of the central Thorium fuel rod. As such the incident high energy protons will potentially collide and interact with Beryllium within the Beryllium core, producing a (p, n) reaction that results in the generation of relatively high-energy (sometimes referred to as “fast” neutrons). These generated “fast” neutrons can then interact with a Thorium nucleus in the solid Thorium fuel element surrounding the Beryllium core to cause a Thorium fission reaction to occur which, in turn, will generate more fast neutrons that can cause further Thorium fissions to occur. FIG. 8B illustrates a similar situation, but this time with the high energy proton beam from the proton beam source 200 being directed to the Beryllium core of the Thorium fuel rod at the top of the image. As will be appreciated, using the approach of FIGS. 8A and 8B, a beam spot of particles of the appropriate type and energy level (e.g., protons with energy levels at or above about 4.5 MeV) provided by the proton beam source 200 and the proton beam may be directed to the Beryllium cores of each of the Thorium fuel rods in the system individually. Thus, by applying the beam for a limited period to each of the Beryllium cores, a supply of fast neutrons can be provided for each of the solid Thorium fuel elements to maintain at least some level of Thorium fission within the system. This energy released by such Thorium fissions can be used to operate the system. FIG. 8C reflects an alternate way the system 1000 can be operated to provide fast neutrons and to produce Thorium fissions. In the example of FIG. 8C, the high energy particle beam from the particle beam source 200 is focused at a spot within the molten salt within the molten salt assembly 300. Because at least some of the particles from the beam will have energy levels in excess of 4.5 MeV, the particles can strike a Beryllium within the molten salt, thus causing a (p, n) reaction and producing a fast neutron that can, in turn strike a Thorium atom within the molten salt or within a solid Thorium fuel element (if present) to cause a Thorium fission reaction. FIGS. 8D and 8E illustrate still other alternate approaches for producing fast neutrons and inducing Thorium fission reactions. In these examples, the beam size of the high energy particle beam from the particle beam source 200 is adjusted such that some of the particles comprising the high energy beam will impinge on both the Beryllium core of one or more Thorium fuel rods (thus producing fast neutrons and inducing Thorium fissions as generally described in connection with FIGS. 8A and 8B) and others may impinge upon Beryllium atoms within the molten salt in the assembly 300 (thus inducing the generation of fast neutrons and Thorium fission as described above in connection with FIG. 8C). Still further alternate embodiments are envisioned wherein the high energy particle beam provided by the particle beam source 200 is “strobed” from a small diameter beam spot (as generally illustrated in FIG. 8A) to a larger diameter beam spot (as generally illustrated in FIG. 8E) to vary the manner in which fast neutrons are generated. FIGS. 8F-8H illustrate yet another alternate mode of generating fast neutrons. In this mode, the particle beam from the particle beam source 200 is configured to a have a ring shape and the dimension and direction of the provided ring is varied to impinge upon the Beryllium cores of the Thorium fuel rods within the system and/or the molten salt within the assembly 300. It should be noted that, while the above discussion focused on the manner in which fast neutrons may be generated and the fast fission of Thorium induced, operation of the system as described above will also result in a number of different nuclear reactions including the generation of neutrons having lower energy levels (sometimes referred to as “thermal” neutrons) and the fission of any fissionable materials (Uranium-233 for example) that may exist within the assembly. This is because the neutrons generated within the assembly (either through reactions involving a particle from the particle beam source 200 or as the result of fission reactions within the assembly) will be of various energy levels, such that—while proton-Beryllium (p, n) reactions, proton-Lithium (p, n) reactions (generating neutrons with lower, potentially thermal, energy levels) will be occurring, as will fission reactions of Thorium and, likely, fission reactions of Uranium-233 (if present). Absorption reactions will also be occurring, as will non-reactions where some of the generated neutrons simply escape the assembly without producing any nuclear reactions within the assembly. Moreover, neutrons generated with “fast” energy levels will tend to have their energy levels reduced as they pass through the materials and elements within the assembly 300 (such as the molten salt) such that they will become thermal neutrons that can be involved in a Uranium-233 fission operation or a Thorium-232 absorption operation. Operation of the system as described above, however, to direct high energy particles (specifically protons) at energy levels sufficient to produce a Beryllium (p, n) reaction will tend to promote the generation of fast neutrons and the direct fission of Thorium within the assembly 300. FIGS. 8A-8H (and primarily FIGS. 8C-8E) also illustrate how the exemplary systems described herein may be operated to promote the generation of thermal neutrons and Uranium-233 fission reactions. By operating the particle beam source 200 to provide particles (such as protons) with energy levels of between about 2.5 MeV and 4.5 MeV, a situation may be created wherein proton-Lithium (p, n) reactions are promoted. These reactions will tend to produce neutrons having an energy level below the fast neutrons generated by a Beryllium (p, n) reactions. These neutrons will typically be at a level below that require for Thorium fission, but at a level where they can be involved in both a fission reaction involving a Uranium-233 reaction, or an absorption reaction in which Thorium-232 is ultimately converted into Uranium-233. Thus, by operating the system 1000 in this manner, Uranium-233 fissions may be promoted. Again, it should be noted however that, because any fission reactions involving of Uranium-233 or Thorium-232 that occurs during a time when the lower energy particles (such as protons) from the particle beam source 200 are provided to the assembly 300 will produce fast neutrons that can result in a fission reaction involving Thorium-232, such that fission reactions involving Thorium-232 can occur within the assembly 300 alongside fission reactions of Uranium-233. Considering the above, it should be clear that the novel system 100 described herein can, by adjustment of the energy level of the particles provided by the particle beam source 200, and by controlling the direction and shape of the provided particle beam, be operated in manner to promote: (i) generation of fast neutrons and the direct fission of Thorium (when high energy particles (such as protons with energy levels above 0.7 MeV) are provided) and (ii) generation of thermal neutrons with energy levels below 0.7 MeV and the fission of Uranium-233. FIG. 9A illustrates one exemplary method of operating a system 1000 constructed in accordance with the teachings of the present disclosure. Over a first initial time period 902, the system will be operated from an external power source (such as a diesel generator) that will provide the input power to the particle source 200. Over this time period, the system 1000 can be operated to promote the generation of fast neutrons and the direct fission of Thorium through the generation of a high energy particle beam and the direction of that particle beam to the Beryllium cores of any Thorium fuel assemblies within the system 1000. Over this time period, the output energy level of the system can be monitored at a step 904. Once it is determined that the energy being produced by the system is adequate to provide power necessary to power the particle beam source 200, the external power source can be removed, and the system can begin to operate without the addition of any external power. After the system begins to operate without the provision of external power, it can continue to operate in accordance with Region IV, described above, where direct fission of Thorium is promoted and used to provide a desired level of energy output. This is reflected by operating step 906. As described above, over this period, Uranium-233 will begin to be produced within the assembly. At step 908, the level of Uranium-233 in the assembly can be monitored and, when it is determined that the quantity of Uranium-233 in the assembly is sufficient to support the desired energy level output through fission of Uranium-233, the operation of the particle beam source 200 can be adjusted to provide particles (such as protons) of a lower energy level to promote Uranium-233 fission reactions in a Region II operation. Notably, over this region, Uranium-233 will continue to be produced as the result of the Thorium-232 absorption reaction occurring within the system. Operation in this mode is reflected by step 910. It is anticipated that the systems 1000 described herein can be operated as described above for Step 910 for most of its operating time, for example over a period of between 5-10 years. Of note, in embodiments where the molten salt does not include Beryllium (for example when the molten salt is FLiNaK, the generation of fast neutrons through use of the particle beam source 200 will be through bombardment of the Beryllium cores within the Thorium fuel rods. In addition to producing desired energy (and generating Uranium-233 for later use) operation of the system 1000 in accordance with a Region IV moderation can beneficially reduce (or “burn up”) undesirable waste elements that could otherwise build up within the assembly 300. In general, nuclear fission reactions typically result in the production of by-products generally known as fission products. Certain fission reactions, such as the fission of Uranium-233 can result in the production of fission products in the form of actinides, including trans-uranium (TRU) actinides, and other long-lived fission products. In general, such by-products are undesirable because they typically emit relatively high amounts of radiation and have relatively long-half-lives. The handling, disposing and processing of such TRUs and long-lived fission products is subject to various regulations and safe-handling precautions that must be followed when dealing with such materials. Many TRU's and long-lived fission products can be broken down into elements and isotopes that are less radioactive and/or have substantially shorter half-lifes such that they are safer to handle than the original fission products. Such TRUs and long-lived fission products can be broken down though interactions with neutrons having certain incident energy levels, typically those on the order of the “fast” neutrons, whose generation can be promoted through operation of the system as described above. Thus, operation of the system in a manner where generation of “fast” neutrons is promoted to reduce the amount of undesirable waste in the system. The exemplary system 1000 described above may be operated in various ways to reduce the amount of undesirable waste in the system. One exemplary operation is reflected in FIG. 9B. In this operational mode, the system can be operated as described above in connection with FIG. 9A for most of its operating life. This operation is reflected at Step 912. Towards the end of its operating cycle, however, the system 1000 can be transitioned to operate in the manner described above, where the generation of fast neutrons is promoted. This is reflected in Step 914. The system 1000 could then be operated at this Step 910 until the desired reduction of waste produces has occurred. Note, that embodiments are envisioned where the “burn-up” Step 914 is accomplished at a location separate from, and using a particle beam source, different from the location at which the main running Step 912 occurs. For example, embodiments are envisioned wherein a system 1000 constructed in accordance with the teachings of this disclosure is operated for a lengthy period of time at a location where energy generation is desired and then the Thorium assembly 300 is removed and taken to a different location where it can be bombarded with high energy particles that result in the generation of fast neutrons for purposes of waste burn up. In accordance with other embodiments, the systems 1000 described herein may be operated to “burn-up” waste materials during the main period of operation of the assembly. Such embodiments are particularly suited for applications where the energy output demands from the system are not constant. For example, if the system of FIGS. 1A-1B is used to generate electricity, the demand for electricity may vary depending based on time, day, month, or weather conditions. For example, if the system of FIGS. 1A-1B is used to power a remote manufacturing plant, the plant may be operational—and thus have high energy demands—only weekdays during normal business hours or only during certain peak months of the year. In such applications, after an amount of Uranium-233 has been generated that is sufficient to provide the desired power output, the system could be operated in Region II during the periods of high energy demand (such that the production of energy though fission of Uranium-233 is maximized) and then be operated in Region IV during periods of low energy demand, such that the high-energy neutrons generated by the system during such operational periods can be used to burn some of the TRUs and long-lasting fission products within the system, thus reducing the total overall waste produced by the system. This mode of operation is generally discussed in FIG. 9C. Referring to FIG. 9C, the system may initially be operated in accordance where the generation of thermal neutrons and the fission of Uranium-233 is promoted as discussed above at Step 950. During these intervals, the energy demand of the system can be monitored at Step 952. If the output demand of the system is not below a certain threshold (or in alternate embodiments if the output demand is above a certain threshold level), the system will continue to operate in a manner where thermal-neutron production and Uranium-233 fission is promoted. If the energy demand, however, is below a certain threshold (and, potentially predicted based on data to remain at that lower level for a particular period time) the operation of the system can be adjusted to promote the generation of fast neutrons and the potential burn-up of undesired waste. This is reflected in Step 954. While operating within Step 954, the output demands of the system can be monitored (at Step 956) and, if they increase, the system can transition back to operating in the manner described above in connection with Step 950. In the embodiments described above, the system 1000 is designed (and the particle beam source 200) operated so that the system—not including the neutrons generated as a result of the operation of the particle beam source 200—is operated in a sub-critical manner. As used herein, operation of the system in a sub-critical manner means that, if the power to the particle beam source is removed such that the particle beam source provides no particles to the system, the number of neutrons generated within the Thorium molten salt assembly 300 as the result of fission or other nuclear reactions will be insufficient to sustain permanent and on-going fission reactions within the system. As such, in the embodiments described above, substantial nuclear fission reactions within the system will ultimately cease if the particle beam source ceases to operate. This sub-critical operation of the described systems is believed to provide a safety margin that can eliminate (or at least substantially reduce) the potential for an uncontrolled series of nuclear reactions (sometimes referred to as a “meltdown”) of the assembly 300. In the embodiments discussed previously in this disclosure, the neutrons relied upon to support the nuclear reactions desired for system operation were generated within the Thorium molten salt assembly 300. Alternate embodiments are envisioned wherein the neutrons relied upon for operation on of the system are primarily generated outside the assembly 300. FIG. 10 illustrates one of many alternate embodiments of the system 1000 of FIGS. 1A and 1B in which fast and/or thermal neutrons desired for operation of the system are generated outside of the molten salt assembly. Referring to FIG. 10, the alternate embodiment includes a particle beam source 200, a Thorium molten salt assembly 300, a heat transfer assembly 400, a generator 500, and a shielding assembly 600 substantially as described above. The system 1000′ also includes, however, a neutron source target 230. As described in more detail below, in this alternate embodiment, the neutron source target 230 comprises one or more elements that are bombarded with the particle beam from the particle beam source 220 and that, in response, generates neutrons having various desired energy levels. FIGS. 11A-11F illustrate exemplary neutron source targets 230 that may be used in connection with the embodiment of FIG. 10. For purposes of the following discussion, it is presumed that the particle beam source 200 is as described above in connection with FIGS. 2A-2D in that it can generate protons having energies at two levels, where the first energy level is above 4.5 MeV and the second energy level is between about 2.5 MeV and just below 4.5 MeV. Referring first to FIG. 11A, an exemplary neutron target source 252 is illustrated that comprises a core of neutron reflecting/shielding material (such as graphite) 254 defining an opening passing therethrough and a neutron-generating target 256 positioned within the opening. FIG. 11A illustrates the cross-section of such a structure. In operation, particles from the particle beam source 200 (protons for example) enter the core and pass through the opening on the core and strike the neutron generating target 256. The interaction between the high energy proton beam and the target generates one or more neutrons that pass through the opening within the core and out of the neutron generator 252 where they can be provided to the Thorium molten salt assembly 300 to produce reactions as generally described above. The neutron generating target 256 can take the form of any target that includes a material that, when struck by highly energized particles, emits neutrons. In the example of FIG. 11A the neutron generating target 256 comprises a cone coated with a sufficient amount of Lithium (Li) such that the interaction with the Lithium on the cone with the incident proton beam provided by the particle beam source 200 will cause a Lithium (p, n) reaction producing neutrons at a generally thermal energy level. FIG. 11B illustrates such a Lithium cone 256. When the neutron generating target 256 is Lithium, the incident energy level of the proton beam provided by the accelerator should be greater than about 2.4 MeV to generate the desired neutron density for operation of the system 1000′. As such, the embodiments of the accelerator discussed above that can generate proton beams on the order of 3 MeV can be used with the neutron generating target of FIG. 11B. In the embodiment of FIG. 11B bombardment of illustrated neutron generating target 256 with a proton beam greater than or about 2.4 MeV will result in the generation of neutrons having an energy level of between roughly about 1×10−5 and 0.07 MeV. Neutrons at such an energy level can be applied to the Thorium molten salt system 300 to cause the reactions discussed above during periods where the generation of thermal neutrons is promoted (e.g., fission of Uranium-233). FIG. 11C illustrates an alternative neutron generating target 258. In general, the alternate neutron target 258 is like that of target 256, but it contains Beryllium, instead of Lithium. The target 258 operates generally as described with respect to the target 256, with the exception that the impingement of high energy particles on the Beryllium of target 258 will cause the generation of neutrons having a generally higher energy level than the neutrons generated using the Lithium target 256 of FIG. 11B. In general, the neutrons generated through bombardment of the Beryllium target of FIG. 11C will have an energy level in excess of 0.7 MeV. In the embodiment of FIG. 11C, when the Beryllium target 258 is used the incident energy level of the protons applied to the target should be in excess of 4.5 MeV. The various particle accelerators discussed above in connection with FIGS. 2A-2D would be suitable to provide protons of such an energy level. In some embodiments of the system of FIG. 10, it will be desirable to simultaneously provide neutrons having different energy levels and, specifically at energy levels around those using the Lithium target 256 described above and the Beryllium target 258 described above in connection with FIG. 11C. For such embodiments, it may be possible to utilize the particle beam source 200, discussed above, in combination with two neutron generating targets. Such an arrangement is shown in FIG. 11D, where both Lithium and Beryllium neutron targets are provided and the particle beam can be directed to one or the other target (or alternated between the two) to promote the generation of thermal or fast neutrons, respectively. FIGS. 11E and 11F illustrate still further alternate embodiments for generating fast and thermal neutrons. In the example of FIG. 11E a single neutron generating target is provided that includes upper segments 264 formed of Lithium and a lower core 266 formed of Beryllium. In this example, a particle beam of relatively high energy level particles and a beam shape in the form of a spot can be directed to the lower core to generate fast neutrons and a ring-shaped