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Mime is a type of acting that does not use words or speech. Mime is all about physical movement and exaggerating your expressions. Mimes (people who practice mime) must use their actions to send a message or tell a story. They are not allowed to speak directly to the audience.
Probably the most well-known mime was Marcel Marceau. Mime originates from Rome and Greece. Some people also believe that cavemen used mime to communicate as they could not talk.
Other websites
The World of Mime Theatre
Related pages
Pantomime
Physical theatre
Entertainment occupations |
A kangaroo is an Australian marsupial. It belongs to the genus Macropus. The common name 'kangaroo' is used for the four large species, and there are another 50 species of smaller macropods. The kangaroos are common in Australia and can also be found in New Guinea.
Common names
kangaroos: large males are 2 metres tall (6ft 7 inches) and weigh 90 kg (200 lb).
wallaroos: between kangaroos and wallabies in size.
wallabies: small to medium-sized macropods.
tree-kangaroos: Dendrolagus, adapted for arboreal locomotion. They live in the tropical rainforests of New Guinea, far northeastern Queensland, and some of the islands in the region.
The four species
There are four living species of kangaroos:
The red kangaroo (Macropus rufus) is the largest marsupial anywhere in the world. The red kangaroo lives in the arid and semi-arid centre of Australia. A large male can be two metres (6 ft 7 in) tall and weigh 90 kg (200 lb).
The eastern grey kangaroo (Macropus giganteus) is less well-known than the red (outside of Australia), but the most often seen, as its range covers the fertile eastern part of the continent.
The western grey kangaroo (Macropus fuliginosus) is slightly smaller again at about 54 kg (119 lb) for a large male. It is found in the south part of Western Australia, South Australia near the coast, and the Darling River basin.
The antilopine kangaroo (Macropus antilopinus) is similar to the Eastern and Western Greys. Like them, it lives on the grassy plains and woodlands. It lives in large groups.
There are also about 50 other smaller macropods in the macropodidae family.
Background
Kangaroos hop to move around quickly, and walk on two or four legs while moving slowly. They cannot walk in any direction and cannot hop backwards. They can hop or jump as far as about three times their own height. They can also swim if necessary. The kangaroo is a herbivore, eating mainly grass, but some species also eat shrubs. A female Kangaroo has three vaginas.
Kangaroos are marsupials: they carry their young in a special pouch on their bodies. Baby kangaroos are called joeys. Kangaroos live in large groups, called mobs. Each group is made up of breeding females, their young and several adult males. One of the males is the dominant male, he is the only one that breeds with the females in the mob.
Because they are mostly found in Australia, Australians see it as a national symbol. The kangaroo is featured holding the Australian coat of arms. The Australian airline, Qantas, uses the kangaroo as its emblem. The Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) also a has a kangaroo emblem.
Kangaroos can be dangerous because of their powerful legs. They can lean back on their tails to deliver powerful kicks. In 2009, a man went to save his dog which had chased a kangaroo into a farm dam. The kangaroo was able to hold the dog underwater nearly drowning it. The kangaroo gave the man several big kicks before he was able to grab his dog and escape from the dam. He needed hospital treatment for his injuries.
The name
The word kangaroo is an Australian Aboriginal word from the Guugu Yimidhirr people of north Queensland. The word was recorded by Captain James Cook in August 1770. It was the name for the grey kangaroo, Macropus robustus. Cook's ship, the HMS Endeavour, had been damaged on coral on the Great Barrier Reef. It took seven weeks for the ship to be repaired on the banks of a river, now the Endeavour River, at the site of the town of Cooktown. This gave Cook, Joseph Banks and other crew members time to explore the area and the plants and animals. The skin and skull of a kangaroo was taken back to England to be put on show. In James Boswell's book "Life of Johnson" he describes Dr. Samuel Johnson in 1793 hopping around the room to explain to people how a kangaroo moved. When Arthur Phillip and the First Fleet arrived in Sydney in 1788, they were surprised that the Aborigines did not know the word "kangaroo." It took them a while to realize that Aborigines at Sydney spoke a different language to those from Cooktown.
Extinct family
There was a now-extinct family of giant kangaroos, the Sthenurinae. They were adapted for browsing in woodland areas, rather than open grassland. The largest (Procoptodon goliah) had an estimated body mass of 240 kg., which is almost three times the weight of the largest living kangaroos. Probably they moved at slower speeds, since hopping was not possible. They would have moved by striding (walking). The family went extinct about 30,000 years ago.
References
Macropods
Marsupials of Australia |
Harriet Tubman (born Araminta Ross; c. 1820 or 1821 – March 10, 1913) was an African-American anti-slavery worker, and humanitarian. She was also a Union spy and the first black woman to ever lead an American mission during the American Civil War. She was born into slavery but she escaped. During her life, she made nineteen trips. She helped more than 700 slaves escape. She used the Underground Railroad.
When Tubman was a child in Dorchester County, Maryland, she was whipped and beaten by many different masters. When she was very young, an angry overseer threw a heavy metal weight at another slave. The weight accidentally hit Tubman's head. That caused seizures, headaches, powerful visionary and dream experiences. She had those problems all her life. Tubman believed the visions and vivid dreams came from God.
In 1849, Tubman escaped to Philadelphia. Slaves were free there. She later returned to Maryland to rescue her family. She eventually guided dozens of other slaves to freedom. Slave owners offered large rewards for the return of their slaves. Tubman was never caught because nobody knew she was freeing the slaves.
When the American Civil War began, Tubman worked for the Union Army. She worked first as a cook and nurse. Later she was an armed scout and spy. She was the first woman to lead an armed group in the war. She guided the Combehee River Raid, which freed more than 700 slaves in South Carolina. After the war, she moved to her family home in Auburn, New York. There she cared for her aging parents. She became active in the women's suffrage movement in New York until she became ill. Near the end of her life, she lived in a home for elderly African Americans. Years earlier, she had helped create that home. Harriet was a leader and still is.
Early life and Education
Tubman's mother Rit (whose father might have been a white man) was a cook. Her father Ben was a woodsman. He did the timber work on a plantation. They married around 1808. According to court records, they had nine children together. Linah was born in 1808, Mariah Ritty in 1811, Soph in 1813, Robert in 1816, Minty (Harriet) in 1821, Ben in 1823, Rachel in 1825, Henry in 1830, and Moses in 1832.
Childhood
Tubman's mother was assigned to "the big house" and had very little time for her family. Tubman took care of a younger brother and a baby. This was typical in large families. When she was five or six years old, Brodas hired her out as a nursemaid to a woman named "Miss Susan". Tubman was ordered to watch the baby. Tubman was whipped. She later talked about a day when she was whipped five times before breakfast. She had the scars for the rest of her life. She found ways to resist such as running away for five days, wearing layers of clothing as protection against beatings, and fighting back.
As a child, Tubman also worked at the home of a planter named James Cook. She had to check muskrat traps in nearby marshes. She did that work even after she got measles. She became so ill that Cook sent her back to Brodas. Her mother nursed her back to health. Brodas then hired her out again. Tubman spoke later of her acute childhood homesickness. She compared herself to "the boy on the Swanee River" (referring to Stephen Foster's song "Old Folks at Home"). When she was older and stronger, she did field and forest work, driving oxen, plowing, and hauling logs.
Head Injury
One day, the adolescent Tubman was sent to a dry-goods store for supplies. There she met a slave owned by another family. That slave had left the fields without permission. His overseer was angry. He demanded that Tubman help restrain the young man. Tubman refused. As the slave ran away, the overseer threw a two-pound weight at him. The weight hit Tubman instead. Tubman said the weight "broke my skull". She later explained her belief that her hair – which "had never been combed and ... stood out like a bushel basket" – might have saved her life. Bleeding and unconscious, Tubman was returned to her owner's house and laid on the seat of a loom. She had no medical care for two days. She was sent back into the fields, "with blood and sweat rolling down my face until I couldn't see." Her boss returned her to Brodess, who tried unsuccessfully to sell her. She began having seizures and seemed to fall unconscious. She later said she was aware of her surroundings while appearing to be asleep. These episodes were alarming to her family. They couldn't wake her when she fell asleep suddenly and without warning. This condition remained with Tubman for the rest of her life. Larson suggests she may have suffered from temporal lobe epilepsy because of the injury.
Family and marriage
Around 1844, Tubman married a free black man named John Tubman. Little is known about him or their time together. Their marriage was complicated because she was a slave. Since children would have the status of the mother, any children born to Harriet and John would become slaves. By this time, half the black population on the Eastern Shore of Maryland was free. Marriages between free people and enslaved people were not uncommon. Most African-American families had both free and enslaved members. Larson suggests that they might have planned to buy Tubman's freedom. Tubman changed her name from Araminta to Harriet when she arrived to Philadelphia. When she returned to Manchester to tell her husband to come with him, he was remarried already.
References
Bibliography
Anderson, E. M. (2005). Home, Miss Moses: A novel in the time of Harriet Tubman. Higganum, CT: Higganum Hill Books. .
Bradford, Sarah (1961). Harriet Tubman: The Moses of Her People. New York: Corinth Books.
Bradford, Sarah (1971). Scenes in the Life of Harriet Tubman. Freeport: Books for Libraries Press. .
Clinton, Catherine (2004). Harriet Tubman: The Road to Freedom. New York: Little, Brown and Company. .
Conrad, Earl (1942). Harriet Tubman: Negro Soldier and Abolitionist. New York: International Publishers. .
Douglass, Frederick (1969). Life and times of Frederick Douglass: his early life as a slave, his escape from bondage, and his complete history, written by himself. London: Collier-Macmillan. .
Humez, Jean (2003). Harriet Tubman: The Life and Life Stories. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. .
Larson, Kate Clifford (2004). Bound For the Promised Land: Harriet Tubman, Portrait of an American Hero. New York: Ballantine Books. .
Sterling, Dorothy (1970). Freedom Train: The Story of Harriet Tubman. New York: Scholastic, Inc. .
Other websites
Harriet Tubman, Biographies for kids
1820 births
1913 deaths
African-American people
American abolitionists
Spies |
A device driver is a program that lets the operating system communicate with specific computer hardware.
Computer parts need a driver because they do not use standard commands. For example, video cards from Advanced Micro Devices (or AMD) and Nvidia do the same job, but each requires its own driver as different hardware requires different commands. Different operating systems also need different drivers, a driver written for macOS can not be used by Microsoft Windows.
Many parts of a computer need drivers, and common examples are:
Computer printers
Graphic cards
Modems
Network cards
Sound cards
Some other computer parts do not need drivers (or the driver is built-in to the operating system) because they use a kind of standard; the operating system recognizes those parts and knows how to use those parts.
Such parts include items on the following list:
Processors
RAMs
Compact disc (called CD) and digital versatile disc (called DVD) drives (including player and burner).
Mouse and keyboard
Integrated video cards
PC speaker (the speaker inside the computer case that beeps)
Floppy drives
Hard drives
USB flash drives (or thumb drive)
USB webcams
USB sound cards
USB hubs (devices that turn one USB port into two or more)
computer science
software
Computer hardware |
A central processing unit (CPU) is an important part of every computer. The CPU sends signals to control the other parts of the computer, almost like how a brain controls a body.
The CPU is an electronic machine that works on a list of computer things to do, called instructions. It reads the list of instructions and runs (executes) each one in order. A list of instructions that a CPU can run is a computer program.
The clock rate, or speed of a CPU's internal parts, is measured in hertz (Hz). Modern processors often run so fast that gigahertz (GHz) is used instead. One GHz is 1,000,000,000 cycles per second.
Most CPUs used in desktop (home) computers are microprocessors made by either Intel or Advanced Micro Devices (usually shortened to AMD). Some other companies that make CPUs are ARM (recently bought by Nvidia), IBM, and AMD under ATI Technologies, which is the leader right now. Most of their CPUs are used in embedded systems for more specialized things, like in mobile phones, cars, video game consoles, or in the military.
Types of CPUs
In the 20th century engineers invented many different computer architectures. Nowadays most desktop computers use either 32-bit CPUs or 64-bit CPUs. The instructions in a 32-bit CPU are good at handling data that is 32 bits in size (most instructions "think" in 32 bits in a 32-bit CPU). Likewise, a 64-bit CPU is good at handling data that is 64 bits in size (and often good at handling 32-bit data too). The size of data that a CPU handles best is often called the word size of the CPU. Many old CPUs from the 70s, 80s and early 90s (and many modern embedded systems) have an 8-bit or 16-bit word size. When CPUs were invented in the middle 20th century they had many different word sizes. Some had different word sizes for instructions and data. The less popular word sizes later stopped being used.
Most CPUs are microprocessors. This means that the CPU is just a single chip. Some chips with microprocessors inside them also contain other components, and are complete single-chip "computers". This is called a microcontroller.
Registers
When the CPU runs a computer program, it needs somewhere to store the data that the instructions operate on (the data that they read and write). This storage is called a register. A CPU usually has many registers. Registers must be very fast to access (to read and write). Therefore, they are part of the CPU chip itself.
Memory
Storing all data in registers would make most CPUs too complicated (and very expensive). Therefore, registers usually only store the data that the CPU is working on "right now". The rest of the data used by the program is stored in RAM (Random Access Memory). Except in microcontrollers, RAM is usually stored outside the CPU in separate chips.
When the CPU wants to read or write data in RAM, it outputs an address to that data. Each byte in RAM has a memory address. The size of addresses is often the same as the word size: A 32-bit CPU uses 32-bit addresses, etc. However, smaller CPUs, like 8-bit CPUs, often use addresses that are larger than the word size. Otherwise the maximum program length would be too short.
Because the size of addresses is limited, the maximum amount of memory is also limited. 32-bit processors can usually only handle up to 4 GB of RAM. This is the number of different bytes that can be selected using a 32-bit address (each bit can have two values—0 and 1—and 232 bytes is 4 GB). A 64-bit processor might be able to handle up to 16 EB of RAM (16 exabytes, around 16 billion GB, or 16 billion billion bytes). The operating system may limit it to using smaller amounts.
The information that is stored in RAM is usually volatile. This means that it will disappear if the computer is turned off.
Cache
On modern computers, RAM is much slower than registers, so accessing RAM slows down programs. To speed up memory accesses, a faster type of memory called a cache is often put between the RAM and the main parts of the CPU. The cache is usually a part of the CPU chip itself, and is much more expensive per byte than RAM. The cache stores the same data as RAM, but is usually much smaller. Therefore, all the data used by the program might not fit in the cache. The cache tries to store data that is likely to be used a lot. Examples include recently used data and data close in memory to recently used data.
Often it makes sense to have a "cache for the cache", just as it makes sense to have a cache for RAM. In multi-level caching, there are many caches, called the L1 cache, the L2 cache, and so on. The L1 cache is the fastest (and most expensive per byte) cache and is "closest" to the CPU. The L2 cache is one step away and is slower than the L1 cache, etc. The L1 cache can often be viewed as a cache for the L2 cache, etc.
Buses
Computer buses are the wires used by the CPU to communicate with RAM and other components in the computer. Almost all CPUs have at least a data bus - used to read and write data - and an address bus - used to output addresses. Other buses inside the CPU carry data to different parts of the CPU.
Instruction sets
An instruction set (also called an ISA - Instruction Set Architecture) is a language understood directly by a particular CPU. These languages are also called machine code or binary. They say how you tell the CPU to do different things, like loading data from memory into a register, or adding the values from two registers. Each instruction in an instruction set has an encoding, which is how the instruction is written as a sequence of bits.
Programs written in programming languages like C and C++ can't be run directly by the CPU. They must be translated into machine code before the CPU can run them. A compiler is a computer program that does this translation.
Machine code is just a sequence of 0s and 1s, which makes it difficult for humans to read it. To make it more readable, machine code programs are usually written in assembly language. Assembly language uses text instead of 0s and 1s: You might write "LD A,0" to load the value 0 into register A for example. A program that translates assembly language into machine code is called an assembler.
Functionality
Here are some of the basic things a CPU can do:
Read data from memory and write data to memory.
Add one number to another number.
Test to see if one number is bigger than another number.
Move a number from one place to another (for example, from one register to another, or between a register and memory).
Jump to another place in the instruction list, but only if some test is true (for example, only if one number is bigger than another).
Even very complicated programs can be made by combining many simple instructions like these. This is possible because each instruction takes a very short time to happen. Many CPUs today can do more than 1 billion (1,000,000,000) instructions in a single second. In general, the more a CPU can do in a given time, the faster it is. One way to measure a processor's speed is MIPS (Million Instructions Per Second). Flops (Floating-point operations per second) and CPU clock speed (usually measured in gigahertz) are also ways to measure how much work a processor can do in a certain time.
A CPU is built out of logic gates; it has no moving parts. The CPU of a computer is connected electronically to other parts of the computer, like the video card, or the BIOS. A computer program can control these peripherals by reading or writing numbers to special places in the computer's memory.
Instruction pipelines
Each instruction executed by a CPU is usually done in many steps. For example, the steps to run an instruction "INC A" (increase the value stored in register A by one) on a simple CPU could be this:
Read the instruction from memory,
decode the instruction (figure out what the instruction does), and
add one to register A.
Different parts of the CPU do these different things. Often it is possible to run some steps from different instructions at the same time, which makes the CPU faster. For example, we can read an instruction from memory at the same time that we decode another instruction, since those steps use different modules. This can be thought of as having many instructions "inside the pipeline" at once. In the best case, all of the modules are working on different instructions at once, but this is not always possible.
Memory management units (MMUs) and virtual memory
Modern CPUs often use a memory management unit (MMU). An MMU is a component that translates addresses from the CPU to (usually) different RAM addresses. When using an MMU, the addresses used in a program are (usually) not the "real" addresses where the data is stored. This is called virtual (the opposite of "real") memory. A few of the reasons why it is good to have an MMU are listed below:
An MMU can "hide" the memory of other programs from a program. This is done by not translating any addresses to the "hidden" addresses while the program is running. This is good because it means that programs can't read and modify the memory of other programs, which improves security and stability. (Programs can't "spy" on each other, or "step on each other's toes".)
Many MMUs can make some parts of memory non-writeable, non-readable, or non-executable (meaning code stored in that part of memory can't be run). This can be good for stability reasons and security reasons, as well as for other reasons.
MMUs allow different programs to have different "views" of memory. This is handy in many different situations. For example, it will always be possible to have the "main" code of a program at the same (virtual) address without colliding with other programs. It is also handy when there are many different pieces of code (from libraries) that are shared between programs.
MMUs allow code from libraries to appear at different addresses every time a program is run. This is good because not knowing where things are in memory often makes it harder for hackers to make programs do bad things. This is called address space randomization.
Advanced programs and operating systems can use tricks with MMUs to avoid having to copy data between different places in memory.
Multiple cores
Multi-core processors became much more common in the early 21st century. This means that they have many processors built on to the same chip so that they can run many instructions at once. Some processors may have up to sixty-four cores, like the upcoming AMD Epyc "Milan" series. Even processors for consumers have many cores, such as the 16-core AMD Ryzen 9 5950x.
Multithreading
Some processors have a technology known as multithreading. This is the task of running more than one "thread" of instructions in an operating system. Many modern processors use this to boost performance with heavy multi-threaded programs, such as benchmark programs.
Manufacturers
The following companies make computer CPUs:
ARM
Intel
Advanced Micro Devices
MCST
SRISA
Sun Microsystems
Further information
Microprocessor
ALU
Execution unit
Floating point unit
Intel
AMD
References
Other websites
Central processing unit at Citizendium
Microprocessor design |
The Running of the Bulls (in Spanish el encierro, meaning "the enclosing") is an activity that involves running in front of bulls on a course of a sectioned-off area of a town's streets. It is done all around Spain, but the most famous running of the bulls is in Pamplona. In most bull runs the bulls are not killed, and they live for a whole season. This is a dangerous activity but very exciting. Safety varies in some places like Xabia the area is surrounded by cages that people can slip in and out of but the bulls can not.