beam of a lower energy level can be directed to the upper segments to promote the generation of thermal neutrons. In FIG. 11F a neutron generating target is provided in which a Beryllium core 272 is provided and Lithium is sputtered on to produce discrete regions 274 of Lithium containing material. In such an embodiment the surface areas of the target will include areas of both exposed Lithium and exposed Beryllium such that the provision of high energy particles will result in the production of fast and/or slow neutrons. In the example of FIG. 11F, the energy level of the incident particles can be adjusted to promote the generation of fast neutrons over thermal (e.g., by increasing the energy level of the incident particles above 4.5 MeV) or to promote the generation of thermal neutrons over fast neutrons (e.g., by maintaining the energy level of the particles comprising the particle beam between about 2.5 MeV and 3.5 MeV). FIG. 12 generally illustrates the generated neutron flux levels and energy levels when neutron generating targets such as those illustrated in FIG. 11D are used: (a) a Beryllium target is bombarded with protons having energy levels of approximately 4.5 MeV (reflected by the triangles), and (b) a Lithium target is bombarded with approximately 3.0 MeV protons (reflected by the diamonds). The Figures described above, and the written description of specific structures and functions below are not presented to limit the scope of what I have invented or the scope of the appended claims. Rather, the Figures and written description are provided to teach any person skilled in the art to make and use the inventions for which patent protection is sought. Those skilled in the art will appreciate that not all features of a commercial embodiment of the inventions are described or shown for the sake of clarity and understanding. Persons of skill in this art will also appreciate that the development of an actual commercial embodiment incorporating aspects of the present inventions will require numerous implementation-specific decisions to achieve the developer's goal for the commercial embodiment. Such implementation-specific decisions may include, and likely are not limited to, compliance with system-related, business-related, government-related, and other constraints, which may vary by specific implementation, location and from time to time. While a developer's efforts might be complex and time-consuming in an absolute sense, such efforts would be, nevertheless, a routine undertaking for those of skill in this art having benefit of this disclosure. It must be understood that the inventions disclosed and taught herein are susceptible to numerous and various modifications and alternative forms. Lastly, the use of a singular term, such as, but not limited to, “a,” is not intended as limiting of the number of items. Also, the use of relational terms, such as, but not limited to, “top,” “bottom,” “left,” “right,” “upper,” “lower,” “down,” “up,” “side,” and the like are used in the written description for clarity in specific reference to the Figures and are not intended to limit the scope of the invention or the appended claims. Aspects of the inventions disclosed herein may be embodied as an apparatus, system, method, or computer program product. Accordingly, specific embodiments may take the form of an entirely hardware embodiment, an entirely software embodiment or an embodiment combining software and hardware aspects, such as a “circuit,” “module” or “system.” Furthermore, embodiments of the present inventions may take the form of a computer program product embodied in one or more computer readable storage media having computer readable program code. Reference throughout this disclosure to “one embodiment,” “an embodiment,” or similar language means that a feature, structure, or characteristic described in connection with the embodiment is included in at least one of the many possible embodiments of the present inventions. The terms “including,” “comprising,” “having,” and variations thereof mean “including but not limited to” unless expressly specified otherwise. An enumerated listing of items does not imply that any or all the items are mutually exclusive and/or mutually inclusive, unless expressly specified otherwise. The terms “a,” “an,” and “the” also refer to “one or more” unless expressly specified otherwise. Furthermore, the described features, structures, or characteristics of one embodiment may be combined in any suitable manner in one or more other embodiments. Those of skill in the art having the benefit of this disclosure will understand that the inventions may be practiced without one or more of the specific details, or with other methods, components, materials, and so forth. In other instances, well-known structures, materials, or operations are not shown or described in detail to avoid obscuring aspects of the disclosure. Aspects of the present disclosure are described with reference to schematic flowchart diagrams and/or schematic block diagrams of methods, apparatuses, systems, and computer program products according to embodiments of the disclosure. It will be understood by those of skill in the art that each block of the schematic flowchart diagrams and/or schematic block diagrams, and combinations of blocks in the schematic flowchart diagrams and/or schematic block diagrams, may be implemented by computer program instructions. Such computer program instructions may be provided to a processor of a general purpose computer, special purpose computer, or other programmable data processing apparatus to create a machine or device, such that the instructions, which execute via the processor of the computer or other programmable data processing apparatus, structurally configured to implement the functions/acts specified in the schematic flowchart diagrams and/or schematic block diagrams block or blocks. These computer program instructions also may be stored in a computer readable storage medium that can direct a computer, other programmable data processing apparatus, or other devices to function in a particular manner, such that the instructions stored in the computer readable storage medium produce an article of manufacture including instructions which implement the function/act specified in the schematic flowchart diagrams and/or schematic block diagrams block or blocks. The computer program instructions also may be loaded onto a computer, other programmable data processing apparatus, or other devices to cause a series of operational steps to be performed on the computer, other programmable apparatus or other devices to produce a computer implemented process such that the instructions that execute on the computer or other programmable apparatus provide processes for implementing the functions/acts specified in the flowchart and/or block diagram block or blocks. The schematic flowchart diagrams and/or schematic block diagrams in the Figures illustrate the architecture, functionality, and/or operation of possible apparatuses, systems, methods, and computer program products according to various embodiments of the present inventions. In this regard, each block in the schematic flowchart diagrams and/or schematic block diagrams may represent a module, segment, or portion of code, which comprises one or more executable instructions for implementing the specified logical function(s). It also should be noted that, in some possible embodiments, the functions noted in the block may occur out of the order noted in the figures. For example, two blocks shown in succession may, in fact, be executed substantially concurrently, or the blocks may sometimes be executed in the reverse order, depending upon the functionality involved. Other steps and methods may be conceived that are equivalent in function, logic, or effect to one or more blocks, or portions thereof, of the illustrated figures. Although various arrow types and line types may be employed in the flowchart and/or block diagrams, they do not limit the scope of the corresponding embodiments. Indeed, some arrows or other connectors may be used to indicate only the logical flow of the depicted embodiment. For example, but not limitation, an arrow may indicate a waiting or monitoring period of unspecified duration between enumerated steps of the depicted embodiment. It will also be noted that each block of the block diagrams and/or flowchart diagrams, and combinations of blocks in the block diagrams and/or flowchart diagrams, may be implemented by special purpose hardware-based systems that perform the specified functions or acts, or combinations of special purpose hardware and computer instructions. The description of elements in each Figure may refer to elements of proceeding Figures. Like numbers refer to like elements in all figures, including alternate embodiments of like elements. In some possible embodiments, the functions/actions/structures noted in the figures may occur out of the order noted in the block diagrams and/or operational illustrations. For example, two operations shown as occurring in succession, in fact, may be executed substantially concurrently or the operations may be executed in the reverse order, depending upon the functionality/acts/structure involved. The inventions have been described in the context of preferred and other embodiments and not every embodiment of the invention has been described. Obvious modifications and alterations to the described embodiments are available to those of ordinary skill in the art. The disclosed and undisclosed embodiments are not intended to limit or restrict the scope or applicability of the invention conceived of by the Applicants, but rather, in conformity with the patent laws, Applicants intend to protect fully all such modifications and improvements that come within the scope or range of equivalent of the following claims.
	claims	1. The surface signal operating probe for an electronic device characterized in that said probe comprises a nanotube, a holder which holds said nanotube, and a fastening means which fastens a base end portion of said nanotube to a surface of said holder with a tip end portion of said nanotube being caused to protrude; and said tip end portion is used as a probe needle so as to operate surface signals and wherein: said fastening means is a coating film, and said nanotube is fastened to said holder by way of covering a specified region including said base end portion of said nanotube; and a reinforcing coating film is formed on an intermediate portion of said protruding tip end portion near said base end portion of said nanotube. 2. The surface signal operating probe for an electronic device characterized in that said probe comprises a nanotube, a holder which holds said nanotube, and a fastening means which fastens a base end portion of said nanotube to a surface of said holder with a tip end portion of said nanotube being caused to protrude; and said tip end portion is used as a probe needle so as to operate surface signals; and wherein said fastening means is a fusion-welded part, and said base end portion of said nanotube is fastened to said holder by fusion welding by means of said fusion-welded part. 3. A method for manufacturing a surface signal operating probe for an electronic device, said method being characterized in that said method comprises: a first process in which a voltage is applied across electrodes in an electrophoretic solution in which nanotubes to be used as a probe needle are dispersed, so that said nanotubes are caused to adhere to one or both of said electrodes in a protruding fashion; a second process in which said one or both of said electrodes to which nanotubes are caused to adhere in a protruding fashion and a holder are caused to approach very close to each other, so that each of said nanotubes is transferred to said holder in such a manner that a base end portion of said nanotube adheres to a surface of said holder with a tip end portion of said nanotube in a protruding fashion; and a third process in which a specified region including at least said base end portion of said nanotube adhering to said surface of said holder is subjected to a coating treatment so that said nanotube is fastened to said holder by a resulting coating film. 4. The surface signal operating probe manufacturing method according to claim 3 , wherein in which a voltage is applied across said electrodes and holder when necessary in said second process. claim 3 5. A method for manufacturing a surface signal operating probe for an electronic device, said method being characterized in that said method comprises: a first process in which a voltage is applied across electrodes in an electrophoretic solution in which nanotubes to be used as a probe needle are dispersed, so that said nanotubes are caused to adhere to one or both of said electrodes in a protruding fashion; a second process in which said one or both of said electrodes to which nanotubes are caused to adhere in a protruding fashion and a holder is caused to approach very close to each other, so that each of said nanotubes adheres to a surface of said holder with a tip end portion of said nanotube in a protruding fashion; and a third process in which an electric current is caused to flow between said nanotube and said holder so that a base end portion of said nanotube is fusion-welded to said holder. 6. A method for manufacturing a surface signal operating probe for an electronic device, said method being characterized in that said method comprises: a first process in which a voltage is applied across electrodes in an electrophoretic solution in which nanotubes to be used as a probe needle are dispersed, so that said nanotubes are caused to adhere to one or both of said electrodes in a protruding fashion; a second process in which said one or both of said electrodes to which nanotubes are caused to adhere in a protruding fashion and a holder is caused to approach very close to each other, so that a nanotube adheres to a surface of said holder with a tip end portion of said nanotube in a protruding fashion; and a third process in which a base end portion of said nanotube is fusion-welded to said holder by irradiation with an electron beam. 7. The surface signal operating probe manufacturing method according to any one of claims 3 through 6 , wherein said second and third processes are performed while actually observing said processes under an electron microscope. 8. The surface signal operating probe manufacturing method according to any one of claims 3 through 6 , wherein said nanotube is an NT bundle comprising a plurality of nanotubes, and said NT bundle is fastened to said holder so that one of said nanotubes is caused to protrude furthest forward. 9. The surface signal operating probe manufacturing method according to any one of claims 3 through 6 , wherein said nanotube is one selected from the group consisting of a carbon nanotube, BCN type nanotube and BN type nanotube. 10. A method of attaching nanotube to probe holder, said method being characterized in that said method comprises: a first process in which said nanotubes to be used as a probe needle are caused to adhere to a electrode in a protruding fashion; a second process in which said electrode to which nanotubes are caused to adhere in a protruding fashion and a holder is caused to approach very close to each other, so that each of said nanotubes adheres to a surface of said holder with a tip end portion of said nanotube in a protruding fashion; and a third process in which an electric current is caused to flow between said nanotube and said holder so that a base end portion of said nanotube is fusion-welded to said holder. 11. A method of attaching nanotube to probe holder, said method being characterized in that said method comprises: a first process in which nanotubes to be used as a probe needle are caused to adhere to a electrode in a protruding fashion; a second process in which said electrode to which nanotubes are caused to adhere in a protruding fashion and a holder is caused to approach very close to each other, so that a nanotube adheres to a surface of said holder with a tip end portion of said nanotube in a protruding fashion; and a third process in which a base end portion of said nanotube is fusion-welded to said holder by irradiation with an electron beam. 12. The method of attaching nanotube to probe holder according to claim 10 , wherein said first process is performed by an operation that a voltage is applied across electrodes in an electrophoretic solution in which said nanotubes to be used as a probe needle are dispersed, so that said nanotubes are caused to adhere to said electrodes in a protruding fashion. claim 10 13. The method of attaching nanotube to probe holder according to claim 11 , wherein said first process is performed by an operation that a voltage is applied across electrodes in an electrophoretic solution in which said nanotubes to be used as a probe needle are dispersed, so that said nanotubes are caused to adhere to said electrodes in a protruding fashion. claim 11 14. The method of attaching nanotube to probe holder according to any one of claims 10 to 13 , wherein said second and third processes are performed while actually observing said processes under an electron microscope. claims 10 13 15. The method of attaching nanotube to probe holder according to any one of claims 10 to 13 , wherein said nanotube is an NT bundle comprising a plurality of nanotubes, and said NT bundle is fastened to said holder so that one of said nanotubes is caused to protrude furthest forward. claims 10 13 16. The method of attaching nanotube to probe holder according to any one of claims 10 to 13 , wherein said nanotube is one selected from the group consisting of a carbon nanotube, claims 10 13
	claims	1. A material consisting of uranium (U), gadolinium (Gd) and oxygen (O) exhibiting a crystalline phase with a crystallographic structure of cubic type, with a Gd/[Gd+U] atomic ratio between 0.6 and 0.93, the uranium being present therein in the +IV and/or +V oxidation state. 2. The material as claimed in claim 1, exhibiting a crystalline phase referred to as cubic 1 phase, the Gd/[Gd+U] atomic ratio of which is between 0.79 and 0.93. 3. The material as claimed in claim 2, in which the crystallographic structure of cubic type exhibits a unit cell parameter between 10.8 and 10.9 Å. 4. The material as claimed in claim 1, exhibiting a crystalline phase referred to as cubic 2 phase, the Gd/[Gd+U] atomic ratio of which is between 0.6 and 0.71. 5. The material as claimed in claim 4, in which the crystallographic structure of cubic type exhibits a unit cell parameter between 5.3 and 5.5 Å. 6. The material as claimed in claim 1 of two-phase type, exhibiting (i) a cubic 1 phase, the Gd/[Gd+U] atomic ratio of which is between 0.79 and 0.93, and (ii) a cubic 2 phase, the Gd/[Gd+U] atomic ratio of which is between 0.6 and 0.71. 7. The material as claimed in claim 1, in which the uranium is uranium isotopically enriched in 235U, uranium isotopically depleted in 235U or natural uranium. 8. The material as claimed in claim 1, in which the gadolinium is natural gadolinium or gadolinium isotopically modified in its 155Gd/Gdtotal and/or 157Gd/Gdtotal ratio. 9. A process for the preparation of a material defined according to claim 1, comprising a stage of sintering, at a temperature ranging from 1200 to 2200° C. and under a reducing atmosphere, a powder formed of a mixture of uranium oxide and gadolinium oxide Gd2O3 in proportions such that the gadolinium is present in a Gd/[Gd+U] atomic ratio ranging from 0.6 to 0.93. 10. The process as claimed in claim 9, in which the sintering is carried out under an argon atmosphere to which 5 mol % of hydrogen has been added. 11. The process as claimed in claim 9, in which the sintering is carried out for a period of time of greater than or equal to 1 hour. 12. A burnable neutron poison of a nuclear fuel element, which comprises the material as claimed in claim 1. 13. A nuclear fuel pellet, comprising a material as defined according to claim 1. 14. A nuclear fuel rod comprising at least one fuel pellet as defined according to claim 13. 15. A nuclear fuel assembly comprising at least one fuel rod as defined in claim 14. 16. A heterogeneous nuclear fuel pellet formed of at least an internal part comprising at least one fissile material, the internal part being coated with an annular external part that is formed in whole or part of a material as defined according to claim 1. 17. The pellet as claimed in claim 16, in which said annular external part exhibits a thickness ranging from 0.05 to 7.5% of the radius of said pellet. 18. The pellet as claimed in claim 16, in which said internal part is formed in whole or part of uranium oxide, plutonium oxide, thorium oxide or their mixtures. 19. A process for manufacturing a heterogeneous nuclear fuel pellet defined according to claim 16, comprising at least the following steps:(i) providing a powder comprising a material based on uranium (U), gadolinium (Gd) and oxygen (O) exhibiting a crystalline phase with a crystallographic structure of cubic type, with a Gd/[Gd+U] atomic ratio between 0.6 and 0.93, the uranium being present therein in the +IV and/or +V oxidation state;or providing a powder formed of a mixture of uranium oxide and gadolinium oxide Gd2O3 in proportions such that the gadolinium is present in a Gd/[Gd+U] atomic ratio ranging from 0.6 to 0.93;(ii) preparing a slip from the powder of stage (i);(iii) depositing the powder in the slip form on the surface of a pellet comprising at least one fissile material; and(iv) sintering the pellet obtained on conclusion of stage (iii) under a reducing atmosphere and at a temperature between 1200° C. and 2200° C. 20. The process as claimed in claim 19, in which stage (iii) includes the drying of the slip layer deposited at the surface of the pellet. 21. A nuclear fuel element of plate-type geometry comprising one or more fissile regions covered, at least in part, with a material as defined according to claim 1.
054854962	summary	TECHNICAL FIELD This invention is directed to irradiation sterilizing of a medical device or product made of or containing biomaterial that undergoes substantial strength loss during use on gamma irradiation sterilizing under ambient conditions and has heretofore required gas sterilizing. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Synthetic absorbable sutures composed of biodegradable biomaterials including polyglycolic acid (e.g., sold under the tradename Dexon), copolymer of glycolide and lactide (e.g., sold under the tradename Vicryl), poly-p-dioxanone (sold under the tradename PDSII), copolymer of glycolide and trimethylene carbonate (sold under the tradename Maxon) and copolymer of glycolide and epsilon-caprolactone (sold under the tradename Monocryl) are currently sterilized by gas (ethylene oxide) sterilization because of the known adverse effect of gamma irradiation sterilization on the mechanical properties and hydrolytic degradation rate of these biomaterials. Gas sterilization is time consuming and costly. The toxicity of residual amounts of ethylene oxide in medical devices and products has been a concern and degassing is a long and tedious, costly process. The medical industry has expressed a desire to replace ethylene oxide sterilization for absorbable biomaterials, e.g., absorbable sutures, with gamma irradiation sterilization if the latter method would not significantly increase the strength loss during use of the biomaterials. However, all reported data from conventional gamma irradiation of synthetic polymeric absorbable biomaterials indicates that gamma irradiation sterilization of synthetic polymeric absorbable biomaterials would be unacceptable. There is a similar problem for non-absorbable synthetic polymeric biomaterials, e.g., in the case of acetabular or tibia components of joint protheses made of ultra high molecular weight polyethylene, which are disadvantageously weakened by conventional gamma irradiation to the extent that gas sterilization has been required. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It has been discovered herein that medical devices or products composed of or containing absorbable as well as non-absorbable polymeric biomaterials that are significantly weakened by conventional gamma irradiation sterilization are provided with improved strength properties when gamma irradiation is carried out in the substantial absence of oxygen at very low temperatures. This discovery is embodied in a method for gamma irradiation sterilization of a medical device or product composed of or containing biomaterial that undergoes substantial strength loss after gamma irradiation sterilizing under ambient conditions and heretofore has required gas sterilizing, said method comprising gamma irradiating said medical device or product in the substantial absence of oxygen while said device is maintained at a temperature ranging from -180.degree. C. to -200.degree. C., thereby to sterilize said device. Preferably, vacuum treatment to provide 1.times.10.sup.-5 torr to about 1.times.10.sup.-7 torr, more preferably about 5.times.10.sup.-6 torr, is utilized to provide the required substantial absence of oxygen. Preferably, liquid nitrogen is utilized to provide the required temperature. The term "medical device or product" is used herein to mean a device or product for human body reconstruction or which is implanted in the body to control drug release. This term includes absorbable devices and products, e.g., absorbable sutures, absorbable clips, absorbable staples, absorbable pins, absorbable rods (for repairing broken bones), absorbable joints, absorbable vascular grafts, absorbable fabrics or meshes (e.g., for hernia repair), absorbable sponges, absorbable adhesives and absorbable drug control/release devices as well as non-absorbable devices and products, e.g., acetabular or tibia components of joint prostheses, and bone cement. The term "biomaterial" is used herein to mean a material which has properties which are adequate for human body reconstruction and/or drug control/release devices or products. The term includes absorbable materials, e.g., as in the case of absorbable sutures, as well as non-absorbable materials, e.g., in the case of prostheses components. The term "absorbable" is used herein to mean that the materials will be degraded and subsequently absorbed into a human body. The term "non-absorbable" is used herein to mean that the materials will not be degraded and subsequently absorbed into a human body. The term "sterilization" is used herein to mean treatment that achieves the killing of all types of microorganisms. The term "undergoes substantial strength loss after gamma irradiation sterilizing under ambient condition" is used herein to mean loss of at least 50% in tensile breaking force under ASTM specified conditions of 21.degree. C. and 65% relative humidity as determined using an Instron Universal Testing Machine with a crosshead speed of 10 mm/min, after 10 days in phosphate buffer solution (pH of 7.44) at 37.degree. C. after total gamma irradiation of 2 Mrad. The term "substantial absence of oxygen" means in an atmosphere containing the amount of oxygen remaining after the vacuum treatment described above.
	description	Field The present disclosure relates to the moderation of neutrons in a nuclear reactor. Description of Related Art Conventionally, fast neutrons are produced by fission reactions in a nuclear reactor. A fast neutron is a free neutron with a kinetic energy level of about 1 MeV or more. Moderation is the process of reducing the initial high kinetic energy of the fast neutrons so as to convert the fast neutrons to lower-energy thermal neutrons. Thermal neutrons help sustain the chain of fission reactions in the core. In a conventional nuclear power plant, water has been used as a neutron moderator to slow down (thermalize) the fast neutrons, with the water flowing upwardly through the fuel bundles. However, conventional fuel bundles operate with axially varying amounts of moderation in their active fuel region due to the eventual boiling of the water along the upper portions of the fuel length. In particular, the upper boiling regions have a reduced moderating capability relative to the lower non-boiling regions of the fuel bundles. As a result, there are more fission reactions and, thus, more power generated in the lower non-boiling regions than in the upper boiling regions of the fuel bundles, thereby creating a non-uniform axial power shape. A non-uniform axial power shape can limit the overall reactor power generation based on the locations of the power peaks and the design limitations of those locations. Additionally, the non-uniform axial power shape can cause the fuel in the bottom of the fuel bundles to be consumed at a faster rate than the fuel in the top of the fuel bundles. Consequently, when the lower sections of the fuel bundles burn out, a large portion of the fuel in the upper sections of the fuel bundles may still remain unburned, resulting in poor fuel utilization. Furthermore, poor neutron moderation in the upper sections of the fuel bundles results in increased fast neutron irradiation. Accordingly, various structures within a nuclear reactor may be degraded over time by the fast neutron irradiation, thereby shortening the life of those components and requiring mitigating action to continue operation of the nuclear power plant. A moderating fuel rod for a boiling water reactor may include a nuclear fuel section; a neutron moderator section including a metal hydride; and a threaded connector joining the nuclear fuel section and the neutron moderator section. A method of moderating a fuel bundle of a boiling water reactor may include inserting at least one moderating fuel rod into the fuel bundle. The at least one moderating fuel rod may include a nuclear fuel section, a neutron moderator section including a metal hydride, and a threaded connector joining the nuclear fuel section and the neutron moderator section. It should be understood that when an element or layer is referred to as being “on,” “connected to,” “coupled to,” or “covering” another element or layer, it may be directly on, connected to, coupled to, or covering the other element or layer or intervening elements or layers may be present. In contrast, when an element is referred to as being “directly on,” “directly connected to,” or “directly coupled to” another element or layer, there are no intervening elements or layers present. Like numbers refer to like elements throughout the specification. As used herein, the term “and/or” includes any and all combinations of one or more of the associated listed items. It should be understood that, although the terms first, second, third, etc. may be used herein to describe various elements, components, regions, layers and/or sections, these elements, components, regions, layers, and/or sections should not be limited by these terms. These terms are only used to distinguish one element, component, region, layer, or section from another region, layer, or section. Thus, a first element, component, region, layer, or section discussed below could be termed a second element, component, region, layer, or section without departing from the teachings of example embodiments. Spatially relative terms (e.g., “beneath,” “below,” “lower,” “above,” “upper,” and the like) may be used herein for ease of description to describe one element or feature's relationship to another element(s) or feature(s) as illustrated in the figures. It should be understood that the spatially relative terms are intended to encompass different orientations of the device in use or operation in addition to the orientation depicted in the figures. For example, if the device in the figures is turned over, elements described as “below” or “beneath” other elements or features would then be oriented “above” the other elements or features. Thus, the term “below” may encompass both an orientation of above and below. The device may be otherwise oriented (rotated 90 degrees or at other orientations) and the spatially relative descriptors used herein interpreted accordingly. The terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing various embodiments only and is not intended to be limiting of example embodiments. As used herein, the singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” are intended to include the plural forms as well, unless the context clearly indicates otherwise. It will be further understood that the terms “includes,” “including,” “comprises,” and/or “comprising,” when used in this specification, specify the presence of stated features, integers, steps, operations, elements, and/or components, but do not preclude the presence or addition of one or more other features, integers, steps, operations, elements, components, and/or groups thereof. Example embodiments are described herein with reference to cross-sectional illustrations that are schematic illustrations of idealized embodiments (and intermediate structures) of example embodiments. As such, variations from the shapes of the illustrations as a result, for example, of manufacturing techniques and/or tolerances, are to be expected. Thus, example embodiments should not be construed as limited to the shapes of regions illustrated herein but are to include deviations in shapes that result, for example, from manufacturing. For example, an implanted region illustrated as a rectangle will, typically, have rounded or curved features and/or a gradient of implant concentration at its edges rather than a binary change from implanted to non-implanted region. Likewise, a buried region formed by implantation may result in some implantation in the region between the buried region and the surface through which the implantation takes place. Thus, the regions illustrated in the figures are schematic in nature and their shapes are not intended to illustrate the actual shape of a region of a device and are not intended to limit the scope of example embodiments. Unless otherwise defined, all terms (including technical and scientific terms) used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which example embodiments belong. It will be further understood that terms, including those defined in commonly used dictionaries, should be interpreted as having a meaning that is consistent with their meaning in the context of the relevant art and will not be interpreted in an idealized or overly formal sense unless expressly so defined herein. FIG. 1 is a cut-away view of a fuel bundle of a boiling water reactor according to an example embodiment. Referring to FIG. 1, the fuel bundle 100 includes a plurality of fuel rods 104 positioned between an upper tie plate 102 and a lower tie plate 108. The plurality of fuel rods 104 are arranged in an array and extend through one or more spacer grids 106, which provide lateral support to the plurality of fuel rods 104. In particular, the spacer grid 106 helps to maintain the proper spacing between the array of fuel rods 104 while also reducing or preventing flow-induced vibrations. The plurality of fuel rods 104 may be full-length fuel rods or part-length fuel rods. Additionally, the part-length fuel rods can be further categorized as long part-length rods or short part-length rods. As discussed in more detail herein, one or more of the plurality of fuel rods 104 can be converted into moderating fuel rods to improve the neutron moderation within the fuel bundle 100. FIG. 2 is a schematic view of moderating fuel rods for a fuel bundle of a boiling water reactor according to an example embodiment. Referring to FIG. 2, each of the moderating fuel rods 200 includes a neutron moderator section 202, a nuclear fuel section 206, and a threaded connector 204 joining the neutron moderator section 202 and the nuclear fuel section 206. The nuclear fuel section 206 may include uranium dioxide. The neutron moderator section 202 includes a metal hydride as a moderator material. The metal hydride may be a transition metal hydride. Additionally, the transition metal hydride may be a Group 4 metal hydride. For instance, the Group 4 metal hydride may be at least one of zirconium hydride and titanium hydride. As shown in FIG. 2, an average diameter of the neutron moderator section 202 is greater than an average diameter of the nuclear fuel section 206. As a result, the threaded connector 204 has a portion that tapers downward from the neutron moderator section 202 toward the nuclear fuel section 206. However, it should be understood that, in other non-limiting embodiments, the average diameter of the neutron moderator section may be equal to (e.g., FIG. 3) or less than (e.g., FIG. 4) the average diameter of the nuclear fuel section depending on the location of the moderating fuel rod within the fuel bundle. The fuel bundle may be as shown and described in connection with the fuel bundle 100 in FIG. 1. In addition to the variable average diameter, the lengths of the neutron moderator section 202 and the nuclear fuel section 206 may also differ depending on the location of the moderating fuel rod 200 within the fuel bundle. For instance, in the left moderating fuel rod 200 in FIG. 2, the neutron moderator section 202 is shorter than the nuclear fuel section 206. In the center moderating fuel rod 200 in FIG. 2, the neutron moderator section 202 is about equal in length to the nuclear fuel section 206. In the right moderating fuel rod 200 in FIG. 2, the neutron moderator section 202 is longer than the nuclear fuel section 206. Although three different configurations for the moderating fuel rod 200 are shown in FIG. 2, it should be understood that more variations are possible, and a fuel bundle can include one or more quantities and configurations of the moderating fuel rods 200 depending on the moderation goals/requirements. Furthermore, although the moderating fuel rods 200 in FIG. 2 are shown with the neutron moderator section 202 being above the nuclear fuel section 206, it should be understood that the neutron moderator section 202 can also be positioned below the nuclear fuel section 206 depending on the moderation goals/requirements of a specific case. FIG. 3 is a schematic view of moderating fuel rods for a fuel bundle of a boiling water reactor according to another example embodiment. Referring to FIG. 3, each of the moderating fuel rods 300 includes a neutron moderator section 302, a nuclear fuel section 306, and a threaded connector 304 joining the neutron moderator section 302 and the nuclear fuel section 306. As shown in FIG. 3, an average diameter of the neutron moderator section 302 is about equal to an average diameter of the nuclear fuel section 306. As a result, an average diameter of the visible portion of the threaded connector 304 is also about equal to the average diameters of the neutron moderator section 302 and the nuclear fuel section 306. Alternatively, as discussed herein, the neutron moderator section 302 may have an average diameter that differs from an average diameter of the nuclear fuel section 306. The features of the moderating fuel rods 300 of FIG. 3 that correspond to the features of the moderating fuel rods 200 of FIG. 2 (along with the applicable properties, variations, and considerations) may be as described above and, thus, have not been repeated in the interest of brevity. FIG. 4 is a schematic view of moderating fuel rods for a fuel bundle of a boiling water reactor according to another example embodiment. Referring to FIG. 4, each of the moderating fuel rods 400 includes a neutron moderator section 402, a nuclear fuel section 406, and a threaded connector 404 joining the neutron moderator section 402 and the nuclear fuel section 406. As shown in FIG. 4, an average diameter of the neutron moderator section 402 is less than an average diameter of the nuclear fuel section 406. As a result, the threaded connector 404 has a portion that expands downward from the neutron moderator section 402 toward the nuclear fuel section 406. The features of the moderating fuel rods 400 of FIG. 4 that correspond to the features of the moderating fuel rods 200 of FIG. 2 and the moderating fuel rods 300 of FIG. 3 (along with the applicable properties, variations, and considerations) may be as described above and, thus, have not been repeated in the interest of brevity. FIG. 5 is a partial view of a moderating fuel rod positioned within a spacer grid of a fuel bundle of a boiling water reactor according to an example embodiment. Referring to FIG. 5, a moderating fuel rod includes a neutron moderator section 502, a nuclear fuel section 506, and a threaded connector 504 joining the neutron moderator section 502 and the nuclear fuel section 506. The moderating fuel rod is positioned within an opening of a spacer grid 508 of a fuel bundle. Although only the moderating fuel rod is shown (for simplicity) in the partial view depicted by FIG. 5, it should be understood that other rods (e.g., regular fuel rods, moderating fuel rods) typically occupy the other openings in the spacer grid 508 during the regular operation of the nuclear reactor. The spacer grid 508 is configured to laterally support the moderating fuel rod (and other rods in the fuel bundle) so as to, for instance, maintain the proper spacing between the array of rods in the fuel bundle. The moderating fuel rod is positioned such that the threaded connector 504 is within the spacer grid 508. In particular, the moderating fuel rod is positioned such that the threaded connector 504 extends from both the top and the bottom of the spacer grid 508. Thus, the moderating fuel rod will only physically contact the spacer grid 508 via the threaded connector 504 (and not via the neutron moderator section 502 or the nuclear fuel section 506). As a result, fretting concerns caused by repeated contacts (e.g., from vibrations) between the moderating fuel rod and the spacer grid 508 (which can lead to loss of material, such as the metal hydride within the neutron moderator section 502) can be mitigated. When the fuel bundle includes a plurality of spacer grids (e.g., FIG. 1), the moderating fuel rods may include a plurality of threaded connectors positioned to coincide with each of the plurality of spacer grids to mitigate fretting concerns. For instance, using the moderating fuel rods 200 in FIG. 2 as an example, an additional