Spanish culture
Pamplona |
Red shift is a way astronomers use to tell the distance of any object that is very far away in the Universe. The red shift is one example of the Doppler effect.
The easiest way to experience the Doppler effect is to listen to a moving train. As the train moves towards a person, the sound it makes as it comes towards them sounds like it has a higher tone, since the frequency of the sound is squeezed together a little bit. As the train speeds away, the sound gets stretched out, and sounds lower in tone. The same happens with light when an object that emits light moves very fast. An object, like a star or a galaxy that is far away and moving toward us, will look more blue than it normally does. This is called blue shift. A star or galaxy moving away from us will look more red than it would if the source were not moving in our frame of reference. This is where red shift got its name, since the colors are shifted towards the red end of the spectrum.
The reason astronomers can tell how far the light gets shifted is because chemical elements, like hydrogen and oxygen, have unique fingerprints of light that no other element has. Astronomers use spectroscopy to analyse the light from an object (galaxy or star}. Once they know that, they check to see the difference between where the spectral lines are compared to where they normally are. From that, they can tell whether it is moving toward us or away from us, and also how fast it is going. The faster it goes, the farther the spectral lines are from their normal position in the spectrum.
Other websites
Ned Wright's Cosmology tutorial
Article on redshift from SPACE.com
Cosmic reference guide entry on redshift
Mike Luciuk's Astronomical Redshift tutorial
Animated GIF of Cosmological Redshift by Wayne Hu
Astronomical phenomena
Cosmology |
A spectral line is the way scientists can tell one element from another by looking at color.
The colors of the rainbow
In order to understand spectral lines, color has to be understood. In a rainbow, the colors of light go from purple to red. Several hundred years ago, the famous scientist Isaac Newton did an experiment where he showed that even white light from the Sun was made up of all the colors of the rainbow. When other scientists following him looked at this rainbow very closely, they noticed that there were dark lines breaking up the rainbow, where certain shades of colors should be. These lines were very small, but could be seen when the rainbow got stretched out very far. They investigated this further, and discovered that certain chemical elements, like the hydrogen and helium that make up the Sun, absorbed certain frequencies of light where those colors should be, like a sponge absorbs water, but does not absorb chalk.
Elemental fingerprints
Soon, scientists discovered that when they heated other chemical elements, like calcium and oxygen, so hot that they shined with a white light, they found similar lines, but in different places. No two chemical elements had these lines in exactly the same places along the rainbow, and they also soon discovered that could be used to be able to tell what stars were made up of in the Universe. The lines that a particular element produces are called the emission spectrum of that element.
The reason the chemical elements can do this is because of the number and places of electrons orbiting around the center of each atom of each chemical element. These electrons, when light hits them, absorb a specific wavelength, or color of light, and what color they absorb depend on their position around the atom. Since each chemical element has a certain number of electrons, each chemical element has this unique set of spectral lines.
Red shift
Since each set of spectral lines was unique, scientists could also be able to use this in a technique called red shift. Red shift is a method astronomers use, after they know what a star is made of, to tell how fast an object far away in the Universe is moving. It also tells them how far away it is, .
Chemistry
Astrophysics |
Godzilla is a giant dinosaur-like fictional monster who first appeared in movies from Japan, in the year 1954. Since then has been featured in twenty-nine movies. During his movie career, this large reptile fought against many other mythical monsters, including the giant moth-like Mothra, the three-headed King Ghidorah, his own robotic mirror image Mechagodzilla, and several more enemies. The original Japanese name, Gojira orゴジラ, is a combination of the words gorilla and kujira (means whale). In countries where the primary language is English, the name has been changed to Godzilla, is a fictional Japanese movie reptilian monster that has appeared in movies since 1954.
Movie appearances
Godzilla (1954)/Godzilla, King of the Monsters! (1956) - Embassy Pictures
Godzilla Raids Again/Gigantis, the Fire Monster (1955) - Warner Bros. Pictures
King Kong vs. Godzilla (1962) - Universal International
Mothra vs. Godzilla/Godzilla Vs. The Thing (1964) - American International Pictures
Ghidorah, the Three-Headed Monster/Ghidrah (1964) - Walter Reade Organization/Continental
Invasion of Astro-Monster or Monster Zero (US release) (1965) - United Productions of America
Godzilla vs. the Sea Monster (1966) - Walter Reade Organization
Son of Godzilla (1967) - Walter Reade Organization
Destroy All Monsters (1968) - American International Pictures
All Monsters Attack/Godzilla's Revenge (1969) - United Productions of America
Godzilla vs. Hedorah/Godzilla Vs. The Smog Monster (1971) - American International Pictures
Godzilla vs. Gigan/Godzilla On Monster Island (1972) - Cinema Shares International Distribution
Godzilla vs. Megalon (1973) - Cinema Shares International Distribution
Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla/Godzilla Vs. The Cosmic Monster (1974) - Cinema Shares International Distribution
Terror of Mechagodzilla/The Terror of Godzilla (1975) - Bob Conn Enterprises
The Return of Godzilla/Godzilla 1985 (1984) - New World Pictures
Godzilla vs. Biollante (1989) - Miramax Films
Godzilla vs. Mothra/Godzilla And Mothra Battle For Earth (1992) - Tristar Pictures
Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla II (1993) - Tristar Pictures
Godzilla vs. Space Godzilla (1994) - Tristar Pictures
Godzilla vs. Destoroyah (1995) - Tristar Pictures
Godzilla (1998) - Tristar Pictures, Centropolis Entertainment
Godzilla 2000: Millennium (1999) - Tristar Pictures
Godzilla vs. Megaguirus (2000) - Tristar Pictures
Godzilla, Mothra and King Ghidorah: Giant Monsters All-Out Attack (2001) - Tristar Pictures
Godzilla Against Mechagodzilla (2002) - Tristar Pictures
Godzilla: Tokyo S.O.S. (2003) - Tristar Pictures
Godzilla: Final Wars (2004) - Tristar Pictures
Godzilla (2014) - Warner Bros. Pictures, Legendary Pictures
Shin Godzilla (2016) - Funimation
Godzilla: Planet of the Monsters (2017) - Animated - Netflix
Godzilla: City on the Edge of Battle (2018) - Animated - Netflix
Godzilla: Planet Eater (2018) - Animated - Netflix
Godzilla: King of the Monsters (2019) - Warner Bros. Pictures, Legendary Pictures
Godzilla vs. Kong'' (2021) - Warner Bros. Pictures, Legendary Pictures, Toho
References
Tohoeiga official site(Japanese company)
Japanese movies
Monsters
Godzilla
Fictional characters introduced in the 1950s
Fictional dinosaurs
King Kong
Horror movie characters |
The 1090s was the decade that started on January 1, 1090 and ended on December 31, 1099.
Events
1090 - Béjaïa becomes the capital of the Hammadid Dynasty in Algeria.
1091 - King William II of England invades Normandy.
1093 - Sviatopolk II becomes Grand Prince of Kiev and ruler of Kievan Rus'.
1094 - El Cid becomes ruler of Valencia, Spain.
1095-1099 - The First Crusade |
Events
A second wave of crusaders arrives in the newly established Kingdom of Jerusalem, after being heavily defeated by Kilij Arslan I at Heraclia. See Crusade of 1101.
Raymond IV of Toulouse, count of Tripoli, takes Ankara from the Seljuk Turks.
Robert Curthose signs the Treaty of Alton, giving up his claim to the Anglo-Norman throne and establishing Henry I as King of England.
The County of Berg, Germany is established.
Canute II of Denmark is canonized. |
Events
Louis VII becomes King of France and marries Eleanor of Aquitaine
Rochester Cathedral is hurt by a fire, but is soon rebuilt. |
1194 (MCXCIV) was .
Events
July 5 – Emperor Guangzong of Sung China was forced to step down.
November 20 – Palermo falls to Henry VI
December 25 – Henry VI becomes king of Sicily.
City of Portsmouth awarded its Royal Charter.
Henry Marshal becomes Bishop of Exeter.
Yellow River of China experienced a major course change. It took over the Huai River drainage system for the next 700 years.
Births
July 16 — Clare of Assisi, Italian follower of Francis of Assisi (d. 1253)
December 26 — Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1250)
Deaths
February 20 — King Tancred of Sicily
May 5 — King Casimir II of Poland (b. 1138)
June 27 — King Sancho VI of Navarre (b. c. 1133)
June 28 — Emperor Xiaozong of China (b. 1127)
September 27 — Renaud de Courtenay, Anglo-Norman nobleman (b. 1125)
November 15 — Margaret I of Flanders
December 31 — Duke Leopold V of Austria (killed at a tournament) (b. 1157)
Benedictus Abbas, English chronicler
Guy of Lusignan, king consort of Jerusalem (b. c. 1150)
Raymond V of Toulouse (b. 1134)
Roger III of Sicily (b. 1175)
Sviatoslav III of Kiev |
1207 is a year in the 13th century.
Events
Stephen Langton consecrated Archbishop of Canterbury June 17 by Pope Innocent III.
Pope Innocent III declares for Philip of Swabia as Holy Roman Emperor, a reversal of his previous support for Otto IV.
King John issued letters patent creating the new Borough of Liverpool
Births
September 8 – King Sancho II of Portugal
September 30 – Jalal al-Din Muhammad Rumi, Persian poet and Sufi mystic (died 1273)
October 1 – King Henry III of England (died 1272)
Henry II, Duke of Brabant (died 1248)
Elisabeth of Hungary, daughter of Andrew II of Hungary and saint (died 1231)
Philip I of Savoy (died 1285)
Deaths
January 4 – Simon II, Duke of Lorraine
June 17 – Daoji, Chinese buddhist monk (born 1130)
Amaury of Bene, heretic
Kaloyan, Tsar of Bulgaria
Xin Qiji, Chinese poet (born 1140)
Monarchs/Presidents
France – Philippe II, Auguste King of France (reigned from 1180 to 1223)
Mongol Empire – Genghis Khan, Mongol Khan (from 1206 to 1227)
Venice – Pietro Ziani Doge of Venice (ruled from 1205 to 1229)
England – John King of England (reigned from 1199 to 1216)
Latin Empire of Constantinople – Henry of Flanders (reigned from 1205 to 1216)
Pope – Innocent III (pope from 1198 to 1216) |
The Pentagon is the headquarters of the United States Department of Defense. It is in Arlington, Virginia (near Washington, D.C.). It has limestone walls. It is in the shape of a pentagon, and has seven floors.
The Pentagon is the largest office building in the world,but any place in the building can be reached within 7 minutes.
Construction began on September 11, 1941. Exactly sixty years later, on September 11, 2001, it was hit with an airplane by terrorists. The crash killed a total of 189 victims (125 in The Pentagon, 64 in plane).
Building description
It has a total floor area of 6,500,000 sq ft (604,000 m2). Offices are 3,700,000 sq ft (344,000 m2). Approximately 25,000 military and civilian employees work in The Pentagon. It has five sides, five floors above ground, two basement levels, and five ring corridors per floor with a total of of corridors. The Pentagon includes a five-acre (20,000 m2) central plaza, which is shaped like a pentagon.
The concentric rings are named (from the center out) as "A" through "E" (with in addition "F" and "G" in the basement). "E" Ring offices are the only ones with outside views and are generally occupied by senior officials. Office numbers go clockwise around each of the rings, and have two parts: a nearest-corridor number (1 to 10) followed by a bay number (00 to 99), so office numbers range from 100 to 1099. These corridors radiate out from the central courtyard, with corridor 1 beginning with the Concourse's south end. Each numbered radial corridor intersects with the corresponding numbered group of offices (for example, corridor 5 divides the 500 series office block). There are a number of historical displays in the building, particularly in the "A" and "E" rings.
Floors in The Pentagon are lettered "B" for Basement and "M" for Mezzanine, both of which are below ground level. The concourse is located on the second floor at the metro entrance. Above ground floors are numbered 1 to 5. Room numbers are given as the floor, concentric ring, and office number (which is in turn the nearest corridor number followed by the bay number). So, office 2B315 is on the second floor, B ring, and nearest to corridor 3 (between corridors 2 and 3). One way to get to this office would be to go to the second floor, get to the A (innermost) ring, go to and take corridor 3, and then turn left on ring B to get to bay 15.
Just south of The Pentagon are Pentagon City and Crystal City, extensive shopping and high-density residential districts in Arlington. Arlington National Cemetery is to the north. The Washington Metro Pentagon station is also located at the Pentagon, on the Blue and Yellow Lines. The Pentagon is surrounded by the Capital Beltway Every day, thousands of commuters traveling between Arlington, Virginia and Washington, DC drive on the roads of the Pentagon Reservation.
The Pentagon Athletic Center (PAC) is a fitness center for military and civilian staff. It opened in a separate building on the north side of The Pentagon in 2004. Each year, the Pentagon grounds hold the Marine Corps Marathon and the Army Ten-Miler running events.
The public may take a 60 minute long tour of the building. Tourists can also visit the Pentagon Memorial that is on the building's west side.The Pentagon receives around 106,000 visitors per year.
Some numbers about The Pentagon
The Pentagon has:
131 stairs
19 escalators
70 elevators
7,754 windows
284 toilets
691 water fountains
4,200 clocks
16,250 lights
17.5 miles of corridor
200,000 telephone calls per day
1,000,000 emails sent daily
8,700 parking spaces
9/11 Attacks
On September 11, 2001, American Airlines Flight 77 flew into the western side of the Pentagon. September 11 was also the date the Pentagon began to be constructed. There were much fewer deaths because that side was being renovated. 189 people died. There is now a memorial remembering the people who died that day called the Pentagon Memorial. Each person that died is represented by a bench, for a total of 189 benches. It was opened on September 11, 2008, exactly 7 years after the attacks.
References
Other websites
The Pentagon website
September 11 attacks
1943 establishments in the United States
1940s establishments in Virginia |
The Beach Boys are an American pop/surf rock group from Hawthorne, California. They formed in 1961. The original members were brothers Brian, Dennis, and Carl Wilson, their cousin Mike Love, and their friend Al Jardine. Many of the band's early songs were about life in southern California, the beach, girls, cars, and surfing.
David Marks replaced Jardine when he went away to school; after Jardine's return, Marks left the band. Bruce Johnston later became a regular band member, first replacing Brian Wilson on tour, then joining in on recording sessions. Reunions with some of the original band members still occur from time to time.
Discography
Studio albums
Surfin' Safari (1962)
Surfin' U.S.A. (1963)
Surfer Girl (1963)
Little Deuce Coupe (1963)
Shut Down Volume 2 (1964)
All Summer Long (1964)
The Beach Boys' Christmas Album (1964)
The Beach Boys Today! (1965)
Summer Days (And Summer Nights!!) (1965)
Beach Boys' Party! (1965)
Pet Sounds (1966)
Smiley Smile (1967)
Wild Honey (1967)
Friends (1968)
20/20 (1969)
Sunflower (1970)
Surf's Up (1971)
Carl and the Passions – "So Tough" (1972)
Holland (1973)
15 Big Ones (1976)
The Beach Boys Love You (1977)
M.I.U. Album (1978)
L.A. (Light Album) (1979)
Keepin' the Summer Alive (1980)
The Beach Boys (1985)
Still Cruisin' (1989)
Summer in Paradise (1992)
Stars and Stripes Vol. 1 (1996)
That's Why God Made the Radio (2012)
Selected archival releases
The Pet Sounds Sessions (1996)
The Smile Sessions (2011)
The Big Beat 1963 (2013)
Keep an Eye on Summer 1964 (2014)
Becoming the Beach Boys: The Complete Hite & Dorinda Morgan Sessions (2015)
Beach Boys' Party! Uncovered and Unplugged (2015)
1967 – Sunshine Tomorrow (2017)
Wake the World: The Friends Sessions (2018)
I Can Hear Music: The 20/20 Sessions (2018)
See also
Smile (1966–1967)
Discographies of Brian Wilson, Dennis Wilson, Carl Wilson, Mike Love, and Al Jardine
Other websites
1961 establishments in the United States
1960s American music groups
1960s establishments in California
1970s American music groups
1980s American music groups
1990s American music groups
2000s American music groups
2010s American music groups
American pop music groups
American rock bands
Hawthorne, California
Musical groups established in 1961
Musical groups from California
Warner Bros. Records artists |
A modem (comes from: modulator demodulator) is a piece of computer hardware. It is used to communicate between distant computers. Two modems, one on each computer, are required to make a connection, and each modem can send and receive data to and from the other modem.
Modulation is changing the digital data from a computer to analog data (audio tones or sounds) to be sent over telephone lines.
Demodulation is changing the analog data which is received over the telephone lines to digital data to be used by the computer.
Modems are classified by the amount of data they can send in a given time, normally measured in bits per second (bit/s, or bps). They are also classified by their connection method. Dial-up modems were the usual kind in the 20th century, and DSL modems and Cable TV modems are now more used.
Modems that connect to the computer by a cable are called external modems. Modems that go inside the computer are internal modems. Some internal modems are part of the motherboard; others are inserted into the computer on a PC card. Most DSL and cable modems are external.
Many modems are used to connect to the Internet through telephone service or cable television service. Slow telephone service is called dial-up (maximum 56,000 bits per second). Faster telephone service is called DSL and is usually more than ten times faster. Cable modems connect through cable television, and are similarly fast.
A CEA study in 2006 found that dial-up Internet access is on a decline in the United States. In 2000, dial-up Internet connections accounted for 74% of all U.S. residential Internet connections. This decline has been more or less mirrored in Canada and Australia.
Dial-up modem use in the US dropped to 60% by 2003, and in 2006 stood at 36%. Voiceband modems were once the most popular means of Internet access in the U.S. But as more homes adopted faster ways of accessing the Internet, the traditional 56K modem is losing popularity.
References
Computer hardware
Telecommunications |
The 3DO Interactive Multiplayer (often just called the 3DO) is a video game console invented by The 3DO Company. It was created by Trip Hawkins, the man who created Electronic Arts. The 3DO was not built by the company itself. They had a list of instructions that other companies could use to build their own. Panasonic made the first models in 1993, and other types of the machine were sold in 1994 by Sanyo and GoldStar.
Many good things were said about it when it was created, including being named Time Magazine's "1993 Product of the Year". It also had many technologies that were new and advanced. But the 3DO cost more money than the video game consoles that were already popular. This meant more people bought consoles from Sega or Nintendo instead of the 3D0. Because of this, no more 3D0s were made after 1996. It was also not advertised very well, so almost no one knew about it. Some games planned for it include Alone in the Dark and Myst. The 3DO company also wanted to make another console called the M2, but it was never released.
References
video game consoles |
The APF-M1000 was a video game console made by APF in 1978. The controllers had numbers (1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,0 called a numeric keypad) and a joystick. With a joystick, the player moves the joystick and uses it to control the action in the game. It could only be used on a color TV. It came built-in with the game "Rocket Patrol".