threaded connector (of appropriate dimensions) may be provided above the neutron moderator section 202 in order to join another neutron moderator section to the structure shown. Also, it should be understood that a moderating fuel rod may not need to include a nuclear fuel section in certain situations. Thus, a moderating fuel rod may just include one or more neutron moderator sections and one or more threaded connectors as needed. However, it should be understood that other variations are possible depending on the configuration needed for a specific case. Additionally, as previously noted, the dimensions of the neutron moderator section 502, the threaded connector 504, and the nuclear fuel section 506 may vary depending on the moderation goals/requirements of the fuel bundle. Furthermore, although the moderating fuel rod is shown in FIG. 5 with the neutron moderator section 502 being above the nuclear fuel section 506, it should be understood that the neutron moderator section 502 can also be positioned below the nuclear fuel section 506 depending on the moderation goals/requirements of a specific case. FIG. 6 is a perspective view of a threaded connector of a moderating fuel rod according to an example embodiment. Referring to FIG. 6, the threaded connector includes a male connector 600a and a female connector 600b. In particular, the combination of the male connector 600a and the female connector 600b (e.g., when united via their threaded portions) may be collectively referred to as the threaded connector. The male connector 600a includes a non-threaded end 602 and an externally-threaded end 604. The female connector 600b includes a non-threaded end 606 and an internally-threaded end 608. The externally-threaded end 604 of the male connector 600a is configured to mate with the internally-threaded end 608 of the female connector 600b. In an example embodiment, the male connector 600a is connected to one of the nuclear fuel section and the neutron moderator section, while the female connector 600b is connected to the other of the nuclear fuel section and the neutron moderator section. In particular, the connection (e.g., welding) of the male connector 600a to one of the nuclear fuel section and the neutron moderator section is via the non-threaded end 602. Similarly, the connection (e.g., welding) of the female connector 600b to the other of the nuclear fuel section and the neutron moderator section is via the non-threaded end 606. As a result, the externally-threaded end 604 of the male connector 600a is free to mate with the internally-threaded end 608 of the female connector 600b to join the nuclear fuel section and the neutron moderator section. The neutron moderator section discussed herein may also be structured to include an inner tube within an outer tube to form a double-lined/double-walled pressure boundary to further mitigate fretting concerns and the potential loss of the contents therein. A metal hydride may be contained within the inner tube as a moderator material. In such an example embodiment, the outer tube of the neutron moderator section may be welded to the non-threaded end 602 of the male connector 600a (or the non-threaded end 606 of the female connector 600b), and the inner tube is arranged within the outer tube. In view of the structures discussed above, a method of moderating a fuel bundle of a boiling water reactor may include inserting at least one moderating fuel rod into the fuel bundle. The at least one moderating fuel rod may include a nuclear fuel section, a neutron moderator section including a metal hydride, and a threaded connector joining the nuclear fuel section and the neutron moderator section. The method may additionally include configuring the neutron moderator section to include an inner tube within an outer tube (with the metal hydride being contained within the inner tube) to mitigate fretting concerns. The method may also include laterally supporting the at least one moderating fuel rod with a spacer grid. In particular, the at least one moderating fuel rod may be positioned such that the threaded connector is within the spacer grid. As a result of the threaded connector coinciding with the spacer grid, fretting concerns may be further mitigated, since the neutron moderator section (and the nuclear fuel section) is distanced from and, thus, will not physically contact the spacer grid. The method may further include varying at least one of an axial length and an average diameter of the neutron moderator section based on a position of the at least one moderating fuel rod in the fuel bundle. In particular, not only can the axial length or the average diameter of the neutron moderator section be separately varied but also both the axial length and the average diameter of the neutron moderator section can be simultaneously varied in order to achieve the desired level of moderation. In an example embodiment, the axial length of the neutron moderator section may be longer when the position of the at least one moderating fuel rod is in an interior of the fuel bundle relative to axial lengths of neutron moderator sections of other moderating fuel rods that are at more exterior locations in the fuel bundle. Conversely, the axial length of the neutron moderator section may be shorter when the position of the at least one moderating fuel rod is in an exterior of the fuel bundle relative to axial lengths of neutron moderator sections of other moderating fuel rods that are at more interior locations in the fuel bundle. In another example embodiment, the average diameter of the neutron moderator section may be larger when the position of the at least one moderating fuel rod is in an interior of the fuel bundle relative to average diameters of neutron moderator sections of other moderating fuel rods that are at more exterior locations in the fuel bundle. Conversely, the average diameter of the neutron moderator section may be smaller when the position of the at least one moderating fuel rod is in an exterior of the fuel bundle relative to average diameters of neutron moderator sections of other moderating fuel rods that are at more interior locations in the fuel bundle. In particular, using FIG. 1 as an example, the fuel rods 104 in the fuel bundle 100 are arranged in an array of evenly spaced rows. The longitudinal axis of the fuel bundle 100 extends vertically through the center of the fuel bundle 100, with the fuel rods 104 being generally parallel thereto. Fuel rods that are closer to the central longitudinal axis of the fuel bundle 100 than the sidewalls of the fuel bundle 100 may be regarded as being in the interior. Conversely, fuel rods that are closer to the sidewalls of the fuel bundle 100 than the central longitudinal axis of the fuel bundle 100 may be regarded as being in the exterior. Also, given two fuel rods, the one closer to the longitudinal axis will be regarded as being more interior than the other. Conversely, the one farther from the longitudinal axis will be regarded as being more exterior than the other. However, fuels rods within the same ring (e.g., outermost row of fuel rods forms a square-shaped ring) may be regarded as being in the same spacial locale (e.g., in the exterior) even though one fuel rod in the same ring may technically be closer/farther than another to the longitudinal axis of the fuel bundle 100. Referring back to FIG. 2, the left moderating fuel rod may be arranged in a more exterior location in the fuel bundle than the center moderating fuel rod. Additionally, the right moderating fuel rod in FIG. 2 may be arranged in a more interior location than the left or center moderating fuel rods. A similar arrangement is also applicable to the moderating fuel rods in FIGS. 3-4. As for the moderating fuel rods in FIGS. 2-4 relative to each other, a moderating fuel rod 300 in FIG. 3 may be arranged in a more exterior location in the fuel bundle than a corresponding moderating fuel rod 200 in FIG. 2. Additionally, a moderating fuel rod 400 in FIG. 4 may be arranged in a more exterior location in the fuel bundle than a corresponding moderating fuel rod 200 in FIG. 2 or a corresponding moderating fuel rod 300 in FIG. 3. As a result of the moderating fuel rods and the associated methods herein, the neutron moderation within a fuel bundle may be improved, thereby allowing energy to be more efficiently extracted from the entire length of the fuel bundle. Consequently, water carrying structures (e.g., water rods) that were conventionally used for moderation may also be eliminated, which frees up additional space for more fuel to be loaded into the fuel bundle. While a number of example embodiments have been disclosed herein, it should be understood that other variations may be possible. Such variations are not to be regarded as a departure from the spirit and scope of the present disclosure, and all such modifications as would be obvious to one skilled in the art are intended to be included within the scope of the following claims.
048067679	claims	1. An electron lens assembly, comprising: at least two magnetic pole pieces disposed in opposition to each other and each having a bore for allowing an electron beam to pass therethrough, said magnetic pole pieces defining a space therebetween; an exciting coil for generating a magnetic field between said magnetic pole pieces; a yoke constituted by at least two divided yoke members so as to be capable of accommodating said exciting coil and coupled to said magnetic pole pieces, at least one of said divided yoke members being coupled detachably to one of said magnetic pole pieces; a metal O-ring disposed on a surface of said detachable yoke member so as to prevent the air from penetrating into the space defined between said magnetic pole pieces along said surface of said detachable yoke member from a space accommodating said exciting coil therein; and an electron beam passage defining pipe disposed along an electron beam path except for said space defined by said magnetic pole pieces, said pipe being integrally coupled to said detachable yoke member at an end portion near to the magnetic pole piece located close to said pipe. first and second magnetic pole pieces disposed in opposition to each other and each having a bore for allowing an electron beam to pass therethrough; a yoke including a first yoke portion and a second yoke portion separable from said first yoke portion, said first yoke portion having one end magnetically coupled to said first magnetic pole piece and the other end, said second yoke portion having one end magnetically and separably coupled to said second magnetic pole piece and the other end magnetically coupled to said other end of said first yoke portion, said second yoke portion further including an exciting coil disposed around outer periphery of said second yoke portion, said second yoke portion having a through-hole formed therein for allowing the electron beam having passed through said first and second pole pieces to pass through said yoke; a pipe disposed within the through-hole formed in said second yoke portion so as to enclose the electron beam passing through said through-hole, said pipe being formed integrally with said second yoke portion in the vicinity of said one end of said second yoke portion; a non-magnetic spacer having first and second ends connected gas-tightly to said first and second yoke portions, respectively, said exciting coil being disposed within a space defined by said spacer and said first and second yoke portions; and a metal O-ring disposed between said second end of said spacer and said second yoke portion for coupling separably and gas-tightly said spacer and said second yoke portion to each other. 2. An electron lens assembly according to claim 1, wherein said pipe is directly welded to said detachable yoke member at the end portion near to said magnetic pole piece located near to said pipe. 3. An electron lens assembly according to claim 1, wherein said pipe is welded to said detachable yoke member through an interconnecting member at the end portion of the pipe located near to said detachable magnetic pole piece. 4. An electron lens assembly according to claim 1, wherein said metal O-ring includes a metal pipe having a cut-out portion extending longitudinally, and a helical spring disposed within said metal pipe. 5. An electron lens assembly, comprising: 6. An electron lens assembly according to claim 5, wherein said pipe is directly welded to said second yoke portion. 7. An electron lens assembly according to claim 5, wherein said pipe is welded to said second yoke portion through an interconnecting member.
056595913	description	DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Referring now in detail to the figures of the drawings, which are sometimes simplified, and first, particularly, to FIG. 2 thereof, there is seen a longitudinal section through a reactor building of a pressurized water reactor in an axis of a fuel assembly storage trough LB, which includes an outer storage trough LB1 and an inner storage trough LB2. A central reactor pressure vessel 1 outputs nuclear heat energy it produces through non-illustrated steam generators, which in turn supply fresh-steam lines 3. Reference numeral 2 indicates a pressure holder through which pressure can be kept constant in the primary system. The reactor pressure vessel 1, the pressure holder 2, the non-illustrated steam generators, an immersion pump TP with the inner storage trough LB2 surrounding it as well as the outer storage trough LB1, are disposed inside a spherical safety tank 4 made of steel which may have a diameter of 56 m, for example. Everything that is located inside of this safety tank 4 is referred to as a containment C. The safety tank 4 is surrounded by a secondary shield 5 of concrete. A concrete foundation 6 acts through a spherical shell 7 to support a lower region of the safety tank 4. An annular chamber RR which is located between the secondary shield 5 and the safety tank 4, is kept at a slight negative pressure for safety reasons (monitoring for tightness, i.e. the absence of leaks). The secondary shield 5, the concrete foundation 6, the spherical shell 7 and other walls shown in FIG. 2 taken together, are referred to as a concrete building or reactor building 8. The outer and inner storage troughs LB1, LB2 are filled with borated water 9 approximately up to the level shown. A compact storage system 10 for fuel assemblies is located in the storage trough LB1, and a fuel assembly changing machine 11 is positioned above the storage trough LB1. In the event of a fuel assembly change, fuel assemblies can be taken out of or inserted into the compact storage system 10 through the use of the fuel assembly changing machine 11. In this process of fuel assembly changing, a covering 12 of the inner storage trough LB2 is partially removed, and the fuel assembly changing machine can be moved crosswise up to a position above the opened reactor pressure vessel 1 with the fuel assembly suspended from the fuel assembly changing machine, through the use of removable protectors (portions of an intermediate wall 13 and a wall 14). A chamber 15 above the reactor pressure vessel 1 is likewise filled with borated water 9. During normal operation of the nuclear reactor plant, the inner trough LB2 serves as a water reservoir for borated water 9, so that in the event of an incident there is sufficient water on hand for a containment spray system CS seen in FIG. 1. Except for a somewhat different course of the outer wall 14, FIG. 1 shows an enlarged portion of the outer and inner storage troughs LB1, LB2. One can see that the inner storage trough LB2 is a water trough, to which a spray branch 16 with a spray head 17 and spray nozzles 18 is connected, and that the immersion pump TP is a pump which is provided for injecting water into the containment C seen in FIG. 2 in finely dispersed form in the event of an operational incident. In the example shown the immersion pump TP is supported on a bottom 19 of the trough LB2. The immersion pump TP aspirates the water 9 from the trough LB2 through a diagrammatically illustrated filter 20, pumps it through a riser pipe 21 into a remaining portion of the lines in the spray branch 16, which are represented partially in suggested fashion by dashed lines, and from there through the nozzles 18 of the spray head 17 or spray nozzle array into the containment C in the finely dispersed form of a spray mist. Since both troughs LB1 and LB2 are virtually completely filled with borated water 9, as is indicated by a water surface 22, adequate spray water is available in the event that emergency cooling is needed. Up to a certain extent, the water 9 of the outer storage trough LB1 can also be utilized for spray purposes. In other words, the fuel assembly storage system 10 must remain covered with trough water. The sprayed trough water, which serves the purpose of aerosol formation, cooling of the containment, and pressure reduction, condenses for the most part and passes from the walls of the containment for the most part into a reactor sump (not shown in FIG. 2) and can still be used as sump water for emergency cooling and aftercooling purposes. However, in that case it is no longer used for spraying. The water reservoir of the inner storage trough LB2 can be replenished if needed through the use of a non-illustrated supply trough located at a higher level, so that long-lasting spray operation can be maintained. A so-called centrifugal mist nozzle shown in FIG. 3 serves the purpose of fine atomization of liquids, in the present case borated water. It may be ordered as Model 121 from the company Schlick-Dusen, AlexandrinenstraBe 9, D-96450 Coburg, Germany. It is a three-part nozzle, including a nozzle head d1, a swirl insert d2 and a screw-in part d3 with a male thread. The nozzle head d1 has a nozzle bore 23, is shaped hemispherically and has a hexagon 24. A portion of the swirl insert d2 that protrudes axially outward is surrounded by a hollow-cylindrical screen body 25, by way of which the pressurized water can enter radial channels 26 and from there can enter an axial channel 27. Channels 28 discharging on an innermost end of the swirl insert from the axial channel 27 into an annular chamber 29 are shaped in such a way that a rotating ring of water develops in the annular chamber 29, which communicates through a gap 30 with the nozzle bore 23. In this way, the water that is under pressure is atomized into superfine droplets with a large specific surface area. The water is supplied under pressure to the nozzle 18 and passes through the chamber or tangential slits 29 into the gap or circulating chamber 30. In this case, pressure energy is converted into rotational or motion energy. A rotating film of liquid forms around an air core and emerges in the form of a hollow-conical stream through the orifice bore 23 and breaks apart into many small droplets, after surface tension has been overcome. The quality of atomization and the droplet range are dependent on a bore diameter D, the magnitude of the atomization pressure, the scattering cone, the viscosity, the surface tension and the density. A suitable plurality of the nozzles 18 of FIG. 3 are screwed by their screw-in parts d3 into a nozzle head of the kind that can be diagrammatically seen in FIG. 1. FIG. 4 shows a family of characteristic curves for the Model 121-type nozzle shown in FIG. 3. The curves represented by solid lines are preferred operating states and those shown as dashed lines represent further possible operating states. It can be seen that as the bore diameter D which is shown in millimeters increases, the feed pressure of the pump must Likewise become greater, so that a preferred droplet size L of less than or equal to 100 .mu.m can be achieved. Thus for a nozzle bore diameter in the range between 0.5 mm and 1 mm, the feed pressure of the pump is between about 3 bar and 80 bar. By comparison, in the case of a nozzle bore diameter D that is larger and in the range between 1 mm and 1.5 mm, the feed pressure of the pump is preferably between about 6 bar and 80 bar. At 50 bar and a bore diameter of 1 mm, very fine drops are obtained with a droplet size of approximately 50 .mu.m. Examples of possible materials for the nozzle 18 are brass, acid-proof special steel, heat-resistant special steel, titanium and tantalum.