Specifications
CPU: Motorola 6800 at 3579 kHz
RAM: 1 KB
Colors: 8 on-screen
Resolution: 256 by 192
Cartridge list
MG1008 Backgammon
MG1006 Baseball
MG1007 Blackjack
MG1004 Bowling/Micro Match
MG1012 Boxing
MG1005 Brickdown/Shooting Gallery
MG1009 Casino I: Roulette/Keno/Slots
MG1001 Catena
MG1003 Hangman/Tic Tac Toe/Doddle
MG1011 Pinball/Dungeon Hunt/Blockout
Built-In Rocket Patrol
MG1013 Space Destroyers
MG1010 UFO/Sea Monster/Break It Down/Rebuild/Shoot
Video game consoles |
Windsor is a city in southern Ontario, Canada, which is across the Detroit River from the U.S. city of Detroit, Michigan. Windsor was founded in 1749 by the French. It has a population of 233,763 (counted in 2017).
Media
CBET CBC
Cities in Ontario |
QWERTY is a certain typewriter or computer keyboard layout that is commonly used in some English-speaking countries. The term comes from the fact the first 6 letters of the top row of keys are Q, W, E, R, T, and Y. The QWERTY design was patented by Christopher Sholes in 1874 and sold to E. Remington and Sons during the same year.
History
The QWERTY layout was invented by Christopher Sholes, the inventor of the first modern typewriter. At first the letters on the typewriter were placed alphabetically. However, when the user of the typewriter learned to type quickly, the bars attached to letters became caught in one another. The typist had to stop and unstick the typebars with his hands. A business associate of Sholes named James Densmore suggested splitting up the keys to speed up typing by preventing the typebars from striking the typewriter roller at the same time and sticking together. Some people say the QWERTY layout was created to slow down typing speed, while others say it worked by separating series of English letters.
The alternative Dvorak Simplified Keyboard was invented in the 1930s to be more efficient than QWERTY but it remained rare.
Accents
The QWERTY layout was made to type in English, therefore it has no accent marks as they are not used in native English words. People from other countries whose own languages used accent marks (such as French, which has letters like "é", "î", and "ç") had problems. Depending on the operating system and the application being used, one can type accents marks by holding down the Alt key while pressing several number keys in a row. As an example, holding the Alt key, pressing the number keys 1, 5, and 6, then releasing the Alt key will generate a character numbered 156 in some character set. The Control or Alt key can be also used together with a letter. In some word processors, like Microsoft Word, characters with accent marks could be found under a category named "Special Characters" or something similar. Windows also has a program called "Character Map" that can be used to find and copy characters that could be pasted into other applications later on.
International Variants
Some languages use the similar AZERTY layout. Some QWERTY keyboards for different languages and countries may look different.
Belgian and French
The keyboards made in Belgium and France switch the letters Q and W with the letters A and Z. They also move the letter M to the right of L. These types of keyboards are called AZERTY keyboards.
Czech
Some keyboards for the Czech language use QWERTZ keyboards. They switch the Z and Y like the German version, but use "ů" to the right of L and ú next to P. The row that normally has numbers has the accents ě, š, č, ř, ž, ý, á, í, é. The user of the keyboard uses the shift key to make numbers.
Scandinavia
Danish and Norwegian layouts switched Æ, Ø, and Å where Swedish and Finnish use the letters Ä and Ö.
Faroese
Faroese keyboards add Æ and Ø next to L, and Å and Ð next to P.
German
German keyboards add an Ü to the right of P—and Ö, Ä to the right of L—and switch the Z and Y keys both because Z is a much more common letter than Y in German.
Hungarian
Hungarian keyboard add an É and Á after L, Ö above O, Ü above P, Ő after P, Ú after Ő, Ó above Ú, Í under A, and switch Z and Y, like in German.
Icelandic
Icelandic layouts add Ð to the right of P, Æ to the right of L, Ö to the right of 0 in the top row and Þ to the rightmost place in the bottom row.
Italian
Italian typewriter keyboards use a QZERTY layout where Z is swapped with W and M is at the right of "L". Computers use a QWERTY keyboard with è to the right of P and ò to the right of L.
Lithuania
Lithuanian keyboards typically use the standard QWERTY and utilize the numbers row + shift to insert the language specific symbols.
Portuguese
Portuguese keyboards maintain the QWERTY layout but add the key Ç after the L key. The Spanish version has the letter Ñ, the Ç.
Romanian
Romanian keyboards have a QWERTZ layout, swapping Y with Z; ă and î are added to the right of the letter P, while ș and ț are added to the right of the letter L; â replaces the backslash character. Changes are also made to the upper number keys, the numbers remain the same, but some of the symbols are shuffled. The most notable change is that hyphen (-) is swapped with slash (/).
Spanish
Spanish keyboards add ñ and Ñ characters to the right of the L instead of the semicolon and colon.
Turkish
Turkish layouts add Ğ and Ü to the right of P, Ş and İ to the right of L, Ö and Ç to the right of M.
Related pages
Dvorak Simplified Keyboard
References
Writing tools
Typography |
A list is a part of a text, which has many words separated by commas (,) or a group of words going down the page that may use bullet points, letters, or numbers. Semicolons (;) are also used sometimes to separate items in a list.
These are lists:
I have invited Peter, Mary, and Henry to my birthday.
People who I have invited to my birthday are:
Peter
Mary
Henry
People I invited to my birthday: Peter; Mary; Henry.
Related pages
Mailing list
Basic English 850 words |
Antimatter is a term in particle physics. Antimatter is a material composed of antiparticles. These have the same mass as particles of ordinary matter but have opposite charge and properties, such as lepton and baryon number.
Encounters between a particle and an antiparticle lead to both of them being destroyed. This gives rise to high-energy photons (gamma rays), neutrinos, and lower-mass particle–antiparticle pairs.
What is it made of?
In physics, all the elementary particles, or the basic building blocks of the things we can touch, come in pairs. Each particle has what is called an antiparticle. This may look and act just like the regular particle, except for one major difference. An example is the electron and the positron.
Other antimatter particles are the same way, where they have the same weight, and look and act the same as regular particles, but their electrical charge is the opposite of regular particles. Antihydrogen, for example, has the positron, which is positively charged, orbiting around an antiproton, which is negatively charged, which is the opposite way regular hydrogen looks, which has the electron (negative charge), orbiting around a proton (positive charge).
Annihilation
Albert Einstein found a formula that can show how much energy a certain amount of something has, whether it is matter or antimatter. This formula is , and is one of the most well known equations. In simple terms, if you take the mass of something and then multiply it by the speed of light, and then multiply it by the speed of light again, you will get how much pure energy a given piece of something has. Since the speed of light is such a big number, this means that even a small amount of matter can have a lot of energy (it has been projected to be 4 times more effective per mass than nuclear fission).
In 1928, the physicist Paul Dirac was looking for an equation that would predict how very fast particles should behave. There was already another equation that could describe slow-moving particles, the Schrödinger equation, but Einstein's theory of special relativity said that fast particles could be very different from slow particles. Dirac knew that particles like electrons were usually moving very fast. He realized the old equation would not make good predictions for fast particles. So he came up with a new equation that could describe particles moving close to the speed of light.
For fast particles, it is no longer true that the energy is . Instead, Dirac's new equation worked for particles where the energy was given by . In the new equation for energy, the symbol is called the momentum, and it measures how fast the particle is going and how hard it is to stop. This equation says that very fast particles have more energy, so they are different from slow particles. You can take the square root of each side of this equation, since both sides are equal. However, any real square root has two answers, and . You can think of the answer with negative energy as being antimatter.
The reason this is important to understand antimatter is because scientists found that when matter and antimatter touch each other, the amount of energy that is released comes very close to the amount of energy says should be all together in those two pieces. The reason is that each particle of matter, when it touches its antiparticle in the antimatter world, both change over into pure energy, or annihilate each other. This release of such a high amount of energy is why a lot of science fiction writers use antimatter for fuel in their stories. For example, author Dan Brown uses antimatter in "Angels and Demons" as a very powerful weapon. It is also being looked at as a fuel source for real-life missions to outer space in the future.
Where is all the antimatter?
Many scientists think that in the first few moments after the Big Bang, which created the universe a very long time ago, both matter and antimatter mixed together. If the Big Bang made equal amounts of matter and antimatter, then the two would annihilate and become energy. After a long time, there would be no matter and no antimatter left, just energy. But our universe today looks like it is almost all matter and hardly any antimatter. Physicists do not yet know for sure that equal amounts of matter and antimatter were created, and because of this, they are also wondering where the antimatter went, and if any was left over from the beginning of the universe.
One explanation is that there was just a little bit more matter than antimatter in the beginning, so that whatever was left over after most of the matter and antimatter annihilated into energy became the mostly-matter universe we see today. Another theory is that there is lots of antimatter on the other side of the universe, hidden far beyond our vision. They could have formed their own galaxies and solar systems too.
Uses
Because antimatter can make so much energy, it can be used for a lot of things, such as fuel for going into outer space, or in our cars. The problem is that antimatter is very expensive to make, and is almost as expensive to store, since it cannot touch regular matter. It takes several hundred million dollars to make less than one-millionth of a gram of antimatter. In fact, it is the most expensive and the rarest substance on Earth. Since it is so expensive, this means that antimatter is not practical to use as a weapon or as an energy source, because so little of it is obtainable.
Recently, however, scientists have trapped antimatter for over 16 minutes (1000 sec. total).
It does have a use in medicine, because a special kind of scanner called the PET, which stands for positron emission tomography, uses positrons to go into the human body. Doctors can look at the way the positron changes into energy inside a person's body, and be able to tell if something is wrong inside a person. This kind of machine works differently than an X-ray machine or a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) machine, and can help doctors see things that those other machines cannot see.
References
Matter |
Minsk or Miensk (Мінск (official spelling in Belarus), Менск; Минск ; Mińsk) is the capital and a major city of Belarus. About 2 million people lived in the city as of 2021. Minsk is also a headquarters of the Commonwealth of Independent States. As a capital, Minsk has a special administrative status in Belarus and is also the capital of Minsk voblast (province) and Minsk raion. Minsk is built next to the Svislach and Niamiha rivers. The timezone in Minsk is GMT +2.
The oldest mentions of Minsk date back to the 11th century (1067). In 1326 Minsk became a part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and received its town privileges in 1499. From 1569 it was a capital of the Minsk Voivodship in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. It was annexed by Russia in 1793 as a result of the Second Partition of Poland. During 1919–1991 Minsk was the capital of the Byelorussian SSR. In 2019, Minsk hosted the European Games.
Other websites
Photos of Minsk on GOMINSK.ORG
Photos on Globus.tut.by
Weather of Minsk - minsk.the.by |
Mercedes:
is a female first name, see Mercedes (name)
a German car manufacturer, see Mercedes-Benz |
Events
The Fraticelli pose a problem for the Roman Catholic church
In Europe, climate change leads to the Great Famine of 1315–1317 |
Events
Change of emperor of the Ottoman Empire from Osman I (1299-1326) to Orhan I (1326-1359)
Aradia de Toscano, is initiated into a Dianic cult of Italian Witchcraft (Stregheria), and discovers through a vision that she is the human incarnation of the goddess Aradia. Known as La Bella Pelegrina amongst the outlaws near Lake Nemi, she becomes the leader of a religious anarchist movement. |
The chancellor of Germany (German: Bundeskanzler, literally: federal chancellor) is the head of government of the Federal Republic of Germany. The Chancellor of Germany is elected by the majority of the members of the Bundestag, the German parliament. The chancellor is the German people's version of a Prime Minister or Premier.
The current chancellor is Olaf Scholz (SPD) since 08 December 2021.
Chancellors since 1949
Konrad Adenauer (CDU), 1949–1963
Ludwig Erhard (CDU), 1963–1966
Kurt Georg Kiesinger (CDU), 1966–1969
Willy Brandt (SPD), 1969–1974
Helmut Schmidt (SPD), 1974–1982
Helmut Kohl (CDU), 1982–1998
Gerhard Schröder (SPD), 1998–2005
Angela Merkel (CDU), 2005–2021
Olaf Scholz (SPD), since 2021
Related pages
List of chancellors of Germany
Reich Chancellor, chancellors of the German Reich
References |
Mysore is a city in Karnataka, India. Mysore is south-west of Bangalore. Travel time from Bangalore to Mysore is 2-3 hours by road or rail. Mysore is the second largest city in Karnataka.
Mysore Palace, Jaganmohan Palace, Chamundi Hills, Brindavan Gardens, and Mysore Zoo are the places to see in Mysore. Some people go to Mysore to see the Dasara procession.
People also go to Mysore to learn yoga.
Cities in India
Settlements in Karnataka |
Kannada () is a language, and it is a script used for writing the language. Most people in the southern Indian state of Karnataka speak Kannada, and there are speakers in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Kerala and Goa. There are some differences in the way Kannada is spoken in these places.There are about 44 million people who speak the language.It had been since 2nd Century.
Language profile
Kannada is a Dravidian language, which is a different language family from the Indo-European or Aryan languages of the north, such as Hindi but close to the other southern languages like Telugu. It has about 3000 years of written history. The first version is known as the Old Kannada script. By about 3000 it had morphed into the Kannada and Telugu scripts. Printing presses introduced by Christian missionaries at the beginning of the 19th century standardized the Kannada and Telugu scripts.
Script
The Kannada script is a type of writing system called an alphasyllabary. All consonants have a built-in vowel. Other vowels are indicated with diacritics, which appear next to the consonants. When they appear at the beginning of a syllable, vowels are written as separate letters. When consonants appear together without intervening vowels, the second consonant is written as a special joint symbol, usually below the first. The direction of writing: left to right in horizontal lines.
Literature
It has highest number of Janapeeta literary awards compared to any Indian language. Kannada had a huge boost during the Vijayanagar period. Shri Vinoba Bhave called "Kannada" script the "Queen of Kannada Scripts" not for all Language. "Vishwa Lipigala Raani".
References
Other websites
Kannada News
Kannada News
Kannada Newspaper
Online Kannada News
Dravidian languages
Languages of India |
Events
January 24 – Matthias I Corvinus becomes King of Hungary
Start of Magdalen College, University of Oxford
George of Podebrady becomes King of Bohemia
Pope Pius II becomes pope
Turks issue a decree to protect the Acropolis after they conquer Athens. |
Events
February 2 – Battle of Mortimer's Cross – Yorkist troops led by Edward, Duke of York defeat Lancastrians under Owen Tudor and his son Jasper Tudor, Earl of Pembroke in Wales.
February 17 – Second Battle of St Albans – The Earl of Warwick's army is defeated by a Lancastrian force under Queen Margaret, who recovers control of her husband.
March 4 – The Duke of York seizes London and proclaims himself King Edward IV of England
March 29 – Battle of Towton – Edward IV defeats Queen Margaret to make good his claim to the English throne. Thought to be the bloodiest battle ever fought in England.
Edward, Richard of York's son, crowned as Edward IV, King of England (reigns until 1483)
August 15 – The Empire of Trebizond, the last major Romano-Greek outpost falls to the Ottoman Empire under Mehmed II after a siege of 21 days.
Louis XI of France succeeds Charles VII of France as king (reigns until 1483)
Leonardo da Vinci and Sandro Botticelli become students of Verrocchio
Sarajevo, capital of Bosnia and Herzegovina, is founded by the Ottomans
François Villon: Le Grand Testament
Donatello: Judith and Holofernes |
Events
October 29 – Battle of Brusthem: Charles the Bold defeats Liege
Beginning of the Sengoku Period in Japan.
Circa this year, polyalphabetic cipher invented by Leone Battista Alberti.
Regent of Sweden Erik Axelsson Tott supports the re-election of deposed Charles VIII of Sweden to the throne.
Pope Paul II arrested and tortured some of the abbreviators, among them was Filip Callimachus. |
The Arab League is an organization made up of countries in the Arab world in Northern Africa and Southwest Asia. Most, though not all of these countries use Arabic as their official language. The purpose is to find ways for the countries to have unity and to work together to solve their problems.
Mission
The organization uses the Arabic Language in its summits and all official papers, although it has never been stated by the League that Arabic is the Official Language. The Arab League was founded following the Protocol of Alexandria signed in 1945 by seven Arab States: Egypt, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Iraq, Yemen, Trans-Jordan (Jordan). Today the League has 22 members. All countries having Arabic as an official language are among the members of the League, except for Israel, Eritrea and Chad which are not members.
Members
The countries in the Arab League are:
Egypt - March 22, 1945 (Founder) (suspended, 1979-1989)
Iraq - March 22, 1945 (Founder)
Jordan - March 22, 1945 (Founder) (entered when still using the name "Transjordan")
Lebanon - March 22, 1945 (Founder)
Saudi Arabia - March 22, 1945 (Founder)
Syria - March 22, 1945 (Founder)
Yemen - May 5, 1945 (Founder)
Libya - March 28, 1953
Sudan - January 19, 1956
Morocco - October 1, 1958
Tunisia - October 1, 1958
Kuwait - July 20, 1961
Algeria - August 16, 1962
United Arab Emirates - June 12, 1971
Bahrain - September 11, 1971
Qatar - September 11, 1971
Oman - September 29, 1971
Mauritania - November 26, 1973
Somalia - February 14, 1974
Palestine - succeeding to the position held by the Palestine Liberation Organization since September 9, 1976
Djibouti - April 9, 1977
Comoros - November 20, 1993
List of Secretaries-General
References
International organizations
Political organizations based in Asia
1945 establishments in Asia
Middle East
Arab world
Politics of Africa
Politics of Asia |
Events
February 18 – George, Duke of Clarence, convicted of treason against his older brother Edward IV of England, is privately executed in the Tower of London.
April 26 – The Pazzi attack Lorenzo de' Medici and kill his brother Giuliano during High Mass in the Florence Cathedral.
December 28 – Battle of Giornico – Swiss troops defeat the Milanese.
Lorenzo de' Medici becomes sole ruler of Florence
Grand Prince Ivan III of Moscow conquers Novgorod
Vladislav II of Bohemia makes peace with Hungary
Eskender succeeds his father Baeda Maryam as Emperor of Ethiopia at the age of six. |
Year 1613 (MDCXIII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Friday of the 10-day slower Julian calendar.
Events
January – Galileo observes Neptune, but mistakes it for a star and so is not credited with its discovery.
February 7 – An Assembly of the Russian Empire elects Mikhail Romanov to be Tsar of Russia, and establishes the Romanov Dynasty.
June 29 – Fire destroys London's Globe Theatre
Francesco Andreini's L'Adamo is published.
King James I of England successfully mediates the Peace of Knäred treaty between Denmark and Sweden.
The New River was opened, to supply London with drinking water from Hertfordshire
Adriaen Block's ship Tyger is destroyed by fire, forcing him and his crew to spend the winter on Manhattan
James I of England comdemns duels in his proclamation Against Private Challenges and Combats
Ottoman Empire invades Hungary
Locust swarm destroys La Camarque, France
Sultan Agung takes the throne of the kingdom of Mataram on Java.
December 6 death of Anton Praetorius |
Events
March 18 – Sissinios formally crowned Emperor of Ethiopia
May 14 – Protestant Union founded in Auhausen.
July 3 – Quebec City founded by Samuel de Champlain.
August 24 – The first official English representative to India lands at Surat.
October 2 – Dutch lensmaker Hans Lippershey demonstrates the first telescope in the Dutch parliament
Swedish troops enter Moscow
First cheques come to use in Netherlands
Quebec city is founded by Samuel De Champlain |
Events
March 17 – formation of the Cathay Company to send Martin Frobisher back to the New World for more gold
May 28 – Publication of the Bergen Book, better known as the Solid Declaration of the Formula of Concord, one of the Lutheran confessional writings. The earlier version, known as the Torgau Book (1576), had been condensed into an Epitome; both documents are part of the 1580 Book of Concord.
September 17 – Peace of Bergerac signed between Henry III of France and the Huguenots
The church in San Pedro in the Atacama Desert in Chile was built.