054208971	summary	BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a fast reactor, and more particularly, to a fast reactor having a reflector control system for controlling a reactivity of a core by utilizing a neutron reflector. One example of conventional fast breeder reactor is shown in FIG. 47. Referring to FIG. 47, a fast breeder reactor 10 is provided with a columnar core 11 which is supported by a core barrel 12 disposed outside the core 11 and a reactor vessel 13 is disposed further outside the core barrel 12. A guard vessel 14 for protecting the reactor vessel 13 is disposed outside the reactor vessel 13 and a reflector 15 is disposed further outside the guard vessel 14. A coolant passage 16 through which a primary coolant flows downward is formed between the core barrel 12 and the reactor vessel 13. An electromagnetic pump 17 is disposed perpendicularly above the core, and an intermediate heat exchanger 18 and a decay heat removal coil 19 are disposed further above the electromagnetic pump 17. In the actual operation of the fast breeder reactor 10 of FIG. 47, the primary coolant such as liquid sodium fills the reactor pressure vessel 13 and plutonium in the core is then fissioned. This core 11 contains plutonium and depleted uranium, and heat is generated in accordance with the fission of the plutonium, thereby emitting neutrons. The emitted neutrons are reflected by the reflector disposed so as to surround the outer periphery of the guard vessel 14 and are then absorbed by the depleted uranium to thereby produce plutonium. The thus produced plutonium is again fissioned and the heat is generated. In accordance with burn-up of the core, the reflector 15 is relatively vertically moved while maintaining a critical state of the core 11, whereby the burn-up gradually progresses and generates the heat for a long time. The primary coolant moves upward in the reactor vessel 13 as shown by solid arrow in FIG. 47 by the actuation of the electromagnetic pump 17, decends in the coolant passage 16 through the intermediate heat exchanger 18 and then again flows in the electromagentic pump 17 through the core 11. The primary coolant passes the core 11 while absorbing the heat generated in the core 11 and the heat is transferred to the intermediate heat exchanger 18. A secondary coolant flows into the intermediate heat exchanger 18 through an inlet tube 20 as shown by broken arrow in FIG. 47 and, in the intermediate heat exchanger 18, the heat exchanging operation is carried out between the primary coolant and the secondary coolant. The heat from the core 11 is taken outside the reactor vessel 13 through an outlet tube 21, which is then utilized as a power source. However, in the conventional fast breeder reactor 10 of the structure shown in FIG. 47, since there is not provided a neutron shield in the reactor vessel and the reflector is disposed outside the reactor vessel, the reactor vessel and the reflector diffuse a large amount of heat inside a shielding structure accommodating the fast breeder reactor. In order to remove this heat, the shielding structure of the conventional fast breeder reactor must be provided with a cooling equipment having large capacity, thus providing a significant problem. Furthermore, since the conventional fast breeder reactor radiates a large amount of neutrons outside the reactor vessel and gas such as argon and nitrogen in an atmosphere in the shielding structure is activated, it is necessary to provide the activated gas containment vessel for preventing the gas from discharging externally in an environment under severe management, resulting in further enlargement of an entire reactor arrangement, thus also providing a problem. Still furthermore, in the conventional fast breeder reactor, since a neutron irradiation amount to the reactor vessel during a life time of the reactor exceeds 10.sup.23 nvt (E>0, 1 MeV), stainless steel is not used and expensive crominium steel is to be used, thus also providing an economical problem. Still furthermore, in the conventional fast breeder reactor, since the electromagnetic pump is disposed directly above the core, a large thermal strain is caused to the electromagnetic pump by the heat of the liquid sodium highly heated by the core and the life time for maintaining required reliability is then shortened, and accordingly, in the conventional fast breeder reactor, the shortening of the life time of the electromagnetic pump adversely affects the life time of a small sized fast breeder reactor itself. Still furthermore, in the conventional fast breeder reactor, since the intermediate heat exchanger as well as the electromagnetic pump is disposed directly above the core, it is necessary to disassemble and remove the electromagnetic pump and the intermediate heat exchanger at a fuel exchanging time, resulting in a complicated and troublesome disassembling and removing working and a possibility of giving accidental damage to these elements is also increased. Still furthermore, in the conventional fast reactor having a reflector moving structure, in order to enhance a controlling ability of the neutron reflector, it is obliged to elongate the length of the neutron reflector itself. However, the elongation of the neutron reflector increases its weight, and moreover, affects the core structure itself, and accordingly, it is not desired to elongate the length of the neutron reflector in various view points. Particularly, in so-called a incore reflector type fast reactor in which the neutron reflector is arranged in the reactor vessel, it is difficult to use an elongated neutron reflector from the view point of the incore structure, thus remarkably providing the above problem. FIG. 48 is an illustration showing a structure of a conventional nuclear power plant 30 including a control system therefor. Referring to FIG. 48, a core 32 is accommodated in a reactor 31 and the core 32 generates heat through a fission chain reaction and heats a primary coolant passing the core. The heated primary coolant is fed into an intermediate heat exchanger 34 through a primary coolant high temperature side line 33 and, in the intermediate heat exchanger 34, heat exchanging operation is performed between the primary coolant and a secondary coolant to transfer the heat to the secondary coolant. After the heat exchanging operation, the primary coolant having the lowered temperature is again circulated into the reactor 31 through a primary coolant low temperature side line 35. Such circulation of the primary coolant is carried out by means of a coolant circulation pump 36. The secondary coolant having a raised temperature through the heat exchanging operation is transferred to a steam generator 38 as a load heat exchanger through a secondary coolant high temperature side line 37 and heats a water in the steam generator 38. The secondary coolant having temperature lowered in the steam generator 38 is circulated into the intermediate heat exchanger 34 through a secondary coolant low temperature side line 39. Such circulation of the secondary coolant is performed by means of a secondary coolant circulation pump 40. The water heated through the heat exchanging operation in the steam generator 38 changes to a steam, which is fed to a turbine 42 and drives the same to thereby generate power. The water is fed to the steam generator 38 by means of a water feed pump 43 through a water feed line 57 and feed water flow rate Gw is regulated by a feed water flow rate regulating valve 44. Power control in the conventional nuclear power plant 30 is performed in the following manner. The control system of the nuclear power plant 30 comprises a power setter 45 for setting a power, a reactor power control unit 47 for controlling a control rod 46, a primary coolant flow rate regulator 48 for regulating the flow rate of the primary coolant, a secondary coolant flow rate ragulator 49 for regulating the flow rate of the secondary coolant, and a feed water flow rate regulator 50 for regulating the feed water flow rate Gw to the steam generator 38. The reactor power control unit 47 operates and processes a driving speed of the control rod in response to a power setting signal from the power setter 45, with a reactor outlet temperature detected by a temperature detector 51 being as a feddback signal and a neutron flux level detected by the neutron detector 51 being an auxiliary signal, and then controls the vertical movement of insertion or withdrawal of the control rod 46 in accordance with the operated and processed result. The power of the reactor 31 is regulated by vertically moving the control rod 46. The primary coolant flow rate regulator 48 controls the revolution number of the primary coolant circulation pump 36 in response to the power setting signal form the power setter 45 with the flow rate of the primary coolant detected by the primary coolant flow rate detector 53 being a feedback signal. The flow rate of the primary coolant is regulated by changing the revolution number of the primary coolant circulation pump 36. The secondary coolant flow rate regulator 49 controls the revolution number of the secondary coolant circulation pump 40 in response to the power setting signal from the power setter 45 with the flow rate of the secondary coolant detected by the secondary coolant flow rate detector 54 being as a feedback signal. The flow rate of the primary coolant is regulated by changing the revolution number of the primary coolant circulation pump 40. The feed water flow rate regulator 50 controls an opening degree of the feed water regulating valve 44 in response to the power setting signal from the power setter 45 with the feed water flow rate detected by the feed water flow rate detector 55 being as a feedback signal and a steam temperature detected by the steam temperature detector 56 being as an auxiliary signal. The feed water flow rate to the steam generator 38 is regulated by changing the opening degree of the feed water flow rate regulating valve. As described above, in the conventional nuclear power plant 30, the inserting, i.e. charging, amount or degree of the control rod 46, the flow rates of the primary and secondary coolants and the feed water flow rate to the steam generator 38 are set by the power setter 45, and in order to maintain the set values regarding these factors, the power setter 45, the reactor power control unit 47, the primary coolant flow rate regulator 48, the secondary coolant flow rate regulator 49 and the feed water flow rate regulator 50 are operated, thereby maintaining the value of the aimed power. However, the control system of the conventional nuclear power plant is composed of the power setter, the reactor power control unit, the primary coolant flow rate regulator, the secondary coolant flow rate regulator and the feed water flow rate regulator, thus being complicated in its structure. Furthermore, since the reactor power control unit directly operates the control rod, there is a fear of erroneously withdrawing the control rod due to a failure of the reactor power control unit itself. This problem has been commonly considered to the case of a fast breeder reactor in which the power is roughly adjusted by driving the reflector and a fear resides in an erroneous operation of the reflector. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION A primary object of the present invention is to substantially eliminate defects or drawbacks encountered in the prior art and to provide a fast reactor of small size capable of less diffusing heat and neutrons externally of a reactor, which are absorbed by a shielding structure having a simple construction and a cooling equipment, and capable of effectively utilizing the heat. Another object of the present invention is to provide a neutron driving structure capable of enhancing a reactivity controlling ability of a neutron reflector without elongating the reflector itself. A further object of the present invention is to provide a nuclear power plant having a compact structure capable of eliminating the problems encountered in the prior art as described above and capable of finely adjusting the power of the power plant by roughly adjusting the power by driving the reflector with a constant speed and regulating the feed water flow rate to the steam generator. These and other objects can be achieved according to the present invention by providing, in one aspect, a fast reactor characterized by comprising a core composed of nuclear fuel, a core barrel surrounding an outer periphery of the core, an annular reflector surrounding an outer periphery of the core barrel, a partition wall surrounding an outer periphery of the annular reflector and supporting the core barrel by a supporting structure arranged radially of the fast reactor, the partition wall constituting an inner wall of a coolant passage for a primary coolant, a neutron shield surrounding an outer periphery of the partition wall and disposed in the coolant passage, a reactor vessel surrounding an outer periphery of the neutron shield and having an inner wall constituting an outer wall of the coolant passage, and a guard vessel surrounding an outer periphery of the reactor vessel. Further, for achieving the above objects, the reactor of the present invention of the reflector control type, in which the reactivity of the core is controlled by adjusting leakage of neutrons from the core by vertically moving the neutron reflector arranged outside the core of the reactor immersed in the coolant, is characterized in that the periphery of the core positioned above the neutron reflector is surrounded by a substance having a neutron reflecting ability lower than that of the coolant. Furthermore, for achieving the above objects, the nuclear plant of the present invention includes a neutron reflector disposed in the fast reactor and driven with a constant speed to maintain a burn-up in the core by changing a burn-up range of the core for roughly adjusting a thermal power of the fast reactor, and a plant control unit for changing a temperature of the primary coolant at an inlet of the fast reactor by adjusting a feed water flow rate of the steam generator and finely adjusting the thermal power of the fast reactor in accordance with a temperature feedback effect. The plant control unit comprises: a thermal power calculation section for calculating a thermal power of the steam generator in response to inputted steam temperature at an outlet portion of the steam generator, steam pressure at the outlet portion thereof and steam flow rate; a thermal power control section for comparing the thermal power calculated by the thermal power calculation section with a set value of the thermal power of the steam generator and setting a feed water flow rate signal; and a flow rate control section detecting a feed water flow rate, comparing the detected feed water flow rate with the feed water flow rate signal set by the thermal power control section and setting a signal relating an opening degree of a feed water flow rate regulating valve to thereby control the feed water flow rate. According to the fast reactor of the present invention, since the reflector is disposed closely to the outer periphery of the core, the neutrons are effectively reflected and the burn-up and the breeding of the nuclear fuel can be hence effectively performed. Further, since the reflector is itself immersed in the primary coolant, the heat generated by the reflector is utilized as a power of the fast reactor, thus improving the running efficiency of the reactor. Next, since the neutron shield of the fast reactor of the present invention is disposed inside the reactor vessel and in the coolant passage, the heat generated by the neutron shield can be utilized as a power of the reactor and less amount of the neutrons is irradiated in and out of the reactor vessel. Accordingly, the irradiation of the neutrons to the reactor vessel can be reduced, whereby the reactor vessel can be formed of a stainless steel being a cheap material, thus achieving an economical advantage. Moreover, sealing requirement for the shield structure containing the fast reactor and the heating of the cooling equipment associated with the shield structure and a radiated air in the shield structure can be alleviated, thus making compact the shield structure and the cooling equipment. Still furthermore, according to the present invention, since the core disposed above the neutron reflector is surrounded by a substance having a neutron reflecting ability lower than that of the coolant, at the beginning of life (BOL) at which the neutron reflector is positioned below the reflector, the periphery of the core is covered by that substance to suppress, to a lower value, the reactivity in comparison with a conventional structure in which the entire surface of the core is covered by the coolant, thus enhancing the enrichment of the fuel. Further, in the case where the neutron reflector is moved upward, the reactivity is increased by the change of the relative positions of the neutron reflector and the core and the range surrounded by the coolant is gradually widened while reducing the range surrounded by that substance, whereby the reactivity due to the difference of the neutron reflecting abilities of both portions displaced between that substance and the coolant. Still furthermore, according to the nuclear plant according to the present invention, since the reflector of the fast reactor is driven at a predetermined speed, the control unit for the control rod or the reflector, which is required for the conventional structure, can be eliminated, and moreover, the power of the fast reactor can be roughly controlled by the reflector, thus preventing the reflector from erroneously operating on a failure of the reflector control device. Still furthermore, according to the nuclear plant of the present invention, the actual power of the steam generator is calculated by the plant control unit in accordance with the steam temperature, the steam pressure and the steam flow rate and the difference between the set power value of the power plant and the feed water flow rate to the steam generator is also calculated thereby, thus controlling the feed water flow rate to the steam generator. According to the control of the feed water flow rate to the steam generator, the power of the fast reactor can be controlled by the temperature feedback effect. Namely, in a case where an actual power of the power plant is larger than the set value, the feed water flow rate to the steam generator is reduced, and accordingly, the temperature of the primary coolant at the inlet port of the reactor is increased through the secondary coolant, the intermediate heat exchanger and the primary coolant, resulting in the lowering of the fission chain reaction in the core and hence decreasing the power of the reactor. On the contrary, in a case where the actural power is smaller than the set value, the feed water flow rate is increased, and accordingly, the temperature of the primary coolant at the inlet port of the reactor is decreased through the secondary coolant, the intermediate heat exchanger and the primary coolant, resulting in the increasing of the activation of the fission chain reaction in the core and hence increasing the power of the reactor. According to this temperature feedback effect, the plant control unit can finely adjust the power of the fast reactor.
	summary
	summary
050842340	abstract	The absorption casing for the absorbing of radioactive radiation and fission products comprises four layers of different materials which retain the various kinds of radiation and the gaseous fission products. The first layer (36) consists of lead and absorbs the hard gamma radiation. The second layer (38) serves for the absorption of neutron radiation and consists of boron, hafnium, cadmium or beryllium. A third layer (42), consisting of aluminium, is provided for absorbing the alpha and beta radiation. Gaseous fission products are retained by a fourth layer (44) consisting of a zirconium alloy. The absorption casing provided with these layers is used for absorbing the radioactive radiation and for retaining the radioactive substances of the reactor of a nuclear power plant. In fast breeding reactors, a fifth layer (32), consisting of titanium, is used as an additional absorptive layer for absorbing the radioactive radiation issuing from the plutonium.