November – The Great Comet of 1577 passed by Earth. |
Events
The invention of the telephone (1876) by Alexander Graham Bell.
The light bulb was invented.
The phonograph is invented in 1877 by Thomas Edison.
Ludwig Boltzmann's statistical definition of thermodynamic entropy
Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871) results in the collapse of the Second French Empire and in the formation of both the French Third Republic and the German Empire
Continuing expansion of the British Empire; beginning of the New Imperialism
Bulgaria and Romania declare independence following the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)
In the United States, continuation of post-Civil War reconstruction until its conclusion under President Rutherford B. Hayes in 1877
World leaders
Emperor Franz Josef (Austria-Hungary)
Prime Minister Sir John A. Macdonald (Canada)
Prime Minister Alexander Mackenzie (Canada)
Tongzhi Emperor (China)
Guangxu Emperor (China)
Emperor Wilhelm I (German Empire)
Chancellor Otto von Bismarck (German Empire)
King Victor Emmanuel II (Italy)
King Umberto I (Italy)
Emperor Meiji (Japan)
Pope Pius IX
Pope Leo XIII
Emperor Alexander II (Russia)
King Alfonso XII (Spain)
Queen Victoria (United Kingdom)
Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone (United Kingdom)
Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli (United Kingdom)
President Ulysses S. Grant (United States)
President Rutherford B. Hayes (United States)
Nasser-al-Din Shah of Qajar dynasty (Persia) |
Events
Alexander becomes King of Poland.
The Safavid kingdom was established in northern Iran.
Martin Luther enters the University of Erfurt. |
Jon Voight (born December 29, 1938) is an American actor.
Early life and family
His mother was of German ancestry; his father was of Slovak ancestry. Voight is the middle of three brothers: volcanologist Barry Voight was born in 1937; musician Chip Taylor was born in 1940.
Voight's son James Haven and daughter Angelina Jolie are actors.
References
Other websites
1938 births
Living people
Academy Award winning actors
Actors from New York
American movie actors
American stage actors
American television actors
BAFTA Award winning actors
Golden Globe Award winning actors
Movie producers from New York
Screenwriters from New York
People from Yonkers, New York |
Eugene Joseph "Gene" McCarthy (March 29, 1916 – December 10, 2005) was a United States senator from Minnesota. He ran for President of the United States five times. He died from Parkinson's disease.
Other websites
Eugene J McCarthy Lectureship at Saint John's University
Eugene McCarthy (1916–2005): The Legacy of the Former Senator and Anti-War Presidential Candidate
Eugene J. McCarthy, Senate Dove Who Jolted '68 Race, Dies at 89 — The New York Times
Minnesota senator shook world in '68 — Star Tribune of Minneapolis
1968 United States presidential candidates
1972 United States presidential candidates
1976 United States presidential candidates
1992 United States presidential candidates
United States senators from Minnesota
United States representatives from Minnesota
Deaths from Parkinson's disease
1916 births
2005 deaths |
Arnold Alois Schwarzenegger (born July 30, 1947) is an Austrian-American former professional bodybuilder, actor, film producer, screenwriter, and director. He was the governor of the American state of California from 2003-2011. He currently lives in Los Angeles, California.
After serving in the army, Schwarzenegger moved to Munich, where he often slept in a gym because he did not have anywhere else to live.
Schwarzenegger then moved to the United States in 1968 and eventually became an actor. He has been in several big budget Hollywood movies including The Terminator series. He eventually stopped acting in order to run for governor of California in 2003. In 2003, Governor Gray Davis was removed as governor and Schwarzenegger was elected. His term ended in early January 2011, and he was replaced by Jerry Brown.
Before becoming an actor, Schwarzenegger was also a bodybuilder and had won both the Mr. Olympia and Mr. Universe titles over 7 consecutive times. Schwarzenegger has also set up his own official competition, Arnold Classic.
In 1971, Schwarzenegger's younger maternal half-brother Meinhard died in a car accident due to driving while drunk.
In 1986, Schwarzenegger married Maria Shriver, but they separated and divorced in 2011. They have 2 daughters, Katherine and Christina, and also 2 sons, Patrick and Christopher. Schwarzenegger also has a son with another woman. Some people think that Arnold had cheated on his wife but, such statements have not been proven.
In 2013, Schwarzenegger returned to acting with a role in the movie Escape Plan.
Film
Television
Commercials
Music videos
Soundtrack appearances
Video games
References
Other websites
Schwarzenegger.com - official website
Arnold Schwarzenegger Workout
Schwarzenegger bodybuilding
1947 births
Living people
People from Styria
Naturalized citizens of the United States
US Republican Party politicians
Governors of California
Actors from Los Angeles
American television actors
American movie actors
American movie producers
Austrian movie actors
Austrian television actors
Austrian voice actors
Austrian stage actors
Kennedy family
Bodybuilders
WWE Hall of Fame
21st-century American politicians |
The Holy Spirit, or Holy Ghost, is a part of the triune godhead (three in one God) of Christianity.
According to the Bible
The Holy Spirit was there from the beginning. Genesis 1:2 says that the Holy Spirit helped create the Earth.
It was by the Holy Spirit that Jesus was conceived in Mary (Matthew 1:18,19).
When Jesus had finished his ministry on Earth, he told his followers that he would provide "another Comforter" (helper), who would lead them, into truth (John 14:16), and would be their teacher to tell them things that Jesus had not told them, but that they needed to know to continue to live for God.
The second chapter of the book of Acts tells how on the 50th day after Passover (called Pentecost), and 10 days after Jesus ascended to Heaven, Jesus' followers were gathered at the feast. While they were praying, the Holy Spirit came upon them. They began to speak in other languages (tongues).
Holy Spirit baptism
While most Christians believe that the Holy Spirit is in them from the time they become born again, in Pentecostal denominations, such as the Assemblies of God, it is believed that speaking in unknown languages can still be an expression of the Holy Spirit, and that it is proof that a person has received the baptism of the Holy Spirit.
References
Christian theology |
The Internet Protocol (IP) is the most important communications protocol in the Internet protocol suite for relaying data across network boundaries. It establishes the Internet. In the past, IP did not provide the connectivity; It only specified how packets are supposed to be created. The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) allowed this functionality. Since one could not perform its task without the other, they earned the name TCP/IP to show how they depend on each other.
Think of IP as something like the postal system. It allows you to address a package and drop it into the system, but there is no actual direct link between you and the recipient. Instead, there is a "web" of links interconnecting with each other. This is where IP and TCP come in. IP tells packets what their destination is and how to get there; TCP ensures a reliable connection, checking packets for errors, requesting a "re-transmission" if it detects one.
Function
The Internet Protocol gets information from a source computer to a destination computer. It sends this information in the form of packets.
There are two versions of the Internet Protocol currently in use: IPv4 and IPv6, with IPv4 being the version most used. IP also gives computers an IP address to identify each other, much like a typical physical address.
IP is the primary protocol in the Internet Layer of the Internet Protocol Suite, which is a set of communications protocols consisting of seven abstraction layers (see OSI model),
The main purpose and task of IP is the delivery of datagrams from the source host (source computer) to the destination host (receiving computer) based on their addresses. To achieve this, IP includes methods and structures for putting tags (address information, which is part of metadata) within datagrams. The process of putting these tags on datagrams is called encapsulation. Think of an analogy with the postal system. IP is similar to the U.S. Postal System in that it allows a package (a datagram) to be addressed (encapsulation) and put into the system (the Internet) by the sender (source host). However, there is no direct link between sender and receiver.
The package (datagram) is almost always divided into pieces, but each piece contains the address of the receiver (destination host). Eventually, each piece arrives at the receiver, often by different routes and at different times. These routes and times are also determined by the Postal System, which is the IP. However, the Postal System (in the transport and application layers) puts all the pieces back together before delivery to the receiver (destination host).
Note: IP is actually a connectionless protocol, meaning that the circuit to the receiver (destination host) does not need be set up before transmission (by the source host). Continuing the analogy, there does not need to be a direct connection between the physical return address on the letter/package and the recipient address before the letter/package is sent.
Originally, IP was a connectionless datagram service in a transmission control program created by Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn in 1974. When format and rules were applied to allow connections, the connection-oriented Transmission Control Protocol was created. The two together form the Internet Protocol Suite, often referred to as TCP/IP.
Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) was the first major version of IP. This is the dominant protocol of the Internet. However, IPv6 is active and in use, and its deployment is increasing all over the world.
Addressing and routing are the most complex aspects of IP. However, intelligence in the network is located at nodes (network interconnection points) in the form of routers which forward datagrams to the next known gateway on the route to the final destination. The routers use interior gateway protocols (IGPs) or external gateway protocols (EGPs) to help with making forwarding route decisions. Routes are determined by the routing prefix within the datagrams. The routing process can therefore become complex. But at the speed of light (or nearly so) the routing intelligence determines the best route, and the datagram pieces and datagram all eventually arrive at their destination
IP Packets
IP packets or datagram has two parts. The first part is the header, which is like a label on an envelope. The second part is the payload, which is like the letter inside an envelope. The header contains the source and destination IP addresses, and some extra information. This information is called metadata, and is about the packet itself. Putting data in a packet with a header is encapsulation.
Routing
Every computer on a network does some kind of routing. Dedicated computers talk with each other to figure out where to send packets. These computers are called routers, and talk using routing protocols.
Along every hop in a packet's journey, a computer reads the header. The computer sees the destination IP address and figures out where to send the packet.
Reliability
ARPANET, the early ancestor of the internet, was designed to survive a nuclear war. If one computer was destroyed, communication between all the other computers would still work. Computer networks still follow this same design.
Computers talking to each other handle the "smart" functions to simplify computer networks. The end nodes will check for errors instead of a central authority. Keeping the "smart" things on the end computers or nodes follows the end-to-end principle.
The Internet Protocol sends packets out without ensuring they arrive safely. This is best-effort delivery, and is unreliable. Packets could get messed up, lost, duplicated, or received out of order. Higher level protocols like the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) ensure packets are delivered correctly. IP is also connectionless, so it does not keep track of communications.
Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) uses a checksum to check for errors in an IP header. Every checksum is unique to a source/destination combination. A routing node generates a new checksum when it gets a packet. If the new checksum is different from the old one, the routing node knows the packet is bad and throws it out. IPv6 assumes another protocol will check for errors and leaves out the checksum. This is to improve performance.
History
In 1974, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers published a paper called "A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication". The paper described a way for computers to talk to each other using Packet Switching. A big part of this idea was the "Transmission Control Program". The Transmission Control Program was too big, so it split into TCP and IP. This model is now called the DoD Internet Model and Internet Protocol Suite, or the TCP/IP Model.
Versions 0 to 3 of IP were experimental, and used between 1977 and 1979.
IPv4 addresses will run out, because the number of possible addresses is running out. To fix this, the IEEE made IPv6 which had even more addresses. While IPv4 has 4.3 Billion addresses, IPv6 has 340 undecillion of them. This means we will never run out of IPv6 addresses. IPv5 was reserved for the Internet Stream Protocol, which was only used experimentally.
References
Internet protocols |
Events
Production of steel revolutionised by invention of the Bessemer process
Benjamin Silliman fractionates petroleum by distillation for the first time
First transatlantic telegraph cable laid
First safety elevator installed by Elisha Otis
Charles Darwin publishes The Origin of Species, putting forward the theory of evolution by natural selection
Epidemiology begins when John Snow traces the source of an outbreak of cholera in London to a contaminated water pump.
Discovery of Neandertal fossils in Neanderthal, Germany
Solar flares discovered by Richard Christopher Carrington
Crimean War (1854–1856) fought between Imperial Russia and an alliance consisting of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the Second French Empire, the Kingdom of Sardinia and the Ottoman Empire. The majority of the conflict takes place around Crimea, on the northern coasts of the Black Sea.
The Indian Mutiny: revolt against the East India Company's British rule in India
Dissolution of the Mughal Empire by the British.
156 are killed in Paris in a failed assassination attempt on Napoleon III, Emperor of France
Moldavia and Wallachia are unified and form Romania.
Gideon T. Stewart attempts to create a Prohibition Party.
World leaders
Emperor Franz Josef (Austria-Hungary)
Emperor Napoleon III (Second French Empire)
King Frederick William IV (Germany)
Pope Pius IX
Queen Maria II (Portugal)
King Peter V (Portugal)
Emperor Nicholas I (Russia)
Emperor Alexander II (Russia)
Queen Isabella II (Spain)
Queen Victoria, (United Kingdom)
Prime Minister Lord John Russell (United Kingdom)
Prime Minister Lord Aberdeen (United Kingdom)
Prime Minister Lord Palmerston (United Kingdom)
President Millard Fillmore (United States)
President Franklin Pierce (United States)
President James Buchanan (United States)
Nasser-al-Din Shah of Qajar dynasty (Persia) |
Events
January 20 – Ferdinand II becomes king of Aragon and rules together with his wife Isabella, queen of Castile over most of the Iberian peninsula. Together they take over Granada in 1492, ending 800 years of Moorish rule.
January 25 – Treaty of Istanbul between Ottoman Empire and Republic of Venice, in which Venice agrees to give land to the Ottomans and pay them 10,000 ducats a year.
August 7 – Battle of Guinegate – A French army sent to invade the Netherlands is defeated by Maximilian of Austria.
September 4 – Treaty of Alcáçovas ends War of Castilian Succession.
October 13 – Battle of Kenyérmező – The Hungarian army led by Pál Kinizsi and István Báthori defeats the Ottoman Turk army in Transsylvania, Hungary.
Christopher Columbus, a sailor and trader in the Genoese community in Portugal, marries Felipa Perestrelo Moniz and receives as dowry her dead father's maps and papers charting the seas and winds around the Madeira Islands and other Portuguese island colonies. |
Events
March 5 – Papal dispensation issued for the marriage of Henry VIII of England and Catherine of Aragon
Portuguese under Dom Lourenço d'Almeida reach Colombo, Sri Lanka and send envoys to King of Kotte.
June 27 – Henry VIII of England repudiates his engagement to Catherine of Aragon, at his father's command
King Alexander of Poland signed "Nihil novi" act – Poland became Nobles' Democracy
Poland prohibits peasants from leaving their lands, establishing serfdom
Christ's College, Cambridge founded.
Vasili III succeeds Ivan III as Grand Prince of Muscovy.
Idiosa III of Chardonnay murdered.
Arabs reach Comoros.
Judah Abravanel becomes personal physician to the viceroy of Naples. |
(known simply as Akihito) is the former emperor of Japan from 1989 to 2019, He was the 125th emperor of his line according to Japan's traditional order of succession. He is head of the Imperial House of Japan.
Akihito became emperor after the death of his father in 1989, who was Emperor Shōwa. The current emperor's official reign name is Heisei (establishing peace).
The Japanese government announced in December 2017 that Akihito would abdicate on 30 April 2019. He then did so in a brief ceremony on that date.
What the emperor does
The emperor has many duties and responsibilities. For example, he regularly
takes part in affairs of according to the Constitution of Japan.
attends various events and ceremonies held at the Imperial Palace.
attends ceremonies in Tokyo.
makes appearances at a variety of ceremonies in various parts in Japan
visits welfare facilities.
visits regions where disasters hit
visits other countries
helps transmit the traditional culture of Japan
As a personal interest, Akihito studies fish.
Television broadcast
Akihito directly addressed his subjects in a television broadcast after the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami. This was the first time any emperor used television in this way.
Titles and styles
23 December 1933 – 10 November 1952: His Imperial Highness The Prince Tsugu
10 November 1952 – 7 January 1989: His Imperial Highness The Crown Prince of Japan
7 January 1989 – 30 April 2019: His Majesty The Emperor of Japan
1 May 2019 – present: His Majesty The Emperor Emeritus
Honors
Order of the Chrysanthemum, Japan
Order of the Rising Sun, Japan
Order of the Sacred Treasure, Japan
Order of Culture, Japan
Order of the Garter, UK
Related pages
Emperor of Japan
List of emperors of Japan
Japanese imperial family tree
Imperial Household Agency
References
Other websites
Imperial Household Agency (English); (Japanese)
"Do Not Lose Hope" Address to the Nation, 2011 transcript and audio mp3 and video
KidsWebJapan, "Emperor's Role"
天皇制を廃止すべき29の理由
コロナ禍機に君主制廃止検討を
1933 births
People from Tokyo
Living people
Emperors of Japan
Japanese imperial family
Crown Princes and Princesses of Japan
Recipients of the Decoration for Services to the Republic of Austria |
Events
Geoffrey of Monmouth produces the Historia Regum Britanniae.
Construction of the Durham Cathedral is completed in England.
Construction of Exeter Cathedral begins in England.
June 4 – Lothair III is crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Innocent II.
Births
March 5 – Henry II of England (d. 1189
Sources |
Births
Dante
Emperor Fushimi
Deaths
Hulagu Khan |
There is also the San Diego Aerospace Museum.
The Aero Space Museum is an airplane museum in Calgary in Canada. The museum, founded in 1975, is near the Calgary Airport.
Some things at the museum are war-time airplanes: a Sopwith Triplane from World War I and an Avro Lancaster from World War II.
There are also peace-time airplanes made by Cessna and de Havilland, and a helicopter made by Sikorsky. The museum also has a large library of flying information available for people to read and look at.
Other websites
Aero Space Museum website
Aircraft museums
Calgary
Museums in Canada
1975 establishments in North America
1970s establishments in Canada |
The Canadian Museum of Flight is an aircraft museum at the Langley Airport in Langley, British Columbia, Canada. The museum has about 20 peace-time and war-time motor airplanes, gliders, and helicopters to see, six of which can still fly.
Aircraft
List of aircraft displayed :
Avro Canada CF-100 Canuck Mk.3B
Beechcraft 3NMT Expeditor (C-45)
Bowlus Bumblebee BB1
Canadair (Lockheed) T-33AN Silver Star
Canadair CT-114 Tutor (used by the Snowbirds)
Canadian Quickie 1 (Homebuilt)
Conair Firecat
Douglas DC-3 "CF-PWH" "Spirit of the Skeena"
de Havilland DH100 Vampire Mk3
de Havilland DH82C Tiger Moth (Flying condition)
Fleet 16B Finch MkII (Flying condition)
Handley Page Hampden
Lockheed CF-104D Starfighter
North American Harvard Mk IIB (Flying condition)
Mignet "Pou du Ciel"
Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5a (7/8 Replica) (Flying condition)
Sikorsky S-55
Sopwith Camel (Duplicate)
Struchen Ultralight Helicopter
Waco AQC-6 (Flying condition)
Waco INF (Flying condition)
Westland Lysander Mk III
Other websites
Canadian Museum of Flight
Canadian Museum of Flight website
References
Aircraft museums
Museums in Canada
British Columbia |
The Olympic Flight Museum is an aircraft museum at the Olympia Airport in Olympia, Washington, USA. The museum has more than 20 airplanes and helicopters to see, most of which can still fly.
Other websites
Olympic Flight Museum website
Aircraft museums
Museums in Washington
Olympia, Washington |
San Diego Aerospace Museum is an aircraft and space exploration museum in San Diego, California, USA. It contains many original and copies of old aircraft and spacecraft, including:
A Lockheed A-12 Oxcart
A Ford Trimotor
A Supermarine Spitfire Mk.XVI
A North American P-51 Mustang
The Apollo 9 command module "Gumdrop"
A SPAD VII.c.1
A Nieuport 28
A Curtiss JN4 Jenny
A Curtiss P-40 Warhawk
A North American F-86 Sabre
A Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 Fagot
A Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-17 Fresco
A McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II
A Bell AH-1 Cobra
A PBY-5A Catalina
Other websites
San Diego Aerospace Museum website
Museums in California
Aircraft museums
Buildings and structures in San Diego, California |
The Pearson Air Museum is an airplane museum at Pearson Field Airport in Vancouver, Washington, USA. The museum and Pearson Field, and the Fort Vancouver National Historic Site, are all part of the Vancouver National Historic Reserve.
Planes shown
The Pearson Air Museum shows different kinds of unusual, special, and historic airplanes. For example, an experimental and one-of-a-kind aircraft known as the "flying pickle" originally based at Watts Airport (or Bernard's Airport), is shown at the Pearson. Alley reports on this special airplane based at Watts Airport in 1929, that was an experimental one-of-a-kind model. In this aircraft the pilot sits in an open air compartment, behind a roomy enclosed passenger cabin.
References
Other websites
Pearson Air Museum website
Aircraft museums
Museums in Washington |
Newfoundland and Labrador () is a province on the East Coast of Canada, and is the farthest east of all Canadian provinces and territories. The capital of Newfoundland and Labrador is St. John's. In 2016, 519,716 people lived in Newfoundland and Labrador.
Newfoundland is an island, while Labrador is within the mainland of Canada and on a border with Quebec.
History
The province of Newfoundland and Labrador was originally called Newfoundland and joined Canada in 1949, becoming the newest province of Canada, after being a colony of the United Kingdom. Until an agreement was reached in 1927, Quebec also claimed Labrador.
In 2001, the name of Newfoundland changed to its new official name, Newfoundland and Labrador, while the postal code abbreviation changed from NF to NL. The island of Newfoundland, and part of Labrador, are in a time zone that is a half hour off from any other part of North America.
References
1949 establishments in Canada
Provinces and territories of Canada |
The greenfinch (Chloris chloris), also known as the European greenfinch, is a small passerine bird in the finch family Fringillidae.
This bird is widespread throughout Europe, north Africa and southwest Asia. It is mainly resident, but some northernmost populations migrate further south. The Greenfinch has also been introduced into both Australia and New Zealand.
Woodland edges, farmland hedges and gardens with relatively thick vegetation are favoured for breeding. It nests in trees or bushes, laying 38 eggs. This species can form large flocks outside the breeding season, sometimes mixing with other finches and buntings. They feed largely on seeds, but also take berries.
Finches |
St. John's is the capital of the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador. It is also the largest city in the province, with 108,860 people living there and 205,955 people in the St. John's Metropolitan Area.
Memorial University of Newfoundland (MUN) has two campuses in St. John's and College of the North Atlantic (CNA) also has two (and a third in Seal Cove, within the St. John's Metropolitan Area). MUN and CNA are the only two public higher education institutions in Newfoundland. Given this, there are many students living in St. John's to pursue studies.
Close to St. John's is Cape Spear, the easternmost point in North America.
St. John's is home to the Newfoundland Growlers who play in the ECHL. St. John's is also home to the St. John's Edge who play in the NBL
Media
St. John's Stations
CBNT-DT CBC
CJON-DT NTV
References |
A nest is place animals build to hold their eggs or provide a place to raise their babies. They are most typical of birds, but many other vertebrates do make nests.
Nests may be composed of organic material such as twigs, grass, and leaves. They may be a simple depression in the ground, or a hole in a rock, tree, or building. Nests can be found in all types of habitat.
Other
Bird nest
Habitat
Animals |
An egg results from fertilization of an ovum. The egg is a container for the zygote. It protects the zygote, and feeds the embryo.
The animal embryo develops until it can survive on its own, at which point the egg hatches. Most fish, amphibians, reptiles, dinosaurs, birds, monotremes, arthropods and molluscs lay eggs outside the mother's body. They are always in some kind of container, a shell or covering.
Reptiles, birds and monotremes lay cleidoic eggs: bird eggs are an example. These are a special kind of egg with a good supply of food and water. They have an outside covering which lets through gases so that carbon dioxide can get out, and oxygen can get in it.
Fish, amphibia, insects and arachnids lay simpler eggs in greater numbers, but with much less protection and nourishment.
Live birth
Some animals, mostly mammals, keep the zygote inside their body where the embryo grows until it is ready to be born. These are also cleidoic eggs, but all the development is done inside the mother's body, as with humans.
Most mammals, and a number of marine reptiles, give live birth. Also, there are some invertebrates, such as scorpions, where the eggs develops inside the mother. They also give birth to live young.
Largest egg
The ostrich has the largest eggs of all living animals. Eggs, mostly bird eggs, are often eaten as food. The shell of an egg is a hard calcareous (CaCO3) material. The shell of an ostrich egg can support the weight of a fully grown human.
Related pages
Ovum
Cleidoic egg
Biological reproduction |
The Javan tiger (Panthera tigris sondaica) is 1 of 3 extinct types of tigers. It lived on the island of Java in Indonesia. It became extinct in the 1970s-1990s. The last known sighting of one was in 1972.
It was small when compared with the subspecies from the Asian mainland. However, it was larger than the Bali tiger and around the size of the Sumatran tiger. It had numerous long, thin stripes.
Related pages
Bali tiger
Caspian tiger
Tigers
Mammals of Asia |
Events
A plague of tropical fire ants devastates crops on Hispaniola. |
Events
June 19 – Battle of Landriano – A French army in Italy under Marshal St. Pol is decisively defeated.
November 6 – Shipwrecked Spanish conquistador Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca becomes the first known European to set foot on Texas.
Andrea Doria revolts against the French and establishes the independence of Genoa.
Montenegro gains autonomy under Turk power.
Maya people drive Spanish Conquistadors out of Yucatán.
Spain takes direct control of Acapulco.
Bubonic plague breaks out in England.
Fourth major outbreak of the sweating sickness in England. This time the disease also spreads to northern Europe
St George's Chapel in Windsor Castle completed.
Chateau Fontainebleau in France begun.
Cardinal Wolsey founds a college at Ipswich.
Michelangelo (Michelangelo Buonarroti) begins work on fortifications of Florence.
Baldassare Castiglione publishes The Book of the Courtier. |
Events
April 22 – Treaty of Saragossa divides the eastern hemisphere between Spain and Portugal, stipulating that the dividing line should lie 297.5 leagues or 17° east of the Moluccas.
March 7 or 9 – At the Battle of Shimbra Kure, Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi, with 200 men armed with matchlocks, defeats the army of Lebna Dengel, Emperor of Ethiopia.
May 10 – The Turkish army under Suleiman I leaves Constantinople to once again invade Hungary.
August 5 – Francis I of France and Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor sign the Treaty of Cambrai
September 8 – Recapture of Buda by the invading Turkish forces.
September 8 – The city of Maracaibo in Venezuela is founded by Ambrosius Ehinger.
September 23 – Vienna is besieged by Turkish forces.
October 15 – With the season growing late, Suleiman abandons the siege.
Emperor Charles V and Francis I of France sign the Treaty of Cambrai, or the "Ladies' Peace". Francis abandons his claims in Italy, but is allowed to retain Burgundy.
Thomas Wolsey, Archbishop of York, fails to bring about the divorce and annulment Henry VIII had sought and is forced to resign.
Aylesbury is granted the county town of Buckinghamshire in England by King Henry VIII.
Stephen Báthory becomes governor of Transylvania.
Boromrajathira IV succeeds Rama Thibodi II as king of Ayutthaya.
Fluorine is first described by Georg Agricola.
Giorgio Vasari visits Rome.
Pietro Bembo becomes historiographer of Venice.
Heinrich Bullinger becomes pastor of Bremgarten.
Diet of Speyer takes place. |
An abacus is an old tool used for arithmetic. It is still used in some parts of the world, and it is well suited for use in shops and street markets. Sometimes blind people use an abacus, because they can feel the numbers easily. The most common abacuses work by moving beads on rods.
Abacuses can do addition, subtraction, multiplication, division. They can be used to find the square root of whole numbers. Expert abacus users can sometimes do math faster than basic calculators.
There is a common Chinese abacus. This abacus is split into two kinds of basic rows, the top is for the "5"s, and the bottom is for the "ones". There are one or two beads in the top rows, and four or five beads in the bottom ones. For example, 8 is one bead on top and 3 below, because 5 + 3 = 8. Every column represents a different digit.
Etymology
The use of the word abacus dates from before 1387 AD, when the word was got from Latin to describe a sandboard abacus. The Latin word came from ancient Greek (abax) which means something without base, or (improperly) any piece of rectangular board or plank.
Both abacuses' and abaci are used as plurals. The user of an abacus is called an abacist (soft or hard 'c').
Japan
There is a Japanese version of the abacus called the 'soroban'. It works in essentially the same way.
Other websites
General and historical articles
Abacus Photos and Images
Abacus
Roman abacus
Tutorials
Manual de uso del Abaco Japonés Soroban
Min Multimedia
Suan Pan
Abacus: Mystery of the Bead - an Abacus Manual
Abacus curiosities
Abacus in various number systems
Java applet of Chinese, Japanese and Russian abaci
An atomic-scale abacus
References
Arithmetics
Mathematical tools |
Events
Births
January 10 – Simon Marius, German astronomer (died 1624)
April 17 – Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria (died 1651)
April 26 – Marie de' Medici, queen of Henry IV of France (d. 1642)
July 15 – Inigo Jones, English architect (died 1652)
July 25 – Christoph Scheiner, German astronomer and Jesuit (died 1650)
September 28 – Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, Italian artist (died 1610)
October 6 – Henry Wriothesley, 3rd Earl of Southampton, English patron of the theater (died 1624)
October 7 – William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury (died 1645)
Ambrosius Bosschaert, Dutch painter (died 1621)
Pietro Carrera, Sicilian chess player, priest and painter (died 1647)
Robert Catesby, English leader of the Gunpowder Plot (died 1605)
Odoardo Farnese, Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church in Italy (died 1626)
Ukita Hideie, Japanese daimyo (died 1655)
Richard Johnson, English romance writer (died 1659)
Johannes Junius, Burgomeister of Bamberg (died 1628)
John Kendrick, English merchant (died 1624)
Oeyo, wife of Tokugawa Hidetada
Juan Pujol, Catalan composer and organist (died 1626)
Charles de Valois, Duke of Angoulême, natural son of Charles IX of France (died 1650)
Deaths |
Births
February 12 – John Winthrop, the Younger, Governor of Connecticut (died 1676)
March 3 – Edmund Waller, English poet (died 1687)
May 23 – Juan Caramuel y Lobkowitz, Spanish writer (d. 1682)
May 25 – Saint Charles Garnier, Jesuit missionary (died 1649)
June 6 – Pierre Corneille, French writer (died 1684)
June 16 – Arthur Chichester, 1st Earl of Donegall, Irish soldier (died 1675)
June 19 – James Hamilton, 1st Duke of Hamilton, Scottish statesman (died 1649)
July 15 – Rembrandt, Dutch painter (died 1669)
September 22 – Li Zicheng, Chinese rebel (died 1645)
November 12 – Jeanne Mance, French settler in Montreal (died 1673)
Richard Busby, English clergyman (died 1695)
Leonard Calvert, governor of Baltimore (died 1647)
Edmund Castell, English orientalist (died 1685)
William Davenant, English poet and playwright (died 1668)
Henry Pierrepont, 1st Marquess of Dorchester (died 1680)
Giovanni Francesco Grimaldi, Italian architect and painter (died 1680)
Thomas Harrison, English puritan soldier and Fifth Monarchist (died 1660)
Thomas Herbert, English traveller and historian (died 1682)
John Robartes, 1st Earl of Radnor (died 1685)
Pierre du Ryer, French dramatist (died 1658)
Joachim von Sandrart, German art-historian and painter (died 1688)
Tokugawa Tadanaga, Japanese nobleman (died 1633)
Thomas Washbourne, English clergyman and poet (died 1687) |
1547 was a common year starting on a Saturday in the Julian calendar. It was the 547th year of the 2nd millennium, the 47th year of the 16th century and the 8th year of the 1540s decade.
Summary
1547 was a year that marked the deaths of two powerful European Kings - Henry VIII of England and Francis I of France. In England, Henry's nine-year-old son took over as Edward VI of England, while in France, Henry II became the next King. Also, during this year, Ivan IV of Russia was crowned Tsar. He later became better known as Ivan the Terrible.
Events
January 2 - Giovanni Luigi Fieschi leads a failed revolt in Genoa against Andrea Doria.
January 16 – Grand Duke Ivan IV of Muscovy becomes the first Tsar of Russia.
January 28 – Edward VI succeeds his father Henry VIII as King of England. Henry VIII had been King since 1509.
February 20 – Edward VI of England is crowned at Westminster Abbey
March 31 – Henry II succeeds his father Francis I as King of France.
April 4 - Catherine Parr, widow of Henry VIII of England, secretly marries Thomas Seymour, 1st Baron Seymour of Sudeley.
April 24 – Battle of Mühlberg – Emperor Charles V defeats the forces of the Schmalkaldic League under the Elector John Frederick of Saxony.
September 10 – Battle of Pinkie. An English army under the Duke of Somerset, Protector of England, defeats a Scottish army under James Hamilton, 2nd Earl of Arran, the Regent. The English seize Edinburgh.
Unknown dates
First printed book in the Lithuanian language. writer – Martynas Mazvydas.
Increased immigration of Huguenots to Kent, especially Canterbury
Chambre Ardente established in Paris
John Dee visits the Low Countries to study navigation with Gemma Frisius.
Births
January 24 - Joanna of Austria, Grand Duchess of Tuscany (d. 1578)
February 24 - Don John of Austria, military leader (d. 1578)
March 1 - Rudolph Goclenius, German philosopher (d. 1628)
June 28 - Cristofano Malvezzi, Italian organist and composer (d. 1599)
September 10 - George I, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt (d. 1596)
September 14 - Johan van Oldenbarnevelt, Dutch statesman (d. 1619)
September 22 - Philipp Nikodemus Frischlin, German philologist and poet (d. 1590)
September 29 - Miguel de Cervantes, Spanish writer (d. 1616)
October 18 - Justus Lipsius, Flemish humanist (d. 1606)
November 12 - Claude of Valois, daughter of Henry II of France (d. 1575)
November 26 - Nicolaus Taurellus, German philosopher and theologian (d. 1606)
December 5 - Ubbo Emmius, Dutch historian and geographer (d. 1625)
Date unknown
Matteo Perez d'Aleccio, Italian painter (d. 1616)
Mateo Alemán, Spanish novelist (d. 1609)
Peter Bales, English calligrapher (d. 1610)
Oichi, Japanese noblewoman (d. 1583)
Krzysztof Mikolaj "the Lightning" Radziwill, Polish nobleman (d. 1603)
Richard Stanyhurst, English translator (d. 1618)
Roemer Visscher, Dutch writer (d. 1620)
Stanislaw Zolkiewski, Polish nobleman (d. 1620)
Deaths
January 2 - Giovanni Luigi Fieschi, Genoese politician (b. 1524)
January 16 - Johannes Schoener, German astronomer and cartographer (b. 1477)
January 18 - Pietro Bembo, Italian cardinal and scholar (b. 1470)
January 19 - Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, English poet (b. 1517)
January 28 - King Henry VIII of England (b. 1491)
February 25 - Vittoria Colonna, marchioness of Pescara (b. 1490)
February 28 - Philippa of Guelders, Duchess of Lorraine (b. 1467)
March 31 - King Francis I of France (b. 1494)
May 22 - Daniel, Metropolitan of Moscow (b. 1492)
June 21 - Sebastiano del Piombo, Italian painter (b. 1485)
August 7 - Saint Cajetan (b. 1480)
December 2 - Hernan Cortes, Spanish conquistador (b. 1485)
December 28 - Konrad Peutinger, German humanist and antiquarian (b. 1465)
Unknown dates
Edward Hall, English chronicler and lawyer (b. 1498)
Photisarath, King of Laos (b. 1501) |
An accordion is a musical instrument that has keys similar to a piano, but is small enough for a person to hold. It makes sounds using air pushed and pulled through reeds using a bellows. The accordion can also have buttons instead of keys. The 6-plus-6-system with three rows has the same fingering in all twelve scales.
The accordion was first patented in 1829 in Austria by Cyrill Demain.
Related pages
Bandoneon
References
Keyboard instruments |
Events
Aristagoras, acting on behalf of the Persian Empire, leads a failed attack on the rebellious island of Naxos.
Aristagoras instigates the Ionic Revolt, beginning the Persian Wars between Greece and Persia.
Sardis destroyed by Athenian and Ionian troops.
499 BC |
The year 1781 is .
Events
March 13 – Uranus.
End of the American Revolutionary War
Births
January 26 – Achim von Arnim, German writer (d. 1831)
January 30 – Adelbert von Chamisso, German writer (d. 1838)
February 17 – Rene Theophile Hyacinthe Laennec, French physician and inventor (d. 1826)
March 4 – Rebecca Gratz, American educator and philanthropist (d. 1869)
March 13 – Karl Friedrich Schinkel, German architect and painter (d. 1841)
June 9– George Stephenson, English engineer (d. 1848)
June 21 – Siméon-Denis Poisson, French mathematician and physicist (d. 1840)
July 6 – Thomas Stamford Raffles, English founder of Singapore (d. 1826)
July 6 – John D. Sloat, American naval officer (d. 1867)
July 27 – Mauro Giuliani, Italian composer (d. 1828)
September 3 – Eugène de Beauharnais, French nobleman, son of Napoleon's wife Josephine (d. 1824)
September 6 – Anton Diabelli, Austrian music publisher, editor, and composer (d. 1858)
October 1 – James Lawrence, U.S. Navy officer (d. 1813)
November 6 – Lucy Aikin, English writer (d. 1864)
November 20 – Karl Friedrich Eichhorn, German jurist (d. 1854)
November 29 – Andrés Bello, Venezuelan poet, lawmaked, teacher, philosopher and sociologist (d. 1865)
November 30 – Alexander Berry, Scottish adventurer and Australian pioneer (d. 1873)
December 11 – Sir David Brewster, Scottish physicist (d. 1868)
William Williams of Wern, minister (d. 1840) |
Events
Births
March 8 – Carlo Gesualdo, Italian composer and murderer (died 1613)
May 26 – Mehmed III, Ottoman Emperor (died 1603)
June 19 – King James VI of Scotland/James I of England and Ireland (died 1625)
June 20 (O.S.) – King Sigismund III of Poland (d. 1632)
August 12 – Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia of Spain (d. 1633)
September 1 – Edward Alleyn, English actor (died 1626)
September 18 – King Sigismund III of Poland/Sigismund I of Sweden (died 1632)
October 13 – Richard Boyle, 1st Earl of Cork, Irish politician (died 1643)
November 10 – Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, English politician (died 1601)
December 11 – (baptised) – Manuel Cardoso, Portuguese composer (died 1650)
December 20 – Edward Wightman, English Baptist martyr (died 1612)
Pietro Cerone, Italian music theorist (died 1625)
Giovanni Baglione, Italian painter and historian of art (died 1643)
Jan Jesenius, Slovak physician (died 1621)
Michal Sedziwój, Polish alchemist (died 1636)
James Sempill, Scottish theologian (died 1626)
Deaths |
Events
George I becomes king of Great Britain
Births
January 1 – Kristijonas Donelaitis, Lithuanian poet (d. 1780)
January 6 – Percivall Pott, English surgeon (d. 1788)
January 26 – Jean-Baptiste Pigalle, French sculptor (d. 1785)
February 2 – Gottfried August Homilius, German composer (d. 1785)
February 22 – Louis-Georges de Bréquigny, French historian (d. 1795)
February 25 – René Nicolas Charles Augustin de Maupeou, Chancellor of France (d. 1792)
February 25 – Hyde Parker, British admiral (d. 1782)
February 26 – James Hervey, English clergyman and writer (d. 1758)
March 8 – Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, German composer (d. 1788)
March 27 – Francesco Antonio Zaccaria, Italian theologian and historian (d. 1795)
April 14 – Adam Gib, Scottish religious leader (d. 1788)
June 6 – King Joseph I of Portugal (d. 1777)
June 17 – Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten, German philosopher (d. 1762)
June 17 – César-François Cassini de Thury, French astronomer (d. 1784)
July 2 – Christoph Willibald Gluck, German composer (d. 1787)
July 16 – Marc René, marquis de Montalembert, French military engineer and writer (d. 1800)
August 1 – Richard Wilson, Welsh painter (d. 1782)
August 14 – Claude Joseph Vernet, French painter (d. 1789)
August 28 – Anthony Ulrich II, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg (d. 1774)
September 10 – Niccolò Jommelli, Italian composer (d. 1774)
September 19 – Charles Humphreys, American delegate to the Continental Congress (d. 1786)
October 13 – Pieter Burmann the Younger, Dutch philologist (d. 1778)
October 16 – Giovanni Arduino, Italian geologist (d. 1795)
November 13 – William Shenstone, English poet (d. 1763)
November 25 – Yoriyuki Arima, Japanese mathematician (d. 1783)
December 16 – George Whitefield, English-born Methodist leader (d. 1770)
December 19 – John Winthrop, American astronomer (d. 1779)
December 21 – John Bradstreet, Canadian-born soldier (d. 1774)
Deaths |
Events
January 26 – The United Kingdom occupies Hong Kong. Later during the year, the first census of the island recorded a population of about 7,500.