044435657	description	EXAMPLE 1 Into a four-necked glass flask having a capacity of 3 liters and equipped with a stirrer, 2.0 kg of demineralized water and 320 g of aluminum foil fragments (1.4.times.1.times.0.025 mm, K-102 manufactured by Transmet Company) were introduced and thoroughly stirred. Then, 8 g of methylmethacrylate and 8 g of dimethylaminoethylmethacrylate were added thereto and the flask was flushed with nitrogen gas and heated to 70.degree. C. After the polymerization system reached 70.degree. C., 0.8 g of potassium persulfate was added and the reaction was continued for 1.5 hours. Then, the system was heated to 90.degree. C. and the reaction was continued for 1 hour. Thereafter, while maintaining the temperature of the reaction system at 80.degree. C., 50 g of styrene, 34 g of acrylonitrile, 1 g of terpinolene as a chain transfer agent, 2 g of benzoyl peroxide as an initiator and 0.5 g of azobisisobutylonitrile were added and the polymerization were conducted for 2 hours. After completion of the reaction, the temperature was raised to 90.degree. C. and the removal of the unreacted monomers was conducted for 1 hour while supplying nitrogen gas. Thereafter, the polymer containing aluminum foil fragments was collected by filtration with use of a metal net of 200 mesh. The polymer thereby obtained had a bulk density of 0.46 g/cm.sup.3 (the bulk density of aluminum foil fragments was 0.19 g/cm.sup.3). The contents of the aluminum foil fragments was 83.3% by weight and the yield was 95%. EXAMPLE 2 A composition containing aluminum foil fragments was prepared in the same manner as in Example 1 except that 16 g of methylmethacrylate was used instead of the mixture of methylmethacrylate and dimethylaminoethylmethacrylate. The bulk density of the composition was 0.35 g/cm.sup.3, the contents of the aluminum foil fragments was 84% by weight and the yield was 96.8%. EXAMPLE 3 A composition containing aluminum foil fragments was prepared in the same manner as in Example 1 except that a mixture of 3.2 g of acrylic acid and 12.8 g of methylmethacrylate was used instead of the mixture of methylmethacrylate and dimethylaminoethylmethacrylate. The bulk density of the composition was 0.38 g/cm.sup.3, the contents of aluminum foil fragments was 90.7% by weight and the yield was 88%. COMPARATIVE EXAMPLE 1 Into a four-necked flask having a capacity of 3 liters, 2.0 kg of demineralized water and 320 g of aluminum foil fragments (which were the same as used in Example 1) were introduced and throughly stirred to obtain a dispersion. Then, 62.5 g of styrene, 37.5 of acrylonitrile, 1 g of terpinolene, 2 g of benzoylperoxide and 0.5 g of azobisisobutylonitrile were added thereto and the polymerization was conducted at 80.degree. C. for 2 hours. The temperature was then raised to 90.degree. C. and the removal of the unreacted monomers was conducted for 1 hour while supplying nitrogen gas. The bulk density of the polymer was 0.28 g/cm.sup.3 and the yield was 83% However, a great number of polymer particles containing no aluminum foil fragments were present. Further, there remained some aluminum fragments which were not coated with the polymer and which were not laminated. EXAMPLE 4 Into the same flask as used in Example 1, 2.0 kg of demineralized water and 900 g of copper foil fragments (1.5.times.1.3.times.0.035 mm) were introduced and stirred to obtain a dispersion. Then, 10 g of methylmethacrylate and 10 g of dimethylaminomethacrylate were added thereto and the temperature was raised to 70.degree. C. After the temperature reached 70.degree. C., 2 g of potassium persulfate was added and the above monomer mixture was polymerized for 1.5 hours and then the polymerization was conducted at 90.degree. C. for 1 hour. After the polymerization system was cooled to 80.degree. C., 64 g of styrene, 36 g of acrylonitrile, 1 g of terpinolene, 3 g of benzoylperoxide and 2 g of azobisisobutylonitrile were added and the polymerization was conducted for 2 hours. The composition containing the copper foil fragments was collected by filtration with a metal net of 200 mesh. The bulk density of the composition thereby obtained was 1.44 g/cm.sup.3 (the bulk density of the copper foil fragments per se was 0.95 g/cm.sup.3). The content of the copper foil fragments was 91.5% by weight and the yield was 97%. APPLICATION EXAMPLE 1 The composition obtained by Example 1 was dry-blended with an ABS resin (TFX-455 AB manufactured by Mitsubishi Monsanto Chemical Company) to bring the aluminum foil content to be 40% by weight and the blended mixture was injection-molded. The composition thereby obtained had the following physical properties. Tensile strength (Breaking point) 365 kg/cm.sup.2 (measured in accordance with JIS K-6871) PA0 Elongation for breakage 1.7% (measured in accordance with JIS K-6871) PA0 Izod impact strength 6.1 kg.cm/cm (measured in accordance with JIS K-6871) PA0 Specific volume resistance* 3.0 .OMEGA..multidot.cm FNT *measured with a test piece of 1.27.times.1.27.times.10 cm. APPLICATION EXAMPLE 2 The composition obtained by Example 4 was mixed with an ABS resin (TFX-455 AB manufactured by Mitsubishi Monsanto Chemical Company) to bring the copper foil contents to be 70% by weight and the mixture was pelletized by a single shaft extruder. The pellets thereby obtained were molded to obtain test pieces. The specific volume resistance of the test pieces as measured in the same manner as in Application Example 1 was 10.sup.2 .OMEGA..multidot.cm or less. EXAMPLE 5 Into a four-necked glass flask having a capacity of 3 liters and equipped with a stirrer, 2.0 kg of demineralized water, 280 g of aluminum foil fragments (1.4.times.1.times.0.025 mm, K-102 manufactured by Transmet Company) and 40 g of zinc foil fragments (2.0.times.1.times.0.020 mm, manufactured by Fukuda Metal Foil Company) were introduced and thoroughly stirred. Then, 8 g of methylmethacrylate and 8 g of dimethylaminoethylmethacrylate were added thereto. The flask was flushed with nitrogen gas and the temperature was raised to 70.degree. C. After the polymerization system reached 70.degree. C., 0.8 g of potassium persulfate was added and reaction was conducted for 1.5 hours. Then, the temperature was raised to 90.degree. C. and reaction was conducted for 1 hour. Then, while maintaining the temperature of the polymerization system at 70.degree. C., 50 g of styrene, 34 g of acrylonitrile, 1 g of terpinolene as a chain transfer agent, 2 g of benzoyl peroxide as an initiator and 0.5 g of azobisisobutylonitrile were added and the polymerization was conducted for 2 hours. After completion of the reaction, the temperature was raised to 90.degree. C. and the removal of the unreacted monomers was conducted for 1 hour while supplying nitrogen gas. Thereafter, the polymer containing laminated metal foil fragments was collected by filtration with use of a metal net of 200 mesh. The bulk density of the polymer thereby obtained was 0.45 g/cm.sup.3 and the content of the metal foil fragments was 82.6%. EXAMPLE 6 A composition containing metal foil fragments was prepared in the same manner as in Example 5 except that the metal foil fragments were replaced by 300 g of aluminum foil fragments and 20 g of zinc foil fragments. The content of the metal foil fragments was 83.5%. EXAMPLE 7 A composition containing metal foil fragments was prepared in the same manner as in Example 5 except that the metal foil fragments were replaced by 160 g of aluminum foil fragments and 160 g of zinc foil fragments. The content of the metal foil fragments was 82.0%. EXAMPLE 8 A composition containing metal foil fragments was prepared in the same manner as in Example 5 except that the metal foil fragments were replaced by 280 g of aluminum foil fragments and 40 g of copper foil fragments. The content of the metal foil fragments was 81.6%. EXAMPLE 9 A composition containing metal foil fragments was prepared in the same manner as in Example 5 except that no aluminum foil fragments were added and 720 g of zinc foil fragments were used. The content of the zinc foil fragments was 91.0%. EXAMPLE 10 A composition containing metal foil fragments was prepared in the same manner as in Example 5 except that 320 g of copper foil fragments were used as the metal foil fragments. The content of the copper foil fragments was 83.0%. APPLICATION EXAMPLES 3 TO 9 The compositions obtained by Examples 1 and 5 to 10 were respectively dry-blended with an ABS resin (TFX-455 AB manufactured by Mitsubishi Monsanto Chemical Company) to bring their metal foil content to be 45% by weight and the blended mixtures were respectively pelletized and injection-molded. The physical properties of the respective molded products are shown in Tables 1 and 2. APPLICATION EXAMPLE 10 The compositions obtained by Examples 1 and 9 were mixed in such a proportion that aluminum foil fragments were 87.5% by weight and the zinc foil fragments were 12.5% by weight, and the mixture was dry-blended and the physical properties of the product was measured in the same manner as in Application Example 3. The results thereby obtained are shown in Table 1. APPLICATION EXAMPLE 11 87.5% by weight of the aluminum foil fragments and 12.5% by weight of the zinc foil fragments as used in Example 5 were mixed and the mixture was blended with an ABS resin as used in Application Example 3 by a double shaft extruder to bring the metal foil content to be 45% by weight. The results thereby obtained are shown in Tables 1 and 2. TABLE 1 __________________________________________________________________________ Metal Ratio of different metal foil foil fragments Specific Application contents Al Zn Cu resistane Examples Compositions (wt. %) wt. % wt. % wt. % (.OMEGA. .multidot. cm) __________________________________________________________________________ 3 Example 1 45 100 0 0 1.5 4 Example 6 45 93.7 6.3 0 0.090 5 Example 5 45 87.5 12.5 0 0.048 6 Example 7 45 50 50 0 0.35 7 Example 8 45 87.5 0 12.5 0.37 8 Example 9 45 0 100 0 13.3 9 Example 10 45 0 0 100 10 or greater 10 Example 1 + 45 87.5 12.5 0 1.7 Example 9 11 Aluminum foil 45 87.5 12.5 0 1.8 + zinc foil __________________________________________________________________________ The specific resistance was obtained by measuring the resistance of a test piece of 1.27.times.1.27.times.10 cm between two points thereof at a distance of 10 cm. TABLE 2 ______________________________________ Application Attenuation of electromagnetic waves (dB) Examples Frequency 10 MHz 100 MHz 1 GHz ______________________________________ 3 24 22 23 4 54 56 64 5 64 72 78 7 43 39 29 9 23 23 33 ______________________________________ The attenuation of electromagnetic waves was measured by placing a disk-shaped test piece having an outer diameter of 90 mm and a thickness of 3.2 mm and provided at its center with a coaxial disk-shaped through-hole having a diameter of 25 mm, in a coaxial transmission tube and measuring the difference between the input and the output.
	claims	1. A scintillator panel for converting radiation into scintillation light, the scintillator panel comprising:a substrate having a front surface and a back surface, and formed with a plurality of convex portions projecting from the front surface in a predetermined direction toward the front surface from the back surface and a concave portion defined by the convex portions;a plurality of first scintillator sections formed on the respective convex portions of the substrate; anda second scintillator section formed on the bottom surface of the concave portion of the substrate;wherein the convex portions are arrayed periodically in a two-dimensional array,the first scintillator section has a first portion extending along the predetermined direction from an upper surface of the convex portion, and a second portion extending along the predetermined direction from side surfaces of the convex portion so as to contact with the first portion,the first and second portions are composed of a plurality of columnar crystals of a scintillator material,the first scintillator sections are separated from one another, andthe second scintillator section is in contact with the second portion. 2. The scintillator panel according to claim 1, whereinthe first portion is composed of a plurality of the columnar crystals formed by crystal growth along the predetermined direction from the upper surface of the convex portion, andthe second portion is composed of a plurality of the columnar crystals formed by crystal growth along a direction intersecting with the predetermined direction from the side surfaces of the convex portion. 3. The scintillator panel according to claim 2, whereina column diameter of the columnar crystals composing the first portion expands as distance from the upper surface of the convex portion increases,a column diameter of the columnar crystals composing the second portion expands as distance from the side surfaces of the convex portion increases, andan enlargement factor of a column diameter of the columnar crystals composing the second portion is greater than an enlargement factor of a column diameter of the columnar crystals composing the first portion. 4. The scintillator panel according to claim 1, wherein a height of the convex portion is greater than column diameters of the columnar crystals. 5. The scintillator panel according to claim 1 further comprising a protective film formed so as to cover the first and second scintillator sections. 6. The scintillator panel according to claim 1 further comprising a light shielding layer formed among the first scintillator sections, and for shielding the scintillation light. 7. A radiation detector comprising;a substrate having a front surface and a back surface, and formed with a plurality of convex portions projecting from the front surface in a predetermined direction toward the front surface from the back surface and a concave portion defined by the convex portions, the substrate having a plurality of photoelectric conversion elements;a plurality of first scintillator sections formed on the respective convex portions of the substrate; anda second scintillator section formed on the bottom surface of the concave portion of the substrate;wherein the convex portions are formed so as to correspond to each of the photoelectric conversion elements, and arrayed periodically in a two-dimensional array,the first scintillator section has a first portion extending along the predetermined direction from an upper surface of the convex portion, and a second portion extending along the predetermined direction from side surfaces of the convex portion so as to contact with the first portion,the first and second portions are composed of a plurality of columnar crystals of a scintillator material,the first scintillator sections are separated from one another, andthe second scintillator section is in contact with the second portion. 8. The radiation detector according to claim 7, wherein the convex portions of the substrate are transmissive to the scintillation light.