February 18 – The first ongoing filibuster in the United States Senate begins and lasts until March 11.
March 4 – Martin Van Buren, President of the United States is succeeded by William Henry Harrison.
March 9 – The Supreme Court of the United States rules in the Amistad case that the Africans who seized control of the ship had been taken into slavery illegally.
April 4 – US President William Henry Harrison dies of pneumonia becoming the first President of the United States to die in office and at one month, the elected president with the shortest term served. He is succeeded by Vice President John Tyler.
August 16 – U.S. President John Tyler vetoes a bill which called for the re-establishment of the Second Bank of the United States. Enraged Whig Party members riot outside the White House in the most violent demonstration on White House grounds in U.S. history.
September 24 – United Kingdom annexes Sarawak from Brunei; James Brooke is appointed rajah
November 13 – James Braid first sees a demonstration of animal magnetism, which leads to his study of the subject he eventually calls hypnosis.
The two colonies of the Canadas are merged into the Province of Canada.
Queen's University is founded in Kingston, Canada, by Rev. Thomas Liddell, who carried a Royal Charter from Queen Victoria and became the school's first Principal.
Fordham University is founded in The Bronx by the Society of Jesus. Its name at founding is St. John's College.
With the help of industrial espionage, August Borsig builds the first German locomotives.
Births
January 7 – Bernadette Soubirous, a visionary from Lourdes. (died 1879)
January 14 – Berthe Morisot, French painter (died 1895)
January 25 – Jackie Fisher, British admiral (died 1920)
January 28 – Henry Morton Stanley, Welsh explorer and journalist (died 1904)
February 2 – François-Alphonse Forel, Swiss hydrologist (died 1912)
February 4 – Clément Ader, French engineer, inventor, and airplane pioneer (died 1926)
February 25 – Pierre-Auguste Renoir, French painter (died 1919)
March 8 – Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., U.S. Supreme Court Justice (died 1935)
April 13 – Louis-Ernest Barrias, French sculptor (died 1905)
May 10 – James Gordon Bennett, Jr., American newspaper publisher (died 1918)
July 29 – Gerhard Armauer Hansen, Norwegian doctor and scientist (d. 1912)
August 25 – Emil Kocher, Swiss medical researcher, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (died 1917)
September 8 – Antonín Dvořák, Czech composer (died 1904)
September 28 – Georges Clemenceau, French statesman (died 1929)
October 7 – King Nicholas I of Montenegro (died 1921)
October 16 – Prince Hirobumi Ito, Japanese governor of Korea (died 1909)
November 6 – Nelson W. Aldrich, Senator from Rhode Island (died 1915)
November 9 – King Edward VII of the United Kingdom (died 1910)
November 20 – Wilfrid Laurier, seventh Prime Minister of Canada (died 1919)
December 6 – Frédéric Bazille, French painter (died 1870)
December 20 – Ferdinand Buisson, French pacifist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (died 1932)
Deaths
February 17 – Ferdinando Carulli, Italian guitarist
March 1 – Claude Victor-Perrin, duc de Belluno, French marshal (born 1764)
April 4 – William Henry Harrison, 9th President of the United States (born 1773)
April 28 – Peter Chanel, French Roman Catholic missionary (martyred) (born 1803)
May 20 – Joseph Blanco White, British theologian (born 1775)
May 23 – Franz Xaver von Baader, German philosopher and theologian (born 1765)
June 1 – David Wilkie, Scottish artist (born 1785)
June 1 – Nicolas Appert, French inventor (born 1749).
August 24 – Theodore Edward Hook, English writer (born 1788)
Art, music, theatre, and literature
June 28 – Giselle premieres in Paris |
Georg or Georgius Agricola (1494-1555) was a German scholar and scientist. He was one of the first people to study mining and minerals (stones and gems), that is the father of mineralogy.
German scientists
1494 births
1555 deaths |
Year 1440 (MCDXL) was a leap year which started on a Sunday in the Julian calendar. It was the first year of the 1440s decade.
Events
February 21 – The Prussian Confederation is formed.
September – Gilles de Rais, an early known serial killer, is arrested and taking into custody on orders from the Bishop of Nantes.
Births
January 22 – Ivan III of Russia (d. 1505)
February 10 – Henry of York, elder brother of Edward IV of England and Richard III of England (died 1441)
February 22 – King Ladislaus Posthumus of Bohemia and Hungary (died 1457)
Pedrarias Dávila, Spanish colonial administrator (died 1531)
Kabir, Indian mystic (died 1518)
Jorge Manrique, Spanish poet (died 1479)
Deaths
September 30 – Reginald Grey, 3rd Baron Grey de Ruthyn (born c.1362)
October 26 – Gilles de Rais, Marshal of France (born 1405) |
Events
Births
January 28 – Henry VII of England
February 2 – Peter Martyr d'Anghiera
Deaths
March 14 – Jingtai Emperor of China (born 1428)
May 22 – Saint Rita of Cascia, Italian saint (born 1381)
August 1 – Lorenzo Valla, Italian humanist
November 23 – King Ladislaus Posthumus of Bohemia and Hungary (born 1440)
Andrea del Castagno, Italian painter
Peter II, Duke of Brittany (born 1418)
László Hunyadi, Hungarian statesman and warrior (born 1433)
Babur Ibn-Baysunkur, ruler of Khurasan (born 1422) |
Births
May 3 – Pedro González de Mendoza, Spanish cardinal and statesman (died 1495)
September 21 – Jingtai Emperor of China (died 1457)
Donato Acciaiuoli, Italian scholar (died 1478)
Abulkhair Khan, Uzbek leader (died 1468)
Didrik Pining, German explorer (approximate date)
Leonor of Viseu, Princess and later Queen of Portugal (died 1525)
Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, English kingmaker (died 1471) |
Events
Births
Deaths
February 24 – Guillaume Gouffier, seigneur de Bonnivet, French soldier
February 26 – Cuauhtémoc, last Aztec ruler (tortured to death)
May 5 – Frederick III, Elector of Saxony (born 1463)
May 27 – Thomas Muentzer, German pastor and rebel leader (born 1489)
July 22 – Richard Wingfield, English diplomat
December 30 – Jakob Fugger, German banker (born 1459)
Jean Lemaire de Belges, Walloon poet and historian (born 1473)
Huayna Capac, emperor of the Inca (born 1493)
Franciabigio, Florentine painter (born 1482)
Jacques de la Palice, French nobleman and military officer
Richard de la Pole, last Yorkist claimant to the English throne (killed in battle)
Nicholas Storch, weaver and reformer
Leonor of Viseu, queen of João II of Portugal |
Births
April 15 – Sinan, Turkish architect (died 1588)
June 4 – Antoine, Duke of Lorraine (d. 1544)
July 2 – Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury (died 1556)
August 10 – Jacob Sturm von Sturmeck, German statesman and reformer (died 1553)
November 28 – Margaret Tudor, queen of James IV of Scotland) (died 1541)
August – Antonio da Correggio, Italian painter (died 1534)
William Farel, French evangelist (died 1565)
Francesco Ferruccio, Florentine captain (died 1530)
Juan de Grijalva, Spanish conquistador (died 1527)
Thomas Muentzer, German pastor and rebel leader (died 1525)
Hosokawa Sumimoto, Japanese warlord (died 1520)
Tsukahara Bokuden, Japanese swordsman (died 1571) |
Events
Births
February 2 – Bona Sforza, queen of Sigismund I of Poland (died 1557)
April 20 – Johannes Agricola, German Protestant reformer (died 1566)
May 24 – Pontormo, Italian painter (d. 1557)
September 5 – Hans Sachs, German Meistersinger (died 1576)
September 12 – King Francis I of France (died 1547)
November 6 – Suleiman the Magnificent, Ottoman Sultan (died 1566)
Purandara Dasa, Indian poet and composer (died 1564)
Saito Dosan, Japanese warlord (died 1556)
John Sutton, 3rd Baron Dudley (died 1554)
Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda, Spanish philosopher and theologian (died 1573)
Ambrosius Holbein, German painter (died 1519)
Lucas van Leyden, Dutch engraver and painter (died 1533)
Alonso Alvarez de Pineda, Spanish explorer and cartographer (died 1519)
Hans Tausen, Danish religious reformer (died 1561)
Qiu Ying, Chinese painter (died 1552)
Deaths |
The Amiga CD32 was a game console made by Commodore International release in 1993. It was based around the Amiga A1200 Computer.
Using third party devices, it is possible to upgrade the CD32 with keyboard, floppy drive, hard drive, RAM and mouse, turning it into the equivalent of an Amiga 1200 personal computer.
In the Christmas period of 1993, the CD32 accounted for 38% of all CD-ROM drive sales in the UK, exceeding sales of the Mega-CD; however, it was soon overshadowed by CD-ROM based games consoles from other companies, and was discontinued as Commodore went into bankruptcy in 1994.
175 known game discs were released for the Amiga CD32
Commodore video game consoles |
The GX4000 was a console made by Amstrad in 1990. At first, it was successful. But it did not continue its early success. The GX4000 games could be used with other Amstrad computers. Only 40 games were made for it. Soon it disappeared into the mist of history. These days it is very rare to see one that is still in working condition.
Video game consoles
de:Amstrad GX4000 |
ApeXtreme is a console created by Apex Digital Inc. It was released January 9, 2004.
It can do many things, like play computer games, DVDs, CDs, VCDs and use the Internet.
What it can do:
games
videos
pictures
slide shows
music
DVD
VCD
CD
MP3
Internet radio
Video game consoles |
Year 1617 (MDCXVII) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Wednesday of the 10-day slower Julian calendar.
Events
January–June
February 27 – The Treaty of Stolbovo ends the Ingrian War between Sweden and Russia. Sweden gains Ingria and Kexholm.
July–December
November 17 – A naval battle between the Sicilians and Venetians ends inconclusively.
November 22 – Mustafa I succeeds Ahmed I as Sultan of the Ottoman Empire.
Date unknown
At least seven women are sentenced to death by burning for witchcraft at the Finspång witch trial in Sweden.
Giambattista Andreini's play The Penitent Magdalene is published in Mantua. |
Deaths
February 8 – Thomas Cecil, 1st Earl of Exeter, English politician (b. 1546)
March 19 – Uesugi Kagekatsu, Japanese samurai and warlord (b. 1556)
June 16 – Christian, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg-Wolfenbüttel, German Protestant military leader (b. 1599)
July 4 – William Byrd, English composer
July 8 – Pope Gregory XV (b. 1554)
October 21 – William Waad, English statesman and diplomat (b. 1546)
November 9 – William Camden, English historian (b. 1551)
November 11 – Philippe de Mornay, French writer (b. 1549)
November 12 – Josaphat Kuncevyc, Lithuanian archbishop
Andrea Andreani, Italian engraver (b. 1540) |
Events
January 23 – Most devastating recorded earthquake in Shaanxi, China. Over 850,000 deaths.
Births
January 8 – Uesugi Kagekatsu, Japanese samurai and warlord (died 1623)
February 21 – Sethus Calvisius, German calendar reformer (d. 1615)
March 7 – Guillaume du Vair, French statesman and philosopher (died 1621)
June 6 – Edward la Zouche, 11th Baron Zouche (died 1625)
November 15 – Jacques-Davy Duperron, French cardinal (died 1618)
Henry Briggs, English mathematician (died 1630)
Margaret Clitherow, English Catholic martyr (died 1586)
Shibata Katsutoyo, Japanese military commander (died 1583)
Nakagawa Kiyohide, Japanese military commander (died 1583)
Ahmad Baba al Massufi, Sudanese writer and political leader
James Melville, Scottish divine and reformer (died 1614)
Maria of Nassau, second daughter of William the Silent (died 1616)
Deaths |
Events
Births
Deaths
January 7 – Ruggiero Giovannelli, Italian composer
March 7 – Johann Bayer, German astronomer (b. 1572)
March 25 – Giambattista Marini, Italian poet (b. 1569)
March 27 – King James I of England and Ireland/James VI of Scotland (b. 1566)
March 29 – Antonio de Herrera y Tordesillas, Spanish historian (b. 1549)
April 23 – Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange (b. 1567)
April 27 – Mori Terumoto, Japanese warrior (b. 1553)
June 1 – Honoré d'Urfé, French writer (b. 1568)
June 5 – Orlando Gibbons, English composer and organist (b. 1583)
August – John Fletcher, English writer (b. 1579)
September 20 – Heinrich Meibom, German historian and poet (b. 1555)
September 26 – Thomas Dempster, Scottish historian (d. 1579)
October 22 – Kikkawa Hiroie, Japanese politician (b. 1561)
December 9 – Ubbo Emmius, Dutch historian and geographer (b. 1547)
Robert Cushman, Plymouth Colony settler |
Births
January 6 – Thomas Fincke, Danish mathematician and physicist (died 1656)
January 22 – Sir Francis Bacon, English philosopher, scientist, and statesman (died 1626)
July 11 – Luís de Góngora y Argote, Spanish poet (died 1627)
August 20 – Jacopo Peri, Italian composer (died 1633)
August 24 – Thomas Howard, 1st Earl of Suffolk (died 1626)
August 25 – Philippe van Lansberge, Dutch astronomer (died 1632)
September 29 – Adriaan van Roomen, Belgian mathematician (died 1615)
December 7 – Kikkawa Hiroie, Japanese politician (d. 1625)
December 9 – Edwin Sandys, English founder of the colony of Virginia (died 1629)
Jacopo Corsi, Italian composer (died 1602)
John Harington, English writer (died 1612)
Samuel Harsnett, Archbishop of York (died 1631) |
New Year's Day is a holiday in many countries. It was created to welcome the new year. In most countries, New Year Day is celebrated on 1 January. This holiday has been the most celebration with over 200 countries and territories in the world.
The new year is an event that happens when a culture celebrates the end of one year and the beginning of the next. Cultures that measure yearly calendars all have new year celebrations.
Modern new year celebrations
Historical dates for the new year
Early Christmas
In Christmas Style dating, the new year started on 25 December. This was used in Germany and England until the thirteenth century, and in Spain from the fourteenth to the sixteenth century.
In Annunciation Style dating the new year started on 25 March, the feast of the Annunciation. This was used in many parts of Europe in the Middle Ages. The style was started by Dionysius Exiguus in AD 525. Annunciation Style was used in England until 1 January 1752, and in Scotland until 1 January 1600, when the kingdom of Scotland changed to Circumcision Style. England, the kingdom of Ireland, and the Thirteen Colonies changed to Circumcision Style on 1 January, after the United Kingdom of Great Britain changed from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian calendar on 3/14 September 1752. This happened because the Parliament of Great Britain made an act of parliament, the Calendar (New Style) Act 1750.
References
Other websites
New Year's Around the World – slideshow by Life magazine
January events |
A coagulation, also known as clot is a semi-solid substance that blood forms, especially when it is in air. When a person bleeds, the blood turns into a clot at the injury.
A blood clot is also called a thrombus. The process is called coagulation.
If a person gets a cut on their body, that person may bleed. To stop the bleeding, the human body does several things. First, the brain orders the liver to produce chemicals that will help the clot to form. When the chemicals released by the liver arrive at the injury, the coagulation begins. In the mean time, the brain also lessens the blood flow near the injury (by tightening the veins and arteries in that area), so that not as much blood is lost.
There is a limit to how quickly a clot can form. If the cut is very deep and the person bleeds too much, a clot may not be able to form and a lot of blood may be lost.
The details
Coagulation begins almost instantly after an injury to the blood vessel has damaged the endothelium lining the vessel. When blood is exposed to proteins such as tissue factor it starts changes to blood platelets and the plasma protein fibrinogen, which is a clotting factor. Platelets immediately form a plug at the site of injury. Proteins in the blood plasma, called coagulation factors or clotting factors, respond in a complex cascade to form fibrin strands. These strengthen the platelet plug.
Coagulation is highly conserved throughout biology; that means its genetics is almost the same in all mammal species. In all mammals, coagulation involves both a cellular (platelet) and a protein (coagulation factor) component. The system in humans has been the most extensively researched and is the best understood.
Fibrin
Fibrin is a white insoluble fibrous protein formed by the action of thrombin on fibrinogen when blood clots. it forms a network that traps red cells and platelets.
Vitamin K
Vitamin K is an essential factor in blood clotting. Then, vitamin K is oxidized. Another enzyme, Vitamin K epoxide reductase, (VKORC) reduces vitamin K back to its active form. This reactivation is important as a target of anticoagulant drug warfarin. Vitamin K can be found in green vegetables, such as spinach, lettuce, broccoli or cabbage.
References
Blood |
Asthma (or Asthma bronchiale) is a disease that hurts the airways inside the lungs. It causes the tissue inside the airways to swell. Asthma also causes the bands of muscle around the airways to become narrow. This makes it hard for enough air to pass through and for the person to breathe normally. Asthma also causes mucus-making cells inside the airways to make more mucus than normal. This blocks the airways, which are already very narrow during an asthma attack, and makes it even more difficult to breathe.
A person having an asthma attack often makes wheezing sounds when trying to breathe. This is the sound of air trying to pass through the very narrow airway. They also have shortness of breath, which means they cannot take a full deep breath. Chest tightness may happen which feels like their chest is being squeezed. They may also cough a lot.
Asthma attacks can be a medical emergency because they can be fatal (cause a person to die). There is no cure for asthma. There are treatments such as different kinds of medicines to help people with asthma. There are also things that people with asthma can do to help themselves to keep their asthma from getting worse.
There are a lot of risk factors for getting asthma. The exact reasons for each is not yet clearly understood. Some of the factors are believed to come from genetics. A person inherits genetic mutations from one or both of their parents that may increase the chances of developing asthma. Epigenetics, which are changes in the way a gene acts, may also increase their chances of getting asthma. These epigenetic changes may also be inherited. They may happen when a baby is still growing inside its mother, or during childhood.
Socioeconomic status (SES) is also believed to play a part in developing asthma. A person's socioeconomic status is based on such things as how much money their family makes, where they live, and their education level. Race and ethnicity also may play a part. It also is related to access to medical care, personal beliefs, and dietary habits. People of lower socioeconomic status suffer higher rates of asthma, have worse outcomes, and also have higher asthma-related death rates than people of higher economic status.
Causes
The exact cause of asthma is not yet known. It is believed that it may be because of a of many different reasons:
Genetics: When changes happen in a person's genes (called mutations) these changes are passed on to their children. One or both parents may have these changes or mutations in their genes, and some or all of their children may be born with them, which means they inherited them. These mutations, once they happen, run in families from one generation to the next and are permanent mutations, they change the gene in the DNA. These changes can make a person more likely to get certain diseases like asthma. In some diseases it may be only one change in one gene that may make a person get that disease, in asthma it may be changes in many different genes that may make a person more likely to get asthma.
Epigenetics changes or modifications cause different kind of changes that affect how a person's genes work or 'express themselves' in three different ways (called epigenetic mechanisms), but do not change the gene in the DNA. These epigenetic changes may be inherited, or they may happen in utero which is when a baby is still inside its mother. They may also happen in childhood, because of different reasons, like a respiratory infection, being exposed to chemicals or drugs, diet etc. These changes can be passed from one generation to the next but are not permanent and might only be passed down one or two generations. Even though epigenetic changes affect how a person's genes work they do not permanently change a person's genes. It is believed epigenetic changes may also make a person more likely to get certain diseases like asthma.
Environmental factors are things that affect a person; which can be either healthy or unhealthy. Unhealthy environmental factors are things like living in an area where there is a lot of air pollution, or living somewhere where there are lots of bugs in the house, or being around cigarette smoke.
If a person who has genetic or epigentic changes in their genes that makes them have a bigger chance of getting asthma (genetic predisposition), also has unhealthy environmental factors in their life, like living in a home that has a lot of dust mites, then it is more likely that they will get asthma.
Atopy
Atopy is when there are changes in some of the genes a person is born with (genetic inheritance). These genetic changes make their body produce more Immunoglobulin E (IgE), a type of antibody. They are also more sensitive to things things like chemicals, smoke and dust (environmental antigens). This hypersensitivity means they are more sensitive or allergic to things in the environment than people who do not have these changes in their genes and are not hypersensitive or allergic.
This hypersensitivity causes their body to react in certain ways. Usually a person who is atopic develops allergic rhinitis which affects the nasal passages which are behind the nose and they are also more likely to get atopic dermatitis which causes skin rashes and atopic asthma. Up to 40% of people with allergic rhinitis also have asthma. These three medical problems, allergic rhinitis, atopic dermatitis and atopic asthma are called the Atopic Triad (a triad is when there is three of something). People who are atopic may also have other medical problems including food and drug allergies, stinging-insect hypersensitivity, hives (urticaria), Quincke's edema (angioedema), and contact dermatitis.
If a person has one parent who is atopic they have a chance of being atopic too. If they have two parents who are atopic they have an even bigger chance of being atopic.
Acetaminophen and asthma
There have been studies that show a link between acetaminophen (Tylenol) and asthma. For instance a 2008 analysis of information collected from a very large study called the International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood, or the "Isaac study" for short, showed that children who had taken acetaminophen for a fever during the first year of their life had a 50% higher risk of getting asthma later on. The more acetaminophen children took the higher their risk of getting asthma. Children who took it once a month had threefold increase in their risk of getting asthma. An increase in asthma rates in multiple countries corresponded with increased sales of drugs which contained acetaminophen. Previously the American College of Physicians reported a link between non-atopic asthma and acetaminophen use based on results of The Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Not all doctors are convinced of the link between acetaminophen and asthma.
"Children with asthma or at risk for asthma should avoid the use of acetaminophen." (McBride JT, 2011).
Types of Asthma
Atopic asthma
Atopic asthma is the most common form of asthma.
Cough-variant asthma
Cough-variant asthma is a type of asthma in which a cough is the main, and sometimes only sign. Cough-variant asthma usually does not cause wheezing or breathlessness and causes a dry, scratchy, mostly nonproductive cough (this means little or no phlegm is coughed up). About 30% of people who have cough-variant asthma will develop typical asthma.
Work-related asthma
Work related asthma are types of asthma that are caused or made worse by irritants in the environment at a person's place of work. The kind of jobs that may cause work related asthma are usually those in which there is a lot of smoke or chemicals are used. There are different types of work-related asthma (WRA):
1. Occupational asthma with latency: this asthma type is when the signs and symptoms of asthma occur after a period of time (latency) after being exposed to the environmental irritants. e.g.: John starts working at a factory where chemicals are used the first week of January. At the end of March he starts developing the signs and symptoms of asthma. The period of time from when he started the job in January to when the signs and symptoms of asthma started in March is the latency period.
2. Irritant-Induced Asthma (IIA) is occupational asthma without latency: this is an asthma type is when the signs and symptoms of asthma can occur immediately (without latency) after being exposed to the environmental irritants. e.g. Frank starts a new job working as a janitor where he uses ammonia to clean. After opening the bottle of ammonia and breathing the fumes Frank starts finding it difficult to breath, his chest tightens up and he develops other signs and symptoms of asthma.
3. Reactive Airways Dysfunction Syndrome (RADS):
4. Work-aggravated asthma: this is when a person already has asthma and environmental triggers at their place of work makes it worse.
Exercise induced asthma
Exercise induced asthma (EIA) - also called exercise induced bronchospasm - is the term used to describe asthma cases in which exercise is the main, and many times the only trigger for an asthma attack. If a person already has a form of asthma or they are atopic there is more of a chance of getting EIA.
Nocturnal asthma
Nocturnal asthma: is the term used to describe asthma cases that get worse at night (nocturnal).
Premenstrual asthma (PMA): is when asthma symptoms get worse during the premenstrual period. This condition may affect up to 40% of female asthma sufferers. For a diagnosis of PMA to be made it is necessary to have a detailed history of the timing of menstrual cycles along with asthma symptoms experienced, and the peak expiratory flow rate (PMA may cause the PEF to be lowered in the premenstrual period). It is helpful in making a diagnosis to keep a diary of symptoms and peak expiratory flow (PEF) rates.
Status asthmaticus
Status asthmaticus is a severe form of asthma in which an asthma attack gets worse as it goes along and the medicines that are usually used to treat asthma do not work. Status asthmaticus can be fatal.
Signs and symptoms
Signs and symptoms in medicine are the way a medical condition affects a person's body. Sometimes the signs and symptoms of asthma may be mild which does not bother the person too much. At other times they may be severe which may make the person feel very sick.
Not every person with asthma has all the signs and symptoms of asthma all the time. A person may have some signs and symptoms during one asthma attack and have different symptoms during another asthma attack. Some people with asthma may have long periods of time between asthma attacks where they show no signs and experience no symptoms of asthma, while others may have some or all of the signs and symptoms everyday which become more severe during an attack. It also depends on what type of asthma a person has and whether they have a mild, moderate or severe case.
There are also some people with asthma who might only have signs and symptoms during certain times, such as those with exercise induced asthma, where the exercise triggers the symptoms. For some the signs and symptoms of asthma may be triggered or made worse (exacerbated) when they have viral respiratory tract infections, often the type casued by human rhinoviruses.
Early warning signs of an asthma attack are physical changes in health that a person with asthma has before they have the attack. By knowing the early warning signs a person may be able to take steps to keep from having an asthma attack or if they do have one, to keep it from getting worse.
Early warning signs
The early warning signs of asthma may include:
Coughing a lot, especially at night
Losing your breath easily
Shortness of breath: this is when a person cannot take a deep breath which means they cannot fill their lungs all the way with air. They may be only able to take short, shallow breaths which does give their lungs enough air. When a person has shortness of breath they may also have chest tightness.
Getting tired easily during exercise and feeling weak and wheezing or coughing after exercise
Feeling the symptoms of a cold or allergies coming on like sneezing, a runny or stuffed up nose, coughing, sore throat, and headache
Triggers
A trigger factor or trigger for short, is something that causes the signs and symptoms of a medical condition to begin in a person who already has that medical condition. Common triggers for asthma are:
Tobacco smoke: a person does not need to smoke themselves, second-hand smoke can trigger an asthma attack. Second-hand smoke is the smoke from the end of a burning cigarette, cigar or pipe that someone else is smoking, or the smoke that they breathe out (exhale).
Pets: animals give off chemicals called proteins which are allergens; people can be allergic to them. These allergens can act as irritants and make someone's asthma worse and trigger an asthma attack. The proteins are in the pet's dander which is the dead flakes of skin that animals (and people) shed. They are also in their urine, feces, saliva, and sebum which is made by glands in the skin called sebaceous glands. Sebum is what makes hair and skin oily. When dander, urine, feces, saliva, and sebum dry out their proteins can become airborne and breathed in. Some of the types of pets people can be allergic to are, dogs, cats, gerbils, hamsters, guinea pigs and pet birds.
Bugs: different types of bugs which may be found inside homes may trigger asthma attacks. They may trigger asthma symptoms in the same way as pets; the proteins they give off are allergens and become airborne. Some of the more common bugs which may trigger asthma are dust mites, cockroaches and also bedbugs and fleas. Many other species that may infest a home may serve as a source of allegens such as Pharaoh ants.
Fungus spores (mold): fungus reproduce by releasing spores into the air, if the spores land in a good place form them to grow then a new fungus starts. Breathing in these spores can trigger asthma. One of the most common types of fungus spores found in both outside and outside environments are from a group (genus) known as aspergillus.
Strong emotions such as anger, stress and even laughter may worsen asthma symptoms.
Outdoor air pollution can come from many sources such as car and truck fumes in areas of heavy traffic and chemicals in the air near factories and refineries.
Weather: changes in the weather can trigger an asthma attack. Changes in air temperature can trigger an attack not just cold air. If a person goes from being outside in the cold into a warm house the sudden change can cause a broncospasm. Sudden changes in humidity also plays a part.
The best way to deal with asthma triggers is to learn what they are and avoid them if possible, and if not totally avoidable then adjust one's behavior to deal with them. Example: running on a cold winter day right up to the doorstep of a warm house and going immediately inside; the sudden temperature change can cause an attack and could have been avoided. In general but especially with a medical condition such as asthma it is necessary to be aware of one's environment and what's in it, both indoors and outdoors. Most often the Asthma is triggered by allergens. One big source of allergens is the carpet. Totally replace it with a tiles floor reduce the possibility to create a good environment for the allergens and it is more simple to clean and disinfect.
Asthma attack
An asthma attack is when, after a period of time when aperson has had only a few or no symptoms of asthma, the asthma gets worse all of a sudden, usually because of being exposed to one or more triggers. When the asthma attack happens, the tissue inside the airways swell because of inflammation - which is how the body tries to protect itself from harmful things, like germs and irritants. When the tissues swell the opening (called the lumen) in the airway gets very narrow.
The smooth muscles (which are the kind of muscles in the body that do not contract voluntarily, like the ones in the arm) around the bronchi and bronchioles begin to spasm or contract which makes the opening in the airway even narrower. This is called a bronchospasm.
Inside the lining of the airways are glands called, submucosal glands, and above them, closer to the opening in the airway are cells called goblet cells - because they are shaped kind of like a goblet, which is a type of cup. The submucosal glands and the goblet cells make mucous which helps protect the inside of the airways. The mucous in the airways of healthy lungs is a thin film which traps irritants such as dust particles and pollen so they do not damage the airways and keep them from entering the air sacs (alveoli).
There are tiny hairs lining the airway called cilia. The cilia wave back and forth like a liitle whips, and help push the mucous and the trapped particles up the airways to the "pharynx. From there the mucous, the trapped particles from the lower airways can be coughed up (this is called sputum).
During an asthma attack the submucosal glands and the goblet cells start making much more mucous than normal, and the mucous is also thicker than normal. This makes it very hard for the cilia to do their job, and bring the mucous up out of the airways. So now there is too much mucous being made, and not enough being brought up by the cilia. The airways are already to narrow to breathe properly because of the tissue swelling caused by inflammation and the constriction caused by the bronchospasms, so the extra mucous blocks the airway even more. This makes breathing very difficult. In fatal asthma attacks the airways can become so constricted and/or plugged with mucous that no air can get through at all.Carroll NG, Mutavdzic S, James AL. Increased mast cells and neutrophils in submucosal mucous glands and mucus plugging in patients with asthma. Thorax. 2002 Aug;57(8):677-82. PMID 12149526
There are other signs of breathing difficulty as in an asthma attack, which are important to learn, and knowing them can help tell if someone who cannot talk is having breathing problems. People who may not be able to let somebody know they are having breathing problems include babies and young children.
Some of the other signs of asthma include:
Chest and neck retractions; which cause muscles within the chest and neck not normally used too much when breathing, to begin contracting as they try and help to take in more air. Retractions are how the body tries to get enough air because of the difficulty in breathing normally because of the asthma attack. These retractions cause the skin of the chest wall, the skin of the neck and or the breastbone (sternum) to move in when breathing. There are different types of retractions which depend on which muscles start contracting, and this depends on how much difficulty a person is having breathing during an attack.
Nasal flaring is when the opening of the nostrils get larger than normal during breathing. It is often a sign that a person is having difficulty in breathing.
Blue lips and fingertips: oxygen which is in the air we breathe, is what makes blood have a red color. Blood without oxygen has a blue color. Oxygen enters the body through the air sacs (alveoli) which are at the end of the airways. During an asthma attack it difficult for the body to get enough oxygen because it is difficult to get enough air. As less air with oxygen in it makes it to the air sacs and into the blood, there is less red blood (blood with oxygen in it) and more blue blood (blood without oxygen in it). The blue color of the lips and under the fingernails is because of the blue blood, which can be seen in the small blood vessels under the skin. More parts of the body start turning blue the longer the body goes without oxygen. When parts of the body turn blue because of lack of oxygen it is called cyanosis.
Sweating : sweating may be noticed especially on the forehead, but the skin does not feel warm, it may feel cool and clammy to touch.
Rapid breathing (tachypnea); breathing in and out much faster than normal.
Rapid heart beat: (tachycardia): the heart starts beating much faster than normal.
Diagnosis
A diagnosis of asthma is based on a person's:
Medical history; information such as what signs and symptoms of asthma have they had
Family medical history; has anyone they are related to had asthma or related conditions such as occur with those who are atopic Physical examination and testing
Diagnostic Tests
There is no specific test that can tell if a person has asthma, however there are tests that can help in the diagnosis when the results are considered along with the medical and family history and physical exam
Lung function tests [Pulmonary function tests (PFTs)]
Spirometry; measures how much air the lungs are able to breathe in and how much air they breathe out and how fast a person can exhale.
Bronchoprovocation test; in this test the airways (bronchi and bronchioles) are provoked (to try and make something happen) into having a bronchospasm (make the airways constrict) this is to see how sensitive they are. Some of the things done to provoke a bronchospasm are making the person exercise, breathing cold air that gets colder, or breathing in a special chemical called methacholine. The results of bronchoprovocation are checked using spirometry.
Differential diagnosesDifferential diagnoses are different medical disorders which may cause the same symptoms. Before a doctor makes a final diagnosis, which means they are sure of what medical disorder is causing the problem, they think of what other medical conditions have the same or almost the same symptoms, and make sure it's not one of them.
The differential diagnoses of asthma include:
Bronchiectasis
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
Airway remodeling
Airway remodeling is when there are permanent physical changes to the airways that also affects how they work. This may happen after chronic long-term asthma. After cycles of inflammation, damage and repair to the airways. permanent remodeling of the airways may occur. This is when the physical structure of the airway changes. This will cause permanent airway narrowing (they are always more narrow than normal and get narrower during an asthma attack), bronchospasms are more easily triggered (bronchial hyperresponsivenes), airway edema (fluid in the airway), and mucus hypersecretion (too much mucous is made) as well as the build-up of collagen around the airway which is called fibrosis. Airway remodeling has been observed in chldren as young as six.
Not managing asthma properly can lead to airway remodeling and this can increase the risk of dying from an asthma attack.Therapeutic Targets in Airway Inflammation Eds. N. Tony Eissa, David P. Huston : CRC Press; 1 edition (2003) pp.752-753. One of the main problems which cause poor asthma management is not using the asthma inhaler correctly. One of the main reasons for improper inhaler use is the asthma patient not having the proper knowledge in using the inhaler due to not receiving proper instruction.
Goblet cell and submucosal gland hyperplasia: Among the physical changes that may happen in airway remodeling is goblet cell hyperplasia and submucosla gland hyperplasia. Submucosal glands and goblet cells make mucous which helps to protect the airways by trapping harmful particles like dust and pollen. The mucous is normally a thin film which lines the airways. The mucous and whatever particles they trap are brought up to the pharynx by tiny (microscopic) hairs on the inside of the airway that move back and forth called cilia.
During an asthma attack the submucosal glands and goblet cells make too much mucous, and it is thicker than normal which makes it harder for the cilia to bring the mucous up. When airway remodeling happens the body may make many more submucosal glands and goblet cells than normal, which means even more mucous is made. There may be too much mucous for the cilia to bring up and the airway may become blocked. This is one of the reasons that people with airway remodeling often have more severe asthma. In fatal cases the airway may have become totally plugged causing asphyxia.
Airway Reconstruction Methods
Regular Breastfeeding sessions are a proven benefit to airway reconstruction. While previous studies have shown a similar effect between breastfeeding and asthma risk, this research is the first that showed a link between the length of breastfeeding and the number of wheezing episodes. Also, this study found evidence that the first asthma-related symptoms occur earlier in life if children were breastfed for shorter lengths of time or not exclusively. The study shows it’s not the nutritional benefit from the liquid, it’s the pull on lung of which dilates the smooth muscles of the air passage. Dry-nursing has actually proven to had been more beneficial in this study for strengthening airway health in both children and adults. Dilating the airways will strengthen them and the lungs themselves.
Treatment
Asthma can be controlled most often by avoiding contact with triggers and by using certain drugs. Most asthma sufferers carry special medicines around with them. These are called inhalers. The medicine inside the inhaler opens the tubes that go to the lungs. The inhaler is usually used to prevent an asthma attack, or to stop an attack that is already happening.
Rescue medicine — A rescue medicine is an inhaler ("puffer") that is used if a person thinks they are having an asthma attack.
Controller medicine — A controller medicine is a medicine in either a pill or an inhaler taken every day to prevent asthma attacks.
Common treatment in a hospital
Hospitals have other options they can use in an emergency when the regular treatments don't work:
Oxygen
Certain drugs that act like an asthma spray, but are much stronger
Certain drugs that can be given through an IV (intravenously).
Steroids
Breathing aids (including tubes, and valves in very severe cases)
Unconventional Treatments / At Home Remedies
Warm steam baths have often been used to help alleviate nasal congestion and airway irritation associated with asthma.
Omega-3 fatty acids are often used as a natural remedy to help prevent and treat heart disease. Though some research suggests that omega-3s may also help to decrease airway inflammation and boost lung function
The Buteyko Breathing Technique is based on the premise that raising blood levels of carbon dioxide through shallow breathing can help people with asthma. Carbon dioxide is believed to dilate the smooth muscles of the airways.
Hot beverages are known to open breathing passages, have been said to open airways for irritated asthma symptoms. This method has been said to give temporary relief.
High consumption of apples may protect against asthma. Daily intake of fruits and vegetables in childhood decreased the risk of asthma.