	description	This application claims priority from Provisional Application No. 61/105,350 filed Oct. 14, 2008. Approximately 20 million shipping containers passed through United States ports each year. US Customs and Border Protection Document, “Securing America's Borders at Ports of Entry” (2007). A complete system to detect Special Nuclear Materials (SNM) based on neutron in, to cause nuclear fission, followed by the coincident detection of multiple prompt fission gamma rays as a signature for SNM is disclosed. Special Nuclear Materials are fissile materials: U-235, and Pu-239. The detection system includes the probe particle generator(s), signature particles detector, front-end electronics, coincidence and trigger electronics, event processor and data acquisition system, and algorithms to locate the SNM within the cargo volume. Prior systems such as the “nuclear car wash” (D. Slaughter et al., The nuclear car wash: a system to detect nuclear weapons in commercial cargo shipments. Nuclear Inst. and Methods in Physics Research, A, v579, August 2007.; D. Slaughter et al., The “nuclear car wash”: a scanner to detect illicit special nuclear material in shipping containers. IEEE Sensors Journal, v 5, August 2005.; D. Slaughter et al., LaWrence Livermore National Laboratory Report # UCRL-ID 155315 (2003).), depend on delayed gamma ray and neutron production. The disclosed system uses prompt gamma ray production which has signal strength approximately 100 times stronger than the delayed gamma signal. The stronger prompt gamma ray signal allows a corresponding reduction in neutron bombardment without sacrificing sensitivity. Radiation levels on the cargo are then reduced by a factor of 100 as well as the overall safety of the system within its operating environment. The disclosed detector of the system is advantaged because it does not does not require the accurate energy measurement of nuclear states by expensive, radiation intolerant, low solid angle coverage, High Purity Germanium (HPGe) detectors. The disclosed system uses liquid noble gas detectors with high detection efficiency, high solid angle coverage, and sub-nanosecond timing resolution. The disclosed system is capable of distinguishing between U-238 and U-235 while imaging the location of the SNM within a larger space, for example, an ocean going shipping container. The disclosed system includes associated-particle 14 MeV-neutron generators capable of generating 109 neutrons/second. For examination of containers such as ocean-going shipping containers, two or more such generators may be employed. The detection of gamma rays generated by bombardment of SNM by 14 MeV neutrons is detected by detectors capable of nano-second timing. Noble liquid detectors described herein are capable of nanosecond timing. A shipping container rapidly passing through the neutron generator and detector system may be scanned for SNM. The system has two important modes of operation. The first mode is a time coincidence of three (3) adjacent detector panels and the alpha particle associated with neutron production. This four (4) level coincidence in a narrow 10-15 nanosecond timing gate is set by the time for the gamma radiation to cross the shipping container and provides excellent rejection of random uncorrelated gamma rays. The four (4) level coincidence will have excellent background rejection even if each detector panel has single rates as high as 1-MHz. For purposes of the description and claims, events described as ‘coincident’ are events related in time and occur within a chosen time gate. Generated gamma rays assumed for these purposes to travel at 30 cm/nanosecond will not impact both near and far detectors at precisely the same nanosecond. Nonetheless, ‘coincident’ herein describes such events, and other related events as ‘coincident.’ Imaging and additional background rejection is enhanced by pixel segmentation of the associated alpha particle detector, which covers 8% solid angle, and its sub-nanosecond-timing resolution. In this detection mode, 14 MeV neutrons cause fast fission reaction in SNM with cross sections on the order of 1 barn. High energy neutrons also cause fission in fertile material such as U-238 which has a nuclear cross section similar to the fissile U-235. A second mode of detection, which is triggered by a four (4) level coincidence of four (4) adjacent LNB-gamma-ray detector panels in a narrow 10-15 nanosecond timing gate and is assumed to be in anti-coincidence with the associated alpha particle signal and therefore not associated with the alpha particle correlation with prompt neutron production. The production of these multiple coincident gamma ray events are attributed to slow neutron capture by SNM materials. Imaging of the SNM for the events not associated with the alpha particle correlation is accomplished by the intersection of the four (4) detectors nanosecond timing arcs within the cargo volume. Non-fissile materials such as U-238 do not produce signals not associated with the alpha particle signals and for this reason comparison of multiple gamma ray coincidence associated with alpha particle signals and multiple gamma ray coincidence not associated with alpha particle signals events offers two independent methods of imaging the location of the SNM within the cargo volume as well as a method to distinguish U-238 from U-235. Efforts to shield SNM from detection by neutron bombardment may be frustrated by the system. Low mass nuclei such as hydrogenous materials respond to fast neutrons (14 MeV neutrons) by thermalizing the neutron resulting in neutron capture by the SNM. These neutron capture reactions occur at locations not predictable by the alpha particle timing signals. However the neutron capture produces above background gamma rays that may be located in a single voxel by intersecting arcs from four (4) panels of noble-liquid detectors. Efforts to shield SNM by high mass nuclei such as lead will result in diffractive scattering forward from the heavy nuclei to cause fast fission reactions in the SNM. The location of the fast fission reaction will be predictable from the alpha particle timing signal and the detection signals from three adjacent noble-liquid gamma-ray detectors. A feature used for the detection of SNM, that reduces noise or background during the detection process, is the jet projection of gamma rays from neutron induced fission in SNM illustrated in FIG. 2. The figure illustrates a neutron induced fission event in a 1 kg sphere of U-235 21. Gamma ray production due to neutron induced fission is spatially uniform. However, due the large electric charge of the nucleus and the high density of SNM, gamma rays 22 exit the surface of an extended amount of the material in a jet like shape. Gamma rays that propagate inward away from the surface are absorbed within the material. The multi-gamma jet structure is useful to reduce background from random coincidences in the search for SNM. A signature of the potential presence of SNM is the detection of coincident gamma rays by adjacent detectors. It is not considered necessary to consider all possible combinations of coincident gamma ray detection by all detectors within the detector bank. The rate at which background gamma-rays randomly occur in into the timing window is given by the following random coincidence relation:Rbackground˜mBnτn-1 where B is a detector's noise or singles rate; r is the coincidence gate width; and n is the minimum number of required detector coincidence, and m is the number of distinct combinations of detectors that satisfy the coincidence condition out of the total number of detectors used. The expression is derived under the assumption BT<<<1. An example illustrated in FIG. 1 used for explanation herein, shows noble liquid detectors grouped into panels along the length of a hypothetical shipping container 12 to achieve a total of six (6) distinct detector panels. Advantageously, the detector panels cover fifty percent (50%) of the solid angle as observed by SNM at the cross-sectional center of the interrogation region within the shipping container. By taking advantage of the jet structure of gamma ray propagation, and requiring three adjacent panels be in coincidence, the number of combinations of detectors which constitute an acceptable combination m drops from twenty (20) to (4) combinations, reducing the false coincidence rate by a factor of five (5). For example if the chosen six-panel system is used, the number of combinations m for a 3-fold coincidence is four (4). If each panel has an uncorrelated singles rate of 1 MHz, and the gate time is set to 10 nanoseconds, the time for a gamma to complete cross the shipping container, then the 3-fold background rate is 400 Hz. Similarly for a 4-fold panel coincidence the rate is 3 Hz as the number of combinations is only three (3). As will be discussed below these rates are spread out over the entire cross sectional area of the shipping container. Because the SNM signal appears in a single voxel of container, the effective background rate under the signal is limited to the background gamma radiation impacting the pixels of the detectors corresponding to that voxel. Thus, for a volume defined by 100 voxels, the background may be reduced by approximately 100. A suitable associated-particle neutron generator is found in model A-920 manufactured by Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, Mass. 02454, USA. E. Rhodes et al., “Advances in Associated-Particle Neutron Probe Diagnostics for Substance Detection”, SPIE Vol. 2511, 1995. The A-920 has a maximum neutron flux yield of le neutrons per second in 4π steradians shown in FIG. 1 by the cone shaped projection 14 from the neutron generators 13. A deuterium-tritium fusion reaction takes place on the target of the generator resulting in the emission of a 14.1 MeV neutron and a 3.5 MeV alpha particle that travel in opposite directions to conserve linear momentum. The system employs an alpha detector which provides timing data corresponding to the generation of a neutron. A suitable 3-inch active diameter alpha detector is available through 2K Corporation, W. Lafayette, Ind., USA. Incident 3.5-MeV alpha particles interact with the detector's gallium activated zinc oxide phosphor causing the phosphor to fluoresce with a life time of approximately 1 nanosecond. The alpha-induced scintillation light is collected and amplified by photomultiplier tubes or other light sensitive photo-transducers that are coupled to the exterior of the alpha detector's glass fiber light guide window. The alpha particle transducers can be pixelated by placing individual photo-transducers on the surface of the glass plate opposite the phosphor. The thinness of the alpha detector floor coating makes it insensitive to x-rays, γ-rays and neutron radiation. A micron thick aluminum coating over the 7 micron ZnO(Ga) phosphor causes the detector to be insensitive to secondary radiation from electrons, deuterium ions and tritium ions from the target. In addition charged particles bleed off the aluminum coating, thereby preventing undesired charge build-up. The phosphor is made of inorganic materials with a high melting point because once the alpha detector is welded to the neutron generator head, the interior of the generator must satisfy ultra-high vacuum conditions and a high temperature bake out. For 3.5 MeV alpha particles, the ZnO(Ga) phosphor yield an excellent light output of 35-photoelectrons, a 1.5-nanosecond decay time and a 94% detection efficiency. Data from the alpha detector is useful in the operation of the inspection system. The first mode considers multi-gamma events in a timing relationship with the alpha particle. The second mode considers gamma events independent of the alpha signal and timing. A useful attribute of an associated-particle neutron generator is its enhanced signal-to-noise ratio using the alpha particle timing information. The alpha detector may be segmented. For example the alpha detection plate might be pixelated using 1 cm diameter photomultiplier tubes. FIG. 2 illustrates gamma ray production by 14 MeV neutrons 22 impacting SNM 21. Combinations of gamma detector signals which suggest fission due to neutron interaction on SNM produce a jet-shaped burst of gamma rays detectable on the noble liquid detectors that coincides (is time related) to alpha particle detection on an area of the alpha particle detector the size of a single pixel. In contrast, combinations of noble liquid detector signals which may falsely suggest a jet shaped burst of gamma rays would be unrelated in time to a single pixel on the alpha detector. The data acquisition computer would be capable of then separating the background noise from the neutron generation event. The segmentation of the alpha detector, is expected to reduce background under the signal by a factor of 16 due if 16 channels of pixelization are used for the alpha plate. In addition to this noise reduction, by using a coincidence gate width of 10-15 nanoseconds, the time for a gamma ray to cross the assumed cargo volume, there is a further noise reduction due to the systems depth-of-field sensitivity. FIG. 3 illustrates gamma detection increase corresponding to SNM detection within a specific voxel. Given a 14.1 MeV neutron's speed of 5 centimeters per nanosecond, a depth-of-field sensitivity of approximately 50 centimeters is achieved at the trigger level using 10-15 nanosecond gates. A shipping container under interrogation for SNM may be subdivided into voxels which are individually inspected by “walking” the constraint on the time difference between the observation of an alpha particle and the arrival of the associated multiple gamma-rays coincidence. The pixel segmentation of the alpha detector gives the angular separation, while the coincidence timing gives depth of field separation. SNM will appear in a single voxel yielding a significant noise reduction for a coincidence gate width of 10 nanoseconds. FIG. 4 depicts a fast neutron induced fission event, in which a 14 MeV neutron 45 initiates fission in SNM 44 to produce a multi-gamma ray jet 41, 42, 43 producing coincidences in panel detectors P1, P2, and P3, and with the alpha particle within specific time gate. In the detection of fast fission, i.e., when the system is operated to detect gamma rays in a timing relationship with alpha particle detection the minimum number of coincident detectors may be conveniently chosen as four: three (3) gamma-ray detector panels in addition to the alpha detector. Adjacent three-fold panel coincidences are selected because, Monte Carlo simulations reveal that a significant number of fission events have three (3) or more observable gamma-rays, each carrying an average energy of 1 MeV. The second operational mode of the disclosed system is the use of four (4) coincident noble liquid detector panels independent of the prompt neutron production of alpha particle signal. As shown in FIG. 5, the slow neutron mode consists in requiring four-fold coincidences between adjacent noble liquid detector panels without use of the alpha particle detector. As illustrated in FIG. 5, panels P3, P4, P5, and P6 sense gamma rays from SNM 50 located within theoretical shipping container 57. For such events, the detected gamma rays 53, 54, 55, and 56 are assumed to be due to fissions induced by slow neutrons, which have been thermalized by material within the shipping container. The path of a theoretical thermalized neutron is illustrated as 52. Noise or background levels are greatly reduced due to the sub-nanosecond timing resolution of the noble liquid detectors. Rapid imaging for SNM 50 can take place by simply assuming that the center of a struck panel is the terminus of the gamma. A series of one nanosecond separated arcs extending from each of the struck detectors 533, 544, 555, and 566 form a grid. Given the relative timing of the detectors, a series of grid lines are formed, the intersection of which locates the SNM as illustrated by FIG. 5. Random coincidences will uniformly populate the cargo volume where as SNM will appear at a single point within the volume. The SNM may be located within voxels of one cubic foot (0.035 m3) or larger, or smaller, within the shipping container. Operationally, requiring a 4-panel coincidence does reduce the signal from fissile materials in comparison to a 3 panel coincidence, however the nuclear cross section for thermal induced fission is hundreds of times larger than the nuclear cross section for fast neutron induced fission making this mode of operation feasible. The combination of fast and slow neutron modes allows for the differentiation of U-235 from U-238. Both U-235 and U-238 have similar cross sections at 14 MeV (2 barn and 1 barn respectively). The fast neutron mode will yield a signal if either U-235 or U-238 is present. On the other hand, aside from a few resonances, the fission cross section for U-238 is nonexistent at thermal energies. Operation of the system for the detection of gamma radiation not in a timing relationship with alpha particle generation does not yield a signal for U-238. However, U-235's fission cross section is over 550 barns at thermal neutron energies, and therefore is the only contribution to the signal observed by the system operated in non-coincident alpha particle mode. In this way, the ratio of fast neutron and slow (thermalized) operational modes allows the identification of fissile material from fissionable materials such as U-238. To illustrate the identification of fissile material from, simulations were performed using MCNP-Polimi (E. Padovani and S. A. Pozzi, “MCNP-Polimi ver. 1.0 User's Manual”, Nov. 25, 2002) The model geometry consisted of a 2.4 m×2.4 m×3 m steel shipping container resting on a concrete floor. The system's baseline performance was modeled using 5 kg spherical samples of U-235, U-238, and iron. A 0.5 MeV threshold was applied to the noble liquid gamma ray detectors detector panels to eliminate annihilation photons and the Kr recoil events from n-elastic scattering. A 10 nanosecond coincidence gate was utilized. All data reported are for a 30 cm cross section of a shipping container. The data were obtained using 109 neutrons per second, which corresponds to less than one second of interrogation time. For the interrogation of a 40 foot-long (12.2 m) shipping container, it is expected that approximately 10 times as much data would be collected due to higher neutron flux and longer interrogation time. For an unshielded spherical sample centered in the shipping container, the expected panel coincidence rates for 3-fold and 4-fold coincidences were found to be 3 KHz and 800 Hz, respectively for U-235, and 850 Hz and 140 Hz, respectively for U-238. Expected coincidence rates for various shielded sample configurations, in which the entire container is uniformly filled with polyethylene or iron, are shown in Table 1. Runs with iron samples have shown similar event topologies, producing both three and four panel coincidences. For 5 kg iron samples, the 3-fold coincidence rate observed is 1 kHz and the 4-fold coincidence rate is 150 Hz. In comparison with Table 1, these rates are comparable to 5 kg of U-238. These iron coincidence events are due to (n, γ) reactions which produce cascade de-excitations, resulting in the emission of several gamma rays within the 10 ns time gate. Iron has numerous energy states that can be excited by the neutrons. Using two decision parameters, ratio of average event energy in a voxel and the ratio of 2-panel trigger to 4-panel trigger, U-235 is distinguishable from U-238 and iron in all three cargo configurations. To understand distinguishing U-238 from common materials, the source of 3-panel and 4-panel coincidence needs to be understood. The three-fold coincidence rate in the case of U-238 is due to fast fission reactions, which do not occur for common materials. Fission of U-238 produces two excited nuclei. For this reason, we expect the average energy of the coincident gamma rays from fission consisting of the de-excitation of two nuclei to be greater than those from cascade de-excitation of a single nucleus. This is shown to be the case if we compare average event energies in each voxel shown in Table 1. TABLE 1Expected coincidence rates using MCNP-Polimi.Average3-Fold Rate R34-Fold Rate R4Energy perTotal EnergyMaterialConfiguration(Hz)(Hz)Event (MeV)(MeV)R3/R45 kg U-235Unshielded3025800622862~3.70.1 g/cc plastic7041215.54516~5.80.1 g/cc iron11922135.57677~5.65 kg U-238Unshielded8501405.85707~60.1 g/cc plastic144145.5872~10.20.1 g/cc iron271285.21563~9.75 kg IronUnshielded10261524.75536~6.70.1 g/cc plastic81436~80.1 g/cc iron3753.9164~7.5 A suitable detector for gamma-rays for use in the system should provide high stopping power in the energy range 1-6 MeV and higher, high solid angle coverage, good time resolution, high rate capability, be resistant to intensive neutron irradiation, have reasonable energy resolution, and be capable of fast readout for use in high rate trigger level coincidence electronics. Plastic or crystal scintillation detectors are currently used to detect and identify SNM in portal systems such as Can berra CPM-VG, Nucsafe CRMS-5000NG, Polimaster PM-5000, Constellation P3. Plastic scintillators have low cost, ease of fabrication in various shapes and volumes, and are simple to maintain. However, they have low stopping power and cannot effectively detect high-energy gamma rays. Crystal scintillators can be used for identification of SNM and have demonstrated relatively low false alarm rates (˜1/1000) in passive portal systems due to better energy resolution in comparison to plastic scintillators. However, large volume NaI(Tl) scintillators are fragile, sensitive to temperature variations, neutron activation and are costly in large area coverage applications ˜1 m2, as is required for cargo inspection systems. HPGe detectors are relatively slow, expensive and can be activated by intensive neutron irradiation. Liquified noble gas (NGL) scintillators based on Xe and Kr provide optimal useful solution for efficient and highly sensitive detectors for operation in fieldable active interrogation systems. These scintillators provide high-light output and stopping power for high-energy gamma rays comparable to that of classic sodium iodide scintillators (Kubota, S., Nakamoto, A., Takahashi, T., Konno, Hamada, T., Miyajima, M., Hitachi, A., Shibamura E., Doke, T. Phys. Rev. B 1976, 13, 1649-1653; and D. Akimov, A. Bolozdynya, D. Churakov e. a., “Scintillating LXe/LKr Electromagnetic Calorimeter”, IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 1995 42, 2244-2249, both incorporated herein by reference. At the same time, NGL scintillators are faster and more resistant to neutron activation than NaI(Tl) Sergey E. Ulin, K. F. Vlasik, A. M. Galper, V. M. Grachev, Valery V. Dmitrenko, V. I. Liagushin, Z. M. Uteshev, and Yu. T. Yurkin, Proceedings of SPIE, Volume 3114, October 1997, pp. 499-504, incorporated herein by reference, a material feature for this application. Among NGL scintillators Liquid Xenon demonstrates the best scintillation properties. Krypton is less expensive than Xe and available in large quantities. It was demonstrated in Akimov, D., Bolozdynya, A., Churakov, D., Koutchenkov, A., Kuzichev, V., Lebedenko, V., Rogovsky, I., Chen, M., Chepel, V., Sushkov, V. Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 1993, 327, 155-158; and Akimov, D. Yu., Bolozdynya, A. I., Churakov, D. L., Lamkov, V. A., Sadovsky, A. A., Safronov, G. A., Smirnov, G. N. Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 1993, 327, 575-576 that LKr in a mixture with about 1% Xe provides practically the same scintillation properties as pure LXe. As an example the disclosed system can use this mixture as the most promising scintillation material for large area scintillation detectors. This type of detector can provide sub-nanosecond time resolution and effective detection of high energy gamma rays. The system electronics consists of the front end electronics, the coincidence electronics and trigger, the reconstruction electronic processor, the Data AcQuistion (DAQ) and operator interface. The electronics are largely composed of application-specific integrated circuits (ASIC) The sources of signals to the data acquisitions system (DAQ) are the pulses from the individual alpha detectors pixels and individual pixels within each gamma ray detection panel. The first level of electronics provides both (1) signal shaping of the raw detector signals using discriminators in order to allow fast timing decision making and (2) signal pass through to an analog to digital converters (ADC) for the gamma ray detector signals in order to associate a gamma ray energy with each timing pulse. Because the system requires timing accuracy at the 1 nanosecond level, computer controlled time delays for each signal source is provided so that all source signals have the correct relative timing. The electronics provides signal shaping of the raw detector signals and computer controlled time delays for each channel, two primary trigger modes performs ev-ent location reconstruction based on (1) panel timing information and (2) panel timing information with alpha particle transducer position and timing information as the clock start. The front end receives the raw signal pulses and converts them into logic pulses with sub-nanosecond rise times. There is also individual channel time-delay to place all detector signals in correct relative time for precise triggering and event reconstruction. The trigger level timing and coincidences may be chosen to advantageously inspect the objects/containers of concern. Timing for the instant system is exemplified at the time it takes a gamma ray to cross an ocean-going shipping container, about 10 nanoseconds.
	description	Referring now to the drawings, particularly to FIG. 1, there is illustrated a nuclear fuel bundle, generally designated B, having a channel C encompassing an upper tie place UTP and a lower tie plate LTP. Within the channel C there is provided a plurality of nuclear fuel rods and moderator rods R supported on the lower tie plate LTP and which rods extend upwardly toward and to the upper tie plate UTP. A plurality of spacers S are vertically spaced one from the other throughout the height of the fuel bundle B and define discrete, vertically aligned openings at lattice positions in a regular array of such openings to receive and confine the rods R within the bundle B against lateral movement relative to one another. Generally, six or seven spacers are provided only three of which are illustrated at S4, S5 and S6 positions. Such spacers may be of the type disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,209,899, of common assignee herewith, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. It will be appreciated from a review of FIG. 1 that a 9xc3x979 array of rods R is illustrated and that other arrays may be utilized with the present invention, e.g., 8xc3x978 or 10xc3x9710 arrays. A handle H is also illustrated for purposes of lifting the fuel bundle relative to a nuclear fuel core, not shown. In utilizing the fuel bundle B in the core of a nuclear reactor, for example, a BWR, coolant/moderator, e.g., water, enters through the lower tie plate LTP for flow upwardly and about the rods R. During upward passage of this water, steam is generated and a vapor and liquid mixture passes upwardly through the upper tie plate UTP. During steam generation, the channel C confines the coolant/moderator flow within the nuclear flow bundle and isolates that flow from a core bypass volume flowing outside the channel C and between similarly disposed fuel bundles, not shown. As those of skill in the art will recognize, not each lattice position of the lattice or array of openings across the spacer is occupied by a full-length fuel rod R. For example, one or more water rods or moderator rods may pass upwardly through the central portion of the bundle B and occupy a number of lattice positions. Additionally, one or more part-length rods PLR may be provided in selected lattice positions in the fuel bundle B. Thus, for example, each part-length rod may extend from the lower tie plate LTP upwardly in the fuel bundle through a spacer, for example spacer S4, and terminate just above spacer S4. Part-length rods are typically terminated in or just above the spacer to provide support for the otherwise cantilevered ends of the part-length rod. As best seen for example in FIG. 2, the termination of a part-length rod PLR for example above the spacer S4 in a certain lattice position of the 9xc3x979 array, leaves a vent volume 10 above the upper end of the part-length rod including the superposed opening(s) of the overlying spacer(s). By employing part-length rods, the associated flow blockage effects at each lattice position above the part-length rod, which would otherwise have been occupied by a full-length rod, is eliminated. That is, the opening through the spacer above the part-length rod has a flow area therethrough as large as each flow area through the openings of the spacer without a fuel rod received therethrough, e.g., a flow area equal to the combined first area through the spacer opening with a fuel rod received therein and the flow area otherwise occupied by the fuel rod in the spacer opening. Consequently, additional flow area is provided through the vent volume 10 including through the opening(s) in the overlying spacers at the lattice position of the underlying part-length rod, thereby providing additional flow area and a reduction in pressure drop across the spacers. This reduction in pressure drop, however, diverts flow from the surrounding full-length fuel rods into the vent volume 10 which can cause reduction in critical power performance. However, the reduction in pressure drop is highly advantageous and, according to the present invention, separation devices are used to divert the flow of liquid in the vent volume laterally outwardly onto the surfaces and into the interstitial regions about the full-length fuel rods. Thus, the present invention advantageously maximizes flow diversion at locations just above the spacers while simultaneously minimizing pressure loss of the flow passing through those spacers. Consequently, according to the present invention and in a preferred embodiment, the separation devices are advantageously placed within the vent volume just above the spacers and in the lattice position which would have been occupied by a full-length rod but for the creation of a vent volume, e.g., by the installation of the part-length rod at that lattice position in underlying spacers. Accordingly, referring to FIG. 2, there is illustrated a separation device 20 which, in the specific illustrated form, comprises a swirler. The purpose of the separation device is to deflect or divert flow laterally outwardly onto the surfaces and into the interstices of the full-length fuel rods with minimum pressure loss across the spacer. Thus, the separation device 20 is disposed just above the opening 22 in the spacer which would otherwise have been occupied by a full-length rod but for the installation of a part-length rod. Further, the separation device 20 extends in an axial direction in the vent volume 10 sufficiently only to achieve the flow diversion effect recognizing that the greater the axial length of the separation device the greater the pressure drop across the device. Therefore, the separation device 20 preferably has a very short axial length. Placing the swirler just above a spacer is preferable because the higher fluid velocities that result from the spacer flow diversion improves separation efficiency and the helical flow pattern caused by the swirler persists for a substantial distance downstream from the swirler allowing a shorter axial length of separation devices to be used. As illustrated, the separation device 20 may be repeated for each overlying spacer at each lattice position forming part of a vent volume, for example, the vent volume 10 above a part-length rod. In FIG. 3, the swirler 20a occupies a vent volume above several clustered part-length rods. It has also been extended toward the next adjacent spacer. This advantageously provides for the helical flow pattern to persist with substantial centrifugal forces as far as possible toward the next overlying spacer and thus the swirler continues to aggressively feed liquid onto the laterally adjacent fuel rod surfaces. While this extension of the separation device toward the next spacer advantageously enhances liquid/vapor separation, it also increases the pressure drop. The latter effect can be mitigated, however, by employing non-uniform separation devices such as the non-uniform diameter swirler illustrated in FIG. 9 discussed below. Referring to FIG. 4, an alternate separation device may comprise an auger mounted on a vertical shaft 24. The helical blade 26 of the auger is thus essentially wound on edge about the shaft 24, the edge of the helical blade 26 being secured to the shaft 24. Multiple flights may be used on edge about the central shaft 24. While the extension of an auger shaft through the upper tie plate and through the openings of the spacers increases the pressure drop when coolant/moderator flows through the openings of the spacers, the cross-sectional dimensions of the auger shaft can be minimized to minimize that pressure drop with the concurrent advantage that the auger can be removed from the fuel bundle through the upper tie plate. Further, the blade(s) of the auger may, but preferably do not, extend over the entire length of the shaft 24. Auger blade segments may be disposed on the shaft located for disposition just above the spacers in the vent volume 10. Also, the auger blade segments may extend only a short distance axially above the spacers, similar to the distance swirlers 20 extending above the spacers as illustrated in FIG. 2. In FIGS. 5A-5C there is illustrated a preferred form of separation device comprising a swirler 20. In this simplest form of swirler, it will be appreciated that its minimum axial length for effective separation is that which results in a horizontal projected area covering a full 360xc2x0. Consequently, swirler 20 may comprise a single strip 27 of material twisted 180xc2x0 between its opposite ends to form a helical vane and hence provide a helical flow pattern in the vent volume. In FIG. 5C, the periphery of the swirler defines a circular projected plan and hence a majority of the area of the vent volume occupied by the swirler is subjected to the helical flow pattern. More complex configurations of separation devices, for example, two or more twisted strips to form more complex swirlers may be provided. Thus, in FIGS. 6A-6E, two strips of material 29 and 31 are slotted at their opposite ends and interleaved along their axes. The strips 29 and 31 are maintained perpendicular along their length and are twisted 90xc2x0 to complete the full 360xc2x0 horizontal projected area necessary to provide effective separation. In FIGS. 7A-7F three strips 33, 35 and 37 of sheet material are slotted adjacent their ends as illustrated and joined along their axes to initially provide strips 60xc2x0 apart. By rotating or twisting the strips 60xc2x0, a full 360xc2x0 projected area is provided as illustrated in FIG. 7F. In the case of three strips the length of unslotted material in each strip is one-third the height of the strips. The unspotted material is at the top, middle and bottom among the three strips, to permit interlocking assembly. The same design technique is used as the number of strips increases. To improve the efficiency of the swirl device, it will be recognized that in the generally rectilinear array of fuel rods, the vent volume 10 has a generally rectilinear configuration, i.e., square or rectangular. With the typical projected circular plan area of the swirler, for example, the swirler of FIG. 2, the regions between the corners of the square vent volume area and the circular projected plan area; of the swirler constitute flow bypass regions. Thus, flow upwardly into the vent volume may bypass the swirler. To provide for more efficient swirl flow patterns without flow bypass or with only minimum flow bypass, the perimeter of the separation device can be shaped to generally conform to the perimeter of the vent volume defined by the adjacent fuel rods. Thus, the generally rectilinear vent volume can be substantially covered in plan area by the separation device. To accomplish this, and as illustrated in FIG. 8A, a swirler, e.g., of the type illustrated in FIGS. 7A-7F, having a diameter corresponding to the longest diagonal of the area of the vent volume is formed. The circular edges 41 of the strips forming the swirler may be removed to form a linear swirler having a generally rectilinear projected plan view. Thus, the perimeter of the separation device is shaped so that the resultant projected area in plan closely conforms with the vent volume flow passage whereby bypass flow around the edges of the separation device is substantially eliminated. It is recognized that the circular cross-section of the adjacent fuel rods causes the edges of vent volumes to have non-linear shapes. For maximum swirler effectiveness, the projected area of the swirlers can match those shapes, as illustrated in FIG. 8B. Thus, the edges of the separation device can be rounded in plan view as illustrated at 49. In FIG. 9, there is illustrated a separation device, e.g., in the form of a swirler 50, which extends a substantial distance above the spacer on which the swirler is mounted. Adverse pressure drop created by an axially extended swirl device can be ameliorated by using a non-uniform separation device. Thus, in this form, the swirler 50 may decrease in horizontal dimension, i.e., diameter, with the distance above the spacer or the helical pitch may vary. Specifically, the swirler illustrated in FIG. 9 has a progressively decreasing diameter with increasing distance from the spacer on which the swirler is mounted. Step-wise progression of decreasing lateral extent with increasing distance above the spacer may likewise be provided. It will be appreciated from the foregoing that the separation devices are preferably mounted directly to the spacers for high performance and reliability. However, this prevents ready removal of the underlying part-length rod. Thus, as an alternative, the separation devices may be removably attached to the spacer or may be attached in groups to a removable central shaft or other structural support. The structural support may have the separation devices, e.g., in the form of swirlers at axially spaced positions along the support which, when inserted into the fuel bundle, align with the spacers at a location just above the upper surface of each spacer. As a further alternative, where more than one separation device is utilized, different flow patterns can be achieved. For example, the swirlers may be arranged to rotate the flow in a common direction or in opposite directions. Alternatively, various patterns of flows in opposite directions may be provided. Also, in a general sense, the necessary characteristic of a separation device according to this invention is the requirement that the device impart a lateral or horizontal component to the flow. Thus, in addition to swirlers and augers formed of one or more vanes which are twisted to form a helical pattern and a consequent helical flow pattern, the separation devices hereof may comprise discrete vanes with laterally outwardly flared edges such as, for example, the flaring bell-shaped cones or outwardly directed deflecting tabs described and illustrated in U.S. Pat. No. 5,416,812 of common assignee herewith, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. While the invention has been described in connection with what is presently considered to be the most practical and preferred embodiment, it is to be understood that the invention is not to be limited to the disclosed embodiment, but on the contrary, is intended to cover various modifications and equivalent arrangements included within the spirit and scope of the appended claims.

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