Breastfeeding or the reflection of in adolescence and adults has been proven to strengthen and promote airway health. The strain from the pull on the lung will dilate the smooth muscles of the airways. Extended therapeutic sessions on a regular basis have been shown to dramatically improve air passage function, and promote less asthma complications.
Drugs that may worsen an asthma attack
There are certain types of drugs that make asthma worse or that can trigger such an attack. Certain types of drugs should only be used in very specific situations. Some of these drugs are:
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs or 'NSAID' for short. Aspirin is a NSAID and some people are allergic to it, or may have a higher risk of becoming allergic to it, even if they had used it before.
Beta blockers are a kind of drug used to treat heart problems, but should not be taken by people with asthma.
Acetaminophen is another drug that is believed might help not only to cause asthma, but also make asthma worse in people who already have it. Acetaminophen is an analgesic, a pain reliever. Because of its pain-reliving properties, Acetaminophen is often added to other drugs. Labels should always be read when taking any kind of medicine, including over-the-counter drugs.
ACE Inhibitors; are a type of drug usually used to treat high blood pressure and heart disease. They usually don’t make asthma worse, but in rare cases they may cause some of the signs and symptoms of asthma, such as airway obstruction and coughing, especially in the first few weeks of taking ACE Inhibitors.
Sleeping pills and trainquilizers; should usually not be taken by people with asthma.
Managing comorbid asthma, depression and/or anxiety
Depression and anxiety have a negative impact on asthma. Comorbid anxiety with asthma is particularly confusing because of the similarity of symptoms and interference in perception and treatment of asthma. The National Asthma Council Australia recommends treatment for comorbid psychological symptoms. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT) is one recommended treatment for anxiety and depression. There is tentative research evidence suggesting that a program of CBT amended for asthma, delivered in conjunction with medical treatment and in close liaison with your medical team, can improve anxiety, asthma and quality of life. Clinicians intending to deliver CBT for comorbid asthma, anxiety or depression should refer to and the research reviewed by for guidance on safe and effective intervention.
The Global Initiative for Asthma
The global Initiative for Asthma (GINA), launched in 1993, is a collaborative effort between the World Health Organisation (WHO), the National Institutes of Health USA (NIH), and the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute. Its aims include; to increase public awareness of asthma, encourage research into the causes for the increasing prevalence of asthma worldwide, encourage research into the links between asthma and environmental factors, improve the effectiveness of asthma management practices, reduce the mortality and morbidity rates associated with asthma, and make treatments for asthma more readily available.
One of the ways in which GINA fulfils these aims is by producing medical guidelines on the management of asthma, which based on a systematically conducted review of the most recent-worldwide literature. These guidelines are free and available to all patients and clinicians from the GINA website. The GINA main report is updated annually and aims to reflect evolving best practice as it highlights changes in asthma management strategies.
GINA established ‘World Asthma Day’ in 1998, with the first event organised in Barcelona, Spain. It is held annually on the first Tuesday of May, and includes the participation of more than 35 countries.
Comorbidities
Often, having one medical problem makes it more likely a person will also have one or more other medical or psychiatric problems. These other disorders are the "comorbid problems" or "comorbidities". There are various comorbid medical and psychiatric conditions associated with asthma.
Respiratory disorders
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder (COPD)
Respiratory infections
Chronic sinusitis
Rhinitis: allergic (atopic), nonallergic
Hyperventilation syndrome
Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis (ABPA) is a disorder that affects the airways of the lungs which is caused by an allergic hypersensitivity to the fungus Aspergillus fumigatus.
Gastrointestinal disorders
Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD)
Eosinophilic esophagitis (EE)
Psychiatric disorders
Depression
Anxiety disorders
Panic disorder
Sleep disorders
Obstructive sleep apnea
Skin disorders
Atopic dermatitis (AD): is a type of eczema
Epidemiology
In medicine epidemiology'' is the study of what causes diseases and medical conditions, how often they happen, where they happen and who they happen to.
It is more common in developed countries than developing countries. The United States and Canada have some of the highest asthma rates in the world even though they are not poor countries. In Africa the country of South Africa has the highest asthma rate on the whole continent even though it is one of the richest countries.
More than 80% of the people who die from asthma are usually from low and middle income countries, but not always, as South Africa has the fourth highest death rate in the world even though it is one of the richer countries in the world. In the United States the death rates are higher for females, adults and people of African descent.
As of 2011, 235–300 million people worldwide are affected by asthma, and approximately 250,000 people die per year from the disease. Rates vary between countries with prevalences between 1 and 18%.
The amount of asthma cases reported each year has gotten much higher between the 1960s and 2008 Rates of asthma have plateaued in the developed world since the mid-1990s with recent increases primarily in the developing world. Asthma affects approximately 7% of the population of the United States and 5% of people in the United Kingdom. Canada, Australia and New Zealand have rates of about 14–15%.
Other websites
How to Use an Inhaler
References
Diseases
Pulmonology |
Turkish might mean:
Something related to the country Turkey
Something related to the Ottoman Empire, also called the Turkish Empire
Turkish language
Turkish people
Turkish alphabet |
Events
January 6 – Joseph, son of Emperor Leopold I becomes King of the Romans
January 14 – The clarinet is invented in Nuremberg, Germany
May 20 – England passes Act of Grace, forgiving followers of James II
July 1 – The Battle of the Boyne, in Ireland
October 6-12 – Massachusetts Puritans led by Sir William Phips besiege the city of Quebec. The siege ends in failure.
December 29 – earthquake in Anconer in Papal States, Italy
Earliest recorded sighting of the planet Uranus, by John Flamsteed, who mistakenly catalogues it as the star 34 Tauri
Giovanni Domenico Cassini observes differential rotation within Jupiter's atmosphere.
The French invade the small town of Teignmouth in Southwest England, in their last attack on England.
Births
January 22 – Nicolas Lancret, French painter (d. 1743)
February 1 – Francesco Maria Veracini, Italian composer (d. 1768)
February 3 – Richard Rawlinson, English minister and antiquarian (d. 1755)
March 18 – Christian Goldbach Prussian mathematician (d. 1764)
April 22 – John Carteret, 2nd Earl Granville, English statesman (d. 1763)
September 12 – Peter Dens, Belgian Catholic theologian (d. 1775)
October 29 – Martin Folkes, English antiquarian (d. 1754)
November 24 – Charles Theodore Pachelbel, German composer (d. 1750)
November 29 – Christian Augustus of Anhalt-Zerbst, father of Catherine II of Russia (d. 1747)
December 1 – Philip Yorke, 1st Earl of Hardwicke, Lord Chancellor of England (d. 1764) |
Events
The sovereignty of prince Svatopluk I in Bohemia is confirmed.
First ceremonial visit by a Welsh king (Anarawd, King of Gwynedd) to an English court (that of Alfred the Great).
Founding of Kirby Muxloe. (approximate date) |
Bochum ( , also , ; Westphalian: Baukem, Low Franconian: Boochem, Old Saxon: Bochem) is a city in the Ruhr area of the state of North Rhine-Westphalia in Germany. It is part of the Arnsberg Government Region.
Bochum has about 380,000 inhabitants.
The city is formed by the traditional industry of coal mining in the Ruhr area, but today there is no mining in Bochum anymore.
Education
Today the most important institution in Bochum is the Ruhr-University Bochum, one of the biggest German universities.
It has an extremely wide spectrum of subjects, beginning with mathematics and science, social sciences, economy, engineering, laws, philosophy, historical subjects, theology, medicine, and languages even including Chinese and Polish.
Culture
Bochum has a rich cultural life and its theatre is one of the most prominent in Germany. Next to Bochum are the cities Essen and Hattingen.
References |
Progressive rock is a type of rock music with complicated musical technique and composition. This means that the tempo, time signature, and style can change many times in a single song.
Most normal rock songs follow a very simple pattern in the way they are arranged. This pattern is a verse followed by a chorus, then a different verse, and then the same chorus. Progressive rock is more complicated than this, and can require more skill to play.
Origins
Progressive rock was first made in the late 1960s, but became most popular in the 1970s. It continues to be popular today, too. Progressive rock began in England and spread throughout Europe. It remains most popular in Europe, but there are several notable American and Canadian progressive rock bands. This genre was influenced by classical music and jazz fusion. Over the years, different sub-genres of progressive rock have been created, such as symphonic rock, art rock, math rock, and progressive metal.
Progressive rock artists wished to create music that was not limited to the structures of common popular rock and pop music. They wanted to make rock music that "progressed" to the complexity of jazz and classical music by creating a more serious, complex and sophisticated type of rock music. Progressive rock bands may have influences from psychedelic rock, folk music, traditional music, world music, and jazz or jazz fusion. It is also referred to as "prog rock" as an abbreviation, or as "Hobbit rock" because of frequent medieval or fantasy themes in the lyrics.
Progressive rock bands write and play songs that have many changes during each song. Regular rock songs have verses and a chorus, but progressive songs can have many different sections. For example, instead of having verses and choruses, progressive rock songs may have many different musical themes, solos, and musical moods. A typical progressive song might have a form such as: Introduction-Verse-Chorus-instrumental section-New verse-New chorus-Instrumental section-Ending.
Because of their depth and complexity, progressive rock songs are not played on pop music radio very often.
Bands
Some of the important progressive rock bands from the late 1960s and early 1970s include The Moody Blues, Jethro Tull; Yes, Genesis; Pink Floyd; Emerson; Lake & Palmer; Rush; Gentle Giant; Happy The Man; Van der Graaf Generator, and King Crimson.
Characteristics of progressive rock
Progressive rock is difficult to define, because progressive rock bands often play different types of progressive rock music which sound different. There are some common elements that are in most progressive rock band music, such as long, complex songs, unusual time signatures, unusual instruments or ways of using them, and use of improvisation, which means making up or inventing music while playing on stage.
Albums by progressive rock groups are often concept albums. In a concept album, the songs have a common theme, are arranged in a certain order and often tell a story or represent a larger concept.
References
Music genres |
San Juan is the capital and largest city of Puerto Rico. The city's population is 433,733. It is the 42nd-largest city and the oldest European settlement in United States territory. Today, San Juan is Puerto Rico's most important seaport.
History
San Juan was founded in 1521. It was named after San Juan Bautista, or St. John the Baptist (name given by Christopher Columbus). San Juan is also known as "La Ciudad Amurallada". This means the "walled city". San Juan has many old buildings still standing today. Many Spanish explorers came during the Age of Discovery and built forts, churches, and other historical buildings. An example of a very old fort is "La Fortaleza". It is also known as "Palacio de Santa Catalina". In the sixteenth century, it was a Spanish fortress against Caribs. These were the people native to the Caribbean islands and Central America. Another old building is the oldest residence in Old San Juan, Casas de los Contrasfuertes (House of Buttresses).
References
Cities in Puerto Rico
Municipalities of Puerto Rico
United States capital cities
1521 establishments
1520s establishments in North America
Establishments in Puerto Rico |
Kashmir (Hindi: कश्यपपुरा, , ), previously spelled Cashmere, is a region in South-central Asia. Historically, the name Kashmir referred to the valley just to the south of the western end of the Himalayan mountain range. Today, Kashmir refers to a much larger area that includes the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir (which includes the Kashmir Valley, Jammu region and Ladakh), Azad Kashmir and Gilgit–Baltistan (part of Pakistan), and Aksai Chin and the Trans-Karakoram Tract (part of China). The main "Valley of Kashmir" is a low fertile area surrounded by mountains and fed by many rivers. People like it for its natural beauty and simple lifestyle. The region is part of a border dispute between India and Pakistan.
In total it has an area of 230,166.1 square kilometres or (89,106 square miles). The population of the region is more than the individual populations of 127 UN member nations and its area is larger than that of 97 nations.
Etymology of Kashmir
The Nilamata Purana describes the Valley's origin from the waters, a fact corroborated by prominent geologists, and shows how the very name of the land was derived from the process of desiccation - Ka means "water" and Shimir means "to desiccate". Hence, Kashmir stands for "a land desiccated from water". There is also a theory which takes Kashmir to be a contraction of Kashyap-mira or Kashyapmir or Kashyapmeru, the "Sea or Mountain of Kashyapa", the sage who is credited with having drained the waters of the primordial Lake Satisar, that Kashmir was before it was reclaimed. The Nilamata Purana gives the name Kashmira to the (Kashmir Valley includes the Wular Lake) Mira" which means the sea lake or the mountain of Sage Kashyapa. Mira in Sanskrit means Ocean or boundary, considering it to be an embodiment of Uma and it is the Kashmir that the world knows today. The Kashmiris, however, call it Kashir, which has been derived phonetically from Kashmir. The Ancient Greeks called it as Kasperia. Kashyapa-pura, which has been identified with Kaspapyros of Hecataeus (apud Stephanus of Byzantium) and Kaspatyros of Herodotus (3.102, 4.44); In classical literature Herodotus also called it Kaspatyrol. Kashmir is also believed to be the country meant by Ptolemy's Kaspeiria. Xuanzang, the Chinese monk who visited Kashmir in 631 AD called it Kia-shi-mi-lo, the Tibetans called it Khachal, meaning "snowy mountain". It is and has been a land of rivers, lakes and wildflowers. Cashmere is an archaic spelling of present-Kashmir, and in some countries it is still spelled this way. A tribe of Semitic origin, named Kash (which means a deep slash in the native dialect), is believed to have founded the cities of Kashan and Kashgar, not to be confused with the Kashyapi tribe from Caspian. The land and the people were known as 'Kashir' from which 'Kashmir' was also derived from therein.
History
The Kashmir conflict has existed since India and Pakistan became independent states. At first, the Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir, Hari Singh, wanted his state to remain independent of both India and Pakistan. On 20 October 1947, tribesmen supported by Pakistan invaded Kashmir. Singh fought back at first, but on 27 October, he asked the Governor-General of India, Louis Mountbatten, for help. He agreed, but made Singh turn over Jammu and Kashmir to India. Once the papers of accession to India were signed, Indian soldiers entered Kashmir with orders to stop any further occupation, but they were not allowed to expel anyone from the state. Pakistan claimed that it was illegal for Singh to give Kashmir to India, and the First Kashmir War was started. India took the matter to the United Nations. The UN resolution asked Pakistan to vacate the areas it had occupied and asked India to assist the U.N. Plebiscite Commission to organize a plebiscite to determine the will of the people. Pakistan refused to vacate the occupied areas.
In 1953, as the US-Pakistan Mutual Defence Pact was being formed, Nehru declared an ultimatum. Pakistan would have to choose between a plebiscite with the possibility of winning control over Kashmir, or their pact with the US. As the alliance formed and was concluded in 1954, Nehru withdrew the offer of plebiscite. Kashmir remains an area of conflict until today.
Lines of control
India and Pakistan have fought several wars over Kashmir. In 1949 and 1972 they agreed on a border for most of the Territories (except for the Siachen Glacier). This demarcation line which marks the border between India and Pakistan is known as the Line of Control. It is guarded by Indian and Pakistani troops.
The border between Aksai Chin (held by China) and Jammu and Kashmir (held by India) is known as Line of Actual Control.
The Kashmir border between the Punjab (Pakistan) and Indian-administered Kashmir is called the working boundary, but is not recognised by Pakistan. India has built a fence along part of this border.
The Siachen Glacier and the bordering Saltoro Range first saw military action in 1984 when the Indian Army occupied the glacier and the Saltoro range to prevent Pakistan from occupying the area. This operation was codenamed Operation Meghdoot. There have been several minor changes to the held positions. However, the Indian Armed forces have held onto the heights on the plateau, preventing the Pakistani soldiers from climbing up the Saltoro range.
The Actual Ground Position Line (AGPL) refers to the current position that divides Indian and Pakistani troops in the Siachen Glacier region. The line extends from the northernmost point of the LOC (Line of Control) to Indira Col. This line runs across the edge of the Saltoro Range, which is a mountainous plateau with peaks that are over 8,000 meters tall. The current position of the AGPL follows the general line:
Indira Col - Sia La pass - Saltoro Kangri 1 - Bilafond La pass - K12 - Gyong La pass - NJ9842
Administrative divisions
Today Kashmir is split, as follows:
The Republic of India controls the state of Jammu and Kashmir. It is made of the Jammu region, the Kashmir Valley, and Ladakh. Pakistan refers to this as Indian-occupied Kashmir, Indian-controlled Kashmir, Indian-annexed Kashmir, or Indian-held Kashmir.
The territories known as Northern Areas and Azad Jammu and Kashmir are administered by Pakistan. The government of Pakistan calls them Pakistan-administered Kashmir. The Republic of India refers to this as Pakistan-occupied Kashmir.
The region called Aksai Chin is controlled by China.
The Trans-Karakoram Tract is an area Pakistan gave to China on 3 March 1963. Pakistan says the area was uninhabited, so there is no problem to this. India claims the swap was illegal and that the area is part of its state Jammu and Kashmir.
The Siachen Glacier is currently a disputed territory. India controls the glacier, and Pakistan controls the valley below.
The Disputed territory of Kashmir is divided into five administrative Divisions, namely:
Baltistan Division
Gilgit Division
Jammu Division
Kashmir Valley
Ladakh
A group of Districts forms a Division, which is administered by a 'Divisional Commissioner'. Kashmir is now divided in twenty-one districts, grouped under five divisions jointly controlled by Pakistan and India respectively:
Economy
Kashmir's economy is centred around Agriculture, like that of Pakistan. Traditionally the staple crop of the valley was Rice, which formed the chief food of the people. In addition, corn, wheat, barley and oats were also grown. Given its temperate climate, it is suited for crops like Asparagus, Artichoke, seakale, broad beans, scarletrunners, beetroot, cauliflower and cabbage. Fruit trees are common in the valley, and the cultivated orchards yield pears, apples, peaches, and cherries. The chief trees are deodar (National tree of Pakistan), firs and Pines, chenar (State tree) or plane, Maple, birch and Walnut, apple, cherry.
Historically, Kashmir became known worldwide when Cashmere wool was exported to other regions and nations (exports have ceased due to decreased abundance of the cashmere goat and increased competition from Western China). Kashmiris are well adept at Knitting and making Pashmina Shawls, silk carpets, rugs, Kurtas, and Pottery. Saffron, too, is grown in Kashmir. Efforts are on to export the naturally grown fruits and vegetables as Organic foods mainly to the Greater Middle East region which it forms an integral part. Srinagar is known for its silver-work, Papier mache, wood-carving, and the weaving of silk.
The economy was badly damaged by the 2005 Pakistan earthquake which, as of 8 October 2005, resulted in over 70,000 deaths in the Pakistan-controlled part of Kashmir and around 1,500 deaths in Indian controlled kashmir.
The Indian-held portion of Kashmir is believed to have potentially rich rocks containing hydrocarbon reserves.
Agriculture
The economy of the region is focused on agriculture. People grow rice there. In the Indian part they also grow corn, such as wheat and barley. Its climate is different from that of most of the Indian subcontinent: It is milder. Therefore, crops like artichoke, cauliflower, cabbage and certain kinds of beans are also grown.
Cashmere wool is well-known almost anywhere in the world. Cashmere wool is wool from Cashmere goats. Because of conflicts over the territory, however, most Cashmere wool no longer comes from Kashmir.
Kashmir is home to the finest saffron in the world.
Tourism
Tourism has been important in Kashmir for many years. Many people call the region Paradise on Earth. Tourists from all over the world visit Kashmir. In the last ten years, fewer people have visited Kashmir because of terrorism, but it still remains one of the most sought after tourist destinations.
Religion
78% of the people in Kashmir are Muslims and Islam is the majority religion of the territory.
Related pages
India–Pakistan border
References
British India |
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